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RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. §119 (e) of U.S. Provisional Application, Serial No. 60/140,432 filed on Jun. 22, 1999. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention pertains generally to computer-implemented databases, and more particularly to storing records in such databases. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Online analytical processing (OLAP) is an integral part of most data warehouse and business analysis systems. OLAP services provide for fast analysis of multidimensional information. For this purpose, OLAP services provide for multidimensional access and navigation of the data in an intuitive and natural way, providing a global view of data that can be “drilled down” into particular data of interest. Speed and response time are important attributes of OLAP services that allow users to browse and analyze data online in an efficient manner. Further, OLAP services typically provide analytical tools to rank, aggregate, and calculate lead and lag indicators for the data under analysis. In OLAP, information is viewed conceptually as cubes, consisting of dimensions, levels, and measures. In this context, a dimension is a structural attribute of a cube that is a list of members of a similar type in the user's perception of the data. Typically, there are hierarchy levels associated with each dimension. For example, a time dimension may have hierarchical levels consisting of days, weeks, months, and years, while a geography dimension may have levels of cities, states/provinces, and countries. Dimension members act as indices for identifying a particular cell or range of cells within a multidimensional array. Each cell contains a value, also referred to as a measure, or measurement. One issue regarding the design of multidimensional databases is how to represent the cells in the multidimensional space. One potential design choice is to represent the multidimensional space as an array of cells, with the size of the array determined by the multiplication of the number of points in each dimension. A significant problem with this approach is that the size of the database grows exponentially as the number and size of the dimensions increase. This leads to a rapid depletion of the physical resources such as persistent storage and RAM required to implement the database. This phenomenon is known as data explosion for multidimensional databases. Additionally, space is wasted in the above-mentioned approach, as data in multidimensional databases tends to be sparse. That is, not every cell is expected to have a value associated with it. For example, consider a Store dimension having a hierarchy of Country, State, and City specifying the location of a store, and a Product dimension having a product identification and a product count measure. No store in the database will be expected to stock every possible product, and in fact any one store may only stock a small percentage of the available products. In this situation, most of the cells in the multidimensional space would contain no data, thus wasting much of the space allocated to the database. A second issue relates to locating cells in the multidimensional space. It is desirable to be able to locate cells quickly in order to provide acceptable system throughput. Representing the cells as a multidimensional array provides for rapid access to the cells, but has the data explosion problem mentioned above. A third issue relates to the capability to perform aggregations on the multidimensional data. Databases are commonly queried for aggregations (e.g. summaries, minimums, maximums, counts, etc.) of detail data rather than individual data items. For example, a user might want to know sales data for a given period of time without regard to geographical distinctions. These types of queries are efficiently answered through aggregations. Aggregations are precomputed summaries of selected detail data that allow an OLAP system or a relational database to respond quickly to queries by avoiding collecting and aggregating detailed data during query execution. Without aggregations, the system needs to scan all of the rows containing the detailed data to answer these queries, resulting in potentially substantial processing delays. With aggregations, the system computes and materializes aggregations ahead of time so that when the query is submitted to the system, the appropriate summary already exists and can be sent to the user much more quickly. Calculating these aggregations, however, can be costly, both in terms of processing time and in terms of disk space consumed. A fourth issue relates to the stability of the members of a dimension hierarchy level. Stability refers to the propensity for members to move from one point in the dimension hierarchy to another. Some types of dimensions are very stable. For example, hierarchies in the time dimension are very stable, as there is no need to move a month from one year to the next. Other hierarchies, however, tend to be much less stable, and members frequently move from point to point in the dimension hierarchy. As an example, consider a customer dimension having a hierarchy of Country, State, City, Customer, where a customer is located in a particular city of a particular state within a particular country. It is quite likely that at some point in time, a customer will move from one city to another, possibly in a different state, and perhaps to a different country. In previous systems, the movement of a member from one point in a hierarchy to another point results in the entire OLAP database having to be rebuilt to reflect the new hierarchy. Completely rebuilding the database typically takes a large amount of time and system resources, especially for OLAP databases with large numbers of detail records. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed at addressing the above-mentioned shortcomings, disadvantages and problems, and will be understood by reading and studying the following specification. The systems and methods described herein create and maintain cell data records in an OLAP database system. One aspect of the system is that cell data records are created containing a compressed system path. The system path is comprised of one or more compressed dimension paths that define the location of a cell in a multidimensional database. The dimension path may be a flexible or rigid dimension path, compressed or uncompressed. Flexible dimension paths map a unique member id to a rigid dimension path maintained outside of the system path. This allows a member to move from one location to another in the dimension hierarchy without changing the system path, thereby avoiding a rebuild of the OLAP database. Rigid dimension paths map directly to a member of a level in the dimension hierarchy. The format used for the dimension paths provides an efficient mechanism for locating the cell, and in addition, can be indexed easily to allow rapid location of cell data. Another aspect is that after the system paths have been created the system paths are loaded in segments and then compressed in binary format. The bits used to store each particular level member are constant, allowing random access of the data. A further aspect of the system is that the format of the system path provides an efficient mechanism for creating aggregations. One aspect of the system converts flexible dimension paths that are in the dimension levels to be aggregated to rigid dimension paths before aggregrating. The rigid dimension paths have their corresponding member index set to a null value in the dimension path of each record. The records are then scanned for a match to a system path representing the aggregation. Those that match have their measure data included in the aggregation. The present invention describes systems, clients, servers, methods, and computer-readable media of varying scope. In addition to the aspects and advantages of the present invention described in this summary, further aspects and advantages of the invention will become apparent by reference to the drawings and by reading the detailed description that follows. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a diagram illustrating a hardware and operating environment in conjunction with which embodiments of the invention may be practiced; FIG. 2 is a diagram illustrating an exemplary OLAP cube having three dimensions; FIGS. 3A-3C are diagrams illustrating an exemplary dimension hierarchy within a multidimensional database; FIG. 4 is a diagram illustrating a record structure for a cell data record according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 5 is a system level overview of various embodiments of the invention; FIG. 6 is a flowchart illustrating a process for creating a system path in an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 7 is a flowchart illustrating determining the range of values within each level of a system path in an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 8 is a system level overview of various embodiments of the invention; and FIG. 9 is a flowchart illustrating a process for calculating an aggregation according to an embodiment of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT In the following detailed description of exemplary embodiments of the invention, reference is made to the accompanying drawings, which form a part hereof, and in which is shown by way of illustration specific exemplary embodiments in which the invention may be practiced. These embodiments are described in sufficient detail to enable those skilled in the art to practice the invention, and it is to be understood that other embodiments may be utilized and that logical, mechanical, electrical and other changes may be made without departing from the spirit or scope of the present invention. The following detailed description is, therefore, not to be taken in a limiting sense, and the scope of the present invention is defined only by the appended claims. The detailed description is divided into four sections. In the first section, a system level overview of an exemplary embodiment of the invention is presented. In the second section, the hardware and the operating environment in conjunction with which embodiments of the invention may be practiced are described. In the third section, an exemplary cube for an OLAP system is described. In the fourth section, methods of an exemplary embodiment of the invention are provided. System Level Overview A system level overview of the operation of an exemplary embodiment of the invention is described by reference to FIG. 5 . The concepts of the invention are described as operating in a multiprocessing, multithreaded virtual memory operating environment on a computer, such as computer 20 in FIG. 1 . The operating environment includes an OLAP client 502 , OLAP server 510 , local data store 514 , and fact data store 520 , all of which operate on the cell records for cubes, including the records and cube described in the previous section. OLAP client 502 is an application program that requires the services of an OLAP system. OLAP client 502 may be any type of application that interacts with the OLAP system, for example, a data mining application, a data warehousing application, a reporting application, etc. OLAP client 502 typically interacts with OLAP server 510 by issuing OLAP queries. These queries are parsed, as is known in the art, into a request for data from a cell or range of cells, and the request is passed to the OLAP server 510 . OLAP server 510 receives queries and controls the processing of queries. In one embodiment of the invention, the server maintains a local store 514 that contains the cell data used to answer the queries. In an embodiment of the invention, the OLAP server 510 is a version of the SQL Server OLAP product from Microsoft Corporation. The local data store 514 contains records describing the cells that are present in a multidimensional database, with one record used for each cell that actually has measurement data present (i.e. no records exist for those cells having no measurement data). The general format of these records is described above with reference to FIG. 4 . In an embodiment of the invention, local data store 514 is a relational database, such as SQL Server. In this particular embodiment, records are stored in a relational table. This table can be indexed based on the dimensional paths of the record to allow rapid access to cell measurement data contained in the record. The indexing can be performed using hash indexing or AVL tree indexing as is known in the art. OLAP server 510 populates local data store 514 by reading data from fact data store 520 . Fact data store 520 is also a relational database system. In one embodiment of the invention, the system used is the SQL Server Database from Microsoft Corporation. In alternative embodiments of the invention, database systems such as Oracle, Informix or Sybase can be used. The invention is not limited to any particular type of relational database system. OLAP server 510 reads the fact data (also known as detail data) from fact data store 520 at predetermined times, and converts the fact data into cell data records for populating local data store 514 . In an embodiment of the invention, the fact data is read once during a 24 hour period, typically during a time when the fact data store is not busy responding to user queries. In an alternative embodiment of the invention, the fact data is read and converted when a system administrator issues a command to the OLAP server 510 to do so. Updates to the local data store 514 can be incremental, or they can result in a complete refresh of the data. Incremental updates are desirable, because only the data that has changed in fact data store 520 need be converted and added to local data store 514 . However, if the structure of the data in either fact data store 520 or local data store 514 changes, then a complete refresh is required. The frequency of updates to the local data store 514 will generally be determined by user requirements as to how current (or accurate) the cell data must be, and the volume of data that must be updated. OLAP server 510 also maintains a map table 522 . The map table 522 is used to maintain mappings from rigid dimensional paths to unique member identifiers. The OLAP server 510 uses map table 522 to determine whether or not a flexible path can be constructed when a new cell record is added to local data store 514 . In an embodiment of the invention, the OLAP server 510 maintains a cache 512 of cell records. In this embodiment, the cache 512 maintains cell data records that have been recently requested, or those cell data records that are frequently requested. Maintaining cell record data in a cache is desirable, because it provides quicker responses to queries that can be satisfied by records appearing in the cache. Hardware and Operating Environment FIG. 1 is a diagram of the hardware and operating environment in conjunction with which embodiments of the invention may be practiced. The description of FIG. 1 is intended to provide a brief, general description of suitable computer hardware and a suitable computing environment in conjunction with which the invention may be implemented. Although not required, the invention is described in the general context of computer-executable instructions, such as program modules, being executed by a computer, such as a personal computer. Generally, program modules include routines, programs, objects, components, data structures, etc., that perform particular tasks or implement particular abstract data types. Moreover, those skilled in the art will appreciate that the invention may be practiced with other computer system configurations, including hand-held devices, multiprocessor systems, microprocessor-based or programmable consumer electronics, network PCS, minicomputers, mainframe computers, and the like. The invention may also be practiced in distributed computing environments where tasks are performed by remote processing devices that are linked through a communications network. In a distributed computing environment, program modules may be located in both local and remote memory storage devices. The exemplary hardware and operating environment of FIG. 1 for implementing the invention includes a general purpose computing device in the form of a computer 20 , including a processing unit 21 , a system memory 22 , and a system bus 23 that operatively couples various system components including the system memory to the processing unit 21 . There may be only one or there may be more than one processing unit 21 , such that the processor of computer 20 comprises a single central-processing unit (CPU), or a plurality of processing units, commonly referred to as a parallel processing environment. The computer 20 may be a conventional computer, a distributed computer, or any other type of computer; the invention is not so limited. The system bus 23 may be any of several types of bus structures including a memory bus or memory controller, a peripheral bus, and a local bus using any of a variety of bus architectures. The system memory may also be referred to as simply the memory, and includes read only memory (ROM) 24 and random access memory (RAM) 25 . A basic input/output system (BIOS) 26 , containing the basic routines that help to transfer information between elements within the computer 20 , such as during start-up, is stored in ROM 24 . The computer 20 further includes a hard disk drive 27 for reading from and writing to a hard disk, not shown, a magnetic disk drive 28 for reading from or writing to a removable magnetic disk 29 , and an optical disk drive 30 for reading from or writing to a removable optical disk 31 such as a CD ROM or other optical media. The hard disk drive 27 , magnetic disk drive 28 , and optical disk drive 30 are connected to the system bus 23 by a hard disk drive interface 32 , a magnetic disk drive interface 33 , and an optical disk drive interface 34 , respectively. The drives and their associated computer-readable media provide nonvolatile storage of computer-readable instructions, data structures, program modules and other data for the computer 20 . It should be appreciated by those skilled in the art that any type of computer-readable media which can store data that is accessible by a computer, such as magnetic cassettes, flash memory cards, digital video disks, Bernoulli cartridges, random access memories (RAMs), read only memories (ROMs), and the like, may be used in the exemplary operating environment. A number of program modules may be stored on the hard disk, magnetic disk 29 , optical disk 31 , ROM 24 , or RAM 25 , including an operating system 35 , one or more application programs 36 , other program modules 37 , and program data 38 . A user may enter commands and information into the personal computer 20 through input devices such as a keyboard 40 and pointing device 42 . Other input devices (not shown) may include a microphone, joystick, game pad, satellite dish, scanner, or the like. These and other input devices are often connected to the processing unit 21 through a serial port interface 46 that is coupled to the system bus, but may be connected by other interfaces, such as a parallel port, game port, or a universal serial bus (USB). A monitor 47 or other type of display device is also connected to the system bus 23 via an interface, such as a video adapter 48 . In addition to the monitor, computers typically include other peripheral output devices (not shown), such as speakers and printers. The computer 20 may operate in a networked environment using logical connections to one or more remote computers, such as remote computer 49 . These logical connections are achieved by a communication device coupled to or a part of the computer 20 ; the invention is not limited to a particular type of communications device. The remote computer 49 may be another computer, a server, a router, a network PC, a client, a peer device or other common network node, and typically includes many or all of the elements described above relative to the computer 20 , although only a memory storage device 50 has been illustrated in FIG. 1 . The logical connections depicted in FIG. 1 include a local-area network (LAN) 51 and a wide-area network (WAN) 52 . Such networking environments are commonplace in offices, enterprise-wide computer networks, intranets and the Internet. When used in a LAN-networking environment, the computer 20 is connected to the local network 51 through a network interface or adapter 53 , which is one type of communications device. When used in a WAN-networking environment, the computer 20 typically includes a modem 54 , a type of communications device, or any other type of communications device for establishing communications over the wide area network 52 , such as the Internet. The modem 54 , which may be internal or external, is connected to the system bus 23 via the serial port interface 46 . In a networked environment, program modules depicted relative to the personal computer 20 , or portions thereof, may be stored in the remote memory storage device. It is appreciated that the network connections shown are exemplary and other means of and communications devices for establishing a communications link between the computers may be used. The hardware and operating environment in conjunction with which embodiments of the invention may be practiced has been described. The computer in conjunction with which embodiments of the invention may be practiced may be a conventional computer, a distributed computer, or any other type of computer; the invention is not so limited. Such a computer typically includes one or more processing units as its processor, and a computer-readable medium such as a memory. The computer may also include a communications device such as a network adapter or a modem, so that it is able to communicatively couple other computers. Exemplary Cube and Dimension In the detailed description that follows, reference will be made to a small, three-dimensional OLAP cube as shown in FIG. 2 . This exemplary OLAP cube has three dimensions. The first dimension, the Customers dimension, has four hierarchical levels (All, State, City, and Customer). The second dimension, the Products dimension, has three levels (All, Category and Product). Finally, the third dimension, the Time dimension has three levels (Year, Quarter, and Month). Additionally, the cube has two measures, Purchases and Units (not shown). This cube is presented to provide a reference example of how the systems and methods of the invention operate. It will be appreciated that the OLAP cubes maintained by various embodiments of the invention may have more or fewer dimensions than in this example, and that the OLAP cube may have more or fewer hierarchy levels than in this exemplary example. Graphical representations of the dimensions in the above-described exemplary cube are presented in FIGS. 3A-3C. A dimension is represented as a tree, referred to as a dimension tree. Leaf nodes in the tree correspond to the most detailed data in the dimension, while the inner branch nodes correspond to more aggregated data. The closer the node is to the root node, the more aggregated the data, with the root node representing the most aggregated, least detailed data in the dimension. The Customer dimension is represented in FIG. 3 A. In this exemplary representation, the State level has three members: Maine (Me.), Oregon (Oreg.) and Washington (Wash.). The Cities level has four members: Portland (Me.), Portland (Oreg.), Redmond (Wash.) and Seattle (Wash.). It should be noted although a member labeled Portland appears twice, each member is considered a distinct reference because the city appears under a different State member in the hierarchy. The Customer level has four members: Sasha, Alexander, Amir, and Mosha. The Products dimension is represented in FIG. 3 B. In the exemplary representation, the Category level has three members: Food, Drink, and Non-Consumable. The Product level has one member, Milk. The Time dimension is represented in FIG. 3 C. In the exemplary representation, the Year level has three members: 1997, 1998, and 1999. The Quarter level has four members: Q 1 -Q 4 . The Month level has no members, indicating that no monthly data is available. In this case, the most detailed data available is at the Quarter level. Each data cell in a multidimensional database is uniquely identified by specifying a coordinate on each dimension. In one embodiment of the invention, a cell is identified by specifying a dimension path for each dimension in a cube in the multidimensional database. The collection of dimension paths comprising the coordinates for the cell are concatenated and stored in an array referred to as the system path. In an embodiment of the invention, the order of dimension paths in the system path is dependent on the internal order of the dimensions in the cube, as determined by the metadata defining the cube. However, the invention is not limited to a particular ordering scheme and other ordering schemes are possible and within the scope of the invention. For example, the order of dimension paths could be determined alphabetically by the name of the dimension. In order to uniquely identify a particular member, each of the members from the root node to the leaf node for the member is specified. For example, in an embodiment of the invention, in order to refer to the customer Amir in the Customers dimension shown in FIG. 3A the following sequence of members is specified: {All Customers}. {WA}. {Redmond}. {Amir}. Similarly, to refer to Quarter 2 in the Time dimension shown in FIG. 3C, the members specified are: {1998}. {Q 2 }. Those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that the members shown in FIGS. 3A-3C represent an exemplary cube and that no embodiment of the invention is limited to a particular number or type of dimensions or dimension members. In the above example, strings representing member names are used to designate a particular member of a dimension. Alternatively, the strings are replaced with representative members numbers. When represented by numbers, a path from the root node to a branch node is represented by a member number at each level of the dimension that is traversed to reach the leaf node. The number assigned to each member is unique among the members having a common parent. In other words, a unique number is assigned to each of the siblings of a parent. In one embodiment, the root node is assigned the number 1 while branch and leaf nodes are assigned a number representing their order among their siblings. The invention, however, is not limited to any particular numbering scheme for the node. It is sufficient that the number is unique among the nodes having a common parent. Thus, each member in a dimension is represented by an array of numbers defining the path to the member. This array is the dimension path. The number of elements in the array is the number of levels in the dimension, and the position in the array reflects the hierarchy of levels. For example, referring to FIG. 3A, the dimension path for member Amir in the Customers dimension is {1-48-2-2}. This represents the path comprising the root node All Customers (1), the WA member at the state level (WA is the 48 th state alphabetically), the Redmond member at the city level (Redmond is the second city at that level under WA), and the member Amir at the customer level (Amir is the second customer under Redmond). In one embodiment, a number in the array represents each level. If the member is not at a leaf node, the number 0 is used in one embodiment of the invention to represent the positions for the levels below the member. Thus, the dimension path array for the member Portland, Oreg. in the Customer dimension is {1-38-1-0}. Not all dimensions have a single root member. For example, consider the Time dimension of the exemplary cube. There is no single “all time” member at the top-most level in this dimension, rather the Time dimension contains three members, each specifying a particular year. In this case, one embodiment of the invention assigns an index number to each members in the top-most level based on a natural order of the members. This natural order can be based on a numeric order, an alphabetic order, or the temporal order in which the members were created. For instance, in FIG. 3C, the dimension path for Q 3 in the year 1998 is {2-3-0} (1998 is the second year at the top-most level, Q 3 is the third member under 1998, and there are no month members). The dimension paths described above are referred to as rigid dimension paths, because they do not allow a cell to change its position within the dimension hierarchy without having to rebuild the database. This is because the indexing scheme used directly maps to a particular point in the hierarchy, and cannot map to any other point without changing at least one of the index components. Flexible dimension paths offer an alternative to rigid dimension paths. Flexible dimension paths allow a cell to change its position in the hierarchy without affecting the stored path. In order to implement flexible paths, a system maintains a mapping from a rigid dimensional path to an identifier associated with a cell member. For example, the table below illustrates a mapping for the Customer dimension members provided above. TABLE 1 Customer Id Rigid Dimension Path Alexander &14 {1-48-2-1} Amir &15 {1-48-2-2} Mosha &16 {1-48-2-3} Sasha &17 {1-20-1-1} To illustrate the system path described above, consider the cell associated with the customer Amir for All Products in Quarter 4 of 1998. The string representation for the cell path is: ({Customers}. {All_Customers}. {WA}. {Redmond}. {Amir}, {Products}. {All Products}, {Time}. {1998}. {Q 4 }). The corresponding system path using numbered rigid dimensional paths is: {1-48-2-2}-{1-0-0}-{2-4-0}. The same system path can be represented using a flexible dimension path as {&15}-{1-0-0}-{2-4-0}. In this case, when the cell is accessed, the accessor consults a mapping table to determine the correct cell location for the dimension represented by the flexible portion of the path. In the example above, only one dimension has a flexible path. The invention is not so limited, however, and the number of flexible paths appearing in a system path is not fixed to any particular number. It is desirable to differentiate the flexible path from a rigid path containing only one level, thus a flexible path is introduced by a distinguishing character. In one embodiment of the invention, the distinguishing character is the “&”, however the invention is not limited to any particular distinguishing character or set of characters. Now assume that Amir moves from Redmond to Seattle. In this case, the rigid dimensional path changes from {1-48-2-2} to {1-48-1-1}. However, the flexible dimension path remains the same (& 15). Thus, as can be seen from the above example, the database does not need to be rebuilt when a member moves from one point in the hierarchy to another, because the system path to the cell does not change. The change is to the mapping in a map table, not the path in a local store. In another embodiment of the invention, the numbered rigid dimensional path and flexible dimension path are compressed. As integers typically consist of four (4) bytes, with each byte consisting of eight (8) bits, system paths typically do not require all 32 bits to accurately represent the level number. In one embodiment, each number in the system path at a particular level is represented by the least number of bits to store the largest number at that particular level found within the group of system paths being compressed. For example, if the largest member number at a particular level within a group of system paths is ten (10) then only four (4) bits are used to store the member in compressed binary format. Similarly, member number values up to fifteen (15) may be stored using only four bits. The number of bits used to store each level in the system path is placed in a header that is accessed by the accessor before accessing the paths. In one embodiment of the invention, the number of bits used to store a member number for a particular dimension level are constant, allowing quick access to the member numbers. Table 2 is an example illustrating a mapping for the Customer dimension members provided above. TABLE 2 Flexible Path Compressed Compressed (One Rigid Path Flexible Rigid Dimension Character + (Each number Path Customer Path (Four Integers) One Integer) represents one bit) (5 bits) Alexander {1-48-2-1} {&14} {1} {110000} {10} {01} {01110} (Four Integers) Amir {1-48-2-2} {&15} {1} {110000} {10} {10} {01111} Mosha {1-48-2-3} {&16} {1} {110000} {10} {11} {10000} Sasha {1-20-1-1} {&17} {1} {10100} {01} {01} {10001} As can be seen by referring to Table 2, flexible paths generally use less space than rigid dimension paths but do not offer as great as compression as compressed rigid or compressed flexible paths. While the compression scheme utilized in one embodiment of the invention is binary compression, the invention, is not limited to any particular compression scheme. It is sufficient that the compression scheme stores the system path utilizing less computer space than when not compressed. Additionally, while it is preferable to store the path levels in a constant amount of space to aid in the ability to randomly access the data, this is not a requirement. In addition to a system path, each cell in a multidimensional database has one or more measures associated with it. In the exemplary cube, two measures are defined, Purchases and Units, where Purchases is the dollar amount of a particular purchase, and Units is the number of units purchased. FIG. 4 illustrates a data structure for a cell record 400 according to one embodiment of the invention. Cell record 400 contains a system path 405 and one or more measures 410 . As described above, system path 405 comprises one or more dimension paths 415 . The dimension paths can be either flexible dimension paths or rigid dimension paths, compressed or uncompressed. The order of measures 410 in record 400 may be determined by the order of the measures in the metadata defining the cube, the temporal order in which the measure were defined, or an alphabetic order. The invention is not limited to any particular ordering mechanism. This section of the detailed description has described a representation of cells in a multidimensional database, and a data structure for storing a cell record. In the sections that follow, systems and methods for creating and manipulating the cell data will be described. Operations in an Exemplary Embodiment of the Invention In the first section, a system level overview of the operation of an exemplary embodiment of the invention was described. In this section, the particular operations of the invention performed by an operating environment executing an exemplary embodiment are described by reference to a series of flowcharts shown in FIGS. 6-9. The operations to be performed by the operating environment constitute computer programs made up of program modules and computer-executable instructions or logic circuits and hardwired logic modules. Describing the operations by reference to a flowchart enables one skilled in the art to develop such programs or circuits including such instructions to carry out the operations on suitable computers (the processor of the computer executing the instructions from computer-readable media). The operations illustrated in FIGS. 6-9 are inclusive of the acts to be taken by an operating environment executing an exemplary embodiment of the invention. An operational flow for creating a system path is illustrated in FIG. 6 . The operations begins when a program executing the method, such as OLAP server 510 , discovers that a new cell is required, and receiving operation 602 receives a value to be used for the measure of the new cell. Typically the new cell will be required because OLAP Server 510 has discovered that a new row has been added to a detail table in a fact data store 520 (FIG. 5) since the last update of the local data store 514 . Next, rigid dimension operation 604 determines the rigid dimension path for each dimension in the cube to which the cell belongs. As discussed above, cells are located by specifying members in each dimension of the OLAP cube. The members reside at a particular level of a dimension tree formed by the levels of the dimension and the members at each level. In an embodiment of the invention, the dimension path is an array of ordinal numbers, one for each level in the dimension. The position of each ordinal number in the array is determined by the position of the level in the dimension hierarchy. The ordinal number at a position is determined by an ordering of the members at the particular level represented by the position that have a common parent. In one embodiment of the invention, if the new cell is not a leaf node, then a value of 0 is used in the dimension path to represent each of the levels below the new cell. In another embodiment of the invention, the operation checks map table 522 (FIG. 5) to determine if any of the rigid dimensional paths created by rigid dimension operation 604 can be converted into a flexible dimensional path by flexible dimension operation 606 . If any mappings exist that match a rigid dimensional path, the rigid dimensional path is replaced with the unique member id that becomes the flexible path. A distinguishing character is included to indicate that the dimensional path is a flexible path. In one embodiment of the invention, the distinguishing character is the “&” character. As will be appreciated by those of ordinary skill in the art, many other characters may be used. For example, the “*” character may be used. All that is required is that the system be able to differentiate between a rigid path and a flexible path. Concatenate operation 608 concatenates the dimension paths, both rigid and flexible, formed by rigid dimension operation 604 , and flexible dimension operation 606 , respectively, into a system path for the new cell record. In one embodiment of the invention, the ordering of the dimension paths in the system path is determined by order the dimensions are defined in the cube metadata. However, the invention is not so limited, and in alternative embodiments, the ordering can be determined by temporal order or alphabetic order. Next, copy operation 610 copies the measure data into an appropriate field in the cell record. The cell record contains a field for each measure present in the cube. The ordering of measures within a record is also determined by the metadata defining the cube. Record operation 612 then stores the cell record in a data store. In one embodiment of the invention, the cell record is stored as a row of a relational database. The row can be indexed by the system path, allowing subsequent queries requiring the cell's measures to find the cell quickly. As will be appreciated by those of ordinary skill in the art, the cell record may be stored many different ways. For example, the cell record can be stored in the RAM 25 of the computer 20 . Decision operation 614 determines if there are any more records to be stored, and if so, returns to receiving operation 602 . Otherwise, the system paths created from performing operations 602 - 612 are compressed (FIG. 7 ). FIG. 7 illustrates an operational flow for compressing the system paths created in FIG. 6 . In one embodiment of the invention, segment operation 710 loads the stored system paths from the local data store in 64K segments. As will be appreciated by those of ordinary skill in the art, other segment sizes may be utilized. For example, the segment sizes may be 16K, 32K, or 256K. In another embodiment, the system paths are not loaded in segments. Rather, the system paths are loaded in their entirety. Next, range operation 720 determines the range of values for each level within the system paths (See discussion for FIG. 8 ). Size operation 730 then determines the size of the space to store the size value within each range index. In one embodiment of the invention, the space to store the size value for the level is the number of bits required to represent the difference between the maximum range value and minimum range value as determined by range operation 820 . In another embodiment of the invention, the space to store the size value for the level is the number of bits required to represent the maximum range value as determined range operation 820 . For example, in the exemplary cube described above (FIG. 2 and FIGS. 3 A- 3 C), since the State level has three members consisting of Maine, Oregon, and Washington, the index range for this level is 1:3, using two bits of storage. The Cities level index range is 1:1 for Maine and Oregon, and 1:2 for Washington, each using two bits. Finally, in this exemplary example, the Customer level has an index range of 1:4, using three bits to store the levels in binary format. As will be appreciated by those of ordinary skill in the art, other compression methods may be utilized. After the space is determined, the levels for the loaded system paths are compressed by compression operation 740 in the size of the space as determined by size operation 730 . In one embodiment of the invention, each level within the system paths of the segment is converted to binary format and stored in the number of bits as determined by size operation 730 . Next, header operation 750 creates a header to store the size of the space for each level. In one embodiment of the invention, the size of the space is the number of bits used to store each level of the loaded system paths in binary format. In another embodiment the minimum range value is also stored in the header if the minimum range value is not equal to the maximum range value. This minimum range value is used as an offset value for the values within the level. In one embodiment of the invention, the header is stored in RAM 25 of the computer 20 . In another embodiment, the header is stored in the cache 512 , local data store 514 , fact data store, or OLAP client. This header is then used by the system to determine which bits store a particular level. The compressed paths are then stored in a data store. In one embodiment of the invention, the compressed paths are written to the local data store 514 in 64K segment sizes. In another embodiment, the compressed system paths are stored in the RAM 25 of the computer 20 . Decision operation 770 determines if there are any more segments containing system paths, and if so, returns to segment operation 710 . If not, the operational flow ends. FIG. 8 illustrates an operation flow for determining the range of values within each level of the system path. Initially, access operation 810 accesses the first dimension within a system path. Next, range operation 820 determines the range of values for each level within the system paths. In one embodiment of the invention, the index range is calculated for each level by determining the minimum and maximum value contained within the level. In another embodiment, the index range is the range of potential values for a particular level contained within the system paths. For example, if the level is States, the index range could be fifty (50), or the index range could be the number of states currently stored within the level. In one embodiment, decision operation 830 determines if the index range is constant, or in other words, if the minimum and maximum value for the level are equal. If the index range is constant then no bits are required to store the values. For example, in the exemplary OLAP cube described above (FIGS. 3 A- 3 C), the All level of the Customers dimension has the constant value 1, as there are no other members at this level. Therefore, since the index range for this level in this particular example is constant, the index value is stored within a header by header operation 840 and no bits are stored for this level, saving additional space. Header operation 840 stores the value of the level within the header when all of the values within the level are the same as each other. By storing the value for the level within the header, space does not need to be allocated within the system path. In another embodiment of the invention, decision operation 830 is not utilized. Next, decision operation 850 determines if there are any more levels within the dimension of which to determine the range, and if so, returns to range operation 820 . If there are not any more levels, decision operation 860 determines if there are any more dimensions to the system path. If so, the next dimension is accessed by access operation 810 . Otherwise, the operational flow ends. FIG. 9 illustrates an operational flow for creating an aggregation of cell data records created using the method described above. Table 3 below provides an exemplary set of data that will be used to demonstrate the results of executing the operations. For clarity of explanation, the compressed paths shown include all levels within the uncompressed system path. As discussed above, in one embodiment of the invention, if the range is constant for a particular level that level's value is stored within the header and not within the system path. Table 3 contains four records. The Member column shows the name of the member in the customer dimension, the System Path column shows the compressed system path corresponding to the cells location in the customer, product and time dimensions, respectively. The third column shows the Product Sales measure for the cell referenced by the system path. The four records represent sales to four customers, Sasha, Alexander, Amir and Mosha for all products in the fourth quarter of 1998. TABLE 3 System Path (Rigid Format) Member (Compressed Format) Product Sales Alexander {1-48-2-1}-{1-0-0}-{2-4-0} $3,000.00 ({1}-{110000}-{10}-{01})- ({1}-{0}-{0})-({10}-{100}- {0}) Amir {1-48-2-2}-{1-0-0}-{2-4-0} $2,500.00 ({1}{110000}{10}{10})- ({1}-{0}-{0})-({10}-{100}- {0}) Mosha {1-48-2-3 }-{1-0-0}-{2-4-0} $5,000.00 ({1}{110000}{10}{11})- ({1}-{0}-{0})-({10}-{100}- {0}) Sasha {1-20-1-1 }-{1-0-0}-{2-4-0} $8,000.00 ({1}{10100}{01}{01})-({1}- {0}-{0})-({10}-{100}-{0}) A program or logic device executing the operation, such as OLAP server 510 , begins by identifying a dimension and level to aggregate as determined by aggregrate operation 910 . Typically this will be in response to a request to create an aggregation. The request may come from a system administrator, or it can be a system generated request. As an example, consider a request to aggregate all of the customer sales in Redmond, Wash. in the fourth quarter of 1998. Next, decision operation 920 determines if any flexible paths are present in the dimension that is to be aggregated. If there are any flexible paths in the dimension to be aggregated, conversion operation 930 converts the flexible path to a rigid path. This is necessary, because the operation requires the ability to manipulate the individual member index in the dimension path that corresponds to the level that is to be aggregated. In the example, Table 3 reflects the fact that the flexible paths were converted to rigid paths in order to perform the aggregation. Flexible paths that exist in non-aggregated dimensions are left unaltered. This provides the advantage that aggregations can be maintained based on the flexible path. As an example, assume that Amir initially exists in the database as a customer in Redmond. During his stay in Redmond, Amir purchases a number of products, which are aggregated. Amir then moves to Seattle, and continues to purchase more products. By leaving flexible paths in non-aggregated dimensions, the database can produce a single aggregation for Amir that includes products purchased in both Redmond and Seattle. This behavior is typically more desirable then the behavior that occurs with rigid paths. In the rigid path case, two aggregations are created, one for Amir in Redmond, and the other for Amir in Seattle. In response to the request, set path operation 940 creates a system path for the aggregation record using the dimensions and levels specified in the request. For the example case, the aggregation system path is {1-48-2-0}-{1-0-0}-{2-4-0} in numbered rigid format or ({1}-{110000}-{10}-{00})-({1}-{0}-{0})-({10}-{100}-{0}) in compressed binary format. Next, null operation 950 scans the local data store containing the cell data records, and “nullifies” (sets to null) the level numbers in the dimension paths for those levels at or below the levels are to be aggregated. Since, in one embodiment of the invention, the levels are represented by bits, multiple levels may be nullified in the same step using the bitwise AND operation. This is accomplished by setting the bits to be nullified to zero in the locations of the particular level to be nullified. For example, in order to nullify level X, represented by bits 5 and 6 in the first byte of the compressed path, the AND operation is applied to the compressed path and byte 0×F3. Similarly, if bits 4 - 8 are to be nullified the path is ANDed with 0×F0. Table 4 shows the results of nullifying the appropriate level numbers. TABLE 4 Member System Path Product Sales Alexander {1-48-2-0}-{1-0-0}-{2-4-0} 3,000.00 ({1}-{110000}-{10}-{00})- ({1}-{0}-{0})-({10}-{100}- {0}) Amir {1-48-2-0}-{1-0-0}-{2-4-0} 2,500.00 ({1}{110000}{10}{00})- ({1}-{0}-{0})-({10}-{100}- {0}) Mosha {1-48-2-0}-{1-0-0}-{2-4-0} 55,000.00 ({1}{110000}{10}{00})- ({1}-{0}-{0})-({10}-{100}- {0}) Sasha {1-20-1-0}-{1-0-0}-{2-4-0} 8,000.00 ({1}{10100}{01}{00})- ({1}-{0}-{0})-({10}-{100}- {0}) Next, sum operation 960 sums the desired measure for all cell records where the system path of the cell record matches the system path of the aggregation record. In the example shown above, the aggregation record is: {1-48-2-0}-{1-0-0}-{-2-4-0} {$10500.00} in numbered format or ({1}{110000}{10}{00})-({1}-{0}-{0})-({10}-{100}-{0}) ({$10500.00}) in compressed format. This aggregation reflects the fact that system paths for Customer members Alexander, Amir and Mosha matched the aggregation system path. Finally, store operation 970 stores the aggregation record in a data store. In one embodiment of the invention, the aggregation record is stored in a cache maintained by the OLAP server. This is desirable, because it allows the aggregation record to be located quickly, thereby increasing system throughput. In one embodiment of the invention, the nullification of dimension path elements is accomplished using temporary buffers. The source records are kept in their original, unconverted state and the nullification and summation operations described above are performed on copies of the source records maintained in the temporary buffers. This has the advantage that there is no need to restore values in the source records after the aggregation has been performed, the system need only delete the temporary buffers. Although specific embodiments have been illustrated and described herein, it will be appreciated by those of ordinary skill in the art that any arrangement which is calculated to achieve the same purpose may be substituted for the specific embodiments shown. This application is intended to cover any adaptations or variations of the present invention. For example, those of ordinary skill within the art will appreciate that while the systems, methods, and articles have been described in the context of a multidimensional database system, the systems, methods, and articles of the invention can be applied to other data that is hierarchical in nature. The terminology used in this application with respect creating and maintaining cell records is meant to include all of these environments. Therefore, it is manifestly intended that this invention be limited only by the following claims and equivalents thereof.

Compressing system paths in a database is disclosed. The systems and methods of the invention define an efficient mechanism to specify a cell's location within the database where there are hierarchies of levels within a dimension. The compressed system paths allow random access of the data without decompressing the data. The format used lends itself well to indexing, and also to creating aggregations of the cell data.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/616,777, filed on Jul. 14, 2000 and a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/390,964, filed Sep. 7, 1999, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/991,130, filed Dec. 16, 1997, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/827,631, filed Apr. 10, 1997, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/303,605, filed Sep. 9, 1994. This application is also a continuation-in-part of International Patent Application No. PCT/US01/22299 filed Jul. 16, 2001. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] The present invention relates to surgical ablation instruments for ablation of tissue for the treatment of diseases, and, in particular, to surgical instruments employing penetrating energy. Methods of ablating tissue using penetrating energy are also disclosed. The instruments can be used, for example, in the treatment of cardiac conditions such as cardiac arrhythmias. [0003] Cardiac arrhythmias, e.g., fibrillation, are irregularities in the normal beating pattern of the heart and can originate in either the atria or the ventricles. For example, atrial fibrillation is a form of arrhythmia characterized by rapid randomized contractions of the atrial myocardium, causing an irregular, often rapid ventricular rate. The regular pumping function of the atria is replaced by a disorganized, ineffective quivering as a result of chaotic conduction of electrical signals through the upper chambers of the heart. Atrial fibrillation is often associated with other forms of cardiovascular disease, including congestive heart failure, rheumatic heart disease, coronary artery disease, left ventricular hypertrophy, cardiomyopathy or hypertension. [0004] Various surgical techniques have been proposed for the treatment of arrhythmia. Although these procedures were originally performed with a scalpel, these techniques may also use ablation (also referred to as coagulation) wherein the tissue is treated, generally with heat or cold, to cause tissue necrosis (i.e., cell destruction). The destroyed muscle cells are replaced with scar tissue which cannot conduct normal electrical activity within the heart. [0005] For example, the pulmonary vein has been identified as one of the origins of errant electrical signals responsible for triggering atrial fibrillation. In one known approach, circumferential ablation of tissue within the pulmonary veins or at the ostia of such veins has been practiced to treat atrial fibrillation. Similarly, ablation of the region surrounding the pulmonary veins as a group has also been proposed. By ablating the heart tissue (typically in the form linear or curved lesions) at selected locations, electrical conductivity from one segment to another can be blocked and the resulting segments become too small to sustain the fibrillatory process on their own. Ablation procedures are often performed during coronary artery bypass and mitral valve replacement operations because of a heightened risk of arrhythmias in such patients and the opportunity that such surgery presents for direct access to the heart. [0006] Several types of ablation devices have recently been proposed for creating lesions to treat cardiac arrhythmias, including devices which employ electrical current (e.g., radio-frequency “RF”) heating or cryogenic cooling. Such ablation devices have been proposed to create elongated lesions that extend through a sufficient thickness of the myocardium to block electrical conduction. [0007] These devices, however, are not without their drawbacks. When cardiac surgery is performed “on pump,” the amount of time necessary to form a lesion becomes a critical factor. Because these devices rely upon resistive and conductive heating (or cooling), they must be placed in direct contact with the heart and such contact must be maintained for a considerable period of time to form a lesion that extends through the entire thickness of the heart muscle. The total length of time to form the necessary lesions can be excessive. This is particularly problematic for procedures that are performed upon a “beating heart” patient. In such cases the heart, itself, continues to beat and, hence, is filled with blood, thus providing a heat sink (or reservoir) that works against conductive and/or resistive ablation devices. As “beating heart” procedures become more commonplace (in order to avoid the problems associated with arresting a patient's heart and placing the patient on a pump), the need for better ablation devices will continue to grow. [0008] Moreover, devices that rely upon resistive or conductive heat transfer can be prone to serious post-operative complications. In order to quickly perform an ablation with such “contact” devices, a significant amount of energy must be applied directly to the target tissue site. In order to achieve transmural penetration, the surface that is contacted will experience a greater degree of heating (or freezing). For example, in RF heating of the heart wall, a transmural lesion requires that the tissue temperature be raised to about 50° C. throughout the thickness of the wall. To achieve this, the contact surface will typically be raised to at least 80° C. Charring of the surface of the heart tissue can lead to the creation of blood clots on the surface which can lead to post-operative complications, including stroke. Even if structural damage is avoided, the extent of the lesion (i.e., the width of the ablated zone) on the surface that has been contacted will typically be greater than necessary. [0009] Ablation devices that do not require direct contact have also been proposed, including acoustic and radiant energy. Acoustic energy (e.g., ultrasound) is poorly transmitted into tissue (unless a coupling fluid is interposed). Laser energy has also been proposed but only in the context of devices that focus light into spots or other patterns. When the light energy is delivered in the form of a focused spot, the process is inherently time consuming because of the need to expose numerous spots to form a continuous linear or curved lesion. [0010] In addition, existing instruments for cardiac ablation also suffer from a variety of design limitations. The shape of the heart muscle adds to the difficulty in accessing cardiac structures, such as the pulmonary veins on the anterior surface of the heart. [0011] Accordingly, there exists a need for better surgical ablation instruments that can form lesions with minimal overheating and/or damage to collateral tissue. Moreover, instruments that are capable of creating lesions uniformly, rapidly and efficiently would satisfy a significant need in the art. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0012] Surgical ablation instruments are disclosed for creating lesions in tissue, especially cardiac tissue for treatment of arrhythmias and the like. The hand held instruments are especially useful in open chest or port access cardiac surgery for rapid and efficient creation of curvilinear lesions to serve as conduction blocks. The instruments can be applied to form either endocardial or epicardial ablations, and are designed to create lesions in the atrial tissue in order to electrically decouple tissue segments on opposite sides of the lesion. [0013] It has been discovered that infrared radiation is particularly useful in forming photoablative lesions. In one preferred embodiment the instruments emit radiation at a wavelength in a range from about 800 nm to about 1000 nm, and preferably emit at a wavelength in a range of about 915 nm to about 980 nm. Radiation at a wavelength of 915 nm or 980 nm is commonly preferred, in some applications, because of the optimal absorption of infrared radiation by cardiac tissue at these wavelengths. In the case of ablative radiation that is directed towards the epicardial surface, light at a wavelength about 915 nm can be particularly preferably. [0014] In one aspect of the invention, hand-held and percutaneous instruments are disclosed that can achieve rapid and effective photoablation through the use of penetrating radiation, especially distributed radiant energy. It has been discovered that penetrating energy, e.g., microwave or diffused infrared radiation, can create lesions in less time and with less risk of the adverse types of tissue destruction commonly associated with prior art approaches. Unlike instruments that rely on thermal conduction or resistive heating, controlled penetrating radiant energy can be used to simultaneously deposit energy throughout the full thickness of a target tissue, such as a heart wall, even when the heart is filled with blood. Distributed radiant energy can also produce better defined and more uniform lesions. [0015] In another aspect of the invention, surgical ablation instruments are disclosed that are well adapted for use in or around the intricate structures of the heart. In one embodiment, the distal end of the instrument can have a malleable shape so as to conform to the surgical space in which the instrument is used. Optionally, the distal end of the instrument can be shaped into a curve having a radius between about 5 and 25 mm. The instruments can include at least one malleable strip element disposed within the distal end of the instrument body or housing so that the distal end can be conformed into a desired shape. In addition, the instruments can also include a clasp to form a closed loop after encircling a target site, such as the pulmonary veins. Such instruments can be used not only with penetrating energy devices but also with other ablation means, such as RF heating, cryogenic cooling, ultrasound, microwave, ablative fluid injection and the like. [0016] In yet another aspect of the invention, surgical ablation instruments are disclosed having a housing with at least one lumen therein and having a distal portion that is at least partially transmissive to photoablative radiation. The instruments further include a light delivery element within the lumen of the housing that is adapted to receive radiation from a source and deliver radiant energy through a transmissive region of the housing to a target tissue site. The radiant energy is delivered without the need for contact between the light emitting element and the target tissue because the instruments of the present invention do not rely upon conductive or resistive heating. [0017] The light delivering element can be a light transmitting optical fiber adapted to receive ablative radiation from a radiation source and a light emitting tip at a distal end of the fiber for emitting diffuse or defocused radiation. The light delivering element can be slidably disposed within the inner lumen of the housing and the instrument can further include a translatory mechanism for disposing the tip of the light delivering element at one or more of a plurality of locations with the housing. Optionally, a lubricating fluid can be disposable between the light delivery element and the housing. This fluid can be a physiologically compatible fluid, such as saline, and the fluid can also be used for cooling the light emitting element or for irrigation via one or more exit ports in the housing. [0018] The light emitting tip can include a hollow tube having a proximal end joined to the light transmitting optical fiber, a closed distal end, and an inner space defining a chamber therebetween. The light scattering medium disposed within the chamber can be a polymeric or liquid material having light scattering particles, such as alumina, silica, or titania compounds or mixtures thereof, incorporated therein. The distal end of the tube can include a reflective end and, optionally, the scattering medium and the reflective end can interact to provide a substantially uniform axial distribution of radiation over the length of the housing. [0019] Alternatively, the light emitting tip can include at least one reflector for directing the radiation through the transmissive region of the housing toward a target site and, optionally can further include a plurality of reflectors and/or at least one defocusing lens for distributing the radiation in an elongated pattern. [0020] The light emitting tip can further include at least one longitudinal reflector or similar optical element such that the radiation distributed by the tip is confined to a desired angular distribution. [0021] The hand held instruments can include a handle incorporated into the housing. An inner lumen can extend through the handle to received the light delivering element. The distal end of the instrument can be resiliently deformable or malleable to allow the shape of the ablation element to be adjusted based on the intended use. [0022] In one embodiment, a hand held cardiac ablation instrument is provided having a housing with a curved shape and at least one lumen therein. A light delivering element is disposable within the lumen of the housing for delivering ablative radiation to form a curved lesion at a target tissue site adjacent to the housing. [0023] In another aspect of the invention, the light delivering element can be slidably disposed within the inner lumen of the housing, and can include a light transmitting optical fiber adapted to receive ablative radiation from a radiation source and a light diffusing tip at a distal end of the fiber for emitting radiation. The instrument can optionally include a handle joined to the housing and having an inner lumen though which the light delivering element can pass from the radiation source to the housing. [0024] In another aspect of the present invention, the light diffusing tip can include a tube having a proximal end mated to the light transmitting optical fiber, a closed distal end, and an inner chamber defined therebetween. A light scattering medium is disposed within the inner chamber of the tube. The distal end of the tube can include a reflective end surface, such as a mirror or gold coated surface. The tube can also include a curved, longitudinally-extending, reflector that directs the radiant energy towards the target ablation site. The reflective surfaces and the light scattering medium interact to provide a substantially uniform axial distribution of radiation of the length of the housing. [0025] In other aspects of the present invention, a hand held cardiac ablation instrument is provided having a slidably disposed light transmitting optical fiber, a housing in the shape of an open loop and having a first end adapted to receive the slidably disposed light transmitting optical fiber, and at least one diffuser chamber coupled to the fiber and disposed within the housing. The diffuser chamber can include a light scattering medium disposed within the housing and coupled to the slidably disposed light transmitting optical fiber. [0026] In yet another aspect, a percutaneous cardiac ablation instrument in the form of a balloon catheter with an ablative light projecting assembly is provided. The balloon catheter instrument can include at least one expandable membrane disposed about a housing. This membrane is generally or substantially sealed and serves as a balloon to position the device within a lumen. The balloon structure, when filled with fluid, expands and is engaged in contact with the tissue. The expanded balloon thus defines a staging from which to project ablative radiation in accordance with the invention. The instrument can also include an irrigation mechanism for delivery of fluid at the treatment site. In one embodiment, irrigation is provided by a sheath, partially disposed about the occluding inner balloon, and provides irrigation at a treatment site (e.g. so that blood can be cleared from an ablation site). The entire structure can be deflated by applying a vacuum which removes the fluid from the inner balloon. Once fully deflated, the housing can be easily removed from the body lumen. [0027] The present invention also provides methods for ablating tissue. One method of ablating tissue comprises positioning a distal end of a penetrating energy instrument in proximity to a target region of tissue, the instrument including a source of penetrating energy disposed within the distal end. The distal end of the instrument can be curved to permit the distribution of penetrating energy in elongated and/or arcuate patterns. The method further including activating the energy element to transmit penetrating energy to expose the target region and induce a lesion; and, optionally, repeating the steps of positioning and exposing until a composite lesion of a desired shape is formed. [0028] In another method, a device is provided having a light delivering element coupled to a source of photoablative radiation and configured in a curved shape to emit an arcuate pattern of radiation. The device is positioned in proximity to a target region of cardiac tissue, and applied to induce a curvilinear lesion. The device is then moved to the second position and reapplied to induce a second curvilinear lesion. The steps of positioning and reapplying can be repeated until the lesions are joined together to create a composite lesion (e.g., a closed loop encircling one or more cardiac structures). [0029] In another embodiment, methods of ablating cardiac tissue are provided. A device is provided having a housing in the shape of a hollow ring or partial ring having at least one lumen therein and at least one open end, and a light delivering element slidably disposed within the lumen of the housing for delivering ablative radiation to form a circular lesion at a target region adjacent the housing. The methods includes the steps of positioning the device in proximity to the target region of cardiac tissue, applying the device to the target region to induce a curvilinear lesion, advancing the light delivering element to a second position, reapplying the device to the target region to induce a second curvilinear lesion, and repeating the steps of advancing and applying until the lesions are joined together to create a composite circumferential lesion. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0030] The invention will be more fully understood from the following detailed description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which like reference numerals designate like parts throughout the figures, and wherein: [0031] [0031]FIG. 1 is a schematic, perspective view of a hand held surgical ablation instrument in accordance with this invention; [0032] [0032]FIG. 1A is a partially cross-sectional view of the hand held surgical ablation instrument of FIG. 1; [0033] [0033]FIG. 2 is a schematic, perspective view of another embodiment of a hand held surgical ablation instrument in accordance with this invention; [0034] [0034]FIG. 2A is a partially cross-sectional view of the hand held surgical ablation instrument of FIG. 2; [0035] [0035]FIG. 3 is a schematic, side perspective view of a tip portion of an ablation instrument in accordance with this invention illustrating a light delivery element; [0036] [0036]FIG. 3A is a schematic, side perspective view of a tip portion of another ablation instrument in accordance with this invention; [0037] [0037]FIG. 4 is a schematic, cross sectional view of the light delivery element of FIG. 3; [0038] [0038]FIG. 4A is a schematic, cross sectional view of another embodiment of a light delivery element; [0039] [0039]FIG. 4B is a schematic, cross sectional view of another embodiment of a light delivery element surrounded by a malleable housing; [0040] [0040]FIG. 5 is a schematic, cross sectional top view of a surgical ablation element of according to the invention, illustrating the different ablating positions of the light delivering element; [0041] [0041]FIG. 6 is a schematic, perspective view of a human heart and an instrument according to the invention, showing one technique for creating epicardial lesions; [0042] [0042]FIG. 7 is a schematic, perspective view of a human heart and an instrument according to the invention, showing one technique for creating endocardial lesions; [0043] [0043]FIG. 8 is a schematic, perspective view of a human heart and an instrument according to the invention, showing another technique for creating endocardial lesions; [0044] [0044]FIG. 9 is a schematic, cross-sectional view of a balloon catheter apparatus having an irrigation sheath according to the invention; [0045] [0045]FIG. 10 is a more detailed schematic side view of the balloon catheter apparatus of FIG. 9; [0046] [0046]FIG. 11 shows another balloon catheter apparatus according to the invention having conduits for providing inflation fluid, and irrigation fluid to the apparatus; [0047] [0047]FIG. 12 shows another embodiment of the balloon catheter apparatus according to the invention having pores for providing irrigation fluid to a treatment site; and [0048] [0048]FIG. 13 shows another embodiment of the balloon catheter apparatus according to the invention having a sheath positioned to deliver fluid to a target ablation site. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0049] The present invention provides a hand held ablation instrument that is useful, for example, for treating patients with atrial arrhythmia. As shown in FIG. 1, the hand held ablation instrument 10 generally includes a handle 12 having a proximal end 14 and a distal end 16 , an ablation element 20 mated to or extending distally from the distal end 16 of the handle 12 , and a laser energy source 50 . The laser energy source 50 employs the use of electromagnetic radiation, e.g., coherent light, which can be efficiently and uniformly distributed to the target site while avoiding harm or damage to surrounding tissue. In one use, the instrument can be used for cardiac ablation and can be applied either endocardially or epicardially, and is effective to uniformly irradiate a target ablation site. [0050] The handle 12 of the ablation instrument 10 is effective for manually placing the ablation element 20 proximate to a target tissue site. While the handle 12 can have a variety of shapes and sizes, preferably the handle is generally elongate with at least one inner lumen extending therethrough. The proximal end 14 of the handle 12 is adapted for coupling with a source of phototherapeutic radiation, e.g., an infrared laser energy source 50 , and the distal end of the handle 16 is mated to or formed integrally with the ablation element 20 . In a preferred embodiment, the handle 12 is positioned substantially coaxial with the center of the ablation element 20 . The handle 14 can optionally include an on-off switch 18 for activating the laser energy source 50 . [0051] One circumferential ablation element 20 is shown in more detail in FIG. 1A, and includes an outer housing 22 having an inner lumen extending therethrough, and a light delivering element 32 disposed within the inner lumen of the outer housing 22 . The outer housing 22 can be flexible, and is preferably malleable to allow the shape of the outer housing 22 to be adapted based on the intended use. As shown in FIG. 2, the outer housing 22 can be in the shape of a hollow ring (or partial ring) forming an opening loop having leading and trailing ends 24 , 26 . The open loop-shape allows the circumferential ablation element 20 to be positioned around one or more pulmonary veins. While an open loop shape is illustrated, the outer housing 22 can also be formed or positioned to create linear or other shaped lesions. [0052] The housing can be made from a variety of materials including polymeric, electrically nonconductive material, like polyethylene or polyurethane, which can withstand tissue coagulation temperatures without melting. Preferably, the housing is made of Teflon® tubes and/or coatings. The use of Teflon® improves the procedures by avoiding the problem of fusion or contact-adhesion between the ablation element 12 and the cardiac tissue during usage. While the use of Teflon® avoids the problem of fusion or contact-adhesion, the hand held cardiac ablation instrument 10 does not require direct contact with the tissue to effect a therapeutic or prophylactic treatment. [0053] The outer housing 22 can optionally include a connecting element for forming a closed-loop circumferential ablation element 20 . By non-limiting example, FIG. 1A illustrates a connecting element 30 extending from the leading, distal end 24 of the outer housing 22 . The connecting element 30 has a substantially u-shape and is adapted for mating with the trailing end 26 of the outer housing 22 or the distal end 16 of the handle 12 . The connecting element 30 can optionally be adapted to allow the size of the circumferential ablation element 20 to be adjusted once positioned around the pulmonary veins. For example, the connecting element 30 can be positioned around the trailing end 26 of the outer housing 22 after the circumferential ablation element 20 is looped around the pulmonary veins, and the handle 12 can then be pulled to cause the ablation element 20 to tighten around the pulmonary veins. While FIG. 1A illustrates a U-shaped connecting element, a person having ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that a variety of different connecting elements or clasps 30 can be used such as, for example, a hook, a cord, a snap, or other similar connecting device. [0054] The light delivering element 32 which is disposed within the outer housing 22 includes a light transmitting optical fiber 34 and a light diffusing tip 36 . The light transmitting optical fiber 34 is effective for delivering radiant energy from the laser energy source 50 to the light diffusing tip 36 , wherein the laser energy is diffused throughout the tip 36 and delivered to the target ablation site. The light delivering element 32 can be slidably disposed within the outer housing to allow the light diffusing tip 36 to be positioned with respect to the target ablation site. A lever 52 or similar mechanism can be provided for slidably moving the light delivering element 32 with respect to the handle 12 . As shown in FIG. 1A, the lever 52 can be mated to the light delivering element 32 and can protrude from a distally extending slot 54 formed in the handle 12 . Markings can also be provided on the handle for determining the distance moved and the length of the lesion formed. A person having ordinary skill in the art will readily appreciate that a variety of different mechanisms can be employed to slidably move the light delivering element 32 with respect to the handle 12 . [0055] Another embodiment of the surgical ablation instrument 10 A is shown in FIG. 2, where a rotatable lever 82 can be used to control the positioning of a light delivery element in the distal tip of the instrument. The lever 82 turns a translatory mechanism 80 , as shown in more detail in FIG. 2A. In this embodiment, a portion 84 of the handle is separated from the rest of the housing 88 such that it can rotate, and preferably sealed by O-rings 90 and 91 , or the like. The rotatable segment 84 has internal screw threads 92 . Within this segment of the handle, the light delivering fiber 32 is joined to a jacket 93 that has an external screw thread 94 . The threads 94 of jacket 93 mate with the threads 92 of rotatable segment 84 . The lever 82 is affixed to rotatable segment 84 (e.g., by set screw 86 ) such that rotation of knob 82 causes longitudinal movement of the fiber 32 relative to the housing 88 . [0056] The inner lumen of the outer housing 22 in FIGS. 1 and 2 can optionally contain a lubricating and/or irrigating fluid to assist the light delivering element 32 as it is slidably movable within the outer housing 22 . The fluid can also cool the light delivering element 32 during delivery of ablative energy. Fluid can be introduced using techniques known in the art, but is preferably introduced through a port and lumen formed in the handle. The distal end 24 of the outer housing 22 can include a fluid outflow port 28 for allowing fluid to flow therethrough. [0057] As shown in FIG. 3, the fluid travels between the light delivering element 32 toward the leading, distal end 26 of the outer housing 22 and exits the fluid outflow port 28 . Since the port 28 is positioned on the distal end 26 of the outer housing 22 , the fluid does not interfere with the ablation procedure. Suitable cooling and/or lubricating fluids include, for example, water and silicone. While FIG. 3 illustrates the fluid outflow port 28 disposed on the distal end 24 of the outer housing 22 , a person having ordinary skill in the art will readily appreciate that the fluid outflow port 28 can be disposed anywhere along the length of the outer housing 22 . [0058] In FIG. 3A another embodiment of a light delivery element according to the invention is shown in fiber 34 terminates in a series of partially reflective elements 35 A- 35 G. (It should be appreciated that the number of reflective elements can vary depending on the application and the choice of six is merely for illustration.) The transmissivity of the various segments can controlled such that, for example, segment 35 A is less reflective than segment 35 B, which in turn is less reflective than 35 C, etc., in order to achieve uniform diffusion of the light. The reflective elements of FIG. 3A can also be replaced, or augmented, by a series of light scattering elements having similar progressive properties. FIG. 3A also illustrates another arrangement of exit ports 28 in housing 22 for fluid, whereby the fluid can be used to irrigate the target site. [0059] With reference again to FIG. 3, the light transmitting optical fiber 34 generally includes an optically transmissive core surrounded by a cladding and a buffer coating (not shown). The optical fiber 34 should be flexible to allow the fiber 34 to be slidably moved with respect to the handle 12 . In use, the light transmitting optical fiber 34 conducts light energy in the form of ultraviolet light, infrared radiation, or coherent light, e.g., laser light. The fiber 34 can be formed from glass, quartz, polymeric materials, or other similar materials which conduct light energy. [0060] The light diffusing tip 36 extends distally from the optical fiber 34 and is formed from a transmissive tube 38 having a light scattering medium 40 disposed therein. For additional details on construction of light diffusing elements, see, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,908,415 issued Jun. 1, 1999. [0061] The scattering medium 40 disposed within the light diffusing tip 36 can be formed from a variety of materials, and preferably includes light scattering particles. The refractive index of the scattering medium 40 is preferably greater than the refractive index of the housing 22 . In use, light propagating through the optical fiber 34 is transmitted through the light diffusing tip 36 into the scattering medium 40 . The light is scattered in a cylindrical pattern along the length of the light diffusing tip 36 and, each time the light encounters a scattering particle, it is deflected. At some point, the net deflection exceeds the critical angle for internal reflection at the interface between the housing 22 and the scattering medium 40 , and the light exits the housing 22 to ablate the tissue. [0062] Preferred scattering medium 40 includes polymeric material, such as silicone, epoxy, or other suitable liquids. The light scattering particles can be formed from, for example, alumina, silica, or titania compounds, or mixtures thereof. Preferably, the light diffusing tip 36 is completely filled with the scattering medium 40 to avoid entrapment of air bubbles. [0063] As shown in more detail in FIG. 3, the light diffusing tip 36 can optionally include a reflective end 42 and/or a reflective coating 44 extending along a length of one side of the light diffusing tip 36 such that the coating is substantially diametrically opposed to the target ablation site. The reflective end 42 and the reflective coating 44 interact to provide a substantially uniform distribution of light throughout the light diffusing tip 36 . The reflective end 42 and the reflective coating 44 can be formed from, for example, a mirror or gold coated surface. While FIG. 3 illustrates the coating extending along one side of the length of the diffusing tip 36 , a person having ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that the light diffusing tip 36 can be coated at different locations relative to the target ablation site. For example, the reflective coating 44 can be applied over 50% of the entire diameter of the light diffusing tip 36 to concentrate the reflected light toward a particular target tissue site, thereby forming a lesion having a relatively narrow width. [0064] In use, the hand held ablation instrument 10 is coupled to a source of phototherapeutic radiation 50 and positioned within a patient's body to ablate the tissue. The radiation source is activated to transmit light through the optical fiber 34 to the light diffusing tip 36 , wherein the light is scattered in a circular pattern along the length of the tip 36 . The tube 38 and the reflective end 42 interact to provide a substantially uniform distribution of light throughout the tip 36 . When a mirrored end cap 42 is employed, light propagating through the light diffusing tip 36 will be at least partially scattered before it reaches the mirror 42 . When the light reaches the mirror 42 , it is then reflected by the mirror 42 and returned through the tip 36 . During the second pass, the remaining radiation encounters the scattering medium 40 which provides further diffusion of the light. [0065] When a reflective coating or longitudinally disposed reflector 44 is used, as illustrated in FIG. 4, the light 58 emitted by the diffusing tip 36 will reflected toward the target ablation site 56 to ensure that a uniform lesion 48 is created. The reflective coating or element 44 is particularly effective to focus or direct the light 58 toward the target ablation site 56 , thereby preventing the light 58 from passing through the housing 22 around the entire circumference of the housing 22 . [0066] In another embodiment as illustrated in FIG. 4A, the light emitting element can further include a longitudinally extended lens element 45 , such that light scattered by the scattering medium 40 is not only reflected by reflector 44 but also confined to a narrow angle. [0067] In yet another embodiment of the invention, illustrated in FIG. 4B, the housing 22 that surrounds the light delivery element that include or surround a malleable element 47 , e.g., a soft metal bar or strip such that the clinician can form the distal end of the instrument into a desired shape prior to use. Although the malleable element 47 is shown embedded in the housing 22 , it should be clear that it can also be incorporated into the light delivery element (e.g., as part of the longitudinally extended reflector) or be distinct from both the housing and the light emitter. [0068] Epicardial ablation is typically performed during a by-pass procedure, which involves opening the patient's chest cavity to access the heart. The heart can be arrested and placed on a by-pass machine, or the procedure can be performed on a beating heart. The hand held ablation instrument 10 is placed around one or more pulmonary veins, and is preferably placed around all four pulmonary veins. The connecting element 30 can then be attached to the distal end 16 of the handle 12 or the proximal, trailing end 24 of the outer housing 22 to close the open loop. The handle 12 can optionally be pulled to tighten the ablation element 20 around the pulmonary veins. The light delivering element 32 is then moved to a first position, as shown in FIG. 5, and the laser energy source 50 is activated to transmit light. The first lesion is preferably about 4 cm in length, as determined by the length of the light diffusing tip 36 . Since the distance around the pulmonary veins is about 10 cm, the light delivering element 32 is moved forward about 4 cm to a second position 60 , shown in phantom in FIG. 5, and the tissue is ablated to create a second lesion. The procedure is repeated two more times, positioning the light delivering element 32 in a third position 62 and a fourth position 64 . The four lesions together can form a lesion 48 around the pulmonary veins, for example. [0069] In another aspect of the invention, the instruments of the present invention are particularly useful in forming lesions around the pulmonary veins by directing radiation towards the epicardial surface of the heart and the loop configuration of distal end portion of the instruments facilitates such use. It has been known for some time that pulmonary veins can be the source of errant electrical signals and various clinicians have proposed forming conduction blocks by encircling one or more of the pulmonary veins with lesions. As shown in FIG. 6, the instrument 10 of the present invention is well suited for such ablation procedures. Because the pulmonary veins are located at the anterior of the heart muscle, they are difficult to access, even during open chest surgery. An open loop distal end is thus provided to encircle the pulmonary veins. The open loop can then be closed (or cinched tight) by a clasp, as shown. (The clasp can also take the form of suture and the distal end of the instrument can include one or more holes to receive such sutures as shown in FIG. 2.) The longitudinal reflector structures described above also facilitate such epicardial procedures by ensuring that the light from the light emitting element is directed towards the heart and not towards the lungs or other adjacent structures. [0070] Endocardial applications, on the other hand, are typically performed during a valve replacement procedure which involves opening the chest to expose the heart muscle. The valve is first removed, and then the hand held cardiac ablation instrument 10 according to the present invention is positioned inside the heart as shown in FIG. 7. In another approach the instrument 10 can be inserted through an access port as shown in FIG. 8. The ablation element 20 can be shaped to form the desired lesion, and then positioned at the atrial wall around the ostia of one or more of the pulmonary veins. Once shaped and positioned, the laser energy source 50 is activated to ablate a first portion of tissue. The light delivering element 32 can then be slidably moved, as described above with respect to the epicardial application, or alternatively, the entire device can be rotated to a second position to form a second lesion. [0071] In yet another embodiment of the present invention illustrated in FIG. 9, a balloon catheter 150 for cardiac ablation is shown having a primary balloon member 156 disposed about a housing, e.g. a catheter 114 , for inflation (via port 123 ) within the body (e.g., with the heart) to provide a transmission waveguide for projecting radiation 113 to the ablation site 112 . The primary balloon member 156 is generally or substantially sealed and can be inflated to position the catheter 114 within a lumen. The catheter 114 is typically an elongated hollow instrument having at least one lumen 123 . The primary balloon 156 is shown engaged in direct contact with a body lumen 152 (e.g. a pulmonary vein). A sheath 116 is partially disposed about the primary balloon member 156 for providing irrigation (via conduit 120 ) to the body lumen. Primary balloon member 156 and sheath 16 form the inner and outer membranes of the present invention. [0072] In FIG. 10, the balloon catheter of FIG. 9 is shown in use. Fluid 117 , introduced between the inner membrane formed by the primary balloon member 156 and the outer membrane formed by sheath 116 , provides irrigation to an inner body lumen region 126 . The fluid 117 can be any physiologically compatible fluid, such as saline. Once the fluid 117 is introduced into the lumen region 126 , any blood or other substance remaining in the region is flushed out. [0073] Another embodiment of balloon catheter 150 is shown in FIG. 11 having two conduits 120 and 124 within the catheter 114 . Conduit 120 provides irrigation fluid, such as saline, to the sheath 116 . Conduit 124 provides inflation fluid, such as deuterium oxide (D 2 O), to the primary balloon member 156 . [0074] [0074]FIG. 12 illustrates another embodiment of the balloon catheter of the present invention. The opening 122 of the sheath 116 is positioned to deliver fluid 117 to the target ablation site 112 . This approach allows the fluid to contact the ablation site, thereby cooling the tissue to prevent over-heating or coagulation. [0075] [0075]FIG. 13 illustrates another embodiment of the balloon catheter of the present invention. The sheath 116 contains pores 119 for releasing fluid near or at the target ablation site 112 . One having ordinary skill in the art will readily appreciate that the pores can be any shape or size. In addition, the sheath 116 can be sealed on both ends. [0076] A person having ordinary skill in the art will readily appreciate that the size, quantity, and placement of the pores 119 , and the position of the sheath opening 122 can be used in conjunction with one another to provide a desired amount of fluid to the treatment site. [0077] In another embodiment, the primary balloon 156 is preshaped to form a parabolic like shape. This is accomplished by shaping and melting a TEFLON® film in a preshaped mold to effect the desired form. The primary balloon 156 and sheath 116 of the present invention are preferably made of thin wall polyethylene teraphthalate (PET). The thickness of the membranes is preferably 5-50 micrometers, and more preferable, 10-20 micrometers. When inflated, the diameter of the membranes is preferably in the range of 20-30 millimeters. [0078] The infrared radiation distributing devices of the present invention can be used for a variety of procedures, including laparoscopic, endoluminal, perivisceral, endoscopic, thoracoscopic, intra-articular and hybrid approaches. For example, atrial therapies can be performed by inserting an apparatus of the invention into the femoral vein. The catheter 114 having inner and outer membranes, e.g. primary balloon 156 and sheath 116 , fixedly attached thereto is guided through the inferior vena cava, and into the right atrium, and if required, it is guided into the left atrium via atrial septal puncture. Left ventricular treatment can be performed by inserting flexible elongate member 132 into the femoral artery. The catheter 114 is guided through the iliac artery, the aorta, through the aortic valve and into adjacent to the left ventricle. Once the primary balloon 156 is proximate to the tissue ablation site, a solution can be injected through lumen 120 into the sheath 116 to force blood and/or body fluids away from the treatment site. An optical apparatus is then guided through catheter 114 to a position proximate to the tissue ablation site 112 and energy, e.g., laser energy, is emitted through primary balloon 156 . Preferably, the composition of the primary balloon member 156 is transparent to the energy emitted through optical apparatus. [0079] The primary balloon and sheath can be deflated by applying a vacuum that removes the fluid from the balloon. A syringe or other known methods can be used to remove the fluid. Once the primary balloon and sheath are fully deflated, the catheter can be easily removed from the body lumen. [0080] Preferred energy sources for use with the hand held cardiac ablation instrument 10 and the balloon catheter 150 of the present invention include laser light in the range between about 200 nanometers and 2.5 micrometers. In particular, wavelengths that correspond to, or are near, water absorption peaks are often preferred. Such wavelengths include those between about 805 nm and about 1060 nm, preferably between about 900 nm and 1000 nm, most preferably, between about 915 nm and 980 nm. In a preferred embodiment, wavelengths around 915 nm are used during epicardial procedures, and wavelengths around 980 nm are used during endocardial procedures. Suitable lasers include excimer lasers, gas lasers, solid state lasers and laser diodes. One preferred AlGaAs diode array, manufactured by Optopower, Tucson, Ariz., produces a wavelength of 980 nm. Typically the light diffusing element emits between about 2 to about 10 watts/cm of length, preferably between about 3 to about 6 watts/cm, most preferably about 4 watts/cm. [0081] The term “penetrating energy” as used herein is intended to encompass energy sources that do not rely primarily on conductive or convective heat transfer. Such sources include, but are not limited to, acoustic and electromagnetic radiation sources and, more specifically, include microwave, x-ray, gamma-ray, and radiant light sources. [0082] The term “curvilinear,” including derivatives thereof, is herein intended to mean a path or line which forms an outer border or perimeter that either partially or completely surrounds a region of tissue, or separate one region of tissue from another. Further, a “circumferential” path or element may include one or more of several shapes, and may be for example, circular, annular, oblong, ovular, elliptical, or toroidal. The term “clasp” is intended to encompass various types of fastening mechanisms including sutures and magnetic connectors as well as mechanical devices. The term “light” is intended to encompass radiant energy, whether or not visible, including ultraviolet, visible and infrared radiation. [0083] The term “lumen,” including derivatives thereof, is herein intended to mean any cavity or lumen within the body which is defined at least in part by a tissue wall. For example, cardiac chambers, the uterus, the regions of the gastrointestinal tract, the urinary tract, and the arterial or venous vessels are all considered illustrative examples of body spaces within the intended meaning. [0084] The term “catheter” as used herein is intended to encompass any hollow instrument capable of penetrating body tissue or interstitial cavities and providing a conduit for selectively injecting a solution or gas, including without limitation, venous and arterial conduits of various sizes and shapes, bronchioscopes, endoscopes, cystoscopes, culpascopes, colonscopes, trocars, laparoscopes and the like. Catheters of the present invention can be constructed with biocompatible materials known to those skilled in the art such as those listed supra, e.g., silastic, polyethylene, Teflon, polyurethanes, etc. [0085] It should be understood that the term “balloon” encompasses deformable hollow shapes which can be inflated into various configurations including balloon, circular, tear drop, etc., shapes dependent upon the requirements of the body cavity. [0086] The term “transparent” is well recognized in the art and is intended to include those materials which allow transmission of energy through, for example, the primary balloon member. Preferred transparent materials do not significantly impede (e.g., result in losses of over 20 percent of energy transmitted) the energy being transferred from an energy emitter to the tissue or cell site. Suitable transparent materials include fluoropolymers, for example, fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP), perfluoroalkoxy resin (PFA), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), and ethylene-tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE). [0087] One skilled in the art will appreciate further features and advantages of the invention based on the above-described embodiments. Accordingly, the invention is not to be limited by what has been particularly shown and described, except as indicated by the appended claims. All publications and references cited herein are expressly incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

Infrared surgical photoablation instruments are disclosed for creating lesions in tissue, including cardiac tissue for treatment of arrhythmias and other diseases. The hand held instruments are especially useful in open chest or port access cardiac surgery for rapid and efficient creation of curvilinear lesions to serve as conduction blocks. Photoablative instruments are disclosed that emit radiation at a wavelength in a range from about 800 nm to about 1000 nm, and preferably emit at a wavelength in a range of about 915 nm to about 980 nm. Radiation at a wavelength of 915 nm or 980 nm is commonly preferred, in some applications, because of the optimal absorption of infrared radiation by cardiac tissue at these wavelengths.

U.S. GOVERNMENT RIGHTS [0001] The invention was made with U.S. Government support under contract DAAH10-01-2-0032 awarded by the U.S. Army. The U.S. Government has certain rights in the invention. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] (1) Field of the Invention [0003] This invention relates to power transmission, and more particularly to spring clutches. [0004] (2) Description of the Related Art [0005] Overrunning spring clutches are a well developed art. Such clutches make use of the principle that a spring coil will expand if twisted one way about its axis and contract if twisted the other way. In an exemplary clutch, respective portions of a coil spring are positioned within respective sleeves. In a neutral condition, of the spring portion within each sleeve, an end portion is lightly frictional engaged to the sleeve and a remaining portion is slightly radially spaced from the sleeve. When the sleeves rotate relative to each other about their common axis, friction between the sleeves and the associated end portions will tend to twist the spring. If the relative rotation is in the direction which would tend to contract the spring, there will be slippage or overrunning. If the relative rotation is in the opposite direction, the normal forces between the end portions and sleeve will increase and the heretofore spaced portions will expand into frictional engagement with the sleeves thereby resisting the relative rotation. Accordingly, when such a clutch is used to drive an output from an input rotating (absolutely) in a first direction, the clutch permits the output to rotate faster than the input in the first direction. This permits the output to continue to rotate if the input slows or is stopped. Absolute rotation of the input (or both the input and output) in an opposite second direction may be prevented by additional internal or external mechanisms. [0006] U.S. Pat. No. 5,799,931 (the '931 patent) discloses an exemplary such spring clutch. In that patent, the spring is formed into a coil by a machining a helical slot in a tubular form (e.g., as distinguished from winding a wire or somehow casting without machining a slot). BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0007] One aspect of the invention involves a clutch apparatus having an arbor, a spring, and a sleeve. The arbor has a first end, a second end, and an externally toothed portion. The spring at least partially surrounds the arbor and has an internally toothed portion intermeshed with the arbor externally toothed portion. The sleeve at least partially surrounds the spring and frictionally engages the spring. The engagement is sufficient so that an initial relative rotation between the arbor and sleeve in a first direction tends to uncoil the spring and bias the spring into firmer engagement with the sleeve. The engagement is sufficient that initial relative rotation between the arbor and sleeve in a second direction, opposite the first direction, tends not to uncoil the spring. [0008] In various implementations, a pinion gear may be unitarily formed with the sleeve. The spring may have a slot between interior and exterior surfaces and extending between first and second axial ends and having a nonconstant helix angle. The slot may extend longitudinally at the first axial end and nearly circumferentially at the second axial end. [0009] The details of one or more embodiments of the invention are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below. Other features, objects, and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the description and drawings, and from the claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0010] [0010]FIG. 1 is a longitudinal, partially sectional, view of a clutch according to principles of the invention. [0011] [0011]FIG. 2 is a view of a spring of the clutch of FIG. 1. [0012] [0012]FIG. 3 is a longitudinal sectional view of the spring of FIG. 2, taken along line 3 - 3 . [0013] [0013]FIG. 4 is a transverse sectional view of an arbor shaft, spring, and sleeve of the clutch of FIG. 1 in a disengaged condition. [0014] [0014]FIG. 5 is a transverse sectional view of an arbor shaft, spring, and sleeve of the clutch of FIG. 1 in an engaged condition. [0015] Like reference numbers and designations in the various drawings indicate like elements. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0016] [0016]FIG. 1 shows a spring clutch 20 having a housing 22 with a central longitudinal axis 500 . The clutch input housing 22 is itself mounted within a main housing 23 (e.g., a main gearbox housing). The clutch receives a driving torque about the axis 500 from an external source (e.g., an engine (not shown)) through an input drive flange 24 . The clutch may transmit a first sense or direction of such torque to an external load (e.g., a helicopter rotor system (not shown)) through an output pinion gear 26 . The clutch advantageously does not transmit substantial torque of an opposite sense. Accordingly, input rotation in a first direction will be transmitted as output rotation, although the output pinion gear may rotate faster in that direction in an overrunning condition. Opposite input rotation (if permitted) will not be so transmitted to the output pinion gear. [0017] In the illustrated embodiment, the input drive flange 24 drives an arbor shaft 28 via a diaphragm coupling 30 . Specifically, the flange is secured to one end of the coupling while the other end is secured to an outer collar 32 . The outer collar 32 surrounds and engages an upstream or input end portion of an inner collar 34 via interfitting teeth. The inner collar 34 surrounds a portion of the arbor shaft 28 and is similarly engaged thereto via interfittting teeth. At the upstream end, an outer bearing sleeve 40 is mounted within an opening in the housing 22 . A ball bearing system 42 is radially positioned between the outer bearing sleeve 40 and the inner collar 34 . Near an upstream end 44 of the arbor shaft, a nut 46 is threaded onto the shaft. The nut 46 bears against a spacer 48 which, in turn, bears against an upstream flange of the outer collar 32 . A downstream rim of the outer collar 32 bears against a spacer 50 which, in turn, bears against the upstream rim of the inner race of the ball bearing system 42 . The downstream rim of that race, in turn, bears against an upstream-facing external shoulder of the inner collar 34 . A downstream-facing internal shoulder of the inner collar 34 bears against an upstream-facing external shoulder of the arbor shaft so that the foregoing series of components is compressively sandwiched between the nut and arbor shaft. The outer race of the ball bearing system 42 is captured between an upstream-facing internal shoulder of the outer bearing sleeve 40 and a retainer 52 . [0018] The exemplary pinion gear 26 extends radially outward from a sleeve 60 unitarily formed therewith. An upstream portion of the sleeve is rotatably mounted to the housing 22 via an upstream roller bearing system 62 and a ball bearing system 64 immediately downstream thereof. The bearing systems 62 and 64 are captured between a downstream-facing internal shoulder of the housing 22 and retainers 66 secured to the downstream rim of the housing 22 . [0019] A downstream portion of the sleeve 60 is clear of the housing 22 but rotatably mounted to the main housing 23 via a roller bearing system 70 captured between an upstream-facing internal shoulder of the main housing and retainers 72 . [0020] A portion of the arbor shaft 28 adjacent its downstream end 80 lies concentrically within the sleeve 60 . In the exemplary embodiment, this includes a tubular section 82 of relatively enlarged internal and external diameter, but similar wall thickness to a main central portion of the arbor shaft. A downstream part 83 of the tubular section 82 surrounds an upstream portion of a sleeve bearing 84 , a downstream portion of which is mounted to a downstream end of the sleeve 60 . The interior surface 85 of the downstream part 83 and exterior surface 86 of the upstream part of the sleeve 84 are in sliding contact, lubricated through passageways 87 in the sleeve bearing upstream portion. The lubricant may be introduced through a jet 88 concentrically within the sleeve bearing and having lateral outlet ports. The exemplary embodiment of FIG. 1 shows numerous additional lubrication features which are not separately discussed. [0021] The downstream part 83 of the section 82 is externally toothed while an upstream part is smooth. The externally toothed portion is enmeshed with an internally toothed proximal section 90 of a spring 92 . The circumferential exterior surface 94 of the spring 92 is in close facing spaced or contacting proximity to an interior surface 96 of the sleeve 60 as is further described below. [0022] [0022]FIGS. 2 and 3 show further details of the spring 92 . The spring extends from a proximal axial end 100 to a distal axial end 102 . A slot 104 extends between these ends to form the spring as a coil having proximal and distal coil ends 106 and 108 , respectively. The exemplary slot 104 has a nearly longitudinal portion 110 along the proximal section 90 transitioning to a helical portion 112 . The helical portion has a helix angle θ which for purpose of reference is identified as the acute angle between the helix and the longitudinal direction. In the exemplary embodiment, the angle is nonconstant, progressively decreasing from the proximal section 90 . At a distal portion of the spring, the rate of decrease may nearly cease or nearly cease so that the distal portion is of approximately constant helix angle. In the exemplary embodiment, in a relaxed condition the spring outer circumferential surface 94 is close to cylindrical, being essentially cylindrical along a major portion of its length and flaring out slightly at a tip or teaser portion 120 . In a relaxed condition, the tip portion 120 is in frictional contact with the sleeve interior surface 96 . The wall thickness of the spring is thinned along this distal portion for lightness of frictional engagement between the spring tip portion and sleeve. The spring may be manufactured by known techniques for or by techniques to be developed. The general form of the spring may tend to resemble half of a spring such as that identified in the '931 patent with the addition of the internally toothed proximal section. [0023] When the arbor is initially rotated relative to the sleeve, there is frictional engagement between the tip portion 120 and the sleeve interior surface 96 . If this initial rotation is in the direction wherein the friction would tend to contract the spring, the rotation may continue with substantial slippage between the tip portion 120 and sleeve interior surface 96 . If this initial relative rotation is in the opposite, expanding, direction, the forces associated with expansion will increase the normal force between the tip portion 120 and the sleeve interior surface 96 and expand the heretofore noncontacting spaced-apart portions of the surface 94 into contacting frictional engagement with the surface 96 . This enhanced friction resists further relative rotation. [0024] The role of the spring and arbor shaft teeth is now addressed. FIG. 4 shows engagement of the teeth of the spring and arbor shaft in a disengaged neutral or overrunning condition. In this condition, the slot portion 110 is relatively closed and the spring exterior circumferential surface 94 is spaced apart from the sleeve interior surface 96 . In this disengaged condition, the teeth are intermeshed but in generally non-contacting, non-load-bearing relation. For example, the resilience of the spring tending to close the gap 110 will bring the gap-facing surfaces of adjacent spring teeth into contact with the opposite faces of arbor shaft teeth. Moving circumferentially away from the gap, the two groups of teeth will tend to be non-contacting. The torque transmission associated with expansion of the spring in the engaged condition causes a camming interaction between the teeth 121 and 122 of the spring and arbor, expanding the slot 110 and radially expanding the spring surface 94 into engagement with the sleeve surface 96 . In the exemplary embodiment, this expansion sequentially brings more pairs of spring and arbor teeth into engagement with each other. Advantageously, the teeth pitch and other dimensions (such as the initial radial gap between surfaces 94 and 96 ) are selected so that a maximally engaged condition is achieved when all arbor teeth are bearing against adjacent spring teeth (FIG. 5). [0025] The expansion of the slot portion 110 advantageously reduces stress concentrations which would otherwise be present, for example, if the slot terminated at the section 90 . Thus, although a more rigid nonmoving mounting between the spring and arbor is possible, it is advantageous that the mounting have sufficient play to permit the spring expansion along the section 90 . Accordingly, in the exemplary embodiment the cooperation of the teeth constrains relative movement to a fraction of the tooth pitch appropriate to permit the expansion. In the exemplary embodiment, near the distal axial end 102 the spring's coil extends nearly circumferentially (e.g. typically well under 10° off circumferential). Near the proximal axial end 100 the slot extends longitudinally (e.g. well within 15° of longitudinal and effective to permit the slot expansion). If the teeth were helically or otherwise formed, the slot would/could be otherwise formed to match. [0026] One or more embodiments of the present invention have been described. Nevertheless, it will be understood that various modifications may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. For example, in various embodiments or uses, the input may be through the sleeve rather than the arbor. Also, the invention may be applied to various spring and clutch configurations both known and yet developed. Details of any particular application (e.g., the environment in which the clutch is used) may influence the structure of such implementation. Accordingly, other embodiments are within the scope of the following claims.

A spring clutch has an arbor, a spring, and a sleeve. The spring at least partially surrounds the arbor and has a first portion coupled to the arbor to confine relative rotation of the first portion and arbor about an axis. The sleeve at least partially surrounds the spring and cooperates with the spring. The cooperation is sufficient so that an initial relative rotation between the arbor and sleeve in a first direction about the axis tends to uncoil the spring and bias the spring into firmer engagement with the sleeve. The cooperation is sufficient such that relative rotation in an opposite direction tends not to uncoil the spring and maintains the clutch in a disengaged condition.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0001] Computed tomography (CT) imaging systems are used to provide three-dimensional or 360° views of a patient. These systems typically have an annular gantry frame that spins about a patient or object to be imaged. An X-ray tube is mounted to the gantry frame. A cooling system is also provided within the gantry frame to dissipate heat generated by the X-ray tube. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0002] A heat exchange unit in a heat exchanger assembly is provided for use in a cooling system of a CT imaging system having a gantry frame with an annular interior region. The heat exchange unit is formed of a plurality of tubes bent at discrete locations to provide several straight leg sections so that the heat exchange unit can fit within an arcuate portion of the annular interior region of the gantry frame. [0003] In one embodiment, a heat exchange unit includes a plurality of tubes having open ends and flat exterior upper and lower surfaces. Flow passages for a first heat exchange fluid extend through the interior of the tubes. The tubes are attached to a pair of tube sheets, which maintain the tubes in an array spaced apart a distance to allow fluid flow of a second heat exchange fluid between the flat exterior surfaces of the tubes. [0004] Each of the tubes has at least one bend formed at discrete locations to divide each of the tubes into a plurality of straight leg sections. The tube sheets maintain the tubes in an array with each of the straight leg sections of adjacent tubes generally parallel and the bends generally radially aligned with respect to the gantry frame. In one embodiment, the bends in the tubes are located symmetrically about a centerline through an arc tangent to the tubes at the centerline and where the tubes join the tube sheets. [0005] The tubes are joined to the tube sheets at end portions extending perpendicular to the faces of the tube sheets. The faying surfaces of the tubes and the slots of the tube sheets are flat and parallel, leading to a dependable joint formed by, for example, brazing or welding. [0006] In another aspect, the heat exchange unit is part of a heat exchanger assembly including mounting brackets for mounting to the gantry frame. The mounting brackets are attached to opposite sides of the heat exchange unit adjacent the tube sheets and include mounting fixtures that extend in the axial direction of the gantry frame. This reduces the stress on the mounting fixtures and the mounting brackets, compared to prior art heat exchanger assemblies that use radially oriented mounting fixtures. DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0007] The invention will be more fully understood from the following detailed description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings in which: [0008] FIG. 1 is an isometric view of an embodiment of a heat exchange unit according to the present invention; [0009] FIG. 2 is an isometric view of the heat exchanger assembly of FIG. 1 installed in an arcuate portion of a gantry frame; [0010] FIG. 3A is a front view of the heat exchange unit of FIG. 1 ; [0011] FIG. 3B is an enlarged view of a portion of FIG. 3A ; [0012] FIG. 3C is a side view of a tube sheet employed in the heat exchange unit of FIG. 3A ; [0013] FIG. 4 is a front view of the heat exchange unit of FIG. 1 illustrating various geometric relationships; [0014] FIG. 5 is a front view of an embodiment of a heat exchange unit illustrating three bends; [0015] FIG. 6 is a front view of an embodiment of a heat exchange unit illustrating four bends; [0016] FIG. 7A is an illustration of a rectangular heat exchange unit overlaid on an arcuate portion of a gantry frame; and [0017] FIG. 7B is an illustration of the heat exchange unit of FIG. 1 overlaid on an arcuate portion of a gantry frame for comparison with FIG. 7A . DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0018] One embodiment of a heat exchanger assembly that fits within an annular or arc-shaped interior region of a gantry frame of a CT system to provide cooling for an X-ray tube is shown in FIG. 1 . The heat exchanger assembly 10 includes a heat exchange unit 12 formed from a plurality of tubes 14 arranged in parallel and spaced a distance apart. When the heat exchanger assembly is installed in a gantry frame 16 , a first heat exchange fluid flows through the interior of the tubes 14 , for heat transfer with a second heat exchange fluid that flows in the regions 18 between the tubes and past the exterior surfaces of the tubes. [0019] The tubes 14 are bent at bends 22 to form several straight leg sections 24 to accommodate the annular configuration of the gantry frame 16 . See FIG. 2 . The tubes are typically flat tubes and may contain microchannels or baffles, as known in the art. Mounting brackets 32 (described further below) are attached at each side of the heat exchange unit 12 for attachment to the gantry frame 16 . The mounting brackets also enclose manifolds (not shown) for delivering and discharging the first heat exchange fluid to and from the interior of the tubes of the heat exchange unit. In the embodiment shown, inlet and outlet fittings 34 are connected to the heat exchange unit through the mounting brackets 32 . Alternatively, inlet and outlet fittings may be connected at opposite sides of the heat exchanger assembly through both mounting brackets if desired for a particular application. The inlet and outlet fittings connect via suitable piping to a fluid tank or reservoir and fluid pump (not shown) for the heat exchange fluid. [0020] In operation, the first heat exchange fluid flows on a circulatory flow path through appropriate piping past an X-ray tube (not shown), where the fluid is heated by heat transfer with the X-ray tube. The heated fluid then flows to the heat exchange unit 12 , where it flows through flow passages within the tubes 14 and is cooled through heat transfer with the second heat exchange fluid, typically air, flowing in the regions 18 and across the exterior surfaces of the tubes 14 . The air flows in an axial direction of the gantry frame (indicated by axis 44 , shown in FIG. 2 ) and generally perpendicular to the elongated direction the tubes. Additional heat exchange elements, such as fins made of corrugated aluminum (not shown), may be disposed within the regions 18 to assist in the heat transfer between the fluids. A fan or other air moving device (not shown) may be provided to force the air flow through the heat exchange unit. [0021] Referring to FIGS. 1 , 3 A, 3 B, and 3 C, the tubes 14 of the heat exchange unit 12 are supported at their opposite ends by tube sheets 52 . Both tube sheets are identical, which simplifies their manufacture. Each tube sheet may be formed from a plate with opposed flat surfaces 54 , 56 having a plurality of elongated, parallel slots 58 . An end portion 62 of each tube 14 is received in an associated slot 58 , as shown more particularly in FIG. 3B . The end portions 62 of the tubes 14 may be fastened to the tube sheets 52 in any suitable manner, such as by brazing or welding. The end portions 62 of the tubes are perpendicular to the flat surfaces 54 , 56 of the tube sheets 52 where they enter the slots 58 . The faying surfaces 64 , 66 of the end portions and the slots are flat and parallel to each other. Thus, clearances between the faying surfaces are minimized, allowing the joint to wet throughout during the jointing process, for example, vacuum brazing, which aids in ensuring a strong, dependable joint. The tubes may also be supported by upper and lower plates 67 , 69 . [0022] In one embodiment, the discrete bends 22 in the tubes 14 are located symmetrically about a centerline 70 of the heat exchange unit 12 , as shown in FIG. 4 . The centerline is coincident with a radial direction of the gantry frame when the unit is installed in the gantry frame. In this embodiment, three legs 24 are shown, defined by two discrete bends 22 . For each tube, each of the end legs 24 A has the same length A, and the center leg 24 B has a length B. The tube centerline 70 is perpendicular to a tangent to an arc C that extends from the end portions 62 of the tubes where they enter the tube sheets 52 on the end legs 24 A and is tangent to the center leg 24 B at the center line. For a two-bend unit, the bend angle D is equal to angle E/ 2 . [0023] The bent tube heat exchange unit 12 can be readily sized to fit gantry frames having a variety of circumferences and arc lengths. If the angle E of the arc becomes large, the number of bends can be increased to increase the resolution of the arc while maintaining symmetry about the centerline of the heat exchange unit. For example, FIG. 5 shows a heat exchange unit 12 ′ with three bends 22 ′. One bend is along the centerline 70 ′. Two bends are offset from the centerline an equal distance in each direction along the arc C′. FIG. 6 shows a heat exchange unit 12 ″ with four bends 22 ″. A first set of two bends are offset from the centerline 70 ″ a first distance in each direction along the arc C″, and a second set of two bends are offset from the centerline a further distance in each direction along the arc C″. [0024] By having a symmetrical arrangement with paired legs of equal length, the tube can be formed more simply. For example, a press brake can be set up with one angle for all the bends. For tubes with two bends, one back stop setting can be used for both end legs of the tube. Forming discrete bends with a press brake is faster and more efficient than bending a large arc gradually between rollers and comparing it to a template, such as with curved tubes used in some prior art heat exchange devices. Also, forming the discrete bends takes place away from the faying surfaces where the tube passes through the slot in the tube sheet. The tubes can thus be held perpendicular to the surfaces of the tube sheets, as noted above, leading to a dependable joint. In contrast, with an arced or curved tube, it is more difficult to be assured of that perpendicularity at the tube sheet. Bending the tube at discrete locations also results in less plastic deformation to the tube than forming an arc, which improves repeatability. A better joint can be made between the tubes and the tube sheets, because the parallelism of the tubes can be more readily controlled due to the long flat sections of the tubes and their undeformed condition. Tooling for the jointing process is also more simple to manufacture and change, because the pressure is applied with a flat surface in a linear direction, eliminating the need to form curved tooling. [0025] Depending on the angle E of the annular portion of the gantry frame to be covered, the present heat exchange unit presents a surface area of the tubes to the entering air that is comparable to the surface area of a curved-tube heat exchanger geometry. Also, the present angled or bent configuration of the heat exchange unit presents more surface area than a prior art square or rectangular heat exchanger geometry, resulting in a 25 to 50% increase in heat rejection. FIGS. 7A and 7B illustrate a comparison in which a rectangular heat exchange unit 101 is overlaid over an annular frame 16 . For example, the surface area of the tubes of the rectangular configuration is 719.6 cm 2 , compared to a surface area of 980.7 cm 2 for a bent tube heat exchange unit 12 . In this case, the present heat exchange unit results in a 36.3% increase in surface area. Also, the increased surface area presented by the tubes results in a lower pressure drop across the tubes for the same air flow rates compared to a square or rectangular geometry. [0026] In a further aspect, the mounting brackets 32 of the heat exchanger assembly 10 include circumferentially extending ear portions 84 that have apertures 86 that align with the axial direction 44 of the gantry frame 16 when the assembly is installed therein. Bolts or other fastener members pass through the axial apertures for attachment to the gantry frame. In this manner, the weight of the heat exchanger assembly is supported primarily by the surface-to-surface contact of the mounting brackets and the inside diameter of a drum of the gantry frame. This configuration is less dependent on the strength of the fasteners and the mounting bracket, in contrast to prior art designs, in which the heat exchanger assembly is mounted with bolts extending in the radial direction of the gantry frame. This prior art design puts a greater amount of tension force on the bolts in a spinning mechanism. [0027] It will be appreciated that the embodiments and aspects of the present invention may be combined with each other in various ways. For example, although the embodiments illustrated show symmetrically located bends, the bends do not have to be symmetrically located. The invention is not to be limited by what has been particularly shown and described, except as indicated by the appended claims.

A heat exchange unit for a heat exchanger assembly is provided for use in a cooling system of a CT imaging system having a gantry frame with an annular interior region. The heat exchange unit is formed of a plurality of tubes bent at discrete locations to divide the tubes into straight leg sections to fit within an arcuate portion of the gantry frame's annular region. The bent tubes are maintained between a pair of tube sheets in an array with the straight leg sections parallel and the bends generally radially aligned. The tubes are orthogonally joined to the tube sheets, and the faying surfaces are flat and parallel, leading to a dependable joint. The heat exchanger assembly includes mounting brackets with mounting fixtures axially aligned with the gantry frame, to reduce stress on the fasteners and the mounting brackets.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an image recording apparatus used in a copy machine or printer. 2. Description of the Related Art An error diffusion method or error distribution method is known as a method of processing an input image signal to record a halftone image. The error diffusion method is a technique for performing binary coding process of an image signal so as to minimize a density difference between an input image signal and an output image signal. This technique is very effective to output both a halftone image and a high-definition image in a printer having only binary representation. A method of inputting a signal processed by this error diffusion method to a printer and recording the processed signal at the printer is called error diffusion recording. This error diffusion recording has a disadvantage in that a texture inherent to a smooth halftone image becomes conspicuous. To compensate for the drawback of this error diffusion method, a multilevel error diffusion method and a multilevel correlative density assignment of adjacent pixels ("multilevel algorithm for high quality pseudo halftoning", Proceedings of Television, Vol. 44, No. 5, pp. 608-614 (1990)) which is similar to the multilevel error diffusion method are known. In these techniques, however, a tone gradation tends to be conspicuous in a highlighted or high-density portion whose recording is unstable. A pseudo contour is formed in such a portion to result in a poor image. To solve this problem, a method of adding random noise to an image signal (e.g., "Smoothing Effect in Gray Scale Characteristics Using a Pseudo-Noise Method", Proceedings of Television, Vol. 40, No. 11, p. 1113 (1986)). According to this method, however, the texture of a multilevel recording portion becomes different from that of the portion added with random noise, resulting in a poor image. As a method of correcting a tone gradation, a technique for correcting the levels of a signal to smooth levels in advance, using a ROM table is known. In this tone correction, however, when a change in density occurs in a printer deterioration over time, the pseudo contour tends to be formed in the highlighted or high-density portion. In error diffusion recording, when an input image signal is subjected to undercolor removal, snow noise tends to be conspicuous. Published Unexamined Japanese Patent Application No. 3-204273 describes a technique for determining a condition in selecting each color to prevent colors from generating at random, thereby preventing snow noise. In a practical color printer, however, color misregistration between colors to be printed occurs to result in a random color combination in stacking the colors to actually print an image under a specific condition for a color selection. Snow noise is not always reduced. When four-color printing is performed after processing such as undercolor removal, a low-density recording signal is frequently generated to form a number of non-recorded dots in a system in which low-density recording is unstable. As a result, color reproduction is often degraded. In a color copy machine or color printer, a positional error occurs between ink colors in a color printing unit. Black characters are blurred, and the color of a halftone portion such as a gray or skin-colored portion changes depending on different positions within the printed paper sheet or different paper sheets. To prevent this, a technique for using a screen angle in color halftone reproduction to obtain different screen angles for all colors, locally causing an average positional error any time, and stabilizing color reproduction is known. According to this technique, image degradation in a character portion greatly occurs, and moire noise is undesirably generated. To improve the quality of a character portion, Published Unexamined Japanese Patent Application No. 63-240175 discloses a technique for extracting a character and black regions of a color original, performing 100% undercolor removal of only a black character region, and performing undercolor removal of less than 100% of the remaining region. In practice, however, it is difficult to accurately extract the character region in 100%. When the character region is erroneously identified, e.g., when a halftone image region is erroneously identified as the character region, 100% undercolor removal causes a change in color or an increase in snow noise. It is difficult to set an extreme undercolor removal ratio (i.e., blackening ratio). A color variation caused by a relative positional error in an ink color of the printer occurs in the halftone image region, and moire noise cannot be reduced. When undercolor removal of a region (i.e., a halftone image region occupying an almost print area) except for the character region is performed at a low ratio, an ink consumption amount cannot be reduced. In addition, every time the undercolor removal ratio changes, the color changes in strict color reproduction. It is, therefore, difficult to variably set the undercolor removal ratio. As described above, in the conventional error diffusion recording technique, texture noise inherent to binary error diffusion recording is generated, and pseudo contour noise at discontinuous points in multilevel recording is generated. Even if processing for correcting printer tone characteristics is performed, the pseudo contour caused by variations in tone characteristics due to the deterioration over time is undesirably formed. In the conventional color image recording apparatus, when four-color printing is performed in error diffusion recording, snow noise caused by color noise generated at random is generated. In addition, it is difficult to faithfully reproduce the colors in a printer having unstable tone characteristics, and color reproduction by undercolor removal processing is degraded. In the conventional color image recording apparatus, a character portion tends to be blurred. When the technique having different undercolor removal ratios in the character and halftone image regions is used, a change in color in the character region occurs and snow noise increases due to erroneous identification of the region. In addition, the ink consumption amount cannot be reduced. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is an object of the present invention to provide an image recording apparatus capable of performing image recording almost free from pseudo contour noise and a change in texture, while using error diffusion recording. It is another object of the present invention to provide an image recording apparatus capable of performing faithful color reproduction even in use of error diffusion recording, eliminating instability of printer tone characteristics, and performing four-color image recording almost free from snow noise. It is another object of the present invention to provide an image recording apparatus capable of preventing color blurring and snow noise in a character region and performing color image recording with a small ink consumption amount. According to a first aspect of the present invention, there is provided an image recording apparatus, which includes an unequal interval quantization circuit (a nonlinear quantization circuit) in an error diffusion processing section, for quantizing an image signal at an unequal interval to eliminate an unstable recording level. According to a second aspect of the present invention, there is provided an image recording apparatus, wherein multilevel error diffusion processing for each color of a four-color signal obtained upon correction including undercolor removal of a three-color signal in color recording or a read three-color signal so as to reduce snow noise of colors in error diffusion recording and to reduce an ink consumption amount even if positional errors of all the colors occur in a printing unit, thereby obtaining a color recording signal. To achieve faithful color reproduction and perform undercolor removal having a large degree of freedom, a three-color signal is converted into a four-color signal, a table representing a relationship with the four-color signal as the recording signal is prepared from a signal measured by a read system upon actual printing at a printing unit or a signal estimated to be obtained from the system, and the three-color signal is converted into the four-color signal from this table. To solve the problem caused by an increase in snow noise because low-density level recording is frequently performed due to undercolor removal or blackening processing, when a blackening amount is small, three-color printing is performed, when the blackening amount increases, four-color printing is performed. The multilevel error diffusion processing may be multilevel error diffusion processing from which assignment to the low-density level corresponding to the unstable recording state is canceled, or multilevel error diffusion recording processing in which a weighting coefficient is caused to correspond to a recording level in a feedback loop of the low-density level corresponding to the unstable recording state. According to a third aspect of the present invention, there is provided an image recording apparatus comprising a correction unit for performing correction processing of a three-color input image signal including black on the basis of a blackening amount and a discrimination result of a character/line image region and a halftone image region to obtain a four-color image signal, an error diffusion processing unit for performing binary or multilevel error diffusion processing of the four-color image signal obtained from the correction unit, and a color recording unit for recording a color image using, as a recording signal, the color image signal processed by the error diffusion processing unit, wherein the correction unit sets a higher ratio of substitution to a black signal for the character/line image region than that for the halftone image region, the ratio of substitution to the black signal for the halftone image region being lowered in accordance with a decrease in blackening amount. In noise such as pseudo contour noise caused by the recording level corresponding to the unstable recording state, the tone characteristics immediately change upon tone correction, a tone degradation occurs in the tone characteristics, a noise reduction effect by tone correction cannot be obtained, and noise reduction is difficult. To the contrary, according to the first aspect of the present invention, when the recording control level is quantized by threshold processing using the multilevel in error diffusion recording, the recording signal is generated using the unequal interval (nonlinear quantization) characteristics. The tone can be expressed without using the recording level region (density region) corresponding to the unstable recording state. Therefore, stable recording can be performed. The conversion table representing the relationship between the three- and four-color signals is prepared for color correction in color reproduction, and the three-color signal is converted into the four-color signal. No change in color before and after processing such as undercolor removal is generally required. The color change component is corrected using this conversion table, and any undercolor removal can be performed. In addition, a printer is not generally good at low-level printing, and snow noise is increased. If a possibility of performing low-level recording is present, i.e., when a blackening amount is small, blackening recording is not performed, but three-color recording is performed to prevent low-level recording. Quantization using the nonlinear quantization characteristics is performed in multilevel error diffusion recording processing to suppress generation of a low-level signal, thereby reducing snow noise. According to the third aspect, the amount of ink actually used is determined by the image region identification signal and the blackening amount. For this reason, 100% undercolor removal is performed in the character region, and a clear image free from color blurring can be obtained. When the blackening amount is large, almost 100% undercolor removal is performed in the halftone image region to contribute to a decrease in ink consumption amount. When the blackening amount is small, almost only three-color printing is performed to suppress snow noise. The weight coefficient matrix is changed in error diffusion recording of the character region requiring high-definition recording and a recording color requiring high-definition recording. Therefore, both high-definition recording and smoothness in the halftone image region can be satisfied. Additional objects and advantages of the invention will be set forth in the description which follows, and in part will be obvious from the description, or may be learned by practice of the invention. The objects and advantages of the invention may be realized and obtained by means of the instrumentalities and combinations particularly pointed out in the appended claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of the specification, illustrate presently preferred embodiments of the invention, and together with the general description given above and the detailed description of the preferred embodiments given below, serve to explain the principles of the invention. FIG. 1 is a block diagram showing an image recording apparatus according to a first embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a graph showing tone characteristics of a printer; FIG. 3 is a view showing a weight coefficient matrix in an error diffusion method; FIG. 4 is a block diagram showing an image recording apparatus according to a second embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 5A to 5C are views for explaining an influence of an adjacent pixel; FIG. 6 is a block diagram showing an image recording apparatus according to a third embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 7 is a block diagram showing an image recording apparatus according to a fourth embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 8 is a view for explaining a principle of preparing a color conversion table; FIG. 9 is a view for explaining a method of realizing a color conversion table by an interpolation scheme; FIGS. 10A and 10B are views showing the tone characteristics of a printer and the input/output characteristics of a nonlinear quantization table; FIG. 11 is a view showing a weight coefficient matrix in an error diffusion method; FIG. 12 is a view for explaining a four-color signal generating process shown in FIG. 8; FIG. 13 is a graph showing a control curve obtained when a blackening ratio P is variable in undercolor removal and blackening; FIGS. 14A and 14B are graphs showing relationships between an input and an output before and after correction in an under color removal method according to the present invention; FIG. 15 is a block diagram showing an image recording apparatus according to a fifth embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 16 is a block diagram showing an image recording apparatus according to a sixth embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 17 is a block diagram showing an image recording apparatus according to a seventh embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 18 is a graph showing characteristic curves of the blackening ratio P; FIG. 19 is a view showing a weight coefficient matrix in an error diffusion method; FIG. 20 is a detailed block diagram showing an image region descrimination circuit; FIGS. 21A to 21C are views for explaining arrangements of patterns in pattern matching; FIG. 22 is a block diagram showing the arrangement of a unit for switching an under color removal method according to an eighth embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 23 is a block diagram showing the arrangement of a unit for switching an under color removal method according to a ninth embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 24 is a block diagram showing an image recording apparatus according to a tenth embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 25 is a block diagram showing an image recording apparatus according to an eleventh embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 26 is a view showing a recording multilevel of a printer; FIG. 27 is a view showing multilevel dither outputs; and FIG. 28 is a view showing the content of a nonlinear multilevel dither table. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Embodiments of the present invention will be described below with reference to the accompanying drawings. FIG. 1 is a block diagram showing an image recording apparatus according to the first embodiment of the present invention. When this image recording apparatus is used as a copy machine, an image signal obtained by reading an original by a scanner 101 is used as an input image signal 102. When the image recording apparatus is used as a printer apparatus, an image signal input from an input terminal 100 is used as the input image signal 102. The input image signal 102 is input to an adder 103, and an error between a signal to be recorded (to be described later) and an output image signal is added to the input image signal 102. An output signal from the adder 103 is input to an unequal interval quantization circuit (a nonlinear quantization circuit) 104. A laser printer generally exhibits tone characteristics shown in FIG. 2. In FIG. 2, the ordinate represents 1-R (R: reflectance), and the abscissa represents a control signal (recording signal) to be supplied to a printer. At this time, a case wherein the control signal changed from 0 to F in hexadecimal notation will be described below. The control signal is considerably changed at a point of control amount "3" (immediately after a density level region corresponding to a highlighted portion a) or a point of control amount A (immediately before a density level region corresponding to a solid density region b) depending on atmospheric conditions, latent image conditions (variations in laser power) of electrophotography, and development conditions. For this reason, even when these points are output as a recording signal 105, these points are not actually recorded by a printer 106, or these points are undesirably connected to each other. Therefore, recording is often performed at a density considerably different from that of the recording signal 105. The nonlinear quantization circuit 104 is constituted by, e.g., an ROM table, and generates a control signal in a density level region except for control amounts "3" and "A". For example, control signals indicated by ◯ in FIG. 2, i.e., only signals having 8 types of control amounts 0, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and F are generated. More specifically, upper 4 bits of 8 bits of an output of the adder 103 are input to a ROM (16 addresses), and the ROM outputs control signals having control amounts 0, 0, 0, 0, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, F, F, F, F, F, and F. When these control signals are input to the printer 106 to perform recording, a density shown in FIG. 2 is obtained as an actual density. For this reason, an error between the density of the output signal from the adder 103 and the density of actual printing must be calculated by a density corrected by the tone characteristics (FIG. 2) of the printer 106. The output signal from the adder 103 is converted into a density signal of actual printing by using the tone characteristics in FIG. 2 as a density conversion table 107. The density conversion table 107 has a 4-bit (16 addresses) input and an 8-bit output. An error between the output signal from the adder 103 and the signal converted into the signal corresponding to an actual printing density and output from the density conversion table 107 is calculated by a difference processing circuit 108, and the resultant value is input to an error buffer 109 capable of storing the data of a 2-line error signal. A product of the error signal stored in the error buffer 109 and a weight coefficient matrix, output from a coefficient memory 111, for error diffusion processing is calculated by a multiplier 110, and the error is input to the adder 103. The weight coefficient matrix is constituted by four pixels as shown in FIG. 3, and coefficients A, B, C, and D are 1/16, 5/16, 3/16, and 7/16, respectively. An error Em-k,n-p having occurred ahead of an input signal fmn by a pixel (k,p) is weighted with the weight coefficient matrix of a coefficient αkp, and the weighted error is added to input image signal fmn. The resultant value is defined as a correction value f'mn of the next pixel, and the correction value f'mn is quantized at an unequal interval by the unequal interval quantization circuit, i.e. nonlinear quantization circuit 104. At this time, the correction value f'mn is expressed by equation (1). An error Emn is a difference between the correction value f'mn and an output density signal, i.e., an output signal Gmn from the density conversion table 107, and is expressed by equation (2). ##EQU1## In this manner, density level regions a and b shown in FIG. 2 and representing recording characteristics having an unstable tone are not used in the nonlinear quantization circuit 104, and the printer 106 can have recording characteristics having a smooth tone by the error diffusion recording. If the error diffusion processing is not performed, noise such as pseudo contour noise is generated due to a density difference caused by a tone degradation in one pixel of the nonlinear quantization circuit 104, thereby resulting in a very poor image. When the error diffusion processing of equations (1) and (2) is performed, an error generated at one dot is diffused and distributed through several pixels, and the density error of each pixel can be corrected. For this reason, a pseudo contour is rarely formed. Intermediate-level signals often occupy a large area in an halftone image. However, a contrast of a tone difference is small because a control signal is distributed to a large number of levels in each period of intermediate levels. Therefore, texture noise unique to error diffusion recording is rarely conspicuous. Although tone differences locally occur because tones are not used in a low-density level region and a high-density level region which are unstable density level regions of the printer 106, a contrast of the error diffusion recording is smaller than that of binary error diffusion recording, and texture noise is rarely conspicuous in the error diffusion recording. In electrophotographic recording, tone characteristics vary depending on exposure conditions or development conditions. In this case, a pseudo contour is rarely formed because the most unstable density level region which easily varies is not used. Although an entire density varies due to a variation in tone characteristics of the printer 106, the variation in density can be neglected while a large variation in tone characteristics does not occur because the variation in density entirely occurs. In this embodiment, a tone is corrected by the density conversion table 107 while the printer 106 has nonlinear tone characteristics inherent to the printer 106. With the above arrangement, a tone control circuit incorporated in the printer 106 can easily be realized because highly accurate tone correction can be performed by using a coarse control signal in the printer 106. For example, when multilevel control is realized by controlling the pulse width of a laser beam emitted from a laser, the tone control circuit is not operated at a very high speed, and a clock frequency need not be increased to an unnecessary level. Therefore, the tone control circuit can be realized by a low-cost element. As a modification of the first embodiment, an output signal from the nonlinear quantization circuit 104 is directly input to the difference processing circuit 108 without passing through the density conversion table 107 to calculate an error, and the output signal from the density conversion table 107 may be corrected such that a reverse table of the density conversion table 107, i.e., a table for correcting the tone characteristics in FIG. 2, more specifically, a correction table for dividing a (1-R) signal of the ordinate at equal intervals to obtain control signals corresponding to the divided signals, is inserted before the printer 106. In this arrangement, tone correction can also be performed. However, in order to achieve satisfactory tone correction in the above arrangement, the number of bits of a control signal from the printer 106 must be larger than the number of output bits from the nonlinear quantization circuit 104. In addition, the modification is susceptible to a variation in tone characteristics compared with the first embodiment. In other words, when quantization is performed by a (1-R) signal of the ordinate, a density level region close to a density level region having an unstable recording state may be selected. An advantage of the above modification is that versatility for various printers is improved because a correction table is only inserted between the input portion of the recording signal 105 and the printer 106. FIG. 4 is a block diagram showing the second embodiment of the present invention. Tone characteristics shown in FIG. 2 are tone characteristics at one dot of a printer 106. When recording is actually performed by the printer 106, more specifically, a density level is changed depending on a recording mode of an adjacent dot. In other words, in a case wherein a dot (indicated by ×) to be currently printed is surrounded by solid density pixels (indicated by ) or quasi-solid pixels (indicated by ) as shown in FIG. 5A, in a case wherein the dot is surrounded by intermediate density pixels (indicated by ◯) or pixels (indicated by Δ) as shown in FIG. 5B, and in a case wherein the dot is surrounded by one low density pixel (indicated by Δ) or is not surrounded as shown in FIG. 5C, tone characteristics are slightly different from the characteristics shown in FIG. 2. In this embodiment, a recording signal 105 from a nonlinear quantization circuit 104 is input to an output buffer 112, and an output signal is read out from the output buffer 112 in a combination of 2×2 pixels. One pixel of the recording signal 105 is expressed by four bits, and the 2×2 pixels have 16 bits. Therefore, a density conversion table 113 has a 16-bit address unlike the first embodiment. The density conversion table 113 stores all combinations of density levels in combinations of 2×2 pixels, and an output signal from the output buffer 112 is converted into a signal corresponding to an actual printing density. As in the first embodiment shown in FIG. 1, a difference between the converted signal and an output signal from an adder 103 is calculated by an difference processing circuit 108. The arrangement of other parts of the second embodiment is the same as that of the first embodiment. In this manner, a variation in density caused by the influence of adjacent pixels is corrected, and stable and accurate tone characteristics can be obtained. The third embodiment applied to a color printer will be described below with reference to FIG. 6. The color of a color image is expressed by stacking color inks in a color printer 205. When tone characteristics as shown in FIG. 2 are observed, the characteristics often vary depending on the density of an ink which is recorded for the first time. That is, the tone characteristics vary depending on a manner of stacking color inks. According to the third embodiment, tones having different tone characteristics are corrected by the combination of the colors of the color inks, and combinations which reproduce unstable colors having increased snow noise are removed, thereby realizing stable and smooth color reproduction having reduced noise. An input color image signal 202 input from the color scanner 201 or an input terminal 200 is input to an adder 203. The input color image signal 202 is constituted by, e.g., R, G, and B signals (three primary color signals), and each of the R, G, and B signals has 8 bits. Note that the input color image signal 202 need not be constituted by the R, G, and B signals, and the input color image signal 202 may be constituted by, e.g., L*, a*, and b* signals. An output signal from the adder 203 is input to a nonlinear quantization circuit 204. The nonlinear quantization circuit 204, as in the above embodiments, prevents a signal of a level easily set in an unstable recording state from being generated from the output of the nonlinear quantization circuit 204. At this time, combinations of colors which generate large snow noise caused by not only one ink but also combinations of inks are removed. In a color printer 205, combinations in which 4-bit tone control is performed for each color are used. Printing is performed by all color combinations, and a print sample is read by the color scanner 201 or a color sensor having characteristics equivalent to those of the color scanner 201. However, recording characteristics in a density level region having the unstable tone characteristics of one color contain large noise even when colors are stacked. For this reason, a print sample need not be formed from the beginning. In this manner, the number of operations is considerably reduced. In addition, when a print model is estimated, combinations of all colors need not be actually printed, a specific recording sample may be recorded, and other data may be estimated in accordance with the print model. A signal required for recording of the print sample and a combination of the R, G, and B signals thereof are obtained. A color conversion table 206 is prepared on the basis of the signal and the combination. This color conversion table 206 may receive 4-bit data for each color and output 8-bit data for each color, and the color conversion table 206 can easily be prepared. The nonlinear quantization circuit 204 is formed as a table such that combinations having unstable printing and large snow noise are removed from the color conversion table 206, and the content of the resultant table is reversed to the content of the color conversion table 206. The color printer 205 may be subjected to 4-bit control, and an input address of the nonlinear quantization circuit 204 may have 4 bits. In other words, the input address of the nonlinear quantization circuit 204 may have about 4 bits for each color, or 5 bits for each color in consideration of the nonlinearity of color conversion. In this manner, the capacity of a table (ROM) constituting the nonlinear quantization circuit 204 can be decreased. An 8-bit output signal for each color output from the color conversion table 206 is input to a subtracter 207, and a difference between an 8-bit output signal and an output signal from the adder 203 is calculated. This difference is input to an error buffer 208, and a product of the difference and a weight coefficient matrix from a weight coefficient memory 209 is calculated by a multiplier 210 as in the first embodiment, and the product is input to the adder 203, thereby performing error diffusion. In this embodiment, even in a recording system in which a noise level is considerably changed by stacking colors as in thermal transfer recording, when printing is performed while avoiding a density level which easily generates noise, recording can be performed with noise being suppressed. In addition, when correction is performed in consideration of the influence of adjacent pixels as in the second embodiment, more highly accurate color reproduction can be performed. FIG. 7 is a view showing the fourth embodiment of the present invention. An input color image signal 302 input from a color scanner 301 or an input terminal 300 is constituted by R, G, and B signals generally serving as read color-separated signals, and the R, G, and B signals are converted into Y, M, C, and K (yellow, magenta, cyan, and black) signals serving as ink-color signals by a color conversion table 303. If a method of stacking colors is determined, in general, the conversion from the R, G, and B signals to the Y, M, and C signals is determined. In contrast to this, a method of converting the R, G, and B signals into the Y, M, C, and K signals has a degree of freedom. A ratio (ratio of a black component constituted by Y, M, and C to a black component expressed by K) of the signal K, i.e., a black ink has a degree of freedom. The black component constituted by Y, M, and C cannot be simply replaced with the black K due to the influence of color stacking or a difference between the color tone of the black component (=min(Y, M, C)) constituted by Y, M, and C and the color tone of the black K. For this reason, the conversion of the R, G, and B signals into the Y, M, C, and K signals is complicated, and highly accurate color reproduction cannot be obtained. According to this embodiment, as shown in a principle of FIG. 8, Y, M, and C ink signals are generated (step 21), and four Y, M, C, and K signals are generated in a predetermined algorithm (step 22). At this time, when color reproduction by the Y, M, and C ink signals is related to color reproduction determined by the four Y, M, C, and K signals generated in the predetermined algorithm, these colors need not be strictly equal to each other. In other words, a degree of freedom is allowed to some extent. For example, assume a method in which color inks (Y, M, and C) are rarely used in consideration of economy so as to extend the reproduction range of colors to obtain a high-quality image. In this case, the Y, M, and C signals are converted into the Y, M, C, and K signals so as to minimize amounts of inks (a total amount of Y, M, C, and K inks) to be used. More specifically, it becomes, for example, K=min(Y,M,C) signal. Recording signal processing (step 23) for actually performing recording in accordance with these signals, in this case error diffusion processing, is performed to record the signal in a printer (step 24). Recorded color patches are read, R, G, and B read signals are obtained by a color separation system. In order to obtain four color signals from the R, G, and B signals, a table is prepared by the obtained R, G, and B signals and the Y, M, C, and K signals. That is, a relationship indicated by the arrow in FIG. 8 is obtained. At this time, when a table is prepared by performing interpolation processing from a patch having a small number of colors, the number of operations may be decreased. In addition, the difference processing circuit 303 is constituted as shown in FIG. 9, and interpolation processing is performed by an interpolation processing circuit 33. When an output from the interpolation processing circuit 33 is synthesized with an output from an YMCK table 32 by an adder 34 to obtain Y, M, C, and K signals, smooth conversion can be performed even when the YMCK table 32 does not have a very large capacity. A case wherein a color printer of a type in which a color printer 304 simultaneously outputs four colors, i.e., a color-sequential-output type color printer is used will be described below. In this case, the color conversion table 303 converts a color image signal into an ink color signal with reference to one color signal, of the Y, M, C, and K signals serving as ink signals, output from the color printer 304, and the color image signal is sequentially converted into the four ink color signals in correspondence with an output color of the color printer 304. The adder 305 adds correction signals to the ink color signals converted as described above. An output signal from the adder 305 is quantized into an unequal interval signal by a nonlinear quantization circuit 306. In many types of laser printers or thermal transfer printers, recording can be performed at several levels or more by controlling a pulse width. However, it is difficult to control a large number of densities at equal intervals, and recording at a highlighted portion, i.e., a low-density level region, becomes easily unstable. In FIG. 10A, control amounts of a printer are plotted along the abscissa, and 1-R (R: reflectance) is plotted along the ordinate. In a density level region a of the highlighted portion, (1-R) is set to be 0 or b by a small change in atmosphere. The nonlinear quantization circuit 306 performs quantization without using recording levels in the low-density level region a. In other words, only recording levels at points indicated by ◯ are used, and the nonlinear quantization circuit 306 is used as a table such that control signals at points indicated by × are not generated. In other words, the nonlinear quantization circuit 306 having input/output characteristics shown in FIG. 10B is formed as a table. A signal quantized at an unequal interval by the nonlinear quantization circuit 306 is used as an output signal 307, and the output signal 307 is supplied as a recording control signal to the color printer 304. The signal quantized at an unequal interval by the nonlinear quantization circuit 306 is also input to a density conversion table 308, and the signal is converted by a density characteristic curve of the color printer 304 actually output as shown in FIGS. 10A and 10B, and a difference between the converted signal and a signal which is not quantized at an unequal interval is calculated by the difference processing circuit 309. When an output signal from the nonlinear quantization circuit 306 is input to the density conversion table 308 and subjected to tone correction of the color printer 304, the signal quantized at a small number of multilevels by the nonlinear quantization circuit 306 is reproduced into a faithful tone by the control of a multilevel printer. Therefore, the tone reproduction can easily be realized because the multilevel control circuit in the printer 304 can be controlled by a small number of levels. For example, multilevel control is controlled by a pulse width, the multilevel control circuit need not be operated at a very high speed. The error signal obtained by the difference processing circuit 309 is input to an error buffer 310. A product of an error signal from the error buffer 310 and a weight coefficient matrix from a weight coefficient memory 311 is calculated by a multiplier 312. As shown in FIG. 11, this calculation causes the error signal to be diffused to four points A, B, C, and D. Weight coefficients are A=1/16, B=5/16, C=3/16, and D=7/16. The diffused error signals are added to each other by the adder 305, and are entered in an error diffusion loop. When the error signals are entered in the error diffusion loop, the loop is operated such that an output whose density is converted, i.e., a density output from the color printer 304 coincides with an output signal from the color conversion table. Although a control signal level (indicated by × in FIG. 10A) at a point at which the color printer 304 unstably outputs a signal is not output from the nonlinear quantization circuit 306, an average density becomes equal to that of the color conversion table 303. Even when tone characteristics are the nonlinear recording characteristics shown in FIG. 10A, an output having average tone characteristics is continuously obtained from the color printer 304. AS described above, the color printer 304 can record one color at a time. For this reason, the color scanner 301 scans an original four times. The color printer 304 prints an yellow ink in the first scanning, and sequentially prints magenta and cyan inks, and finally a black ink. The scanner 301 and the color printer 304 perform scanning and printing in synchronization with each other. A positional error recorded by each ink occurs due to the elongation of paper or a limit of mechanical accuracy. In addition, the direction of the positional error is not constant, and the direction is changed every time a copying operation is performed, when the positions of colors are shifted as described above, a reproduced color is slightly changed. In a conventional technique, a screen angle is used, and recording is performed while changing the screen angle of each color. In this manner, average shift between ink colors at a position on a paper surface is eliminated every time a copying operation is performed, thereby obtaining constant color reproduction. This technique is known well. However, when a screen angle is used, the resolution may be disadvantageously decreased, moire noise may be disadvantageously generated. The technique is not used in fields other than the field of printing capable of performing sufficient high-definition recording. In contrast to this, in this embodiment, error diffusion processing is independently performed for each color, and a signal itself varies at random. For this reason, a degree of random is not changed with a positional error of several pixels or less at any position on a paper surface every time a copying operation is performed, and color reproduction does not vary, thereby obtaining stable color reproduction. According to this embodiment, faithful color reproduction corrected by the difference processing circuit 309 can be obtained. However, as shown in FIG. 10A, a tone degradation occurs at a highlighted portion, and texture noise can be slightly detected due to the tone degradation at the highlighted portion. In addition, snow noise is disadvantageously increased at the highlighted portion due to color stacking. When a color conversion table is prepared by a maximum blackening ratio, although an amount of ink to be used is advantageously minimized, a print signal is frequently used at the highlighted portion by the operation of undercolor removal. That is, when blackening is performed, the density of the color ink is decreased by an amount of ink used for the blackening. Therefore, an amount of color ink is originally small at a low-density portion. For this reason, when the color ink at a chromatic portion is replaced with a blackening ink, an amount of color ink is further decreased, and the density of the low-density portion is decreased. In this manner, when blackening is performed at the low-density portion, recording of a further unstable level is performed in the printer. For this reason, recording is performed by only three color signals without performed blackening and undercolor removal at a low-density portion, and four-color printing is performed at a level at which a large amount of black ink is used. In this case, a print signal is not frequently used in an unstable portion. with the above arrangement, although an ink consumption amount is increased, the ink consumption amount is not actually increased because the amount of color ink replaced with a black ink is originally small at the low-density portion. A method of forming a color conversion table for changing a blackening amount will be described below. FIG. 12 corresponds to the four-color signal generation processing 22 described in FIG. 8. A YMC ink signal 41 is obtained by the three-color signal generation processing 21 in FIG. 8, a blackening plate signal K is defined such that the minimum value of the Y', M', and C' inks constitutes a black ink plate, i.e., a blackening plate K'(42)=min(Y',M',C'). A blackening ratio P is controlled in accordance with a blackening plate signal K' as indicated by the broken line in FIG. 13, P=0 is kept until the blackening plate signal reaches a predetermined value a, and printing is performed by only three color inks. The blackening ratio P is increased at a constant rate until the blackening plate signal reaches a point b to gradually increase four-color printing. P=100% is kept when the blackening plate signal reaches the point b. In this manner, the blackening ratio P (43) is determined, a product of the blackening plate signal K' and the blackening ratio P is calculated by a multiplier 44, and the product is defined as the blackening plate signal K which is to be actually used. A difference between the blackening plate signal K and the YMC ink signal 41 subjected to undercolor removal is calculated by a subtracter 45, and the YMC ink signal 41 is converted into Y', -K, M', -K, C', and -K signals. As described above, the YMC ink signal 41 is converted into a four-color signal 46. In this case, although color reproduction by the three-color signal may be different from that by the four-color signal due to the nature of inks, when a reverse table is prepared as shown in FIG. 8, faithful color reproduction can be obtained. In addition, if a curve indicated by the solid line in FIG. 13 is used as a curve of switching three-color printing to four-color printing, the three-color printing can be more smoothly switched to the four-color printing. Therefore, the three-color printing can be performed in using a small blackening plate, and a blackening ratio can be set to be 100% in using a large blackening plate. When inks are stacked at random, and a method of only removing the blackening plate K from a chromatic portion of Y, M, and C inks is performed as undercolor removal processing, a color tone is degraded in a high-density portion. When a color correction table is prepared by a reverse table scheme described in FIG. 8, color reproduction can be assured. However, in order to form a table for assuring color reproduction at a low-illuminance portion to some extent, the table must be prepared such that a large number of color patches must be formed in a large number of density levels and are loaded. In this case, the number of operations is increased. Therefore, when the following method is used, the table can be prepared without loading a large number of color patches. This equivalently corresponds to that degradation of a color tone is suppressed by blackening. As a method of suppressing degradation of a color tone, a GCR (Gray Component Replacement) method is known. According to the GCR method, assume that a chromatic signal in actual 4-color printing and a chromatic signal in actual 3-color printing are represented by I and I', respectively, and printing is performed such that the signal I satisfies a relationship of (I'-K)/(1-K). That is, when the blackening plate signal K is close to 1, the chromatic signal is close to 1. At this time, when the color balance of Y, M, and C is slightly degraded, the colors are considerably shifted, and a proper color conversion table cannot easily be prepared. In order to correct this, undercolor removal is preferably performed by equation (3). I=(1+K)(I'-K) (3) FIG. 14A is a graph showing a relationship between a signal I' before the undercolor removal and a signal I after the undercolor removal by using the blackening plate signal K as a parameter. According to FIG. 14A, although degradation of a color tone is corrected in setting the blackening plate signal K at low level, a function of correcting the degradation of the color tone is weakened in setting the blackening plate signal K at high level. Even when K=1, a change rate of the signal I after the undercolor removal is performed is 2, and the signal I is stable against a variation in color balance. Degradation of a color tone and stability of a color balance cannot be adjusted in equation (3), but can be adjusted in equation (4). ##EQU2## When n is decreased in equation (4), degradation of the color tone of a low-density color can be prevented. When p is decreased, degradation of the color tone of a high-density color can be prevented, but stability is easily degraded by a variation in color balance. For example, when n=0.03 and P=0.9, a preferable result shown in FIG. 14B is obtained. According to equations (3) and (4), the degradation of a color tone can be prevented, and stability against a variation in color balance can be improved. As described above, according to the fourth embodiment of the present invention, a YMCK four-color signal is generated from a RGB three-color signal by using a color conversion table or the like, and halftone processing is independently performed for each color by a multilevel error diffusion method. At this time, uniform and stable color reproduction free from texture noise can be obtained. In addition, when nonlinear quantization or blackening ratio variation recording is combined to the error diffusion method, even when unstable recording is performed, preferable color reproduction free from a pseudo contour can be obtained. When the functions of undercolor removal are preferably changed, degradation of a color tone can be advantageously prevented, and stable color reproduction at a high-density portion can be advantageously obtained. In the fourth embodiment shown in FIG. 7, error processing is performed by the difference processing circuit 309 on the basis of data obtained by density-converting the output signal 307 from the nonlinear quantization circuit 306 by a tone correction table 313 in accordance with the color printer 304. In the fifth embodiment, as shown in FIG. 15, an difference processing circuit 309 uses an output signal 307 from a nonlinear quantization circuit 306. In this case, when a color printer 304 has nonlinear tone characteristics, color reproduction is shifted. For this reason, according to this embodiment, a tone correction table 313 for causing a density given by the output signal 307 from the nonlinear quantization circuit 306 to coincide with the density of the color printer 304 is provided. In this manner, preferable color reproduction can be obtained. The versatility of this embodiment is improved because the output signal 307 from the nonlinear quantization circuit 306 includes tone characteristics inherent to the color printer 304. However, in order to effectively use the ability of the color printer 304, the number of multilevel control values of the color printer 304 must be increased. According to the fourth and fifth embodiments, in order to obtain faithful color reproduction, a large-capacity memory (ROM) must be used in a color conversion table 303. In order to cope with this, when the interpolation processing circuit 33 is used as shown in FIG. 9, an increase in capacity of the color conversion table 303 can be prevented. However, a method of forming the color conversion table 303 must be modified for better effects. In addition, the interpolation processing circuit 33 inevitably has a large circuit scale. In order to solve the above drawback, according to the sixth embodiment, as shown in FIG. 16, a nonlinear quantization table 402 is combined to a color conversion table 404, and the number of quantization levels of the color conversion table 404 is reduced to the number of quantization levels of a color printer 403. In FIG. 16, a printer of a type of simultaneously receiving four colors (Y, M, C, and K), e.g., an ink-jet printer, or an electrostatic recording (electrophotographic scheme) printer using a four-drum scheme is used as the color printer 403. At this time, the printer for simultaneously recording colors is not used, but a printer for sequentially recording colors may be used as in the previous embodiments. In this case, a color scanner and a printer are interlocked to each other every time printing for each color is performed, and an ink signal simultaneously performs calculations of four colors. An ink amount is calculated four times, and the ink signal is preferably switched to be supplied to the printer. An RGB signal serving as an input image signal 302 input from a color scanner 301 or an input terminal 300 is input to an adder 401. The adder 401, as in the above embodiments, adds errors having being output to the RGB signal to diffuse the errors. An output signal from the adder 401 is quantized at an unequal interval by the nonlinear quantization table 402 having a color conversion function. The number of input addresses of the nonlinear quantization table 402 is almost equal to the tone quantization number of the color printer 403, or is slightly larger than the tone quantization number. In this case, in consideration of nonlinearity in color conversion, the nonlinear quantization table 402 is prepared such that the number of input address bits is set to be 5 for each of R, G and B colors because the color printer 403 has 16 tones for each color and four bits for each color. In addition, according to this embodiment, an 8-bit RGB signal is converted into a 5-bit RGB signal by only inputting the upper five bits to the nonlinear quantization table 402. Note that the nonlinear quantization table may be used to convert the 8-bit signal to the 5-bit signal as needed. The number of output bits of the nonlinear quantization table 402 is four for each of Y, M, C, and K colors. An output signal from the nonlinear quantization table 402 is converted into an RBG signal by the color conversion table 404. The color conversion table 404 is obtained by measuring color patches printed by 4-bit data of each color by an RGB sensor. At this time, as in the previous embodiment, the color patches are formed by a color signal subjected to undercolor removal processing by equations (3) and (4). In this manner, a decrease in ink amount to be used and prevention of degradation of a color tone caused by the positional error of the printer can be achieved. In addition, as shown in FIG. 13, color reproduction can be stabilized by using a variable blackening ratio P as in the previous embodiments. When a print model of the color printer 403 is estimated to some extent even when color patches are not actually formed, it is more effective that the color conversion table 404 is formed by the estimated value. The nonlinear quantization table 402 is used as a reverse conversion table of the color conversion table 404. At this time, the signal of a color patch which causes unstable recording characteristics, more specifically, a color patch having a large amount of snow noise, or the signal of a color patch rarely recorded is preferably removed as in the previous embodiments so as not to be accessed. In this manner, stable recording having reduced snow noise can be performed. In this embodiment, as a color which causes unstable recording need not be used in printing depending on combinations of colors, not only unstable recording caused by nonlinearity of one color can be removed, but also the signal of a color patch causing unstable recording in which unstable recording is performed by stacking colors can be removed. However, a color removed from the nonlinear quantization table 402 is not perfectly reproduced (the color is not expressed in one pixel). The color is averagely reproduced on the basis of the principle of error diffusion recording, and faithful color reproduction can be obtained with snow noise being reduced. An error between an output signal which is output from the color conversion table 404 and obtained by estimating an actual signal used in the above printing and an output signal output from the adder 401 and serving as a target value to be printed is calculated and input to an error buffer 406. A product of the error and a weight coefficient matrix from the weight coefficient memory 408 is calculated by the multiplier 407 and input to the adder 401, thereby feeding back a color shift. Although the same weight coefficient matrix is used for each color, different weight coefficient matrices may be used for colors. As described above, according to this embodiment, a high-quality image can be obtained by using a small-capacity table (the nonlinear quantization table 402) for converting an RGB signal to an YMCK signal. According to this scheme, however, the error buffer 406 or the like requires three channels, and weight coefficients must be calculated at a high speed. According to this embodiment, although a signal other than the output signal from the nonlinear quantization table 402 is used as an RGB signal, the signal need not be used as the RGB signal, but is used as an YMC signal or an L*a*b* signal. More specifically, when the color printer 403 is used, the YMC signal or the L*a*b* signals is effectively used. When the input color image signal 302 is used as an YMC signal, the number of bits of data input to the nonlinear quantization table 402 may be almost equal to the number of quantization levels of the color printer 403. When the input color image signal 302 is used as the L*a*b* signal, it is more effective that weight coefficients multiplied with the output signal from the error buffer 406 are different from each other with respect to the L*a*b* signals. For example, the L* signal can use the weight coefficients shown in FIG. 11 as in the previous embodiments. However, the a* and b* signals may have weight coefficients, e.g., A=0, B=0, C=0, D=1. In this manner, the circuits of the error buffer 406 and the multiplier 407 are simplified. FIG. 17 is a view showing the seventh embodiment of the present invention. An RGB signal serving as an input image signal 502 input from a color scanner 501 or an input terminal 500 is input to an adder 503. The adder 503 adds errors having being output to each other to diffuse an error between a target value to be output and an output signal. An output signal from the adder 503 is converted into an YMC ink amount signal by an YMC color conversion table 504. A color printer 505 is a multilevel color printer capable of expressing, e.g., 16 tones. For this reason, the converted ink amount signal is quantized in 16 levels to be input to the color printer 505. The number of address bits of data input to the YMC color conversion table 504 may be equal to or slightly larger than the number tone quantization levels of the color printer 505. In this case, the table is prepared such that the number of address bits of data input to the YMC color conversion table 504 is set to be 5 for each of R, G, and B colors because data output from the color printer 505 has 16 tones and 4 bits for each color. The number of bits of data output from the YMC color conversion table 504 is set to be 4 for each color. A blackening plate signal K' which is not corrected is generated from the output of the YMC color conversion table 504. The blackening plate signal K' has a minimum value of three Y, M, and C colors, i.e., K'=min(Y',M',C'), and is calculated by a minimum value circuit (MIN) 506. A blackening ratio P is determined in accordance with table (P) 507, a product of the blackening plate signal K' and the blackening ratio P is calculated by a multiplier 508, and the product is defined as an actual blackening plate signal K. As shown in FIG. 18, the blackening ratio P can be changed by a blackening plate signal which is not corrected. In other words, in a curve a, the blackening ratio P is set to be 0 (corresponding to three-color printing) when K' is small, and the blackening ratio P is set to be 1 (corresponding 100% undercolor removal) when K' is increased. On the other hand, in a curve c, the blackening ratio P is set to be 1 (corresponding 100% undercolor removal). A curve b is located between the curve a and the curve b. The table 507 is constituted by a ROM which stores data of the curves a, b, and c in advance, and data of any one of the curves is selected in accordance with a result of image region identification (to be described later). In other words, the curve c is selected when data reliably represents a character region, and the curve a is selected when the data represents an halftone image region. In addition, a curve b is selected when the data is seemed to represent the character region. In this manner, the blackening plate signal K to be actually printed is determined. Note that the multiplier 508 may be constituted by a small-capacity ROM because the multiplier 508 may output 4-bit data. The blackening plate signal K is input to an undercolor removal circuit 509 and is subtracted from each of the output signals (Y', M', and C') from the YMC color conversion table 504. In other words, actual print signals are represented by Y, M, and C, and these signals satisfy conditions of Y=Y'-K, M=M'-K, and C=C'-K. The signals Y, M, C, and K are input to the color printer 505. The signals Y, M, C, K are also input to an RGB conversion table 510. The RGB conversion table 510 converts the signals Y, M, C, and K into R, G, and B signals obtained when the signals Y, M, C, and K are actually printed by the color printer 505 and read by the color scanner 501. Therefore, the RGB conversion table 510 can be realized by a ROM in which print data obtained by actual printing is used as an address and the R, G, and B signals read by the color scanner 501 from the printed output are present. The address of data input to the RGB conversion table 510 has four bits for each of Y, M, C, and K, thereby obtaining total 16 bits. 8-bit data for each of R, G, and B is output from the RGB conversion table 510. An error between the signal converted by the RGB conversion table 510 and an output signal from the adder 503 is calculated by a subtracter 511, and the error is input to an error buffer 512. The content of the error buffer 512 is input to the multiplier 513, and a product of the content of the error buffer 512 and the content of a weight coefficient memory 514 for error diffusion is calculated to be fed back to the adder 503, and the resultant value is input to the input image signal 502 as a correction value of the error. Weight coefficients of error diffusion are diffused to four points A, B, C, and D shown in FIG. 19 when an image is discriminated as a halftone image by image area discrimination. A mark × in FIG. 19 represents the position of a dot to be printed. At this time, the coefficients A, B, C, and D are set to be 1/16, 5/16, 3/16, and 7/16. In this case, errors are independently diffused with respect to R, G, and B color components. An error Em-k,n-p having independently occurred for each color component ahead of an input signal fmn by a pixel (k,p) is weighted with a coefficient αkl of the weight coefficient memory 514, and the weighted error is added to input image signal fmn. The resultant value is defined as a correction value f'mn of the next pixel, and the correction value f'mn is quantized at an unequal interval by the nonlinear quantization circuit 104. At this time, the correction value f'mn is expressed by equation (1). As expressed by equation (2), the error Em-k is represented by a difference between the correction value f'mn and a signal of a color component developed by the color printer 505, i.e., an output signal Gmn from the RGB conversion table 510. With the above arrangement, the blackening ratio P is changed depending on the value of the blackening amount K' or a result of image region discrimination. Even when the effective blackening amount K and an undercolor removal ratio or an YMC ink amount are changed, stable color reproduction can be obtained because the difference between the correction value and the output signal Gmn from the RGB conversion table 510 is added to the input image signal fmn to be diffused. When an image is discriminated as a character image by image region discrimination, all the coefficients A, B, C, and D are set to be 0, errors are not diffused, and the resolution is preferentially increased. When an image is discriminated as an image which does not reliably represent a character region, but the image is discriminated as an image which is in a region where an edge is preferably emphasized, only the coefficient D is set to be 1, and the remaining coefficients A, B, and C are set to be 0 to narrow a diffusion region, thereby preventing image blurring. Image region discrimination will be described below. The input image signal 502 is input to a luminance extraction circuit 515. In the luminance extraction circuit 515, a luminance is calculated by (R+G+B)/3, and the resultant value is input to the image region discrimination circuit 516. The details of the image region discrimination circuit 516 are shown in FIG. 20. In FIG. 20, a luminance signal 601 is input to a high-frequency component extraction unit 602 to extract a high-frequency component. In other words, a luminance signal obtained by causing the luminance signal 601 to pass through a line memory 603 is added to the luminance signal 601 by the adder 604, thereby extracting the low-frequency component of the luminance signal 601. A difference between the low-frequency component and the luminance signal 601 is calculated by the subtracter 605 so as to extract the high-frequency component of the luminance signal 601. The high-frequency component is input to the pattern matching unit 606, and binarized by a binary coding circuit 607, and sequentially input to line memories 608 and 609. Three pixels are read out at a time from the binary coding circuit 607 and the line memories 608 and 609, and the pixels are input, as a 3×3 pixel pattern, to a pattern table 610 (9-bit input address) constituted by a ROM. The pattern table 610 classifies the 3×3 pixel patterns of the high-frequency components of test images such as a halftone image and a character image including a dot image in advance. The 3×3 pixel patterns are classified into three patterns, i.e., a pattern of a character image region, a pattern of a halftone image, and a pattern which is located near a character and the edge of which is to be emphasized, and the these patterns are stored. FIGS. 21A to 21C illustrate some of the above patterns. FIG. 21A shows the pattern of a character portion, FIG. 21B shows a pattern which is not defined as a character and a line but is to be subjected to edge emphasis, and FIG. 21C shows a pattern of a halftone image including a dot image or the like, a halftone image of which is to be reproduced at a high accuracy. The pattern table 610 causes these patterns to correspond to memory addresses, respectively, and the pattern table 610 may be constituted by a ROM using an output (in this case, a two-bit output is used because the patterns are classified into three types) from the pattern table 610 as a content. In this manner, an image region discrimination signal 611 is obtained from the luminance signal 601. The details of the discrimination method is described in Published Unexamined Japanese Patent Application No. 60-204177. As described above, the blackening ratio P is switched in accordance with the image region discrimination signal 611 obtained as described above. In this case, the blackening ratio is set to be high (P=1) in a character portion, and the blackening ratio P at a low-density portion is set to be low in a halftone image portion by changing the blackening amount K', thereby reducing snow noise of an image caused by blackening. Even when blackening of 100% is performed in a portion having a large blackening amount, the image rarely becomes coarse. For this reason, sufficient undercolor removal is performed by setting the blackening ratio P to be 1. When the extent of error diffusion is changed by the image region discrimination signal 611, image blurring caused by the error diffusion can be prevented. In other words, error diffusion is not performed in a character portion, and the resolution is preferentially set. In halftone images, errors are diffused to four pixels. In the halftone images, errors are transmitted to only an adjacent pixel to prevent image blurring. In this manner, a sharp image free from color blurring can be obtained in a character portion, and smooth color reproduction can be obtained in a halftone image portion. In addition, sufficient undercolor removal is performed in a portion having a large blackening amount. For this reason, an amount of effectively used ink is almost equal to that obtained when 100% blackening is performed to all images, and an ink consumption amount is reduced by 50% compared with 3-color printing, thereby performing economical recording. The eighth embodiment in which an under color removal method is switched by an image area discrimination signal to obtain a high-quality image will be described below. The arrangement of the eighth embodiment is the same as that of the seventh embodiment except that the under color removal method is switched to obtain a high-quality image. In the seventh embodiment, the undercolor removal processing is performed such that an effective blackening signal K is subtracted from an original ink amount signal. In this processing, a problem is not posed in a character image. However, in the halftone image, a color tone is degraded by stacking blackening plates because color inks are stacked at random. In this case, according to the seventh embodiment, although the error is corrected by a loop of error diffusion, noise is diffused by the error, and the error influences degradation of resolution and an increase in noise. As described above, when the color inks are stacked at random, and a blackening plate K is only removed from a chromatic ink as undercolor removal processing, degradation of a color tone at a high density is increased. As a method of suppressing the degradation of a color tone, the GCR method is known as described above. In addition, as a method of solving the drawback of the GCR method, when equations (3) and (4) are used, prevention of degradation of a color tone, stability against a variation in color balance, high-quality images of a black character and the like can be obtained. Referring to FIG. 22, the above undercolor removal processing is constituted as an undercolor removal processing table 701, ink amount signals Y', M', and C' before correction are set as inputs 702, 703, and 704 of the undercolor removal processing table 701. In addition, the blackening plate signal K is set as an input 705, and an image region discrimination signal is set as an input 706. When a character image is used, these signals are converted into signals except for the blackening plate signal K. When an image other than the character image is used, a table for undercolor removal processing expressed by equations (3) and (4) is selected, and conversion is performed. When the undercolor removal processing is performed as described above, a sharp character image which is rarely blurred can be reproduced, and a halftone portion is rarely darkened, thereby obtaining a high-quality image. The ninth embodiment in which a blackening plate generation signal is switched by an image discrimination signal will be described below with reference to FIG. 23. In the seventh embodiment, as shown in FIG. 17, a minimum value of YMC serving as a blackening plate signal K' is obtained by the minimum value circuit 506. When the blackening signal K' is determined as in the seventh embodiment, an excessive blackening signal is present in a portion corresponding to the chromatic portion of a natural image, and the chromatic portion may be darkened. In this case, when a blackening plate signal K' is not determined by the minimum value of YMC, but is determined by a product of ratios of Y, M, and C areas, the chromatic portion is rarely darkened. However, in this case, a blackening amount is decreased in a character portion or the like, character image quality is degraded. For this reason, it is effective that a blackening plate generation scheme is switched by an image region discrimination signal as in this embodiment. FIG. 23 is a block diagram showing a blackening plate generation system in this embodiment. In a character region, a blackening plate generation circuit 801 outputs a minimum value of Y, M, and C inks in response to an image region discrimination signal 802 as in the seventh embodiment. In a halftone region, a product 803 of Y, M, and C ink amounts is output. As a detailed arrangement of the blackening plate generation circuit 801, values which are calculated in advance may be stored as a ROM table. Other arrangements are the same as those of each of the previous embodiments. In this manner, a solid black character can be reproduced in a character portion, and a halftone portion is not darkened, thereby obtaining natural color reproduction. The tenth embodiment in which non-color information is subjected to error diffusion recording after YMCK color conversion is performed will be described below with reference to FIG. 24. In FIG. 24, an input image signal 502 is input to a YMCK conversion table 521, and converted into an ink amount signal. This ink amount signal has not yet been subjected to undercolor removal. As in the seventh embodiment, a blackening ratio (P) 507 is determined by an image region discrimination signal and a blackening amount K' from the non-corrected YMCK color conversion table 521 so as to calculate an effective blackening amount K, and an ink amount signal is processed by an undercolor removal circuit 509 on the basis of the effective blackening amount K. Printed color signals of an output from the undercolor removal circuit 509 are input to a next adder 503 in correspondence with a color printer 505 (color printer in which Y, M, C, and K are sequentially printed in an image screen) in which a plurality of colors are not simultaneously recorded. An output signal from the adder 503 is input to a nonlinear quantization table 402, and is quantized at an unequal interval in accordance dance with the multilevel of the adder 503. Subsequently, as in the seventh embodiment, the signal is subjected to error diffusion recording processing. However, unlike the seventh embodiment, an error is calculated in one channel. For this reason, the circuits of an error buffer 512, a multiplier 513, and a weight coefficient memory 514 are simplified. However, in order to realize high-quality color reproduction, the YMCK conversion table 521 requires a large-capacity memory. Therefore, as described in FIG. 9, interpolation processing of the table is preferably performed. In the seventh embodiment, weight coefficients of R, G, and B are commonly switched in response to a discrimination signal. In the tenth embodiment, the weight coefficients used in the previous embodiments are used in printing of Y, M, and C ink colors. However, only when a blackening plate is printed, unlike the weight coefficients of the printing of the Y, M, and C color inks, all the matrix coefficients A, B, C, and D are set to be 0 in a character region to eliminate error diffusion so as to obtain high-definition image because resolution is most important. In other regions, only the coefficient D is set to be 1 to decrease an error diffusion area, thereby preferentially setting the resolution. In this operation, the quality of a black character is improved. In addition, as a modification of the tenth embodiment, although not shown, the nonlinear quantization table 402 is controlled in response to an output signal from an image region discrimination circuit 516, binary quantization or quantization of several levels is performed in a character region, and quantization of four or more levels is performed in a halftone region, thereby outputting a signal form the nonlinear quantization table 402. In this manner, image quality is effectively improved in a high-definition printer in which unstable recording is easily performed (phenomenon such as an increase in snow noise occurs) when the number of levels is increased. The eleventh embodiment on the basis of a multilevel texture dither method will be described below with reference to FIG. 25. According to this embodiment, an image signal from an input terminal 100 or a scanner 101 is input to a nonlinear multilevel dither table 901. In the nonlinear multilevel dither table 901, its content is changed in accordance with X and Y on an image by an address circuit 902 to generate a multilevel dither output. This multilevel dither output is input to a printer 106, and is reproduced as an image. In FIG. 26, a mark ◯ shows a recording multilevel of the printer 106 in this case. In FIG. 26, unstable recording characteristics in the first-level tone are shown. Recording at second, third, and fourth levels has stable recording characteristics. Accordingly, in order to perform a stable recording, the dither circuit does not use the first level, but second, third and fourth levels. In other words, the tone shown by marks ◯, white recording, and solid black recording are used. A tone is expressed in 8 levels (9 levels including a density of 0). FIG. 27 shows a multilevel dither output at this time. FIG. 28 shows the detailed content of nonlinear multilevel dither table 901 capable of outputting the multilevel dither output in FIG. 27. As shown in FIG. 28, 0-level to solid, i.e., 8-level image signals are input to the table 901. The XY address circuit 902, recognizes whether the image signal represents odd-numbered (2n-1) or even-numbered (2n) image data and odd-numbered (2m-1) or even-numbered (2m) image data because the dither matrix is set to be a 2×2 matrix by a current recording position. In other words, the nonlinear dither table 901 is accessed by the image signal and an address determined by a position to be recorded, and a content corresponding to the address is output. For example, when an input image signal can be set at three levels, the position of an image is an odd-numbered image and is in an even-numbered line, a signal at level 2 is output. The tone characteristics of the image output as described above exhibit a tone increasing every two levels. Therefore, the tones indicated by Δ and ◯ in FIG. 26 can be expressed as recording outputs. According to the first aspect of the present invention, multilevel diffusion recording is performed without using unstable recording levels of a recording apparatus, thereby performing stable recording. A tone recording level corresponding to an unstable recording level is expressed by a set of dots of stable tone levels, a large error is not generated unlike binary error diffusion recording, and the contrast of texture noise is kept low, thereby obtaining a high-quality image free from snow noise. In addition, stability of a recording system can be equivalently improved, the linearity of an input image signal can be improved, and a dynamic range can be widened. For this reason, even when a variation in input image signal or a variation in output recording system occurs, stable recording can be performed. According to the second aspect of the present invention, undercolor removal of an input color image signal is performed, and multilevel error diffusion processing of each of colors is performed in response to a blackening signal. For this reason, even when positional errors occur in an output printer, stable color reproduction can be obtained, and a high-quality image free from moire noise or texture noise can be obtained. In addition, even when a printer having printer characteristics in which color reproduction is degraded by tone characteristics or color stacking is used, a signal of only a stable portion is used as a control signal to obtain an extremely high-quality image. Even when a variation in color balance occurs, stable color reproduction can be advantageously obtained. According to the third aspect of the present invention, the amount of ink actually used is determined by the image region discrimination signal and the blackening amount. For this reason, 100% undercolor removal is performed in the character region, and a clear image free from color blurring can be obtained. When the blackening amount is large, almost 100% undercolor removal is performed in the halftone image region to contribute to a decrease in ink consumption amount. When the blackening amount is small, almost only threecolor printing is performed to suppress snow noise. The weighting coefficient matrix is changed in error diffusion recording of the character region requiring high-definition recording and a recording color requiring high-definition recording. Therefore, both high-definition recording and smoothness in the halftone image region can be satisfied. Additional advantages and modifications will readily occur to those skilled in the art. Therefore, the invention in its broader aspects is not limited to the specific details, and representative devices shown and described herein. Accordingly, various modifications may be made without departing from the spirit or scope of the general inventive concept as defined by the appended claims and their equivalents.

An image recording apparatus comprises an unequal interval quatization circuit for quantizing at an unequal interval an input multilevel image signal to prevent at least one signal having a tone level at which a recording density is unstable from being outputted, a circuit for calculating a difference between an unequal-interval-quantized signal and the input image signal, a buffer memory for temporarily storing the difference, a multiplexer for multiplying a recorded signal with a weight coefficient, an adder for adding a resultant signal from the multiplier to the input image signal, and a printer for recording an image, using the quantized signal as a record signal.

This application is a divisional of Ser. No. 07/527,740 filed May, 23, 1990 now U.S. Pat. No. 5,051,520. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a new class of stiff, fluorinated, polycyclic xanthene monomers and polymers prepared therefrom. The ever more stringent performance requirements of the electronic packaging industry mandate the development of polymers with lower dielectric constant and lower moisture absorption. Improvement in these properties has in the past been effected by the introduction of fluorine into the polymer. Unfortunately, this was always accompanied by deterioration of other properties, such as lowering of the glass transition temperature, increasing the coefficient of thermal expansion and increasing solvent sensitivity. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Accordingly, the present invention relates to a new class of stiff, fluorinated monomers, based on two novel tricyclic xanthene core systems, 9,9-bis(perfluoroalkyl)xanthene (I) and 9-phenyl-9-perfluoroalkylxanthene (II) ##STR1## The monomers have utility in the preparation of advanced high-performance polymers, particularly polyimides. The rigid core decreases the coefficient of thermal expansion of the polymers while the fluorine substituents improve the dielectric constant and water absorption properties. The novel invention compositions contain both a --CR f R' f -- or --C(phenyl)R f -- bridge and a --O-- bridge. According to the present invention there is provided a composition of matter, and the preparation thereof, of the formula ##STR2## wherein R is selected from the group consisting of phenyl, substituted phenyl and perfluoroalkyl of 1 to 16 carbon atoms and Rf is perfluoroalkyl of 1 to 16 carbon atoms. In a further embodiment of the invention there is provided a composition of matter, and the preparation thereof, of the formula ##STR3## wherein R is selected from the group consisting of phenyl, substituted phenyI and perfluoroalkyI of 1 to 16 carbon atoms, 16 carbon atoms: R f is perfluoroalkyl of 1 to 16 carbon atoms; X is selected from the group consisting of H, CH 3 , CO 2 H, COCl, NH 2 and NCO; Y is the same as X; and X and Y together are --CO--O--CO--. Another embodiment of the invention comprises a novel composition of the formula ##STR4## The invention further relates to a polyimide polymer having the following recurring structural unit ##STR5## wherein R is selected from the group consisting of phenyl, substituted phenyl and perfluoroalkyl of 1 to 16 carbon atoms; R f is perfluoralkyl of 1 to 16 carbon atoms; A is a divalent radical containing at least two carbon atoms, the two amino groups of said diamine each being attached to separate carbon atoms of said divalent radical; and n is a positive integer. In the above definitions of R and R f as perfluoroalkyl, a more preferred number of carbon atoms is I to 18. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The core ring systems (I) of the compositions of the invention can be prepared by using either a singlebridging or a double-bridging process. Scheme I depicts the preparation of 9,9-bis(trifluoromethyl)-2,3,6,7-tetramethylxanthene (III) using both processes. In the double-bridging process both the ether bridge and the --C(CF 3 ) 2 -bridge are introduced in a single step. This involves reaction of hexafluoroacetone (HFA) with two molar equivalents of 3,4dimethylphenol to form the bridging --C(CF 3 ) 2 - linkage concurrent with intramolecular dehydration of the two hydroxyl groups ortho to the -C(CF3)2- bridge to form the xanthene ether link of (III). The reaction is run in hydrofluoric acid (HF) at temperatures ranging from 180° to 220° C. using a molar ratio of HF/HFA of 10 or more. Other substrates such as resorcinol and 3-aminophenol may be used in the simultaneous HFA bridging and cyclodehydration process. Reaction of resorcinol with two molar equivalents of HFA at 220° C. (Scheme II) provided 9,9-bis(trifluoromethyl)-3,6-dihydroxy xanthene (VII). Reaction of (VII) with two equivalents of p-nitrochlorobenzene in dimethylacetamide solvent in the presence of potassium carbonate followed by hydrogenation of the dinitro precursor, provided 9,9-bis-(trifluoromethyl)-3,6-bis(4-aminophenoxy)xanthene (VIII), a new diamine monomer for use in polymer synthesis. A polyester (IX) derived from reaction of (VII) with a mixture of isophthaloyl and terephthaloyl chIorides was also found to have utility as a high flux membrane film for O 2 /N 2 separation. The parent monomer, 9,9-bis(trifluoromethyl)xanthene (I, R f =R' f =CF 3 ) was prepared by reaction of (VlI) with sodium hydride and 5-chloro-1-phenyl-lH-tetrazole to form 9,9-bis(trifluoromethyl)-3,6-bis(1- phenyl-1H-tetrazolyl-5-oxy)xanthene which was catalytically reduced to (I) (Scheme IV). ##STR6## In the single-bridging process for preparing the core ring systems (Scheme I), the ether linkage is first preformed separately followed by formation of the --C(CF 3 ) 2 -- bridge. Thus, (III) was prepared by reacting HFA in HF with 3,3'-di-o-xylyl ether (DXE), which already contained the xanthese ether linkage, at temperatures ranging from 110° to 140° C. and an HF/DXE ratio of 8-20, perferably 10-15. The single-bridging process is preferred to the double-bridging process for preparing the core ring systems (I), since it requires lower reaction temperatures, gives higher yeilds despite being a two-step process, and generates fewer by-products. Other aromatic ethers terminated by 3,4- dimethylphenoxy gropus can also be used in the single-bridging process. For example, p-tolylether (Scheme III, X) reacts with HFA in HF to provide 9,9- bis-(trifluoromethyl)-2,7- mimethylxanthene (XI). ##STR7## Once produced, (III) (Scheme I) was readily oxidized to 9,9-bis(trifluoromethyl)-2,3,67- xanthenetetracarboxylic aicd (IV), dehydrated to 9,9-bis(trifluoromethyl)xanthene tetracarboxylic dianhydride (V) and subsequently polymerized with 4,4'-diaminodiphenylether to form polyimide (VI) (V-ODA). Analogous polyimides were obtained using 3,4'-diaminodiphenylether, (I)-ODA and paraphenylenediamine. Oxidation of (III) to the tetraacid (IV) was performed using potassium permanganate in aqueous pyridine. Other methods, such as Mn/Co catalyzed oxidation with oxygen or air, or oxidation with nitric acid can also be used. Conversion of (IV) to the dianhydride (V) can be effected thermally, by boiling in acetic anhydride, or by heating a slurry of (IV) in chloroform with excess thionyl chloride. Thermal conversion by heating at 20° C overnight is preferred. The polyimide (VI) was prepared by reacting the dianhydride (V) with a substantially equimolar amount of 4,4'-diaminodiphenylether in dimethylacetamide to form a polyamide acid and then thermally converting the polyamide acid to the polyimide. In similar fashion (XI) (Scheme III) was oxidized with permanganate to 9,9-bis(trifluoromethyl)xanthene2,7-dicarboxylic acid (XII) and then reacted with thionyl chloride to provide 9,9-bis(trifluoromethyl)-xanthene-2,7-dicarbonyl chloride (XIII). The diacid chloride was subsequently reacted with sodium azide by the Curtius Reaction to provide 9,9-bis(trifluoromethyl)xanthene-2,7-diisocyanate (XIV) which was hydrolyzed to 9,9-bis(trifluoromethyl)xanthene-2,7-diamine (XV). ##STR8## The core ring system (II) was prepared in similar fashion using the single-bridging process and RCOR f insteand of HFA to provide analogous compounds containing a --CRR f -- bridge instead of a --C(CF 3 ) 2 -- bridge. Compounds of the structure RCOR f include those wherein R is phenyl or substituted phenyl and R f is CF 3 , C 2 F 5 , C 3 F 7 and C 8 F 17 . For example, the reaction of 3,3'-di-o-xylyl ether (DXE) with trifluoroacetylbenzene (R=phenyl, R f =CF 3 ) in HF at 140° C. provided 9-phenyl-9-trifluoromethyl-2,3,6,7-tetramethylxanthene (XVI) (Scheme V). Oxidation of (XVI) with potassium permanganate gave 9-phenyl-9-(trifluoromethyl)xanthene-2,3,6,7-tetracarboxylic acid (XVII) which was thermally converted to 9-phenyl-9-trifluoromethyl)xanthene- 2,3,6,7-tetracarboxylic dianhydride (XVIII) by heating under vacuum at 250° C. The parent monomer (II, R f =CF 3 ) was prepared (Scheme VI) using the single-bridging process by reaction of p-tolyl ether (X) and trifluoromethylphenyl ketone in HF at 130° C. to provide 9-phenyl-9-trifluoromethyl-2,7-dimethylxanthene (XIX), followed by oxidation to the dicarboxylic acid (XX) and catalytic decarboxylation to (II). The diacid (XX) could also be converted to the diacyl chloride (XXI), then to the diacyl azide and, finally, to the diisocyanate (XXII) as previously described. Polyimides encompassed by the present invention include those having the recurring structural unit ##STR9## wherein R is selected from the group consisting of phenyl, subtituted phenyl and perfluoroalkyl of 1 to 16 carbon atoms; R f is perfluoroalkyl of 1 to 16 carbon atoms (and more preferably 1 to 8 carbon atoms); A is a divalent radical containing at least two carbon atoms, the two amino groups of said diamine each being attached to separate carbon atoms of said divalent radical and n is a positive integer. The polyimides display outstanding physical properties making them useful as shaped structures such as self-supporting films, fibers and filaments. The structures are characterized by high tensile properties, desirable electrical properties, stability to heat and water and very low coefficient of thermal expansion. The polyimides are generally prepared by reacting dianhydrides (V) or (XVIII) with an aromatic diamine in an inert organic solvent to form a polyamide acid solution and subsquently converting the polyamide-acid to polyimide essentially as described in U.S. Pat. No. 3,179,614; U.S. Pat. No. 3,179,630 and U.S. Pat. No. 3,179,634, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference. If desired, dianhydrides (V) or (XVIII) can also be blended with from 15 to 85 mole % of other dianhydrides, such as pyromellitic dianhydride; 2,3,6,7-naphthalene tetracarboxylic dianhydride; 3,3',4,4'-biphenyl tetracarboxylic dianhydride; 1,2,5,6-naphthalene tetracarboxylic dianhydride; 2,2',3,3'-biphenyl tetracarboxylic dianhydride; 3,3',4,4'-benzophenone tetracarboxylic dianhydride; 2,2-bis(3,4-dicarboxyphenyl) propane dianhydride; bis(3,4-dicarboxyphenyl) sulfone dianhydride; 3,4,9,10-perylene tetracarboxylic dianhydride; bis(3,4-dicarboxyphenyl) propane dianhydride; 1,1-bis-(2,3-dicarboxyphenyl) ethane dianhydride; 1,1-bis-(3,4-dicarboxyphenyl) ethane dianhydride; bis-(2,3-dicarboxyphenyl) methane dianhydride; bis-(3,4-dicarboxyphenyl) methane dianhydride; oxydiphthalic dianhydride; bis (3,4-dicarboxyphenyl) sulfone dianhydride; and the like. Suitable diamines for use in the polyimide compositions of the invention include: meta-phenylenediamine; paraphenylene diamine; 4,4'-diamino-diphenyl propane; 4,4'-diamino-diphenyl methane; benzidine; 4,4'-diamino-diphenyl sulfide; 4,4'-diamino-diphenyl sulfone; 3,3'-diamino-diphenyl sulfone; 4,4'-diamino-diphenyl ether; 2,6-diamino-pyridine; bis-(4-amino-phenyl)diethyl silane; bis-(4-amino-phenyl)phosphine oxide; bis-(4-amino-phenyl)-N-methylamine; 1,5-diamino-naphthalene; 3,3'-dimethyl-4,4'-diamino-biphenyl; 3,3'-dimethoxy benzidine; 2,4-bis(beta-amino-t-butyl)toluene; bis-(para-beta-amino-t-butyl-phenyl)ether; para-bis(2-methyl-4-amino-pentyl)benzene; para-bis-(1,1-dimethyl-5-amino-pentyl)benzene; m-xylylene diamine; p-xylylene diamine; bis(para-amino-cyclohexyl)methane; hexamethylene diamine; heptamethylene diamine; octamethylene diamine; nonamethylene diamine; decamethylene diamine; 3-methylheptamethylene diamine; 4,4-dimethylheptamethylene diamine; 2,11-diamino-dodecane; 1,2-bis-(3-amino-propoxy)ethane; 2,2-dimethyl propylene diamine; 3-methoxy-hexamethylene diamine; 2,5-dimethylhexamethylene diamine; 2,5-dimethylheptamethylene diamine; 5-methylnonamethylene diamine; 1,4-diamino-cyclohexane; 1,12-diamino octadecane; H 2 N(CH 2 ) 3 O(CH 2 ) 3 NH 2 ; H 2 N(CH 2 ) 3 S(CH 2 ) 3 NH 2 ; H 2 N(CH 2 ) 3 N(CH 3 )(CH 2 ) 3 NH 2 ; and mixtures thereof. Useful solvents include normally liquid N,N-dialkylcarboxylamides, generally. Preferred solvents include the lower molecular weight members of such carboxylamides, particularly N,N-dimethylformamide and N,N-dimethylacetamide. Other useful compounds of this class of solvents are N,N-diethylformamide and N,N-diethylacetamide. Other solvents which may be used are dimethylsulfoxide, N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, tetramethyl urea, dimethylsulfone, hexamethylphosphoramide, tetramethylene sulfone, and the like. The solvents can be used alone, in combinations with one another or in combinations with poor solvents such as benzene, benzonitrile, dioxane, etc. The amount of solvent used preferably ranges from 75 to 90 weight % of the polyamic acid, since this concentration has been found to give optimum molecular weight. Conversion of the polyamic acid to polyimide can be accomplished by either a thermal conversion or a chemical conversion process. According to the thermal conversion process, the polyamic acid solution is cast on a heated conversion surface, such as a metal drum or belt, and heated at a temperature of above about 50° C. to partially convert the polyamic acid to polyimide. The extent of polyamic acid conversion depends on the temperature employed and the time of exposure, but, generally about 25 to 95% of amic acid groups are converted to imide groups. The partially converted polyamic acid is then heated at or above 220° C. to obtain complete conversion to the polyimide. In the chemical conversion process, the polyamic acid solution is first chilled to about 10° C. to -10° C. and polyamic acid conversion chemicals are added. The polyamic acid conversion chemicals are tertiary amine catalysts and anhydride dehydrating materials. The preferred anhydride dehydrating material is acetic anhydride and is used in slight molar excess of the amount of amic acid groups in the polyamic acid, typically about 2-2.5 moles per equivalent of polyamic acid. A comparable amount of tertiary amine catalyst is used. Besides acetic anhydride, other operable lower fatty acid anhydrides include propionic, butyric, valeric, mixed anhydrides of these with one another and with anhydrides of aromatic monocarboxylic acids, for example, benzoic acid, naphthoic acid, and the like, and with anhydrides of carbonic and formic acids, as well as aliphatic ketenes (ketene and dimethyl ketene). Ketenes may be regarded as anhydrides of carboxylic acids 5 derived from drastic dehydration of the acids. The preferred tertiary amine catalysts are pyridine and beta-picoline and they are used in an amount of about one mole per mole of anhydride dehydrating material. Tertiary amines having approximately the same activity as the preferred pyridine and beta-picoline may also be used. These include 3,4-lutidine; 3,5-lutidine; 4-methylpyridine; 4-isopropyl pyridine; N-dimethylbenzylamine; isoquinoline; 4-benzylpyridine, and N-dimethyldodecylamine. Trimethylamine and triethyl amine are more active than those amines listed above and can be used in smaller amounts. The polyamic acid conversion chemicals react at about room temperature or above to convert polyamic acid to polyimide. The chemical conversion reaction occurs at temperatures from 10° to 120° C., with the reaction being very rapid at the higher temperatures and very slow at the lower temperatures. Below a certain temperature, polyamic acid chemical conversion comes to a practical halt. This temperature is generally about 10° C. It is important, therefore, that the polyamic acid solution be chilled below this temperature before adding the polyamic acid conversion chemicals and that the temperature of the solution, with conversion chemicals, be maintained below this temperature during extrusion or casting. The treated, chilled, polyamic acid solution is cast or extruded onto a heated conversion surface whereupon some of the solvent is evaporated from the solution, the polyamic acid is partially chemically converted to polyimide, and the solution takes the form of a polyamic acid-polyimide gel. Conversion of amic acid groups to imide groups depends on contact time and temperature but is usually about 25 to 95% complete. The gel is subsequently dried to remove the water, residual solvent, and remaining conversion chemicals, and the polyamic acid is completely converted to polyimide. The drying can be conducted at relatively mild conditions without complete conversion of polyamic acid to polyimide at that time, or the drying and conversion can be conducted at the same time using higher temperatures. Preferably, high temperatures are used for short times to dry the film and convert it to polyimide in the same step. It is preferred to heat the film to a temperature of 200°-450° C. for 15 to 400 seconds. The xanthene core monomers (I) and (II) are particularly useful for the preparation of polyimide polymers. The diacid chlorides, diacids, diisocyanates and diamine monomers of the present invention can also be used to prepare polyamides, polyesters, polycarbonates and polyurethanes by techniques which are well-known in the art. The advantageous properties of this invention can be observed by reference to the following examples which illustrate, but do not limit, the invention. All parts and percentages are by weight unless otherwise indicated. All reagents used were commercial materials, unless otherwise indicated. IR spectra were measured as Nujol mulls, or as polyimide films, on a Perkin-Elmer Grating IR Spectrophotometer Model 457. NMR spectra were determined on the GE QE-300 instrument, using deuterochloroform as solvent and tetramethylsilane as internal standard. Aromatic Ether Precursors All aryl ethers were prepared by the reaction of the appropriate potassium aryloxide with a mono- or dibromoaryl precursor, using NMP as solvent. The method is illustrated by the preparation of 3,3'-di-o-xylyl ether (DXE). 3.3'-di-o-xylyl Ether (DXE) In a 3-L four-neck flask was placed 1.2L toluene, 500 g (4.1 mole) of 3,4-dimethylphenol, and 227 g (4.1 mole) KOH pellets. The mixture was stirred with an efficient mechanical stirrer and refluxed, water being removed via a Dean-Stark trap. When all the water was removed, at which point the potassium phenolate salt started to crystallize out, about 500 ml toluene was distilled out (leaving enough toluene, so that the slurry was still stirrable). About 500 ml N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) was added, along with 750 g (4.1 mole) -bromo-o-xylene, and 100 g copper powder. The reaction mixture was heated again, and remaining toluene was distilled out through a tall Vigreux column. When all the toluene had been distiIled out, and the temperature in the flask reached about 200° C., the distillation column was replaced with a condenser, and the vigorously stirred mixture was refluxed overnight. The mixture was filtered through a bed of Celite, and the flask was rinsed with some DMF, which was used to wash the filter cake. The filtrate was concentrated at atmospheric pressure, until DMF and most of the NMP was distilled out, then distillation was continued at reduced pressure, collecting the product boiling at 140°-145° C./ 1.4-1.7 Torr. The still warm fraction was poured into 500 ml stirred methanol; this resulted in precipitation of a crystalline product, which was filtered off and washed with methanol. A second crop was obtained from the filtrate for a total yield in the 360-420 g (55-65%) range, taking into consideration that the starting -bromo-o-xylene was only 70% pure. NMR of the title material: d 7.03, d 6.80, dd 6.73, s 2.19 in the correct 1:1:1:6 ratio; the two non-identical methyl groups show up as a singlet. From the filtrates one could distill a fraction boiling where the main product boiled. This oil could not be crystallized, and by NMR consisted of an approximately 50/50 mixture of DXE and the mixed ether arising from the isomeric 3-bromo-oxylene, which comprised almost 30% of the starting material. Di-p-tolyl Ether (X) Obtained in 56% yield; NMR: d 7.10, d 6.87, s 2.30 ppm in 2:2:3 ratio. EXAMPLE 1 9,9-Bis(trifluoromethyl)xanthene (I, R f =R' f =CF 3 ) A. 9,9-bis(trifluoromethyl)-3,6-bis(1-phenyl1H-tetrazolyl-5-oxy)xanthene In 250 ml of dry diglyme was stirred at room temperature 5 g of 50% sodium hydride in mineral oil, plus 17.5 g (0.05 mole) 9,9-bis(trifluoromethyl)-3,6dihydroxyxanthene (VII). The hydrogen evolved was measured by a wet-test meter. When hydrogen evolution stopped, 18.1 g (0.1 mole) of 5-chlorophenyl-lHtetrazole was added in one portion, and the mixture was stirred and gently heated until the second evolution of hydrogen stopped. The flask contents were drowned with stirring in 2.5L ice water. A solid separated, which was filtered off, dissolved in methylene chloride, and filtered through a bed of alumina. The filtrate was stripped to dryness, and the residue was stirred with methanol, and was filtered. There was obtained a total of 27.1 g (86%) of a solid with a sharp IR spectrum, which contained no OH or CO peaks. The NMR spectrum was consistent with the assigned structure: d 7.97, dd 7.78, m 7.6, d 7.45, dd 7.34 in 1:2:3:1:1: ratio, assigned to the 1H, phenyl ortho H's, phenyl m and p H's, 4H, and 2H, respectively. B. 9,9-bis(trifluoromethyl)xanthene (I) A mixture of 25 g 9,9-bis(trifluoromethyl)-3,6-bis-(1-phenyl-1H-tetrazolyl-5-oxy)xanthene and 6 g of 5% palladium on carbon in 250 ml THF was heated in a shaker tube at 400 psi of hydrogen for 16 hrs at 100° . The pressure dropped by 42 psi which occurred within the first 9 hrs, and did not change thereafter. The reaction mixture was filtered, and the residue was fractionally distilled. The product distilled at 105°/1.2 Torr and was obtained in 5.0 g (39%) yield. It was recrystallized from methanol and purified further by vacuum sublimation. M.p. 74°-75° C. NMR: dd 7.88; td 7.44 plus overlapping td and dd 7.3-7.4 in 1:1:1:1 ratio; C 13 NMR: m 52.5 (bridgehead C), 110.0 (C next to the bridge), 117.6 (4C), 123.3 (2C), quartet (J =287 Hz) 124.3 (CF 3 ), 130.2 (lC), 131.5 (3C) and 151.0 (C next to 0) ppm, in agreement with the assigned structure. The mass spectrum of (I) showed the molecular formula to be C 15 H 8 F 6 O, and had a parent peak at 318, plus prominent peaks at 249 (parent minus CF 3 ), 199 (parent minus C 2 H 5 ), 100 (C 2 F 4 ) and 69 (CF 3 ). Elemental analysis: Calc. for C 15 H 8 F 6 O: C 56.5; H 2.52; Found: C 56.6; H 2.91. EXAMPLE 2 9-Phenyl-9-trifluoromethylxanthene (II, R f =CF 3 ) A 6 g sample of 9-phenyl-9-trifluOrOmethylxanthene2,7-dicarboxylic acid (XX) was stirred and refluxed in ml quinoline along with 11 g of copper powder, the emanating gas being measured by a wet-test meter. The theoretical amount of CO 2 was evolved in two hours. The reaction mixture was cooled, filtered through a bed of Celite into 800 ml of water, acidified with 100 ml of concentrated hydrochloric acid, and left standing overnight. The supernantant liquid was decanted, and the residue was taken up in methylene chloride, and filtered through a bed of alumina. The solvent was stripped, the residue was stirred with methanol, and was filtered, yielding 3.1 g (66%) of a white solid. It was recrystallized from methanol; m.p. 89°-90°. The IR spectrum was sharp with no OH or CO bands. The NMR spectrum was confirmatory, with the following peaks: d 7.42; m 7.3-7.4; d 7.19, td 6.96, d 6.87 in 2:5:2:2:2 ratio. The compound was analyzed by mass spectrometry which showed the parent ion at 326, along with other Peaks, the strongest being at 257 (parent minus trifluoromethyl), and also at 249 (parent minus phenyl), and 199 (parent minus phenyl and minus difluorocarbene). The mass spectrum confirmed the molecular formula as C 20 H 13 F 3 O. EXAMPLE 3 9,9-Bis(trifluoromethyl)-2,3,6,7-tetramethylxanthene (III) Double Bridging Process A mixture of 330 g (2.7 moles) 3,4-dime:hylphenol, 225 g (1.35 moles) HFA and 300 g (15 moles) HF was shaken in an autoclave for 15 hrs at 220°. The reaction mixture was poured into a one-gallon polyethylene jar, half-filled with ice-water and containing excess sodium hydroxide. The product was extracted with methylene chloride, the extracts were filtered through alumina, and stripped. Distillation of the residue in vacuo gave several fractions. The fraction, boiling at 190°-210°/1 Torr was chromatographed on alumina, packing and eluting with methylene chloride. The orange band was collected, and the fraction was stripped. Stirring of the residue with excess methanol, filtration, washing of the solid with more methanol, and air-drying gave 86 g (17%) of (III) which melts at 214°-215°, and sublimes readily in vacuo at 180° /1 Torr; it can be recrystallized from toluene or heptane, but is sparingly soluble in methanol. Analysis: Calc. for C 19 H 16 F 6 O: C, 61.0; H, 4.28; F, 30.5; Found: C, 61.3, H, 4.40; F, 30.7% NMR: s 7.57, s, 6.95, s, 2.26 ppm in 1:1:6 ratio Single-Bridging Process A mixture of 200 g (0.88 mole) DXE, 150 g (0 88 mole) HFA, and 236 g (11.8 moles) HF was heated at 120° for 8 hrs in a shaker tube. After venting excess HF, the tube contents were drowned in a one-gallon polyethylene jar containing 2L ice-water, and 500 ml of 50% NaOH. The shaker tube was rinsed out with methylene chloride, and the washings were added to the jar. Most of the aqueous layer was decanted, and the product was 5 extracted wth 3-4L of methylene chloride. The slurry was filtered once through a bed of Celite to remove a pasty sludge and the layers were separated. The organic layer was filtered through a layer of alumina, and then stripped to dryness. The reddish crystalline residue 30 was dissolved in 150-200 ml of boiling toluene, partially cooled and diluted with 500 ml methanol, which resulted in rapid crystallization. The solid was filtered, washed with methanol until the washings were no longer red, and was air-dried, yielding 95-105 g (29-32%) of pale creamy solid. The filtrates were stripped to dryness, and the residue was distilled over a short-path column. Pale orange material boiling at 200-210°/1 Torr was collected, dissolved in minimum quantity of boiling toluene and diluted with methanol, yielding another 15-20 g of product, for a total yield in the 33-41% range. EXAMPLE 4 9.9-Bis(trifluoromethyl)-2,3,6,7-xanthene-tetracarbosylic acid (IV) 9,9-Bis(trifluoromethyl-2,3,6,7-tetramethylxanthene (III) (20 g, 0.053 mole) was reluxed in a mixture of 40 ml pyridine and 200 ml water with rapid mechanical stirring, and 50 g (0.316 mole) potassium permanganate was added in portions through the top of the condenser. After addition was complete, the slurry was refluxed for hr. The mixture was filtered hot through Celite, and concentrated down to about 50 ml. A mixture of 35 g NaOH and 535 ml water was added, and the oxidation was repeated, using 45 g (0.28 mole) KMnO 4 . After the second oxidation, excess permanganate was destroyed with isopropyl alcohol. The mixture was filtered through Celite, and the filtrate was acidified with sulfuric acid. This produced a white precipitate, which was filtered, and washed thoroughly with water. The tetraacid (IV) was dried in a convection oven overnight at 150° and was obtained in 16 g yield (61%). It was used for conversion to the anhydride, without further purification. EXAMPLE 5 9,9-Bis(trifluoromethyl)- 2,3,6,7-xanthenetetracarboxylic Dianhydride (V) 9,9- Bis(trifluoromethyl)-2,3,6,7-xanthenetetracarboxylic acid (IV) was converted to dianhydride (V) by drying overnight in a convection oven at 220°. Even during drying at 150°-180° some conversion to the anhydride took place. The dehydration could be followed by means of changes in the carbonyl region from those of tetraacid (IV) (descending pattern at 1860, 1780, 1740 and 1710 cm -1 ) to those of dianhydride (V) (1860, 1775 vs). Both, TGA and DSC data for (IV) indicate dehydration occurring around 240°, and the second event (melting/sublimation of (V)) taking place around 355°-360°. Tetraacid (IV) could also be dehydrated by acetic anhydride; refluxing with excess acetic anhydride for one hour usually sufficed to dehydrate (IV). Dianhydride (V) was essentially insoluble in acetic anhydride, and could be isolated by simple filtration and drying of the slurry. Another method, used for dehydrating tetraacid (IV) involved refluxing a slurry of (IV) in chloroform with excess thionyl chloride for two hours. Again, since dianhydride (V) was essentially insoluble in chloroform, simple filtration and washing with chloroform yielded the product. Purification of dianhydride (V) could not be achieved by recrystallization since it has very low solubility in acetic acid/acetic anhydride mixtures. It could, however, be sublimed at 250° /1 Torr. This was done conveniently in small sublimer tubes, where fairly large crystals with a slight yellowish cast could be grown. Pure dianhydride (V) melts in a capillary at 355-356°. IR (Nujol mull): 1860, 17775 (vs) cm -1 . It was too insoluble for determining its NMR spectrum. Analysis: Calc. for C 19 H 4 F 6 O 7 : C, 49.8; H, 0.87; F, 24.9; Found: C, 50.1; H. 1.11; F, 24.9%. EXAMPLE 6 Polyimide films derived from 9.9-bis(trifluoromethyl)xanthene tetracarboxylic dianhydride (V) In a flame-dried and nitrogen-flushed 500 ml roundbottom flask was placed 5.00 g (0.025 mole) of 4,4'-diaminodiphenylether (ODA) which was dissolved in 200 ml dry NMP. To the stirred solution was added in portions 1.45 g (0 025 mole) of 9,9-bis(trifluoromethyl)xanthenetetracarboxylic dianhydride (V). Most of the I0 dianhydride (V) dissolved within one hour, but the rest only upon stirring overnight. Dianhydride (V) was doubly sublimed, but still not very pure, as it contained sublimation residue particles which adhered to the sublimate electrostatically. The 8% by weight solution of polyamic acid was converted into a film by [either casting or spin coating, and cured at 350°-400° C. in air. The (V)-ODA film was very thin, but did have a sharp IR, and was characterized by imide peaks at 1785 and 1730 (vs) cm - 1. More concentrated solutions, up to 27% solids, were prepared as above, and produced thicker (V)-ODA films with the properties listed in Table I. In similar fashion, polyimide films were prepared from 9,9-bis(trifluoromethyl)xanthenetetracarboxylic ianhydride (V) and paraphenylenediamine (PPD), 3,4-diaminodiphenyl ether (3,4'-ODA), resorcinol oxydianiline (RODA) and (I)-ODA. Physical properties of the films are given in Table I. TABLE I__________________________________________________________________________PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF POLYIMIDE FILMS FROM9,9-BIS (TRIFLUOROMETHYL) XANTHENE TETRACARBOXYLIC DIANHYDRIDE (V) Spin or Final Temp. Cure Time Thickness* Tensile Strength Elastic Modulus ElongationFilm Cast (°C.) (min.) (um) (MPa) (GPa) (%)__________________________________________________________________________(V)-ODA Spin 350 60 10 115 ± 8 1.6 ± 0.1 20 ± 6 Spin 350 60 23 ± 2 110 ± 6 1.5 ± 0.2 20 ± 6 Cast 350 60 6 ± 1 115 ± 9 1.3 ± 0.1 21 ± 6 Cast 350 60 18 ± 2 97 ± 5 1.2 ± 0.1 15 ± 2 Cast 350 60 27 ± 1 82 ± 18 1.8 ± 0.1 6 ± 3(V)-3,4'-ODA Spin 350 60 10 83 ± 6 1.4 ± 0.1 8 ± 1(V)-PPD Spin 350 60 8 147 ± 10 4.3 ± 0.2 4 Spin 350 60 47 ± 7 208 ± 21 4.0 ± 0.2 10 ± 1 Spin 400 60 8.3 ± 0.3 280 ± 21 7.1 ± 0.3 7 ± 2(V)-RODA Spin 400 60 6.5 ± 0.7 110 ± 19 2.3 ± 0.2 7 ± 3(V)-(I)ODA Spin 40 60 8.2 ± 0.3 126 ± 15 2.2 ± 0.2 16 ± 8__________________________________________________________________________ *Typical thickness deviations for cast films were ± 8 to 12%; for spin coated films ± 0.5 to 2% EXAMPLE 7 9,9-Bis(trifluoromethyl)-2,7-dimethylxanthene (XI) A mixture of 200 g (1 mole) p-tolyl ether, 166 g (1 mole) HFA and 220 g (11 moles) HF was heated at 140° for 8 hrs in a shaker tube. After distilling out residual HF, the tube contents were poured into excess ice-cold dilute NaOH. The product was extracted with methylene chloride, the extracts were passed through a short alumina column, and stripped to dryness. The residue was distilled in vacuo, collecting the cut boiling around 110° /1.7 Torr, which partly solidified on standing. It was stirred with methanol, filtered, washed with more methanol, and dried, yielding a total of 24.3 g (7%) of (XI) as white crystals in two crops (14.5 and 9.8 g). 9,9-Bis(trifluoromethyl)-2,7-dimethylxanthene (XI) is quite volatile, and sublimes in vacuo below 100° , and melts at 136-137° . Analysis: Calc. for C 17 H 12 F 6 O: C, 59.0; H, 3.47; F, 33.0; Found: C, 59.3; H, 3.56; F, 33.5%. The NMR spectrum was confirmatory: s 7.65, dd 7.23, d 7.06, s 2.35 ppm in 1:1:3 ratio. EXAMPLE 8 9,9-Bis(trifluoromethyl)xanthene-2,7-dicarboxylic acid (XII) To a refluxing solution of 34.6 g (0.1 mole) of 9,9-bis(trifluoromethyl)-2,7-dimethylxanthene (XI) in ml pyridine and 100 ml water was added in portions g (0.35 mole) potassium permanganate. After 90 min reflux (as the permanganate color was discharged, and Mn02 precipitated) the mixture was filtered, and the filtrate was boiled down to about 100 ml. The residue was diluted with 70 g of 50% NaOH and 400 ml water, and oxidized with an additional 55 g KMnO 4 as above. Filtration of the mixture, and acidification with sulfuric acid yielded a white precipitate, which was filtered, and washed well with water. The material melts at 344°-347° in capillary (DSC shows a peak at 53°) and is sublimable in vacuo. Analysis: Calc. for C 17 H 8 F 6 O 5 : C, 50.3; H, 1.97; F, 28.1; Found: C, 51.2; H, 1.75; F, 25.8. IR: 1700 00 (vs), 1620, 1560 cm -1 . EXAMPLE 9 9,9Bis(trifluoromethyl)xanthene-2,7-dicarbonyl chloride (XIII) A mixture of 20 g 9,9-bis(trifluoromethyl)xanthene-2,7-dicarboxylic acid (XII), 250 ml chloroform and 20 ml (excess) thionyl chloride was stirred and refluxed until the slurry became a pale yellow solution (4 hrs). The volatiles were distilled out, ultimately at house vacuum, and the residue (16 g, 73%) was purified by sublimation. The product (XIII) can also be recrystallized from toluene/heptane. M.p. 216°-218° IR: 1750 (vs) cm -1 . NMR: s 8.76, dd 8.31, d 7.44 in 1:1:1 ratio. Analysis: Calc. for C 17 H 6 C1 2 F 6 O 3 : 1.35; Cl 16.0; F 25.7; Found: C 46.1; H 1.22; Cl 15.9; F 26.3. EXAMPLE 10 9,9-Bis(trifluoromethyl)xanthene-2.7-diisocyanate (XIV) A mixture of 4.43 g (0.01 mole) of 9,9-bis(trifluoromethyl)xanthene-2,7-dicarbonyl chloride (XIII), 4.43 g (0.07 mole) technical sodium azide and 100 ml toluene was refluxed overnight, the emanating nitrogen being measured by a wet-test meter. A total of 0.42L (84% theory) was evolved. The mixture was filtered, and the filtrate evaporated, yielding 2.4 g (60%) of waxy solid, with a strong NCO band at 2270 cm -1 . lt was sublimed in vacuo; m.p. 105°-107°. EXAMPLE 11 9,9-Bis(trifluoromethyl)xanthene-2,7-diamine (XV) A mixture of 10 g crude 9,9-bis(trifluoromethyl)-xanthene-2,7-dicarbonyl chloride (XIII) and 10 g sodium azide was stirred and refluxed overnight in 150 ml toluene. The mixture was filtered, and stripped to dryness, and the residue was refluxed for 3 hrs in 100 ml 20% hydrochloric acid. The slurry was filtered, and the filtrate was basified yielding some solid. The initial solid from the acid solution was stirred in excess aquomethanolic sodium hydroxide, and filtered. After drying, and combining the two solids, there was obtained 4.1 g (52%) of the diamine (XV). It can be distilled in a sublimation tube, and solidifies on cooling. After recrystallization from heptane, the product melted at 137°-138° , and had amine bands at 3470, 3400, 3370, 3350 and 3230 cm -1 . NMR:d (small J) 7.13, d (large J) 6.98, dd 6.80 and broad peak around 3.5 ppm in 1:1:1:2 ratio, corresponding to the 1, 3, 4, and amino protons, respectively. EXAMPLE 12 9,9-Bis(trifluoromethyl)-3,6-dihydorxyxanthene (VII) A mixture of 300 g (2.7 moles) resorcinol, 225 g (1.35 moles) HFA and 300 g (15 moles) HF was heated in a shaker tube to 220° and kept there for 15 hrs. After distilling out excess HF, the reaction mixture was poured into a one-gallon polyethylene jar, half-filled with ice-water, and containing 200 g potassium acetate. The lumpy, and sometimes sticky, reddish-brown solid was isolat®d by filtration, washed with water, and air dried (yield of this crude solid averaged about 450 g). 1t was placed in a 4L beaker, and the product was extracted with 2L of boiling toluene, stirring well with a large metal spatula. The extracts were decanted hot from the red tar insoluble in toluene (but very soluble in acetone), and filtered through a 2-cm bed of Celite. On cooling, amber crystals of (VII) grew from the solution. They were filtered off, and a second crop was obtained by concentrating the mother liquors, and cooling. Total yield for a number of runs averaged about 100 g (20%). After repeated recrystallization from toluene, using Darco, pale yellowish platelets were obtained, m.p. 209°-210°. Analysis: Calc. for C 15 H 8 F 6 O 3 : C, 51.4; H, 2.29; F, 32.6; Found: C, 51.3; H, 2.45; F, 32.9%. The IR spectrum of (VII) has strong phenolic OH at 3100-3500 cm -1 , which disappears on acetylation (see below). NMR (in (CD3)2CO, since CDC13 solubility was very low): d 7.70; dd 6.65; OH singlet 5.42 ppm in 1:2:1 ratio. Since neither chromatography, nor repeated recrystallization, using Darco, succeeded in removing the yellowish color, the diol was purified by conversion to the diacetate, which was purified by short-path distillation (main cut b.p. 195°-204°/1.4 Torr.). The diacetate was recrystallized from toluene/heptane yielding snow white crystals, and was then hydrolyzed by heating overnight in methanol with an equivalent amount of NaOH. The pale amber solution was stripped, the residue was stirred with 300 ml hot water, filtered, the solid was washed repeatedly with hot water and was then air-dried. Yield was quantitative. EXAMPLE 13 9,9-Bis(trifluoromethyl)-3.6-bis(4-amino-phenoxy)xanthene (VIII) A mixture of 51.4 g of 9,9-bis(trifluoromethyl)-3,6-dihydroxyxanthene (VII) (0.147 mole), 46.3 g p-nitrochlorobenene (0.294 mole), 120 ml DMAC and 44.7 g anhydrous potassium carbonate (0.32 mole) was refluxed 4.5 hrs. The mixture was filtered, and the solid was washed with copious amounts of water, and then with methanol. After drying there was obtained a total of 83.7 g (96%) of crude product. The NMR spectrum of the dinitro compound was in agreement with the structure: the A 2 B 2 pattern of the p-nitrophenoxy group as doublets at 8.28 and 7.18, d (b, large J) 7.92 (1-H), dd 6.94 (2-H) and d (small J) 6.87 (4-H ppm, in the correct 1:2:1:1 ratio. The crude dinitro compound (75 g) was hydrogenated at 50° in 400 ml ethanol, using 3 g of 10% Pd/C catalyst at 500 psi hydrogen pressure, until there was no further pressure drop. The reduction mixture was filtered, the filtrate was concentrated down to 300 ml, cooled, and acidified with 280 ml of concentrated hydrochloric acid. The amine hydrochloride was filtered, washed with 20% hydrochloric acid, and dried under a nitrogen blanket. After drying in a vacuum oven, there was obtained 68 g of the dihydrochloride. It was dissolved in aqueous methanol, and the solution was made basic with sodium hydroxide, which liberated the diamine (XIII). It was isolated by filtration, and washed with much water. After drying under nitrogen, there was obtained 58 g of white solid. The material softens around 89°, and melts at 124° turning dark. It was purified by distillation in vacuo, and boiled at 305°-307°/1.5 Torr. The NMR spectrum was confirmatory: A 2 B 2 pattern as doublets at 8.27 and 7.18, the 4-H as broad d (large J) 7.92, 3-H as dd 6.94, 1-H as d (small J) 6.87, and NH 2 as broad (about 1.0 ppm) singlet, centered at 3.46 ppm, in the correct ratio: 2:2:1:1:1:2. Analysis: Calc. for C 27 H 18 F 6 O 3 N 2 : C 60.9; H 3.38; F 2I.4; N 5.26; Found: C 61.3; H 3.19; F 21.2; N 5.01%. EXAMPLE 14 9-Phenyl-9-trifluormethyl-2,3,6,7-tetramethylxanthene (XVI) A mixture of 32 g (0.14 mole) of 3,3'-di-o-xylyl ether (DXE), 25 g (0.14 mole) trifluoroacetylbenzene, and 40 g (2 moles) HF was heated in a shaker tube at 140° for 8 hrs. After distilling off most of the HF, the residue was transferred to a polyethylene jar containing excess cold 20% NaOH. The product was extracted with methylene chloride, the extracts were run through a short column packed with alumina, and stripped to dryness. The pasty residue was stirred with methanol, and filtered. The resulting solid was washed with methanol, and air-dried. It was purified further by sublimation at 200° /1 Torr, and then by recrystallization from toluene. The product (XVI), obtained in 31 g (58%) yield, melted at 214°-215°. Analysis: Calc. for C 24 H 21 F 3 O: C, 75.4; H, 5.50; F, 14.9; Found: C, 75.6; H, 5.52; F, 14.8%. NMR: d 7.40; quartet 7.30; s 6.96, s 6.58, s 2.23, s 2.07 ppm in the correct 2:3:2:2:6:6 ratio. Repeating this run on larger scale (200 g trifluoroacetylbenzene) and lower temperature (130°), improved the yield to 92%. EXAMPLES 15 AND 16 9-Phenyl-9-(trifluoromethyl)xanthene-2,3,6,7-tetracarboxylic Acid (XVII) and 9-Phenyl-9-(trifluoromethyl)xanthene-2,3,6,7-dianhydride (XVII) A 75 g sample (0.196 mole) of 9-phenyl-9-trifluoromethyl-2,3,6,7-tetramethylxanthene (XVI) was oxidized with potassium permanganate in two stages, as was done before with (III). This yield of air-dried crude tetraacid (XVII) was 75 g (76%). The crude tetraacid (XVII) was converted to the dianhydride (XVII) by heating under vacuum at 250°. The crude dianhydride (XVIII) can be sublimed in vacuo, and it also can be recrystallized from anisole, as a bis-solvate (by NMR: the PX peaks are at 7.89 and 7.60 ppm, in addition to anisole peaks). Purification of dianhydride (XVIII) was effected by high-precision sublimation in a McCarter sublimer. After a lower-melting foreshot, the main fraction was collected. It contained two different crystalline types: one consisted of clear light yellow crystals of dianhydride (XVIII) of 99.9% purity, m.p. 276°, the other component crystallized as opaque white clusters of needles. Purity of dianhydride (XVIII) was in the 98.1-99.0% range. Analysis: Calc. for C 24 H 9 F.sub. O 7 : C: 61.8; H 1.93; F 12.2; Found: C 61.9, H 2.03, F 11.8. EXAMPLE 17 9-Phenyl-9pentafluoroethyl-2,3,6,7-tetramethylxanthene A mixture of 101 g DXE and 100 g phenyl pentafluoroethyl ketone (both 0.45 mole) was heated with 112 g (5.6 mole) HF in a shaker tube at 130° for 8 hrs. After venting off excess HF, the reaction mixture was poured into excess cold aqueous sodium hydroxide. The product was extracted with a 50/50 mixture of methylene chloride and chloroform, the extracts were filtered through a 5-cm layer of alumina, and stripped. The residue was stirred with methanol, and was filtered. There was obtained 173 g (89.6%) of crude 9-phenyl-9-pentafluoroethyl-2,3,6,7-tetramethylxanthene. It was recrystallized from a 80/20 heptane/toluene mixture; m.p. 178°-179°. The IR spectrum was sharp, and the NMR spectrum consisted of: d 7.43, asym. m 7.23, s 6.91, s(b) 6.66, s 2.20 and s 2.04 in the correct 2:3:2:2:6:6 ratio. Analysis: Calc. C 25 H 21 F 5 O: C 69.4; H 4.86; F 22.0 ; Found: C 69.5; H 4.92; F 22.5%. EXAMPLE 18 9-Phenyl-9-perfluorooctyl-2,3,6,7-tetramethylxanthene A mixture of 8.7 g of DXE and 20 g phenyl perfluorooctyl ketone (both 0.038 mole) was heated with 0 g (0.5 mole) HF in a shaker tube at 130° for 8 hrs. After venting excess HF, the product mixture was poured into excess cold aqueous alkali, and was extracted with a 50/50 mixture of methylene chloride and chloroform. The extracts were filtered through alumina, stripped and the residue was stirred with methanol. Filtration yielded 9-phenyl-9-perfluorooctyl-2,3,6,7-tetramethylxanthene in two crops, 6.9 and 1.1 g, for a total of 8.0 g (29% yield). The product was recrystallized from heptane; m.p. 177°-178°. NMR: d 7.41, m 7.28, s 6.94, s(b) 6.67, s 2.24, s 2.07, in the correct 2:3:2:2:6:6 ratio. Analysis: Calc. for C 31 H 21 F 17 O: C 50.8; H 2.87; F 44.1; Found: C 50 8; H 2.94; F 44.1%. EXAMPLE 19 9-Phenyl-9-Perluoropropyl-2.3.6.7-tetramethylxanthene A mixture of 31.6 g phenyl perfluoropropyl ketone and 26 g DXE (both 0.115 mole) was heated with 30 g (1.5 moles) HF for 8 hrs at 135°. The reaction mixture was drowned in excess cold aqueous sodium hydroxide, extracted with a 50/50 methylene chloride and chloroform mixture; the extracts were filtered through alumina, stripped, and the residue was stirred with excess methanol. The white solid was filtered, and was obtained after drying in 24.9 g (44.9%) yield. After recrystallization from toluene/heptane, the product melted at 189°-190°. NMR: d 7.43, m 7.2-7.3, s 6.91, s(b) 6.66, s 2.23, s 2.07 in 2:3:2:2:6:6 ratio. Analysis: Calc. for C 26 H 21 F 7 O: C 64.7; H 4.36; F 27.6; Found: C 64.7; H 4.55; F 25.0, 25.1. EXAMPLE 20 9-Trifluoromethyl-9-pentafluoroethyl-2,3,6,7-tetramethylxanthene A mixture of 45.2 g DXE, 41 g trifluoromethyl pentafluoroethyl ketone (both 0.2 mole) and 50 g HF (2.5 moles) was heated in a shaker tube at 140° for 8 hrs. After venting residual HF, the reaction mixture was transferred to a polyethylene jar, containing icewater, plus excess sodium hydroxide. The product was extracted with methyIene chloride, the extracts were run through a bed of alumina, stripped, and the residue was stirred with methanol, and filtered. There was obtained a total of 18 g (21%) of white 9-trifluoromethyl-9-pentafluoroethyl-2,3,6,7-tetramethylxanthene. It is very soluble in toluene, chloroform, but insoluble in methanol. It was purified by sublimation, and then recrystallized from heptane; m.p. 139-140° . The NMR spectrum was confirmatory: s (b) 7.57; s 6.93 and s 2.27 ppm in the correct 1:1:6 ratio. Analysis: Calc. for C 20 H 16 F 8 O: C 56.6; H 3.77; F 35.85; Found: C.56.8; H 3.77; F 33.0, 33.1. EXAMPLE 21 9-Phenyl-9-trifluoromethyl-2,7-dimenthylxanthene (XIX) A mixture of 114 g (0.54 mole) p-tolyl ether (X), g (0.54 mole) trifluoromethyl phenyl ketone, and g (8 moles) HF was heated in an autoclave for 8 hrs at 130°. After venting excess HF, the reaction mixture was quenched in 2L ice water, containing 500 ml 50% NaOH. The product was extracted with methylene chloride, the extracts were filtered through a layer of alumina, stripped and distilled in vacuo. There was obtained 140 g (73%) of distillate boiling at 186°-210°/2 Torr. The solid was recrystallized from methanol or isopropyl alcohol. M.p. 150°-151°. NMR: d 7.40, m 7.30, s 7.07, s(b) 6.64, s 2.16 ppm in 2:3:4:2:6 ratio. AnaIysis: Calc. for C 22 H 17 F 3 O: C 74.6; H 4.80; F 16.1; Found: C 74 7; H 4.90; F I5.g%. EXAMPLE 22 9-Phenyl-9trifluoromethylxanthene-2,7-dicarboxvlic Acid (XX) A 100 g batch of 9-phenyl-9-trifluoromethyl-2,7-dimethylxanthene (XIX) was oxidized in the same manner as a 75 g batch of (III). At the final filtration stage there was some granular white solid present in the MnO 2 filter cake. It was extracted with methylene chloride, and identified as unreacted starting material. Yield of recovered (XIX) was 16 g. From the filtrate, upon acidification with sulfuric acid there was obtained, after filtering, washing, and drying, 74 g (75%) of the dicarboxylic acid (XX). In another, larger scale preparation, the yield was 89%. EXAMPLE 23 9- Phenyl-9-trifluoromethylxanthene-2,7-dicarbonyl Dichloride (XXI) A slurry of 82 g (0.2 mole) of dried, crude -phenyl-9-trifluoromethylxanthene-2,7-dicarboxylic acid (XX) and 50 ml (large excess) of thionyl chloride in 500 ml chloroform was stirred and heated to gentle reflux in an oil bath. After 3 hrs of refluxing, the solution became clear. It was stirred overnight, and allowed to cool. Volatiles were stripped at atmospheric pressure, 0 ml heptane plus some Darco was added to the residue, the mixture was heated to reflux, and filtered through Celite. On cooling, crystals were obtained, which were filtered off and washed with hexane. 9-phenyl-9-trifluoromethylxanthene-2,7-dicarbonyl dichloride (XXI) was obtained in 64.7 g (71.7%) yield. Another 10.7 g I2%) of the dichloride was obtained by stripping the filtrate, and short-path distillation at about 200°/0.8 Torr, and stirring the syrupy distillate with heptane. After two recrystallizations from heptane the product melted at 128°-130°. IR: very strong carbonyl at 1750 cm -1 . NMR: dd 8.15, "s" 7.74, m 7.3-7.5 ppm in 2:7(5+2) ratio. EXAMPLE 24 9-Phenyl-9-trifluoromethylxanthene-2 7-dicarbonyl azide To a stirred solution of 5.0 9 9-phenyl-9-trifluoromethylxanthene-dicarbonyl dichloride (XXI) in ml methylene chloride was added an aqueous solution of 5 g (large excess) sodium azide plus 0.05 g tetrabutylammonium bromide (as phase transfer agent). The two-phase mixture was stirred vigorously for 2 hrs, then the organic layer was separated, and filtered through a small bed of alumina. On evaporation, there was obtained 4.5 g of a white solid, which showed a strong azide band at 2140 cm -1 and a strong carbonyl band at 1685 cm -1 . NMR: d 8.04, "s" 7.62, m 7.37, d 7.30 ppm in the correct 2:2:5:2 ratio. The compound melts with vigorous bubbling at 126°-127°. EXAMPLE 25 9-Phenyl-9-trifluoromethylxanthene-2,7- diisocyanate (XXII) A two phase system, consisting of 45 g (0.1 mole) of 9-phenyl-9-trifluoromethylxanthenedicarbonyl dichloride (XXI) in 300 ml methylene chloride, and 22 g sodium azide plus 0.5 g Bu 4 NBr in 100 ml water was stirred vigorously at room temperature for 1.5 hr. The orange organic layer was separated, stirred with Darco, and filtered through a Celite/alumina layer. The colorIess fiIrrate was added dropwise to boiling toluene in a closed system, so that the solvent distilled out, and the nitrogen evolved could be measured by a wet-test meter. After all methylene chloride had distilled out and the toluene was refluxing, the theoretical amount of nitrogen was evolved. Toluene was distilled out at reduced pressure. The residue was extracted with 200 ml of boiling heptane. On cooling the solution, crystals were obtained in two crops 27.4 g and 7.8 g, for a total of 35.2 g (86.3%) of 9-phenyl-9-trifluoromethylxanthene2,7-diisocYanate (XXII). The compound melts at 133°-134°, and contains a very strong NCO band at 2260 cm -1 . NMR: m 7.37, d 7.15, dd 7.06, "s" 6.56 (10 in 5:2:2:2 ratio. Analysis: Calc. for C 22 H 11 F 3 N 2 O 3 : C 64.7; H 2.70; F 14.0; Found: C 64.9; H 2.91; F 13.8%. EXAMPLE 26 9-(4-Perfluorohexylphenyl)-9-heptafluoropropyl-2,3,6,7-tetramethylxanthene A mixture of 25.1 g dixylyl ether (0 11 mole) and g 4-perfluorohexylphenyl heptafluoropropyl ketone (0.11 mole) was heated with 35 g (1.75 moles) HF in an autoclave at 140° C. for 8 hrs. After removal of excess HF the clave contents were transfered into a jar containing excess ice and sodium hydroxide. The product was extracted with methylene chloride, and the extracts were filtered through a bed of alumina, and stripped to dryness. The residue was stirred with methanol, and filtered yielding 60 g (68%) of the product in two crops (56.4 g, and 3.6 g). The material can be recrystallized from heptane or from isopropyl alcohol; M.p. 121°-122° C. It can also be distilled in vacuo. NMR: A 2 B 2 doublet 7.55, s 6.95, s 6.58, s 2.23 and s 2.07 ppm in the correct 4:1:1:3:3 ratio. EXAMPLE 27 9,9-Bis(trifluoromethyll)-3,6-dihydroxyxanthene polyester (IX) A solution of 7.020 g of 9,9-bis(trifluoromethyl)3,6-dihydroxyxanthene (VII) and 6.5 ml of triethylamine in 50 ml of methylene chloride was stirred at room temperature as 4.070 g of a 70:30 mixture of isophthaloyl chloride and terephthaloyl chloride in 20 ml of methylene chloride was added over 5 min. The mixture became cloudy and was stirred at reflux for one hour, and then at room temperature overnight. The solution was added to 500 ml of methanol in a blender; the precipitated polymer was filtered, reblended with 500 ml of fresh methanol, and filtered again. The polymer was then blended with warm tap water, filtered, washed with methanol and dried to yield 9.2 g of polyester; u inh =0.37 (0.4% in NMP). Film was cast from a 15% solution of polymer in THF and the solvent was removed in a vacuum oven at 130° . The film was tested for oxygen and nitrogen separation at 500 psig (feed gas: 21% O 2 /79% N 2 ): the O 2 /N 2 separation factor was 4.50 and the oxygen permeability was 7.0 Barrers. The film was fairly strong even at this low molecular weight.

Disclosed are rigid fluorinated monomers, their preparation, and polymers derived therefrom based on two novel tricyclic xanthene core systems, 9,9-bis-(perfluoroalkyl)xanthene (I) and 9-phenyl-9-perfluoro-alkylxanthene (II). The monomers have utility in the preparation of advanced high-performance polymers, particularly polyimides.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/780,181, filed Mar. 13, 2013, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety. FIELD OF THE INVENTION Embodiments of the present invention are generally related to a braking device used to selectively alter the speed of an individual wearing in-line skates. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION In-line skates comprise boot portion for receipt of the user's foot. A wheel frame, which supports at least two tandem wheels, is interconnected to a lower surface of the boot. In-line skates have become popular recreational equipment and are often used as an alternative to roller skates. Furthermore, in-line skates are preferred by floor or roller hockey enthusiasts who seek an ice hockey experience. However, many players find it difficult to slow and stop in the same manner and fashion as experienced in ice skating when wearing in-line skates. Most in-line skates employ a brake pad on the aft end of the frame and/or boot. To stop, the user tilts his or her toe upwardly, which rotates the boot about the rearmost wheel and places the brake pad in contact with the ground. As one of skill in the art will appreciate, pad-to-ground contact generates a friction load that slows and eventually stops forward motion. Brake pads work well to stop forward motion, but cannot slow or stop a user when his or her boots are moving laterally, i.e., when attempting to make a turning stop often performed while playing ice hockey, or participating in other in-line skate activities. Further, using such brakes is awkward as the user must shift his or her body weight rearwardly in such a way to place the pad in contact with the ground. Over-rotation will cause the user to fall, which could cause serious injury. To address this latter issue, some in-line skates employ handbrakes similar to those used in bicycles that comprise a pad that contacts a portion of at least one wheel of the in-line skate. For example, U.S. Published Patent Application No. 2004/0207163 to Smyler discloses a handbrake that contacts a rear wheel to reduce the forward velocity. The system is unusable for floor or roller hockey players because they require both hands to hold a hockey stick. Other in-line skates employ disc brakes as disclosed in WIPO Publication No. 2008/082675 to Lin, which discloses a device that includes a mechanism that interconnects above the user's ankle wherein the user must tilt rearwardly to actuate the brake. These devices suffer the same drawbacks of over-rotation and potential injury described above. Still other in-line skates include a toe-actuated brake as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,143,387 to Colla. These braking devices add complexity and cost to the in-line skate and are not intuitive to use, especially to those who are accustomed to slowing or stopping as they do when using ice skates. It is a long felt need to provide an in-line skate braking device that allows for ease of braking while not adding complexity to the in-line skate or by requiring the user to use his or her hands. The following disclosure describes an improved braking device that allows the user to slow and stop while turning as commonly performed by ice hockey players, and to make in-line skating safer and more enjoyable for other enthusiasts. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is one aspect of embodiments of the present invention to provide an in-line skate braking device that generates braking force dependant on degree of lateral tilt or change in orientation. This aspect of the present invention is desirable to individuals who play floor hockey, roller hockey, or participate other in-line skate activities because braking force is not dependent on the distance between the skate heel or tip and the ground. It is thus another aspect of embodiments of the present invention to provide an in-line skate brake that allows the in-line skate to slow or stop much like an ice skate wherein the amount of ice skate lateral deflection dictates the applied braking force. Braking while laterally tilting the in-line skate more accurately simulates ice-skating where the degree of turn dictates the generated force that impedes forward motion of the skate and the user. Thus, individuals playing floor hockey, roller hockey, or participating in other in-line skate activities will have a more realistic experience. Individuals who play ice hockey can use the in-line skate and braking apparatus as contemplated herein for training purposes and not have to adjust their normal play to account for alternative braking methods employed by existing in-line skates. In addition, the realistic slowing and stopping options provided to all users will increase user safety and enjoyment. It is an aspect of embodiments of the present invention to provide a braking force that increases as a user progressively engages a braking device. More specifically, the braking device of one embodiment comprises a housing or receiver interconnected to a brake frame that accommodates a plurality of spring-loaded balls that selectively contact the ground when the in-line skate is tilted laterally a predetermined amount. The amount of skate tilt will dictate the normal force the ball applies to the ground and, thus, the applied frictional braking force. The ball may rotate within the housing or fixed relative thereto. It is yet another aspect of the present invention to provide braking device that includes replaceable elements. To provide maximum braking force, some embodiments of the present invention employ a ball that rotates to some degree which will cause it to wear over time. When the ball, or other friction-producing member, wears, it can be quickly and easily replaced by removing a retainer that secures the components of the braking device to the slider receiver. Further, if a user desires to upgrade components of the present invention or replace worn-out parts, the parts may be easily replaced. It is yet another aspect of some embodiments of the present invention to provide a fully adjustable braking device to suit different user preferences and skill levels. Adjustable aspects of the braking device include, but are not limited to, modification of the angle of the braking device from a vertical plane, the distance that the braking device extends from the frame or in-line skate, and whether the brake force responds linearly, non-linearly, or otherwise from the user's input, i.e., tilting of the braking device into a surface. Further, a user may arrange the braking devices in various configurations. In some embodiments, the braking devices are arrayed on either side of an in-line skate frame. Alternative embodiments may allow a user to selectively remove and replace braking devices such that one side of the in-line skate has one or more braking devices, and the other side may have no braking devices. It is one aspect of embodiments of the present invention to provide an in-line skate assembly, comprising: a frame having a plurality of receivers each having a proximate end and a distal end; a spring cap positioned in each of the plurality of receivers at the proximate end of each receiver; a sliding collar positioned in each of the plurality of receivers, wherein an outwardly extending flange is disposed on a proximate surface on each of the sliding collars, and wherein a distal surface on each of the sliding collars includes an aperture; a ball positioned in each of the sliding collars, wherein at least a portion of the ball is exposed through the aperture on each of the sliding collars; a locator disk positioned within each of the sliding collars and located on a side of the ball opposite the aperture on each of the sliding collars; a spring positioned in each of the plurality of receivers, the spring having a first end and a second end, wherein the first end of the spring interfaces with each the spring cap, wherein the spring extends into the sliding collar, and wherein the second end of the spring interfaces with the locator disk such that the spring exerts a force on the locator disk, which in turn exerts a frictional force on the ball, which biases a portion the ball against the distal surface of the sliding collar; a retainer with an inwardly extending flange on a distal surface of the retainer, wherein the retainer operatively interconnects to each of the plurality of receivers; wherein each of the sliding collars has a first position of use wherein the inwardly extending flange of the retainer is selectively engaged with the outward extending flange of the sliding collar; and wherein each of the sliding collars has a second position of use wherein the ball is in contact with a surface and the ball is forced into each of the plurality of receivers. It is still yet another aspect of embodiments of the present invention to provide a braking device for interconnection to an in-line skate, comprising: a slider receiver having an inner diameter, a proximate end, and a distal end; a slider partially disposed in the slider receiver, the slider having an outer diameter that is less than the inner diameter of the slider receiver; a ball partially disposed in the slider, the ball having a diameter that is less than the outer diameter of the slider; and a biasing device having a first end and a second end, wherein the first end of the biasing device interfaces with the proximate end of the slider receiver, and wherein the second end of the biasing device is operatively interconnected with the ball. It is a further aspect of embodiments of the present invention to provide an in-line skate assembly, comprising: a frame having a plurality of receivers having a proximate end and a distal end, the distal end of each of the plurality of receivers having an inwardly facing flange that forms an aperture; a first friction-generating means disposed in each of the plurality of receivers at the distal end of the receivers, wherein at least a portion of the first friction-generating means is exposed through the aperture of the inwardly facing flange of each of the plurality of receivers; and a biasing means disposed between the proximate end of each of the plurality of receivers and the first friction-generating means of each of the plurality of receivers, wherein the biasing means produces a force against the first friction-generating means of each of the plurality of receivers. The Summary of the Invention is neither intended nor should it be construed as representing the full extent and scope of the present invention. Moreover, references made herein to “the present invention” or aspects thereof should be understood to mean certain embodiments of the present invention and should not be construed as limiting all embodiments to a particular description. The present invention is set forth in various levels of detail in the Summary of the Invention and in the attached drawings and the Detailed Description of the Invention and no limitation as to the scope of the present invention is intended by either the inclusion or non-inclusion of elements, components, etc. in this Summary of the Invention. Additional aspects of the present invention will become more readily apparent from the Detail Description, particularly when taken with the drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of the specification, illustrate embodiments of the invention and with the general description of the invention given above and the detailed description of the drawings given below, explain the principles of these inventions. FIG. 1 is an isometric, exploded view of a braking device of one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2A is a front elevation view of a frame with a shield in accordance with embodiments of the present invention; FIG. 2B is a side elevation view of the frame and shield of the embodiment in FIG. 2A ; FIG. 2C is a top plan view of the frame and shield of the embodiment in FIG. 2A ; FIG. 3 is a front elevation view of a frame and braking device of one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 4 is a front elevation view of the frame and braking device of FIG. 3 where a friction-generating element is biased into the frame; FIG. 5A is an isometric view of a frame and braking device with spring cap pairs; FIG. 5B is an isometric view of a spring cap assembly; FIG. 6 is a bottom isometric view of a frame of one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 7 is an isometric view of a frame with a side shield in accordance with some embodiments of the present invention; FIG. 8A is an isometric, exploded view of a braking device of one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 8B is a cross-sectional view of a braking device of one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 9A is a side elevation view components of a braking device of one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 9B is a side isometric view of a frame with the braking device components of the embodiment in FIG. 9A ; FIG. 9C is an isometric view of the frame and braking device of the embodiment in FIG. 9B ; FIG. 10A is a front elevation view of a frame of one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 10B is a top plan view of the frame of the embodiment in FIG. 10A ; FIG. 10C is a side elevation view of the frame of the embodiment in FIG. 10 A; FIG. 11A is an isometric view of the frame of the embodiment in FIG. 10A ; FIG. 11B is a side view of the frame of the embodiment in FIG. 10A ; and FIG. 11C is a top view of the frame of the embodiment in FIG. 10A . To assist in the understanding of the embodiments of the present invention the following list of components and associated numbering found in the drawings is provided herein: No. Component 90 Boot 100 Braking Device 102 Frame 104 First Wheel 105 Second Wheel 106 Third Wheel 107 Fourth Wheel 108 Slider 112 Ball 114 Base Opening 116 Spring Cap 120 Spring Cap Assembly 124 Cross Rib 128 Wheel Axle Aperture 130 Wheel Axle 132 Slider Receiver 136 Side Shield 140 Spring 144 Locator Disk 148 Sliding Collar 152 Retainer 156 Pad 160 Spring Spacer 164 Shield 168 Shield Width 172 Shield Height 176 Wheel-to-Wheel Length 177 Horizontal Extension 178 First Vertical Extension 179 Second Vertical Extension 180 Vertical Extension Thickness 184 Vertical Extension Gap 188 Horizontal Extension Thickness 192 Receiver Rib Thickness 196 Receiver Angle 200 Receiver Radius 204 Base Opening Length 208 Base Opening First Width 212 Horizontal Extension Width 216 Base Opening Radius 220 First Base Opening Distance 224 Second Base Opening Distance 228 Third Base Opening Distance 232 Horizontal Extension Length 236 Vertical Extension Radius 240 Vertical Extension Angle 244 First Radius Length 248 First Wheel Aperture Length 252 Second Wheel Aperture Length 256 Third Wheel Aperture Length 260 Fourth Wheel Aperture Length 264 Second Radius Length 268 Receiver Width 272 First Receiver Diameter 276 Second Receiver Diameter 280 Notch Height 284 First Receiver Radius 288 Receiver Rib Width 292 Third Receiver Diameter It should be understood that the drawings are not necessarily to scale. In certain instances, details that are not necessary for an understanding of the invention or that render other details difficult to perceive may have been omitted. It should be understood that the invention is not necessarily limited to the particular embodiments illustrated herein. DETAILED DESCRIPTION As described below, various embodiments of the present invention include a braking device 100 that provides a force used to generate braking friction. Embodiments of the present invention have significant benefits across a broad spectrum of endeavors. It is the Applicant's intent that this specification and the claims to be accorded a breadth in keeping with the scope and spirit of the described invention or inventions despite what might appear to be limiting language imposed by referring to specific disclosed examples. FIG. 1 is an isometric view of one embodiment of the present invention where a boot 90 is interconnected to a shield 164 , and various braking devices are shown in an exploded view. A user wears the boot 90 on his or her foot, and when a user tilts the boot 90 to either side, a friction-generating element or biasing device, a ball 112 in this embodiment, engages the surface to rotate the ball 112 and generate braking force. The braking devices in FIG. 1 comprise a slider receiver 132 disposed in the frame, a spring 140 , a sliding collar 148 , the ball 112 , and a retainer 152 . However, the embodiment in FIG. 1 also comprises a pad 156 and a spring spacer 160 . The pad 156 provides a surface upon which the spring 140 can press against, and the pad 156 translates the spring force to the ball 112 . As the ball 112 rotates against the pad, friction is generated that influences ball rotation which creates a braking friction between the ball and the surface that slows or stops longitudinal movement of the skate. The friction produced at the ball/pad interface is influenced by the spring stiffness, the pad material, the pad shape and configuration, the pad surface configuration, the ball material, the ball surface configuration, etc. Also, the pad may include an indent or pocket that receives the ball, which acts as a dynamic joint and increases contact between the ball and the pad. Accordingly, embodiments allow for the replacement of the ball, spring, and pad so that stopping characteristics can by selectively tailored to meet the user's needs. The spring spacer 160 is disposed in the slider receiver 132 and provides a surface upon which the spring 140 can press against. FIG. 1 also shows other components of the present invention. A wheel axle 130 may be positioned in wheel axle apertures (shown in FIG. 6 ) to provide an axis upon which wheels may rotate. Further in this embodiment, a shield 164 interfaces with the top of the frame. FIGS. 2A-2C show various views of the frame and the braking devices with the shield affixed to the frame. FIG. 2A is a front elevation view of the frame and shield assembly. The shield width 168 in this embodiment is approximately 4.6″. Further, the shield height 172 , or the distance between the bottom of the wheels and the top of the shield, is approximately 4.5″. FIG. 2B shows a side elevation view of the frame and shield assembly, which comprises four wheels: a first wheel 104 , a second wheel 105 , a third wheel 106 , and a fourth wheel 107 . In this embodiment of the present invention, the first wheel 104 is approximately 72 mm in diameter, the second wheel 105 is approximately 76 mm in diameter, the third wheel 106 is approximately 76 mm in diameter, and the fourth wheel 107 is approximately 80 mm in diameter. These wheel sizes provide the user with a forward-leaning stance. One skilled in the art will appreciate other sequences of wheel sizes that are advantageous. For example, embodiments may have wheels that are the same size or that are larger towards the front end of the frame. FIG. 2C shows a top plan view of the shield and frame assembly. FIGS. 3 and 4 show an embodiment of the present invention where braking devices 100 engage a surface to rotate a ball 112 and generate braking friction, which may be dependent on the amount of ball rotation. FIG. 3 shows the frame 102 tilted at from a vertical plane wherein a first wheel 104 is visible. A slider 108 is partially disposed in the frame 102 , and the ball 112 is partially disposed in the slider 108 . The slider 108 and the ball 112 extend outwardly at an angle relative to a plane through the longitudinal axis of the frame 102 . The slider 108 and the ball 112 are forced outward by a spring. The braking device 100 in FIG. 3 is shown initially engaged because the ball 112 has just contacted the surface. FIG. 4 shows the braking device 100 fully engaged. When the user tilts the frame 102 the ball 112 will initially contact with the ground. Further rotation will force the ball 112 upward into the frame 102 , which will compress a spring positioned between the slider 108 and the frame 102 . As the spring is compressed, the force exerted on the ball 112 will increase, thereby increasing the normal load imparted on the ground by the ball 112 . As one skilled the art will appreciate, the greater the normal load, the greater the friction generated by the ball 112 . Eventually, the slider 108 will be substantially positioned within the frame 102 wherein additional lateral rotation will increase the normal load to the ball 112 to affect maximum braking. When the frame 102 is rotated laterally in an opposite direction, force on the ball 112 and friction will decrease proportionately, which reduces the braking force. When the frame 102 is rotated a predetermined amount, the spring will expand and the ball 112 will be positioned away from the frame 102 and away from the ground. In the embodiment depicted in FIGS. 3 and 4 , the ball 112 may be 1″ or 25 mm in diameter. However, one skilled in the art will appreciate embodiments of the present invention employ balls 112 of other sizes, and the balls 112 used in the same frame 100 do not have to be the same size. Further, in some embodiments, the ball 112 may freely rotate inside of the slider 108 . In this instance, the ball 112 generates less braking force. In other embodiments of the present invention, the ball 112 may have a stifled or slowed rotation so the ball 112 generates a greater braking force. The ball 112 may generate different friction forces depending on various characteristics of the ball 112 such as, but not limited to, durometer hardness, other indicators of hardness, compressive strength, ductility, grain size, and crystalline structure. FIGS. 3 and 4 show an embodiment of the present invention that has a slider 108 which is not confined to the braking device 100 with a separate retainer. Rather, the slider 108 comprises a flange disposed at a proximate end of the slider 108 that prevents the spring from pushing the slider 108 out of the braking device 100 . Other embodiments, discussed in greater detail below, comprise a separate retainer that prevents the spring from pushing the slider 108 out of the braking device 100 . In further embodiments of the present invention, a slider 108 is not included. The distal end of the slider receiver portion of the frame 100 that houses the braking device may comprise an inwardly extending flange or an aperture such that a portion of the ball 112 is exposed through the flange or aperture to engage a surface. The spring pushes the ball 112 against the flange or aperture and function similar to other embodiments described herein. FIGS. 5A and 5B show the braking device 100 and three spring cap pairs 116 above the frame 102 . This embodiment comprises a frame 102 and a series of braking devices 100 comprising of sliders 108 and balls 112 . The three spring cap pairs 116 provide a location upon which a spring may press against. The base openings 114 , which the spring cap pairs 116 are disposed, allow the frame 102 to mount into another device 100 , typically an in-line boot. FIG. 5B shows a spring cap assembly 120 where the spring cap pairs 116 are configured into a single piece. FIG. 6 shows a bottom isometric view of an embodiment of the present invention. Here, six slider receivers 132 disposed on the frame 102 , with three slider receivers 132 disposed on one side of the frame 102 , and three slider receivers 132 disposed on the opposite side of the frame 102 . The two arrays of slider receivers 132 may exhibit bilateral symmetry about a plane through the longitudinal axis of, and perpendicular to the top surface of, the frame 102 . Cross ribs 124 are disposed between the slider receivers 132 to add rigidity to the frame 102 . Also shown in FIG. 6 are a series of wheel axle apertures 128 where wheels and wheel axles may be located. The wheel axle apertures 128 are spaced along the longitudinal length of the frame 102 such that the slider receivers 132 may be disposed between each wheel axle aperture 128 . In the embodiment shown in FIG. 6 , the frame 102 is made from cast aluminum which is light weight and strong. However, other materials may be used, such as, but not limited to, carbon fiber, pressed aluminum, polyurethane, or magnesium. FIG. 7 shows another embodiment of the present invention that comprises a side shield 136 that extends from the top of the frame 102 towards the braking device balls. The side shield 136 acts as a governor when the user tilts the frame 102 and engages the braking device on a surface. As the balls are pressed into the frame 102 , the shield will stop the travel of the balls at a certain point during operation of the braking device. This governing of the braking device prevents the ball and slider assemblies from locking up and damaging the braking device. As such, the side shield 136 may be made of a friction producing material. The side shield 136 may also be compliant so not to damage the playing surface when contact is made. Further, the side shield 136 provides protection so pucks or balls impacting the skate do not damage the braking devices. In addition, the side shield 136 prevents entanglement between the braking devices of the user's left and right skates as well as between the user's skates and a third party's skates. The side shields 136 may be removable. FIGS. 8A and 8B show a retainer 152 used to secure the sliding collar 148 and prevent the spring 140 from pushing the sliding collar 148 out of the braking device 100 . The frame 102 accommodates a slider receiver 132 , which is an opening or cavity that houses components of the braking device 100 . A spring 140 is partially disposed in the slider receiver 132 . The spring 140 size and stiffness may be altered to suit player needs or desires. The springs may also be different where the braking devices provide different braking characteristics. As the ball 112 is pressed into the frame 102 , specifically the slider receiver 132 , the spring 140 compresses and provides an increasing force against a locator disk 144 , and in turn, an increasing force against the ball 112 . The locater disk 144 helps the spring 140 align with the ball 112 and allows the ball 112 to rotate, or not rotate, as the braking device 100 is engaged. More specifically, the frictional interaction between the ball 112 and the locater disk 144 may dictate the braking force of the braking device. The locator disk 144 comprises an indentation to provide more surface area contact with the ball 112 . The locator disk 144 can be made from a variety of materials with a number of features that determine the friction generated between the locator disk 144 and the ball 112 . For example, the locator disk 144 may comprise a textured or coarse surface that generates a high amount of frictional force with the ball 112 . A user may desire to change the locator disk 144 and/or ball 112 to set up different performance characteristics of the braking device 100 . The sliding collar 148 and the retainer 152 are disposed on the end of the braking device 100 . The sliding collar 148 comprises an aperture on its bottom edge or distal surface, teeth on its outer surface, and a flange on its top edge or proximate surface. The aperture allows the ball 112 to extend out from the braking device 100 , but the aperture does not allow the ball 112 to fall out. This means the diameter of the aperture is less than or equal to the diameter of the ball 112 . The teeth on out the outer surface of the sliding collar 148 correspond to teeth on the retainer 152 which prevents rotation of the sliding collar 148 as the user engages the braking device 100 . The flange on the proximate surface of the sliding collar 148 extends outward in the radial direction to provide a surface upon which the retainer 152 can secure the sliding collar 148 . The retainer 152 comprises teeth on its inner diameter, threads on its outer surface, and an inward facing flange located proximate the teeth on the inner surface. The teeth correspond to the teeth on the outer surface of the sliding collar 148 which prevents rotation of the sliding collar 148 when a user engages the braking device 100 . The inward facing flange of the retainer 152 is also located towards the same distal end of the retainer 152 as the teeth. The inward facing flange corresponds to the flange of the sliding collar 148 such that the inner diameter of the inward facing flange is equal to or less than the outer diameter of the flange of the sliding collar 148 . This allows the two flanges to selectively engage such that the retainer 152 secures the sliding collar 148 to prevent the danger of the sliding collar 148 falling out of the braking device 100 . The retainer 152 also comprises threads on its inner surface that correspond to threads on the outer surface of the slider receiver 132 such that the retainer 152 is threaded onto the slider receiver 132 and the frame 102 . FIG. 8B shows a cross-sectional view of an assembled braking device 100 . The retainer 152 screws into the slider receiver 132 on the frame 102 such that the other components of the braking device 100 are secured. The flange on the proximate surface of the sliding collar 148 interfaces with the inward facing flange of the retainer 152 , and the ball 112 interfaces with the sliding collar's 148 aperture. One end of the spring 140 presses against a base of the slider receiver 132 or a spring cap, and the other end of the spring 140 presses against the locator disk 144 , which presses against the ball 112 . The ball presses against the sliding collar 148 which causes the flanges of the sliding collar 148 and the retainer 152 to interface. Embodiments of the present invention may include adjustable components or features. For example, in FIGS. 8A and 8B the distance that the sliding collar 148 extends outward from the frame 102 may be adjusted. The flange on the proximate surface of the sliding collar 148 governs the maximum distance that the sliding collar 148 may extend outward. A user can alter the distance by altering the interface between the sliding collar's 148 flange and the inward facing flange of the retainer 152 . A user may insert an object between the flanges to move the sliding collar 148 further into the frame 102 . Objects such as washers, o-rings, or other similar objects may be utilized to adjust the distance that the sliding collar 148 extends outward from the frame 102 . A more straightforward adjustment of the braking device 100 is the substitution of the spring 140 for another spring 140 . The replacement spring 140 may have different properties such as stiffness. Further, the scope of the present invention is not limited to springs 140 . In some embodiments air cushions, leaf springs, hydraulics, or magnetic repulsion may be used to providing a dampening effect between the ball 112 and the frame 102 . Further yet, embodiments of the present invention are not limited to the linear force equation of the spring 140 : F=k ( x 2 −x 1 ) where F is the force generated by the compression of the spring, k is the stiffness constant of the spring, x 2 is the final position of the spring, and x 1 is the initial position of the spring. Other embodiments may comprise features that exhibit non-linear responses to various inputs. In some embodiments, this may mean that the initial input results in little response, but after a threshold input the resulting response greatly increases, similar to an ice skater or snowboarder using an edge to turn. The embodiment depicted in FIGS. 8A and 8B comprise a retainer 152 selectively interconnected to the slider receiver 132 . In this embodiment, the selective interconnection is a threaded connection where a user screws the retainer 152 onto the slider receiver 132 . One skilled in the art will appreciate other means of selective interconnection. The retainer 152 allows a user to quickly disassemble the braking device 100 and change out worn parts or upgrade with improved parts. FIGS. 9A-9C show various views of the frame 102 and braking device 100 . FIG. 9A shows the spring cap 116 , the locator disk 144 , the slider 108 , and the ball 112 in an exploded view. Also shown in FIG. 9A are two ribs on the outer diameter of the slider 108 , one rib disposed toward the leading edge of the frame 102 and one rib disposed towards the trailing edge of the frame 102 . These ribs correspond to notches in the slider receivers in the frame 102 such that the sliders do not rotate when the user engages the braking device 100 . The top edge of the slider 108 has a flange that extends outward. This flange governs the extent to which a spring can press the ball 112 and the slider 108 outward from the frame 102 . When a user inserts the slider 108 through a base opening on top of the frame 102 , the slider 108 passes through the slider receiver, and the slider 108 extends outward from the frame 102 . However, the flange catches the inner surface of the slider receiver, and the slider 108 cannot extend all the way through the slider receiver. This allows the braking device 100 to function without a retainer as described elsewhere herein. FIG. 9B shows the embodiment in FIG. 9A where the components are assembled into a frame 102 and a braking device 100 . FIG. 9C shows an isometric view of a frame 102 and three braking devices 100 with the rib-notch configuration described above. Although a generic ball 112 is used as an example of a friction-generating device in FIGS. 9A-9C , the ball 112 may be configured to interact with a variety of surfaces and conditions. For example, when embodiments of the present invention are used on a sport court, the ball 112 may be a compliant and made from the same or similar material as the wheel or court, which includes, but is not limited to, polyurethane, hard rubber, copolymer plastic, aluminum, carbon fiber, and titanium. On less forgiving surfaces such as asphalt and concrete the ball 112 may be made from a stiffer material to prevent ball deformation. Further, the ball 112 may be dimpled, created by a bead-blasting technique, for example. Surface features that add texture to the ball 112 can extend its useful life within embodiments of the present invention. Even further, other embodiments of the present invention do not utilize a ball 112 as a friction-generating device. Other embodiments utilize a bar that has a longitudinal axis disposed substantially parallel to the longitudinal axis of the slider receiver. Further embodiments may utilize different orientations of the bar or other friction-generating device including, but not limited to, disks, blades, wheels, rectangular prisms, and plates. One skilled in the art will appreciate the ball 112 , or friction-generating device, is not the only component that may provide the braking force against a surface. Other components of the braking device 100 such as the slider 108 may contact the ground and generate braking friction. This may prove advantageous because a greater surface area contacts the ground and provides additional friction and braking force. There is also advantage in the multi-stage aspect of the slider 108 contacting the ground. As the ball 112 contacts the surface a certain amount of braking force exists, but as the slider 108 contacts the surface there is a jump in braking force. This may be akin to ice skates cutting into the ice with an edge of the skate's blade. Further embodiments of this concept are not limited to the slider 108 , and other embodiments may comprise several components that progressively contact the surface as a user engages the braking device 100 , much like a telescoping device. One skilled in the art will appreciate various combinations of components that contact the ground at different stages of braking device 100 engagement to provide a braking force response that may be linear, non-linear, or otherwise. FIGS. 9A-9C show three braking devices 100 disposed on each side of the frame 102 . Other embodiments of the present invention may have different combinations and configurations of braking devices 100 . A side of the frame 102 may have fewer or greater braking devices 100 than three or even no braking devices 100 at all. In an asymmetric configuration, one side of the frame 102 has one or more braking devices 100 , and the opposite side has no braking devices 100 . This configuration may be advantageous because it's more economical and simpler than other configurations, and the single braking device 100 may be sufficient for the user's purposes. Similarly, the braking devices 100 themselves need not be identical. In one embodiment, the center braking device 100 could comprise a larger ball 112 or a ball 112 that extends further from the frame 102 . This configuration would allow the center braking device 100 to contact a surface first and provide an initial braking force. As the user continues to tilt the frame 102 , the other two braking devices 100 may contact the surface and provide additional braking force. One skilled in the art will appreciate various symmetrical and asymmetrical combinations of the braking devices 100 to achieve various advantages. FIGS. 10A-10C show various views of a frame 102 according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 10A shows a front elevation view of the frame 102 . The frame 102 is generally comprised of a horizontal extension 177 and first and second vertical extensions 178 , 179 that descend below the horizontal extension 177 . In this embodiment, the first and second vertical extensions 178 , 179 are substantially parallel to each other and substantially perpendicular to the horizontal extension 177 . One skilled in the art will appreciate other configurations and orientations of extensions. The vertical extension thickness 180 is approximately 5 mm. In this embodiment, there is bilateral symmetry about a vertical plane through the longitudinal axis of the frame 102 , and thus both vertical extensions 178 , 179 have the same thickness in this embodiment. There is also a gap between the two vertical extensions 178 , 179 where wheels of an in-line skate may be disposed. This vertical extension gap 184 is approximately 24 mm. Also, the horizontal extension 177 from which the two vertical extensions 178 , 179 descend has a horizontal extension thickness 188 of approximately 5 mm. The embodiment in FIGS. 10A-10C has slider receivers disposed on either side of the frame 102 . These slider receivers are generally cylindrical in shape, but in this embodiment ribs run along opposite sides of the slider receivers to reinforce the slider receivers and provide a notch on the inner surface of the slider receivers. When viewed from FIG. 10A , the receiver rib thickness 192 is approximately 9.63 mm. Further, the lower sides of the receiver ribs 192 blend into the vertical extensions 178 , 179 at a radius. The receiver radius 200 in this embodiment is approximately 5 mm. In addition, the slider receivers are oriented at an angle from a vertical plane traveling through the longitudinal axis of the frame 102 . The receiver angle 196 in this embodiment is approximately 33.75 degrees. Other embodiments of the present invention may include a system to adjust the receiver angle 196 to an angle other than 33.75 degrees. The braking devices 100 arrayed on either side could be compartmentalized and discrete from the frame 102 . Such a braking device system could be affixed to a longitudinal axis on either side of the frame 102 where the braking device system could be adjusted to alter the receiver angle 196 . In some embodiments the receiver angle 196 is between approximately 0 and 90 degrees. In preferred embodiments of the present invention, the receiver angle 196 is between approximately 15 and 50 degrees. In a most preferred embodiment, the receiver angle 196 is approximately 33.75 degrees. FIG. 10B shows a top plane view of the frame 102 in FIG. 10A . From this perspective, there are base openings disposed over the slider receivers. These base openings provide a location to dispose spring caps from which springs may press against. Also, these base openings are where another device 100 , such as an in-line boot, may interconnect with the frame 102 . The base openings in this embodiment are generally ovoid with a rectangular section disposed at the center of the base openings. The base opening length 204 is the length of the rectangular portion measured along the longitudinal axis of the frame 102 . The base opening length 204 in this embodiment is approximately 45.35 mm. The base opening first width 208 is the width of the rectangular potion measured in the lateral direction, and the base opening first width is approximately 25.45 mm in this embodiment of the invention. The transition between the rectangular portion of the base opening 114 and the ovoid portion of the base opening 114 is not necessarily abrupt. Rather, the transition may be radiused. The base opening radius 216 in this embodiment is approximately 1 mm. In addition, the base horizontal extension width 212 in this embodiment is approximately 84 mm. As mentioned above, the embodiment of the present invention depicted in FIGS. 10A-10C exhibits bilateral symmetry, and thus the base openings 114 are laterally centered on the horizontal extension 177 shown in FIG. 10B . The longitudinal location of each base opening 114 can be expressed in terms of distance from the leading edge of the horizontal extension 177 to the center of the base opening 114 . The first base opening distance 220 is approximately 81.5 mm, the second base opening distance 224 is approximately 161.5 mm, and the third base opening distance 228 is approximately 241.5 mm. The horizontal extension length 232 is approximately 323 mm. Therefore, in this embodiment, the frame 102 is also symmetric about a lateral plane that extends through the center of the middle base opening. One skilled in the art will appreciate braking device location other than the symmetric ones described above. For example, it may be advantageous to group braking devices towards the leading edge or the trailing edge of the frame 102 . FIG. 10C shows a side elevation view of the embodiments shown in FIGS. 10A and 10B . From this perspective, the vertical extensions 178 , 179 are not a rectangle. Rather, the vertical extensions 178 , 179 taper inward from the leading edge (and the trailing edge) at a vertical extension angle 240 , which is approximately 110 degrees in this embodiment. As the tapering edge approaches the bottom edge of the vertical extensions 178 , 179 , the tapering edge curves inward at a vertical extension radius 236 to provide a smooth transition. The vertical extension radius 236 is approximately 30 mm. Further, the vertical extension radius 236 is curved about a single point on the vertical extensions 178 , 179 . The horizontal distance between this point and the leading edge of the frame 102 is the first radius length 244 , which is approximately 39.93 mm in this embodiment. Likewise, the horizontal distance between the point about which the trailing edge radius is curved and the leading edge is the second radius length 265 , which is approximately 283.07 mm in this embodiment of the present invention. Also shown in FIG. 10C are the various wheel axle apertures where the axles from wheel assemblies may be disposed. Similar to the base openings above, the longitudinal position of the wheel axle apertures can be measured from the leading edge of the frame 102 to the center of the wheel axle apertures. The first wheel aperture length 248 is approximately 42.5 mm, the second wheel apertures length 252 is approximately 120.5 mm, the third wheel aperture length 256 is approximately 199.5 mm, and the fourth wheel aperture length 260 is approximately 280.5 mm. In addition, the width of the receiver from rib to rib is shown in FIG. 10C . In this embodiment, the receiver width 268 is approximately 51.35 mm. FIGS. 11A-11C show alternative isometric and elevation views of the embodiment in FIGS. 10A-10C . FIG. 11A shows an isometric view of the frame 102 and corresponding slider receivers. FIG. 11B shows a type of elevation view of the frame 102 that is aligned with the longitudinal axis of the slider receivers. In other words, the frame 102 is tilted at 33.75 degrees to look straight down the slider receivers. The slider receivers have two different diameters when viewed from this perspective. The first receiver diameter 272 is approximately 41.36 mm, and the second receiver diameter 276 is approximately 31.88 mm. The transition between the smaller diameter and the larger diameter of the second receiver diameter 276 may provide a surface upon which a spring may press against. Further, there are two notches in the second receiver diameter 276 . These notches are on opposite sides of the second receiver diameter 276 with one disposed towards the leading edge of the frame 102 and one disposed towards the trailing edge of the frame 102 . The notch height 280 is approximately 3.63 mm. The distance between the outermost edge of the notch and the center of the slider receiver is the first receiver radius 284 , which is approximately 8.68 mm. The distance between the outermost edge of the notch and the outermost edge of the receiver rib is the receiver rib width 288 , which is approximately 7.07 mm. FIG. 11C shows another perspective of the frame 102 from FIGS. 11A and 11B , but this perspective is the opposite of that in FIG. 11B . In other words, the perspective in FIG. 11C is a top plane view of the frame 102 that has been tipped at 33.75 degrees. From this vantage, one can see the third receiver diameter 292 , which in this embodiment is the same as the first receiver diameter 272 of 41.36 mm. For exemplary purposes only, most embodiments of the present invention described herein have been directed toward in-line skates. However, the present invention should not be limited to only in-line skates. The present invention is applicable to any device that may benefit from present invention and the braking devices described herein. For example, embodiments of the present invention may be utilized on bicycles, ice skates, or motorcycles. Similarly, most embodiments of the present invention described herein have been directed toward stand-alone in-line skates with braking devices already incorporated into the frame of the in-line skates. In other embodiments of the present invention, the braking device, or combination of braking devices, may be adapted for use on existing in-line skates that do not have slider receivers or other braking device components integrated into the frame. The phrases “at least one”, “one or more”, and “and/or”, as used herein, are open-ended expressions that are both conjunctive and disjunctive in operation. For example, each of the expressions “at least one of A, B, and C”, “at least one of A, B, or C”, “one or more of A, B, and C”, “one or more of A, B, or C,” and “A, B, and/or C” means A alone, B alone, C alone, A and B together, A and C together, B and C together, or A, B, and C together. Unless otherwise indicated, all numbers expressing quantities, dimensions, conditions, and so forth used in the specification, drawings, and claims are to be understood as being modified in all instances by the term “about” or “approximately.” The term “a” or “an” entity, as used herein, refers to one or more of that entity. As such, the terms “a” (or “an”), “one or more” and “at least one” can be used interchangeably herein. The use of “including,” “comprising,” or “having,” and variations thereof, is meant to encompass the items listed thereafter and equivalents thereof as well as additional items. Accordingly, the terms “including,” “comprising,” or “having” and variations thereof can be used interchangeably herein. It shall be understood that the term “means” as used herein shall be given its broadest possible interpretation in accordance with 35 U.S.C., Section 112(f). Accordingly, a claim incorporating the term “means” shall cover all structures, materials, or acts set forth herein, and all of the equivalents thereof. Further, the structures, materials, or acts, and the equivalents thereof, shall include all those described in the summary of the invention, brief description of the drawings, detailed description, abstract, and claims themselves. The foregoing description of the present invention has been presented for illustration and description purposes. However, the description is not intended to limit the invention to only the forms disclosed herein. In the foregoing Detailed Description for example, various features of the invention are grouped together in one or more embodiments for the purpose of streamlining the disclosure. This method of disclosure is not to be interpreted as reflecting an intention that the claimed invention requires more features than are expressly recited in each claim. Rather, as the following claims reflect, inventive aspects lie in less than all features of a single foregoing disclosed embodiment. Thus, the following claims are hereby incorporated into this Detailed Description, with each claim standing on its own as a separate preferred embodiment of the invention. Consequently, variations and modifications commensurate with the above teachings and skill and knowledge of the relevant art are within the scope of the present invention. The embodiments described herein above are further intended to explain best modes of practicing the invention and to enable others skilled in the art to utilize the invention in such a manner, or include other embodiments with various modifications as required by the particular application(s) or use(s) of the present invention. Thus, it is intended that the claims be construed to include alternative embodiments to the extent permitted by the prior art.

A braking device is provided for an in-line skate where the braking device selectively alters the motion of the in-line skate depending upon the angulation of the in-line skate relative to a surface. As a user angulates or tilts the in-line skate, the braking device increasingly engages the surface to provide a braking force to alter the motion of the in-line skate.

This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. Ser. No. 09/602,688, filed Jun. 23, 2000. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to novel forms of pharmacologically active agents, and methods for the preparation and use thereof. In a particular aspect of the invention, methods are provided for treating pathological conditions with a modified form of one or more pharmacologically active agents, thereby reducing the occurrence of side-effects caused thereby. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Despite the advent of modem pharmaceutical technology, many drugs still possess untoward toxicities which often limit the therapeutic potential thereof. For example, although nonsteroid antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are a class of compounds which are widely used for the treatment of inflammation, pain and fever, NSAIDs (e.g., naproxen, aspirin, ibuprofen and ketoprofen) can cause gastrointestinal ulcers, a side effect that remains the major limitation to the use of NSAIDs (see, for example, J. L. Wallace, in Gastroenterol. 112:10001016 (1997); A. H. Soll et al., in Ann Intern Med. 114:307319 (1991); and J. Bjarnason et al., in Gastroenterol. 104:18321847 (1993)). There are two major ulcerogenic effects of NSAIDs: (1) irritant effects on the epithelium of the gastrointestinal tract and (2) suppression of gastrointestinal prostaglandin synthesis. In recent years, numerous strategies have been attempted to design and develop new NSAIDs that reduce the damage to the gastrointestinal tract. These efforts, however, have largely been unsuccessful. For example, enteric coating or slow release formulations designed to reduce the topical irritant properties of NSAIDs have been shown to be ineffective in terms of reducing the incidence of clinically significant side effects, including perforation and bleeding (see, for example, D. Y. Graham et al., in Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 38:6570 (1985); and J. L. Carson, et al., in Arch. Intern. Med., 147:10541059 (1987)). It is well recognized that aspirin and other NSAIDs exert their pharmacological effects through the non-selective inhibition of cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes, thereby blocking prostaglandin synthesis (see, for example, J. R. Van in Nature, 231:232235 (1971)). There are two types of COX enzymes, namely COX1 and COX2. COX1 is expressed constitutively in many tissues, including the stomach, kidney, and platelets, whereas COX2 is expressed only at the site of inflammation (see, for example, S. Kargan et al. in Gastroenterol., 111:445454 (1996)). The prostagladins derived from COX1 are responsible for many of the physiological effects, including maintenance of gastric mucosal integrity. Many attempts have been made to develop NSAIDs that only inhibit COX2, without impacting the activity of COX1 (see, for example, J. A. Mitchell et al., in Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90:1169311697 (1993); and E. A. Meade et al., in J. Biol. Chem., 268:66106614 (1993)). There are several NSAIDs presently on the market (e.g., rofecoxib and celecoxib) that show marked selectivity for COX2 (see, for example, E. A. Meade, supra.; K. Glaser et al., in Eur. J. Pharmacol. 281:107111 (1995) and Kaplan-Machlis, B., and Klostermeyer, B S in Ann Pharmacother. 33:979-88, (1999)). These drugs appear to have reduced gastrointestinal toxicity relative to other NSAIDs on the market. On the basis of encouraging clinical as well as experimental data, the development of highly selective COX2 inhibitors appears to be a sound strategy to develop a new generation of antiinflammatory drugs. However, the physiological functions of COX1 and COX2 are not always well defined. Thus, there is a possibility that prostagladins produced as a result of COX1 expression may also contribute to inflammation, pain and fever. On the other hand, prostagladins produced by COX2 have been shown to play important physiological functions, including the initiation and maintenance of labor and in the regulation of bone resorption (see, for example, D. M. Slater et al., in Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 172:7782 (1995); and Y. Onoe et al., in J. Immunol. 156:758764 (1996)), thus inhibition of this pathway may not always be beneficial. Considering these points, highly selective COX2 inhibitors may produce additional side effects above and beyond those observed with standard NSAIDs, therefore such inhibitors may not be highly desirable. Accordingly, there is still a need in the art for modified forms of NSAIDs which cause a reduced incidence of side-effects, relative to the incidence of side-effects caused by such pharmacologically active agents in unmodified form. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION In accordance with the present invention, there is provided a new class of modified NSAIDs which cause a much lower incidence of side-effects than are typically observed with unmodified NSAIDs due to the protective effects imparted by modifying the NSAIDs as described herein. There are a number of advantages provided by modified NSAIDs according to the invention including one or more of the following: (i) reduced irritant effects (e.g., contact irritation) of NSAIDs, (ii) enhanced tissue delivery of the drug as a result of a decrease in net charges on the molecule, particularly for acidic NSAIDs such as naproxen, aspirin, diclofenac and ibuprofen, thereby reducing the quantity of material which must be delivered to achieve an effective dosage, and (iii) reduction in the maximum concentration (Cmax,) achieved upon administration to a subject relative to the unmodified NSAID, while maintaining a therapeutically effective concentration of the NSAID in plasma of the subject. In accordance with the present invention, cleavage of the modified NSAIDs described herein from the modified group appended thereto releases the pharmaceutically active agent. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES FIG. 1 illustrates the total length of intestinal ulcers measured after three daily doses of NSAID in unfasted male Sprague-Dawley rats (150-200 g) treated with vehicle, naproxen, or equimolar invention composition (compound 19). *P<0.05 by unpaired t-test. FIG. 2 illustrates the total length of intestinal ulcers measured after 14 daily doses of NSAID in unfasted male Sprague-Dawley rats (150-200 g) treated with vehicle (bar 7), three doses of naproxen (bar 1:50 mg/kg, bar 2:45 mg/kg, bar 3:40 mg/kg), or three equimolar doses of invention composition (compound 19) (bars 4-6). *P<0.05 by unpaired t-test vs. corresponding dose of naproxen. FIG. 3 illustrates the inhibition of paw volume increases in the uninjected feet of Lewis male rats in which arthritis was induced by intradermal injection of adjuvant into the footpad. Rats were injected on day 0 and treated once daily from days 8 to 15 with vehicle, naproxen (10 mg/kg), or invention composition (compound 19) at equivalent dose. Paw volumes were measured with a Plethysmometer on days 5 and 15. Closed circles=naproxen; squares=invention composition. FIG. 4 compares naproxen plasma concentration-time profiles (n=4, mean±s.d.) after oral administration of naproxen (darkened circles) at 2 mg/kg and modified naproxen (open triangles) at an equivalent dose of 2 mg/kg with respect to naproxen in rats. At predetermined times, blood samples were collected and centrifuged to obtain the plasma samples. The plasma naproxen levels were measured by HPLC with a UV detection system. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION In accordance with the present invention, there are provided compounds comprising a modified NSAID, wherein the NSAID is covalently attached either directly or through a linker molecule to a sulfur-containing functional group containing an optionally substituted hydrocarbyl moiety. Exemplary invention compounds have the structure: X-L-Z wherein: X=a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), L=an optional linker/spacer, and Z=a sulfur-containing functional group containing an optionally substituted hydrocarbyl moiety. NSAIDs contemplated for modification in accordance with the present invention include acetaminophen (Tylenol, Datril, etc.), aspirin, ibuprofen (Motrin, Advil, Rufen, others), choline magnesium salicylate (Triasate), choline salicylate (Anthropan), diclofenac (voltaren, cataflam), diflunisal (dolobid), etodolac (lodine), fenoprofen calcium (nalfon), flurbiprofen (ansaid), indomethacin (indocin, indometh, others), ketoprofen (orudis, oruvail), carprofen, indoprofen, ketorolac tromethamine (toradol), magnesium salicylate (Doan's, magan, mobidin, others), meclofenamate sodium (meclomen), mefenamic acid (relafan), oxaprozin (daypro), piroxicam (feldene), sodium salicylate, sulindac (clinoril), tolmetin (tolectin), meloxicam, nabumetone, naproxen, lornoxicam, nimesulide, indoprofen, remifenzone, salsalate, tiaprofenic acid, flosulide, and the like. Presently preferred NSAIDs employed in the practice of the invention include naproxen, aspirin, ibuprofen, flurbiprofen, indomethacin, ketoprofen, carprofen, and the like. When the NSAID is aspirin, the sulfur-containing functional groups —CH 2 S(O) 2 CH 3 , —CH 2 S(O)CH 3 , and —SCH 3 are not presently preferred. Invention compounds can be readily prepared in a variety of ways either by direct reaction of NSAIDs with the sulfur-containing functional group or indirectly through a suitable linker molecule. The components of invention compositions are directly or indirectly covalently attached employing a variety of linkages (including an optional linker), e.g., ester linkages, disulfide linkages, amide linkages, immine linkages, enamine linkages, ether linkages, thioether linkages, imide linkages, sulfate ester linkages, sulfonate ester linkages, sulfone linkages, sulfonamide linkages, phosphate ester linkages, carbonate linkages, O-glycosidic linkages, S-glycosidic linkages, and the like. Such linkages can be accomplished using standard synthetic techniques as are well known by those of skill in the art, either by direct reaction of the starting materials, or by incorporating a suitable functional group on the starting material, followed by coupling of the reactants. When the pharmacologically active agents contemplated for use herein contain suitable functionality thereon, e.g., hydroxy, amino, carboxy, and the like, invention modified NSAIDs can be prepared by direct linkage between the two agents. Alternatively, the NSAIDs can be functionalized so as to facilitate linkage between the two agents. When present, linker/spacer L has the following structure: —W—R— wherein: R is optional, and when present is alkylene, substituted alkylene, cycloalkylene, substituted cycloalkylene, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, oxyalkylene, substituted oxyalkylene, alkenylene, substituted alkenylene, arylene, substituted arylene, alkarylene, substituted alkarylene, aralkylene or substituted aralkylene, and W is ester, reverse ester, thioester, reverse thioester, amide, reverse amide, phosphate, phosphonate, imine, enamine, or the like. Functional groups contemplated by the present invention are sulfur-based. Examples of suitable sulfur-containing functional groups include sulfonate, reverse sulfonate, sulfonamide, reverse sulfonamide, sulfone, sulfinate, reverse sulfinate, and the like. In a particular aspect of the invention, the sulfur-based moiety is sulfonate or reverse sulfonate. In a particularly preferred aspect of the invention, the sulfonate is an optionally substituted aromatic sulfonate such as tosylate or brosylate. Other preferred sulfur-based functional groups contemplated by the present invention include sulfones. Preferably, the sulfone is an optionally substituted alkyl or aromatic sulfone. In one aspect of the invention, Z may have the following structure: —Y—S(O)n—Y′—Q wherein: each of Y and Y′ are optionally present, and when present are independantly —O— or —NR′—, wherein R′ is H or an optionally substituted hydrocarbyl moiety; n is 1 or 2, and Q is H or an optionally substituted hydrocarbyl moiety. As employed herein, “hydrocarbyl” embraces alkyl, substituted alkyl, oxyalkyl, substituted oxyalkyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted alkynyl, monocyclic heterocyclic, substituted monocyclic heterocyclic, monocyclic aromatic, monosubstituted monocyclic aromatic, or the like. As employed herein, “alkyl” refers to hydrocarbyl radicals having 1 up to 20 carbon atoms, preferably 2-10 carbon atoms; and “substituted alkyl” comprises alkyl groups further bearing one or more substituents selected from hydroxy, alkoxy (of a lower alkyl group), mercapto (of a lower alkyl group), cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, heterocyclic, substituted heterocyclic, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, halogen, trifluoromethyl, cyano, nitro, nitrone, amino, amido, C(O)H, acyl, oxyacyl, carboxyl, carbamate, sulfonyl, sulfonamide, sulfuryl, and the like. As employed herein, “oxyalkyl” refers to the moiety —O-alkyl-, wherein alkyl is as defined above, and “substituted oxyalkyl” refers to oxyalkyl groups further bearing one or more substituents as set forth above. As employed herein, “cycloalkyl” refers to cyclic ring-containing groups containing in the range of about 3 up to 8 carbon atoms, and “substituted cycloalkyl” refers to cycloalkyl groups further bearing one or more substituents as set forth above. As employed herein, “heterocyclic” refers to cyclic (i.e., ring-containing) groups containing one or more heteroatoms (e.g., N, O, S, or the like) as part of the ring structure, and having in the range of 3 up to 14 carbon atoms and “substituted heterocyclic” refers to heterocyclic groups further bearing one or more substituents as set forth above. As employed herein, “alkenyl” refers to straight or branched chain hydrocarbyl groups having at least one carbon-carbon double bond, and having in the range of about 2 up to 12 carbon atoms, and “substituted alkenyl” refers to alkenyl groups further bearing one or more substituents as set forth above. As employed herein, “alkynyl” refers to straight or branched chain hydrocarbyl groups having at least one carbon-carbon triple bond, and having in the range of about 2 up to 12 carbon atoms, and “substituted alkynyl” refers to alkynylene groups further bearing one or more substituents as set forth above. As employed herein, “monocyclic aromatic” refers to aromatic groups having in the range of 5 up to 7 carbon atoms and “monosubstituted monocyclic aromatic” refers to aromatic groups further bearing one of the substituents set forth above. As employed herein, “alkylene” refers to divalent hydrocarbyl radicals having 1 up to 20 carbon atoms, preferably 2-10 carbon atoms; and “substituted alkylene” comprises alkylene groups further bearing one or more substituents as set forth above. As employed herein, “cycloalkylene” refers to cyclic ring-containing groups containing in the range of about 3 up to 8 carbon atoms, and “substituted cycloalkylene” refers to cycloalkylene groups further bearing one or more substituents as set forth above. As employed herein, “oxyalkylene” refers to the moiety —O-alkylene-, wherein alkylene is as defined above, and “substituted oxyalkylene” refers to oxyalkylene groups further bearing one or more substituents as set forth above. As employed herein, “alkenylene” refers to divalent, straight or branched chain hydrocarbyl groups having at least one carbon-carbon double bond, and having in the range of about 2 up to 12 carbon atoms, and “substituted alkenylene” refers to alkenylene groups further bearing one or more substituents as set forth above. As employed herein, “alkynylene” refers to divalent straight or branched chain hydrocarbyl groups having at least one carbon-carbon triple bond, and having in the range of about 2 up to 12 carbon atoms, and “substituted alkynylene” refers to alkynylene groups further bearing one or more substituents as set forth above. As employed herein, “arylene” refers to divalent aromatic groups having in the range of 6 up to 14 carbon atoms and “substituted arylene” refers to arylene groups further bearing one or more substituents as set forth above. As employed herein, “alkylarylene” refers to alkyl-substituted arylene groups and “substituted alkylarylene” refers to alkylarylene groups further bearing one or more substituents as set forth above. As employed herein, “arylalkylene” refers to aryl-substituted alkylene groups and “substituted arylalkylene” refers to arylalkylene groups further bearing one or more substituents as set forth above. As employed herein, “arylalkenylene” refers to aryl-substituted alkenylene groups and “substituted arylalkenylene” refers to arylalkenylene groups further bearing one or more substituents as set forth above. As employed herein, “arylalkynylene” refers to aryl-substituted alkynylene groups and “substituted arylalkynylene” refers to arylalkynylene groups further bearing one or more substituents as set forth above. Diseases and conditions contemplated for treatment in accordance with the present invention include inflammatory and infectious diseases, such as, for example, septic shock, hemorrhagic shock, anaphylactic shock, toxic shock syndrome, ischemia, cerebral ischemia, administration of cytokines, overexpression of cytokines, ulcers, inflammatory bowel disease (e.g., ulcerative colitis or Crohn's disease), diabetes, arthritis (e.g., rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis), asthma, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, cirrhosis, allograft rejection, encephalomyelitis, meningitis, pancreatitis, peritonitis, vasculitis, lymphocytic choriomeningitis, glomerulonephritis, uveitis, ileitis, inflammation (e.g., liver inflammation, renal inflammation, and the like), burn, infection (including bacterial, viral, fungal and parasitic infections), hemodialysis, chronic fatigue syndrome, stroke, cancers (e.g., breast, melanoma, carcinoma, and the like), cardiopulmonary bypass, ischemic/reperfusion injury, gastritis, adult respiratory distress syndrome, cachexia, myocarditis, autoimmune disorders, eczema, psoriasis, heart failure, heart disease, atherosclerosis, dermatitis, urticaria, systemic lupus erythematosus, AIDS, AIDS dementia, chronic neurodegenerative disease, pain (e.g., chronic pain and post-surgical pain), priapism, cystic fibrosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, schizophrenia, depression, premenstrual syndrome, anxiety, addiction, headache, migraine, Huntington's disease, epilepsy, neurodegenerative disorders, gastrointestinal motility disorders, obesity, hyperphagia, solid tumors (e.g., neuroblastoma), malaria, hematologic cancers, myelofibrosis, lung injury, graftversushost disease, head injury, CNS trauma, hepatitis, renal failure, liver disease (e.g., chronic hepatitis C), drug-induced lung injury (e.g., paraquat), myasthenia gravis (MG), ophthalmic diseases, postangioplasty, restenosis, angina, coronary artery disease, and the like. In accordance with another embodiment of the present invention, there are provided methods for the preparation of modified NSAIDs, said method comprising covalently attaching a NSAID to a sulfur-containing functional group containing an optionally substituted hydrocarbyl moiety. The resulting compound provides a latent form of the pharmacologically active agent, releasing the biological activity thereof only when the compound is cleaved (e.g., by an esterase, amidase or other suitable enzyme). As readily recognized by those of skill in the art, invention compounds can be prepared in a variety of ways. See, for example, Schemes 1A and 1B, wherein NSAID, X, bearing a carboxylic moiety can be reacted either directly with the sulfur-containing functional group (Scheme 1A) or indirectly through a linker molecule (Scheme 1B). Employing these general reaction schemes, invention modified NSAIDs can be prepared from a wide variety of pharmacologically active agents. See, for example, Examples 1-59 provided herein. In accordance with yet another embodiment of the present invention, there are provided methods for reducing the side effects induced by administration of NSAIDs to a subject, said method comprising reducing the C max relative to unmodified NSAIDs while maintaining a therapeutically effective concentration in plasma upon administration to a subject in need thereof. The reduction in C max is achieved, for example, by covalently attaching a sulfur-containing functional group containing an optionally substituted hydrocarbyl moiety to said NSAID prior to administration to said subject, as depicted in Schemes 1A and 1B. In a particular embodiment of the invention, the C max is reduced relative to the unmodified NSAID by about 10% to 90%. In a presently preferred embodiment, the C max is reduced relative to the unmodified NSAID by about 20% to 80%. In a most preferred embodiment, the C max is reduced relative to the unmodified NSAID by about 40% to 70%. In accordance with still another embodiment of the present invention, there are provided methods for enhancing the effectiveness of NSAIDs, said method comprising reducing the C max relative to unmodified NSAIDs while maintaining a therapeutically effective concentration in plasma upon administration to a subject in need thereof. The enhanced effectiveness of said NSAIDs is achieved, for example, by covalently attaching a sulfur-containing functional group containing an optionally substituted hydrocarbyl moiety to said NSAID. In accordance with a still further embodiment of the present invention, there are provided improved methods for the administration of NSAIDs to a subject for the treatment of a pathological condition, the improvement comprising reducing the C max relative to unmodified NSAIDs while maintaining a therapeutically effective concentration in plasma upon administration to a subject in need thereof. The improvement is accomplished, for example, by covalently attaching said NSAID to a sulfur-containing functional group containing an optionally substituted hydrocarbyl moiety prior to administration thereof to said subject. Those of skill in the art recognize that the modified NSAIDs described herein can be delivered in a variety of ways, such as, for example, orally, intravenously, subcutaneously, parenterally, rectally, by inhalation, and the like. Depending on the mode of delivery employed, the modified NSAIDs contemplated for use herein can be delivered in a variety of pharmaceutically acceptable forms. For example, the invention modified NSAIDs can be delivered in the form of a solid, solution, emulsion, dispersion, micelle, liposome, and the like. Thus, in accordance with still another embodiment of the present invention, there are provided physiologically active composition(s) comprising invention modified NSAIDs in a suitable vehicle rendering said compounds amenable to oral delivery, transdermal delivery, intravenous delivery, intramuscular delivery, topical delivery, nasal delivery, and the like. Pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention can be used in the form of a solid, a solution, an emulsion, a dispersion, a micelle, a liposome, and the like, wherein the resulting composition contains one or more of the modified NSAIDs of the present invention, as an active ingredient, in admixture with an organic or inorganic carrier or excipient suitable for enteral or parenteral applications. Invention modified NSAIDs may be compounded, for example, with the usual non-toxic, pharmaceutically acceptable carriers for tablets, pellets, capsules, suppositories, solutions, emulsions, suspensions, and any other form suitable for use. The carriers which can be used include glucose, lactose, gum acacia, gelatin, mannitol, starch paste, magnesium trisilicate, talc, corn starch, keratin, colloidal silica, potato starch, urea, medium chain length triglycerides, dextrans, and other carriers suitable for use in manufacturing preparations, in solid, semisolid, or liquid form. In addition auxiliary, stabilizing, thickening and coloring agents and perfumes may be used. Invention modified NSAIDs are included in the pharmaceutical composition in an amount sufficient to produce the desired effect upon the process or disease condition. Pharmaceutical compositions containing invention modified NSAIDs may be in a form suitable for oral use, for example, as tablets, troches, lozenges, aqueous or oily suspensions, dispersible powders or granules, emulsions, hard or soft capsules, or syrups or elixirs. Compositions intended for oral use may be prepared according to any method known to the art for the manufacture of pharmaceutical compositions and such compositions may contain one or more agents selected from the group consisting of a sweetening agent such as sucrose, lactose, or saccharin, flavoring agents such as peppermint, oil of wintergreen or cherry, coloring agents and preserving agents in order to provide pharmaceutically elegant and palatable preparations. Tablets containing invention modified NSAIDs in admixture with non-toxic pharmaceutically acceptable excipients may also be manufactured by known methods. The excipients used may be, for example, (1) inert diluents such as calcium carbonate, lactose, calcium phosphate or sodium phosphate; (2) granulating and disintegrating agents such as corn starch, potato starch or alginic acid; (3) binding agents such as gum tragacanth, corn starch, gelatin or acacia, and (4) lubricating agents such as magnesium stearate, stearic acid or talc. The tablets may be uncoated or they may be coated by known techniques to delay disintegration and absorption in the gastrointestinal tract and thereby provide a sustained action over a longer period. For example, a time delay material such as glyceryl monostearate or glyceryl distearate may be employed. They may also be coated by the techniques described in the U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,256,108; 4,160,452; and 4,265,874, to form osmotic therapeutic tablets for controlled release. In some cases, formulations for oral use may be in the form of hard gelatin capsules wherein the invention modified NSAIDs are mixed with an inert solid diluent, for example, calcium carbonate, calcium phosphate or kaolin. They may also be in the form of soft gelatin capsules wherein the invention modified NSAIDs are mixed with water or an oil medium, for example, peanut oil, liquid paraffin, or olive oil. The pharmaceutical compositions may be in the form of a sterile injectable suspension. This suspension may be formulated according to known methods using suitable dispersing or wetting agents and suspending agents. The sterile injectable preparation may also be a sterile injectable solution or suspension in a non-toxic parenterally-acceptable diluent or solvent, for example, as a solution in 1,3-butanediol. Sterile, fixed oils are conventionally employed as a solvent or suspending medium. For this purpose any bland fixed oil may be employed including synthetic mono- or diglycerides, fatty acids (including oleic acid), naturally occurring vegetable oils like sesame oil, coconut oil, peanut oil, cottonseed oil, etc., or synthetic fatty vehicles like ethyl oleate or the like. Buffers, preservatives, antioxidants, and the like can be incorporated as required. Invention modified NSAIDs contemplated for use in the practice of the present invention may also be administered in the form of suppositories for rectal administration of the drug. These compositions may be prepared by mixing the invention modified NSAIDs with a suitable non-irritating excipient, such as cocoa butter, synthetic glyceride esters of polyethylene glycols, which are solid at ordinary temperatures, but liquify and/or dissolve in the rectal cavity to release the drug. Since individual subjects may present a wide variation in severity of symptoms and each drug has its unique therapeutic characteristics, the precise mode of administration and dosage employed for each subject is left to the discretion of the practitioner. In general, the dosage of invention modified NSAIDs employed as described herein falls in the range of about 0.01 mmoles/kg body weight of the subject/hour up to about 0.5 mmoles/kg/hr. Typical daily doses, in general, lie within the range of from about 10 μg up to about 100 mg per kg body weight, and, preferably within the range of from 50 μg to 10 mg per kg body weight and can be administered up to four times daily. The daily IV dose lies within the range of from about 1 μg to about 100 mg per kg body weight, and, preferably, within the range of from 10 μg to 10 mg per kg body weight. In accordance with yet another embodiment of the present invention, there are provided improved methods for the treatment of a subject suffering from a pathological condition by administration thereto of a NSAID, the improvement comprising reducing the C max relative to unmodified NSAIDs while maintaining a therapeutically effective concentration in plasma upon administration to a subject in need thereof. The improvement is achieved, for example, by covalently attaching said NSAID to a sulfur-containing functional group containing an optionally substituted hydrocarbyl moiety prior to administration thereof to said subject. Thus, invention method for the treatment of a subject afflicted with a pathological condition comprises administering to a subject an effective amount of a modified pharmacologically active agent, wherein said pharmacologically active agent is a NSAID, and is effective for treatment of said condition, and wherein said pharmacologically active agent has been modified to reduce the C max relative to unmodified NSAIDs while maintaining a therapeutically effective concentration in plasma upon administration to a subject in need thereof. The modification is accomplished, for example, by the covalent attachment to the NSAID of a sulfur-containing functional group containing an optionally substituted hydrocarbyl moiety. The invention will now be described in greater detail by reference to the following non-limiting examples. The syntheses described in Examples 1-8 are outlined in Scheme 2. EXAMPLE 1 Compound 10 (Scheme 2). A mixture of Naproxen (1) (23 g, 0.1 mol), ethylene glycol (2) (27.9 ml, 0.5 mol) and toluenesulfonic acid (TsOH) (1.27 g, 6.7 mmol) in CHCl 3 was heated to reflux for 4 h. The reaction solution was washed with water, 10% Na 2 CO 3 solution and water. The organic layer was dried (Na 2 SO 4 ) and the solvent was evaporated. The residue was purified by crystallization from CH 2 Cl 2 and hexanes to give 25.7g (94%) of the compound 10 as a white crystal; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.59 (d, 3H), 1.62 (br, 1H, ex D 2 O), 3.74 (t, 2H), 3.90 (q, 1H), 3.91 (s, 3H), 4.21 (t, 2H), 7.39 (d, 1H), 7.69 (m, 3H); 13 C NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ18.7, 45.6, 55.5, 61.4, 66.6, 105.8, 119.3, 126.1, 126.2, 127.5, 129.1, 129.5, 133.9, 135.7, 157.9, 175.2; MS (ESI) m/z 273 (M−1). Compound 18 (Scheme 2). To a solution of compound 10 (24.5 g, 89 mmol) in 100 ml of pyridine was added tosyl chloride (TsCl) (34.1 g, 179 mmol). The resulting solution was stirred at 0° C. for 2.5 h. The reaction solution was then poured into 300 ml of water and then 200 ml of ether was added. The layers were separated and the organic phase was washed with water (300×5) and dried (NaSO 4 ). After the solvent was evaporated, the residue was purified by column chromatography on a silica gel column using dichloromethane as an eluent to give 35.1 g (92%) of the pale yellow oil; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.55(d, 3H), 2.40 (s, 3H), 3.91 (q, 1H), 4.18 (m, 4H), 7.12 (m, 2H), 7.24 (m, 2H), 7.37 (d, 1H), 7.66 (d, 1H), 7.70 (m, 4H); MS (ESI) m/z 429 (M+1). EXAMPLE 2 Compound 11 (Scheme 2). Compound 11 was prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 10, this time employing naproxen (1) and 1,3-propanediol (3). The resulting compound 11 was purified by crystallization from dichloromethane and hexanes with a 92% yield. 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) 8 1.59 (d, 3H), 1.78 (m, 2H), 1.87 (br, 1H, D 2 O ex), 3.53 (t, 2H), 3.87 (q, 1H), 3.91 (s, 3H), 4.23 (t, 2H), 7.11 (d, 1H), 7.15 (m, 1H), 7.41 (q, 1H), 7.66 (d, 1H), 7.69 (s, 1H), 7.71 (s, 1H); 13 C NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ18.6, 31.8 45.7, 55.5, 59.2, 61.9, 77.0, 77.2, 77.5, 105.8, 119.2, 126.1, 126.3, 127.4, 129.1, 129.4, 133.9,135.7,157.8, 175.3; and MS (ESI) m/z 289.4 (M+1). Compound 19 (Scheme 2). Compound 19 was prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 18, this time employing compound 11 and TsCl. Compound 19 was purified by crystallization from ether and hexane with an yield of 95%; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.54 (d, 3H), 1.91 (m, 2H), 2.42 (s, 3H), 3.79 (q, 1H), 3.92 (s, 3H), 3.99 (t, 2H), 4.10 (t, 2H), 7.11 d, 1H), 7.15 (q, 1H), 7.26 (d, 2H), 7.34 (d, 2H), 7.62(d, 1H,), 7.70 (m, 4H); 13 C NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ18.5, 21.8, 28.4, 45.5, 55.5, 60.6, 66.9, 105.8, 119.2, 126.0, 126.3, 127.4, 128.0, 129.1, 129.5, 130.1, 133.1, 133.9, 135.6, 145.0, 157.9, 174.5; MS (ESI) m/z 421.1 (M−1). EXAMPLE 3 Compound 12 (Scheme 2). Compound 12 was prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 10, this time employing naproxen (1) and 1,4-butanediol (4). Compound 12 was purified by crystallization from dichloromethane and hexanes with a 90% yield; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.48 (m, 2H), 1.59 (d, 3H), 1.64 (m, 2H), 1.85 (s, 1H, D 2 O, ex), 3.52 (t, 2H), 3.85 (q, 1H), 3.89 (s, 3H), 4.10 (t, 2H), 7.10-7.15 (m, 2H), 7.42 (d, 1H), 7.66-7.7- (m, 3H); MS (ESI) m/z 325.4 (M+Na). Compound 20 (Scheme 2). Compound 20 was prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 18, this time employing compound 12 and TsCl. The compound 20 was purified by crystallization from ether and hexane with an yield of 93%; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.55 (d, 3H), 1.53-1.62 (m, 4H), 2.43 (s, 3H), 3.82 (q, 1H), 3.92 (s, 3H), 3.94 (m, 2H), 4.02 (m, 2H), 7.11-7.15 (m, 2H), 7.30 (d, 2h), 7.38 (d, 1H), 7.64 (d, 1H), 7.70 (d, 2H), 7.75 (d, 2H); MS (ESI) m/z 457.5 (M+1). EXAMPLE 4 Compound 13 (Scheme 2). Compound 13 was prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 10, this time employing naproxen (1) and 1,5-pentanediol (5). After reaction, the reaction solution was washed with water and the reaction solvent was then evaporated under high vacuum to give a quantitative yield of the compound 13. The compound was used to make compound 21 without further purification; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.28 (m, 2H), 1.46 (m, 2H), 1.55 (d, 3H), 1.59 (m, 2H), 3.51 (t, 2H), 3.85 (q, 1H), 3.91 (s, 3H), 4.09 (t, 2H), 7.11-7.15 (m, 2H), 7.40 (q, 1H), 7.66-7.70 (m, 3H); MS (ESI) m/z 317.5 (M+1). Compound 21 (Scheme 2). Compound 21 was prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 18, this time employing compound 13 and TsCl. Compound 21 was purified by crystallization from ether and hexane with a 95% yield; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.24 (m, 2H), 1.48-1.58 (m, 4H), 1.59 (d, 3H), 2.43 (s, 3H), 3.84 (q, 1H), 3.89 (t, 2H), 3.91 (s, 3H), 4.01 (t, 2H),7.11-7.15 (m, 2H), 7.32 (q, 2H), 7.39 (q, 1H), 7.65 (d, 1H), 7.70 (m, 2H), 7.75 (d, 2H); MS (ESI) m/z 471.7 (M+1). EXAMPLE 5 Compound 14 (Scheme 2). Compound 14 was prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 10, this time employing naproxen (1) and 1,6-hexanediol (6). After reaction, the reaction solution was washed with water and the reaction solvent was then evaporated to give compound 14 as a solid. The compound was used to make compound 22 without further purification; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.24 (m, 4H), 1.43 (m 2H), 1.56 (d, 3H), 1.54 (m, 2H), 3.51 (t, 2H), 3.85 (q, 1H), 4.01 (m, 2H), 7.10-7.15 (m 2H), 7.40 (q, 1H), 7.66-7.70 (m, 3H); MS (ESI) m/z 331.7 (M+1). Compound 22 (Scheme 2). Compound 22 was prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 18, this time employing compound 14 and TsCl. Compound 22 was purified by column chromatography on a silica gel column using dichloromethane as an eluent to give compound 22 as a pale yellow oil; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.12-1.22 (m, 4H), 1.46-1.52 (m, 4H), 1.57 (d, 3H), 2.43 (s, 3H), 3.84 (q, 1H), 3.92 (s, 3H), 3.93 (m, 2H), 4.03 (m, 2H), 7.11-7.77 (m, 10H); MS (ESI) m/z 485.6 (M+1). EXAMPLE 6 Compound 15 (Scheme 2). Compound 15 was prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 10, this time employing naproxen (1) and di(ethylene glycol) (7). After reaction, the reaction solution was washed with water and the reaction solvent was then evaporated to give compound 15. The compound was used to make compound 23 without further purification; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.58 (d, 3H), 1.93 (br, 1H, D 2 O ex), 3.43 (t, 2H), 3.59 (t, 2H), 3.62 (t, 2H), 3.89 (q, 1H), 3.90 (s, 3H), 4.25 (m, 2H), 7.11-7.15 (m, 2H), 7.40-7.42 (m, 1H), 7.70 (t, 3H); 13 C NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ18.7, 45.6, 55.5 61.8, 64.0, 69.2, 72.4, 76.9, 77.2, 77.5, 105,7, 119.2, 126.2, 126.4, 127.3, 129.0, 133.9, 135.7, 157.9, 174.8; MS(ESI) m/z 319.3 (M+1). Compound 23 (Scheme 2). Compound 23 was prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 18, this time employing compound 15 and TsCl. Compound 23 was purified by column chromatography on a silica gel column using dichloromethane as an eluent to give the compound as a pale yellow oil with a 93% yield. 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.58 (d, 3H), 2.41 (s, 3H), 3.43 (m, 2H), 3.48(m, 2H), 3.84 (q, 1H), 3.86 (s, 3H), 3.94 (t, 2H), 4.10 (m, 2H), 7.10-7.13 (m, 2H), 7.29 (d, 2H), 7.39 (d, 1H), 7.65-7.75 (m, 5H); 13 C NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ18.6, 21.8, 45.5, 55.5, 63.9, 68.7, 69.27, 69.27, 105.8, 119.2, 126.2, 126.4, 127.4, 128.1, 129.0, 129.4, 129.9, 133.9, 145.0, 157.9, 174.7; MS (ESI) m/z 473.4 (M+1). EXAMPLE 7 Compound 16 (Scheme 2). Compound 16 was prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 10, this time employing naproxen (1) and 1,3-pentanediol (8). After reaction, the reaction solution was washed with water and the reaction solvent was then evaporated to give compound 15 with a 32% yield. The compound was used to make compound 24 without further purification; 1 H NMR, 13 C NMR and MS are consistent with the structure of compound 16. Compound 24 (Scheme 2). Compound 24 was prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 18, this time employing compound 16 and TsCl. The compound 24 was purified by column chromatography on a silica gel column using dichloromethane as an eluent to give the compound as a pale yellow oil with a 82% yield. The 1 H NMR, 13 C NMR and MS are consistent with the structure of compound 24. EXAMPLE 8 Compound 17 (Scheme 2). Compound 17 was prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 10, this time employing naproxen (1) and 1,4-cyclohexanediol (8). After reaction, the reaction solution was washed with water and the reaction solvent was then evaporated to give compound 17. Compound 17 was used to make compound 25 without further purification; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.30-1.45 (m, 6H), 1.56 (d, 3H), 1.80-1.98 (m, 4H), 3.66 (m, 1H), 3.82 (q, 1H), 3.91 (s, 3H), 4.75 (m, 1H), 7.11 m, 2H), 7.39 (d, 1H), 7.65-7.70 (m, 3H); 13 C NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ18.7, 28.2, 28.5, 32.1 32.2, 45.9, 55.5, 68.9, 72.0, 76.9, 77.2, 77.5, 105.8, 119.1, 126.0, 126.4, 127.2, 129.1, 129.5, 133.8, 136.1, 157.8, 174.4; MS (ESI) m/z 351.4 (M+Na). Compound 25 (Scheme 2). Compound 25 was prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 18, this time employing compound 17 and TsCl. Compound 25 was purified by column chromatography on a silica gel column using dichloromethane as an eluent to give the compound as a pale yellow oil with a 93% yield; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.50-1.84 (m, 11H), 2.43 (s, 3H), 3.80 (q, 1H), 3.92 (s, 3H), 4.51 (m, 1H), 4.78 (m, 1H), 7.10-7.15 (m 2H), 7.26-7.39 (m, 3H), 7.61-7.75 (m, 5H); MS (ESI) m/z 483.5 (M+H). The syntheses described in Examples 9-14 are outlined in Scheme 3. EXAMPLE 9 Compound 32 (Scheme 3). Compound 32 was prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 10, this time employing ketoprofen (26) and 1,3-propanediol (3). Compound 32 was purified by column chromatography on a silica gel column using 200:1 CH 2 Cl 2 /MeOH as an eluent to give compound 32 with a 50% yield. 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.55 (d, 3H), 1.82 (m 3H, 1H, D 2 O ex), 3.58 (m, 2H), 3.82(m, 1H), 4.25 (m 2H), 7.44-7.82 (m, 9H); MS (ESI) m/z 313.5 (M+H). Compound 38 (Scheme 3). Compound 38 was prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 18, this time employing compound 32 and TsCl. Compound 38 was purified by column chromatography on a silica gel column using CH 2 Cl 2 as an eluent to give the compound 38 as a colorless oil with a 81% yield; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.49 (d, 3H), 1.94 (m, 2H), 2.43 (s, 3H), 3.72 (q, 1H), 4.01 (t, 2H), 4.12 (m, 2H), 7.31-7.78 (m, 13H); MS (ESI) m/z 467.3 (M+H). EXAMPLE 10 Compound 33 (Scheme 3). Compound 33 was prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 10, this time employing flurbiprofen (27) and 1,3-propanediol (3). After reaction, the reaction solution was washed in water and the reaction solvent was then evaporated to give the compound 33 with a quantitative yield. The compound 33 was used to make compound 39 without further purification; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.54 (d, 3H), 1.79 (t, 1H, D 2 O ex), 1.85 (m, 2H), 3.63 (m, 2H), 3.76 (q, 1H), 4.27 (t, 2H), 7.11-7.16(m, 2H), 7.35-7.46 (m, 4H), 7.54 (d, 2H); MS (ESI) m/z 325.4 (M+Na). Compound 39 (Scheme 3). Compound 39 was prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 18, this time employing compound 33 and TsCl. Compound 39 was purified by crystallization from ether/hexane system with a 79% yield; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.50 (d, 3H), 1.96 (m, 2H), 2.42 (s, 3H), 3.68 (q, 1H), 4.03 (t, 2H), 4.15 (t, 2H), 7.05-7.11 (m, 2H), 7.25-7.54 (m, 8H), 7.76 (d, 2H); 13 C NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ18.4, 21.8, 28.4, 45.0, 50.8, 66.9, 115.2, 115.5, 123.68, 123.7, 127.9, 128.0, 129.2, 130.1, 131.0, 133.1, 135.6, 141.75, 141.8, 145.1, 158.9, 160.9, 173.9; MS (ESI) m/z 479.4 (M+Na). EXAMPLE 11 Compound 34 (Scheme 3). Compound 34 was prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 10, this time employing ibuprofen (28) and 1,3-propanediol (3). After reaction, the reaction solution was washed in water and the reaction solvent was then evaporated to give compound 34 with a quantitative yield. The compound 34 was used to make compound 40 without further purification; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ0.89 (d, 6H), 1.49 (d, 3H), 1.79 (t, 2H), 1.78-1.85 (m, 1H), 1.95 (t, 1H, D 2 O ex), 2.45 (d, 2H), 3.53 (m, 2H), 3.71 (q, 1H), 4.22 (m, 2H), 7.09 (d, 2H), 7.26 (d, 2H). Compound 40 (Scheme 3). Compound 40 was prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 18, this time employing compound 34 and TsCl. Compound 40 was purified by crystallization from ether/hexane system to give a white solid with a 96% yield; 13 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ0.89 (d, 6H), 1.44 (d, 3H), 1.81-1.92 (m, 3H), 2.44 (s, 3H), 3.61 (q, 1H), 3.99 (t, 2H), 4.09 (t, 2H), 7.08 (d, 2H), 7.14 (d, 2H), 7.34 (d, 2H), 7.78 (d, 2H); 13 C NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ18.46, 21.80, 22.54, 28.39, 30.32, 45.16, 60.39, 66.92, 127.23, 128.04, 129.50, 130.03, 133.12, 137.68, 140.76, 145.00, 174.54; MS (ESI) m/z 441.5 (M+Na). EXAMPLE 12 Compound 35 (Scheme 3). Compound 35 was prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 10, this time employing diclofenac (29) and 1,3-propanediol (3). After reaction, compound 35 was purified by column chromatography on a silica gel column using 200:1 CH 2 Cl 2 /MeOH as an eluent to give the compound 35 as a white solid with a 56% yield. 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.89 (m, 3H, 1H D 2 O ex), 3.66 (t, 2H), 3.83 (s, 3H), 4.31 (t, 2H), 6.55 (d, 1H), 6.87 (br, 1H), 6.94-7.00 (m, 2H), 7.11-7.14 (m, 1H), 7.22-7.26 (m, 1H), 7.34 (d, 2H); MS (ESI) m/z 376.3 (M+Na). Compound 41 (Scheme 3). Compound 41 was prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 18, this time employing compound 35 and TsCl. Compound 41 was purified by column chromatography on a silica gel column using CH 2 Cl 2 as an eluent to give the compound 41 as a pale yellow oil and the yield was 89%; ; H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ2.02 (m, 2m,), 2.43 (s, 3H), 3.73 (s, 2H), 4.09 (t, 21), 4.17 (t, 2H), 6.53 (d, 1H), 6.99 (s, 1H), 6.93-7.00 (m, 21), 7 .12 (t, 1H), 7.18 (d, 1H), 7.23 (d, 11), 7.31-7.35 (m, 3H), 7.78 (d, 21H); MS (ESI) m/z 508.3 (M). EXAMPLE 13 Compound 36 (Scheme 3). Compound 36 was prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 10, this time employing carprofen (30) and 1 ,3-propanediol (3). After reaction, compound 36 was purified by column chromatography on a silica gel column using 200:1 CH 2 Cl 2 /MeOH as an eluent to give the compound 36 as a colorless oil with a 54% yield. 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.59 (d, 3H), 1.74 (br, 1H, D 2 O ex), 1.80 (m, 2H), 3.53-3.56 (m, 2H), 3.88 (q, 1H), 4.22-4.28 (m, 2H), 7.17 (d, 1H), 7.29-7.35 (m, 3H), 7.94-7.98 (m, 2H), 8.14 (br, 1H); 13 C NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ18.99, 31.84, 46.17, 59.42, 62.10, 109.70, 111.79, 119.79, 120.21, 120.87, 121.92, 124.49, 125.22, 126.09, 138.24, 139.37, 140.55, 175.39; MS (ESI) m/z 332.2 (M+H). Compound 42 (Scheme 3). Compound 42 was prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 18, this time employing compound 36 and TsCl. Compound 42 was purified by column chromatography on a silica gel column using CH 2 Cl 2 as an eluent to give the compound 42 as a sticky oil and the yield was 90%; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.55 (d, 3H), 1.91 (m, 2H), 2.39 (s, 3H), 3.83 (q, 1H), 3.97 (t, 2H), 4.09-4.18 (m, 2H), 7.10 (d, 2H), 7.21(d, 2H), 7.32 (s, 2H), 7.38 (s, 1H)7.65 (d, 2H), 7.91 (d, 1H), 7.98 (s, 1H), 8.54 (s, 1H); 13 C NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ18.83, 21.77, 28.32, 46.08, 60.59, 57.04, 109.97, 111.97, 119.58, 120.06, 120.69, 121.77, 124.38, 125.00, 125.99, 127.95, 129.22, 130.06, 132.90, 138.38, 139.19,140.69, 145.15,174.59; MS (ESI) m/z 486.3 (M+H). EXAMPLE 14 Compound 37 (Scheme 3). Compound 37 was prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 10, this time employing indomethacin (31) and 1,3-propanediol (3). After reaction, compound 37 was purified by column chromatography on a silica gel column using 200:1; 100:1 CH 2 Cl 2 /MeOH as an eluents to give the compound 37 as a pale yellow oil with a 49% yield. 1 H NMR, 13 C NMR and MS are consistent with the structure of compound 37. Compound 43 (Scheme 3). Compound 43 was prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 18, this time employing compound 37 and TsCl. The compound 43 was purified by column chromatography on a silica gel column using hexanclethyl acetate (3:1) as an eluent to give the compound 43 as a pale yellow oil and the yield was 71%; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.97 (m, 2H), 2.36 (s, 3H), 2.44 (s, 3H), 3.63 (s, 2H), 3.83 (s, 3H), 4.05 (t, 2H), 4.15 (t, 2H), 6.66-6.68 (m, 1H), 6.87 (d, 1H), 6.93 (d, 1H), 7.33 (d, 2H), 7.47 (d, 2H), 7.67 (d, 2H), 7.75 (d, 2H); MS (ESI) m/z 592.0 (M+Na) The syntheses described in Examples 15 and 16 are outlined in Scheme 4. EXAMPLE 15 Compound 46 (Scheme 4). Compound 46 was prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 18, this time employing compound 11 and 44. The compound 46 was purified by crystallization from ether/hexane system to give the compound 46 as a white solid. The yield was 95%; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.58 (d, 3H), 2.00 (m, 2H), 2.73 (s, 3H), 3.87 (q, 1H), 3.90 (s, 3H), 4.10 (t, 2H), 4.18 (t, 2H), 7.10-7.15 (m, 2H), 7.39 (d, 1H), 7.66-7.71 (m, 3H); 13 C NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ18.46,28.55, 37.03, 45.56, 55.47, 55.50, 60.38, 66.36, 105.75, 119.32, 126.09, 126.27, 127.44, 129.06, 129.41, 133.89, 135.68,157.91, 174.59; MS (ESI) m/z 388.5 (M+Na). EXAMPLE 16 Compound 47 (Scheme 4). Compound 47 is prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 18, this time employing compound 11 and compound 45. The compound is purified by crystallization and the yield was 70-90%. The 1 H NMR, 13 C NMR and MS are consistent with the structure of compound 47. The syntheses described in Examples 17 and 18 are outlined in Scheme 5. EXAMPLE 17 Compound 50 (Scheme 5). To a solution of naproxen (1) (1.15 g, 5 mmol), compound 48 (0.62 g, 5 mmol) and dimethylamino pyridine (DMAP) (0.12 g, 1 mmol) was added dicyclohexyldicarbodiimide (DCC) (1.03 g, 5 mmol) at 0° C. The resulting solution was stirred at 0° C. for 1.5 h. After reaction, the solid was filtered off and the solvent was evaporated. The residue was washed with ether to give 1.4 g (83%) of compound 50 as a white solid; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.59 (d, 3H), 2.38 (s, 3H), 3.17 (m, 2H), 3.87 (q, 1H), 3.92 (s, 3H), 4.43 (m, 1H), 4.59 (m, 1H), 7.10 (d, 1H), 7.15 (m, 1H), 7.33 (m, 1H), 7.67 (d, 1H), 7.70 (m, 2H); MS (ES) m/e 358.2 (M+Na). EXAMPLE 18 Compound 51 (Scheme 5). Compound 51 was prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 50, this time employing compound 1 (1.15 g, 5mmol) and 49 (1.16 g, 5 mmol). The compound was purified by column chromatography on a silica gel column using 1:1 hexanes/ethyl acetate as eluent to give 0.91 g of compound 51 as a pale yellow oil; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.45 (d, 3H), 3.48 (m, 2H), 3.59 (q, 1H), 3.92 (s, 3H), 4.47 (m, 2H), 7.10 (d, 1H), 7.18 (m, 2H), 7.45 (s, 1H), 7.49 (t, 1H), 7.65 (t, 2H), 8.06 (q, 1H), 8.28 (q, 1H), 8.68 (s, 1H); 13 C NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ18.8, 45.2, 55.4, 55.5, 57.9, 105,8, 123.6, 125.9, 127.5, 128.4, 129.0, 129.3, 130.8, 133.7, 133.9, 134.9, 141.5, 148.4, 158.0, 174.0. The syntheses described in Examples 19-21 are outlined in Scheme 6. EXAMPLE 19 Compound 55 (Scheme 6). A mixture of compound 19 (2.2 g, 5 mmol), compound 52 (0.57 g, 6 mmol) and K 2 CO 3 (3.45 g, 25 mmol) in 50 ml of dimethyl formamide (DMF) was stirred for a week. The reaction solution was poured into 100 ml of water and extracted with CH 2 Cl 2 . The organic phase was washed with water (50×5) and dried (Na 2 SO 4 ). The solvent was evaporated and the residue was purified by column chromatography on a silica gel column using 3:1 hexane/ethyacetate as an eluent to give 0.3 g (16%) of compound 55 as a pale yellow oil; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.60 (d, 3H), 2.38 (s, 3H), 3.17 (m, 2H), 3.87 (q, 1H), 3.92 (s, 3H), 4.45 (m, 1H), 4.59 (m, 1H), 7.10 (s, 1H), 7.14-7.16 (q, 1H), 7.32-7.35 (q, 1H), 7.62 (s, 1H), 7.67-7.71 (m, 2H); MS (ESI) m/z 358.2 (M+Na). EXAMPLE 20 Compound 56 (Scheme 6). Compound 56 was prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 55, this time employing compound 19 and compound 53. The compound was purified by column chromatography on a silica gel column using CH 2 Cl 2 as an eluent to give compound 56 as a pale yellow oil (33%). 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.54 (d, 3H), 1.72 (m, 2H), 2.83 (m, 2H), 3.80 (q, 1H), 3.92 (s, 3H), 4.10 (t, 2H),7.07-8,10 (m, 10H); MS (ESI) m/z 442.3 (M+H). EXAMPLE 21 Compound 57 (Scheme 6). Compound 57 was prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 55, this time employing compound 19 and compound 54. The compound was purified by column chromatography on a silica gel column using CH 2 Cl 2 as an eluent to give compound 57 as a pale yellow oil (11%). 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.55 (d, 3H), 1.80 (m, 2H), 3.03 (m 2H),3.86 (m, 1H), 4.13 (m, 2H), 7.07-7.93 (m, 10H), MS (ESI) m/z 473.4 (M+H). The syntheses described in Examples 22 and 23 are outlined in Scheme 7. EXAMPLE 22 Compound 60 (Scheme 7). Compound 60 is prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 50, this time employing naproxen 1 and compound 58. After reaction the compound is purified by column chromatography on a silica gel column to give the compound 60 in a yield from 75-95%. EXAMPLE 23 Compound 61 (Scheme 7). Compound 61 is prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 50, this time employing naproxen 1 and compound 59. After reaction, the compound is purified by column chromatography on a silica gel column to give compound 61 in a yield from 75-95%. The syntheses described in Examples 24 and 25 are outlined in Scheme 8. EXAMPLE 24 Compound 63 (Scheme 8). Compound 63 is prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 50, this time employing naproxen (1) and compound 62. After reaction, the compound is purified by column chromatography on a silica gel column to give compound 63 in a yield of 75-95%. Compound 66 (Scheme 8). Compound 66 is prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 18, this time employing compound 63 and compound 64. EXAMPLE 25 Compound 67 (Scheme 8). Compound 67 is prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 18, this time employing compound 63 and compound 65. The syntheses described in Examples 26 and 27 are outlined in Scheme 9. EXAMPLE 26 Compound 70 (Scheme 9). Compound 70 is prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 60, this time employing compound 1 and compound 68. EXAMPLE 27 Compound 71 (Scheme 9). Compound 71 is prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 60, this time employing compound 1 and compound 69. The synthesis described in Example 28 is outlined in Scheme 10. EXAMPLE 28 Compound 73 (Scheme 10). Compound 73 is prepared as described above for the preparation of compound 60, this time employing compound 1 and compound 72. The synthesis described in Example 29 is outlined in Scheme 11. EXAMPLE 29 Compound 75 (Scheme 11). To a solution of naproxen 1 (1.15 g, 5.0 mmol) and 1,3-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCC) (1.03 g, 5mmol) in 180 ml of anhydrous tedrahydrofuran (THF) was added 4-(2-aminoethyl)benzenesulfonamide 74 (1.1 g, 5.5 mmol) at rt. The resulting mixture was stirred overnight. The resulted solid was filtered off and the solvent was evaporated. The residue was partially dissolved in ethyl acetate and filtered to remove more solid. The filtrate was evaporated and the residue was purified by flash chromatography on a silica gel column using CH 2 Cl 2 and 100:1 CH 2 Cl 2 -MeOH as eluents to give 0.1 g (5%) of the compound 75 as a white solid; 1 H NMR (DMSO-d 6 ) δ1.38 (d, 3H), 2.73 (m, 3H, 1H, ex D 2 O), 3.68 (q, 1H), 3.86 (s, 3H), 7.13-8.08 (m, 12H, 2H, ex D 2 O); MS (ESI) m/z 413.1 (M +H) + (C 22 H 25 N 2 O 4 S requires 413.5). The syntheses described in Examples 30 and 31 are outlined in Scheme 12. EXAMPLE 30 Compound 78 (Scheme 12). To a solution of naproxen 1 (1.15 g, 5 mmol) and benzenesulfonyl hydrazide 76 (0.86 g, 5 mmol) in 50 ml of CH 2 Cl 2 was added DCC (1.03 g, 5 mmol) at rt. The resulting solution was stirred at rt for 26 h. The resulted solid was filtered off and the filtrate was washed with 5% Na 2 CO 3 solution, 0.5N HCl solution and water. The organic phase was dried with anhydrous sodium sulfate (Na 2 SO 4 ) and concentrated. The residue was purified by flash chromatography on a silica gel column using 5:1 and 2:1 hexanes-EtOAc as eluents to give 1.44 g (75%) of the compound 78 as a white solid; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.37 (d, 3H), 3.54 (q, 1H), 3.94 (s, 3H), 7.12-7.77 (m, 13H, 2H, ex D 2 O); MS (ESI) m/z 385.0 (M+H) + (C 20 H 21 N 2 O 4 S requires 385.1). EXAMPLE 31 Compound 79 (Scheme 12). Compound 79 was prepared by the similar procedure as described above for compound 78 from 4-methoxybenzenesulfonyl hydrazide 77 (1.01 g, 5 mmol), naproxen 1 (1.15 g, 5 mmol) and DCC (1.03 g, 5 mmol). The compound was purified by flash chromatography on a silica gel column using 200:1 CH 2 Cl 2 -MeOH as an eluent to give 0.69 g (33%) of the compound 79 as a white solid; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.38 (d, 3H), 3.57 (q, 1H), 3.68 (s, 3H), 3.92 (s, 3H), 6.60-8.13 (12H, 2H ex D 2 O); MS (ESI) m/z 415.7 (M+H) + (C 21 H 23 N 2 O 5 S requires 415.2). The syntheses described in Examples 32-35 are outlined in Scheme 13. EXAMPLE 32 Compound 84 (Scheme 13). To a solution of naproxen 1 (1.15 g, 5 mmol) and 2-(methylthio)ethanol 80 (0.46 g, 5 mmol) and 4- (dimethylamino)pyridine (DMAP) (0.12 g, 1 mmol) in 50 ml of CH 2 Cl 2 was added DCC (1.03 g, 5 mmol) at 0° C. The resulting solution was stirred at 0° C. for 2 h. The solid was filtered off and the solvent was evaporated. The residue was partially dissolved in EtOAc and the mixture was filtered to remove more solid. The filtrate was washed with water (50×2), dried (Na 2 SO 4 ) and concentrated. Recrystallization of the crude product from hexanes provided 0.96 g of the compound 84 as a white crystal; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.59 (d, 3H), 2.05 (s, 3H), 2.65 (m, 2H), 3.86 (q, 1H), 3.91 (s, 3H), 4.25 (m, 2H), 7.11-7.25 (m, 2H), 7.41 (d, 1H), 7.67-7.71 (m, 3H); 13 C NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ15.9, 16.8, 32.6, 45.6, 55.5, 63.7, 105.8, 119.2, 126.2, 126.4, 127.4, 129.1, 129.4, 133.9, 135.7, 157.9, 174.7; MS (ESI) m/z 327.4 (M+Na) + (C 17 H 2 O 3 SNa requires 327.1). Compound 50 (Scheme 13). To a solution of compound 84 (0.09 g, 0.3 mmol) in 3 ml of acetone was added m-chloroperoxybenzoic acid (m-CPBA) (0.25 g, 1.5 mmol). The resulting solution was stirred at 0° C. for 3 h. A solution of Na 2 SO 3 was added to quench the reaction and then more water was added. The resulted mixture was filtered and washed with methanol to give a compound which has the identical 1 H NMR and MS properties to compound 50 produced by the procedure set forth in Example 17 above. EXAMPLE 33 Compound 85 (Scheme 13). Compound 85 was prepared by the similar procedure as described above for compound 84 from naproxen 1 (6.9 g, 30 mmol), methylthiopropanol 81 (3.06 ml, 3.18 g, 30 mmol), DMAP (0.72 g, 6 mmol) and DCC (6.18 g, 30 mmol). The compound was purified by recrystallization from hexanes to give 6.7 g (70%) of the compound 85 as a white crystal; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.58 (d, 3H), 1.85 (m, 2H), 1.97 (s, 3H), 2.39 (t, 2H), 3.85 (q, 1H), 3.91 (s, 3H), 4.17 (m, 2H), 7.11-7.15 (m, 2H), 7.39-7.41 (m,1H), 7.66-7.71 (m, 3H); MS (ESI) m/z 441.5 (M+Na) + . (C 18 H 22 O 3 SNa requires 441.2). Compound 88 (Scheme 13). Compound 88 was prepared by the similar procedure as described above for compound 50 from compound 85 (1.27 g, 4 mmol) and m-CPBA (3.4 g, 20 mmol). The product was purified by recrystallization from EtOAc-hexanes to give 1.1 g (80%) of the compound 88 as a white powder; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.58 (d, 3H), 2.08 (m, 2H), 2.59 (s, 3H), 2.75 (m, 2H), 3.86 (q, 1H), 3.91 (s, 3H), 4.16 (m, 1H), 4.26 (m, 1H), 7.11-7.16 (m, 2H), 7.37-7.39 (m, 1H), 7.66 (s, 1H), 7.70-7.73 (m, 2H); MS (ESI) m/z 373.3 (M+Na) + (C 18 H 22 O 3 SNa requires 373.1). EXAMPLE 34 Compound 86 (Scheme 13). Compound 86 was prepared by the similar procedure as described above for compound 84 from naproxen 1 (6.9 g, 30 mmol), methylthiobutanol 82 (3.6 g, 30 mmol), DCC (6.18 g, 30 mmol) and DMAP (0.72 g, 6 mmol). The product was purified by recrystallization from hexanes to give 7.3 g (73%) of the compound 86 as a white solid; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.54 (m, 2H), 1.58 (d, 3H), 1.67 (m, 2H), 1.96 (s, 3H), 2.40 (t, 2H), 3.85 (q, 1H), 3.89 (s, 3H), 4.09 (t, 2H), 7.10-7.15 (m, 2H), 7.39-7.41 (q, 1H), 7.66-7.70 (t, 3H); 13 C NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ15.35, 18.59, 25.48, 27.74, 33.72, 45,61, 55.3, 64.37, 105.70, 119.08, 126.02, 126.32, 127.24, 129.04, 129.37, 133.80, 135.85,157.74, 174.76; MS (ESI) m/z 355.3 (M+Na) + (C 19 H 24 O 3 SNa requires 355.1). Compound 89 (Scheme 13). Compound 89 was prepared by the similar procedure as described above for compound 50 from compound 86 (1.33 g, 4 mmol), m-CPBA (3.5 g, 20 mmol) in 35 ml of acetone. The product was purified by recrystallization from CH 2 Cl 2 -hexane to give 1.13 g ( 78%) of the compound 89 as a pale yellow solid; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.57 (d, 3H), 1.73 (m, 4H), 2.56 (s, 3H), 2.82 (m, 2H), 3.65 (q, 1H), 3.90 (s, 3H), 4.08 (m, 1H), 4.15 (m, 1H), 7.10-7.15 (m, 2H), 7.38-7.40 (q, 1H), 7.65 (s, 1H), 7.70 (d, 2H); 13 C NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ18.5, 19.4, 27.5, 40.2, 45.6, 54.2, 55.5, 63.7, 105.8, 119.4, 126.1, 126.3, 127.4, 129.1, 129.4, 133.9, 135.8, 157.9, 174.7; MS (ESI) m/z 387.5 (M+Na) + (C 19 H 24 O 5 SNa requires 3 87.5). EXAMPLE 35 Compound 87 (Scheme 13). Compound 87 was prepared by the similar procedure as described above for compound 84 from naproxen 1 (1.15 g, 5 mmol), 2-(phenylthio)ethanol 83 (0.77 g, 5 mmol), DCC (1.03 g, 5 mmol) and DMAP (0.12 g, 1 mmol) in 50 ml of CH 2 Cl 2 . The product was purified by recrystallization from hexanes to give 1.0 g (56%) of the compound 87 as a white powder; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.56 (d, 3H), 3.10 (m, 2H), 3.83 (q, 1H), 3.91 (s, 3H), 4.25 (m, 2H), 7.11-7.40 (m, 8H), 7.65-7.70 (m, 3H); 13 C NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ18.7, 32.5, 45.6, 55.5, 63.4, 105.8, 119.2, 126.2, 126.4, 126.8, 127.4, 129.1, 129.2, 129.5, 130.1, 133.9, 135.3, 135.7, 157.9, 174.7; MS (ESI) m/z 389.5 (M+Na) + (C 22 H 22 O 2 SNa requires 389.2). Compound 90 (Scheme 13). Compound 90 was prepared by the similar procedure as described above for compound 50 from compound 87 (1.46 g, 4 mmol), m-CPBA (3.5 g, 20 mmol) in 35 ml of acetone. The product was purified by recrystallization from CH 2 Cl 2 -hexane to give 1.2 g (75%) of the compound 90 as a white solid; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.46 (d, 3H), 3.40 (m, 2H), 3.59 (q, 1H), 3.92 (s, 3H), 4.33 (m, 1H), 4.45 (m, 1H), 7.11-7.85 (m, 11H); 13 C NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ18.6, 45.2, 55.2, 55.5, 58.1, 105.8, 119.3, 126.2, 127.4, 128.3, 129.1, 129.4.129.5, 133.9, 134.1, 135.1, 139.5, 158.0, 174.2; MS (ESI) m/z 399.4 (M+H) + (C 22 H 23 O 5 S requires 399.5) The synthesis described in Example 36 is outlined in Scheme 14. EXAMPLE 36 Compound 92 (Scheme 14). Compound 92 was prepared by the similar procedure as described above for compound 84 from methylthiobenzene alcohol 91 (4.6 g, 30 mmol), naproxen 1 (6.9 g, 30 mmol), DCC (6.18 g, 30 mmol) and DMAP (0.72 g, 6 mmol). The product was purified by recrystallization from CH 2 Cl 2 -hexanes to give 8.6 g (78%) of the compound 92 as a white crystal; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.58 (d, 3H), 2.45 (s, 3H), 3.89 (q, 1H), 3.92 (s, 3H), 5.05 (q, 2H), 7.11-7.16 (m, 6H), 7.37-7.39 (m, 1H), 7.63-7.70 (m, 3H); 13 C NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ15.9, 18.7, 45.7, 55.5, 66.3, 105.8, 119.2, 126.2, 126.5, 126.7, 127.3, 128.9, 129.1, 129.5, 132.9, 133.9, 135.7, 138.8, 157.9, 174.6; MS (ESI) m/z 389.4 (M+Na) + (C 22 H 22 O 3 Sna requires 389.5) Compound 93 (Scheme 14). Compound 93 was prepared by the similar procedure as described above for compound 50 from compound 92 (1.1 g, 3 mmol), m-CPBA (1.34 g, 7.5 mmol) in 30 ml of acetone. The product was purified by flash chromatography on a silica gel column using CH 2 Cl 2 as an eluent to give 1.0 g (85%) of the compound 93 as a white solid; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.61 (d, 3H), 2.99 (s, 3H), 3.92 (s, 3H), 3.93 (q, 1H), 5.18 (q, 2H), 7.12-7.16 (m, 2H), 7.34-7.39 (m, 3H), 7.65-7.71 (m, 3H), 7.81 (d, 2H); 13 C NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ18.5, 44.7, 45.6, 55.5, 65.3, 105.8, 119.4, 126.2, 126.3, 127.5, 127.8, 128.3, 129.1, 129.4, 133.9, 135.3, 140.2, 142.5, 158.0, 174.4; MS (ESI) m/z 398.9 M + (C 22 H 22 ) 5 S requires 398.5) The synthesis described in Example 37 is outlined in Scheme 15. EXAMPLE 37 Compound 95 (Scheme 15). A mixture of 2,2′-sulfonyldiethanol 94 (12.5 ml, 60% in H 2 O, 9.25 g, 60 mmol) and CHCl 3 was heated to reflux to remove the water and then naproxen 1 (4.6 g, 20 mmol) and 4-toluenesulfonic acid (TsOH) (0.25 g, 1.3 mmol) were added to the above mixture. The resulting mixture was continued to reflux for 6 h. The reaction mixture was washed with water twice, 10% Na 2 CO 3 solution twice and then water once. The organic phase was dried (Na 2 SO 4 ) and the solvent was evaporated. The crude product was recrystallized from CHCl 3 -hexanes to give 0.41 g of the compound 95 as a white powder; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.60 (d, 3H), 1.85 (bs, 1H, ex D 2 O), 2.51-2.56 (m, 1H), 2.62-2.67 (m, 1H), 3.25-3.28 (m, 2H), 3.48-3.51 (m, 2H), 3.88 (q, 1H), 3.92 (s, 3H), 4.41-4.46 (m, 1H), 4.56-4.61 (m, 1H), 7.11 (d, 1H), 7.15-7.18 (q, 1H), 7.35-7.36 (q, 1H), 7.65 (s, 1H), 7.69-7.74 (m, 2H); 13 C NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ18.3, 45.6, 54.0, 55.5, 55.6, 56.2, 56.3, 58.6, 105.8, 119.8, 126.1, 126.4, 127.7, 129.0, 133.9, 135.2, 158.2, 173.9; MS (ESI) m/z 389.1 (M+Na) + (C 18 H 22 O 6 Sna requires 389.1) The syntheses described in Examples 38-45 are outlined in Scheme 16. EXAMPLE 38 Compound 102 (Scheme 16). A solution of compound 12 (3.02 g, 10 mmol) and methanesulfonyl chloride 96 (1.55 ml, 2.29 g, 20 mmol) in 10 ml of pyridine was stirred at 0° C. for 2 h. 100 ml of water was added and the resulting mixture was filtered and the solid was washed with water five times. The compound was purified by rerecrystallization from CH 2 Cl 2 -hexanes to give 3.0 g (79%) of the compound 102 as a white solid; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.58 (d, 3H), 1.67 (m, 4H), 2.88 (s, 3H), 3.85 (q, 1H), 3.91 (s, 3H), 4.10 (m, 4H), 7.11-7.15 (m, 2H), 7.38-7.40 (q, 1H), 7.65-7.71 (s, 3H), 13 C NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ18.6, 24.9, 25.9, 37.5, 45.6, 55.5, 63.9, 69.4, 105.8, 119.2, 126.1, 126.4, 127.4, 129.1, 129.4, 133.9, 136.8, 157.9, 174.8; MS (ESI) m/z 403.6 (M+Na) + (C 19 H 24 O 6 Sna requires 403.5). EXAMPLE 39 Compound 103 (Scheme 16). Compound 103 was prepared by the similar procedure as described above for compound 102 from compound 13 (4.74 g, 15 mmol) and compound 96 (2.31 ml, 3.43 g, 30 mmol). The product was purified by recrystallization from CH 2 Cl 2 -hexanes to give 5.1 g (86%) of the compound 103 as a white solid; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.30 (m, 2H), 1.58 (d, 3H), 1.62(m, 4H), 2.9 (s, 3H), 3.89 (q, 1H), 3.91 (s, 3H), 4.02-4.11 (m, 4H), 7.11-7.15 (m, 2H), 7.39 (d, 1H), 7.66-7.71 (m, 3H); 13 C NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ18.5, 22.1, 28.1, 28.8, 37.4, 45.7, 55.5, 64.5, 69.8, 105.8, 119.2, 126.1, 126.4, 127.3, 129.4, 133.9, 135.9, 157.9, 174.9; MS (ESI) m/z 395.1 (M+H) + (C 20 H 27 O 6 S requires 395.1). EXAMPLE 40 Compound 104 (Scheme 16). Compound 104 was prepared by the similar procedure as described above for compound 102 from compound 14 (3.3 g, 10 mmol) and compound 96 (1.55 ml, 2.31 g, 20 mmol). The product was purified by recrystallization from CH 2 Cl 2 -hexanes to give 1.72 g (42%) of the compound 104 as a white solid; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.21-1.31 (m, 4H), 1.53-1.61 (m, 7H), 2.95 (s, 3H), 3.89 (q, 1H), 3.91 (s, 3H), 4.04-4.12 (m, 4H), 7.12-7.15 (m, 2H), 7.40 (q, 1H), 7.69 (t, 3H); MS (ESI) m/z 431.4 (M+Na) + (C 21 H 28 O 6 Sna requires 431.5). EXAMPLE 41 Compound 105 (Scheme 16). Compound 105 was prepared by the similar procedure as described above for compound 103 from compound 12 (1.51 g, 5 mmol) and compound 100 (0.94 ml, 1.28 g, 10 mmol). The product was purified by flash chromatography on a silica gel column using CH 2 Cl 2 as an eluent to give 1.45 g (74%) of the compound 105 as a pale yellow oil; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.35 (t, 3H), 1.57(d, 3H), 1.68 (m, 4H), 3.01(q, 2H), 3.84 (q, 1H), 3.90 (s, 3H), 4.11 (m, 4H); MS (ESI) m/z 417.4 (M+Na) + (C 20 H 26 O 6 Sna requires 417.5). EXAMPLE 42 Compound 106 (Scheme 16). Compound 106 was prepared by the similar procedure as described above for compound 102 from compound 12 (1.51 g, 5 mmol) and compound 97 (1.27 ml, 1.76 g, 10 mmol). The product was washed with water and dried to give 1.9 g (86%) of the compound 106 as a pale yellow oil; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.53 (d, 3H), 1.55-1.63 (m, 4H), 3.81 (q, 1H), 3.91 (s, 3H), 3.94-4.03 (m, 4H), 7.11-7.15 (m, 2H), 7.36 (d, 1H), 7.51(m, 2H), 7.63 (m, 2H), 7.69 (d, 2H), 7.85 (d, 2H); MS (ESI) m/z 443.6 (M+H) + (C 24 H 27 O 6 S requires 443.5). EXAMPLE 43 Compound 107 (Scheme 16). Compound 107 was prepared by the similar procedure as described above for compound 102 from compound 12 (1.51 g, 5 mmol) and compound 98 (1.55 ml, 2.45 g, 10 mmol). The product was purified by flash chromatography on a silica gel column using CH 2 Cl 2 as an eluent to give 1.12 g (44%) of the compound 107 as a white solid; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.56 (d, 3H), 1.60-1.63 (m, 4H), 3.82 (q, 1H), 3.90 (s, 3H), 4.00-4.06 (m, 4H), 7.11-7.15 (m, 2H), 7.36-7.38 (q, 1H), 7.64-7.71 (m, 4H), 7.89 (d, 1H), 8.04 (d, 1H), 8.15 (s, 1H); 13 C NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ18.5, 24.8 25.7, 45.6, 55.5, 63.7, 70.8, 105.8, 119.2, 125.06, 125.09, 126.3, 127.4, 129.1, 129.4, 130.3, 130.6, 131.2, 132.1, 133.9, 135.8, 137.6, 157.9, 174.8; MS (ESI) m/z 533.3 (M+Na) + (C 25 H 25 F 3 O 6 Sna requires 533.5). EXAMPLE 44 Compound 108 (Scheme 16). Compound 108 was prepared by the similar procedure as described above for compound 102 from compound 12 (1.51 g, 5 mmol) and compound 99 (2.06 g, 10 mmol). The product was purified by recrystallization from CH 2 Cl 2 -hexanes to give 1.44 g (61%) of compound 108 as a white crystal; 1 H NMR and MS spectra are consistence with the compound 108. EXAMPLE 45 Compound 109 (Scheme 16). Compound 109 was prepared by the similar procedure as described above for compound 102 from compound 13 (1.58 g, 5 mmol) and compound 101 (2.21 g, 10 mmol). The product was purified by flash chromatography on a silica gel column using CH 2 Cl 2 as an eluent to give 1.5 g (67%) of the compound 109 as a pale yellow oil; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.21-1.26 (m, 2H), 1.50-1.59 (m, 7H), 3.83 (q, 1H), 3.91 (s, 3H), 3.89-4.08 (m, 4H), 7.11-7.26 (m, 2H), 7.37-7.40 (m, 1H), 7.63-7.70 (m, 3H), 8.02 (d, 2H), 8.35 (d, 2H); MS (ESI) m/z 524.6 (M+Na) + (C 25 H 27 NO 8 Sna requires 524.6). The syntheses described in Examples 46 and 47 are outlined in Scheme 17. EXAMPLE 46 Compound 111 (Scheme 17). A mixture of compound 20 (4.56 g, 10 mmol), methanesulfonamide 110 (1.9 g, 20 mmol, 2 equiv) and K 2 CO 3 (6.9 g, 50 mmol, 5 equiv) in 100 ml of acetonitril (CH 3 CN) was heated to reflux for 26 h. The solvent was evaporated and the residue was dissolved and shaken well in water and EtOAc. The two phases were separated and the organic phase was washed with water three times, dried (Na 2 SO 4 ) and concentrated. The crude product was purified by recrystallization from CH 2 Cl 2 -hexanes to give 2.53 g (67%) of the compound 111 as an yellow solid; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.38-1.42 (m, 2H), 1.53-1.63 (m, 2H), 1.58 (d, 3H), 2.77 (s, 3H), 2.92-2.96 (m, 2H), 3.85 (q, 1H), 3.91 (s, 3H), 3.99 (bs, 1H, ex D 2 O), 4.03-4.07 (m, 1H), 4.11-4.16 (m, 1H), 7.12-7.16 (m, 2H), 7.38-7.40 (d, 1H), 7.66 (s, 1H), 7.71 (d, 2H); MS (ESI) m/z 402.5 (M+Na) + (C 19 H 25 NO 5 SNa requires 402.5). EXAMPLE 47 Compound 112 (Scheme 17). Compound 112 was prepared by the similar procedure as described above for compound 111 from compound 22 (2.42 g, 5 mmol) and compound 110 (0.57 g, 6 mmol, 1.2 equiv). The product was purified by recrystallization from CH 2 Cl 2 -hexanes to give 0.9 g (45%) of the compound 112 as a powder; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.17-1.22 (m, 4H), 1.33-1.37 (m, 2H), 1.56 (d, 3H), 1.52-1.60 (m, 2H), 2.89 (s, 3H), 2.95 (q, 2H), 3.85 (q, 1H), 3.91 (s, 3H), 4.01-4.15 (m, 3H, 1H ex D 2 O), 7.12-7.15 (m, 2H), 7.40 (d, 1H), 7.66-7.76 (m, 3H); 13 C NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ18.5, 25.5, 26.1, 28.5, 30.1, 40.5, 43.2, 45.7, 55.5, 64.6, 105.8, 119.2, 126.1, 126.5, 127.3, 129.1, 129.4, 133.9, 136.1, 157.8, 174.9; MS (ESI) m/z 430.6 (M+Na) + (C 21 H 29 NO 5 Sna requires 430.6). The syntheses described in Examples 48 and 49 are outlined in Scheme 18. EXAMPLE 48 Compound 116 (Scheme 18). To a solution of aminopentanol 113 (3.1 g, 30 mmol) and triethylamine (TEA) (4.2 ml, 3.03 g, 30 mmol) in 50 ml of anhydrous THF was added dropwise p-toluenesulfonyl chloride 115 (5.7 g, 30 mmol) in 50 ml of THF at 0° C. The resulting solution was continued to stir at 0° C. and then rt for 2 h. To the reaction solution was added 500 ml of water and the resulted mixture was extracted with EtOAc. The combined organic phase was washed with water twice, 0.5 N HCl solution once, 5% NaHCO 3 solution once and water once. The organic phase was dried (Na 2 SO 4 ) and evaporated under high vacuum to give 4.87 g (63%) of the compound 116 as a white oil. The compound was used to prepare compound 118 without further purification; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.33-1.37 (m, 2H), 1.45-1.51 (m, 4H), 2.41 (s, 3H), 2.91 (t, 2H), 3.57 (t, 2H), 7.30 (d, 2H), 7.72 (d, 2H); MS (ESI) m/z 280.5 (M+Na) + (C 12 H 19 NO 3 SNa requires 280.4). Compound 118 (Scheme 18). To a solution of compound 116 (1.29 g, 5 mmol), naproxen 1 (1.15 g, 5 mmol) and DMAP (0.12 g, 1 mmol) in CH 2 Cl 2 was added DCC (1.03 g, 5 mmol) at 0° C. The resulting solution was stirred at 0° C. for 2h and then at rt for another 2 h. The solid was filtered off and the solvent was evaporated. The residue was dissolved in EtOAc and filtered to remove more solid. The filtrate was washed with water three times, dried (Na 2 SO 4 ) and concentrated. The product was purified by flash chromatography on a silica gel column using ethyl ether as an eluent to give 2.06 g (88%) of the compound 118 as a solid; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.13-1.18 (m, 2H), 1.25-1.34 (m, 2H), 1.45-1.51 (m, 2H), 1.55 (d, 3H), 2.40 (s, 3H), 2.77 (q, 2H), 3.81 (q, 1H), 3.90 (s, 3H), 3.96-4.02 (m, 2H), 4.47 (t, 1H, ex D 2 O), 7.12-7.14 (m, 2H), 7.26 (d, 2H), 7.38 (d, 1H), 7.65-7.70 (m, 5H); MS (ESI) m/z 492.5 (M+Na) + (C 26 H 3 NO 5 SNa requires 492.6). EXAMPLE 49 Compound 117 (Scheme 18). Compound 117 was prepared by the similar procedure as described above for compound 116 from 6-amino-1-hexanol 114 (3.5 g, 30 mmol) and compound 115 (5.7 g, 30 mmol). The product was purified by flash chromatography on a silica gel column using ethyl ether as an eluent to give 6.5 g (80%) of the compound 117 as a white solid; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.26-1.29 (m, 4H), 1.43-1.49 (m, 4H), 2.40 (s, 3H), 2.89 (t, 2H), 3.57 (t, 2H), 7.27 (d, 2H), 7.73 (d, 2H); MS (ESI) m/z 272.4 (M+H) + (C 13 H 22 NO 3 S requires 272.4). Compound 119 (Scheme 18). Compound 119 was prepared by the similar procedure as described above for compound 118 from compound 117 (1.36 g, 5 mmol), naproxen 1 (1.15 g, 5 mmol), DCC (1.03 g, 5 mmol) and DMAP (0.12 g, 1 mmol). The product was purified by flash chromatography on a silica gel column using ethyl ether as an eluent to give 2.04 g (84%) of the compound 119 as a white solid; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.11 (m, 4H), 1.23-1.29 (m, 2H), 1.46-1.56 (m, 2H), 1.56 (d, 3H), 2.40 (s, 3H), 2.79 (q, 2H), 3.82 (q, 1H), 3.91 (s, 3H), 3.96-4.05 (m, 2H), 4.43 (t, 1H, ex D 2 O), 7.11-7.14 (m, 2H), 7.26-7.29 (m, 2H), 7.37-7.39 (q, 1H), 7.64-7.72 (m, 5H); 13 C NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ18.5 21.7, 25.4, 26.1, 28.4, 29.5, 43.1, 45.7, 55.5, 64.6, 105.8, 119.1, 126.1, 126.4, 127.3, 129.1, 129.4, 129.8, 133.8, 136.1, 137.2, 143.5, 157.8, 174.1; MS (ESI) m/z 484.7(M+H) + (C 27 H 34 NO 5 S requires 484.6). The syntheses described in Examples 50 and 51 are outlined in Scheme 19. EXAMPLE 50 Compound 123 (Scheme 19). A mixture of naproxen sodium 120 (2.52 g, 10 mmol) and propanesulton 121 (1.22 g, 10 mmol) in 50 ml of N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) was stirred at 50-60° C for 30 min. To the reaction solution was added 150 ml of acetone and then stood still for 1 h. Filtration and washing by acetone provided 3.2 g (86%) of the compound 123 as a white powder; 1 H NMR (D 2 O) δ1.37 (d, 3H), 1.93-1.97 (m, 2H), 2.74-2.77 (m, 2H), 3.72 (q, 1H), 3.72 (s, 3H), 4.01-4.05 (m, 1H), 4.08-4.11 (m, 1H), 6.97-7.00 (m, 2H), 7.20-7.22 (q, 1H), 7.44 (s, 1H), 7.50 (t, 2H); 13 C NMR (D 2 O) δ16.7, 23.1, 44.4, 46.9, 54.6, 63.2, 105.4, 117.9, 125.1, 125.5, 126.7, 128.1, 128.7, 132.7, 134.9, 156.3, 176.4; MS (ESI) m/z 397.1 (M+Na) + (C 17 H 19 Na 2 O 5 S requires 397.4). EXAMPLE 51 Compound 124 (Scheme 19). Compound 124 was prepared by the similar procedure as described above for compound 123 from butanesulton 122 (1.02 ml, 1.36 g, 10 mmol) and naproxen sodium 120 (2.52 g, 10 mmol). After reaction, acetone was added and the solid was filtered and washed with acetone to give 1.3 g (34%) of the compound 124 as a white powder; 1 H NMR (D 2 O) δ1.22 (d, 3H), 1.34-1.38 (m, 2H), 1.50-1.56 (m, 2H), 2.65 (t, 2H), 3.44 (s, 3H), 3.47 (m, 1H), 3.74-3.77 (m, 1H), 3.83-3.86 (m, 1H), 6.74 (s, 1H), 6.78-6.81 (d, 1H), 7.05 (d, 1H), 7.22-7.29 (m, 3H); MS (ESI) m/z 411.2 (M+Na) + (C 18 H 21 Na 2 O 6 S requires 411.2). The synthesis described in Example 52 is outlined in Scheme 20. EXAMPLE 52 Compound 125 (Scheme 20). To a mixture of diclofenac 29 (2.96 g, 10 mmol), methylsulfonylethanol 48 (1.24 g, 10 mmol) and DMAP (0.24 g, 2 mmol) in 50 ml of CH 2 Cl 2 was added DCC (2.06 g, 10 mmol) at 0° C. The resulting mixture was stirred at 0° C. for 2 h. The mixture was filtered and the filtrate was evaporated. The residue was washed with methanol to give 1.83 g (92%) of the compound 125 as a white powder; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ2.75 (s, 3H), 3.30 (t, 2H), 3.84 (s, 2H), 4.58 (t, 2H), 6.51 (d, 1H), 6.93 (t, 1H), 7.00 (t, 1H), 7.12 (t, 1H), 7.19 (d, 1H), 7.34 (d, 2H); 13 C NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ38.5, 42.1 54.0,58.8, 118.3, 122.2, 123.4, 124.7, 128.6, 129.1, 129.9, 131.1, 137.6, 142.8, 171.5; MS (ESI) m/z 402.4 M + (C 17 H 17 Cl 2 NO 4 S requires 402.4). The synthesis described in Example 53 is outlined in Scheme 21. EXAMPLE 53 Compound 127 (Scheme 21). To a mixture of 4-amino-1-butanol 126 (9 g, 100 mmol) and K 2 CO 3 (34.5 g, 250 mmol, 2.5 equiv) in 200 ml of acetonitril was added dropwise methanesulfonyl chloride 96 (6.95 ml, 10.3 g, 90 mmol, 3 equiv) in 100 ml of CH 3 CN at 0° C. The resulting solution was stirred at 0° C. for 1 h. The reaction mixture was filtered and the solvent was evaporated. The residue was purified by flash chromatography on a silica gel column using 50:1 CH 2 Cl 2 -MeOH as an eluent to give 3.45 g (21%) of the compound 127 as a white powder; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.42-1.49 (m, 4H), 2.89 (s, 3H), 2.91 (q, 2H), 3.39 (q, 2H), 4.39 (t, 2H), 6.91 (t, 1 H, ex D 2 O); 13 C NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ26.1, 29.6, 42.4, 60.2, one peak is covered by DMSO-d 6 peaks; MS (ESI) m/z 190.1 (M+Na) + (C 5 H 13 NO 3 SNa requires 190.2). Compound 128 (Scheme 21). Compound 128 was prepared by the similar procedure as described above for the compound 125 from diclofenac 29 (1.48 g, 5 mmol), compound 127 (0.83 g, 5 mmol), DCC (1.03 g, 5 mmol) and DMAP (0.12 g, 1 mmol). The product was purified by recrystallization from CH 2 Cl 2 -hexanes to give 1.5 g (67%) of the compound 128 as a white powder; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.57-1.62 (m, 2H), 1.70-1.74 (m, 2H), 2.91 (s, 3H), 3.11 (q, 2H), 3.80 (s, 2H), 4.17 (t, 2H), 4.44 (t, 1H, ex D 2 O), 6.54 (d, 1H), 6.87 (bs, 1H, ex D 2 O), 6.94-7.00 (m, 2H), 7.12 (t, 1H), 7.23 (t, 1H), 7.34 (d, 2H); 13 C NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ25.8, 26.8, 38.8, 40.5, 42.9, 64.7, 118.4, 122.2, 124.3, 124.4, 128.2, 129.1, 129.7, 131.1, 137.9, 142.9, 172.5; MS (ESI) m/z 445.3 M + (C 19 H 22 Cl 2 N 2 O 4 S requires 445.3). The synthesis described in Example 54 is outlined in Scheme 22. EXAMPLE 54 Compound 130 (Scheme 22). Compound 130 was prepared by the similar procedure as described above for the compound 125 from diclofenac 29 (1.48 g, 5 mmol), compound 129 (1.22 g, 5 mmol), DCC (1.03 g, 5 mmol) and DMAP (0.12 g, 1 mmol). The product was purified by recrystallization from CH 2 Cl 2 -hexanes to give 1.3 g (50%) of the compound 130 as a white powder; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.47-1.51 (m, 2H), 1.62-1.66 (m, 2H), 2.41 (s, 3H), 2.90-2.94 (q, 2H), 3.77 (s, 2H), 4.09(t, 2H), 4.34 (t, 1H, ex D 2 O), 6.53 (d, 1H), 6.86 (bs, 1H, ex D 2 O), 6.93-7.00 (m, 2H), 7.11(m, 1H), 7.20 (d, 1H), 7.28-7.35 (m, 4H), 7.72 (d, 2H); MS (ESI) m/z 544.2 (M+Na) + (C 25 H 26 Cl 2 N 2 O 4 SNa requires 544.4). The synthesis described in Example 55 is outlined in Scheme 23. EXAMPLE 55 Compound 132 (Scheme 23). To a solution of 4-(hydroxyphenyl)-1-propanol 131 (3.04 g, 20 mmol) in 20 ml of pyridine was added compound 115 (15.2 g, 80 mmol, 4 equiv) at 0° C. The resulting solution was stirred at 0° C. for 2 h and then at rt for another 2 h. To the reaction solution was added 200 ml of water. The resulting mixture was extracted with EtOAc twice. The combined organic phase was washed with water five times, 0.5N HCl solution once, 5% Na 2 CO 3 solution once and water again. The organic phase was dried (Na 2 SO 4 ) and the solvent was evaporated to give 7.9 g (86%) of the compound 132 as a pale yellow oil; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.90 (m, 2H), 2.4 (s, 6H), 2.6 (t, 2H), 3.98 (t, 2H), 6.82-6.84 (q, 2H), 6.97 (d, 2H), 7.29-7.34 (q, 4H), 7.68 (d, 2H), 7.76 (d, 2H); MS (ESI) m/z 483.3 (M+Na) + (C 23 H 24 O 4 S 2 Na requires 483.5). Compound 134 (Scheme 23). A mixture of diclofenac sodium 133 (1.59 g, 5 mmol), compound 132 (2.3 g, 5 mmol) and K 2 CO 3 (1.38 g, 10 mmol) was stirred at rt for 22 h. After reaction, water and EtOAc were added and the two layers were separated. The organic phase was washed with water four times, dried (Na 2 SO 4 ) and concentrated. The residue was purified by flash chromatography on a silica gel column using 5:1 CH 2 Cl 2 -hexanes as an eluent to give 1.7 g (59%) of the compound 134 as a pale yellow oil; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.90-1.96 (m, 2H), 2.43 (s, 3H), 2.60 (t, 2H), 3.79 (s, 3H), 4.12 (t, 2H), 6.55 (d, 1H), 6.87 (t, 3H), 6.94-7.01 (m, 4H), 7.09-7.13 (m, 1H), 7.22-7.35 (m, 5H), 7.69 (d, 2H); 13 C NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ22.1, 30.4, 31.8, 32.5, 64.8, 118.7, 122.5, 122.7, 124.5, 124.8, 128.5, 128.9, 129.3, 129.9, 129.95, 130.1, 131.2, 132.9, 138.2, 140.5, 143.1, 145.7, 148.4, 172.7; MS (ESI) m/z 584.3 M + (C 30 H 27 Cl 2 NO 5 S requires 584.5 1 ). EXAMPLE 56 Reduced Numbers of Intestinal Ulcers in Rat Acute and Subacute Enteropathy Models by the Invention Modified NSAID (Compound 19)! a Prodrug of Naproxen NSAIDs are important drugs used to treat acute and chronic inflammation as well as pain and fever. The major limitation to NSAID use is the occurrence of gastrointestinal ulcers and erosions. These side effects are produced by a combination of local and systemic effects. Attempts have been made to circumvent the local side effects of NSAIDs by making them as prodrugs, which will bypass the stomach, but so far this has not been clearly successful. It is demonstrated here that the invention modified NSAIDs substantially reduce GI toxicity, while exhibiting dose equivalent efficacy in anti-inflammation activity in both acute and chronic inflammation animal models. Sprague-Dawley rats (male, 150-200 g), were orally dosed once daily for either 3 days (acute model) or 14 days (subacute model). Twenty-four hours after the last dose, the rats were injected i.v. with Evans Blue (5 ml/kg, 10 mg/ml) to stain the ulcers. Ten to twenty minutes later the animals were sacrificed by CO2 inhalation and the intestines removed, opened lengthwise and the contents removed. The long dimensions of all ulcers were measured using a ruler and summed to give a total ulcer score. In the acute model (FIG. 1 ), ulceration after dosing with an invention modified NSAID (compound 19) was 15% of that seen with an equimolar dose of naproxen. PEG had no ulcerogenic effect. In the subacute model (FIG. 2 ), ulceration was less than 5% of that seen with a corresponding dose of naproxen at all three doses used. Again, PEG had no effect. These results suggest that invention modified NSAIDs are much less ulcerogenic than naproxen. EXAMPLE 57 Reduction of Chronic Hindlimb Inflammation in the Rat Adjuvant Arthritis Model by the Invention Modified NSAID (Compound 19), a Prodrug of Naproxen NSAIDs are useful in the treatment of both chronic and acute inflammatory conditions. Efficacy in chronic inflammation can be estimated using the rat adjuvant arthritis model. In this model Lewis male rats (175-250 g) are injected intradermally in the footpad with M. tuberculosis powder suspended in mineral oil at 5 mg/ml. Progressive swelling of the uninjected paw and ankle joint between days 5 and 15 is measured by plethysmometry. Rats were dosed daily by oral gavage with 5 ml/kg of naproxen at 3 to 30 mg/kg in phosplate buffered saline (PBS) and with equimolar doses of an invention modified NSAID at 1 ml/kg in PEG 300. The results (FIG. 3) show that the invention modified NSAID resulted in antiinflammatory effects comparable to those of naproxen in this model. EXAMPLE 58 Reduction of Acute Hindlimb Inflammation in the Rat Carrageenan-induced Hindlimb Edema Model by the Invention Modified NSAID (Compound 19), a Prodrug of Naproxen Efficacy of NSAIDs in acute inflammation can be estimated by using intraplantar injection of carrageenan in the rat. Sprague-Dawley rats (200-250 g male) are injected intradermally in the footpad with 50 (1 of a 1% carrageenan solution in PBS. Swelling of the injected paw is measured 3 & 4 hours later, using a plethysmometer. Pretreatment with oral naproxen one hour before the carrageenan injection at 10 mg/kg resulted in an approximately 50% reduction in swelling at both time points (Table 1). An equimolar dose of an invention modified NSAID reduced inflammation to the same degree at both time points. These results suggest that invention modified NSAIDs are comparable in effect to naproxen at 10 mg/kg. TABLE 1 Effects of naproxen and the invention modified NSAID (compound 19) on paw volume increase in carrageenan-induced inflammation in rats. Treatment 4 Hours 5 Hours Vehicle 0.73 ± 0.10 0.85 ± 0.10 Naproxen (1 mg/kg) 0.63 ± 0.07 0.75 ± 0.08 Naproxen (10 mg/kg) 0.32 ± 0.05* 0.39 ± 0.07* Compound 19 (1.75 mg/kg) 0.78 ± 0.04 0.93 ± 0.04 Compound 19 (17.5 mg/kg) 0.34 ± 0.06* 0.40 ± 0.06* P < 0.05 vs Vehicle by unpaired t-test. Invention modified NSAIDs are seen to have antiinflammatory activity similar to naproxen in the chronic adjuvant arthritis and acute carrageenan hindlimb edema rat models. The tendency to cause intestinal ulcers is reduced substantially invention modified NSAID. Thus, invention modified NSAIDs provide an effective prodrug form of naproxen with reduced intestinal side effects. EXAMPLE 59 Plasma Pharmacokinetics of Naproxen and the Invention Modified NSAID After Oral Administration in Rats The invention compound (compound 19) is a naproxen prodrug, which is a conjugate of naproxen and tosylate. Oral administration of the invention compound resulted in the release of free naproxen. The pharmacokinetics of naproxen release from the invention modified NSAID and its parent drug, naproxen, was evaluated in rats after oral administration. The carotid artery of Sprague-Dawley rat (250-350 g, male) was catheterized at least one day before drug administration and flushed with 30% polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP) (400 U/mL of heparin) to maintain patency. At predetermined time points (see Table 2), blood samples (250 (L) were collected by unhooking the flushing syringe and letting the blood flow out of the catheter and into the centrifuge tubes. After centrifugation (13,000 rpm, 10 min, 4° C.), the plasma samples were collected and analyzed in the same day. TABLE 2 Rat group assignment and doses Test Article Group # Rat # Dose* (mg/kg) Sample Time Naproxen 1 1, 2, 3, & 4 Oral (2 mg/kg) 5 min, 0.5, 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22, & 24 hrs Invention 2 5, 6, 7, & 8 Oral (2 mg/kg) 15 min, 0.5, 1, 3, Compound 5, 6, 7, 8, 22, 23, 19 & 24 hrs *Indicates amount of naproxen in dose. Aliquot of plasma sample (100 μL) was mixed with 200 μL of acetonitrile. After vortexing and centrifugation (13,000 rpm, 10 min, 4° C.), 200 (L of supernatant was removed and added to 300 (L of a 58:42 mixture of 50 mM phosphate buffer (pH 5.0) and acetonitrile. Following vortexing and centrifugation, 25 L of supernatant was removed and analyzed by HPLC with a UV detection system. The average plasma concentration at each time point was calculated and utilized in a pharmacokinetic analysis. Noncompartmental pharmacokinetic analysis was carried out using WinNolin (Pharsight, Mountainview, Calif.) to calculate the maximum concentration (C max ), time to maximum concentration (T max ), area under the curve from zero to the last time point (AUC last ), the area under the curve from zero to infinite time (AUC inf ), and the terminal phase half life (Beta-t ½ ). The AUC all , AUC INF, and t ½ of naproxen from naproxen and a modified form of naproxen according to the invention were found to be similar (Table 3). On the other hand, for the invention modified form of neproxen, the C max was lower and the T max longer, compared to naproxen (see Table 3). TABLE 3 Non-Compartmental Pharmacokinetic Analysis of naproxen and the invention modified form of naproxen according to the (compound 19) after oral administration in rats AUC all AUC INF Dose* C max T max (μg*hr/ (μg*hr/ t 1/2 Drug (mg/kg) (μg/mL) (hrs) mL) mL) (hrs) N Naproxen 2 7.77 ± 0.5 ± 50 ± 6  55 ± 7  6.2 ± 0.4 4 4.13 0.5 Invention 2 3.87 ± 6.8 ± 49 ± 10 56 ± 14 6.8 ± 2.7 4 modified 1.05 1.5 naproxen *Indicates amount of naproxen in dose. Following oral naproxen administration, the naproxen plasma levels were at the highest at the first time-point (5 minutes) then declined in a bi-exponential manner. In contrast, after oral administration of a modified form of naproxen according to the invention, the maximum naproxen levels were observed at a much later time (T max of 6.8±1.5 hrs). The similar AUC all , AUC INF , and T ½ values but lower C max and longer T max values supports the conclusions drawn from the results obtained from pharmacological studies, i.e. that a modified form of naproxen according to the invention conjugate has equivalent pharmacological efficacy and greatly improved gastrointestinal safety profile compared to naproxen. While the invention has been described in detail with reference to certain preferred embodiments thereof, it will be understood that modifications and variations are within the spirit and scope of that which is described and claimed.

In accordance with the present invention, there are provided modified forms of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Modified NSAIDs according to the invention provide a new class of anti-inflammatory agent which provide the therapeutic benefits of NSAIDs while causing a much lower incidence of side-effects then typically observed with such agents.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to resealable containers such as those used for the storage of food stuffs. Containers for the storage of food in household refrigerators or freezers are well known to the prior art. Ideally such containers are inexpensive, easy to fill and to seal, and of a shape which makes efficient use of the space in the refrigerator or freezer in question. The least expensive containers are plastic bags which may be sealed by any of a number of methods. Although these containers are inexpensive, they are difficult to fill without an additional supporting apparatus. In addition, due to their non-rigid shape they are difficult to stack in the refrigerator or freezer; hence they are inefficient in their space utilization. Numerous reusable rigid wall plastic containers are also known to the prior art. These containers are expensive, but reusable. They are easy to fill and seal and stack well in the refrigerator or freezer. However, they tend to loose their shape after several washings in modern dishwashers. As a result, they begin seal poorly and must be discarded. Ideally, one would like to have an inexpensive disposable or semi-disposable container which is rigid and rectangular in shape for efficient use of storage space. Unfortunately, the cost of shipping such rigid containers places a lower limit on their cost. Many foodstuffs come in containers which must be discarded after use. Ideally, these containers could be used at least once for food storage after they are emptied of their original contents. For example, milk and other liquids are sold in leakproof paper containers of a standard size. Unfortunately, when emptied, these containers are of little use. The opening provided for dispensing milk or other material from these containers is usually too small to allow easy refilling, and more importantly no way is provided for reestablishing a substantially airtight seal. Various forms of sealing materials can be used to seal these containers such as aluminum foil; however, containers covered with a flexible sealing material are difficult to stack on top of each other and obtaining and maintaining a good seal is not easy. Consequently, it is an object of the present invention to provide an inexpensive, easily resealable container which can also be easily stacked on top of one another in a refrigerator or like space. It is a further object of the present invention to provide a means for recycling containers of the type used for packaging milk or other liquids. These and other objects of the present invention will become evident from the following detailed description of the invention and accompanying drawings. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention consists of a unique resealable container, a method for converting a standard container of the type commonly used for packaging milk or other liquids into the resealable container of the present invention, and an apparatus for carrying out this method. By starting with a container which is already present in the consumer's home, the present invention avoids the costs of shipping which would otherwise determine the minimum cost of such a rigid wall food storage container. The resealable container consists of a rectangular box having four flaps and a closing band for sealing the box. The closing band holds the flaps in their closed position. The container may be produced by making six cuts in a standard container of the type normally used to package milk or the like. The cuts are made with the apparatus of the present invention using an ordinary kitchen knife. The apparatus of the present invention supports the container during the cutting process and guides the knife to assure that the cuts are made in the correct locations. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a resealable container according to the present invention in a closed configuration. FIG. 2 is a perspective view of a resealable container according to the present invention in an open configuration. FIG. 3(a) is a first view of a container which can be used as a starting container for constructing the container of the present invention. FIG. 3(b) is a side view of the container shown in FIG. 3(a). FIG. 4 illustrates the conversion of a standard container of the type used to package milk into a resealable container according to the method of the present invention. FIG. 5 is a perspective view of the apparatus of the present invention which is used in making the conversion shown in FIG. 4. FIGS. 6(a), (b), and (c) are top, side and front views, respectively, of the apparatus of the present invention. FIG. 7(a) is a cross-sectional view of the starting container shown in FIG. 3 illustrating the insertion of the apparatus of FIG. 5 into said container. FIG. 7(b) is a cross-sectional view of the starting container illustrating the use of the apparatus of FIG. 5 to remove the top of the starting container. FIG. 7(c) is a cross-sectional view of the starting container illustrating the use of the apparatus of the present invention to make the cut for forming the closing band of the resealable container. FIG. 7(d) is a cross-sectional view of the starting container illustrating the use of the apparatus of the present invention for making the last four cuts needed to convert the starting container into a resealable container according to the present invention. FIG. 7(e) is a top plan view of the starting container and apparatus as shown in FIG. 7(d). DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The resealable container of the present invention is shown in FIG. 1 at 10 in its sealed configuration and at 12 FIG. 2 in its open configuration. Referring to FIG. 2, the resealable container 10 has a rectangular bottom 14 having front and back edges, which are of length w and left and right edges, which are of length d. The front edge is shown at 16. The right edge is shown at 20. The container 10 has four vertical sides, a front side 24, a right side 26, a back side 28 and a left side 30. Each vertical side is joined to said bottom and to the vertical sides adjacent to said vertical side. Each vertical side is also joined to a flap which is hingedly connected to said vertical side along the top edge of said vertical side. The front flap 32 is joined to the upper edge 31 of the front side. It has a width of w and a length of d or less. Similarly, the left flap 36 and right flap 34 are joined respectively to the left side 30 and the right side 26 at the upper edge of the side in question. The left flap 36 and right flap 34 each have widths of d and lengths of w or less. The back flap 38 is joined to the back side 28 at the upper edge of said back flap. Back flap 38 has a width of w and a length of d. A closing band 40 is attached to the upper end of the back flap 38 such that the upper edge of the closing band 41 and the upper edge of the back flap 46 lie in the same plane. The circumference of the closing band 40 is equal to twice the height h of the container plus twice the width w of the container. In the preferred embodiment, the closing band 40 is a rectangular band having a height t, a right side 42 and a left side 44 each of length h and a front side of length w and a back side of width w. In the preferred embodiment, the closing band 40 is formed as an integral part of the back flap 38. Embodiments in which the closing band 40 is formed separately and then attached to said back flap will be apparent to those skilled in the art. The resealable container is sealed by bending the left and right flaps 34, 36 inward so as to cover the opening 50 in the top of the container. The front flap 32 is then likewise bent inward. Finally the back flap 38 is bend toward the front side 24. The closing band 40 encircles right side 26, the bottom 14 and the left side 30 thus securing the back flap 38 on top of flaps 32, 34 and 36. The closing band 40 must be made of a material which is sufficiently flexible to allow the closing band to slide over the front edge 16. Similarly, the height, t, of the closing band must be sufficiently small to allow the closing band to slide over the front edge 16, while also being sufficiently large to provide structural strength to the closing band. In the preferred embodiment, the entire resealable container 10 is made from leakproof paper, and the height of the closing band is chosen to be approximately 25% of the length d of the container 10. The resealable container 10 of the present invention may be constructed from any starting container made of an appropriate material which has a rectangular base having a width, w, and a depth, d, and vertical rectangular sides having a length, L, greater than h plus d, where h is the height of the resealable container as described above. Where the resealable container is constructed from a starting container as hereinafter described, the height of the resealable container, h, must equal the depth, d, of the starting container to enable closing band 40 to function properly. In the preferred embodiment, a leakproof paper starting container of the type commonly used to package milk or other liquids is used. Such a container is shown in FIG. 3. Referring to FIG. 4, the starting container 60 is converted into the resealable container 10 of the present invention by making six (6) cuts in the starting container. Referring to FIG. 4, the first cut removes the top of the starting container 60 leaving an open topped container of height h plus d, or 2×d. This cut is made in a plane 62 parallel to the bottom 64 of the starting container at a height of h plus d above said bottom. The second cut is made in a plane 66 parallel to the bottom 64 of the starting container. This plane is at a height of h plus d minus t above said bottom, where t is the thickness of the closing band 40 as defined above. Only the front side, left side, and right side of the starting container 60 are cut in this second cut. The back side 68 of the starting container 60 is not cut. This second cut forms the closing band 40 and defines the top edges of flanges 32, 34 and 36. The next four cuts complete the formation of flaps 32, 34, and 36 and also back flap 38. The third cut is made along the line 70 formed by the intersection of the of the front side 72 and the right side 74 of the starting container. The cut is made from the point 75 at which this line intersects the plane 66 and a point 76 which is at a distance h above the bottom 64 of said starting container. Similarly, the fourth cut is made along the line formed by the intersection of the front side 72 of the starting container and the left side of the starting container which is not visible in FIG. 4. The cut is made from the point at which this line intersects the plane 66 and the point on said line which is at a distance h above the bottom 64 of said starting container. Likewise, the fifth cut is made along the line formed by the intersection of the back side 68 of the starting container and the left side of the starting container which is not visible in FIG. 3. The cut is made from the point at which this line intersects the plane 66 and the point on said line which is at a distance h above the bottom 64 of said starting container. Finally, the sixth cut is made along the line 80 formed by the intersection of the back side 68 and the right side 74 of the starting container. The cut is made from the point 84 at which this line intersects the plane 66 and a point 82 which is at a distance h above the bottom 64 of said starting container. The apparatus of the preferred embodiment of the present invention for facilitating the making of the above cuts using a cutting tool, such as a kitchen knife, is shown in FIG. 5. The apparatus consists of a rigid module 90 which is inserted into the starting container. Module 90 may be constructed out of rigid plastic formed using conventional molding techniques or constructed in other ways well known in the art. Transparent plastic may be used in constructing module 90. As seen in FIG. 5, module 90 has four sides 96, 97, 98, and 99. A slot 94 is formed through sides 96, 97, and 99. Sides 97 and 98, which are referred to as the long sides, are of a height equal to h plus d. Sides 96 and 99 which are referred to as the short sides, are of a height h. The module 90 is shown in in top, side, and front views in FIGS. 6(a), 6(b), and 6(c), respectively. The module 90 supports the starting container during the cutting operations and provides six surfaces for guiding the cutting tool during the six cutting operations described above. The first cut is made by guiding the cutting tool along the surface 92. The second cut is made by guiding the cutting tool through the slot 94. Cuts three through six are made by guiding the cutting tool along the edges 101, 102, 103, and 104 of the module 90, once the position of module 90 has been reversed in the starting container, as described below. More specifically with reference to FIG. 7(a), the module 90 is first inserted into a starting container whose top has been fully opened, shown at 112, with the surface 92 of module 90 being nearest the top of the starting container 112. Preferrably, module 90 is sized to create a snug fit when it is inserted into the starting container 112. The top of the starting container is then removed by cutting the starting container 112 using a cutting tool guided by the surface 92 as shown at 116 as shown in FIG. 7(b). The closing band is then formed as an integrated part of the back flap 38 by cutting the starting container 112 with the cutting tool guided by slot 94 as shown at 118 in FIG. 7(c). The back side 98 of the module shown, in FIG. 5, prevents the cutting tool from completely cutting through the starting container during this second cut. The module 90 is then removed from the starting container, inverted, and re-inserted in the starting container 112 as shown in FIG. 7(d). The closing band is bent out of the way so as not to interfere with the remaining 4 cuts. The closing band is not shown in FIG. 7. The two long sides of the module 96 and 99 support the starting container and provide surfaces for guiding the cutting tool during cuts three through 6. Each cut is made by guiding the cutting tool 124 along the appropriate long side of the module 90 as shown in FIG. 7(e) until it is stopped by the edge of the short side of the module. For example, the third cut described above is made by guiding the cutting tool along the edge of the module side 99 until it reaches the edge of the short side 97 at point 130. After cuts three through six are completed, the module is removed from the starting container, and the resealable container of the present invention is then useable. To assist in cutting, chamfers or beveled edges may be formed in module 90 as at 200 in FIG. 5. A chamfer surface of 45° is typical. Such beveled edges enable the cutting knife to be easily guided into the slot initially and thereafter guided down the cutting edge during cutting. Various modifications of the present invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art without departing from the present invention as claimed.

A unique resealable container is described together with a method for converting a standard container of the type commonly used for packaging milk or other liquids into said container. An apparatus for carrying out this method is also described. The resealable container consists of a rectangular box having four flaps and a closing band for sealing the box. The closing band holds the flaps in their closed position. The container may be produced by making six cuts in a standard container of the type normally used to package milk or the like. The cuts are made with the apparatus of the present invention using an ordinary kitchen knife. The apparatus of the present invention supports the container during the cutting process and guides the knife to assure that the cuts are made in the correct locations.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to connector assemblies, and more particularly to a connector assembly having at least one connector body that includes a plurality of independently removable and replaceable segments. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Military and commercial electronics often employ cabling or wiring harnesses for transmitting electrical or optical signals. Such cabling and wiring harnesses often have connections at a termination point that can be disconnected and reconnected through the use of electrical plugs such as connector assemblies. Many such connector assemblies have a male component and a female component that are joined together to complete one or more circuits. Typically the male connector includes one or more electrical or optical conductors, and the female connector includes one or more receptacles for receiving the conductors of the male connector portion. When joining a male and female connector portions together, it is crucial that each of the conductors of the male member make contact with the appropriate structure within each opening in the female connector. Present day connector assemblies have mating tabs and grooves on the connector body mating surfaces. This assures that the pattern of pins on one connector body is precisely aligned and matched with the pin receptacles on the mating connector body, as the connector plug is inserted into the connector receptacle. These tabs also are used as retention pins to help hold the plug and receptacle together. Typically, when an electrical connector is involved, the female connector includes conductive contacts in a recess (i.e., receptacle) that receive conductive pins of the male connector. On occasion, one or more of the conductive elements within the male or female connector components will become damaged and need repair. When such damage to a connector occurs, the normal procedure is to replace the defective conductive part. This may involve replacing defective contacts in the female connector component or replacing one or more pins in the male connector component. Damage can also extend to other parts such as a portion of the connector body of either the male or female connector. When there is damage to either of the male or female connectors, whether the damage is to a single conductive pin, a single conductive contact or a plurality of defective pins or contacts, repairing or replacing the defective pin or contact can be a time consuming process. Such repair may involve significant man hours in replacing the damaged pin or conductor and performing verification of all connections. If there is damage to the body of the connector, then the entire body has to be replaced, which represents removing and reattaching all of the conductors to the new connector body. When such damage occurs to a connector having dozens or more of individual conductors, one can appreciate the significant time and costs that can be incurred in the repair process. Accordingly, there still exists a need for a connector assembly that can be repaired more quickly and easily in the event one or more conductive elements or the body portion of the assembly become damaged and need to be replaced. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed to a connector assembly that incorporates at least one connector body portion that is formed from a plurality of independently replaceable connector body segments. Each connector body segment includes one or more conductors. The conductors may be conductive pins or conductive contacts housed within openings in the segment. Since the connector body is segmented into a plurality of independent component parts, if one of the connector body segments becomes damaged, it is not necessary to replace the entire connector body. Rather, only the segment containing the damaged pin or contact needs to be replaced. This significantly reduces the time to repair the damaged connector. For example, when a four segment connector body is incorporated, and one of the segments of the connector body becomes damaged, only the conductors associated with that particular damaged segment need to be removed and reattached to a new segment of the connector body. This reduces the overall time to repair the connector body by 75% over what would be required if all of the conductors of all four segments the connector body needed to be removed and reattached to a single new connector body. In various preferred embodiments different shapes of connector bodies are employed. The independently replaceable segments of the connector body may be precisely positioned and held together with an interlocking structure formed on outer surface portions of each connector body segment. The interlocking structure allows selected ones of the connector body segments to be removed from the remaining segments and replaced when needed. The ability to replace only a portion of the connector body also enables modifications to the connector to be implemented more easily, quickly and cost effectively than would be the case if the entire connector body had to be replaced. The features, functions, and advantages can be achieved independently in various embodiments of the present inventions or may be combined in yet other embodiments. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The present invention will become more fully understood from the detailed description and the accompanying drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a connector assembly in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a front end view of the first connector body shown in FIG. 1 ; FIG. 3 is an exploded perspective view of the first connector body shown in FIG. 1 ; FIG. 4 is a simplified side cross sectional view of the assembled connector body of FIG. 3 to illustrate the engagement of the fasteners and the housing; FIG. 5 is an illustration of a plurality of rectangular shaped connector body segments in accordance with an alternative preferred form of the connector body; FIG. 6 is a perspective view of another alternative preferred form of the connector body in which the body segments are square shaped; FIG. 7 is a perspective view of a plurality of connector body segments in accordance with another alternative preferred embodiment of the present invention, wherein each connector body segment incorporates both a groove and a tab for enabling interlocking of the body segments with one another; FIG. 8 is a front view of the connector body segments shown in FIG. 7 lined up to be coupled together; and FIG. 9 is a side cross sectional view of the connector body of FIG. 8 showing two of the body segments assembled together. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The following description of the preferred embodiment(s) is merely exemplary in nature and is in no way intended to limit the invention, its application, or uses. Referring to FIG. 1 , there is shown a connector assembly 10 in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention. The connector assembly includes a first connector body 12 and a mating second connector body 14 . Connector body 12 is illustrated as having a plurality of electrically conductive pin receptacles 16 , while second connector body 14 has a housing 14 a and a body segment 14 b having a plurality of electrical conductor pins 18 . It will be appreciated, however, that the connector system 10 could be configured such that the conductor pins 18 are included within the first connector body 12 and pin receptacles 16 are formed as part of the second connector body 14 . Alternatively, connector body 14 could also be formed as a segmented assembly with the same number, or a different number of body segments as connector body 12 . The preferred embodiment shown in FIG. 1 is therefore intended merely for illustrative purposes as to one preferred implementation of the connector assembly 10 . Each pin receptacle 16 essentially forms an opening that has an electrically conductive sleeve or socket (not shown) inserted in it. Each sleeve or socket is electrically coupled to a wire, and the wires collectively form a wiring harness 12 a . Similarly, each pin 18 is coupled to a wire, and the wires collectively form a wiring harness 14 c. With reference to FIGS. 2-4 , connector body 12 includes a circular connector housing 20 having a flange 22 . The housing 20 holds a plurality of four pie-shaped connector body segments 24 a - 24 d positioned adjacent one another to form a circular configuration. Again, a circular configuration is merely for illustrative purposes, and a greater or lesser plurality of independent body segments may be included. Moreoever, the body segments need not be pie-shaped, but rather might be square, rectangular, or form any other geometric shape needed to form a desired/needed shape. FIG. 5 illustrates connector body segments 24 a ′- 24 d ′ as an illustration that each of the body segments 24 could be rectangular shaped. FIG. 6 illustrates segments 24 a ″- 24 d ″ as being square shaped. Other possible shapes could be triangular, hexagonal, or pentagonal, just to name a few. The body segments 24 , 24 ′ and 24 ″ are preferably formed from high strength plastic such as Diallyl Phthalate, or even possibly from other metal or non-metal materials. Referring further to FIGS. 3 and 4 , the connector body segments 24 a - 24 d can be seen in greater detail. Each connector body segment 24 a - 24 d preferably includes a tab or rib 25 extending along a portion of its circumferential wall portion. A tab 23 can also be formed at a precise position on the housing 20 (e.g., at the 12:00 o'clock position), and a mating notch 21 formed on the housing 14 a to enable precise alignment of the pins 18 to the receptacles 16 when the connector bodies 12 and 14 are matingly engaged. The housing 20 preferably includes a plurality of grooves 27 formed on an interior wall portion 20 a thereof. The connector body 12 also includes a retaining ring 28 having a plurality of openings 30 . Threaded fasteners 32 extend through the openings 30 and into separate threaded blind holes 34 ( FIG. 4 ) in the housing 20 . While only two holes 34 are visible in FIG. 4 , it will be appreciated that four such holes are employed to each receive one of the fasteners 32 . When the independent body segments 24 a - 24 d are inserted into the housing 20 , they are positioned closely adjacent one another to form essentially a single, unitary connector body. Ribs 25 help to precisely locate the body segments 24 a - 24 d relative to the housing 20 , and to key the position of the body segments 24 a - 24 d to the tab 23 . A principal advantage of the connector body 12 is that if one of the body segments 24 a - 24 d is damaged, then the entire connector body portion does not need to be replaced. Rather, only the damaged connector body segment needs to be removed and replaced. Forming the connector body portion as a plurality of independent body segments also allows easier updating of the connector body in the event modifications need to be made to one or more pin receptacles 16 because of changes to a portion of the wiring harness 12 a . For example, if only connector body segment 24 a becomes damaged, there is no need to remove and reconnect the wires connected to the pin receptacles 16 in body segments 24 b - 24 d ; only those wires connected to pin receptacles 16 of the damaged body segment 24 a need to be disconnected and re-connected to a new body segment 24 a . With a four segment connector body, this reduces the repair time by 75%. Similarly, if modifications to only one or more pin receptacles in body segment 24 a are required (such as coupling different gage wiring to one or more pin receptacles), then the time needed to implement this modification would be reduced by 75% over that which would be needed if all of the pin receptacles 16 needed to be re-wired. Accordingly, the connector body 12 can be repaired/altered/updated as needed with much greater ease and more quickly than would be the case if the entire connector body portion needed to be replaced because of repair or modification to only a few select pin receptacles 16 . Referring to FIGS. 7 and 8 , a plurality of connector body segments 36 a - 36 d are illustrated to show an alternative preferred form of the body segments. Connector body segments 36 a - 36 d each include a plurality of pin receptacles 37 . Each body segment 36 a - 36 d also includes a groove or recess 38 and a protruding tab 40 formed on adjacent planar wall portions. The recesses or grooves 38 interlock with the tabs 40 when the connector body segments 36 a - 36 d are assembled together. FIG. 9 shows the interlocking of one groove 38 and one tab 40 to help hold the connector body segments 36 a - 36 d in precise alignment with one another. It will be appreciated that any form of tongue and groove arrangement could also be implemented to allow the connector body segments 36 a - 36 d to be slidably engaged with one another. Also, such an interlocking tongue and groove arrangement could be formed on interior facing surfaces of the body segments. The connector body 12 of the present invention also provides the advantage of enabling one of the connector body segments 24 to be assembled at a different work area or work station than the remainder of the body segments, and then all of the body segments 24 can be brought to a central location for final assembly. In some instances this may simplify and ease construction of the connector body 12 because all of the conductors needed to assemble the connector body component would not be required to be located in a single area. The various preferred embodiments have been described as forming an electrical connector body. However, it will be appreciated that the present invention could just as readily be implemented in optical applications, as well as virtually any other application where a plurality of independent connections need to be made via a pair of coupled connectors. The present invention is also not limited to use with pin or blade type conductors, but could also be implemented with a connector assembly having flat, abutting conductive contact elements. While various preferred embodiments have been described, those skilled in the art will recognize modifications or variations which might be made without departing from the inventive concept. The examples illustrate the invention and are not intended to limit it. Therefore, the description and claims should be interpreted liberally with only such limitation as is necessary in view of the pertinent prior art.

A connector body component for a connector assembly in which the connector body component has a plurality of independent body segments secured together to form a single assembly. The connector body segments are held together within a housing member and may include interlocking structures on wall surfaces thereof. Forming the connector body in independent segments allows one body segment to be replaced in the event of damage to the connector body or one conductive element held in the connector body, thus eliminating the need to replace the entire connector body. This saves significant time and expense when repairing or modifying a connector body having a plurality of independent conductors coupled to it.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION There has been developed a class of airplanes which take off in the Earth's atmosphere, and through a variety of engines, achieve an altitude outside of the Earth's atmosphere. Thereafter, these rocket airplanes return to Earth to be reused again. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION There is an ever-increasing need for reusable space launch vehicles. An example of a partially reusable spacecraft is the Space Shuttle, used by NASA for a number of years. There were numerous advances made in the development leading up to the Space Shuttle, but for the past two decades, both aviation and space launch vehicle technology have been relatively stagnant. Aviation progress has been limited by acceptance of the limits of propulsion technology based upon, as turbine engines. Commercial aviation manufacturers at present cannot economically provide an aircraft that can travel faster than the speed of sound. This is partly due to the technological challenges of sustained supersonic flight coupled with environmental concerns about noise pollution resulting from sonic booms and ozone layer depletion. Even military aircraft, designed to maximize performance, suffer due to the inherent limits in gas turbine engine technology. With regard to space launch vehicles, progress is stalled because the principal customers for launch services are governments, which typically are not concerned about commercializing a product. All current space launch systems are expendable systems with huge manufacturing costs for each flight. Testing costs are enormous, and even when all goes well, a typical space launch system can only be used for one application. With the end of the Cold War, particularly high quality reusable and affordable rocket engines are now available from Russian manufacturers. This advantage, combined with recent advances in aircraft design, manufacturing technology, and our unique and proprietary vehicle concept offers the opportunity for a revolutionary aerospace plane, which uses existing gas turbine engines for take off and landing, existing rocket engines for acceleration to extreme speeds, and existing structural materials technology throughout. There exists a need to launch satellites on reusable launch vehicles. At present, there are over 1200 small satellite launches planned over the next seven years, which at current prices represents a total market of over ten billion dollars. At present, such satellites will have only two ways of being launched: 1) with the use of the Space Shuttle or similar system, and 2) with the use of a one-launch rocket. There exists a need for a rocket powered airplane ("rocketplane") which can not only launch satellites, but also make possible global same-day package delivery, assist the military, or offer the potential to fly passengers across the globe in less than an hour. With the ever-growing expansion of trade and travel across the Pacific Rim, potential long-range sales of such vehicles are astronomical. Reusable rocketplanes have been disclosed. In U.S. Pat. No. 5,295,642, a high altitude rocket airplane is described. The plane takes off with the normal use of gas turbines, and reaches an altitude of approximately 25,000 feet. At that altitude, there is an in-air fuel transfer with the use of a flying tanker. Thereafter, two rocket motors are used to supplement the airplane propulsion to bring the rocket airplane up to an elevation of 80,000 to 156,000 feet. At this stage, the airplane is part rocket, part airplane. After 156,000 feet, only the rocket engine is propelling the rocket airplane, and at this altitude, a satellite or other payload can be launched. Thereafter, the rocket airplane returns to the Earth's surface. What is needed is an efficient system which allows the mid-air transfer of oxidizer with minimal spillage, as this is the largest part of the propellant mass. There is a need for a piloted rocketplane which can be tested incrementally and under FAA regulations. There is a need for a rocketplane that can fly over populated areas without needing restrictive range safety procedures. There is a need for a rocketplane that has a pilot that backs up an autonomous flight control system, thus reducing the cost and risk of flight control software development. There is a need for a rocketplane that uses only air-breathing, engines for takeoff and landing. There is a need for a rocketplane that requires a low maintenance thermal protection system. There is a need for a rocketplane that uses no toxic propellants. There is a need for a rocketplane that does not use liquid hydrogen. Finally, there is a need for a rocketplane that utilizes standard production jet engines. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention is generally directed to a reusable rocket airplane. In particular, it anticipates a rocketplane powered by two gas turbine engines, and one kerosene/oxygen-burning rocket engine. The aircraft is designed to take off with its gas turbine engines, climb to about 25,000 feet where it meets a tanker. It will then receive a transfer of approximately 115,000 pounds of oxidizer from the tanker. After disconnecting from the tanker, the rocketplane lights its rocket engine, shuts down its jet engines, and climbs to about 80 nautical miles in altitude. At this altitude, the aircraft is outside the Earth's atmosphere and can open its payload bay doors and release the payload with a small solid rocket upper stage motor which thereafter delivers the payload to its intended orbit. The doors are then closed and the rocketplane reenters the atmosphere. After slowing down to a subsonic speed, the gas turbines may be restarted and the rocketplane flown to a landing field. The present invention presents many advantages in a single rocketplane which were not available prior to this patent application. These inventive concepts generally include a unique aerial oxidizer transfer means which minimizes spillage, a novel shut-down and relight procedure, the integration of the rocket engine into the plane, and the heat shield on the plane. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a perspective view of the rocket airplane of the present invention. FIG. 2 is the perspective shown in FIG. 1 with the payload doors shown open. FIG. 3 is a general schematic of the side view of the rocketplane of the present invention. FIG. 4 is an elevated rear view of the rocketplane of the present invention with its payload doors closed. FIG. 5 is a bottom view of the rocketplane of the present invention with its payload doors open. FIG. 6 is a top view of the rocketplane of the present invention with its payload doors open. FIG. 7 is a frontal view of the rocketplane of the present invention with its payload doors shown closed. FIG. 8 is a rear view of the rocketplane. FIG. 9 is a general schematic of the procedure by which the rocket airplane takes off, is refueled, launches its payload and returns to Earth. FIGS. 10a-10e is a series of schematics of the mid-air oxidizer transfer mechanism of the present invention. FIG. 11 is a schematic of the rocket engine propellant feed and pressurization system. FIG. 12 is a perspective view illustrating the preferred landing gear for the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT The rocket airplane (hereinafter "rocketplane" or "plane") of the present invention is an advance over all existing rocket airplanes. The present invention utilizes numerous advanced features which previously have not been shown in existing rocket airplanes nor described in existing designs. FIGS. 1-10 illustrate one embodiment of the plane 10 of the present invention. The preferred plane is a two-seater rocketplane powered by two jet engines shown as 12 and 14. The plane can be much larger and hold a greater number of pilots and passengers. In the preferred embodiment, the engines are Pratt Whitney F100 engines. There is a third engine, which is a kerosene/oxygen-burning rocket engine. This engine is shown as 16. Preferably, this is an RD-120 rocket engine available from Pratt & Whitney. Other engines include the RS-27, from Rocketdyne, or the NK-31,33,39 or 43 engines from Aerojet. However, many different rocket engines or jet engines may be used, depending on design criteria. The flight sequence of the rocketplane of the present invention is generally shown in FIG. 9. This flight sequence illustrates the rocketplane taking off, oxidizer transfer in mid-flight, and then reaching an altitude wherein a payload may be released or other experiments performed. Thereafter the rocketplane reenters the Earth's atmosphere and lands. The rocketplane 10 is designed to take off with its gas turbine engines and climb to approximately 25,000 feet where it meets the tanker 32 in mid-air. The tanker 32 then transfers approximately 115,000 pounds of liquid oxygen from the tanker 32 to the rocketplane 10. After disconnecting from the tanker 32, the rocketplane 10 lights its rocket engine 16 and climbs to about 80 nautical miles in altitude, flying at a speed of approximately 12000 feet per second At 80 nautical miles altitude, the rocketplane 10 is outside the Earth's atmosphere and can open its payload doors 24, and release its payload 26, such as a satellite, with a small rocket upper stage, which delivers the payload 26 to its intended orbit. The doors 24 are thereafter closed and the rocketplane 10 reenters the atmosphere. After slowing to subsonic speed, the gas turbine engines 12, 14 are restarted and the rocketplane 10 is flown to a landing field. The present invention does not require releasing any payload. The plane can be used for high speed delivery of packages, or high speed passenger transportation. There are numerous advances in the present rocketplane which are not shown in the prior art. The preferred embodiment is described in detail below, and illustrated in the accompanying figures. The preferred airframe has a delta-wing planform 18 with a single vertical tail 20, with control surfaces across the trailing edge 19 and fin 21, as shown in FIG. 2. The fuselage 34 is generally cylindrical and contains an integral oxidant tank. The crew sits in a side-by-side layout forward of the payload bay. The preferred aircraft is structurally limited to a peak normal acceleration of about 4.5g at a take-off weight of 102,000 pounds. Integral oxygen tanks are preferred, but nonintegral tanks are also possible. The preferred structural material used throughout the plane is graphite fiber composite. Alternative designs include those using win-lets and nonintegral oxygen tanks. The wing shown is a swept delta wing with a preferred taper ratio of about 15%. The leading edge is swept at about 50 degrees and the trailing edge is swept at about 5 degrees. These angles are visible in FIG. 5. Preferably a 65 series airfoil is used, with a thickness to chord ratio of about 10% at the wing root. There may also be a leading edge extension, designed to reduce the center of pressure shift done during the transition from subsonic to hypersonic flight. The preferred total area of the wing is approximately 900 ft 2 . In the preferred embodiment, structurally, the wing is a rigid box beam, with no aerodynamic surface at all. The thermal protection system will be applied to this exceptionally rigid structure and machined to a final shape. The machining process involves preferably a numerically controlled mill. The rigid wing box structure is designed to contain the fuel used by both the air-breathing and rocket engines, described in greater detail below. Alternatively conventional construction techniques using an aerodynamically contoured wing structure may also be used. The fuselage 34 is a shell of, preferably, about 136 inches diameter, flattened at the bottom to match the wing lower surface contour, as shown in FIG. 5. It tapers at the front to enclose the cabin and has a nose radius of about 6 inches. The fuselage is designed to carry all of the bending loads of flight and react to the thrust loads from both the airbreathing and rocket engines, although the delta wing, being long of chord at the root, shares much of the bending moment-induced loads. The tail 20 is a single fin of about 100 ft 2 total area and a thickness to chord ratio of 8%. It is constructed in a similar fashion to the wings 18, 22. Computational aerodynamic analysis tools have been used to estimate the aerodynamic performance of the rocketplane of the present invention. The center of gravity is at about 5% of the mean aerodynamic chord (MAC), both with the tanks fully loaded and completely empty. As a result, the rocketplane is aerodynamically stable for all flight phases. In the preferred embodiment, the crew sits side by side in a pair of ejection seats similar to those used in fighter jets. The seats provide an ejection envelope from the surface and rest to Mach 1.2 and 50,000 feet. Above that altitude, the crew will be required to remain with the rocketplane in case of emergency until they are within the ejection envelope. In the preferred embodiment, the displays in the cockpit will be manufactured by Honeywell as part of the avionics subsystem. Displays include both conventional aircraft displays and specialized displays for the flight test mission. The rocketplane is flown by the left seat pilot by means of a side stick controller in the center console and a throttle on the left rail. The right seat pilot also has a throttle on the right canopy rail. Crew displays will include emergency abort indications and steering. Conventional rudder pedals will be used to provide pilot yaw inputs to the control system during the gear down configuration, but not used during gear up flight. The landing gear system will employ a conventional tricycle landing gear system. The nose gear retracts forward beneath the crew compartment and the main gear retracts forward to rest inside the wing. Carbon brakes are used to manage the heat generated during full gross weight rejected takeoffs. The nose gear is thermally controlled by the same system used to cool the cabin. The main gear employs SR-71 high temperature tires, which are pressurized with nitrogen at 400 psi and specially designed for elevated soak temperatures during flight. Preferably, the landing gear would be purchased from Scaled Composites, a manufacturer of lightweight landing gear. The preferred rocket engine, the RD-120, available from Pratt and Whitney, a manufacturer of first-of-a-kind airplanes and lightweight landing gear, requires liquid O 2 inlet pressure of 71 psi and fuel inlet pressure of 57 psi at start. Once the engine is running, the propellants must be delivered to the engine at 39 psi for the liquid O 2 and 35 psi for the fuel. A gaseous helium bottle inside the oxidizer tank is charged before flight with 20 liters of helium at 3200 psi and used to pressurize the oxygen tank and the kerosene tanks and to drive the engine boost pump as required. The preferred oxidizer is liquid oxygen. However, other oxidizers such as hydrogen peroxide, nitrogen tetroxide, or a combination of oxidizers, may be used. Because the aircraft in the preferred implementation has a large wing, it does not require the rocket engine to move during, main engine operation to maintain flight control. In aerodynamic flight, the wing control surfaces are sufficient to steer the aircraft. During exoatmospheric flight, the reaction control system thrusters are sufficient to steer the aircraft. The rocket engine requires high inlet pressures for both propellants at start and somewhat reduced inlet pressures once the engine is running. In either case, the engine requires a propellant supply in excess of the tankage storage pressure. Both the oxygen and fuel systems have a start tank which is pressurized to the required engine start pressure. The propellant fuel and pressurization system is shown in FIG. 11 (which is a preferred embodiment). Tank pressure is not high enough in the wing tanks (56 and 57) to permit the engine to operate. As a result, an additional boost pump 60 raises the propellant pressure from the tank pressure to the required operating pressure. The boost pumps require a gaseous helium driven turbine. The gaseous helium bottle charged before flight provides the pressure to drive this turbine. The rocket engine of the rocketplane preferably requires a liquid O 2 (preferred oxidizer) inlet pressure of 71 psi at the liquid O 2 start tank 52 and a fuel inlet pressure of 57 psi at the fuel start tank 58. Once the engine is running, the propellants must be delivered to the engine at 39 psi for the liquid O 2 and 35 psi for the fuel. A gaseous helium bottle 62 inside the liquid O 2 tank is charged before flight with 20 liters of helium at 3,200 psi. The preferred fuel tanks 56 and 57 are integral to the wing. The fuel pressure inside the tanks is limited to no more than 10 psi to avoid excessive internal forces. During air-breathing flight, this pressure is maintained by compressor bleed air. During rocket flight, the gaseous helium system maintains the 10 psi tank pressure. The preferred fuel boost pump 60 requires 24 horsepower to operate and is powered by a gaseous helium driven single stage impulse turbine 69. The nominal gaseous helium flow rate of 0.22 lb/s 66 is enough to drive the turbine. The turbine 69 consumes 0.05 lb/sec of helium at 445° F. and 750 psi at the inlet 76. The turbine has an input helium pressure 76 of 750 psi and an output 70 pressure of helium at 42 psi. The helium boosts the fuel pressure from 10 psi at the inlet to 35 psi at the outlet. The helium is stored at 3200 psi in the tank 62. The helium flows through 64 at 1280 psi, goes through heat exchanger 59, exits 66 at 1150 psi, and enters turbine 69 at 76 at 750 psi. The oxidizer tank 54 is integral to the rest of the airframe structure. It is designed to operate at a pressure of 39 psi, which is maintained during main engine operation by the gaseous helium system. All oxygen flows from the main tank to a smaller start tank 52. Initially at 71 psi, the start tank pressure decays until a check valve permits oxygen from the main tank to flow into the start tank and from there into the engine at 39 psi. The oxidizer tank is of a composite design with an aluminum liner and externally applied Rohacell foam. The tank is integral to the rest of the airframe structure. It is designed to operate at a pressure of 39 psi, which is maintained during main engine operation by the gaseous helium system. All oxygen flows from the main tank to a smaller start tank. Initially at 71 psi, the start tank pressure decays until a check valve permits oxygen from the main tank to flow into the start tank and from there into the engine at 39 psi. The gas turbine engines of the rocketplane are preferably Pratt and Whitney's F100 series fighter aircraft engine. The F100 is an augmented gas turbine with a 13 stage axial compressor, an annular combustor, and an air-cooled turbine. The engine is controlled by an analog electronic engine controller with a hydromechanical backup controller. The engine is also equipped with a jet fuel starter to reduce ground support equipment and allow reliable airborne starting below 20,000 feet. The rocketplane of the present invention has six primary aerodynamic control effectors. They are the port and starboard elevons, port and starboard flaps, a centerline body flap, and a rudder. Preferably, none of the control surfaces are split, and the speed brake function is achieved by differential displacement of the elevons and flaps. Each surface is constructed similarly to the wing. The aerodynamic control surfaces will be operated by electrohydrostatic actuators. These actuators have been tested on the F-18 Systems Research Aircraft by the NASA Dryden Flight Research Center. The actuator consists of a small, electronically driven, hydraulic pump located near the hydraulic device. As a result, the system does not require the routing of high-pressure hydraulic lines and if it fails, it does not immobilize the control surface. The preferred electrical system is designed to provide appropriate current to the various systems around the rocketplane. It includes a 270 volt DC bus, which primarily runs the control surface actuators, a 28 volt DC bus, which is required by the reaction controls system, main engine, and avionics, and a 120 volt AC system which powers some miscellaneous functions. The primary power is derived from a set of generators driven by the air-breathing engines and supplemented by flywheel batteries manufactured by SATCON Inc. of Cambridge, Mass. There is also a provision for a ram air turbine and an emergency power unit for additional power. A standard air conditioning system will be operated off of compressor bleed air, with supplemental air provided for use after air breathing operation. A standard liquid oxygen system provides emergency breathing gas for the crew, who fly in pressure suits. During ascent and reentry, the aircraft requires a device to prevent high stagnation temperature air from contacting the compressor face, which could damage it. In the preferred implementation, this function is performed by a device internal to the duct which performs the sealing function. FIG. 1 illustrates an inlet closure device. The inlet needs to be closed for high speed flight beyond Mach 2. The inlet duct extends from the compressor face to the top of the aircraft, where a normal-shock inlet provides stagnation pressure recovery for the gas turbine engines and a boundary layer diverter prevents the ingestion of the turbulent boundary layer. Alternative approaches include devices that move in front of the inlet to provide both the blocking and sealing functions, and moving the entire duct or a portion of the duct to the inside of the aircraft. An example of such an alternative system is the "carrot" consisting of a rotating half cone that can be used to open or close the inlet. In the preferred implementation, the engines are operated long enough to verify that the rocket engine has ignited properly. This provides an additional margin of safety because the airbreathing engines are still available and operating properly if the rocket engine fails. The airbreathing engines may also be operated into the low supersonic range for additional performance. There are two approaches to securing the engines for high speed flight. The preferred implementation is to perform a normal shutdown This is done after rocket ignition. The engines are reduced in power to idle thrust, then shut off and allowed to windmill for ten seconds before the inlets are closed. Full closure will be complete by the time the aircraft has achieved supersonic flight. The engines will come to rest slowly in their housings as the aircraft continues on rocket power to high altitude and airspeed. After reentry, the aircraft will decelerate to a subsonic speed, at which time the inlets can be reopened and the engines can be monitored. When the aircraft has descended low enough, the jet fuel starter installed on the engine may be used. The starter rotates the engine until it can be ignited, after which a normal landing can be performed. If neither engine lights, the aircraft will be flown to a runway and landed with the power off. Lubricant might be lost during high altitude flight. If this presents a problem, extra lubricant can be supplied from an internal reservoir. The second approach for engine disposition during high speed flight is to continuously rotate the engine with the jet fuel starter or auxiliary power unit through the flight so that the engine never comes to rest. This is not the preferred approach because it requires a fairly large power expenditure throughout the flight and will make the aircraft weigh more. Additionally, the angular momentum of the rotating engines will cause precession of the aircraft during RCS burns, which the flight control system will have to recognize and counteract. Nonetheless, once the inlets are closed, the external source need only provide enough power to overcome bearing drag. The engine will probably be somewhat more reliable on relight, as well, since it is already rotating The position of the inlet 36 in the preferred implementation is on top of the aircraft, directly behind the payload bay. The advantage of positioning the inlets here is that they are at the coolest part of the aircraft during reentry. Additionally, the structural interfaces with the rest of the aircraft are simplified by this arrangement, since the wing and fuselage structure need not be compromised to accommodate the engines, ducts, and related hardware. Alternative positions for the inlets are the wing roots and the upper surfaces of the wing. A significant aspect of the present invention is the transfer of oxidizer from the mid-air tanker to the rocketplane. The current systems used to transfer fuel are not compatible with transfer of oxidizer. The materials are not designed for cryogenic temperatures, the standards of cleanliness that apply inside the plumbing are high, but not of liquid oxygen standard, and the transfer rate, all other things being equal, is not as high as might be desired. At a minimum, a liquid oxygen tanker aircraft would need dedicated liquid oxygen tanks, valves, flexible lines, and pumps. This will entail modification to the tanker. As a result, in the preferred implementation, the tanker aircraft can be any of a large variety of transport aircraft, including but not limited to, the Boeing 707 or 747, the Lockheed L1011, the Douglas DC-10, or the existing KC-10 or KC-135 tanker aircraft. If an existing tanker is used, the amount of engineering needed safely to carry and transfer liquid oxygen rivals the amount of engineering needed to make a tanker aircraft out of an existing transport. In both cases, the aircraft will require new tanks, pumps, lines, boom or drogue, and valves. If the aircraft obtained for this application is already a boom-type tanker aircraft (i.e., it is a KC-135 or KC-10), then the existing system should be modified for oxygen transfer. Although the pumps, tanks, valves, and possibly the boom itself would have to be replaced, the presence of the operator station in the back of the aircraft as well as the structural interfaces needed to transfer the loads from the boom into the aircraft are already there. If the tanker is a surplus airliner, however, a probe and drogue system should be implemented. The advantage of such a system is that all of the engineering is internal to the aircraft and does not affect its airworthiness. Both boom and probe systems are capable of supplying the transfer propellant at a high rate. Pumps and plumbing are highly developed for the conventional liquid oxygen industry as well as the rocket industry. In the preferred implementation, a surplus rocket engine liquid oxygen pump with an external shaft drive would be used. This will assure the maximum safety and give high flow rates at reasonable cost and weight. For fluid transfer lines, both from the tankage to the pump and from the pump to the receiver aircraft a stainless steel bellows is used with a stainless steel braided cable overwrapping. This permits the liquid oxygen to flow at high rates. It also allows the transfer lines to accommodate the relative motions of the two aircraft, whether a boom system is used and telescoping is required or whether a probe and drogue system is used and greater flexibility is needed. An alternative approach is to discharge the contents of the tanker by means of a gaseous pressurant. FIGS. 10(a)-10(e) disclose the preferred steps of oxidizer transfer. FIG. 10(a) shows at the pre-contact position. The receiver aircraft pilot maneuvers the rocketplane behind the tanker, so that the rocketplane's probe is aligned with the tanker's drogue. The transfer hose has been extended by the tanker to its full length. FIG. 10(b) shows at the contact position. The pilot flies the rocketplane forward so that a mechanical seal between the probe and drogue is achieved The pilot pushes the drogue towards the tanker. FIG. 10(c) shows after the transfer hose has shortened to a defined threshold, the main valve permits flow to occur from the oxidizer tank through the transfer hose, into the probe, and hence to the rocketplane's tanks. FIG. 10(d) shows if the transfer hose is reextended beyond the defined threshold, the purge gas source discharges into the transfer hose and the probe, so that the fluid in the hose and the probe is entirely driven into the rocketplane. FIG. 10(e) shows by the time the rocketplane withdraws beyond the full length of the transfer hose, the hose is dry. The mechanical disconnect occurs at this time. The tanker and rocketplane aircraft maneuver apart from one another and the rocketplane continues with its mission. At the receiver end of the propellant transfer system, the interface between the tanker and receiver aircraft must be able to capture and seal securely, and also permit purges between the two aircraft to take place. Although it is fairly common for conventional tankers to spill small amounts of propellant on the receiver aircraft at disconnect, this cannot be allowed in an liquid O 2 transfer system for safety reasons. A heater may also be used to prevent frost build-up at the junction. The transfer rate in the preferred implementation should be set as high as possible, with a minimum value of 1000 gallons per minute. The advantage of this is that a fuel consumed during oxidizer transfer is not replaced by the tanker. As a result, the fuel wasted during transfer needs to be minimized. In the preferred implementation, the tanker carries the oxidizer, whether it is liquid oxygen or some other fluid, in parasitic, nonintegral tankage. The purpose of this is to minimize the modifications required for rocket propellant transfer. Tankage should in the preferred implementation be the vacuum-jacketed Dewar type, in which liquid oxygen can be safely stored for several days. An alternative approach is to make the rocket propellant transfer tankage integral to the tanker aircraft. In the preferred implementation, the thrust of the air-breathing engines is sufficient to maintain the tanker in level flight at the moment of disconnect. It is also possible to fly the tanker and receiver in a slight descent to reduce the requirement for lift for the receiver aircraft, and hence to reduce the thrust required for flight. It is also possible for the tanker to tow the receiver aircraft to reduce or eliminate the need for propulsive thrust. A thermal protection system is required on the rocketplane of the present invention to allow it to reenter the Earth's atmosphere safely. The present invention prefers an Alumina Enhanced Thermal Barrier (AETB) tile with a Toughened Uni-Piece Fibrous Insulation coating (TUFI-C) as the sole thermal protection system for the entire vehicle. AETB/TUFI-C is rugged, and when damage occurs, only small tiles rather than large blankets need to be repaired or replaced. Computer modeling has predicted a surface temperature of not more than 2,400° F., compared to over 3,000° F. for the Shuttle. Although the tile is over-designed for the peak temperature seen over most of the vehicle, the heat flux into the structure still needs to be reduced, and a thinner layer of tile serves well for this purpose. Finally, a single tile system avoids materials interfaces between different thermal protection materials. The tile would be preferably installed by direct bonding to the substructure in the preferred implementation. After installation of the tiles, the aerodynamic surfaces will be machined to final shape in a mill. Any coatings necessary to increase the toughness of the material will be applied after installation. The advantage of this scheme is that it is not necessary to build the wing to a high degree of aerodynamic precision. Also, the interface between the wing and the tile can be standardized in a flat shape, so that the precision machining is not needed for the portion of the tile that is bonded to the aircraft. Alternatively, the tiles can be machined elsewhere. The oxidizer tank is integral to the fuselage in the preferred implementation. It is designed to operate at a pressure of 39 psi, which is maintained during main engine operation by a gaseous helium system. All oxygen flows from the main tank to the smaller start tank. Alternatively, nonintegral tankage can be used. The fuel tank is integral to the wing. The fuel pressure inside the tanks is limited to a low pressure to avoid excessive internal forces on the wing. During air-breathing flight this pressure is maintained by a compressor bleed air. During rocket flight, the gaseous helium system maintains the tank pressure. An additional toroidal fuel tank may be applied around the rocket engine to supply additional fuel. In the preferred implementation, the oxygen tank is divided into two or more segments to permit active control of the center of gravity during rocket engine burn, and to permit the main structural elements of the wing to pass smoothly from one side of the aircraft to the other without interruption. In the preferred implementation, the architecture that the present invention will use for the avionics functions needed by the present invention will be the Integrated Modular Architecture or IMA developed by Honeywell for the Boeing 777 airliner. The system provides the flexibility of a distributed architecture with the cost benefits and avoidance of duplication of highly integrated system that employs common resources to support various functions. Other avionics systems with equivalent features may be used. The IMA system eliminates duplication of electronic resources by using common electronics modules for input/output, core processing, built-in test, and power supply. With standard core processing modules, hardware functions can be duplicated for reliability. Because the functions of multiple boxes have been consolidated into a single avionics package, a common parts approach can be used for all the avionics and the number of parts types is kept to a minimum. In the preferred implementation, the IMA is also modular in software. Each software function is isolated in space and in time from all other software functions by means of a robust partitioning mechanism that forces each hardware and software module to contain its faults and prevents them from propagating. To achieve this, each function (communications, telemetry downlink, inertial reference, etc.) has its own separate memory space that is not shared with any other function. This is "isolation in space." Furthermore, the software functions are isolated in time by deterministic switching between software functions. This means that all software functions are switched from one to the next by a table in each module that schedules in advance all interactions with the four lane wide data bus that connects the modules. For this reason there are no address signals, no arbitration, and no software tick timers. The core operating system used throughout is the same as that used by the Boeing 777 implementation, which initializes the system, schedules resources, manages memory, responds to faults, and loads data. For the present invention, communications, inertial data, navigation, cockpit displays, power management, command and data handling, health monitoring, and downlink telemetry are all implemented in the IMA boxes, two small cabinets inside the crew compartment that are redundant to one another and internally are each four times redundant. The flight control system, which controls the relationship between the aircraft's command inputs, its sensed air data and inertial status, and the motions of its control effectors, is not integrated with the rest of the avionics system in order to allow its development to proceed on a parallel path. The present invention will preferably employ standard VHF and UHF voice communication and S-Band telemetry. The aircraft will also be equipped with a C-band beacon and the usual altitude and airspeed encoding Mode 1 and Mode 3 IFF devices for air traffic control safety. The usual navigational radios (VHF Omni-Range, TACAN, etc.) will provide signals to the IMA cabinets. A conventional instrument landing system will be available to permit cross country ferry flight according to instrument flight rules and to allow testing in a variety of weather conditions. An electronic library will make available to the crew airfield data and navigational and airspace information to permit non-emergency flying procedures to be followed in case of a divert and to enable testing from alternate sites if this is desirable. The present invention's preferred implementation of the IMA includes an integrated GPS/INS system, where the inertial reference unit, which is a redundant pair of four-spool fiberoptic gyroscopes, is updated by the GPS signal every ten seconds. As a result, the navigation, guidance, and flight controls systems are fed only inertial data to simplify the interface. The inertial data is able to drift for only ten seconds before being updated by fresh GPS information. This approach was implemented with great success on the F-111 fighter Avionics Modernization Program, as well as many other fighter and transport aircraft since then. Inertial and body axis measurements will be made by a set of redundant units which measure both inertially referenced parameters (Latitude, Longitude, Vnorth, Veast, Vup, Pitch attitude, Roll attitude, heading) and body axis parameters (pitch, roll, yaw rates, normal, lateral, and longitudinal accelerations) necessary for atmospheric and exoatmospheric flight and navigation. These units will provide redundant sources for the desired parameters as well as sources of navigational and display information for the flight deck. Navigational drift and accuracies are well within those necessary to provide these functions for the mission durations for the present invention. The inertial and body axis data are provided from the Honeywell avionics system. Airmass measurements will build on NASA and B-2 experience with flush air data systems. The air data system of the present invention will utilize a set of flush static ports oriented in a cruciform pattern on the nose of the vehicle. The static ports used will be based upon these tested on the Shuttle. Pressures obtained from these ports will be plumbed to pressure sensors which will transmit this information to the Flight Control Computer (FCC). The FCC will then perform the computation of the necessary airmass signals. A closed form solution of the values of angle of attack, angle of sideslip, Mach number, and dynamic pressure altitude will be derived from these measurements of local pressure and made available to the flight control laws and the flight deck displays. Similar systems have been tested and utilized on the B-2, Shuttle, KC-135, and F-14 and it is felt the technical risks associated with making this air data system the primary measurement system are low when compared with the benefits of its use in flight. To minimize the effects of turbulence (expected in the environment associated with 20 knot crosswinds) complementary filters will be utilized to reduce measurement noise without increasing phase lag. The control laws will be a traditional design using conventional feedbacks with gain scheduling to augment the vehicle. The command path will also provide gains which vary with flight condition so as to provide sufficient response at low speed without producing over-response at high Mach number. Emphasis on handing qualities will be placed on the landing task, since this is the most critical precise manual control task required of this vehicle. In the powered approach flight phase the control laws will provide a classic aircraft angle-of-attack command type of response. Two types of control laws are preferred for the up-and-away flight conditions. During cruise flight at subsonic and low supersonic speeds and altitudes below about 40,000 feet the vehicle will typically be flown manually using a pitch rate command system, lateral/directional augmentation, and turn coordination. Above this altitude and Mach value the vehicle will typically be flown in an engaged autopilot mode. These same altitude commands will be supplied through an onboard automatic trajectory system for the high altitude and reentry flight phases. Manual control of the vehicle using, the control stick during the high altitude/Mach phases will be possible with acceptable handling qualities. For manual control of the reentry task, guidance for the desired attitude will be displayed on the pilot's primary attitude display with flight director type guidance. Structural mode filters in the control laws will ensure that sensor feedbacks to the control surfaces do not excite vehicle structural modes. Whenever possible structural filters will be placed in the feedback path rather than the command path to avoid excessive time delay for the pilot's control inputs. An off-line simulation of the vehicle and the flight control system will be prepared as part of the flight control system design process. In the preferred implementation, this simulation will utilize the aerodynamic data package created by Calspan from the NASA wind tunnels and the Large Energy National Shock tunnel facility. It will also incorporate the inertial and dimensional data provided by Scaled Composites. This simulation will be used for several purposes: analysis of the flight control law design; vehicle response calculations for the fixed-based ground simulation at Calspan; and the in-flight simulation code for the variable stability Learjet. During the design phase the augmented vehicle response will be compared to several current handling quality design criteria to predict whether the design will provide the desired level of handling qualities. Particular attention will be paid to the presence of time delay between the pilot's command inputs and the resultant vehicle response as perceived by the pilot. This has been a long term problem with the handling qualities of the Space Shuttle during landing, requiring much expensive training in the Shuttle Training Aircraft to learn to compensate for the delayed response. Another significant concern during the control law design will be to preclude handling quality problems due to control surface rate limiting. Delta wing designs which utilize control surfaces for both pitch and roll are vulnerable to loss of augmentation and control due to rate limiting. The preferred candidate for the rocketplane of the present invention's flight control system processor is the electronic flight control system built by Lockheed Martin Control systems in Binghamton, N.Y. for the USAF C-17. This system consists of four Line Replaceable Units (LRUs) each of which include three 1750 ISA (Instruction Set Architecture) processors and input/output electronics which perform control law processing, redundancy management and signal processing. Each LRU weighs approximately 40 lbs. They comprise a complete system that uses sensor inputs, provides the operating system for the control laws, and provides the output electronics for the actuators and other control effectors. The flight control processor is based on the 1750 ISA and can be programmed in Ada, Jovial, or assembly code. The present invention's flight control system will preferably use the existing input and output from the selected flight control computer system. The C-17 FCC is capable of driving up to 9 quad and 4 dual redundant outputs. In the C-17 configuration there are 80 analog to digital converters, 32 digital to analog converters, 99 input discretes, and 76 output discretes. For the present invention's application it will be used to drive 6 quad-redundant control surface actuators (4 wing surfaces, 1 rudder, and 1 body flap). The ten reaction control jets of the present invention will be controlled using the discrete outputs. The C-17 control system architecture has more than sufficient inputs and outputs for the present invention's application. For the C-17 actuators, position loop closures are accomplished in the flight control computer, rather than on the actuator itself or in a separate device. For this reason similar actuators will be selected for the present invention's actuators based on hinge moment requirements, rate limits and envelope. The present invention will use the operating system that is used now on the C-17. The redundancy management scheme inherent to the existing control system architecture will be retained where ever practical. Existing digital input signal management and output selection algorithms, LRU redundancy, degraded backup modes, and hydraulic/actuation fault design conditions will be reused or tailored to the present invention's system. The present invention has been designed to operate at take-off gross weight with a normal limit load factor of 4.5. The weights are divided into five major weight groups: Structure, Propulsion, Equipment, Spacecraft, and Load. The rocketplane's weight estimate of the preferred embodiment is detailed in Table 1. TABLE 1______________________________________Structures Group 14,287 lb Equipment Group 4,565 lbWing 2,330 lb Flight Controls 698 lbFin 553 lb Avionics 433 lbFuselage 8,303 lb Electrical 400 lbUndercarriage 1,208 lb Instruments 350 lbEngine Mounts 197 lb Furnishings 496 lbOxidant Tank 500 lb Handling Gear 37 lbInsulation Auxiliary 145 lbAir Induction 972 lb Power UnitSystem Payload Handling 100 lbFirewall 124 lb GearBody Flap 100 lb Unallocated 1,906 lbPropulsion Group 10,207 lb Spacecraft Group 4,566 IbTwo F100-PW-200 6,110 lb Reaction Control 400 lbEngines SystemEngine Cooling 341 lb Life Support 766 lbOil Cooling 46 lb Thermal Protection 3,400 lbEngine Controls 30 lb Operating Weight 33,625 lbStarter 190 lb EmptyF100 Fuel 810 lb Take off 101,953 lbSystem Gross weightRD-120 2,480 lb At tanker hookup 98,147 lbRD-120 Fuel 200 lb At disconnect 206,125 lbSystem After rocket burn 46,165 lbLoad Group 185,328 lb After payload 36,165 lbCrew 440 lb releaseFuel for 12,788 lb Less residuals 34,165 lbF100 Engines Less crew 33,725 lbOil 100 lb Less oil 33,625 lbFuel for RD-120 45,000 lb Payload 2,200 lbOxidizer from 117,000 lbTankerUpper Stage 10,000 lbAssembly______________________________________ The items in the structural group are sized according to a statistical methodology based on the actual weights of fighter aircraft, and then checked for reasonableness. The statistical weight equations reflect the weight of aircraft after they have suffered the weight growth that inevitably accompanies the transition from design to manufacture. They were reduced somewhat to reflect the composite materials used in the design, and the fuselage was reduced in weight by a further ten percent to reflect a lack of large doors in the fuselage (which are common in fighters). The overall weight per unit area of structure is 4.4 lb/ft 2 , which is about the same as an F-15 or F-16. The propulsion group is estimated by using actual weights of the F100 and RD-120 powerplants, an estimate of 500 lbs for the feed and pressurization system, and an additional allowance for air-breathing engine support equipment. The equipment group is estimated by the actual weights of components plus a generous allowance for instruments and furnishings. As before, there is an allowance of 15% margin. The spacecraft group contains the reaction control system, the life support system for the two pressure-suited crew members, and the thermal protection system, which averages 1.1 lb/ft 2 . The usual 15% margin is retained. Finally, the load group contains the crew and the propellants. The residual fraction is assumed to be 1% of the rocket propellant. The present invention also has a unique ability to be flight ready, when sitting in a hangar on the ground. The rocketplane may be stored with loaded jet fuel, and be called to take off immediately, without the need to fuel. Also, the plane will not exceed FAA noise limits as specified in FAR Part 91.821. The plane may also use conventional runways and airstrips. TABLE 2______________________________________Geometry of the Preferred Embodiment Wing Tail______________________________________Area (ft.sup.2) 900 100A 2.2 1.2Taper 0.15 0.30Sweep 50 45TIC 0.1 0.1b 44.5 10.95C root (ft) 35.17 14.04C tip (ft) 5.28 4.21MAC 23.9 10.0______________________________________ ______________________________________Additional Data of the Preferred Embodiment______________________________________Payload bay 16 ft × 10.83 diameter2 Aces II Ejection SeatsSR-71 Tires Nose (2) 25 × 6.57 Main (4) 27.5 × 7.5PropulsionRocket: One RD-120 Two F-100-PW-200 Capture area 6.12 ft.sup.2 eachFuel/Oxidizer (as shown)LO.sub.2 15,036 GalJP 7780 GalJP 1690 Gal______________________________________ It is understood that while the invention has been described above in conjunction with preferred specific embodiments, the description and examples are intended to illustrate not limit the scope of the invention, which is defined by the scope of the appended claims.

A reusable rocket airplane which may be utilized to launch satellites and other payloads into space. The airplane may also be used for rapid surface to surface flight. The reusable rocket airplane may be safely supplied with oxidizer in mid-air, achieve an altitude outside the Earth's atmosphere, and return safely to be used again. The rocket airplane utilizes unique concepts to secure its gas turbine engines for high speed flight, minimize fluid spillage during mid-air oxidizer transfer, as well as employs design features advantageous to the economical building and reuse of the rocket airplane.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0001] This invention relates generally to a system and method for treatment of hearing disorders and more particularly to a system which includes a middle ear effecting electrode for applying electrical signals having an arbitrary waveform to the cochlea. More specifically, this invention relates to a system that self expandably anchors into and optionally is easily retrievable from a region of the middle ear. Furthermore, this invention relates to electrodes for relatively low-invasiveness application of electrical signals to the cochlea, in the vicinity of the round window niche. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] There are a number of hearing disorders which cause a great deal of suffering to mankind and various attempts have been made to relieve them. These disorders include: hearing loss in general, sensoryneural and conduction hearing loss in particular, mixed hearing loss, tinnitus, Meniere's disease and vertigo. [0003] Contemporary interventional approaches to addressing such disorders may include providing electrical signals—whether inhibitory or excitatory, subthreshold or suprathreshold—to the nerve cells that convey the auditory signal from the inner ear into the brain, also known as the cochlear nerve. [0004] Such delivery of electrical signal to the cochlear nerve may be accomplished via establishing a direct electrical interface with the cochlear nerve endings that reside in the inner ear, such as being done in an inner ear cochlear implant. Non specific electrical stimulation of the cochlear nerve may also be achieved via application of electricity in the middle ear, via an electrode that is in galvanic contact with the fenestra rotunda (the round window), with the promontorium or with adjacent tissue in the middle ear. [0005] There is some body of prior art pertaining to the concept of applying electrical stimuli to the cochlear nerve in a minimally invasive fashion, via providing the electrical interface in the middle ear, at the promontory and/or adjacent one of the membranous windows. Nonetheless, a need exists to secure components of such a middle ear system, so that they will neither migrate nor undergo any significant vibration, during daily activities that a patient treated with such a system undergoes. [0006] There have been attempts to address the issue of providing long term attachment between a middle ear electrode and the tissue neighboring the round window. For example, Kuzma (U.S. Pat. No. 4,809,712 and US patent application 20070213787) describes soft ball electrodes that are made of a conductive wire, and that are adapted for adjustment and customization into the round window niche. [0007] Maltan et. al have described (US patent application 20070021804) an electrical stimulation system adapted to be implanted in a surgically created bony recess in the middle ear, wherein the electrode is placed in such a manner so as to stimulate the auditory system in order to affect tinnitus. [0008] Rubinstein et. al. described the Electrical Suppression of Tinnitus with High-Rate Pulse Trains, achieved by a transient placement of a rod-like electrode on the promontorium, wherein the electrical stimulator was located outside the patient's body, and electrical leads were connecting between the electrical stimulator and the electrode, via a surgically created opening in the tympanic membrane. [0009] In a previous patent application by one of the current applicants (US patent application 2009037689), an auditory implant system for treating a hearing disorder is disclosed, which is shaped and adapted for disposition in a Eustachian tube in the proximity to the round window. [0010] The Eustachian tube (also often referred to as the auditory tube) is a collapsible passage that links the (naso)pharynx to the middle ear. In adults the Eustachian tube is approximately 35 mm long, and extends from the anterior wall of the middle ear to the lateral wall of the nasopharynx, approximately at the level of the inferior nasal concha. A portion of the tube proximal to the middle ear is made of bone; the rest is composed of cartilage and raises a tubal elevation, the torus tubarius, in the nasopharynx where it opens. The Eustachian tube represents a much less invasive implantation route, compared to contemporary methods for placing cochlear electrodes directly in the middle ear—risking infection and possibly irreversible damage to sensitive sensory and other neural structures. [0011] Furthermore- the distal end of the Eustachian tube (i.e. its end that connects to the middle ear) may represent a natural cavity that is suitable for placement of a middle ear implant, not requiring any drilling or other trauma to bone. It is also very reasonable to have such a middle ear implant to be placed into the hypotympanum, utilizing it's natural concavity for long-term securing. [0012] It is a long felt and unmet need therefore to provide a minimally invasive auditory implant system, including suitable electrodes, for treating a hearing disorder. It is therefore an object of this invention to provide the middle ear electrode for minimally invasive introduction into the vicinity of the round window, wherein said minimal invasiveness relates to each of i) conveying, positioning and deploying msaid electrode inside the middle ear, ii) contacting the fenestra rotunda or its close vicinity, iii) delivering electricity into the target ear aforementioned middle tissue, and iv) optionally retrieving the implant should such need arise. [0013] It is another object of this invention to provide the middle ear electrode delivering sufficient electricity to cochlea with a reduced current density, compared to using, e.g., a needle electrode. [0014] It is still another object of this invention to provide the middle ear electrode with reduced crossing profile, facilitating its placement through a small puncture in the eardrum (i.e. tympanic membrane) or through the Eustachian tube. [0015] It is a further object of this invention to provide the middle ear electrode comprising a rotation mechanism enabling radial spreading of its distal parts, near to the target tissue. [0016] It is a still further object of this invention to provide the middle ear electrode suitable for connecting with support structure located in the Eustachian tube. [0017] Other objects and advantages of present invention will appear as description proceeds. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0018] The invention provides an electrode for delivering electricity in a target tissue in the vicinity of the round window (fenestra rotunda) niche in the middle ear; said electrode being defined by a longitudinal axis and having a proximal end and a distal end; said electrode comprising an elastic projection member for electrically interfacing said round window, the member disposed along said distal end; the member switching from radially narrowed shape to radially spread shape when contacting said round window, said spread shape reducing the average electrical current density at the round window, and said narrowed shape facilitating the electrode insertion into said niche; said proximal end being connected to a support structure located in the Eustachian tube. Said elastic projection member preferably comprises a plurality of elongated elastic projections for contacting said round window, the interface area of said projections in said spread shape being larger than in said narrowed shape. Provided is an electrode for delivering electricity in a target tissue in the vicinity of the round window niche in the middle ear, said electrode being defined by a longitudinal axis and having a proximal end and a distal end; said electrode comprising at least a portion of a generally cylindrical shell; said shell comprising a plurality of elongated elastic projections for contacting said round window, disposed along its said distal end; the projections being radially spread when being pushed along said axis against a solid plane, thereby increasing the contact area between said projections and said plane; said projections being made of an electrically conductive material. In a preferred embodiment of the invention, said electrode for delivering electricity in a target tissue in the vicinity of the round window niche in the middle ear is defined by a longitudinal axis, and has a proximal end and a distal end, while comprising at least a portion of a generally cylindrical shell, said shell comprising a plurality of elongated elastic projections for electrically interfacing said round window, disposed along its said distal end; the projections being able to assume a radially spread state and a radially narrowed state, wherein said radially spread state enables reducing the average current density to cochlea, and wherein said radially narrowed state reduces the crossing profile of said electrode, thereby facilitating its minimally invasive placement and retrieval; said projections being made of an electrically conductive material; the electrode being connectable at its proximal end to a support structure. Said projections preferably assume said radially spread state when longitudinally pressed in the distal to proximal direction. In one embodiment of the invention, said projections are mechanically coupled in at least a proximal coupling location and a distal coupling location; wherein adjoining said proximal coupling location to said distal coupling location results in said radially spread state, and wherein separating said proximal coupling location from said distal coupling location results in said radially narrowed state. Said radially spread or extended state enables to stabilize the electrode at the desired site, and further it enables to lower the electrical current density, as the overall current passes through an increased surface area, which lowers the risk of inadvertently denaturing proteins or otherwise damaging the tissues near the fenestra rotunda. In another embodiment of the invention, said projections are mechanically coupled in at least a proximal coupling circumference and a distal coupling circumference; wherein rotating said proximal coupling circumference with respect to said distal coupling circumference in a selected direction results in said radially spread state, and wherein rotating said proximal coupling circumference with respect to said distal coupling circumference opposite to said selected direction results in said radially narrowed state. Said elastic projection member may have the form selected from the group consisting of elongated rod projections, essentially spherical metal mesh, convex metal foil, a plurality of loops, helical winding, plurality of metal wire protrusions. In a preferred embodiment, the electrode according to the invention comprises a hollow shaft oriented along its longitudinal axis, and a second shaft thrust in said hollow shaft, wherein said second shaft is attached to said elastic projection member. Said second shaft may be slideably coupled to said first shaft, wherein sliding of said second shaft in the distal-proximal direction results in radial narrowing of said elastic projection member, and wherein sliding of said second shaft in the proximal-distal direction results in radial spreading of said elastic projection member. Said second shaft may be, alternatively, rotationally coupled to said first shaft, wherein rotating of said second shaft in the clockwise and counter-clockwise direction result in radial narrowing or spreading of said elastic projection member. The term “spreading”, employed at this context, means an extension or protrusion of at least a part of said electrode in the direction perpendicular to said longitudinal axis. The electrode according to the invention may be attached at its proximal end to a support structure placed in the Eustachian tube or in the hypotympanum, which structure is adopted for conveying the electrode from the Eustachian tube or from the hypotympanum, to the proximity of the fenestra rotunda, and for being stably anchored in the Eustachian tube or in the hypotympanum. In one embodiment, the electrode according to the invention may be attached at its proximal end to a translation and rotation mechanism enabling reduced-invasiveness electrode relocation in said niche. The electrode according to the invention is advantageously used in treating a hearing problem comprising a condition selected from tinnitus, Meniere's disease, dizziness, otosclerosis, and conductive or sensorineural or mixed hearing loss. [0019] The invention is directed to a minimally-invasive auditory implant system for implantation into a middle ear comprising at least one electrode as described above or an array of electrodes comprising at least one electrode as described above, said system comprising i) a pulse generator (PG); and ii) a self: expandable support structure, adapted for anchoring in at least a portion of a hypotympanum of said middle ear, to which said electrode is mounted; wherein said support structure is adapted for transitioning between a compressed (conveying) configuration and a relaxed (anchoring) configuration, said configurations facilitating the conveyance or retrieval of said support structure in said at least a portion of hypotympanum and anchoring of said support, respectively, and wherein said compressed (conveying) configuration constitutes a spatially collapsed configuration, and wherein said relaxed (anchoring) configuration constitutes a spatially expanded configuration, and wherein said electrode is a cochlear effecting electrode (CEE) adapted for disposition in said middle ear in proximity to an associated fenestra rotunda and secured against vibration and permanent movement, said vibration or permanent movement, or other undesired movements, being possibly caused during daily activities of a treated subject. In a preferred embodiment of the invention, said PG is mounted to said support structure in said implant system. Said support structure in the system of the invention comprises, in one aspect, a generally convex mesh. Said support structure in the system of the invention comprises, in another aspect, a super-elastic metal. Said super-elastic metal may comprise nitinol or elginoy. The system of the invention preferably further comprises a delivery apparatus for releasably deploying said support structure within said at least a portion of hypotympanum, thereby actuating transitioning of said support structure from said compressed configuration to said relaxed configuration. Said delivery apparatus may comprise an endoscopic visualization channel. Said support structure in the system of the invention may be adapted for endoluminal retrieval following said transition from said relaxed configuration to said compressed configuration. In a preferred embodiment, said support structure comprises a plurality of retrieval handles, said handles adapted to engage a retrieval apparatus, said retrieval apparatus provided with means of transitioning said support structure from its said relaxed configuration to its said compressed configuration and its subsequent disposition into a generally elongated sheath. The system may comprise a return electrode, comprised in said support structure. Said system may comprise an extension arm, said extension arm having a proximal end and a distal end; said proximal end of extension arm being coupled to said support structure; said distal end of extension are being coupled to at least a portion of said array of electrodes. The above said generally convex mesh preferably comprises a portion of a generally spherical shell or a portion of a generally ovoid shell. In a preferred embodiment of the system according to the invention, said PG is mounted to said support structure in its concavity. In another preferred embodiment, said CEE is mounted to said support structure in its concavity. In one embodiment, the system according to the invention comprises an extension arm having a proximal end and a distal end, said proximal end of extension arm being coupled to said support structure, said distal end of extension being coupled to at least a portion of said array of electrodes. Said extension arm may be mounted to said support structure in its concavity. Said convex mesh may comprise radial support elements and generally circular support elements, wherein said circular support elements may be concentrically disposed therebetween. Said radial support elements may be connected with said circular support elements. Said circular support elements may be radially compressible. Said PG may be mounted to said support structure while comprising snap-fitting or screwing. [0020] In one aspect of the invention, the implant system comprises one or more items selected from the group consisting of retrieval handles adapted to engage said retrieval apparatus, a return electrode, an extension arm coupled to said support structure and to said electrode. Said system preferably further comprises an extension arm, said extension arm having a proximal end and a distal end; said proximal end of extension arm being coupled to said support structure; said distal end of extension are being coupled to at least a portion of said array of electrodes. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0021] The above and other characteristics and advantages of the invention will be more readily apparent through the following examples, and with reference to the appended drawings, wherein: [0022] FIG. 1 . schematically depicts the middle ear electrode ( 100 ), its longitudinal axis ( 101 ), its proximal end ( 102 ) and a distal end ( 103 ), a generally cylindrical shell ( 104 ) and a plurality of elongated projections ( 105 ) disposed along the distal ( 106 ) end of the cylindrical shell ( 104 ). The figure also depicts a lateral recess ( 107 ) that is adapted to engage a distal end of an extension arm; [0023] FIG. 2 . schematically depicts the middle ear electrode ( 120 ), comprising a generally convex, metal mesh ( 121 ), comprising haxagon and pentagon cells—much like a soccer ball—having a proximal end ( 122 ) and a distal end ( 123 ), at which one apex is disposed. An electrically insulated interface member ( 124 ) is disposed at the proximal end ( 122 ) of the electrode; [0024] FIG. 3 . schematically depicts the middle ear electrode ( 130 ), comprising a generally convex metal mesh ( 131 ), comprising a woven super-elastic metal wire, having a proximal end ( 132 ) and a distal end ( 133 ), at which one apex is disposed; an electrically insulated interface member ( 134 ) is disposed at the proximal end ( 132 ) of the electrode; [0025] FIG. 4 . schematically depicts the middle ear electrode ( 140 ), comprising a first elongated shaft member ( 141 ), a second elongated shaft member ( 142 ) and an electrode-head member ( 143 ), wherein the first ( 141 ) and second ( 142 ) elongated shafts being slideably coupled therebetween; the distal end of second shaft ( 144 ) is longitudinally coupled with the proximal end of the electrode-head member ( 145 ); furthermore, the distal end of the electrode-head member ( 146 ) is secureably attached to the distal end of the first shaft ( 147 ); the electrode-head member comprises a plurality of longitudinal conducting members ( 148 ) that are connected therebetween at least in the vicinity of the distal end of the electrode-head member—elastic projection member in the form of several loops ( 146 ); pulling the first shaft ( 141 ) proximally with regard to the second shaft causes said longitudinal conducting members to collapse radially outward; the figure further depicts an internal elastic member ( 149 ) that is adapted to prevent the longitudinal conducting members ( 148 ) from collapsing radially inward, while the first shaft ( 141 ) is being pulled proximally with regard to the second shaft ( 142 ); [0026] FIG. 5 . schematically depicts the middle ear electrode ( 150 ) being defined by a distally convex metal foil ( 151 ), proximally formed into generally longitudinal processes ( 152 ), a distal apex ( 153 ), and a ball-shaped electrically insulated interface member ( 154 ) that is disposed at the concavity of said metal foil; in selected embodiments of the present invention, the ball-shaped electrically insulated interface member ( 154 ) is made of a soft, compressible, or otherwise deformable material, so as to allow its conformity with the shape of the round window niche; [0027] FIG. 6 . schematically depicts the middle ear electrode ( 160 ), comprising a conductive wire having a first end ( 161 ) and a second end ( 162 ), a proximal portion ( 163 ) and a distal portion ( 164 ); the electrode comprises helical windings. The helical windings having a proximal ( 165 ) end and a distal end ( 166 ); the helical windings further being characterized by a linear length ( 167 ) and by an external diameter ( 168 ). The proximal end of the helical windings ( 165 ) is directed towards said first end of the conductive wire ( 161 ); the distal end of the helical windings ( 166 ) is directed towards the second end of the wire ( 162 ); the proximal portion the conductive wire ( 163 ) being defined as said wire disposed between said first end of said conductive wire and said proximal end of helical windings; said distal portion of conductive wire being defined as said wire disposed between said distal end of helical windings and said second end of said conductive wire; [0028] FIG. 7 . depicts a similar device as in FIG. 6 , wherein its helical windings have a gradually increasing diameter in the distal direction; [0029] FIGS. 8 . ( 8 a and 8 b ) schematically depict an electrode for the round window niche in the middle ear, comprising a static shaft ( 180 ), a rotating shaft ( 181 ), and a plurality of metal wire elements ( 191 ); A disc-shaped end element ( 184 ) is mechanically coupled to the distal end of the rotating shaft ( 181 ); the static shaft ( 180 ) and the rotating shaft ( 181 ) both comprising a proximal end ( 182 and 183 , respectively) and a distal end ( 186 and 187 , respectively); the static shaft ( 180 ) and the rotating shaft ( 181 ) are generally elongated and in this preferred embodiment—concentric to each other; FIG. 8 a depicts the plurality of metal wire elements ( 191 ) in a radially minimized state, so as to facilitate introduction of the distal end of the electrode into the round window niche; FIG. 8 b depicts the plurality of metal wire elements ( 191 ) in a radially expanded state, which is required for long-term fixation of the distal end of the electrode in the round window niche; [0030] FIG. 9 . depicts an electrode adapter ( 200 ) with a first and a second via holes ( 201 and 202 respectively), each said via hole ( 201 and 202 respectively) having a generally longitudinal cross section; the first via hole ( 201 ) has two ends ( 203 and 204 , respectively); the second via hole ( 202 ) has two ends ( 205 and 206 , respectively); [0031] FIG. 10 . depicts an electrode translation and rotation mechanism, comprising of a first and a second generally longitudinal guiding members ( 211 and 212 , respectively) and a slideably coupled electrode adapter ( 200 ); the guiding members ( 211 and 212 ) comprise a plurality of lateral protrusions (collectively denoted as 213 ) that pass through the first and a second via holes in the electrode adapter ( 200 ); this figure depicts the guiding members ( 211 and 212 , respectively) placed in contralateral ends of each via hole; the figure further depicts a generally tubular structural member ( 220 ) that is adapted to affix said translation and rotation mechanism to a generally hollow cavity in a mammalian body; [0032] FIG. 11 . depicts a similar electrode translation and rotation mechanism as in FIG. 10 , however, the electrode adapter ( 200 ) is now shown to be longitudinally displaced along the longitudinal guiding members ( 211 and 212 , respectively) and also clockwise rotated, compared to its position in FIG. 10 . This figure depicts the guiding members ( 211 and 212 , respectively) placed in ipsilateral ends of each via hole; the figure further depicts a generally tubular structural member ( 220 ) that is adapted to affix said translation and rotation mechanism to a generally hollow cavity in a mammalian body; [0033] FIG. 12 . schematically depicts a minimally invasive auditory implant, showing a pulse generator ( 310 ), a cochlear effecting electrode (CEE, 311 ) and an extension arm ( 312 ); [0034] FIG. 13 . schematically depicts a minimally invasive auditory implant, showing a pulse generator ( 310 ), a cochlear effecting electrode (CEE, 311 ), an extension arm ( 312 ) and a self-expandable support structure ( 313 ) in its relaxed state, which is not mounted with the aforementioned system components; [0035] FIG. 14 . schematically depicts another geometrical variant of minimally invasive auditory implant, showing a pulse generator ( 310 ), a cochlear effecting electrode (CEE, 311 ), an extension arm ( 312 ) and a self-expandable support structure ( 313 ) in its relaxed state, which is screw-mountable with the pulse generator ( 310 ); [0036] FIG. 15 . schematically depicts the minimally-invasive auditory implant system as in FIG. 13 , wherein all components are assembled thereto. FIG. 15 a depicts the implant system in its relaxed state. FIG. 15 b depicts the implant system in its compressed state; [0037] FIG. 16 . schematically depicts the minimally-invasive auditory implant system as in FIG. 14 , wherein all components are assembled thereto. FIG. 16 a depicts the implant system in its relaxed state. FIG. 16 b depicts the implant system in its compressed state; [0038] FIG. 17 . schematically depicts a minimally-invasive auditory implant system similar to one in FIG. 14 , wherein all components are assembled thereto. The left hand side of the figure depicts the implant system in its relaxed state, while the right hand side of the figure depicts the implant system in its compressed state; [0039] FIG. 18 . schematically depicts another minimally-invasive auditory implant system as in FIG. 14 , wherein all components are assembled thereto. The left hand side of the figure again depicts the implant system in its relaxed state, while the right hand side of the figure depicts the implant system in its compressed state; and [0040] FIG. 19 . schematically depicts a human middle ear ( 407 ). The figure depicts the oval window ( 400 ), the round window ( 401 ), the stapes ( 402 ), the malleus ( 403 ) and the incus ( 404 ). The figure also depicts the tympanic membrane ( 405 ), the medial portion of the external auditory meatus ( 406 ), the opening into the middle ear of the Eustachian tube ( 408 ) and the temporal bone ( 409 ). The figure also schematically depicts a minimally invasive auditory implant, showing a pulse generator ( 310 ), a cochlear effecting electrode (CEE, 311 ) located near the round window ( 301 ), an extension arm ( 312 ) and a self-expandable support structure ( 313 ) in its relaxed state, positioned in the hypotympanum. DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS [0041] It has been found that the middle ear electrode may be located near fenestra rotunda without too invasive steps while securing its position, wherein relatively safely delivering electrical signals to cochlea, at low current densities, if employing an electrode according to the present invention. The electrode, for delivering electricity in a target tissue in the vicinity of the round window niche in the middle ear comprises at least a portion of a cylindrical shell and elongated elastic projections for contacting said round window, which projections switch from radially narrowed to radially spread form when being near said round window. [0042] The invention provides the middle ear electrode for minimally invasive functioning near round window, wherein said minimal invasiveness relates to each of i) positioning said electrode inside the middle ear, ii) contacting fenestra rotunda, and iii) delivering electricity into the target middle-ear tissue. The electrode embodiments as appear in the invention, are capable to deliver to the cochlea a sufficient electrical current, while at a reduced current surface density. Switching between said narrowed and said spread states enables the reduction of the electrode crossing-profile, which facilitates its placement, preferably through either the external meatus (i.e. through an annulotomy or a puncture in the tympanic membrane) or via the Eustachian tube, from the nasopharynx. In various embodiments, the invention provides electrodes which are supported by a translational or rotational adjustments mechanisms, enabling radial spreading of its distal parts, near to the target tissue. The electrode is suitable to serve as a part in an auditory implant system for treating hearing disorders, advantageously connected with a support structure located in the middle ear—preferably in the distal end of the Eustachian tube or in the hypotympanum. The aforementioned system preferably comprises the support structure adapted for conveying an electrode from the Eustachian tube to the proximity of the fenestra rotunda, and for being anchored in said Eustachian tube or in the hypotympanum. In said system, the electrode is located stably in the middle ear, said stability being assured by attaching to said support structure, and possibly further enhanced by the electrode shape. Said support structure may function as a return electrode. [0043] The present invention provides a minimally-invasive auditory implant system for implantation into a middle ear; the system comprising an array of electrodes, a pulse generator (PG), and a self-expandable support structure that is adapted for anchoring in at least a portion of a hypotympanum of the middle ear, to which at least a portion of said array is mounted; wherein said support structure is adapted for transitioning between a compressed (conveying) configuration and a relaxed (anchoring) configuration, said configurations respectively facilitating the conveyance and anchoring of said support structure in said at least a portion of hypotympanum, and wherein the compressed (conveying) configuration constitutes a spatially collapsed configuration, and wherein the relaxed (anchoring) configuration constitutes a spatially expanded configuration, and wherein the at least one electrode in said array is a cochlear effecting electrode (CEE) that is adapted for disposition in proximity to an associated fenestra rotunda. [0044] In a preferred embodiment, the PG according to the invention is mounted to the support structure. [0045] In a preferred embodiment, the support structure according to the invention comprises a generally convex mesh, which is intended to comply to the concave shape of the middle ear cavity—and specifically, the hypotympanum. In particular embodiments, the convex mesh may be a generally spherical shell, or an ovoid shell. [0046] In a preferred embodiment, the support structure according to the invention comprises a super-elastic metal—such as nitinol, or elginoy—in order to allow for easy implantation of the implant in the middle ear, as well as easy retrieval thereof. [0047] In a preferred embodiment, the minimally-invasive auditory implant system according to the invention is adjoined by a delivery apparatus for releasably deploying the support structure according to the invention within at least a portion of hypotympanum, thereby actuating transitioning of the support structure according to the invention from its compressed configuration to its relaxed configuration. [0048] In a preferred embodiment, the delivery apparatus according to the invention further comprises an endoscopic visualization channel, so as to allow controlled and accurate deployment of the support structure according to the invention. [0049] In another preferred embodiment, the support structure according to the invention is adapted for endoluminal retrieval following its transition from its relaxed configuration to its compressed configuration. [0050] In yet another preferred embodiment, the support structure according to the invention further comprises a plurality of retrieval handles that are adapted to engage a retrieval apparatus. The retrieval apparatus is further provided with means of transitioning the support structure from its relaxed configuration to its compressed configuration and its subsequent disposition into a generally elongated sheath. [0051] In a preferred embodiment, the minimally-invasive auditory implant system for implantation into a middle ear according to the invention additionally comprises a return electrode. [0052] In yet another preferred embodiment, the minimally-invasive auditory implant system for implantation into a middle ear according to the invention additionally comprises a return electrode. [0053] In a preferred embodiment, the minimally-invasive auditory implant system for implantation into a middle ear according to the invention further comprises an extension arm; the extension arm having a proximal end and a distal end; the proximal end of the extension arm being coupled to the support structure according to the invention; the distal end of extension are being coupled to at least a portion of the array of electrodes according to the invention. [0054] In yet another preferred embodiment, the extension arm, according to the invention, having a proximal end and a distal end; the proximal end of extension arm being coupled to said support structure; the distal end of extension are being coupled to at least a portion of the array of electrodes, according to the invention. In particular embodiments, the extension arm is mounted to the support structure, according to the invention, in its concavity. [0055] In a preferred embodiment, the PG according to the invention, is mounted to the support structure, according to the invention, in its concavity. [0056] In a preferred embodiment, the CEE according to the invention, is mounted to the support structure, according to the invention, in its concavity. [0057] In yet another preferred embodiment, convex mesh, according to the invention, comprises of radial support elements and generally circular support elements. In particular embodiments, the abovementioned circular support elements are concentrically disposed therebetween. In yet another particular embodiments, abovementioned radial support elements are connected with the abovementioned circular support elements. In yet another particular embodiments, the circular support elements are radially compressible. [0058] The present invention provides an electrode for delivering electricity in a target tissue in the vicinity of the round window niche in the middle ear; said electrode being defined by a longitudinal axis and having a proximal end and a distal end; said electrode comprising an elastic projection member for electrically interfacing said round window, the member disposed along said distal end; the member switching from radially narrowed shape to radially spread shape when contacting said round window, said spread shape reducing the electrical current density to cochlea, and said narrowed shape facilitating the electrode insertion into said niche; said proximal end being connected to a support structure located in the Eustachian tube, or in the hypotympanum. Said elastic projection member may have the form of a plurality of elongated elastic projections for contacting said round window, the interface area of said projections in said spread shape being larger than in said narrowed shape, which ensures significantly reduced invasiveness of the electrode use, addressing both mechanical and electrical aspects. Said electrode preferably comprises at least a portion of a generally cylindrical shell; said shell comprising a plurality of elongated elastic projections for contacting said round window, disposed along its said distal end; the projections being radially spread when desired, thereby increasing the contact area between said projections and said plane; said projections being made of an electrically conductive material. In one aspect of the invention, said projections are radially spread when being pushed along said axis against a solid plane; such a plane may be represented by said round window, or a promontorium. In other aspect of the invention, said projections are radially spread when pushing a spreading mechanism in the proximal-distal direction, wherein said mechanism may comprise, for example, two concentric cylindrical shafts, inner and outer, slideably coupled, while the inner is connected with the elastic projections. [0059] The electrode according to the invention preferably comprises at least a portion of a generally cylindrical shell, said shell comprising a plurality of elongated elastic projections for electrically interfacing said round window, disposed along its said distal end; the projections being able to assume a radially spread state and a radially narrowed state, wherein said radially spread state enables reducing the average current density to cochlea, and wherein said radially narrowed reduces the crossing profile of said electrode, thereby facilitating its minimally invasive placement and retrieval; said projections being made of an electrically conductive material; the electrode being connected at its proximal end to a support structure. Said projections assume said radially spread state when longitudinally pressed in the distal to proximal direction. Said projections are, in one embodiment of the invention, mechanically coupled in at least a proximal coupling location and a distal coupling location; wherein adjoining said proximal coupling location to said distal coupling location results in said radially spread state, and wherein separating said proximal coupling location from said distal coupling location results in said radially narrowed state. Said projections may be mechanically coupled in at least a proximal coupling circumference and a distal coupling circumference, wherein rotating said proximal coupling circumference with respect to said distal coupling circumference in a selected direction results in said radially spread state, and wherein rotating said proximal coupling circumference with respect to said distal coupling circumference opposite to said selected direction results in said radially narrowed state. Said elastic projection member of the electrode according to the invention has preferably a form selected from the group consisting of elongated rod projections, essentially spherical metal mesh, convex metal foil, a plurality of loops, helical winding, and plurality of metal wire protrusions. Such protrusions may have the form of regularly arranged loops or rods; the protrusions may have the form of randomly arranged loops, or fiber ball, a plurality of elongated projections of other forms. The protrusions may be arranged in a net-like surface, or in a foil-like surface, and may comprise a metal fiber, wire, or foil. [0060] In other preferred embodiment, the electrode according to the invention comprises a hollow shaft oriented along said longitudinal axis of the electrode, and a second shaft thrust in said hollow shaft, wherein said second shaft is attached to said the elastic projection member. Said second shaft is slideably coupled to said first shaft, wherein sliding of said second shaft in the distal-proximal direction results in radial narrowing of said elastic projection member, and wherein sliding of said second shaft in the proximal-distal direction results in radial spreading of said elastic projection member. In another embodiment, said second shaft is rotationally coupled to said first shaft, wherein rotating of said second shaft in the clockwise and counter-clockwise direction results in radial narrowing or spreading of said elastic projection member. An electrode according to the invention is, in an important aspect, a part of an auditory implant system for treating hearing disorders, preferably attached at its proximal end to a support structure placed in the Eustachian tube or in the hypotympanum, which structure is adopted for conveying the electrode from the Eustachian tube to the proximity of the fenestra rotunda, and for being stably anchored in the Eustachian tube. An electrode according to the invention may be advantageously attached at its proximal end to a translation and rotation mechanism enabling non-invasive electrode relocation in said niche. [0061] The invention aims at an electrode for use in treating a hearing problem comprising a condition selected from tinnitus, Meniere's disease, dizziness, otosclerosis, and conductive or sensorineural or mixed hearing loss. [0062] The invention will be further described and illustrated in the following examples. EXAMPLES Example 1 [0063] An embodiment of the invention is described herein (see FIG. 1 and the Description of the Drawings), namely an electrode for delivering electricity in a target tissue in the vicinity of the round window niche in the middle ear; said electrode being defined by a longitudinal axis and having a proximal end and a distal end; said electrode comprising at least a portion of a generally cylindrical shell; said shell comprising a plurality of elongated projections disposed along its said distal end; said electrode is made of an electrically conductive material. Said elongated projections are being generally aligned in parallel with said longitudinal axes. Said elongated projections are further being slightly outwardly radially protruding, whereas longitudinally compressing its said distal end against said target tissue results in said elongated projections being pushed radially outward into said target tissue. Said elongated projections may be further bent clockwise, whereas clockwise rotating its said distal end against said target tissue, while longitudinally compressing its said distal end against said target tissue, results in said elongated projections being pushed generally clockwise into said target tissue. Said clockwise direction may be replaced with counter-clockwise. The electrode may further comprise an electrically insulated interface member, said interface member being disposed at said proximal end of electrode. The electrode may further comprise an elongated engagement member having a proximal end and a distal end, said distal end of engagement member being coupled with said interface member; possibly, said distal end of engagement member being encapsulated within said interface member. Said engagement member may comprise an extension arm; said extension arm may comprise a metal. Said interface member may comprise a polymer mold. Said cylindrical shell may have a diameter preferably larger than about 2 millimeter. The electrode may further comprise a conductive lead; said lead being galvanically coupled to said electrode. Said electrode comprising an electrically insulated interface member disposed at said proximal end may further comprise a conductive lead galvanically coupled to said electrode; said lead being further coupled with said interface member while being adapted to affix said translation and rotation mechanism to a generally hollow cavity in a mammalian body. Example 2 [0064] An embodiment of the invention is described herein (see FIG. 2 and the Description of the Drawings), namely an electrode for delivering electricity in a target tissue in the vicinity of the round window niche in the middle ear; said electrode being defined by a generally convex elastic metal mesh having a proximal end and a distal end. Said mesh comprises at least one apex being disposed at said distal end of electrode. The electrode further comprises an electrically insulated interface member, said interface member being disposed at said proximal end of electrode. The electrode further comprises an elongated engagement member having a proximal end and a distal end, said distal end of engagement member being coupled with said interface member; possibly, said distal end of engagement member being encapsulated within said interface member. Said engagement member preferably comprises an extension arm, which may comprises a metal. Said interface member may comprise a polymer mold. Said metal mesh is generally of ovoid or spherical in shape. Said metal mesh may be manufactured by cutting and folding a metal foil, or by winding a metal wire over a mandrel and subsequently removing said mandrel. Said metal mesh comprises voids that are adapted to allow in-growth of tissue there-through and thereby encapsulation of at least a portion of said distal end of electrode. The electrode may further comprise an electrically insulated interface member disposed at said proximal end of electrode, and a conductive lead being galvanically coupled to said metal mesh, said lead being further coupled with said interface member. The electrode may have a mesh comprising voids of different sizes. Said mesh may be braided from metal wires, or from a single metal wire, or said mesh is cut and shaped from a metallic foil. Example 3 [0065] An embodiment of the invention is described herein (see FIG. 3 and the Description of the Drawings), namely an electrode for delivering electricity in a target tissue in the vicinity of the round window niche in the middle ear; said electrode comprising a conductive wire having a first end and a second end, a proximal portion and a distal portion, and a length; said electrode comprising helical windings at a selected position along its length; said helical windings having a proximal end and a distal end; said helical windings further being characterized by a linear length and by an external diameter; said proximal end of helical windings is directed towards said first end of conductive wire; said distal end of helical windings is directed towards said second end of wire; said proximal portion of conductive wire being defined as said wire disposed between said first end of said conductive wire and said proximal end of helical windings; said distal portion of conductive wire being defined as said wire disposed between said distal end of helical windings and said second end of said conductive wire. Said selected position is in proximity with said second end of conductive wire. Said second end of conductive wire is inserted into said distal end of helical windings. Said distal portion of conductive wire is generally disposed in parallel with said proximal portion of conductive wire. Said conductive wire in the electrode of this example may be made of multiple metallic filaments. Said conductive wire further comprises an external insulating cladding member; said cladding member being discontinued in at least a portion of said helical windings. The electrode further comprises an electrically insulated interface member, said interface member being disposed at said proximal end of helical windings; said electrode further comprises an elongated engagement member having a proximal end and a distal end, said distal end of engagement member being coupled with said interface member, wherein said distal end of engagement member may be encapsulated within said interface member; said engagement member comprises an extension arm; said extension arm comprises a metal; said interface member comprises a polymer mold. Said proximal end of helical windings and said distal end of helical windings, in the electrode of the Example, are attached therebetween so as to form a loop of helical windings. Said external diameter of helical windings is generally constant or is tapered down towards said distal end of helical windings. Example 4 [0066] An embodiment of the invention is described herein (see FIG. 4 and the Description of the Drawings), namely an electrode for delivering electricity in a target tissue in the vicinity of the round window niche in the middle ear; said electrode comprising a first elongated shaft member, a second elongated shaft member and an elastic electrode-head member; said first and second elongated shafts being slideably coupled therebetween; said first shaft, second shaft and electrode-head member comprising a proximal end and a distal end; said distal end of second shaft being longitudinally coupled with said proximal end of electrode-head member; said distal end of electrode-head member being secureably attached to said distal end of first shaft; said electrode-head member comprising a plurality of longitudinal conducting members; said longitudinal conducting members being connected therebetween at least at said distal end of said electrode-head member; wherein pulling said first shaft proximally with regard to said second shaft causes said longitudinal conducting members to collapse radially outward. The electrode further comprises a locking member; said locking member adapted to securely affix said first shaft with regard to said second shaft. Said longitudinal conducting members may be further connected therebetween by a plurality of laterally expendable struts. Said electrode-head member may comprise a platinum alloy or a super elastic metal alloy. The electrode further comprises a conductive lead; said lead being galvanically coupled to said electrode-head member. Said electrode head member may further comprises an internal elastic member adapted to prevent said longitudinal conducting members from collapsing radially inward, while said first shaft is being pulled proximally with regard to said second shaft. Example 5 [0067] An embodiment of the invention is described herein (see FIG. 5 and the Description of the Drawings), namely an electrode for delivering electricity in a target tissue in the vicinity of the round window niche in the middle ear; said electrode being defined by a distally convex metal foil, proximally formed into generally longitudinal processes. The electrode comprises at least one distal apex, and an electrically insulated interface member being disposed at a concavity of said metal foil; the electrode may further comprise an elongated engagement member having a proximal end and a distal end, said distal end of engagement member being coupled with said interface member, said distal end of engagement member may be encapsulated within said interface member; said engagement member may comprise an extension arm; said extension arm may comprise a metal. Said electrode comprising an electrically insulated interface member being disposed at a concavity of said metal foil may comprise a polymer mold in said interface member. Said electrically insulated interface member being disposed at a concavity of said metal foil and said metal foil may jointly form a generally ovoid or spherical shape. The electrode may further comprise a conductive lead; said lead being galvanically coupled to said metal foil. Said electrode comprising an electrically insulated interface member being disposed at a concavity of said metal foil may further comprise a conductive lead galvanically coupled to said metal foil and to said interface member. Example 6 [0068] An embodiment of the invention is described herein (see FIG. 6 and the Description of the Drawings), namely a system for in-situ forming of a wire electrode in the round window niche in the middle ear; said system comprising a static shaft, a rotating shaft, a metal wire and a wire feeding lumen; said static shaft, rotating shaft and wire feeding lumen comprising a proximal end and a distal end and being generally elongated and parallel thereto; wherein said distal end of wire being connected to said distal end of rotating shaft, whereby rotating said rotating shaft while allowing said metal wire to advance distally through said feeding lumen creates winding of said metal wire around, or adjacent, said distal end of rotating shaft. The system further comprises a disengagement mechanism, adapted to disconnect said distal end of wire from said distal end of rotating shaft, thereby allowing for proximally withdrawing said rotating shaft; said connection between said distal end of wire and said distal end of rotating shaft comprises a fuse member, wherein said disengagement mechanism comprising an electrical-current driving mechanism adapted to burn said fuse member while not materially impacting said metal wire. Said static shaft may be a cylindrical tube, wherein said rotating shaft is being characterized by a generally circular cross section and being co-axially disposed inside said static shaft; said rotating shaft further comprising a cylindrical cross section; said rotating shaft may comprise wire feeding lumen. The space remaining inside said static shaft, and externally to said rotating shaft, preferably comprises said feeding lumen. Said static shaft and said rotating shaft are external to the system; said static shaft is a cylindrical tube; the internal volume of said static shaft comprising said feeding lumen. Example 7 [0069] An embodiment of the invention is described herein (see FIG. 7 and the Description of the Drawings), namely an electrode for delivering electricity in a target tissue in the vicinity of the round window niche in the middle ear; said electrode comprising a plurality of generally elongated, galvanically connected metal wire member elements, being generally parallel aligned therebetween; said wire member element comprising a proximal end and a laterally bent distal end; said plurality of laterally bent distal ends defining a distal lateral electrode plane, said plane being characterized by an electrode footprint. Said electrode footprint assumes a diminished surface area when said plurality of wire member elements are approximated therebetween adjacent their respective distal ends; said electrode footprint assumes an enlarged surface area when said plurality of wire member elements are allowed to assumed their respective relaxed orientation. Alternatively, said electrode footprint assumes an enlarged surface area when said plurality of wire member elements are approximated therebetween adjacent their respective distal ends; said electrode footprint assumes a diminished surface area when said plurality of wire member elements are allowed to assumed their respective relaxed orientation. The electrode may further comprise a ring member, said ring member being placed upon said plurality of wire member elements and being capable of longitudinal displacement along said wire member elements; whereby displacement of said ring member adjacent distal end of said wire member causes said elements to be approximated therebetween. Example 8 [0070] An embodiment of the invention is described herein (see FIG. 8 and the Description of the Drawings), namely an electrode for delivering electricity in a target tissue in the vicinity of the round window niche in the middle ear; said electrode comprising a static shaft, a rotating shaft, and a plurality of metal wire elements; said static shaft and rotating shaft comprising a proximal end and a distal end and being generally elongated and parallel therebetween; wherein said plurality of metal wire elements being disposed between locations along circumference of said distal end of rotating shaft and corresponding locations along circumference of said distal end of static shaft. The rotation of said rotating shaft relative to said static shaft is adapted to transform said metal wire elements from assuming a radially minimized state to assuming a radially expanded state, and vice versa. Said rotating shaft or said static shaft further comprise a generally circular plate, coupled to its distal end; said generally circular plate or disc being adapted to distally restrain said plurality of metal wire elements from protruding distally relative to said distal ends of either static shaft or said rotating shaft, during relative rotation of said shafts therebetween. Said static shaft and rotating shaft preferably comprise a circular rod and a cylindrical tube, respectively; said static shaft passing through said rotating shaft. Example 9 [0071] An embodiment of the invention is described herein (see FIG. 9 and the Description of the Drawings), namely an electrode translation and rotation mechanism, comprising a first and a second generally longitudinal guiding members and a slideably coupled electrode adapter; wherein said guiding members comprise a plurality of lateral protrusions, and wherein said electrode adapter comprises a first and a second via holes, each said via hole having a generally longitudinal cross section, said generally longitudinal cross section having at least two ends and at least one internal recess in the shape that matches said shape of lateral protrusion; wherein said electrode adapter may be translated along said first and second guiding members by either pulling or pushing said electrode adapter along the direction of said longitudinal members, whereas said lateral protrusions inhibit longitudinal movement of said electrode adapter with regard to said longitudinal members; and wherein said electrode adapter may be rotated with regard to said first and second guiding members by positioning each of said longitudinal members at either said ends of said via hole. Said generally longitudinal guiding members preferably comprise an elastic material, for example a super elastic metal. Said generally longitudinal guiding members are coupled to a radially expandable, generally tubular structural member; said structural member is adapted to affix said translation and rotation mechanism to a generally hollow cavity in a mammalian body. Examples 10-19 [0072] Additional embodiments of the invention are described herein (see FIG. 10 to FIG. 19 and the Description of the Drawings), namely electrode translation and rotation mechanisms, minimally invasive auditory implants, and systems comprising same. [0073] While this invention has been described in terms of some specific examples, many modifications and variations are possible. It is therefore understood that within the scope of the appended claims, the invention may be realized otherwise than as specifically described.

The invention provides an electrode, and a minimally-invasive auditory implant system employing the electrode, for treating hearing disorders by electrically stimulating tissues in the middle ear. The electrode employs a structure which switches between narrow and spread shapes, facilitating the electrode insertion into the site, securing the electrode against vibration or permanent movement, and optimizing the current density.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is the U.S. national phase of PCT/CN2009/070231 filed Jan. 20, 2009, which claims priority of Chinese Patent Application No. 200810052884.X filed Apr. 25, 2008. FIELD OF TECHNOLOGY The present invention relates to a preparation method of carboxylic acids with optical activity, particularly, publishes the application of iridium complexes of chiral phosphor nitrogen ligands in asymmetric catalytic hydrogenation of tri-substituted α,β-unsaturated carboxylic acids for preparing chiral carboxylic acids. In the invention, very useful chiral carboxylic acids can be obtained by the asymmetric catalytic hydrogenation of tri-substituted α,β-unsaturated carboxylic acids, with the complexes of the chiral phosphor nitrogen ligands and iridium used as the catalysts which show high activity and enantioselectivity (up to 99.8% ee). This is one of the most efficient methods for synthesizing carboxylic acids with optical activity by the asymmetric catalytic hydrogenation. DESCRIPTION OF RELATED ARTS In organic synthesis, the chiral carboxylic acids are important components of a lot of natural products with biological activity and drug molecules, so the development of the synthesis methods of optically pure carboxylic acid-like compounds is one of the hot research fields in the current academia and industry (Lednicer, D.; Mitscher, L. A. The Organic Chemistry of Drug Synthesis 1977 and 1980, Wiley: New York, Vols. 1 and 2). Among many methods for synthesizing unsaturated carboxylic acids, the asymmetric catalytic hydrogenation of α,β-unsaturated carboxylic acids attracted great interest from researchers for its atoms are highly economic and it is environmental friendly (Jacobsen, E. N.; Pfaltz, A.; Yamamoto, H. Comprehensive Asymmetric Catalysis , Springer: Berlin, 1999, Vols. I.; Tang, W.; Zhang, X. Chem. Rev. 2003, 103, 3029). In 1987, Noyori achieved the homogeneous asymmetric catalytic hydrogenation of α,β-unsaturated carboxylic acid—tiglic acid for the first time with the ruthenium acetate complex of BINAP as the catalyst, and obtained the ee value of 91%, and also prepared (S)-Naproxen with the same catalyst, and obtained the ee value of 97% (Ohta, T.; Takaya, H.; Kitamura, M.; Nagai, K.; Noyori, R. J. Org. Chem. 1987, 52, 3176). Since then, people have developed several chiral ruthenium and rhodium complex catalysts, they achieved very good catalytic effects in the catalytic asymmetric hydrogenation of unsaturated carboxylic acids, and there are many examples of successful industrialization (Boogers J. A. F.; Felfer, U.; Kotthaus, M.; Lefort, L.; Steinbauer, G.; de Vries, A. H. M.; de Vries, J. G. Org. Proc. Res. Dev. 2007, 11, 585). However, due to the specificity of catalytic hydrogenation reaction, each catalyst can be effective only to one or a few kinds of substrates, so far there are still many substrates that can not be catalyzed well; and, most of known chiral catalysts still have various defects, which appear mainly to be higher amount of catalysts, rigorous reaction conditions, too long reaction time and so on. Therefore, there is a need to find more effective chiral catalysts, to achieve hydrogenation of α,β-unsaturated carboxylic acids with high enantioselectivity. In addition to ruthenium and rhodium complexes, the chiral catalysts formed by the transition metal iridium and chiral ligands are also used broadly in asymmetric catalytic hydrogenation, particularly the asymmetric hydrogenation of the non-functional groups olefin and imine, and results better than other transition metal catalysts can be obtained ((Blaser, H.-U. Adv. Synth. Catal. 2002, 344, 17; Zhou, Y.-G. Acc. Chem. Res. 2007, 40, 1357; Roseblade, S. J.; Pfaltz, A. Acc. Chem. Res. 2007, 40, 1402). However, so far there is only one report about the iridium complex for asymmetric hydrogenation of unsaturated carboxylic acids, that is, Matteoli et. al. catalyzed the asymmetric hydrogenation of a di-substituted α,β-unsaturated carboxylic acid-α-phenylethyl acrylic acid with a chiral iridium catalyst, but that catalyst only showed moderate reactivity and enantioselectivity (Scrivanti, A.; Bova, S.; Ciappa, A.; Matteoli, U. Tetrahedron Lett. 2006, 47, 9261). Therefore, the development of novel iridium complex catalysts to achieve high efficient asymmetric hydrogenation of α,β-unsaturated carboxylic acids has important research and application values. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Aspects of the present invention generally pertain to a preparation method of chiral carboxylic acids by using an iridium complex of a chiral phosphor nitrogen ligand in asymmetric catalytic hydrogenation of tri-substituted α,β-unsaturated carboxylic acids, which is a successful application of iridium complex catalysts in asymmetric catalytic hydrogenation of tri-substituted α,β-unsaturated carboxylic acids, thus provides a more efficient method with higher enantioselectivity for asymmetric catalytic hydrogenation of chiral carboxylic acid-like compounds. The preparation method of chiral carboxylic acids by using the iridium complex of the chiral phosphor nitrogen ligand to catalyze asymmetric hydrogenation of tri-substituted α,β-unsaturated carboxylic acids provided by the present invention is that the asymmetric catalytic hydrogenation of the tri-substituted α,β-unsaturated carboxylic acids is carried out with the presence of an additive and the chiral iridium complex of the chiral phosphor nitrogen ligand to obtain chiral carboxylic acids having certain optical purity. The preparation method of chiral carboxylic acids of the present invention, characterized in that it is carried out by the following catalytic hydrogenation reaction process: wherein: [Ir] is the iridium complex catalyst of the chiral phosphor nitrogen ligand; R 1 , R 2 are halogen, hydroxyl, C 1 -C 8 alkyl, halogenated alkyl, C 1 -C 8 alkoxy, phenoxy, C 1 -C 8 alkyl-substituted phenoxy, hydroxyl-substituted phenoxy, C 1 -C 8 alkoxy-substituted phenoxy, C 1 -C 8 acyloxy-substituted phenoxy, halogenated phenoxy, amino-substituted phenoxy, (C 1 -C 8 acyl)amino-substituted phenoxy, di (C 1 -C 8 alkyl)amino-substituted phenoxy, C 1 -C 8 acyl-substituted phenoxy, C 2 -C 8 esteryl-substituted phenoxy, naphthyloxy, furyloxy, thienyloxy, benzyloxy, C 2 -C 8 acyloxy, C 1 -C 8 acyl, C 2 -C 8 esteryl, (C 1 -C 8 acyl)amino, di (C 1 -C 8 alkyl)amino, phenyl, C 1 -C 8 alkyl-substituted phenyl, hydroxyl-substituted phenyl, C 1 -C 8 alkoxy-substituted phenyl, C 2 -C 8 acyloxy-substituted phenyl, halogenated phenyl, amino-substituted phenyl, (C 1 -C 8 acyl)amino-substituted phenyl, di (C 1 -C 8 alkyl)amino-substituted phenyl, C 1 -C 8 acyl-substituted phenyl, C 2 -C 8 esteryl-substituted phenyl, naphthyl, furyl, thienyl, respectively; R 1 and R 2 can be same or different; the position marked by the asterisk is the chiral center. The preparation method of chiral carboxylic acids of the present invention is achieved with the iridium complex catalyst of the chiral phosphor nitrogen ligand has the following structural formula: wherein: is the chiral phosphor nitrogen ligand; is cyclooctadiene; n=0-3; R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , R 4 , R 5 , R 6 , R 7 are defined as the compound (I); X is halogen, C 1 -C 8 carboxylate radical, sulfate radical, tetra (3,5-bis trifluoromethylphenyl) borate radical, tetra (pentafluorophenyl) borate radical, tetra (perfluoro-tert-butoxy) aluminum ion, tetra (hexafluoroisopropoxy) aluminum ion, hexafluoro phosphate ion, hexafluoro antimonlate ion, tetrafluoro borate ion or triflluoro methanesulfonate ion; cyclooctadiene ligand can be substituted by ethylene or norbornadiene. The chiral phosphor nitrogen ligand contained in the above-mentioned iridium complex catalyst of the chiral phosphor nitrogen ligand has the following structural formula: wherein: m=0-3, n=0-4, p=0-6; R 3 , R 4 are H, C 1 -C 8 alkyl, halogenated alkyl, C 1 -C 8 alkoxy, C 2 -C 8 acyloxy, C 1 -C 8 acyl, C 2 -C 8 esteryl, (C 1 -C 8 acyl)amino, di (C 1 -C 8 alkyl)amino, halogen, phenyl, C 1 -C 8 alkyl-substituted phenyl, hydroxyl-substituted phenyl, C 1 -C 8 alkoxy-substituted phenyl, C 2 -C 8 acyloxy-substituted phenyl, halogenated phenyl, amino-substituted phenyl, (C 1 -C 8 acyl)amino-substituted phenyl, di (C 1 -C 8 alkyl)amino-substituted phenyl, C 1 -C 8 acyl-substituted phenyl, C 2 -C 8 esteryl-substituted phenyl, naphthyl, furyl, thienyl, respectively or combined alicyclic or aromatic ring when m, n, p≧2; R 3 and R 4 can be same or different; R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , R 8 are H, C 1 -C 8 alkyl, halogenated alkyl, C 1 -C 8 alkoxy, C 2 -C 8 acyloxy, C 1 -C 8 acyl, C 2 -C 8 esteryl, (C 1 -C 8 acyl)amino, di (C 1 -C 8 alkyl)amino, halogen, phenyl, C 1 -C 8 alkyl-substituted phenyl, hydroxyl-substituted phenyl, C 1 -C 8 alkoxy-substituted phenyl, C 2 -C 8 acyloxy-substituted phenyl, halogenated phenyl, amino-substituted phenyl, (C 1 -C 8 acyl)amino-substituted phenyl, di (C 1 -C 8 alkyl)amino-substituted phenyl, C 1 -C 8 acyl-substituted phenyl, C 2 -C 8 esteryl-substituted phenyl, naphthyl, furyl, thienyl, respectively or R 5 ˜R 6 , R 7 ˜R 8 are combined alicyclic or aromatic ring; R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , R 8 can be same or different; R 9 , R 10 are H, C 1 -C 8 alkyl, halogenated alkyl, C 1 -C 8 alkoxy, C 2 -C 8 acyloxy, C 1 -C 8 acyl, C 2 -C 8 esteryl, (C 1 -C 8 acyl)amino, di (C 1 -C 8 alkyl)amino, halogen, benzyl, phenyl, C 1 -C 8 alkyl-substituted phenyl, hydroxyl-substituted phenyl, C 1 -C 8 alkoxy-substituted phenyl, C 2 -C 8 acyloxy-substituted phenyl, halogenated phenyl, amino-substituted phenyl, (C 1 -C 8 acyl)amino-substituted phenyl, di (C 1 -C 8 alkyl)amino-substituted phenyl, C 1 -C 8 acyl-substituted phenyl, C 2 -C 8 esteryl-substituted phenyl, naphthyl, furyl, thienyl, respectively or R 9 ˜R 10 are combined alicyclic or aromatic ring; R 9 and R 10 can be same or different; R 11 is C 1 -C 8 alkyl, phenyl, C 1 -C 8 alkyl-substituted phenyl, hydroxyl-substituted phenyl, sulfo-substituted phenyl, C 1 -C 8 alkoxy-substituted phenyl, C 2 -C 8 acyloxy-substituted phenyl, halogenated phenyl, amino-substituted phenyl, (C 1 ˜C 8 acyl)amino-substituted phenyl, di (C 1 -C 8 alkyl)amino-substituted phenyl, C 1 -C 8 acyl-substituted phenyl, C 2 -C 8 esteryl-substituted phenyl, naphthyl, furyl, thienyl; the C 1 ˜C 8 alkyl is methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, isopropyl, cyclopropyl, n-butyl, isobutyl, sec-butyl, tert-butyl, cyclobutyl, pentyl, isoamyl, neopentyl, sec-pentyl, tert pentyl, cyclopentyl, n-hexyl, isohexyl, neohexyl, sec-hexyl, tert-hexyl, cyclohexyl, n-heptyl, isoheptyl, neoheptyl, sec-heptyl, tert-heptyl, cycloheptyl, n-octyl, isooctyl, neooctyl, sec-octyl, tert-octyl or cyclooctyl; the C 1 -C 8 alkoxy is methoxy, ethoxy, n-propoxy, isopropoxy, cyclopropoxy, n-butoxy, isobutoxy, sec-butoxy, tert-butoxy, cyclobutoxy, n-pentyloxy, isopentyloxy, neopentyloxy, sec-pentyloxy, tert-pentyloxy, cyclopentyloxy, n-hexyloxy, isohexyloxy, neohexyloxy, sec-hexyloxy, tert-hexyloxy, cyclohexyloxy, n-heptyloxy, isoheptyloxy, neoheptyloxy, sec-heptyloxy, tert-heptyloxy, cycloheptyloxy, n-octyloxy, iso-octyloxy, neooctyloxy, sec-octyloxy, tert-octyloxy, cyclooctyloxy; the C 1 -C 8 acyl is formoxyl, acetyl, propionyl, n-butyryl, isobutyryl, n-valeryl, isovaleryl, sec-valeryl, neovaleryl, n-hexanoyl, isohexanoyl, neohexanoyl, sec-hexanoyl, n-heptanoyl, isoheptanoyl, neoheptanoyl, sec-heptanoyl, n-octanoyl, isooctanoyl, neooctanoyl, sec-octanoyl, 1-cyclopropyl formoxyl, 1-cyclobutyl formoxyl, 1-cyclopentyl formoxyl, 1-cyclohexyl formoxyl, 1-cycloheptyl formoxyl; the C 2 -C 8 acyloxy is acetoxyl, propionyloxy, n-butyryloxy, isobutyryloxy, n-valeryloxy, isovaleryloxy sec-valeryloxy, neovaleryloxy, n-hexanoyloxy, isohexanoyloxy, neohexanoyloxy, sec-hexanoyloxy, n-heptanoyloxy, isoheptanoyloxy, neoheptanoyloxy, sec-heptanoyloxy, n-octanoyloxy, isooctanoyloxy, neooctanoyloxy, sec-octanoyloxy, 1-cyclopropyl acetoxyl, 1-cyclobutyl acetoxyl, 1-cyclopentyl acetoxyl, 1-cyclohexyl acetoxyl, 1-cycloheptyl acetoxyl; the C 2 -C 8 esteryl is methoxycarbonyl, ethoxycarbonyl, propoxycarbonyl, isopropoxycarbonyl, butoxycarbonyl, isobutoxycarbonyl, n-pentyloxycarbonyl, isopentyloxycarbonyl, neopentyloxycarbonyl, sec-pentyloxycarbonyl, tert-pentyloxycarbonyl, cyclopentyloxycarbonyl, n-hexyloxycarbonyl, isohexyloxycarbonyl, neohexyloxycarbonyl, sec-hexyloxycarbonyl, tert-hexyloxycarbonyl, cyclohexyloxycarbonyl, n-heptyloxycarbonyl, isoheptyloxycarbonyl, neoheptyloxycarbonyl, sec-heptyloxycarbonyl, tert-heptyloxycarbonyl, cycloheptyloxycarbonyl; the halogenated alkyl is a halogenated alkyl containing fluoride, chlorine, bromine or iodine. The preparation method of chiral carboxylic acids of the present invention is that: under the protection of argon or nitrogen, the catalyst and the substrate are added into the inner tube of the reactor, then the additive and the solvent are added, the reactor is sealed and the air in the reactor is replaced carefully with hydrogen for 3 to 5 times, after the reactor is filled with hydrogen to the desired pressure, the mixture is stirred to the end; The solvent used is ethyl acetate or C 1 -C 6 alcohol; the amount of the catalyst is 0.001-1 mol %; the concentration of the substrate is 0.001-10.0 M; the additive is one or several of iodine, isopropylamine, tert-butylamine, dimethylamine, diethyl amine, diisopropylamine, diisopropyl ethylamine, trimethylamine, triethylamine, 1,8-diazabicyclo[5,4,0]undec-7-ene (DBU), 1,4-diazabicyclo[2,2,2]octane (DABCO), sodium hydride, sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate, sodium tert-butyl alcohol, potassium hydroxide, potassium carbonate, potassium bicarbonate, potassium tert-butyl alcohol, cesium hydroxide, cesium carbonate; the reaction temperature is 0-100° C.; the hydrogen pressure, is 0.1-10 Mpa; the tri-substituted α,β-unsaturated carboxylic acid is stirred in the reactor to react for 0.5-0.48 h. The present invention provides a successful application of iridium complex catalysts of chiral phosphor nitrogen ligands in asymmetric catalytic hydrogenation of tri-substituted α,β-unsaturated carboxylic acids. Very useful chiral carboxylic acids can be obtained by the asymmetric catalytic hydrogenation of tri-substituted α,β-unsaturated carboxylic acids, with the complexes of the chiral phosphor nitrogen ligands and iridium used as the catalysts which show high activity and enantioselectivity (up to 99.8% ee), thus the present invention provides a more efficient method with higher enantioselectivity for asymmetric catalytic hydrogenation of chiral carboxylic acid-like compounds, and has important application value to asymmetric hydrogenation of chiral carboxylic acids. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT The following embodiments will facilitate to further understand the present invention, but do not limit the contents of the present invention. The preparation method of the present invention can be shown further with the representative compounds as follows: General explanation: The following abbreviations are used in the embodiments, and their meanings are as follows: Me is methyl, ll Pr is n-propyl, i Pr is isopropyl, i Bu is isobutyl, l Bu is tert-butyl, Ph is phenyl, Bn is benzyl, An is p-methoxyphenyl, Xyl is 3,5-dimethylphenyl, DMM is 3,5-dimethyl-4-methoxyphenyl, DTB is 3,5-di-tert-butyl-phenyl, BARF- is tetra (3,5-bis trifluoromethylphenyl) borate radical; PF 6 − is hexafluoro phosphate ion, Naphthyl is naphthyl, Furan-2-yl is 2-furyl; NMR is nuclear magnetic resonance, the chiral SFC is a supercritical fluid chromatography equipped with a chiral column, the chiral HPLC is a high pressure liquid chromatography equipped with a chiral chromatographic column; the ee value is the excess value of enantiomer. The solvents used are purified and dried with the standard operation before use; the reagents used are commercially available or synthesized according to the existing literature methods and purified before use. Embodiment 1 Asymmetric Catalytic Hydrogenation of α-methyl Cinnamic Acid In the glove box, the catalyst (0.00125 mmol) and α-methyl cinnamic acid 1 a (81 mg, 0.5 mmol) are weighted in the reaction inner tube with stirring bar, then the reaction inner tube is sealed for use. When the reaction inner tube is took out, the additive and the solvent are added, then the inner tube is placed into the hydrogenation reactor, the mixture is stirred under the hydrogen pressure of 0.6˜10 Mpa till the pressure stops declining. Then the stirring is stopped, the hydrogen is released. After the system is condensed by evaporating off rotatably, the system is adjusted pH<3 with 3N hydrochloric acid water solution, extracted with diethyl ether (10 mL×3), and separated, the organic phase is collected, washed with saturated salt water, and dried with anhydrous sodium sulfate. The desiccant is removed by suction filtration, the solvent is evaporated off by rotating, then the object product 2 a is obtained. The conversion rate is analyzed through 1 H NMR, after it is converted to amide, its ee value is analyzed through the chiral HPLC analysis. The experimental results obtained are shown in Table 1: TABLE 1 the experimental results of asymmetric catalytic hydrogenation of α-methyl cinnamic acid 1a Hydrogen Conversion Catalyst pressure Additive Solvent Temperature rate ee value 1 0.6 MPa Non methanol room temperature 15% 82% 2 0.6 MPa Non methanol room temperature 0 3 0.6 MPa Non methanol room temperature 17% 80% 4 0.6 MPa Non methanol room temperature 18% 65% 5 0.6 MPa Non methanol room temperature 61% 53% 6 0.6 MPa Non methanol room temperature 16% 85% 7 0.6 MPa Non methanol room temperature 30% 76% 8 0.6 MPa Non methanol room temperature 25% 72% 9 0.6 MPa Non methanol room temperature 58% >99%  10   2 MPa Non methanol room temperature 62% 98% 11   5 MPa Non methanol room temperature 63% 96% 12  10 MPa Non methanol room temperature 65% 91% 13 0.6 MPa Non ethyl acetate room temperature 45% 86% 14 0.6 MPa Non dichloromethane room temperature 0 15 0.6 MPa Non diethyl ether room temperature 0 16 0.6 MPa Non tetrahydrofuran room temperature 0 17 0.6 MPa Non methylbenzene Room temperature 0 18 0.6 MPa Non methanol 50° C. 85% 94% 19 0.6 MPa iodine methanol room temperature 0 20 0.6 MPa NaBARF3H 2 O methanol room temperature 54% 99% 21 0.6 MPa Triethylamine (0.05 mmol) methanol room temperature 60% >99%  22 0.6 MPa Triethylamine (0.1 mmol) methanol room temperature 75% >99%  23 0.6 MPa Triethylamine (0.25 mmol) methanol room temperature 100%  >99%  24 0.6 MPa Triethylamine (0.5 mmol) methanol room temperature 100%  >99%  25 0.6 MPa Triethylamine (0.25 mmol) ethanol room temperature 95% >99%  26 0.6 MPa Triethylamine (0.25 mmol) isopropanol room temperature 100%  99% 27 0.1 MPa Triethylamine (0.25 mmol) methanol room temperature 100%  >99%  28 0.6 MPa Triethylamine (0.25 mmol) methanol room temperature 100%  96% 29 0.6 MPa Triethylamine (0.25 mmol) methanol room temperature 100%  >99%  30 0.6 MPa Triethylamine (0.25 mmol) methanol room temperature 100%  >99%  31 0.6 MPa Triethylamine (0.25 mmol) methanol room temperature 100%  >99%  Embodiment 2 Asymmetric Catalytic Hydrogenation of α-methyl Cinnamic Acid Derivatives In the glove box, the catalyst (2.4 mg, 0.00125 mmol) and the substrate 1 (0.5 mmol) are weighted in the reaction inner tube with stirring bar, then the reaction inner tube is sealed for use. When the reaction inner tube is took out, triethylamine (35 μL, 0.25 mmol) and anhydrous methanol (2 mL) are added with a syringe, then the inner tube is placed into the hydrogenation reactor, the mixture is stirred under the hydrogen pressure of 0.6 MPa till the pressure stops declining. Then the stirring is stopped, the hydrogen is released. After the system is condensed by evaporating off rotatably, the system is adjusted pH<3 with 3N hydrochloric acid water solution, extracted with diethyl ether (10 mL×3), and separated, the organic phase is collected, washed with saturated salt water, and dried with anhydrous sodium sulfate. The desiccant is removed by suction filtration, the solvent is evaporated off by rotating, then the object product 2 is obtained. The conversion rate is analyzed through 1 H NMR, after it is converted to amide, its ee value is analyzed through the chiral HPLC or SFC analysis. The experimental results obtained are shown in Table 2: TABLE 2 the experimental results of asymmetric catalytic hydrogenation of α-substituted cinnamic acids Conversion R 1 Ar 2 rate Yield ee value 1 Me Ph 100% 99% >99% 2 Me 2-MeC 6 H 4 100% 97%   99% 3 Me 3-MeC 6 H 4 100% 98%   99% 4 Me 4-MeC 6 H 4 100% 98% >99% 5 Me 2-MeOC 6 H 4 100% 98%   99% 6 Me 3-MeOC 6 H 4 100% 99%   98% 7 Me 4-MeOC 6 H 4 100% 97%   99% 8 Me 2-ClC 6 H 4 100% 97%   96% 9 Me 3-ClC 6 H 4 100% 98%   99% 10 Me 4-ClC 6 H 4 100% 97%   98% 11 Me 3-BrC 6 H 4 100% 97%   99% 12 Me 4-BrC 6 H 4 100% 97%   98% 13 Me 4-CF 3 C 6 H 4 100% 98%   97% 14 Me 2-Naphthyl 100% 96%   99% 15 Me Furan-2-yl 100% 98%   98% 16 i Pr Ph 100% 97%   99% Embodiment 3 Asymmetric Catalytic Hydrogenation of Tiglic Acid In the glove box, the catalyst (0.00125 mmol) and tiglic acid 3 a (50 mg, 0.5 mmol) are weighted in the reaction inner tube with stirring bar, then the reaction inner tube is sealed for use. When the reaction inner tube is took out, the additive and the solvent (2 mL) are added, then the inner tube is placed into the hydrogenation reactor, the mixture is stirred under the hydrogen pressure of 0.6 MPa till the pressure stops declining. Then the stirring is stopped, the hydrogen is released. After the system is condensed by evaporating off rotatably, the system is adjusted pH<3 with 3N hydrochloric acid water solution, extracted with diethyl ether (10 mL×3), and separated, the organic phase is collected, washed with saturated salt water, and dried with anhydrous sodium sulfate. The desiccant is removed by suction filtration, the solvent is evaporated off by rotating, then the object product 4 a is obtained. The conversion rate is analyzed through 1 H NMR, after it is converted to amide, its ee value is analyzed through the chiral HPLC or SFC analysis. The experimental results obtained are shown in Table 3: TABLE 3 the experimental results of asymmetric catalytic hydrogenation of tiglic acid Catalyst Additive Solvent Conversion rate ee value 1 triethylamine (0.25 mmol) methanol 95% 97% 2 triethylamine (0.25 mmol) methanol 100%  94% 3 triethylamine (0.25 mmol) methanol 90% 98% 4 triethylamine (0.25 mmol) methanol 95% 97% 5 pyridine (0.25 mmol) methanol 0 — 6 diisopropyl ethylamine (0.25 mmol) methanol 95% 99% 7 diisopropyl amine (0.25 mmol) methanol 95% 99% 8 potassium hydroxide (025 mmol) methanol 95% 98% 9 potassium acetate (0.25 mmol) methanol 80% 96% 10 potassium bicarbonate (0.25 mmol) methanol 85% 98% 11 potassium carbonate (0.25 mmol) methanol 100%  99% 12 sodium carbonate (0.25 mmol) methanol 100%  98% 13 cesium carbonate (025 mmol) methanol 100%  >99%  14 cesium carbonate (0.25 mmol) ethanol 90% 98% 15 cesium carbonate (0.25 mmol) isopropanol 80% 98% Embodiment 4 Asymmetric Catalytic Hydrogenation of Tiglic Acid Derivatives In the glove box, the catalyst (2.4 mg, 0.00125 mmol), the substrate 3 (0.5 mmol) and cesium carbonate (82 mg, 0.25 mmol) are weighted in the reaction inner tube with stirring bar, then the reaction inner tube is sealed for use. When the reaction inner tube is took out, anhydrous methanol (2 mL) is added with a syringe, then the inner tube is placed into the hydrogenation reactor, the mixture is stirred under the hydrogen pressure of 0.6 MPa till the pressure stops declining. Then the stirring is stopped, the hydrogen is released. After the system is condensed by evaporating off rotatably, the system is adjusted pH<3 with 3N hydrochloric acid water solution, extracted with diethyl ether (10 mL×3), and separated, the organic phase is collected, washed with saturated salt water, and dried with anhydrous sodium sulfate. The desiccant is removed by suction filtration, the solvent is evaporated off by rotating, then the object product is obtained. The conversion rate is analyzed through 1 H NMR, after it is converted to amide, its ee value is analyzed through the chiral HPLC or SFC analysis. The experimental results obtained are shown in Table 4: TABLE 4 the experimental results of asymmetric catalytic hydrogenation of tiglic acid derivatives R 1 R 2 Conversion rate Yield ee value 1 Me Me 100% 92% 99.1% 2 Me Et 100% 93%   98% 3 Me ″Pr 100% 89%   99% 4 Me i Bu 100% 97%   90% 5 Et ″Pr 100% 89% 99.4% 6 ″Pr Me 100% 92%   98% Embodiment 5 Asymmetric Catalytic Hydrogenation of (E)-2-[3-(3-methoxy-propoxy)-4-methoxy phenyl methylene]-3-methyl-butyric Acid In the glove box, the catalyst (0.0025 mmol) and (E)-2-[3-(3-methoxy-propoxy)-4-methoxy phenyl methylene]-3-methyl-butyric acid 5 (77.1 mg, 0.25 mmol) are weighted in the reaction inner tube with stirring bar, then the reaction inner tube is sealed for use. When the reaction inner tube is took out, triethylamine (12.6 mg, 0.125 mmol) and anhydrous methanol (2 mL) are added with a syringe, then the inner tube is placed into the hydrogenation reactor, the mixture is stirred at the room temperature under the hydrogen pressure of 0.6 MPa for 24 h. Then the stirring is stopped, the hydrogen is released. After the system is condensed by evaporating off rotatably, the system is adjusted pH<3 with 3N hydrochloric acid water solution, extracted with diethyl ether (10 mL×3), and separated, the organic phase is collected, washed with saturated salt water, and dried with anhydrous sodium sulfate. The desiccant is removed by suction filtration, the solvent is evaporated off by rotating, then the object product 6 is obtained. The conversion rate is analyzed through 1 H NMR, after it is converted to amide, its ee value is analyzed through the chiral HPLC or SFC analysis. The experimental results obtained are shown in Table 5: TABLE 5 the experimental results of asymmetric catalytic hydrogenation of (E)-2-[3-(3- methoxy-propoxy)-4-methoxy phenyl methylene]-3-methyl-butyric acid Catalyst Conversion rate Yield ee value 1 100% 94% 98% 2  80% 70% 95% 3 100% 93% 98% 4 100% 95% 98% 5 100% 95% 98% 6  9% — — 7  48% 30% 91% Embodiment 6 Asymmetric Catalytic Hydrogenation of (R)-2-[3-(3-methoxy-propoxy)-4-methoxy phenyl methylene]-3-methyl-butyric Acid In the glove box, the catalyst (0.8 mg, 0.417 μmol) and (E)-2-[3-(3-methoxy-propoxy)-4-methoxy phenyl methylene]-3-methyl-butyric acid 5 (771 mg, 2.5 mmol) are weighted in the reaction inner tube with stirring bar, then the reaction inner tube is sealed for use. When the reaction inner tube is took out, triethylamine (1.26 g, 12.5 mmol) and anhydrous methanol (3.5 mL) are added with a syringe, then the inner tube is placed into the hydrogenation reactor, the mixture is stirred in 70° C. oil bath under the hydrogen pressure of 1.2 MPa for 7 h. Then the stirring is stopped, the hydrogen is released. After the system is condensed by evaporating off rotatably, the system is adjusted pH<3 with 3N hydrochloric acid water solution, extracted with diethyl ether (50 mL×3), and separated, the organic phase is collected, washed with saturated salt water, and dried with anhydrous sodium sulfate. The desiccant is removed by suction filtration, the solvent is evaporated off by rotating, then the object product (R)-6 is obtained, and is a white solid, through the 1 H NMR analysis, the conversion rate is 100% and the yield is 96%. Mp 44-45° C.; [α] D 21 ÷42.2 (c 1.0, CH 2 Cl 2 ); 1 H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl 3 ): δ 9.71 (brs, 1H, COOH), 6.73-6.68 (m, 3H, Ar—H), 4.06 (t, J=6.4 Hz, 2H, CH 2 ), 3.79 (s, 3H, CH 3 ), 3.53 (t, J=6.4 Hz, 2H, CH 2 ), 3.32 (s, 3H, CH 3 ), 2.81-2.71 (m, 2H, CH 2 and CH), 2.43-2.38 (m, 1H, CH 2 ), 2.08-2.01 (m, 2H, CH 2 ), 1.90 (sextet, J=6.4 Hz, 1H, CH), 1.00 (dd, J=13.2 and 6.8 Hz, 6H, CH 3 ); after it is converted to methyl ester, its ee value is 98% through the chiral SFC analysis. Under the same condition, the amount of the catalyst is further reduced to 0.01 mol %, the reaction lasts for 18 h, then the conversion rate is 97%, the yield is 95%, and the ee value is 95%. Embodiment 7 Asymmetric Catalytic Hydrogenation of α-methoxy Cinnamic Acid In the glove box, the catalyst (0.00125 mmol) and α-methoxy cinnamic acid 7 a (89 mg, 0.5 mmol) are weighted in the reaction inner tube with stirring bar, then the reaction inner tube is sealed for use. When the reaction inner tube is took out, the additive and the solvent (2 mL) are added with a syringe, then the inner tube is placed into the hydrogenation reactor, the mixture is stirred at the room temperature under the hydrogen pressure of 0.6 MPa till the pressure stops declining. Then the stirring is stopped, the hydrogen is released. After the system is condensed by evaporating off rotatably, the system is adjusted pH<3 with 3N hydrochloric acid water solution, extracted with diethyl ether (10 mL×3), and separated, the organic phase is collected, washed with saturated salt water, and dried with anhydrous sodium sulfate. The desiccant is removed by suction filtration, the solvent is evaporated off by rotating, then the object product 8 a is obtained. The conversion rate is analyzed through 1 H NMR, after it is converted to amide, its ee value is analyzed through the chiral HPLC or SFC analysis. The experimental results obtained are shown in Table 6: TABLE 6 the experimental results of asymmetric catalytic hydrogenation of α-methoxy cinnamic acid Catalyst Additive Conversion rate ee value 1 triethylamine (0.25 mmol) 95% 99.5% 2 triethylamine (0.25 mmol) 90% 99.8% 3 triethylamine (0.25 mmol) 95% 99.5% 4 triethylamine (0.25 mmol) 95% 99.5% 5 cesium carbonate (0.25 mmol) 100%  99.3% Embodiment 8 Asymmetric Catalytic Hydrogenation of α-methoxy Cinnamic Acid Derivatives In the glove box, the catalyst (2.4 mg, 0.00125 mmol), the reaction substrate 7 (0.5 mmol) and cesium carbonate (82 mg, 0.25 mmol) are weighted in the reaction inner tube with stirring bar, then the reaction inner tube is sealed for use. When the reaction inner tube is took out, anhydrous methanol (2 mL) is added with a syringe, then the inner tube is placed into the hydrogenation reactor, the mixture is stirred at the room temperature under the hydrogen pressure of 0.6 MPa till the pressure stops declining. Then the stirring is stopped, the hydrogen is released. After the system is condensed by evaporating off rotatably, the system is adjusted pH<3 with 3N hydrochloric acid water solution, extracted with diethyl ether (10 mL×3), and separated, the organic phase is collected, washed with saturated salt water, and dried with anhydrous sodium sulfate. The desiccant is removed by suction filtration, the solvent is evaporated off by rotating, then the object product 8 is obtained. The conversion rate is analyzed through 1 H NMR, after it is converted to amide, its ee value is analyzed through the chiral SFC analysis. The experimental results obtained are shown in Table 7: TABLE 7 the experimental results of asymmetric catalytic hydrogenation of α- methoxy cinnamic acid derivatives R 1 Ar 2 Conversion rate Yield ee value 1 Me Ph 100% 95% 99.3% 2 Me o-Tol 100% 93% 99.7% 3 Me m-Tol 100% 91% 99.0% 4 Me p-Tol 100% 94% 99.6% 5 Me o-MeOPh 100% 97% 99.2% 6 Me m-MeOPh 100% 91% 99.7% 7 Me p-MeOPh 100% 92% 99.7% 8 Me o-ClPh 100% 95% 99.4% 9 Me m-ClPh 100% 93% 99.3% 10 Me p-ClPh 100% 91% 99.8% 11 Me o-BrPh 100% 91% 99.5% 12 Me m-BrPh 100% 94% 99.6% 13 Me p-NO 2 Ph 100% 96% 99.7% 14 Me p-CF 3 Ph 100% 95% 99.2% 15 Me 2-naphthyl 100% 93% 99.8% 16 Et Ph 100% 92% 99.7% 17 Et p-BnOPh 100% 93% 99.5% 18 Bn Ph 100% 94% 99.5% 19 Bn o-Tol 100% 93% 99.8% 20 Bn m-Tol 100% 94% 99.8% 21 Bn p-Tol 100% 91% 99.8% 22 Bn o-MeOPh 100% 93% 99.4% 23 Bn m-MeOPh 100% 95% 99.4% 24 Bn p-MeOPh 100% 93% 99.6% Embodiment 9 Asymmetric Catalytic Hydrogenation of α-phenoxy-2-butenoic Acid In the glove box, the catalyst (0.0025 mmol) and α-phenoxy-2-butenoic acid 9 a (89 mg, 0.5 mmol) are weighted in the reaction inner tube with stirring bar, then the reaction inner tube is sealed for use. When the reaction inner tube is took out, the additive and the solvent (2 mL) are added with a syringe, then the inner tube is placed into the hydrogenation reactor, the mixture is stirred under the hydrogen pressure of 0.6 MPa till the pressure stops declining. Then the stirring is stopped, the hydrogen is released. After the system is condensed by evaporating off rotatably, the system is adjusted pH<3 with 3N hydrochloric acid water solution, extracted with diethyl ether (10 mL×3), and separated, the organic phase is collected, washed with saturated salt water, and dried with anhydrous sodium sulfate. The desiccant is removed by suction filtration, the solvent is evaporated off by rotating, then the object product 10 a is obtained. The conversion rate is analyzed through 1 H NMR, after it is converted to amide, its ee value is analyzed through the chiral HPLC or SFC analysis. The experimental results obtained are shown in Table 8: TABLE 8 the experimental results of asymmetric catalytic hydrogenation of α-phenoxy-2-butenoic acid Catalyst Additive Solvent Temperature Conversion rate ee value 1 triethylamine (0.25 mmol) methanol room temperature 32% 98% 2 triethylamine (0.25 mmol) methanol room temperature 22% 90% 3 triethylamine (0.25 mmol) methanol room temperature 26% 99% 4 triethylamine (0.25 mmol) methanol room temperature 28% 98% 5 triethylamine (0.25 mmol) methanol room temperature 10% 95% 6 cesium carbonate (0.25 mmol) methanol room temperature 93% 98% 7 cesium carbonate (0.25 mmol) ethanol room temperature 95% 98% 8 cesium carbonate (0.25 mmol) isopropanol room temperature 56% 98% 9 cesium carbonate (0.25 mmol) methanol 40° C. 100%  99% Embodiment 10 Asymmetric Catalytic Hydrogenation of α-phenoxy-2-butenoic Acid Derivatives In the glove box, the catalyst (4.8 mg, 0.0025 mmol), the reaction substrate 9 (0.5 mmol) and cesium carbonate (82 mg, 0.25 mmol) are weighted in the reaction inner tube with stirring bar, then the reaction inner tube is sealed for use. When the reaction inner tube is took out, anhydrous methanol (2 mL) is added with a syringe, then the inner tube is placed into the hydrogenation reactor, the mixture is stirred in 40° C. water bath under the hydrogen pressure of 0.6 MPa till the pressure stops declining. Then the stirring is stopped, the hydrogen is released. After the system is condensed by evaporating off rotatably, the system is adjusted pH<3 with 3N hydrochloric acid water solution, extracted with diethyl ether (10 mL×3), and separated, the organic phase is collected, washed with saturated salt water, and dried with anhydrous sodium sulfate. The desiccant is removed by suction filtration, the solvent is evaporated off by rotating, then the object product 10 is obtained. The conversion rate is analyzed through 1 H NMR, after it is converted to amide, its ee value is analyzed through the chiral HPLC or SFC analysis. The experimental results obtained are shown in Table 9: TABLE 9 the experimental results of asymmetric catalytic hydrogenation of α- phenoxy -2- butenoic acid derivatives Ar 1 R 2 Conversion rate Yield ee value 1 Ph Me 100% 95%   99% 2 m-Tol Me 100% 93%   98% 3 m-BrPh Me 100% 91%   96% 4 p-Tol Me 100% 92% >99% 5 p- t BuPh Me 100% 94%   97% 6 p-MeOPh Me 100% 93% >99% 7 p-ClPh Me 100% 92%   98% 8 p-BrPh Me 100% 93%   97% 9 3,5-F 2 Ph Me 100% 88%   89% 10 2-naphthyl Me 100% 94%   97% Embodiment 11 Asymmetric Catalytic Hydrogenation of α-phenoxy Cinnamic Acid and Derivatives Thereof In the glove box, the catalyst (4.8 mg, 0.0025 mmol), the reaction substrate 11 (0.5 mmol) and cesium carbonate (82 mg, 0.25 mmol) are weighted in the reaction inner tube with stirring bar, then the reaction inner tube is sealed for use. When the reaction inner tube is took out, anhydrous methanol (2 mL) is added with a syringe, then the inner tube is placed into the hydrogenation reactor, the mixture is stirred in 40° C. water bath under the hydrogen pressure of 0.6 MPa till the pressure stops declining. Then the stirring is stopped, the hydrogen is released. After the system is condensed by evaporating off rotatably, the system is adjusted pH<3 with 3N hydrochloric acid water solution, extracted with diethyl ether (10 mL×3), and separated, the organic phase is collected, washed with saturated salt water, and dried with anhydrous sodium sulfate. The desiccant is removed by suction filtration, the solvent is evaporated off by rotating, then the object product 12 is obtained. The conversion rate is analyzed through 1 H NMR, after it is converted to amide, its ee value is analyzed through the chiral HPLC or SFC analysis. The experimental results obtained are shown in Table 10: TABLE 10 the experimental results of asymmetric catalytic hydrogenation of α- phenoxy cinnamic acid and derivatives thereof Ar 1 Ar 2 Conversion rate Yield ee value 1 Ph Ph 100% 95% 99.6% 2 Ph m-Tol 100% 91% 99.7% 3 Ph p-Tol 100% 94% 99.8% 4 Ph o-MeOPh 100% 98%   97% 5 Ph m-MeOPh 100% 96% 99.6% 6 Ph p-MeOPh 100% 91% 99.4% 7 Ph m-ClPh 100% 90% 99.8% 8 Ph p-ClPh 100% 87% 99.7% 9 Ph p-FPh 100% 93%   99% 10 Ph o-CF 3 Ph 100% 91% 99.8% 11 Ph m-CF 3 Ph 100% 92% 99.7% 12 Ph p-CF 3 Ph 100% 93%   99% 13 Ph 1-naphthyl 100% 98% 99.4% 14 Ph 2-naphthyl 100% 92% 99.2% 15 Ph furyl 100% 94%   99% 16 o-Tol Ph 100% 89% 99.5% 17 m-Tol Ph 100% 92% 99.5% 18 p-Tol Ph 100% 91% 99.5% 19 p-MeOPh Ph 100% 94% 99.8% 20 p-ClPh Ph 100% 93% 99.1% Embodiment 12 Asymmetric Catalytic Hydrogenation of α-phenyl Cinnamic Acid In the glove box, the catalyst (0.0025 mmol), α-phenyl cinnamic acid 13 (56 mg, 0.25 mmol) and cesium carbonate (41 mg, 0.125 mmol) are weighted in the reaction inner tube with stirring bar, then the reaction inner tube is sealed for use. When the reaction inner tube is took out, anhydrous methanol (2 mL) is added with a syringe, then the inner tube is placed into the hydrogenation reactor, the mixture is stirred at the room temperature under the hydrogen pressure of 0.6 MPa till the pressure stops declining. Then the stirring is stopped, the hydrogen is released. After the system is condensed by evaporating off rotatably, the system is adjusted pH<3 with 3N hydrochloric acid water solution, extracted with diethyl ether (10 mL×3), and separated, the organic phase is collected, washed with saturated salt water, and dried with anhydrous sodium sulfate. The desiccant is removed by suction filtration, the solvent is evaporated off by rotating, then the object product 14 is obtained. The conversion rate is analyzed through 1 H NMR, after it is converted to amide, its ee value is analyzed through the chiral HPLC or SFC analysis. The experimental results obtained are shown in Table 11: TABLE 11 the experimental results of asymmetric catalytic hydrogenation of α-phenyl cinnamic acid Conver- ee Catalyst sion rate value 1 100% 91% 2 100% 93%

The present invention relates to a preparation method of carboxylic acids with optical activity, particularly, publishes that very useful chiral carboxylic acids can be obtained by the asymmetric catalytic hydrogenation of tri-substituted α,β-unsaturated carboxylic acids, with the complexes of the chiral phosphor nitrogen ligands and iridium used as the catalysts which show high activity and enantioselectivity (up to 99.8% ee), thus provides a more efficient method with higher enantioselectivity for asymmetric catalytic hydrogenation of chiral carboxylic acid-like compounds, and has important application value to asymmetric hydrogenation of chiral carboxylic acids.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to the detection of leaks from inside pressurized conduits, such as pipes or hoses. More specifically it utilizes a change in the impedance between conductors to detect leaks. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Fluid leaks, such as gaseous leaks, from conduits or lines, i.e. pipes or hoses, transporting high pressure fluids can be unsafe, dangerous to the environment, and costly. There is a need for the detection of leaks in such conduits over their entire length. A common method of detecting leaks in pressurized conduits is based on point probes which continually monitor for fluid or which register vibrational changes in the conduit. For detecting leaks along a long length of pipe or hose, the large number of required point probes makes these methods impractical. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION This invention employs a layer of pliable conductive material between a conduit and signal carrying elements disposed along the length of the conduit. The signal carrying elements comprise a series of at least two insulated parallel electrical conductors disposed longitudinally along the conduit in which adjacent portions of the conductors are exposed along the side next to the pliable conductive material. Preferably the parallel conductors are embedded in a ribbon tape. The pliable conductive material is a layer of conductive tape wrapped around the conduit. The pliable material can be a carbon loaded polymer such as carbon loaded polyester, silicone or tetrafluoroethylene tape. Upon leakage of gas from the pressurized gas conduit, there will be a momentary ballooning of the conductive pliable layer, which upon contact with the exposed portion of the signal carrying elements, alters the resistance between said conductors making up the signal carrying elements. This change is measured directly by impedance changes. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1a and b depict a cutaway side view and end view of a conduit. FIG. 2a and b depict the cutaway conduit and end view with a layer of insulation around it. FIG. 3 depicts the cutaway conduit of FIG. 2 with a pliable conductive material around it. FIG. 4a and b depict a ribbon cable used to wrap around the construction of FIG. 3. FIG. 4a is a side view and FIG. 4b is a top view of the ribbon cable. FIG. 5 shows the ribbon able wrapped around the construction of FIG. 3. DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The invention will now be described in detail with reference to the drawings, and with reference to gas as the fluid. In FIG. 1, the pipe or conduit 10, which can be made of metal, such as steel, or plastic, carries the gas, which can be any gas transportable through a gas conduit, for example, hydrocarbon gases, hydrogen, or hydrogen gas permeable sulfide gases. Gas permeable insulation 11 may surround conduit 10 (FIG. 2), but is not necessary. A pliable conductive material 12 such as carbon-loaded, expanded porous PTFE film is positioned around the insulated conduit (FIG. 3). Located around the pliable conductive material are elongated signal conductor elements 14, such as copper wire. Referring to FIG. 4, the parallel conductor elements or wires 14 are most conveniently applied around the conduit by first embedding them in plastic insulation 15 to form a ribbon of plastic tape 13 having the conductor wires inside. At spaced intervals along the tape 13, the insulation has sections 16 cutaway transversely across the width of the tape to form gaps of exposed bare conductor wire. This tape is then wrapped around the conduit having the pliable conductive material on it as shown in FIG. 5 with the cutaway sections 1b adjacent the pliable material 12. In operation, a break or hole in the pipe or conduit 10 causes pressure to build under the pliable conductive material 12 forcing it to expand, which in turn causes the pliable conductive material 12 to contact bare conductor elements 14 at cutaway gaps 16. The resulting change in resistance shows up in impedance which is recorded and which signifies that gas is escaping from the pipe or hose at that point. The pliable conductive material 12 should be slightly gas permeable thus allowing gas to escape but maintaining the ballooning effect. This gas permeability prevents the "balloon" from immediately bursting. The entire assembly is then ordinarily covered by a protective jacket (not shown) which can be polyester, polyimide, polyurethane, or any type of tough protective covering. While the invention has been described with respect to use of ribbon cable 13, it is understood that adjacent bare conductive wires can be wrapped around the conduit construction of FIG. 3. Use of ribbon cable is for convenience of assembly and for convenience in protecting the wires from displacement as the cable assembly is placed into operation. Gas permeable insulation 11 can be any insulation. A convenient such insulation is a layer or tape of expanded, porous polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) which has a low dielectric constant and which comprises open micropores that allow passage of gas. A conductive form (e.g. carbon filled) of the same type of expanded porous PTFE is conveniently sues for pliable conductive material 12. The ribbon cable is preferably composed of copper wire embedded in a polyester tape. Both insulation 11 and pliable material 12 are conveniently applied by wrapping tape around the conduit, or by adding both to the plastic tape 14 in sequence and then wrapping this tape around the conduit. As explained above, a leak in the conduit is detected when the pliable conductive material balloons out and contacts the exposed bare conductor elements at 16. This contact alters the resistance between conductor elements 14 and is measurable directly or by measuring impedance or capacitance changes. Electrical pulses are sent down the conductors 14 and the cable monitored for reflections (i.e., return energy from the incident pulses). Time domain reflectometry (TDR) is generally used to determine both the occurrance and the location of a leak. EXAMPLE A copper pipe, 1/2 inch in diameter, having one 0.030 inch diameter hole drilled through one wall at approximately 2 ft. in from the end was used. Conductive carbon loaded (25%) by weight expanded porous PTFE (obtained from W. L. Gore & Assoc., Inc.) was wrapped around the pipe such that each wrap overlapped approximately 50% of the previous wrap. This wrapped layer started at 1 ft. in from the air inlet end and was approx. 2 ft. long. Over this was wrapped a layer of polyester flat conductor cable tape having a 1/2 inch width. Four electrical conductors approximately 0.080 inch wide and 0.050 inch distance between conductors were embedded in the tape which was made of 0.005 inch thick polyester insulation. Perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the flat cable at 1/2 inch intervals, the conductors were exposed by cutting away the polyester. The flat conductor cable was wrapped around the pipe over the carbon loaded film with the exposed conductor portions facing the inside and each wrap overlapping the previous wrap by approximately 0.050 inches. Measurements were made by time domain reflectance (TDR). Air pressure of 110 psi was introduced into the pipe via a fitting at the inlet end. The TDR trace began to fall in the area of the drilled hole. When pressure was released, the TDR trace recovered. Pressure was then reintroduced through a pressure regulator. The TDR trace began to drop in the area of the drilled hole at approximately 30 psi and progressively dropped with the increase of pressure.

A leak detection assembly that employs a layer of pliable conductive construction between a fluid conduit or tube and a tape containing signal carrying elements disposed along the length of the tape. The signal carrying element can be a series of parallel electrical conductors disposed longitudinally.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] This application is related in part to U.S. Pat. No. 7,563,427, U.S. Pat. No. 7,993,594, U.S.2009/0208708, U.S.2009/0286675, U.S.2011/0171364 and U.S.2011/0171371; all incorporated herein in their entirety by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Field of the Invention [0002] The present disclosure relates to pastes and methods of making a moisture determination of the paste during manufacture; optionally, the pastes comprise carbon nanotubes. [0003] Carbon nanotubes (CNT) have many unique properties stemming from small sizes, cylindrical graphitic structure, and high aspect ratios. Carbon nanotubes possess outstanding material properties but are difficult to process and insoluble in most solvents. Historically polymers such as poly(vinylpyrrolidone) (PVP), poly(styrene sulfonate) (PSS), poly(phenylacetylene) (PAA), poly(meta-phenylenevinylene) (PmPV), polypyrrole (PPy), poly(p-phenylene benzobisoxazole) (PBO) and natural polymers have been used to wrap or coat carbon nanotubes and render them soluble in water or organic solvents. Previous work also reports single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) have been dispersed with three types of amphiphilic materials in aqueous solutions: (i) an anionic aliphatic surfactant, sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), (ii) a cyclic lipopeptide biosurfactant, surfactin, and (iii) a water-soluble polymer, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP). [0004] Conventional electro-conductive pastes are comprised primarily of polymeric binders which contain or have mixed in various amounts of electro-conductive filler such as finely divided particles of metal such as silver, gold, copper, nickel, palladium or platinum and/or carbonaceous materials like carbon black or graphite, and a liquid vehicle. A polymeric binder may attach the conductive filler to a substrate and/or hold the electro-conductive filler in a conductive pattern which serves as a conductive circuit. The liquid vehicle includes solvents (e.g., liquids which dissolve the solid components) as well as non-solvents (e.g., liquids which do not dissolve the solid components). The liquid vehicle serves as a carrier to help apply or deposit the polymeric binder and electro-conductive filler onto certain substrates. It is very helpful to be able to measure and control the water content of a CNT-based paste. BACKGROUND [0005] Carbon nanotubes are a new class of conductive materials that can provide much enhanced performance for Lithium ion batteries. However, with the use of carbon nanotubes, the conventional cathode composition can no longer satisfy the requirement due to the specialty of carbon nanotubes versus carbon black. Typically, when carbon black was used as conductive filler in the cathode, the preferred composition is active material/conductive filler/binder is AM:90˜97/CF:1˜5/B:2˜5, parts by weight. With carbon nanotubes, this composition will result in poor adhesion of cathode material on its current collector; alternatively, broken coatings when folded or wrapped. The instant invention discloses a method for measuring the moisture content of a fluid or paste that overcomes the deficiencies of the prior art. [0006] Background and supporting technical information is found in the following references, all incorporated in their entirety herein by reference; U.S. Pat. No. 7,563,427, U.S.2009/0208708, U.S.2009/0286675, U.S.2010/0026324, U.S.2010/0123079, U.S.2010/0300183, U.S.2011/0006461, U.S.2011/0230672, U.S.2011/0171371, U.S.2011/0171364. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0007] Carbon nanotube-based paste is used in preparation of lithium ion battery electrodes. During electrode production, conductive paste is mixed with active cathode or anode materials, and then coated onto a current collector. The coating is then dried before further processed into battery format. The moisture content in the paste and electrode precursor is extremely important during electrode preparation. High moisture content may cause failure or damage in battery performance. The battery electrolyte can undergo hydrolyzing to form corrosive materials such as acidic hydrogen fluoride, which can cause severe problems for cathode material, current collector, and anyone who touches it if it leaks outside a failed battery. It is necessary to control and measure the moisture content in conductive pastes before going into final battery assembly. [0008] The instant invention provides a simple and repeatable measurement protocol to determine the moisture or water content in paste comprising a non-aqueous solvent and a solid component, optionally, carbon nanotubes, CNT, and subsequently provide a method to monitor and control moisture level during electrode preparation and battery manufacturing. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0009] In preparation of pastes or other compounds, moisture, or water, may be present as adsorbed moisture at internal surfaces of nanotubes and as capillary condensed water in small channels. At low relative humidity's, moisture consists mainly of adsorbed water. At higher relative humidity's, liquid water becomes more and more important, depending on the pore size. Various solvents may deliquescent tendencies and absorb moisture from the air. [0010] There are several methods of measuring moisture content in a given system, such as liquid evaporation, gas chromatography, Karl-Fischer titration, coulometric titration, volumetric titration. Karl Fischer titration is a classic titration method in analytical chemistry that uses coulometric or volumetric titration to determine trace amounts of water in a sample. [0011] The main compartment of the titration cell contains the anode solution plus the analyte. The anode solution consists of an alcohol (ROH), a base (B), SO 2 and I 2 . A typical alcohol that may be used is methanol or diethylene glycol monoethyl ether, and a common base is imidazole. The Pt anode generates I 2 when current is provided through the electric circuit. The net reaction is oxidation of SO 2 by I 2 . One mole of I 2 is consumed for each mole of H 2 O. In other words, 2 moles of electrons are consumed per mole of water. The major disadvantage is that the water has to be accessible and easily brought into methanol solution. Many common substances, especially foods such as chocolate, release water slowly and with difficulty, and require additional efforts to reliably bring the total water content into contact with the Karl Fischer reagents. [0012] Carbon nanotube-based conductive paste has some unusual characteristics and behaviors as compared to other systems. Since CNTs often have high surface area, a paste often consists of large amounts of organic solvent, high viscosity, and poor flowability. Therefore, traditional measurement tools such as Karl-Fischer method can encounter severe problem when solvent is evaporated before reacting with a Karl Fischer reagent; a solvent can condense in the equipment causing large errors when in measured moisture content. Conductive carbon nanotubes may also interfere with Karl Fischer reaction if mixed with reagents. [0013] The instant invention discloses the use of a second solvent, which is: [0000] (1) miscible with the first solvent mixed with the particular CNT paste; (2) Binders or dispersant that are used in the original paste are insoluble in the second solvent; thus carbon nanotubes precipitate when the second solvent is present in amounts exceeding more than about 25% by volume or weight of the total solvent mixture. (3) the second solvent does not react with the selected Karl Fischer reagent, meaning no oxidation or reduction would occur between the second solvent and Karl Fisher reagent. By adding known amounts of second solvent to the paste, the moisture or water content can be extracted from the first solvent based into miscible solvent mixture and concentration can then be calculated based on total amount of the mixed solvent. The analysis is easier because CNTs are no longer in a dispersed state in the mixed solvent and further precipitate from such paste, leaving water inside the solvent rather than within the nanotubes or polymeric binders. Drawing a known amount of such mixed solvent and reacting with the Karl Fischer reagent determines the moisture content. [0014] Preparation of Carbon Nanotubes Paste [0015] Dispersant serves as an aid for dispersing carbon nanotubes in a solvent. It can be a polar polymeric compound, a surfactant, or high viscosity liquid such as mineral oil or wax. Dispersants used in the current invention include poly(vinylpyrrolidone) (PVP), poly(styrene sulfonate) (PSS), poly(phenylacetylene) (PAA), poly(meta-phenylenevinylene) (PmPV), polypyrrole (PPy), poly(p-phenylene benzobisoxazole) (PBO), natural polymers, amphiphilic materials in aqueous solutions, anionic aliphatic surfactant, sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), cyclic lipopeptide biosurfactant, surfactin, water-soluble polymers, poly(vinyl alcohol), PVA, sodium dodecyl sulfate, SDS, n-methylpyrrolidone, polyoxyethylene surfactant, poly(vinylidene fluoride), PVdF, carboxyl methyl cellulose (CMC), hydroxyl ethyl cellulose (HEC), polyacrylic acid (PAA), polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and combinations thereof. Polymeric binder choices include the dispersants mentioned as well as polyethylene, polypropylene, polyamide, polyurethane, polyvinyl chloride, polyvinylidene fluoride, thermoplastic polyester resin and combinations thereof. [0016] Polyvinylpyrrolidone, PVP, binds polar molecules extremely well. Depending upon its molecular weight, PVP has different properties when used as a binder or as a dispersing agent such as a thickener. In some embodiments of the instant invention, molecular weights for dispersants and/or binders range between about 9,000 and 1,800,000 Daltons; in some embodiments, between about 50,000 to 1,400,000 Daltons are preferred; in some embodiments between about 55,000 to 80,000 Daltons are preferred. [0017] Liquid Vehicle [0018] A liquid vehicle, aqueous or non-aqueous, may serve as a carrier for carbon nanotubes. Liquid vehicles may be a solvent or a non-solvent, depending upon whether or not a vehicle dissolves solids which are mixed therein. The volatility of a liquid vehicle should not be so high that it vaporizes readily at relatively low temperatures and pressures such as room temperature and pressure, for instance, 25° C. and 1 atm. The volatility, however, should not be so low that a solvent does not vaporize somewhat during paste preparation. As used herein, “drying” or removal of excess liquid vehicle refers to promoting the volatilization of those components which can be substantially removed by baking, or vacuum baking or centrifuging or some other de-liquefying process at temperatures below 100 to 200° C. [0019] In one embodiment, a liquid vehicle is used to dissolve polymeric dispersant(s) and entrain carbon nanotubes in order to render a composition that is easily applied to a substrate. Examples of liquid vehicles include, but are not limited to, water, alcohols, ethers, aromatic hydrocarbons, esters, ketones, n-methylpyrrolidone and mixtures thereof. In some cases, water is used as a solvent to dissolve polymers and form liquid vehicles. When combined with specific polymers these aqueous systems can replace solvent based inks while maintaining designated thixotropic properties, as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,427,820, incorporated herein in its entirety by reference. [0020] Nanotube Dispersion [0021] Dispersing carbon nanotubes in a liquid is difficult because of the entanglement of nanotubes into large agglomerates. Exemplary lithium ion battery active materials comprise lithium based compounds and/or mixtures comprising lithium and one or more elements chosen from a list consisting of oxygen, phosphorous, sulphur, nitrogen, nickel, cobalt, manganese, vanadium, silicon, carbon, aluminum, niobium and zirconium and iron. Typical cathode materials include lithium-metal oxides, such as LiCoO 2 , LiMn 2 O 4 , and Li(Ni x Mn y Co z )O 2 ] vanadium oxides, olivines, such as LiFePO 4 , and rechargeable lithium oxides. Layered oxides containing cobalt and nickel are materials for lithium-ion batteries also. In some embodiments a fluoride based ion battery chemistry is employed. [0022] Exemplary anode materials are lithium, carbon, graphite, lithium-alloying materials, intermetallics, and silicon and silicon based compounds such as silicon dioxide. Carbonaceous anodes comprising silicon and lithium are utilised anodic materials also. Methods of coating battery materials in combination with a carbon nanotube agglomerate onto anodic or cathodic backing plates such as aluminum or copper, for example, are disclosed as an alternative embodiment of the instant invention. [0023] Dispersion of Carbon Nanotubes in n-Methyl Pyrrolidone. [0024] 30 grams of FloTube™ 9000 carbon nanotubes manufactured by CNano Technology Ltd. (Beijing, China), pulverized by jet-milling, were placed in 2-liter beaker. The tap density of this material is 0.03 g/mL. In another 500 milliliter beaker, 6 grams of PVP k90 (manufactured by BASF) was dissolved in 100 grams of n-methylpyrrolidone. Then the PVP solution was transferred to the nanotubes together with 864 grams n-methylpyrrolidone. [0025] Electrode Paste Preparation [0026] A PVDF solution was prepared by placing 10 g of PVDF (HSV900) and 100 g n-methyl pyrrolidone in a 500-mL beaker under constant agitation. After all PVDF was dissolved, designated amount of paste (Sample A) from Example 1 and PVDF solution were mixed under strong agitation of 500-1000 RPM for 30 minutes. Example 1 Measurement of Moisture Content in Several Organic Solvents [0027] In a moisture-controlled environment, moisture contents of several solvents are measured via the Karl-Fischer method. [0000] TABLE 1 Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Average value (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) Ethyl Acetate 26.1 ppm  25.4 ppm  37.6 ppm  29.7 ppm  n-methyl 618 ppm 611 ppm 602 ppm 610 ppm pyrrolidone Mixed Solvent of 141 ppm 136 ppm 147 ppm 142 ppm EA and nMP EA:nMP :: 5:1 by weight [0028] The average calculated moisture content for the mixed solvent, EA+nMP, is 126 ppm, calculated by adding ⅚ th of the EA moisture content to ⅙ th of the nMP moisture content; very close to the measured result of 142 ppm. Example 2 [0029] Measurement of moisture content in mixed solvent containing carbon nanotubes. A CNT-based paste was prepared using methods described in U.S.2011/0171364. Carbon nanotubes have been vacuum-dried prior to paste preparation. The measured moisture content using regular Karl-Fischer from nanotube powder is 3000 ppm. [0000] TABLE 2 Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Average value Measurement Sequence (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) 1. nMP 618 611 602 610 2. 0.1875 g dispersant + 880 1004 988 960 14.0625 g nMP 3. Add 0.75 g CNT 150 150 150 4. Add 75 g Ethyl Acetate 203 218 215 212 The calculated moisture content was 210 ppm. Example 3 [0030] Measurement of moisture content in CNT-based paste. A CNT-based paste was produced using method described in U.S.2011/0171364. In a moisture controlled environment, 8 gram of paste sample was placed in a sealable container. 60 gram of ethyl acetate was then added to the paste followed by stirring. After CNTs were completely precipitated to the bottom of container, a pipette was used to obtain 300 μL of clear solution. This solution was then injected into Karl Fischer reagent and the reaction allowed to complete. The moisture content is then obtained via a stoichiometric reaction. [0031] The moisture content is calculated as: [0000] C 1 =weight fraction of first solvent in paste sample W 2 =weight of second solvent in paste sample M=weight of paste sample before second solvent added So=weight fraction of water in mixed solvent sample as analyzed S 2 =weight fraction of water in second solvent—as added to paste sample Wp=weight fraction of water in paste—before second solvent added. [0000] Wp = S 0 × [ M × C 1 + W 2 ] - S 2 × W 2 M ( 1 ) [0000] TABLE 3 Ethyl Measured Moisture (ppm) Paste Acetate Dilution Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Average (g) (g) Times ppm ppm ppm Value Sample 8.3 61.73 8.437 1562 1497 1438 1,501 1 Sample 8.57 66.46 8.755 1684 1616 1520 1,605 2 Sample 8.8 65.62 8.457 1682 1788 1746 1,737 3 [0032] The classic laboratory method of measuring high level moisture in solid or semi-solid materials is loss on drying (LOD). In this technique a sample of material is weighed, heated in an oven for an appropriate period, cooled in the dry atmosphere of a desiccator, and then reweighed. If the volatile content of the solid is primarily water, the LOD technique gives a good measure of moisture content. An accurate method for determining the amount of water is the Karl Fischer titration, developed in 1935 by the German chemist whose name it bears. This method detects only water, contrary to loss on drying, which detects any volatile substances. [0033] From the Annual Book of ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) Standards, the total evaporable moisture content in Aggregate (C 566) is calculated with the formula: [0000] p = W - D D ( 2 ) where p is the fraction of total evaporable content of sample, W is the mass of the original sample, and D is mass of dried sample. Based on the know amount of solvent added the water content can be calculated as “excess”. [0035] In some embodiments a method of preparing a battery electrode coating using a paste composition as disclosed herein comprises the steps: mixing the paste composition with lithium ion battery materials; coating the paste onto a metallic film to form an electrode for a lithium ion battery and removing excess or at least a portion of the liquid from the coating; optionally, a method further comprises the step of mixing a polymeric binder with a liquid vehicle before mixing the paste composition with lithium ion battery materials; optionally, a method uses a polymeric binder chosen from a group consisting of polyethylene, polypropylene, polyamide, polyurethane, polyvinyl chloride, polyvinylidene fluoride, thermoplastic polyester resins, and mixtures thereof and is less than about 5% by weight of the paste composition; optionally, a method utilizes spherical carbon nanotube agglomerates fabricated in a fluidized bed reactor as described in Assignee's inventions U.S. Pat. No. 7,563,427, and U.S. Applications 2009/0208708, 2009/0286675, and U.S. Ser. No. 12/516,166. Optionally, a paste composition as disclosed herein utilizes spherical carbon nanotube agglomerates fabricated in a fluidized bed reactor as described in Assignee's inventions U.S. Pat. No. 7,563,427, and U.S. Applications 2009/0208708, 2009/0286675, and U.S. Ser. No. 12/516,166. An alternate method of making paste comprises drying carbon nanotubes at 110° C. and drying dispersant or binder at 60° C. under vacuum, carrying out dispersion process under nitrogen blanket, and sealing off product using a moisture proof bag, e.g. aluminum foil-lined plastic bag. Example 4 Moisture Control and Content from Disclosed Process [0036] A paste is prepared using disclosed methods of the instant invention. In an example, 5 grams of carbon nanotubes are firstly placed in a vacuum oven and kept at 110° C. for a period of time, optionally, 10 hours. A selected dispersant is also dried under vacuum at appropriate temperatures for removing moisture based upon the selected dispersant's boiling point and vapor pressure versus water. In some embodiments N-methyl pyrrolidone is used as-is. The moisture content measured from such a paste made with disclosed process is less than 400 ppm. In some embodiments an acceptable water content is less than about 1000 ppm. [0037] In some embodiments an electrode material composition, or electrode material, for coating to a metallic current collector or metal conductor for a lithium battery comprises multi-walled carbon nanotubes in an agglomerate; electrode active materials chosen from a group consisting of lithium, oxygen, phosphorous, sulphur, nitrogen, nickel, cobalt, manganese, vanadium, silicon, carbon, graphite, aluminum, niobium, titanium and zirconium and iron; a dispersant chosen from a group consisting of poly(vinylpyrrolidone) (PVP), poly(styrene sulfonate) (PSS), poly(phenylacetylene) (PAA), poly(meta-phenylenevinylene) (PmPV), polypyrrole (PPy), poly(p-phenylene benzobisoxazole) (PBO), natural polymers, amphiphilic materials in aqueous solutions, anionic aliphatic surfactant, sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), cyclic lipopeptide biosurfactant, surfactin, water-soluble polymers, carboxyl methyl cellulose, hydroxyl ethyl cellulose, poly(vinyl alcohol), PVA, sodium dodecyl sulfate, SDS, n-methylpyrrolidone, polyoxyethylene surfactant, poly(vinylidene fluoride), PVdF, carboxyl methyl cellulose (CMC), hydroxyl ethyl cellulose (HEC), polyacrylic acid (PAA), polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and combinations thereof; and a polymeric binder chosen from a group consisting of polyethylene, polypropylene, polyamide, polyurethane, polyvinyl chloride, polyvinylidene fluoride, thermoplastic polyester resins and mixtures thereof and is less than about 0.5% to 5% by weight of the electrode material composition wherein the electrode active material is 30-60% by weight, the carbon nanotubes are present in a range from about 0.2 to about 5% by weight, and the dispersant is less than 0.1 to 2% by weight before coating to a metallic current collector; after coating and drying the electrode active material is more than 80% by weight and in some embodiments more than 90% by weight; optionally, an electrode material composition comprises carbon nanotube agglomerates made in a fluidized bed reactor; optionally, an electrode material composition comprises carbon nanotube agglomerates with a maximum dimension from about 0.5 to about 1000 microns; optionally, an electrode material composition comprises carbon nanotubes with a diameter from about 4 to about 100 nm; optionally, an electrode material comprises carbon nanotubes wherein the tap density of the carbon nanotube agglomerates is greater than about 0.02 g/cm 3 ; optionally, an electrode material comprises material wherein the bulk resistivity of the material is less than 10 ohm-cm; optionally less than less than 1 ohm-cm; optionally less than 0.1 ohm-cm. [0038] In some embodiments a method for measuring the water content of a fluid or paste comprising multi-walled carbon nanotube agglomerates, dispersant and polymeric binders comprises the steps; selecting a fluid or paste comprising a first solvent; adding a second solvent to the fluid or paste; precipitating the multi-walled carbon nanotube agglomerates from the first and second solvent solution; taking a sample of the first and second solvent; measuring the water content of the sample; wherein multi-walled carbon nanotube agglomerates are dispersed in the first solvent and do not disperse in the second solvent and the second solvent is miscible with the first solvent; optionally, the weight ratio of the first solvent to the second solvent is between about 2:1 and about 1:10; optionally, the measuring of the water content is done by one or more of the techniques consisting of solvent evaporation, Karl-Fischer titration, coulometric titration, and volumetric titration; optionally, the second solvent is chosen from a group consisting of ethyl acetate, acetone, ethers, alcohols, ketones, esters and mixtures thereof; optionally, the first solvent is chosen from a group consisting of poly(vinylpyrrolidone) (PVP), poly(styrene sulfonate) (PSS), poly(phenylacetylene) (PAA), poly(meta-phenylenevinylene) (PmPV), polypyrrole (PPy), poly(p-phenylene benzobisoxazole) (PBO), natural polymers, amphiphilic materials in aqueous solutions, anionic aliphatic surfactant, sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), cyclic lipopeptide biosurfactant, surfactin, water-soluble polymers, carboxylmethyl cellulose, hydroxyl ethyl cellulose, poly(vinyl alcohol), PVA, sodium dodecyl sulfate, SDS, n-methylpyrrolidone, polyoxyethylene surfactant, poly(vinylidene fluoride), PVdF, carboxyl methyl cellulose (CMC), hydroxyl ethyl cellulose (HEC), polyacrylic acid (PAA), polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and combinations thereof; optionally, the tap density of the carbon nanotube agglomerates is greater than about 0.02 g/cm 3 ; optionally, the fluid or paste material composition comprises a polymeric binder chosen from a group consisting of polyethylene, polypropylene, polyamide, polyurethane, polyvinyl chloride, polyvinylidene fluoride, thermoplastic polyester resins, and mixtures thereof and is less than about 5% by weight of the fluid or paste composition; optionally, the multi-walled carbon nanotube agglomerates, dispersant and polymeric binders are formed into a fluid or paste wherein the multi-walled carbon nanotube agglomerates amount are present in the range of about 1 to 15% by weight of the fluid or paste; optionally, the multi-walled carbon nanotube agglomerates, dispersant and polymeric binders are formed into a fluid or paste wherein the multi-walled carbon nanotube agglomerates amount are present in the range of about 0.2 to 5% by weight of the fluid or paste. [0039] In some embodiments a method for measuring the water content of a fluid or paste comprises the steps; selecting a fluid or paste comprising a first solvent and a first component wherein the first solvent wets the surface of the first component; adding a second solvent to the fluid or paste; precipitating the first component from the first and second solvent solution; taking a sample of the first and second solvent; measuring the water content of the sample; wherein the first component is dispersed in the first solvent and does not disperse in the second solvent and the second solvent is miscible with the first solvent; optionally, the weight ratio of the first solvent to the second solvent is between about 2:1 and 1:10. [0040] In some embodiments a battery comprises a paste comprising multi-walled carbon nanotube agglomerates present in the range of about 1 to 15% by weight wherein the tap density of the carbon nanotube agglomerates is greater than about 0.02 g/cm 3 and the water content of the paste prior to incorporation in the battery has been measured by the method of the disclosed invention to be less than about 1000 ppm by weight. [0041] In the previous description, numerous specific details are set forth to provide a thorough understanding of the present invention. However, it will be apparent to one of ordinary skill in the art that the invention may be practiced without these particular details. In other instances, methods, procedures, and components that are well known to those of ordinary skill in the art are not described in detail to avoid obscuring aspects of the present invention. In cases where reference is made to “an embodiment” or “one embodiment” or “some embodiments”, it is understood that embodiments may comprise one or more of the inventive features and/or limitations presented in the entire specification for all exemplary embodiments without regard to how a particular embodiment is described. [0042] It will also be understood that, although the terms first, second, etc. may be used herein to describe various elements, these elements should not be limited by these terms. These terms are only used to distinguish one element from another. For example, a first layer could be termed a second layer, and, similarly, a second layer could be termed a first layer, without departing from the scope of the present invention. [0043] The terminology used in the description of the invention herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting of the invention. As used in the description of the invention and the appended claims, the singular forms “a”, “an” and “the” are intended to include the plural forms as well, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. It will also be understood that the term “and/or” as used herein refers to and encompasses any and all possible combinations of one or more of the associated listed items. It will be further understood that the terms “comprises” and/or “comprising,” when used in this specification, specify the presence of stated features, integers, steps, operations, elements, and/or components, but do not preclude the presence or addition of one or more other features, integers, steps, operations, elements, components, and/or groups thereof. [0044] Unless otherwise defined, all terms used in disclosing embodiments of the invention, including technical and scientific terms, have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs, and are not necessarily limited to the specific definitions known at the time of the present invention being described. Accordingly, these terms can include equivalent terms that are created after such time. It will be further understood that terms, such as those defined in commonly used dictionaries, should be interpreted as having a meaning that is consistent with their meaning in the present specification and in the context of the relevant art and will not be interpreted in an idealized or overly formal sense unless expressly so defined herein. All publications, patent applications, patents, and other references mentioned herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety. [0045] While the invention has been described by way of example and in terms of the specific embodiments, it is to be understood that the invention is not limited to the disclosed embodiments. To the contrary, it is intended to cover various modifications and similar arrangements as would be apparent to those skilled in the art. Therefore, the scope of the appended claims should be accorded the broadest interpretation so as to encompass all such modifications and similar arrangements. All publications, patents, and patent applications cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety for all purposes.

The present disclosure relates to pastes and methods of making a moisture determination of the paste during manufacture; optionally, the pastes comprise carbon nanotubes.

PRIORITY AND RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/571,112 filed May 14, 2004 of the same title, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. This application is related to co-pending U.S. application Ser. No. 10/368,123 filed Feb. 18, 2003 and entitled “Method and Apparatus for Computer-Readable Purchase Receipts Using Multi-Dimensional Bar Codes”, and U.S. application Ser. No. 09/579,446 filed May 26, 2000 of the same title, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,533,168, both incorporated by reference herein in their entirety. COPYRIGHT [0002] A portion of the disclosure of this patent document contains material that is subject to copyright protection. The copyright owner has no objection to the facsimile reproduction by anyone of the patent document or the patent disclosure, as it appears in the Patent and Trademark Office patent files or records, but otherwise reserves all copyright rights whatsoever. FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0003] The present invention discloses an improved system and method for exchanging information in electronic formats between buyers, sellers and other authorized parties. DESCRIPTION OF RELATED TECHNOLOGY [0004] In the course of transactions, buyers of goods and services (“Purchasers”) and parties that sell to them (“Vendors”), typically exchange significant amounts of transaction specific data related to a discrete transaction such as, without limitation, billing information, payment amounts, Vendor name and address, date of transaction and a listing or listings of items transacted (“Specific Transaction Data”). In addition to Specific Transaction Data, additional data that is, e.g., related to or arises out of discrete transactions or prior or future transactions can also be exchanged. This information can include but not be limited to data about the Purchaser's buying preferences, participation in a buyer loyalty program or programs or purchase return history; the long term performance of an item or service transacted (for example, in the context of a transaction involving automobile repair services, an automobile service history or an update thereto) or other types of data (for example, in the case of a transaction involving healthcare or healthcare related services, relevant data such as a record of medical treatment received or medicine prescribed or dispensed or in the case of a proposed sale, information that is intended to assist the Purchaser in deciding whether or not to complete the transaction) (collectively “Information”). It is more common for Vendors and Purchasers to exchange Information in paper form and less common for Vendors and Purchasers to exchange Information in electronic form. [0005] When Specific Transaction Data or Information is exchanged through manual methods (such as a Vendor hand-keying a Payment Card (as defined below) billing number into a Payment Card authorization terminal or a Vendor providing Specific Transaction Data to a Purchaser as printed information on a paper receipt), a heightened risk of errors introduced by the data entry process exists. In addition, manual data entry increases the time required to complete discrete transactions, thereby reducing both Vendor and Purchaser efficiency. Exchange of Specific Transaction Data or Information in electronic formats is one technique that is used in the art to reduce these errors and to increase efficiency in the transaction process. The availability of billing data in electronic formats provides Vendors with a number of significant advantages that include but are not limited to the capability to use semi-automated and automated data entry methods to improve the accuracy and speed of data capture, to facilitate faster transfer of data for internal and external use, to eliminate duplicative entry of transaction related data and to facilitate entry of data into non-transaction related systems (for example to enter customer information into tracking databases). For example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,826,535 to Wood, et al., discloses, inter alia, a method for reducing fraud and streamlining the insurance claim payment process in healthcare related transactions by using insurance eligibility and billing information stored on an integrated circuit or magnetic strip based “Smart Card” to enable service providers to determine whether the individual bearing the card is authorized to receive the requested services. As disclosed in the '535 patent, a patient seeking healthcare presents the Smart Card to a healthcare service provider who then uses information stored on the Smart Card to validate the patient's eligibility to receive the healthcare in question. A salient disadvantage of the '535 patent is that it does not provide a means whereby the patient, as Purchaser, can capture Specific Transaction Data or Information from the service provider, as Vendor. It should also be noted that a further disadvantage of the '535 patent is that it relies on integrated circuit or magnetic strip based Smart Cards which are limited both in terms of the amount of information they can store and, in the case of integrated circuit Smart Cards, by the limited availability of compatible data reading and writing devices in the U.S. market (thereby excluding more readily available portable data transport and storage mediums such as USB flash keys and Personal Digital Assistants). [0006] Examples of technologies and techniques used to move Specific Transaction Data and Information in electronic formats from Purchasers to Vendors include magnetic strip based credit or debit cards (collectively “Payment Cards”) including those described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,615,194 B1 to Deutsch et al.; Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (“MICR”) formatted bank checks of the type referenced in U.S. Pat. No. 3,949,363 to Holm; integrated circuit based “Smart Cards” of the types described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,211,919 to Ugon and U.S. Pat. No. 4,701,601 to Francini et al. and “tokenless” transaction systems similar to the type disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,269,348 B1 to Pare, Jr. et al., as well as RFID devices of the type now ubiquitous. [0007] To the extent that these systems and technologies have been applied to generate capabilities to move Specific Transaction Data or Information from Vendors to Purchasers in electronic form, these capabilities have been limited and have not generally provided Purchasers with the same degree of access to electronic data afforded to Vendors. It is still very common for Vendors to provide only limited subsets of available Specific Transaction Data (primarily direct transaction data such as the Vendor's name, the date of the transaction, a list of the items or services transacted, the prices associated with the specific transaction and a transaction identifier number (collectively “Limited Transaction Data”). Typically, Vendors provide Limited Transaction Data to Purchasers in the form of printed paper receipts at the time the transaction ends (as shown in FIG. 1 which depicts the layout of an exemplary prior art paper receipt). To the extent Purchasers wish to obtain Specific Transaction Data or Information immediately after completing the transaction, typically, only Limited Transaction Data is available and then only in hard copy format (such as a paper receipt). In particular, in the case of Information, it is uncommon for Vendors to provide Purchasers with information at the time of the transaction in an electronic format. To the extent Purchasers wish to obtain Specific Transaction Data or Information but do not require it at the time of the transaction, depending on the method of payment utilized by the Purchaser (i.e., as long as the transaction involves a payment method other than cash and involves an Intermediary), Purchasers may also obtain access to the Limited Transaction Data via Internet download or mailed hardcopies from Vendors, Intermediaries, or via other networks and entities (collectively “Intermediary Downloads”). The transaction information available through Intermediary Downloads in such case is usually a further limited subset of the Limited Transaction Data; commonly, specific information about exactly what items or services were transacted is not available and instead a summary number representing the total value of the transaction is the only pricing information available. For the purposes of this teaching, this subset of Limited Transaction Data will be referred to as a “Limited Download”. An example of this method is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,699,528 to Hogan, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. [0008] U.S. Pat. No. 6,775,670 to Bessette discloses, inter alia, a method for managing medical information in which a “mobile communications system” utilizes a unique identifier associated with an individual, and stored on an integrated circuit Smart Card, to retrieve medical records pertaining to that individual from a server located within a network system. The individual's identifier is linked to “pointers”, also stored on the Smart Card, that identify the locations on the server at which the referenced individual's medical information can be found. A disadvantage of this system is that although provision is made to allow medical records to be located based on information contained on the Smart Card, the information stored on the Smart Card is insufficiently secured from disclosure to or use by unauthorized parties. Further, the '670 patent provides neither a means whereby the individual's information can be authenticated as being from a trusted provider of data, nor a means whereby the individual's information can be validated as being in the form in which it was originally issued (i.e., being free from error, truncation or modification). [0009] U.S. Pat. No. 5,884,271 to Pitroda discloses, inter alia, a “universal electronic transaction card” which can accept transfers of transaction information from point of sale terminals in electronic form. A disadvantage of this system is that although the transaction information is captured in electronic form, no provision is made to allow users to verify the source of the data. Further, the invention of the '271 patent does not provide for a means to verify that the transaction information was not modified after its initial creation. Finally, the invention of the '271 patent provides neither a means to secure the recorded transaction information from unauthorized use or modification nor a means to make authorized annotations to the captured transaction information. [0010] For purposes of substituting electronic transaction data records for paper records in the context of accounting, finance and audits (both private and government), both authentication that the receipt was issued by the Vendor purported to have identified the receipt and verification that the data contained in the electronic receipt has not been modified after creation are arguably necessary features. Certain unique features of cryptographic methods can be applied to characterize data in binary formats to achieve defined levels of certainty with results that are very useful in the context of this Invention. Examples of such cryptographic methods are well known to those of ordinary skill in the art and will be covered only in brief here. [0011] For example, symmetric cryptography is a cryptographic method that uses a single numeric key to perform both encryption and decryption. In contrast, asymmetric cryptography or dual key cryptography of the general type taught by Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman is a form of encryption in which the encryption/decryption keys are numerical values that exist in matching pairs such that what one of the keys encrypts, only the matching key can decrypt. [0012] In asymmetric cryptography, typically one key of the pair is kept secret (the “Private Key”) and one key of the pair is disclosed to the public and identified as belonging to the party controlling the Private Key (the “Public Key”). Public Key Infrastructures (“PKI”) use trusted directories of information about Public Keys and their issuers in conjunction with asymmetric cryptography to provide assurances to recipients of asymmetrically encrypted files that Public Keys, and by extension information secured via asymmetric cryptography methods employing said Public Keys, indeed correspond to expected and claimed Private Key holders. [0013] Secure hash algorithms, such as the SHA-1, SHA-224, SHA-256, SHA-384 and SHA-512 algorithms described in the U.S. Government's Federal Information Processing Standards Publication 180-2 (as amended); Ron Rivest's MD-4 and MD-5 algorithms and the Snerfu family of message digest functions developed by Ralph Merkle are well known in the art as one-way hash functions that convert variable length binary input strings into fixed length binary output strings that are a condensed representation of the electronic data contained in the binary input string (a “Message Digest”). One-way hash algorithms can be used to create secure indicators of binary file data integrity in the sense that they are designed such that for a given Message Digest created by processing a binary file with a one-way hash algorithm, it is computationally infeasible to find a different binary file that, when processed with a one-way hash algorithm, will create a second Message Digest that is identical to the Message Digest created using the first binary file. Symmetric cryptography, asymmetric cryptography, one-way hash and PKI methodologies are well known in the art. [0014] U.S. Pat. No. 6,516,996 B1 to Hippeläinen describes an application of PKI and asymmetric cryptography methodologies to the problem of providing authentication of receipts issued by Vendors to Purchasers. A disadvantage of this system is that the asymmetric encryption methodology employed by the disclosed invention is calculation intensive. This makes the invention less suitable for use when the capacity to support high volumes of transactions within a short period is required or when reduced computing power is available. Another disadvantage of the '996 patent is that the disclosed system does not provide for a means whereby the Purchaser can read or otherwise use the transaction data contained in the electronic receipt while the receipt is encrypted. Another disadvantage is that the '996 patent does not disclose a system whereby the Purchaser can access the discrete transaction information within a given record electronically while at the same time retaining the ability to verify the authenticity of the transaction receipt, because, as described in the ' 996 patent, the encryption alone is the guarantee of the authenticity of the electronic receipt, and yet, in order to read discrete transaction data within an electronic receipt, a Purchaser must decrypt the electronic receipt. Another disadvantage of the '996 patent is that it contemplates encryption of only purchase receipts, excluding the broader category of Information. Yet another disadvantage of the '996 patent is that it does not provide an integrated means whereby the Purchaser can securely pass billing Information in electronic form to the Vendor and then receive Information from the Vendor in electronic form. [0015] Each of the prior art methods described above provides Vendors and Purchasers with less than optimal methods to share Specific Transaction Data and Information, capture Specific Transaction Data and Information, transport Specific Transaction Data and Information and upload Specific Transaction Data and Information into their own computers for use. What is needed is an integrated yet portable means and methodology whereby a Purchaser can, inter alia, securely provide Specific Transaction Data and Information in an electronic format to a Vendor; if necessary, authenticate his or her right to use the Specific Transaction Data to complete a purchase and receive the resulting Specific Transaction Data and Information related to that transaction in an electronic format. Ideally, such format can be easily read, transported and used, but at the same time can be authenticated as being issued by the specific Vendor involved in the transaction and validated as being in the form originally issued by the specific Vendor. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0016] The present invention satisfies the foregoing needs by providing improved apparatus and methods for transaction data exchange. [0017] In a first aspect of the invention, a robust and integrated apparatus and associated method is provided whereby a Purchaser can securely provide Specific Transaction Data and Information in an electronic format to a Vendor. In one exemplary embodiment, the Purchaser can authenticate his or her right to use the billing information contained therein to complete a purchase without actually having to disclose the billing information in a human readable format, thereby enabling the Vendor to obtain and authenticate the Purchaser's identity and billing information while still protecting the Purchaser's privacy and without requiring disclosure of the Purchaser's billing information to the Vendor's employees and unauthorized parties. [0018] In a second aspect of the invention, apparatus and associated methods are provided whereby a Vendor can provide a Purchaser with Specific Transaction Data about a transaction(s) and/or additional Information related to that transaction. In one exemplary embodiment, the Data/Information is provided in a format that can be read and used by the Purchaser and other authorized parties with minimal manual entry of Information. [0019] In a third aspect of the invention, apparatus and associated methods are provided whereby Vendors may provide Purchasers with Specific Transaction Data and Information. In one exemplary embodiment, the Specific Transaction Data and/or Information is provided in a format that provides the Purchaser and other parties subsequently accessing or using the Specific Transaction Data and Information with assurances that the electronic file containing the Specific Transaction Data and Information was created by a defined Vendor and is unmodified from the form originally issued by the defined Vendor (in one exemplary embodiment, allowing the electronic file to replace a paper hardcopy receipt as the permanent record of the transaction for purposes including but not limited to accounting, audit and tax reporting). [0020] In a fourth aspect of the invention, apparatus and associated methods are provided whereby Vendors, Purchasers and other authorized users can securely exchange Specific Transaction Data and Information in electronic formats either at the time of the transaction or at some other mutually agreed time. In one representative application, a Purchaser will present billing information to the Vendor in an encrypted electronic file, the Vendor will use the presented billing information to complete a sale and then the Vendor will provide an encrypted electronic file containing Specific Transaction Data about the details of that transaction and optionally additional Information back to the Purchaser. In addition to providing only billing information required for a specific transaction, the Purchaser may optionally provide other relevant Information to the Vendor (for example past purchase Information or customer loyalty program identification Information). [0021] In a fifth aspect of the invention, apparatus and associated methods are provided whereby an electronic data transfer hub (a “Hub”) is connected to a device (e.g., a point of sale terminal or personal computer) to permit Vendors and Purchasers to exchange Specific Transaction Data and Information in multiple electronic formats. [0022] In a sixth aspect of the invention, apparatus and associated methods are provided whereby a device (e.g., a Data Transfer Device) may be used to allow Purchasers to send and receive Specific Transaction Data and other Information to and from the aforementioned hub and to transport, communicate and annotate Specific Transaction Data and Information received from said Hub in a secure format on a single device that will include protections securing the Specific Transaction Data and Information stored on the Data Transfer Device against unauthorized use or disclosure. [0023] In a seventh aspect of the invention, apparatus and associated methods are provided whereby a device such as a Data Transfer Device may be used to allow secure transfer of Information that is not related to a specific transaction. [0024] In an eighth aspect of the invention, apparatus, an integrated multi-purpose means of securely transferring Information other than Specific Transaction Data between Vendors, Purchasers and other parties is disclosed. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0025] The above and other features and advantages of the present invention are hereinafter described in the following detailed description of illustrative embodiments to be read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings and figures, wherein like reference numerals are used to identify the same of similar system parts and/or Method steps, and: [0026] FIG. 1 is a depiction of a typical prior art paper based printed transaction receipt. [0027] FIG. 2 is a diagram illustrating the basic components of an exemplary Vendor side configuration of a system conforming to the principles taught in the instant invention. [0028] FIG. 3 is a diagram illustrating the basic components of an exemplary Purchaser side configuration of a system conforming to the principles taught in the instant invention. [0029] FIG. 4 is a flowchart of an exemplary method of providing billing information, creating a Consolidated Information File (as such term is defined herein) and providing the Information File to a Purchaser according to the invention. [0030] FIG. 5 is a flowchart of an exemplary method of verifying the authenticity and integrity of elements within a Consolidated Information File and making the Consolidated Information File available for use by a Purchaser or another party authorized to access the Consolidated Information File according to the invention. [0031] FIG. 6 is a flowchart of an alternate embodiment of the method of providing billing information where the DTD contains billing and Purchaser authentication information corresponding to multiple billing accounts. [0032] FIG. 7 is a flowchart of an alternate embodiment of the method of verifying the authenticity and integrity of elements within a Consolidated Information File. [0033] FIG. 8 is a graphical illustration of one embodiment of a method of transferring healthcare data and healthcare related data employing the principles of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0034] The following descriptions are exemplary embodiments of the invention and are not intended to limit the scope, applicability or configuration of the invention in any way. Rather, the following description is intended to provide convenient illustrations for implementing various embodiments of the invention. It will be appreciated by one skilled in the art that various additions, substitutions or deletions may be made in the function, arrangement and/or combination of the elements described in these embodiments (as well as the sequence and content of steps described herein) to ascertain and/or realize any number of other benefits without departing from the spirit and scope of the instant invention. [0035] It will also be recognized that while the exemplary embodiments are described in terms of one- or two-way transfers of data and/or information, the methods and apparatus of the invention may be readily adapted to three-way or other transfers of data, or even sequential transfers between three or more parties (e.g., from one party to an second to a third, and so forth). Further, one of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that alternate methods of verification and authentication providing features and functionality similar to those described herein may be applied to the invention disclosed herein without changing the novel principles taught. [0036] Furthermore, while the exemplary embodiments presented herein are generally described in the context of transfers of data and/or information that are related or even contemporaneous with financial or other such transactions (e.g., the sale of an item or service, a visit to a physician's office, etc.), the invention is no way limited to such related or contemporaneous transactions or transfers. For example, a logically related transfer of information or data is contemplated, such as where the occurrence of an e.g., sales transaction between a first party and second party may instigate or act as a condition precedent to a second logically related transaction between a third and fourth party. Alternatively, a first transaction between the first and second party may act as a predicate for a later separate but related transaction or transfer of data/information between the same parties. [0037] As used herein, the term “Data Transfer Device” (DTD) refers to a portable or semi-portable device incorporating, at a minimum, the ability to store or retain data in an electronic (including magnetic) or optical format. Optionally, the DTD may also incorporate additional capabilities, including but not limited to the ability to transmit, process, encrypt and decrypt data files and/or read biometric authentication information (for example a fingerprint scanner—examples of which include the Trek 2000 International, Ltd., ThumbDrive™ Touch and the Memory Experts International ClipDrive™ Bio). Examples in the art of DTDs include but are not limited to: cell phones, radio pagers, (devices incorporating Microsoft Corporation's Smart Personal Objects Technology, personal digital assistants (“PDAs”), floppy disks, USB flash memory keys and other erasable programmable memory (“EPROM”) based data storage devices; optical or holographic storage devices, data storage devices employing ferroelectric memory or magnetic random-access memory (“MRAM”) based chips; IBM Micro Drives, integrated circuit “smart cards”, magnetic strip based payment cards, both passive and active radio frequency identification technology (“RFID”) based devices, devices designed to communicate using the Infrared Data Association's (“IrDA”) infrared based wireless transmission standard, devices communicating via wireless radio frequency (“RF”) based local area network (“LAN”) connections based on the IEEE 802.11 or 802.15 access standards and related variations (including both frequency hopping, and direct sequence spread spectrum variants), devices designed to exchange data via the “Bluetooth” 2.45 GHz frequency band based wireless communication specification, devices designed to exchange data via the Wireless USB standard and devices designed to exchange data via Panasonic “Smart SD” (Secure Digital) cards. [0038] As used herein, the term “Vendor” refers generally to any source or prospective source of goods, services, data or information of interest, while the term “Purchaser” refers generally to any one or more users or prospective users of goods, services, data or information. For example, in the context previously described herein, a Vendor may comprise a seller or provider of goods or services, while a Purchaser may comprise a buyer of such goods or services. Alternatively, a Vendor may comprise for example a patient (or group of patients) associated with a physician, who acts as a source of medical or personal data, while the Purchaser may comprise the physician or his parent health care organization or hospital. As another example, a Purchaser or Vendor may comprise a vehicle owner, and the Vendor or Purchaser a mechanic or repair facility that receives or captures data relating to the vehicle. [0039] Furthermore, the terms “Purchaser” and “Vendor” are used in the broad sense and the use of such terms is not intended to imply that the applicability of the instant invention is limited to the period immediately before, during or after a transaction. For example, a “Purchaser” could also mean an entity only considering a purchase and a “Vendor” could also mean an entity only proposing a sale to the Purchaser. [0040] Distributed databases and related methods of synchronizing multiple databases and data files, including but not limited to independent distributed database systems of the type taught in U.S. Pat. No. 6,446,092 B1 to Sutter, are well known in the art and coordinate distribution and synchronization of data across multiple discrete databases in order to allow a related set of data to be shared among multiple users in situations in which connections between databases are not stable, but rather are transient in nature. [0041] Point of Sale Terminals (“POSTs”) are well known in the art and include, e.g., electronic cash registers or personal computers running appropriate software that, at a minimum, enable processing and tracking of data related to transactions between Vendors and Purchasers. Optionally, POSTs may incorporate additional capabilities, including but not limited to, the ability to record and track customer orders; read data from and write data to DTDs, both wirelessly and utilizing wired connections; process credit and debit cards and connect to other systems in a network and manage inventory. Common and more sophisticated examples of POSTs include the Epson IM-800, the IBM SurePOS 700, the Verifone Omni 3700 family and the Hypercom ICE 5700Plus and are described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,533,168 B1 to Ching; U.S. Pat. No. 6,615,194 B1 to Deutsch et al. and U.S. Pat. No. 6,701,192 B1 to Herwig, all of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. It should be appreciated that alternative devices or systems allowing calculation and recording of transaction data in electronic formats may be substituted without affecting the spirit and scope of the instant invention [0042] As used herein, the term “hub” refers generally to a device incorporating means to read data from and write data to devices such as DTDs, either wirelessly or alternatively, utilizing wired connections, and to communicate such data to other devices (whether separate or integrated) such as POSTs. Hubs may also contain additional functionality related to receiving and transmitting Specific Transaction Data and Information between peripheral devices and POSTs, such as the ability to read biometric data for purposes of analyzing and utilizing such data and/or transmitting such data to connected devices for analysis and use. Hubs may be stand-alone devices or may exist as a device or devices providing such functionality integrated into POSTs. [0043] As used herein, the terms “software” and “computer program,” refer generally (but not exclusively) to describe code or other instructions to a computerized device or devices that perform a sequence or series of steps. Such programs (and their routines/subroutines) may be rendered in any language including, without limitation, C/C++, Fortran, COBOL, PASCAL, assembly language, markup languages (e.g., HTML, SGML, XML, VoXML), and the like, as well as object-oriented environments such as the Common Object Request Broker Architecture (CORBA), Java™ (including J2ME, Java Beans, etc.) and the like. The term is also meant to encompass distributed software/applications, wherein a portion of an application or software process (or collection of applications/process) are in logical or data communication with other related applications/processes. In general, however, all of the aforementioned terms as used herein are meant to encompass any series of logical steps performed in a sequence to accomplish a given purpose. [0044] As used herein, the term “healthcare entity” refers generally to any entity, group or individual that directly or indirectly provides, arranges, and/or makes payment and/or billing transactions relating to, one or more healthcare services. Examples of such healthcare entities include, without limitation, HMOs, PPOs, hospitals, clinics, physicians, holistic or homeopathic practitioners, chiropractors, laboratories, acupuncturists, university clinics and research programs, and insurers. Overview [0045] The subject invention relates generally to apparatus and methods adapted to facilitate the transfer of data and information (including Specific Transaction Data and Information) in electronic formats between various entities such as Vendors, Purchasers and other authorized parties. It should be noted that in one salient aspect, the instant invention is intended to provide users with a standardized method with which to transfer a wide variety of data and information types. For example, in the context of control and/or monitoring of equipment (such as an automobile), the invention disclosed herein provides a means whereby the Data Transfer Device may be employed to transfer data and information from said equipment to authorized users of the data and information (for example, in the case of an automobile, the owner of the automobile might download diagnostic and performance data from the automobile onto the Data Transfer Device by means of a Hub integrated with the automobile's systems. In such case, the owner might then provide said diagnostic and performance data to a Vendor providing automotive repair services to said owner in an electronic format as a further download from the DTD to the Vendor's computer for subsequently analysis). [0046] This transfer of data or information can serve multiple purposes, including, but limited to, support of transactions (for example transfers of Specific Transaction Data to or from Payment Card issuers or banks) or making Specific Transaction Data or Information available to parties that have an authorized use for the Specific Transaction Data or Information (for example in the context of expense reimbursements, to companies providing services to Purchasers and employers of the Purchasers related to processing the data for expense reimbursement purposes or in the case of healthcare providers, transfers of healthcare information about a patient from a treating physician to a new physician who will begin providing care to the patient). [0047] One exemplary embodiment set forth herein relates to a data exchange apparatus and method for: (1) integrating electronic transmissions of billing, data from Purchasers to Vendors with electronic transmissions of Specific Transaction Data and Information from Vendors to Purchasers; (2) securing Specific Transaction Data and Information from unauthorized disclosure or use (i.e., providing data/information confidentiality); (3) facilitating exchanges of Specific Transaction Data and Information between Purchasers, Vendors and related authorized parties; (4) providing a means for verifying the originator/source (authentication) and/or accuracy (verification or validation) of Specific Transaction Data and Information, and (5) facilitating electronic exchanges of Specific Transaction Data and Information between Vendors, Purchasers and other parties playing a role in the transaction or having an authorized use for the Specific Transaction Data and Information. [0048] Benefits obtained from utilization of the apparatus and methods disclosed herein include (i) reduction of errors caused by manually (or even electronically) entering and reentering data or information; (ii) reduction of the number of times that data or information must be entered (thereby improving efficiency); (iii) provision of some level of assurance to the users of the transferred data/information regarding the source and nature of the data; (iv) authentication regarding the source of the transacted data or information; (v) validation that the transferred data/information is in the same form and comprises the same content it was in at the time it was generated or sent. Vendor Side Exemplary System Layout [0049] In FIG. 2 , the diagram illustrates the basic components of the Vendor side of an exemplary system conforming to the principles taught in the instant invention. The Vendor's POST 201 is in data communication via wired or wireless means to a Hub 202 . The Hub 202 incorporates, at a minimum, wired or wireless means for communicating with DTDs of various types (collectively represented by 203 ) and may or may not be connected to an independent power source (not shown). Purchaser Side Exemplary System Layout [0050] In FIG. 3 , the diagram illustrates the basic components of the Purchaser side of an exemplary system conforming to the principles taught in the instant invention. DTDs of various types (collectively represented by 302 ) connect to a Purchaser's personal computer 301 by wired or wireless means as dictated by the requirements of the specific DTD used. The DTD 302 , as depicted, incorporates a fingerprint scanner 303 (although this is not a mandatory aspect of the DTD 302 configuration). Vendor Side Data Transfer [0051] FIG. 4 , is a logical flowchart showing one embodiment of a method of enabling a Purchaser to provide a Vendor with billing information in an electronic format and enabling a Vendor to provide a Purchaser with transaction specific Information and other related Information in an electronic format that can be transferred by a Purchaser into his or her computer without manually reentering the information, and yet may be authenticated as to source and integrity. [0052] In accordance with an aspect of the present invention, in a transaction between a Vendor and a Purchaser, the subject of the purchase (whether a tangible or non-tangible item) is identified (step 401 ). If the transaction is in-person, the DTD 203 is presented to the Vendor (step 403 ). The Vendor connects the DTD 203 to a Hub 202 either built in to the Vendor's POST (not shown) or attached to the Vendor's POST 201 . In one embodiment of the present invention, the POST 201 is a self-service kiosk allowing Purchasers to purchase goods or services, or conduct airline check-in or hotel check-in/check-out activities with minimal or no additional assistance from Vendor representatives. [0053] It will be appreciated by one skilled in the art that the DTD 203 may be capable of employing one or more of a multiplicity of wired and wireless connection methods and protocols to communicate data to and from the Hub 202 . Physical connections and proximity between the Hub 202 and the DTD 203 are optional and dependent on the operational requirements of the specific application of the principals taught herein. All such methods are within the scope of the instant invention. [0054] The Hub 202 reads the encrypted billing information (which may include Purchaser authentication data identifying the thumbprint(s) of the party(ies) authorized to use the DTD 203 ) stored on the DTD 203 (step 404 ) and decrypts the Purchaser authentication data stored in the encrypted billing information. Optionally, additional Information may also be stored on the DTD 203 and read by the Hub 202 . The Hub 202 then authenticates the identity of the Purchaser by reading the thumbprint of the Purchaser presenting the DTD 203 (step 405 ) by means of a thumbprint scanner present on either the Hub 202 or the DTD 203 and then comparing that data against the decrypted Purchaser authentication data (step 406 ). If the thumbprint scan information matches the decrypted Purchaser authentication information, the Purchaser is authenticated. If the thumbprint scan information does not match the decrypted Purchaser authentication information, the Purchaser is not authenticated. [0055] If the Purchaser is authenticated as valid, the Hub 202 decrypts the billing information (step 408 ), indicates to the POST 201 that the transaction may proceed and passes the decrypted billing information to the POST 201 (step 409 ). The POST 201 then uses existing credit card transaction approval methods to confirm that the billing account is valid for use (step 410 ). If the Purchaser is not authenticated or the transaction is rejected, the Hub 202 alerts the POST 201 which then cancels the transaction (step 431 ) or alternatively, requests an alternate method of payment. If the Purchaser is authenticated and the transaction is approved, the POST 201 then completes the transaction (step 411 ). In an alternate implementation, a personal identification number can be used instead of the thumbprint information to authenticate the purchaser or can be used in addition to the thumbprint information to provide additional assurances that the Purchaser is authorized to transact purchases using the billing information on the DTD 203 . In a further alternate implementation, the transaction may be completed using billing information not stored on the DTD 203 (for example a purchase based on a payment of cash). [0056] After the transaction is completed, Specific Transaction Data, including, optimally, the name of the vendor, the date of the transaction, the list of the items transacted (with individual prices), the subtotal of the transaction, the tax (if applicable), the total of the transaction purchase price, the Vendor's transaction identifier number (if applicable) and a Payment Card transaction reference number (if applicable) is electronically stored in a binary file (the “Electronic Receipt”) (step 412 ). Information identifying the One-Way Hash Algorithm that will be applied to the Electronic Receipt is also stored in the Electronic Receipt (step 413 ). A One-Way Hash algorithm is then applied to the Electronic Receipt (step 414 ) yielding a Message Digest that is unique to the Electronic Receipt (step 415 ). The Message Digest is then encrypted using a Private Key belonging to the Vendor (step 416 ) yielding an Encrypted Message Digest that is unique to the specific transaction and Vendor. The Encrypted Message Digest is then attached to the Electronic Receipt (step 417 ). If desired, additional Information indirectly related to the transaction at hand (for example Vendor or Purchaser provided comments, data relating to the Purchaser's participation in the Vendor's loyalty program or in the case of a medical Vendor, updates to the Purchaser's medical record or other relevant data), may also be either included in the Electronic Receipt or stored in a separate, preferably encrypted electronic file (a “Related Information File”) or both (step 419 ). Optionally, a One-Way Hash Algorithm can be applied to the Related Information File in the same manner as described above with respect to the Electronic Receipt to create an Encrypted Message Digest corresponding to the Related Information File. [0057] The Encrypted Message Digest, the Electronic Receipt and the Related Information File (if applicable) are then combined into a binary file or file set (hereinafter be referred to as an “Consolidated Information File”) (step 420 ). If the transaction is being conducted in person, the Consolidated Information File will be transferred from the Hub 201 to the DTD 203 (step 422 ) where it will be stored as an individual file or checked into a software application along with other Consolidated Information Files for secure (encrypted) or non-secure storage (step 423 ). The DTD 203 can then be disconnected (whether physically or wirelessly connected) from the Hub 202 (step 424 ). [0058] If the transaction is not being conducted in person (for example a transaction conducted over the Internet), the process will be largely the same as described above except: following step 402 , the Purchaser establishes a secure connection between their web browser software and the Vendor's transaction server using one of several secure communication standards (such as Secure Socket Layer) that are well known in the art (step 425 ). The Purchaser is then prompted to connect the DTD 302 (whether via wireless or wired connection) to a hardware connection on their computer 301 (step 426 ). Depending on the specific configuration of the DTD 302 , various wired and/or wireless connection standards may be used either singly or in conjunction with additional hardware attached to the Purchaser's computer 301 . A thumbprint scanner 303 present on the DTD 302 reads the thumbprint of the Purchaser (step 427 ). The thumbprint scan information and the encrypted billing information (which includes encrypted authentication information including data identifying the characteristics of the authorized billing party's thumbprint) on the DTD 302 are then transferred to the transaction server via the secured connection (step 428 ). Software on the transaction server then transfers the thumbprint scan information and the billing information to the Hub 202 (step 429 ). The Hub 202 decrypts the Purchaser authentication data stored in the encrypted billing information and then uses the thumbprint scan information to authenticate the identity of the Purchaser by comparing the thumbprint scan information to the decrypted Purchaser authentication information (step 430 ). If the thumbprint scan information matches the decrypted Purchaser authentication information, the Purchaser is authenticated. If the thumbprint scan information does not match the decrypted Purchaser authentication information, the Purchaser is not authenticated. [0059] If the Purchaser is authenticated as valid, the transaction is completed as per the method for in-person transactions (beginning at step 408 ) with the difference that, after step 416 , rather than transferring the Consolidated Information File to the DTD 203 , the Hub 202 transfers the Consolidated Information File to the transaction server which in turn transfers the Consolidated Information File back to the Purchaser's computer 301 via the secured connection (step 432 ). The secure connection is then terminated (step 433 ). [0060] It will be appreciated by one of ordinary skill in the art that the exemplary transaction described above incorporates certain elements that are optional and that can be changed or omitted without materially changing the scope or nature of the instant invention. For example, in the event that a Vendor wishes to transfer Specific Transaction Data or Information to a Purchaser without first completing a transaction (such as in a case where the data pertains to a previously completed transaction, or where a healthcare provider wishes to provide Information comprising healthcare treatment or pharmaceutical prescription records to a patient), the required data would simply be selected and then stored pursuant to the process disclosed above beginning with storage of said data in an electronic file (step 412 ). From that step forward, the process would proceed as previously disclosed. Purchaser Side Data Transfer [0061] FIG. 5 is a logical flowchart showing one embodiment of a method of enabling a Purchaser to use data in a Consolidated Information File, authenticate an Electronic Receipt as to source, determine whether an Electronic Receipt has been modified since its creation and to make the data available for further use. A Consolidated Information File containing Specific Transaction Data and/or Information is transferred to a Purchaser designated computer (step 501 ). If authentication of the Electronic Receipt within the Consolidated Information File is not required, a synchronization application on the computer transfers the Specific Transaction Data and/or Information in the Consolidated Information File to a Purchaser designated software application or applications enabling storage, analysis, use and transfers of said Specific Transaction Data and/or Information (step 512 ). If authentication of Electronic Receipt within the Consolidated Information File is required, the Purchaser or another party authorized by the Purchaser to authenticate Electronic Receipt (collectively referred to herein as a “Verifying Party”), so indicates in a software application executing on the Purchaser's computer 301 and designed, at least in part, to work in conjunction with the Consolidated Information Files (step 502 ). The software application reads the Vendor Information from the Electronic Receipt to identify the Vendor corresponding to the Electronic Receipt to be authenticated (step 503 ). The software application then refers to a trusted internal or external database or on-line service (a “Trusted Source”) to obtain the Public Key that corresponds to the Vendor identified in the Electronic Receipt (step 504 ). The software then uses the Vendor's Public Key to decrypt the Encrypted Receipt Message Digest component of the Consolidated Information File (step 505 ). If the Public Key provided by the Trusted Source does not decrypt the Encrypted Receipt Message Digest successfully, the software indicates to the Verifying Party that the Electronic Receipt is not authenticated as having been created by the Vendor identified in the Consolidated Information File (step 514 ) and the process stops. If the Public Key provided by the Trusted. Source successfully decrypts the Encrypted Receipt Message Digest, a decrypted Message Digest derived from the Encrypted Receipt Message Digest is created and the software indicates to the Verifying Party that the Electronic Receipt is authenticated as having been created by the Vendor identified in the Electronic Receipt (step 507 ). The software then applies the One-Way Hash Algorithm identified in the Electronic Receipt to the Electronic Receipt (step 508 ). A “new” Electronic Receipt Message Digest results (step 509 ). The software then compares the “new” Message Digest to the Message Digest derived from the decryption of the Encrypted Receipt Message Digest (step 510 ). If the newly created Message Digest is not identical to the Message Digest derived by decrypting the Encrypted Receipt Message Digest contained in the Consolidated Information File, the software indicates to the Verifying Party that the Electronic Receipt is not validated and has been modified since the time of its creation and the process stops (step 515 ). If the newly created Message Digest is identical to the decrypted Message Digest derived from the decryption of the Encrypted Receipt Message Digest, the software indicates to the Verifying Party that the Electronic Receipt is validated as not having been modified from the time of its creation (step 512 ). [0062] Optionally, if at the time of the original transaction, a One-Way Hash Algorithm was applied to the Related Information File in the same manner as described above with respect to the Electronic Receipt, then a process similar to that applied to the Electronic Receipt is applied to the Encrypted Message Digest corresponding to the Related Information File to verify and authenticate the Related Information File. [0063] If the Electronic Receipt and/or Related Information File has (have) been validated and authenticated, a synchronization application on the computer then transfers the Specific Transaction Data and/or the Information in the Information File (or optionally the Electronic Receipt or the Information File in its entirety) to a Purchaser designated software application or location enabling storage, analysis, use and transfers of said Specific Transaction Data and Information (step 513 ). The Specific Transaction Data and Information are then available for use (for example in Intuit's Quicken or Microsoft's Money personal finance management software packages) or for further transfer (for example, in the context of completion of corporate expense reimbursement request forms, for importation into and submission with a Purchaser expense reimbursement request form). [0064] In one alternative implementation, Purchasers may add electronic annotations directly to the Electronic Receipt or Related Information File in partitioned portions of said files using a means either built in to the Hub 202 or the DTD 203 . In the case of a means built into the DTD 203 said means would allow Purchasers to add electronic annotations to Electronic Receipts or Related Information Files using a keyboard such as the one incorporated into Research in Motion's BlackBerry™ Wireless Handheld device (and further described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,611,255 B2 to Griffin et al., incorporated herein by reference in its entirety); a handwriting recognition based capability such as that incorporated into Microsoft's Transcriber 1.5 software or a character set and handwriting recognition system such as the ones described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,493,464 to Hawkins et al. and U.S. Pat. No. 5,889,888 to Marianetti, II, et al., both incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. As yet another alternative, a speech recognition (or speech-to-text) system may be employed, such as for example the IBM ViaVoice family of speech recognition software, which allows voice-controlled navigation through various fields within a data file, as well as entry of text or other types of annotations. It will be obvious to one skilled in the art that other methods of digital or analog data entry may be substituted for the methods described above with similar effect and that such other methods are within the scope and spirit of the invention disclosed herein. [0065] Using these or similar methods, Purchasers could add additional Information about the transaction (for example, in the case of a business dinner which will be subsequently submitted as a business expense reimbursement request, the name of the people present at the meal and the business related matters discussed at the meal) to a dedicated data field or fields (“Comment Fields”) within the Electronic Receipt, the Related Information File or the Consolidated Information File or all three. The Comment Fields would allow annotation of the Information File without interfering with the verification and authentication features incorporated into the Information File. [0066] FIG. 6 is a logical flowchart showing an alternative embodiment of the invention incorporating the capability to manage information about multiple billing accounts and their corresponding authentication information. In the alternative embodiment, billing information relating to multiple Purchaser billing accounts is stored in encrypted form on the DTD 203 along with corresponding authentication information (such as a user personal identification number or numbers or information allowing the system to authenticate the Purchaser's thumbprint) also stored in an encrypted format. Each billing account is identified by a user selectable name that does not include the actual billing account number (for security purposes). [0067] If the transaction is in-person, the DTD 203 is presented to the Vendor (step 603 ). The Vendor connects the DTD 203 to a Hub 202 either attached to the Vendor's POST 201 or built in to the Vendor's POST (not shown). The Hub 202 reads Purchaser authentication and encrypted billing information (which includes data identifying the thumbprint(s) of the party(ies) authorized to use the DTD 203 ) stored on the DTD 203 (step 604 ). A display either built in to the Hub 202 or connected to the Hub 202 (not shown) displays the user selected names for each of the billing account numbers stored on the DTD 203 and asks the Purchaser to select an account for use in the transaction (step 605 ). After the Purchaser selects a billing account (step 606 ), the Hub 202 retrieves the billing information corresponding to the selected billing account from the DTD 203 (which includes Purchaser authentication data identifying the thumbprint(s) of the party(ies) authorized to use that billing account) (step 607 ) and decrypts the Purchaser authentication data stored in the encrypted billing information. The Hub 202 then authenticates the identity of the Purchaser by reading the thumbprint of the Purchaser presenting the DTD 203 by means of a thumbprint scanner present on either the Hub 202 or the DTD 203 and then comparing that data against the decrypted Purchaser authentication data (step 608 ). If the thumbprint scan information matches the decrypted Purchaser authentication information, the Purchaser is authenticated. If the thumbprint scan information does not match the decrypted Purchaser authentication information, the Purchaser is not authenticated. [0068] If the Purchaser is authenticated as valid, the Hub 202 indicates to the POST 201 that the transaction may proceed, decrypts the billing information and passes the billing information to the POST. The POST then completes the transaction as described in the manner previously described in FIG. 4 beginning with step 409 (step 610 ). If the Purchaser is not authenticated, the Hub 202 alerts the POST 201 which then cancels the transaction (step 621 ) or alternatively, asks for an alternate method of payment. [0069] If the transaction is not being conducted in person (for example a transaction conducted over the Internet), the process will be largely the same as described above except: following step 602 , the Purchaser establishes a secure connection between their web browser software and the Vendor's transaction server using one of several secure communication standards (such as Secure Socket Layer) that are will known in the art (step 611 ). The Purchaser is then prompted to connect the DTD 302 (whether via wireless or wired connection) to a hardware connection on their computer 301 (step 612 ). Depending on the specific configuration of the DTD 302 , various wired and/or wireless connection standards may be used either singly or in conjunction with additional hardware attached to the Purchaser's computer 301 . Software (not shown) on the Purchaser's computer 301 reads encrypted Purchaser authentication and billing information (which includes data identifying the thumbprint(s) of the party(ies) authorized to use the DTD 203 ) stored on the DTD 302 (step 613 ). The Purchaser's pre-selected names for each of the billing account numbers stored on the DTD 302 are displayed for the Purchaser and the Purchaser is asked to select an account for use in the transaction (step 614 ). After the Purchaser selects a billing account (step 615 ), the Purchaser's computer 301 retrieves the billing information corresponding to the selected billing account from the DTD 302 (which includes Purchaser authentication data identifying the thumbprint(s) of the party(ies) authorized to use that billing account) (step 616 ) and decrypts the Purchaser authentication data stored in the encrypted billing information. A thumbprint scanner 303 present on the DTD 302 reads the thumbprint of the Purchaser (step 617 ). The thumbprint scan information and the encrypted billing information (which includes encrypted authentication information including data identifying the characteristics of the authorized billing party's thumbprint) on the DTD 302 are then transferred to the transaction server via the secured connection (step 618 ). The transaction server then transfers the thumbprint scan information and the billing information to the Hub 202 (step 619 ). The Hub 202 decrypts the Purchaser authentication data stored in the encrypted billing information and then uses the thumbprint scan information to authenticate the identity of the Purchaser by comparing the thumbprint scan information to the decrypted Purchaser authentication information (step 620 ). If the thumbprint scan information matches the decrypted Purchaser authentication information, the Purchaser is authenticated. If the thumbprint scan information does not match the decrypted Purchaser authentication information, the Purchaser is not authenticated. [0070] If the Purchaser is authenticated as valid, the Hub 202 indicates to the POST 201 that the transaction may proceed, decrypts the billing information and passes the billing information to the POST. The POST then completes the transaction as described in the manner previously described in FIG. 4 beginning with step 409 (step 610 ). If the Purchaser is not authenticated, the Hub 202 alerts the POST 201 which then cancels the transaction (step 621 ) or alternatively, asks for an alternate method of payment. [0071] FIG. 7 is a flowchart of an alternate method of verifying the authenticity and integrity of elements within a Consolidated Information File. After the steps prior to step 410 on FIG. 4 are completed, the Specific Transaction Data about the transaction, including, optimally, the name of the vendor, the date of the transaction, the list of the items transacted (with individual prices), the subtotal of the transaction, the tax (if applicable), the total of the transaction purchase price, the Vendor's transaction identifier number (if applicable) and a Payment Card transaction reference number (if applicable) is electronically stored in a binary file (the “Electronic Receipt”) (step 712 ). Information identifying the One-Way Hash Algorithm that will be applied to the Electronic. Receipt is also stored in the Electronic Receipt (step 713 ). A One-Way Hash algorithm is then applied to the Electronic Receipt (step 714 ) yielding a Message Digest that is unique to the Electronic Receipt (step 715 ). The Electronic Receipt Message Digest is then encrypted using a Private Key belonging to the Vendor (step 716 ) yielding an Encrypted Electronic Receipt Message Digest that is unique to the specific transaction and Vendor. The Encrypted Electronic Receipt Message Digest is then attached to the Electronic Receipt (step 717 ). If desired, additional Information indirectly related to the transaction at hand (for example data relating to the Purchaser's participation in the Vendor's loyalty program or in the case of a medical Vendor, updates to the Purchaser's medical record), may also be either included in the Electronic Receipt or stored in a separate, preferably encrypted electronic file (a “Related Information File”) or both (step 719 ). The Encrypted Electronic Receipt Message Digest, the Electronic Receipt and the Related Information File (if applicable) are then combined into a binary file or file set (hereinafter be referred to as an “Consolidated Information File”) (step 720 ). A One-Way Hash algorithm is then applied to the Consolidated Information File (step 721 ) yielding a Message Digest that is unique to the Consolidated Information File (step 722 ). The Consolidated Information File Message Digest is then encrypted using the same Vendor Private Key that was used to encrypt the Electronic Receipt Message Digest (step 723 ) yielding an Encrypted Consolidated Information File Message Digest that is unique to the specific transaction and Vendor. The Encrypted Consolidated Information File Message Digest is then attached to the Consolidated Information File (step 724 ) [0072] If the transaction is being conducted in person, the Consolidated Information File will be transferred from the Hub 201 to the DTD 203 (step 726 ) where it will be stored as an individual file or checked into a software application or a consolidated data file (for example as a series of entries in a relational database table or tables that are part of an independent distributed database) along with other Consolidated Information Files for secure (encrypted) or non-secure storage (step 727 ). The DTD 203 can then be disconnected (whether physically or wirelessly connected) from the Hub 202 (step 728 ). [0073] If the transaction is not being conducted in person, rather than transferring the Consolidated Information File to the DTD 203 , the Hub 202 transfers the Consolidated Information File to the transaction server which in turn transfers the Consolidated Information File back to the Purchaser's computer 301 via the secured connection (step 729 ). The secure connection is then terminated (step 730 ). [0074] Alternatively, if encryption is not required or desired, after the Specific Transaction Data is stored in the Electronic Receipt (step 712 ) the Electronic Receipt may be combined with Information (if desired) into a Consolidated Information File (step 720 ) (omitting steps 713 through 717 ). In such case, the Consolidated Information File will not contain an Encrypted Electronic Receipt Message Digest. The Consolidated Information File will not be encrypted, but rather will then be transferred from the Hub 201 to the DTD 203 (in the case of an in-person transaction) (step 726 ) (omitting steps 721 through 724 ) or to the transaction server for transmission to the Purchaser's computer 301 (in the case of a not in-person transaction) (step 729 ) (omitting steps 721 through 724 ). [0075] FIG. 8 is a diagram of an exemplary embodiment of the method of transferring healthcare data and healthcare related data employing the principles taught in the instant invention. Specific Transaction Data and Information is exchanged between a Purchaser and its various healthcare Vendors as well as other authorized users of the data (in this example, the Purchaser's employer and the healthcare insurance company paying the Vendors for the healthcare services). At such times as the Purchaser may choose, the Purchaser's distributed database Data File on a Data Transfer Device ( 801 ) can be synchronized with Purchaser's distributed database Data File hosted by Purchaser's Pharmacy #1 ( 802 ), Purchaser's distributed database Data File hosted by Purchaser's Physician #1 ( 803 ), Purchaser's distributed database Data File hosted by Purchaser's Physician #2 ( 804 ), Purchaser's distributed database Data File hosted by Purchaser's Pharmacy #2, and/or Purchaser's distributed database Data File hosted by Purchaser's Hospital ( 806 ). In each case, synchronization of the distributed database Data File on the Data Transfer Device ( 801 ) and the distributed database Data File that is hosted by the Vendor in question is initiated by connecting the Purchaser's Data Transfer Device (not shown) via wired or wireless means to either a computer hosting the Vendor's version of Purchaser's Data File or a Hub (not shown) connected to a computer hosting the Vendor's version of Purchaser's Data File (not shown). [0076] After the Data Transfer Device is connected to either the Vendor's computer or the Hub, software resident on either the Data Transfer Device, the Vendor's computer or the Hub manages synchronization of the Data File on the Data Transfer Device ( 801 ) with the Data File on the applicable Vendor's computer. The Data Transfer Device is then disconnected from the Vendor's computer or the Hub. [0077] At a later time, the Data Transfer Device is connected to the Purchaser's computer (not shown). At that time, software resident on either the Data Transfer Device or the Purchaser's computer manages synchronization of the Data File on the Data Transfer Device ( 801 ) with the Data file on the Purchaser's computer ( 808 ). The Purchaser's Data File can also be synchronized via a Local Area Network or Wide Area Network connection ( 812 ) to a remote computer on which a distributed database Data File is being hosted ( 807 ). [0078] Alternatively, synchronization files can be created from a Vendor's distributed database and emailed to a Purchaser (or alternatively from a Purchaser's distributed database and emailed to a Vendor) in order to allow the Purchaser to use software resident on their computer to synchronize their Data File with the Vendor's emailed synchronization file. As required, the Data File on the Data Transfer Device ( 801 ) or the synchronization files created from distributed database Data Files can be processed using the methods taught herein to provide users with the ability to authenticate and verify the information in said File or files. [0079] It will be recognized that while certain aspects of the invention are described in terms of a specific design examples, these descriptions are only illustrative of the broader methods of the invention, and may be modified as required by the particular design. Certain steps may be rendered unnecessary or optional under certain circumstances. Additionally, certain steps or functionality may be added to the disclosed embodiments, or the order of performance of two or more steps permuted. All such variations are considered to be encompassed within the invention disclosed and claimed herein. [0080] While the above detailed description has shown, described, and pointed out novel features of the invention as applied to various embodiments, it will be understood that various omissions, substitutions, and changes in the form and details of the device or process illustrated may be made by those skilled in the art without departing from the invention. The foregoing description is of the best mode presently contemplated of carrying out the invention. This description is in no way meant to be limiting, but rather should be taken as illustrative of the general principles of the invention. The scope of the invention should be determined with reference to the claims.

Methods and apparatus for conducting electronic transactions such as commerce transactions or purchases and exchanging related information. In one aspect, a robust and integrated apparatus and associated method is provided whereby a purchaser can securely provide transaction data and/or information in an electronic format to another party such as a vendor. In one exemplary embodiment, the purchaser can authenticate his or her right to use the billing information contained therein to complete a purchase without actually having to disclose the billing information in a human readable format, thereby enabling the vendor to obtain and authenticate the purchaser's identity and billing information while still protecting the purchaser's privacy, and without requiring disclosure of the purchaser's billing information to the vendor's employees or any other parties. In another aspect, the vendor can provide information about the transaction in an electronic form that can be authenticated and verified for accuracy.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/576,882, filed Jun. 3, 2004 and U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/676,086, filed Apr. 28, 2005. The entire contents of the above applications are incorporated herein by reference. FIELD [0002] This invention relates to the fields of form creation and programming, and database querying and browsing. BACKGROUND [0003] Programming languages, if they are to go beyond the stage of research prototype, need a large community of developers to sustain their growth. Languages with small communities tend to wither. This is especially true in the modern context where languages must interconnect with a rapidly-changing landscape of other technologies. Visual languages, which tend to be aimed at small domain-specific audiences, have had a hard time achieving the critical mass necessary to become mainstream tools. Unless they find a sufficiently large niche to fill they remain curiosities. Further, currently available client applications are not typically usable for simple data and workflows as well as for complex workflows and/or unique data types. SUMMARY [0004] One aspect of the present invention is directed to solving the above adoption problem. Additionally, another aspect of the present invention is directed to providing users with the ability to customize a running application by dropping in any component or class and wiring the methods, properties and events of that component into the running application using visual wiring. Additionally, the present invention is directed to providing XML definitions for the user interfaces and the underlying logic. Additionally, the present invention is directed at providing a mechanism for allowing forms within an application to alter both the look and behavior of the hosting application whenever they are in view. Additionally, the present invention is directed at providing a new paradigm for interacting with a history of queries and the results of those queries. [0005] A preferred embodiment comprises a visual language configured to utilize the infrastructure of a mainstream platform and take advantage of economic effects associated with a large network of users and component providers. In various aspects, systems and methods of the present invention enable translation of the primitives of a modern object-oriented language into a visual form and provide component composition facilities through a graphic interface. [0006] A preferred language is based on Microsoft's .NET platform, permits dataflow and event connections between .NET objects, and enables integration of a variety of disparate components such as query systems, browsers, and web services. Various aspects include the use of reflection to discover and expose object members, the use of the .NET type system to constrain and guide users' choices, and propagation algorithms that use heuristics to make the system conform to users' expectations. A preferred visual language is part of Visual Dataflow Language Base (“VDL Base” or “Base”). VDL Base can be implemented to assist in pharmaceutical drug discovery. [0007] In one embodiment, the present invention provides a visual wiring language allowing forms and applications to be customized while they are still running. In another embodiment, the present systems and methods can automatically create “references” to any “part” (component) in the hierarchy of components that constitutes the running application. These references can be added to a form to provide an affordance for wiring the “part” being referenced to the rest of the form. As will be recognized, an affordance can be an object that suggests and permits a particular action. For example, a doorknob can be an affordance that suggests and permits the acts of turning and pulling; a button on a screen can be an affordance that suggests and permits clicking. [0008] In an embodiment, Base operates as an integration of the visual dataflow paradigm with the techniques of modern-day IDEs, language platforms and XML-based page description languages. [0009] In an aspect, the present invention is directed to a computer system comprising a display component operable to display a visual application design; a first visual programming component with an exposed first programming attribute; a second visual programming component with an exposed second programming attribute; and a wiring component operable to automatically generate a first visual connector between first visual programming component and the second visual programming component based on one or more relationships between the first visual programming component and the second visual programming component. [0010] In various embodiments, the first visual connector is a wire; the first visual connector is generated further based on user input data; the first visual connector is generated between the exposed first programming attribute and the exposed second programming attribute; the first visual connector is generated in response to data indicating that a user has dragged the first visual programming component onto the second visual programming component; the first visual connector connects the exposed first programming attribute and the exposed second programming attribute; the first visual connector is generated in response to data indicating that a user has dragged a mouse pointer from the first visual programming component to the second visual programming component; the first visual connector connects the exposed first programming attribute and the exposed second programming attribute; the second visual programming component has been added to the visual application design in response to user input; the exposed first programming attribute comprises a first component pin; the first component pin is displayed to a user; the first component pin is not displayed to a user; the exposed second programming attribute comprises a second component pin; the second component pin is displayed to a user; the second component pin is not displayed to a user; at least one of the first visual programming component and the second visual programming component is a standard component; the standard component is not a member of a particular class; the standard component is added during runtime; at least one of: (a) the first visual programming component, (b) the second visual programming component, and (c) the first visual connector is added during runtime; a second visual connector connects a first user interface to at least one of the first and second visual programming components; each of the exposed first and exposed second programming attributes are members of an existing platform; the platform is .NET; the first visual connector is at least one of a data connector and an event connector; the visual application design is at least one of: (a) an application, (b) a form, and (c) a workflow comprising a plurality of forms; at least one of the first visual programming component and the second visual programming component is added by dragging and dropping a corresponding component from a component library onto the visual application design; the first programming attribute comprises at least one of: a class, system, element, control, function, and object; the second programming attribute comprises at least one of a class, system, element, control, function, and object; the system further comprises a part manager component; the part manager component is operable to make the visual application design conform to users' expectations; the visual application design is made to conform to users' expectations based on heuristics; the part manager component is operable to allow event activations after a threshold of data has arrived at a component; the part manager component is operable to sequentially order events; the part manager is operable to manage transfer of data between components; the transfer comprises depth-first propagation; the transfer comprises breadth-first propagation; at least one of the first visual and second visual programming components is a bottle; the bottle stores a data value and provides access to the data value. [0011] In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a system for modifying a visual application design comprising a first visual programming component with an exposed first programming element, wherein the first visual programming component corresponds to a member of a first class; a second visual programming component linked to the first visual programming component, wherein the second visual programming component corresponds to a member of a second class related to the first class; a modifying component operable to modify the first visual programming component in response to data indicating that the second visual programming component has been modified. [0012] In various embodiments, the first visual programming component is modified in response to data indicating that the second visual programming component has been modified only while the first visual programming component is in scope; the first visual programming component returns to an unmodified state when the first visual programming component is no longer in scope; the second visual programming component has been added to the virtual application design in response to data indicating that a user has dragged and dropped the second visual programming component into the visual application design; the first visual programming component is modified in response to data indicating a user has dragged and dropped components from a component library onto the second visual programming component; the modifying component is operable to modify the first visual programming component during runtime in response to data indicating that the second visual programming component; the visual application design is one of: (a) an application, (b) a form, and (c) a workflow comprising a plurality of forms. [0013] In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a system for displaying database queries and results comprising a display component operable to display a search history tree comprising one or more nodes and one or more arrows; and a query component operable to add a first arrow pointing to a first node to the search history tree, the first arrow representing a first search query and the first node representing results of the first search query, wherein the first arrow and the first node are added to the search history tree in response to data indicating that a user has dragged a search element onto a second node representing results of a second search query, and wherein the results of the first search query are based in part on (a) the search element and (b) the results of the second search query. [0014] In various embodiments, the data indicating that a user has dragged a search element onto a second node comprises data indicating that a user has dragged a third node representing results of a third search query onto the second node; the results of the second search query and the results of the third search query are logically combined to produce the results of the first search query; the results of the second search query and the results of the third search query are logically combined based on data indicating that a user has selected at least one of: a logical OR, a logical AND, a logical NOT, a logical NOR, and a logical NAND; the data indicating that a user has dragged a search element onto a second node comprises data indicating that a user has dragged a second arrow representing a second search query onto the second node; the results of the second search query are modified based in part on the second search query to produce the results of the first search query; the search element comes from a library of search elements; the search element is at least one of: a filter, a query, and a search result. [0015] In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a system comprising means for displaying a visual application design; means for displaying a first visual programming component with an exposed first programming attribute; means for displaying a second visual programming component with an exposed second programming attribute; and means for automatically generating a first visual connector between first visual programming component and the second visual programming component based on one or more relationships between the first visual programming component and the second visual programming component. [0016] In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a system for modifying a visual application design comprising means for displaying a first visual programming component with an exposed first programming element, wherein the first visual programming component corresponds to a member of a first class; means for displaying a second visual programming component linked to the first visual programming component, wherein the second visual programming component corresponds to a member of a second class related to the first class; means for modifying the first visual programming component in response to data indicating that the second visual programming component has been modified. [0017] In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a system for displaying database queries and results comprising means for displaying a search history tree comprising one or more nodes and one or more arrows; and means for adding a first arrow pointing to a first node to the search history tree, the first arrow representing a first search query and the first node representing results of the first search query, wherein the first arrow and the first node are added to the search history tree in response to data indicating that a user has dragged a search element onto a second node representing results of a second search query, and wherein the results of the first search query are based in part on the search element and the results of the second search query. FIGURES [0018] FIG. 1 is a screen shot illustrating how a user browses the results of a query against a database of molecules; [0019] FIG. 2 illustrates a Component Use case description [0020] FIG. 3 is a diagram illustrating a propagation sequence; [0021] FIG. 4 illustrates various part constructions; [0022] FIG. 5 illustrates a gate part; [0023] FIG. 6 illustrates various pin constructions; [0024] FIG. 7 illustrates the wiring of a currency exchange web service; [0025] FIG. 8 illustrates how a database query is wired in an embodiment; [0026] FIG. 9 is a block diagram illustrating components of the present systems and methods; [0027] FIG. 10 illustrates a depth-first propagation; [0028] FIG. 11 illustrates reference parts; [0029] FIG. 12 illustrates gates as used in accordance with the present systems and methods; [0030] FIG. 13 illustrates a typical search history tree; [0031] FIGS. 14-21 illustrate typical user interface windows during form design; and [0032] FIG. 22 depicts an illustrative VDL Base workflow. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0033] The following definitions are used in this description, but should not be construed as limitations to the scope of the described invention. [0034] A Child refers to a parameter or data that is related to parameters or data at a higher level. Additionally, a child can also refer to the hierarchical relations of parts, or to fields in a hierarchical recordset. A Parent refers to a parameter or data that is related to parameters or data at a lower level. [0035] Data Mapping refers to the process of defining how one data source is linked to another for the purpose of both importing and exporting data to and from a data source. [0036] Data normalization is converting data to consistent units of measure. This is necessary because the same field in different databases might be stored using different units. For example, one database might uses milliliters, another microliters, and the display may be requested in nanoliters. So converting units of measure is required when querying, retrieving, or displaying data. Sometimes, data normalization means “convert the data's range to [0:1].” Sometimes it means “show the data in a Gaussian distribution.” Sometimes it means using consistency in units of measure. In all of these cases, data values are converted to facilitate the comparison of disparate data. [0037] A Data Source provides access to a Database. Examples of databases are: corporate structure repository, ACD (VDL content database), document repository, forms repository, and XDFILE. (A Target Data Source is the Data Source in use for a particular operation, at a particular point in time.) [0038] A Document can exist on the screen, on paper, or in the Document Repository. A Document appears on the screen when VDL Base displays a RecordSet in a Form. Users can print, save and retrieve documents. [0039] Document navigation is moving through a document on the screen with the purpose of viewing graphic objects and text that are displayed via a Form. (See Form and Form Navigation.) [0040] The Document Repository stores Documents that the user saves. [0041] A Filter is a set of search criteria that can be used to refine a record set to include only the records that you want. Filtering is the process of refining search results by applying additional search criteria. Filtering can be accomplished in either of two ways: (1) Modifying the original query to include the additional criteria (for example, by adding querylets), and then rerunning the query; (2) Applying a previously stored filter object to the search results. Both methods create a new node in the History. [0042] A Form is a definition for how data is visually presented to users. For example, a form can bring together information in a Query, a View, and a RecordSet so that users can see it-on the screen or on paper. [0043] Form Navigation is examining a list of available forms and selecting one for use. [0044] Form Object is an item an end-user can add to a form and manipulate the properties. Objects include drawing objects, text, fields from a data source and tables from a data source. [0045] Home Page is a VDL Base form created by an administrator or advanced form designer which provides high level views of the user's workflow, enabling the user to quickly navigate within VDL Base to the area of interest. [0046] A List is an object that represents the rows (but not the data) that is returned by a Search. These rows comprise either a list of primary search keys (a Static List) or the Query object and the Data Source (Dynamic List, for use in a subsequent Search). [0047] Normalization—see Data Normalization; Schema Normalization and Structure Normalization. [0048] A Parent refers to a parameter or data that is related to parameters or data at a lower level. A Child refers to a parameter or data that is related to parameters or data at a higher level. [0049] A Pin refers to an exposed attribute of a part or an encapsulated object. For example, an exposed attribute may be visually presented as a pin which may represent an exposed property, event, method, function, coding element, data item, or similar object member. As will be recognized, pins may be visible or invisible. [0050] Preferably is used herein to mean “preferably but not necessarily.” [0051] A Query is an object that defines the where clause of an SQL search command. It can be applied multiple times, can be combined with other Query Objects, and it can be saved and retrieved in a Query library. [0052] A Querylet is a fragment of a Query. It contains the search criteria for a single field in the database. (It provides users with a quick way to search without having to create a form.) [0053] A RecordSet contains the data that is returned from a Search as well as metadata that describes the View, which is used to display the data. [0054] Rgroup decomposition is the identification of Rgroup structures (also called generic structures and Markush structures) in a molecule by “decomposing” or collapsing a set of real structures into a single generic structure. When drawing a molecule, Rgroups are represented as an “R.” [0055] Rgroup decomposition is the opposite of Rgroup enumeration, where you take a generic structure and enumerate all of its possible real values. [0056] A SAR table (Structure Activity Relationship table) shows the results of measuring a series of related compounds with respect to a certain property of interest. For example, a SAR table might show a series of related compounds that were measured with respect to their effectiveness as an inhibitor. Compounds in a SAR table are related in that they share the same core structure but have different Rgroup values. [0057] Schema normalization is changing a database schema to make it more usable. This can be done in various ways according to rules set out in the literature. One schema might be more efficient at storing than another. One schema may be more efficient at searching than another. Conversion from one schema to another is sometimes necessary to optimize performance. [0058] To Search is to perform a systematic search of database, using search criteria that the user specifies. [0059] Structure normalization is converting chemical representations to a standardized form. Structure normalization makes it possible to consistently query, retrieve, and display structures. [0060] A Target Data Source is the Data Source in use for a particular operation, at a particular point in time. A Data Source can provide access to a Database. Examples of databases are: corporate structure repository, ACD (VDL content database), document repository, forms repository, and XDFILE. [0061] The Template Repository contains templates for these objects: Form, Query, Report, View. Users can select templates from this repository, and modify them to create customized Forms, Queries, Reports and Views. Users can save their customized templates in the Template Repository. [0062] A View defines how to retrieve data. A View describes the select clause of an SQL search command. [0063] A Visual Programming Component is any part or component that is visually represented on a form, application, workflow, or related displayed item (also referred to herein as a part or a component). [0064] A Vocabulary is a list of text or numerical values that are valid for querying (or registering to) a given data source. Users pick values from a Vocabulary list when they construct a search, or when they register information. [0065] Widget is an item an administrator or advanced form designer can add to a form that has special properties and events associated. A widget can include custom buttons, advanced form options and templates, time stamps, advanced tables. [0066] Workflow is how work flows through a system or component. [0067] In one embodiment, a system implementing VDL Base comprises a client-side interface for allowing users to query a database of compounds by molecular structure and other characteristics, view the results, and send a selected subset of the results on for future processing (for instance, by another application that orders compounds to be delivered from a catalogued inventory). Other workflows can be implemented in VDL Base as well. For example, a form designer or end user could use VDL Base's visual wiring language to create a series of forms for the user to fill out to populate a database. [0068] A preferred embodiment enables customization of forms and applications while they are still running. For example, users can modify the user interface and logic of an existing VDL Base application using visual wiring. They also can add new components (e.g., a .NET class or control) to a form or application and “wire” its methods, properties, and events to the rest of the application. As will be recognized, a .NET component does not have to implement any particular interface or extend any particular class in order to be integrated. This allows users to extend the system with standard classes that can be obtained commercially as well as custom written. As will be further recognized, although many of the descriptions below discuss operation with Microsoft's® .NET platform, any suitable platform can be used. [0069] A preferred embodiment can automatically create “references” to any “part” in the hierarchy of parts that constitutes the running framework and application. These references can be added to a form to provide an affordance for wiring the “part” being referenced to the rest of the form. For example, users can drop a menuitem “part” on a reference to a menu and that menuitem will automatically be added to the menu being referenced. Similarly a user can change a property on a reference and the property will be changed on the object of that reference. Wiring to the methods, properties, and events of a reference is just like wiring to the methods, properties, and events of the object being referenced. Preferably, changes made to an object through the use of a reference to that object remain in effect only as long as that reference is currently in scope (i.e., the current form level has not changed, the current parent window is still active, or the hierarchical level has not changed, etc.) For example, if a user were to add a reference to the File menu of an application to the current form and then set the “visible” property of the reference to “false,” the “File” menu of the application would disappear. Once the user navigated away from the active form (e.g., by going to another form) the “File” menu would reappear, since the reference gets “unapplied” when its parent form is no longer in scope. [0070] In one preferred embodiment, references to parts can be applied across forms or windows on the same hierarchical level as the forms or windows using those parts. An example would be a tabbed pane of windows each using a reference to a part. In such cases, it is convenient to call the first window displaying the part the “parent” and each subsequent window displaying the reference a “child.” References to parts can be applied in forms or windows lower in the hierarchy of forms or windows using those parts. An example would be a child window or form referencing a part in a parent window or form. As will be recognized, a child window may be an independent window, or a frame within a parent window. As will be further recognized, where a workflow comprises of a number of forms, a referenced part can be a part originating in a previous form (i.e., one that is higher in the workflow hierarchy,) or a form that appears on a display window first. [0071] A referenced part may represent a part that is displayed or was created in a parent form or a parent window. In an embodiment, a child form or window can reference the part from the parent window, e.g., the part can be added to the child window or form by reference without the need to create a new part. Further modification of the referenced part may be implemented by adding items to the referenced part. Such modifications will appear on the child form (window). Preferably, modifications made to the referenced part also are reflected on the parent part. Such reflected changes on the parent part may be temporary, (i.e., until the parent part is no longer in scope.) As will be recognized, references to parts may be generated automatically within the hierarchy, or may be created manually when a reference is desired. A further discussion of references is provided below in connection with FIG. 11 . [0072] FIG. 1 is a screen shot preferably displayed to a user browsing the results of a query ( 102 ) against a database of molecules. When a user is browsing a form in design mode, various indicators preferably signal that design mode is active. For example, graphics indicating construction ( 110 ) or warning signs may be presented. Additionally, in one embodiment, wiring may be exposed ( 120 ) when in design mode. In one embodiment, VDL Base uses a box-and-wire visual metaphor. One benefit is the way in which a visual dataflow paradigm is integrated with a non-visual underlying platform. [0073] A preferred VDL Base application comprises a set of forms or screens, each of which comprises a hierarchical structure of components. Forms may be described by XML documents. Components may be connected by wires that provide data and event flows. A “wiring component” is software operable to create one or more visual connectors (“wires”) between components. As will be recognized, any programming object (such as a .NET object), can be added to a form including both user interface components and internal objects that are normally invisible. The members of an object may be translated into visual affordances and may be connected with wires. [0074] In an embodiment, the wiring language is intended to connect components on a single form and between forms (“workflow”). Typical applications will be managing user interfaces and establishing dataflows between parts of a complex form. [0075] FIG. 2 illustrates a Component Use case description. In a preferred embodiment, a component builder builds a component that can be integrated into the wiring language (step 200 ). Components, pins, wires, etc., are described in detail below. In step 202 , a form designer builds a form including components, and connects them with wires. When more than one form is used, a workflow is created (step 204 ). In steps 206 and 208 , a user utilizes a created form, and may place new widgets in the form to generate the results desired. Other components can be included, and may be incorporated using hidden wires on the form. Details of the elements described in connection with FIG. 2 are below. [0076] As will be recognized, components may be stored in a component library and may be added to a form by a “drag and drop” by a user. [0000] Parts, Pins, and Wires [0077] The wiring language of a preferred embodiment may be used to provide component-based visual programming. Parts (components) expose some of their values, events, or methods via Pins. The pins are connected via wires. This provides a simple visual method for specifying relationships between the components that make up a form. Parts can include both visible widgets (controls) and invisible components that provide computational or other services. [0078] The part system preferably works by forming a hierarchical tree that parallels and extends the existing graphic containment hierarchy (for example, as provided by .NET's user interface package, e.g., Windows Forms). A typical part can encapsulate another object. Parts can be named so they can be referenced by other parts in XML definition files and elsewhere, and they can provide a framework to keep track of pins, serialization, and any other information necessary to extend an object so that it can operate in the visual framework as disclosed. [0079] A fragment of an XML form definition is provided below (geometry information has been omitted for brevity): <form _Name=“form1”>  <textbox _Name=“text1” Text=“(cons ′a ′b)”>   <expose Member=“Text” Mode=“output” />  </textbox>  <button _Name=“button1” Text=“Eval” >   <expose Member=“Click” Mode=“output” />  </button>  <object _Name=“obj1” Class=“DotLisp.Interpreter”>   <expose Member=“Eval(System.Object)” />  </object>  <wire From=“text1.Text” To=“obj1.Eval?str” />  <wire From=“button1.Click” To=“obj1.Eval” />  <wire From=“obj1.Eval?result” To=“text3.Text” /> </form> [0080] As will be recognized, this XML format is similar to that provided by languages like XAML. The <form>, <textbox>, <button>, and <object> tags all can define parts that form a hierarchy. However, various embodiments provide clear advantages over prior art languages. For example, such embodiments can provide the ability to encapsulate an arbitrary object (via the <object> tag) and mix it with ordinary controls; the ability to expose properties, events, methods, functions, coding elements, etc., of objects via the <expose> tag (such exposed properties, events, methods, functions, coding elements, etc., can be represented visually as a pin); and the ability to connect exposed pins with wires (via the <wire> tag). [0081] It should be recognized that the XML coding may be hidden from users who preferably construct it using a designer user interface (UI) discussed below. [0082] As described above, in various embodiments, parts form a hierarchy that defines form and application structure, parts have names so they can be referenced in the XML and elsewhere, parts encapsulate controls and other .NET objects, and parts can expose object members as pins. As will be recognized, any method, component, class, element, etc., available in a platform may be encapsulated and utilized in the present systems and methods. [0083] Pins preferably expose attributes (also referred to herein as programming attributes) of a part or its encapsulated object. For example, an exposed attribute may be visually presented as a pin which may represent an exposed property, event, method, function, coding element, data item, etc. As an additional example, pins may represent exposed attributes of .NET objects. [0084] In one embodiment, an exposed attribute is visually presented on a screen as a pin to provide a visual location for attaching a wire. In another embodiment, pins are not visually represented on a screen; however, exposed members can still be connected to via wires. In yet another embodiment, attributes may be exposed without generating a corresponding pin. In one embodiment where pins are not represented on a screen (i.e., invisible pin or exposed attribute without a corresponding pin), wires may be generated automatically between parts be dragging and dropping one part onto another part. In another embodiment where pins are not represented on a screen, a user may make a gesture with a mouse, and a wire may be generated automatically. As described in detail below, this wiring model (also referred to as a smart wiring model) allows wires to be automatically connected to the appropriate exposed methods, controls, objects, members, data items, etc. In one embodiment, where more than one connection point is available, a dialog box prompts a user to indicate the desired connection. In another embodiment, only one connection point is available, and the wire is connected automatically. [0085] Pins can be further classified according to whether they primarily deal with data (values) or events. A preferred pin hierarchy is: [0086] Input Pins Data Input property pins Input method argument pins Input list pins (combines multiple inputs into a list) Event Input method pins [0093] Output Pins Data Output property pins Output method result pins Event Output event pins [0099] In an embodiment, data pins transmit values subject to type restrictions. As described above, these values may be .NET objects. They can inherit the data type of their underlying object members (such as a string, number, RecordSet, or Molecule). [0100] As described above, pins are preferably created by exposing selected members of the underlying object. Typically this creates a single pin, but in the case of a method with arguments or a result value, it can create multiple pins. Since a typical object might have dozens of available members, requiring an explicit expose step reduces visual clutter by only visualizing the properties that are actually interesting to the user. [0101] Preferably, wires connect an output pin to an input pin of a compatible type. A data wire, i.e., a wire between two data pins, preferably means that the value at the input pin should reflect the value at the output pin. The details of maintaining this correspondence typically are the job of a Part Manager (described below); preferably, they are abstracted away and not directly under a form builder's control. [0102] Event wires preferably represent something closer to a traditional event handler or method call. For example, an event output pin preferably represents an event such as a button click (an event occurring in time), while an event input pin preferably represents a method or other action. An event connection (event wire) preferably connects methods to events so that the methods are triggered at the same time the event happens. In an embodiment, event connections represent the event handlers or method calls within a particular platform, e.g., .NET. [0103] In a preferred embodiment, the wiring system responds to changes in the wiring configuration or any underlying events, even when in design mode. It thus operates at the highest level of “liveness,” and changes made to a form when in design mode are immediately reflected on the screen. For example, where a user adds a component to display a value to a form, that component would immediately reflect its value. [0104] As described above, a goal of the wiring language is to provide a method for simple component-based visual programming. Parts (components) can expose some of their values, events, or methods via pins. The pins are connected via wires. This provides a visual method for specifying relationships between the components that make up a VDL Base form, both visible widgets and invisible components that provide back-end services. In a preferred embodiment, form designers drop widgets into the system and wire it. [0105] Parts are the basic components of a preferred system. Usually a part will encapsulate a .NET control (such as a button) or a non-control UI element (such as a menu item). As will be recognized, any platform's methods, components, classes, elements, etc., can be encapsulated in present systems and methods. Encapsulating provides a graphical representation of the underlying coding elements of the encapsulated item. [0106] As described above, pins and wires can be split into two classes: those that deal with data (objects) and those that deal with events. As will be recognized, these have different semantics and should be considered separately. [0107] Pins and wires can also be used to signal events. Wiring an event pin to a method pin can implement a behavior. [0108] Many platforms have a strictly-typed object model. As such, all objects can belong to a class, and all variables can have a type that restricts them to holding objects of a certain type. In a preferred wiring system, pins correspond to variables, so they also can be typed. The type of pins can be a useful guide to wiring, in that it can be used to guide the user into making only meaningful connections, and in some cases automating the wiring entirely. As will be recognized, the pins do not have to be visible in order for connections to be established. Accordingly, in one embodiment, the pins may be visible. In another embodiment, the pins may not be visible. [0109] In an embodiment, where rigorous object-oriented programming types are implemented, rather than the more interactive and informal activity of form building, it may be beneficial to loosen the type checking implemented. For instance, it may be useful if a user could directly wire a numerical output (say, from a counter) to a text field for display, rather than having to explicitly connect it through a type-conversion component as would be required by strict type-checking. Type coercion can be defined by a module that encapsulates all knowledge about type coercions, and can both coerce values to types and report on the compatibility of types (for error checking and feedback during wiring). [0110] When the value of an output data pin changes, the new value must propagate to the input pins of connected parts. This in turn may cause other components to change their output pins, causing a chain of propagation. FIG. 3 is a diagram illustrating a propagation sequence. As shown, the user enters text in a text box, causing the string to be translated into an integer and used to set the width of another component. [0111] In an embodiment, wires can be created automatically in response to user actions. For instance, simply dropping in a text box widget into a data aware form (DAF) might automatically set up wires between the form and the box. This is a function of the DAF, the wiring model must support this mode of use. In an embodiment, the Part Factory is operable to automatically wire. [0112] FIG. 4 illustrates a preferred parts hierarchy. As described above, parts are the objects connected by the wiring system. Parts contain pins which provide their interface. In an embodiment, a part can encapsulate another object and expose its properties as pins, e.g., the class EncapsulatingPart. [0113] In an embodiment, parts inherit from the GeneralizedNode class so that they can maintain a containment hierarchy for serialization and navigation purposes. The following are illustrative of various function calls, methods, components, and prototypes present in various embodiments. Those skilled in the art will recognize their implementation and application in the present systems and methods. [0114] ARRAYLIST PINS( ) [0115] VOID ADDPIN(PIN) [0116] PIN GETPINNAMED(STRING) [0117] VOID ACTIVATE( ) [0118] Activate the part. The default method simply calls activate on all output pins. [0119] PROPERTYPIN EXPOSEINPUTPROPERTY(STRING, TARGET) [0120] PROPERTYPIN EXPOSEINPUTPROPERTY(STRING) [0121] PROPERTYPIN EXPOSEOUTPUTPROPERTY(STRING TARGET) [0122] Creates and adds a pin that represents the named property of the target object. [0123] PROPERTYPIN EXPOSEOUTPUTPROPERTY(STRING) [0124] Creates and adds a pin that represents the named property of a default object. This will usually be the encapsulated object. If the property name is preceded by an underscore (ie, “_Name”) then the default object is the Part itself rather than the encapsulated object. [0125] Other Expose methods can have similar signatures and conventions as the above. In such instances, they may create and add a pin that represents the named property. [0126] OUTPUTEVENTPIN EXPOSEEVENT(STRING) [0127] Expose the named event as an output event pin [0128] INPUTEVENTPIN EXPOSEMETHOD(STRING) [0129] Expose the zero-argument method named by string as an InputEventPin [0130] ArrayList ExposeMethod(MethodSpec) Expose the method as an InputEventPin and its arguments as InputDataPins. [0131] ARRAYLIST EXPOSEEVERYTHING( ) [0132] Expose all public properties, events, and methods of the part. [0133] PUBLIC STATIC VOID PROPERTYWIRE(OBJECT O1, STRING P1, OBJECT O2, STRING P2) [0134] This can be used for wiring together two arbitrary objects via properties. P1 and P2 are property names. O1 and o2 are objects that get encapsulated with the appropriate Parts. [0135] PUBLIC STATIC VOID EVENTWIRE(OBJECT O1, STRING EVENT1, OBJECT O2, STRING METHOD2) [0136] This can be used for wiring together two arbitrary objects via events and methods. O1 and o2 are objects that get encapsulated with the appropriate Parts. Event1 is an event name (for o1) and method2 is a method name (for o2). [0137] class EncapsulatingPart: Part [0138] ENCAPSULATINGPART STATIC ENCAPSULATE(OBJECT) [0139] Create a part to encapsulate an object. [0140] EXPOSE [0141] The Expose methods have an identical interface but by default they expose properties, etc., on the encapsulated object rather than on the part itself. [0142] class WidgetPart: EncapsulatingPart [0143] A WidgetPart encapsulates a widget (Control). This class knows how to instrument the widget so that user events will cause the object to be activated. [0144] class CompositePart: Part [0145] CompositeParts encapsulate a network of other Parts, exposing some of the pins of the inner parts as their own. [0146] class ScriptPart: Part [0147] Script parts have a script, e.g., in Jscript, VB.Net, or another scripting language. The Script itself can be exposed as a pin. Script objects can have arbitrary pins that are exposed as variables for the scripts. [0148] class JScriptPart:ScriptPart [0149] class VBScriptPart:ScriptPart [0150] class BottlePart:Part [0151] A bottle part accepts an object on an input pin and exposes some of its properties. In an embodiment, this can be different from EncapsulatingPart which can expose properties of the encapsulated component. This exposes properties of a data object. [0152] class GatePart:Part [0153] A GatePart serves to delay the transmission of a value along a wire until some event occurs. FIG. 5 illustrates a gate part. As shown in FIG. 5 , are text boxes 502 , gate 504 , and trigger 506 . Also shown (but not labeled) are the wires connecting the text various components. By way of non-limiting example only, where an input field will automatically update a subsequent field, it may be beneficial to leave the subsequent field un-updated until a trigger is activated. GateParts can have the following pins: In (type object) Out (type object) Trigger (EventInput) class MergePart [0154] In an embodiment, a normal input pin may have only one wire. It might be useful to have a special part (or pin) that can merge values from several sources. For example, where a part has many input pins, but only one output pin, the output may be whichever value is most current from any of the input pins. In an embodiment, the present systems and methods incorporate a multiplex input pin. [0155] FIG. 6 illustrates various pin constructions. Pins are exposed interfaces of parts that permit them to be connected to other parts. Pins belong to a part and have a target, i.e., the object they actually communicate with. This target can be either the part itself, the encapsulated object, or for composite parts, it may be a contained part. In general, pins should not be created by direct calls to their constructors. Instead, the Expose methods of parts should be used. As will be recognized, an InputEventPin can be used to expose a method. [0156] abstract class Pin [0157] STRING NAME [0158] TYPE TYPE [0159] OBJECT TARGET [0160] class InputPin:Pin [0161] CONSTRUCTORS [0162] public InputPin(string name) [0163] public InputPin(string name, object target) [0164] class InputPropertyPin:InputPin [0165] CONSTRUCTORS [0166] public InputPropertyPin(string name) [0167] public InputPropertyPin(string name, object target) [0168] WIRE(OUTPUTDATAPIN) [0169] Creates a wire. If there already is a wire to this input pin, it may be deleted. [0170] class InputEventPin:InputPin [0171] public InputEventPin(string methodName, object target) [0172] class MultiplexInputPin:InputPin [0173] class OutputPin:Pin [0174] ACTIVATE( ) [0175] NEWVALUE [0176] class OutputPropertyPin:OutputPin [0177] class OutputEventPin:OutputPin [0178] Wires are connections between two pins. In an embodiment, there may be only one class, Wire. [0179] Constructors [0180] public Wire(OutputPin output, InputPin input) [0181] DeleteWire( ) [0182] Wires can be defined in forms by means of XML elements. The exact syntax can be defined in the XML form specification language. By way of example only, a sample syntax may be: [0183] <wire outwidget=“mdbfile” outpin=“Text” inwidget=“localDB” inpin=“File”/> [0184] ERROR HANDLING [0185] As will be recognized, any known error handling method may be incorporated. [0186] WEB SERVICES INTERFACE [0187] Web services are becoming increasingly important to many applications, and there have been efforts to allow access to them through visual languages. The present systems and methods can support this in conjunction with existing platforms, e.g., .NET tools. [0188] FIG. 7 illustrates how a currency exchange web service is wired in an embodiment. As shown, there are two invisible parts on this form, one representing the web service 702 and a part that performs an arithmetic multiplication 704 . The web service part can be automatically created from a published file, e.g., by a .NET utility that converts the service into a class with methods corresponding to the service APIs. In an embodiment, these methods are turned into wireable pins. In this case the web service takes as input the names of two different countries and outputs the exchange rate between their currencies; this number is then used as a coefficient to a multiplier. As shown, the pins and wires illustrate the connectivity of the components in FIG. 7 . When the input text for the particular countries is input ( 706 and 708 ), and the convert button is pressed ( 710 ), the exchange rate of invisible component 702 is passed to invisible multiplier block 704 . The previously entered value in block 712 is then multiplied by the passed rate, and the output (on the output pin of block 704 ) is passed to the input pin of text box 714 , where the result is displayed. In an embodiment, the exchange rate can be passed on the output pin of block 702 to a separate display block's ( 716 ) input pin. As will be recognized, the wires connecting the blocks are connected via the pins described above. [0189] FIG. 8 illustrates how a database query is wired in an embodiment. As shown, the results of a database query appear in box 802 (here displaying diphenylfulvene). In an embodiment, this box can hold a single database field. In an embodiment, the value of this field appears on _DataItem pin 804 and changes as the user scrolls through the result set. That is, where a new result is displayed in box 802 , the value on the pin changes automatically. As illustrated, this pin can also be wired to the Param0 pin 806 of a StringMaker object 808 , which also has as an input a URL template 810 . The StringMaker substitutes the query value in the template, passes it through its output pin 812 , where it travels along a wire 814 to the URL input pin 816 of a web browser part 818 . In an embodiment, the effect of this wiring is to automatically perform a new web query as the user scrolls through a result set. Additional pins for StringMaker 808 and query box 802 are shown and can be utilized in various embodiments. As will be recognized, additional components, input pins, and output pins can also be implemented. [0190] FIG. 9 is a block diagram illustrating components of the present systems and methods. As shown are blocks representing a Form Designer 902 , ObejctStore 904 , Part Factory 906 , Navigator 908 , Parts Pins Wires ( 910 , and also described above), Part Manager 912 , and Components 914 . In an embodiment, the Form Designer is the user interface to the part and wire system. The Part Factory can be the module of the system that translates between an XML format and part hierarchies. The Navigator can supervise changes to the part hierarchy (for instance, when a user triggers a transition to a new form). The Part Manager can supervise propagation of values through the wiring system. The Form Designer can be the “meta-user-interface” that allows a user to construct and manipulate forms through a designer UI. The Component Library can contain definitions of parts. [0191] As will be recognized, the system can be in “run mode” in which case UI widgets work normally, or in Design Mode where mouse clicks and other commands manipulate the form components and allow pins and wires to be created and manipulated. The Form Designer facilitates drawing pins and wires, and because forms can contain non-visual parts as well as controls, the Form Designer also facilitates creating visualizations for such parts when in Design Mode. In an embodiment, the Form Designer is implemented as a transparent overlay over a standard .NET window. As described above, even when in design mode, changes to a form may be reflected immediately. [0192] In an embodiment, a form is designed by dragging in components from a component library, which is implemented as set of small XML snippets that define a component. Such components can be based on an underlying .NET class with some properties exposed as pins. As will be recognized, any objects can be added to the form, providing the necessary wiring pins. [0193] In an embodiment, VDL Base can consist of a hierarchical structure of parts or components, specified through a collection of XML files, e.g., in a format similar to that of XUL or XAML. In an embodiment, a part may be a user interface control such as a button, table, or textbox, a container for other UI parts, or a non-UI part that does behind-the-scenes computation. In certain embodiments, other modules of the system are centered around manipulating the part hierarchy in some way. [0194] Where the wiring system makes use of .NET's reflection capabilities, it is possible to examine objects for available properties and operations, and invoke them at runtime. Reflection can be used to write dynamic languages on top of static ones. Computational performance is not generally a factor in the UI event handling described above. [0195] Dynamic access to event-handling at runtime can also be done through reflection, but requires additional components. For example, .NET event handlers have strong type checking on their arguments, which makes it difficult to have a universal, generic event handler that can work with any type of event. Accordingly, a custom event handler can create custom event handler classes on demand, at run time, using .NET's built-in code generation facilities. [0196] As is known in the art, .NET has a strictly-typed object model. All objects belong to a class, and all variables, arguments, and properties have a type that restricts them to objects of a certain class. In a wiring system, pins correspond to variables, and thus are typed. The type of pins can be a useful guide to wiring, in that it can be used to guide the user into making only meaningful connections, and in some cases automating the wiring entirely. [0197] However, it may be desired to loosen the type checking imposed by .NET, which is designed for rigorous object-oriented programming rather than the more interactive and informal activity of form building. For instance, it would be useful if a user could directly wire a numerical output (say, from a counter) to a text field for display, rather than having to explicitly connect it through a type-conversion component as would be required by strict type-checking. [0198] Type coercion is defined by a module that encapsulates all knowledge about type coercions, and can both coerce values to types and report on the compatibility of types (for error checking and feedback during wiring). [0199] In an embodiment, strong typing can be utilized in connection with smart wiring. Often, it may be awkward to create wires with the mouse due to the small size of the screen representation of pins (which in turn is necessitated by the need to conserve screen real-estate). The alternate wiring technique is to use a mouse gesture that sweeps from one part to another. The system then computes all the possible wires that could be created from the first part to the second, using the type system as a constraint. Often there will only be a single possible wire, which is then created. If there are more than one, the user can select the appropriate connection from a dialog. [0200] Propagation is the process of transmitting values and events from one part to another. In an embodiment, when the value of an output data pin changes, the new value must be propagated to the input pins of connected parts. This in turn may cause other components to change their output pins, causing chains of activity. A visual dataflow language can create certain expectations through its use of flow metaphors. Relevant analogies are electricity flowing through a circuit, water flowing through pipes, or traffic flowing through a network of streets. These paradigms suggest that events will propagate through the network in parallel if there are multiple paths branching out from the node of origin. [0201] In an embodiment each part is responsible for propagating any output pins that changed. As will be recognized, this is natural from the implementation perspective, and can result in changes propagating in a depth-first traversal of the wiring graph. In an embodiment, a breadth-first graph traversal can be used to preserve the linkages between topology and causality. [0202] In an embodiment, the Part Manager facilitates breadth-first propagation. In particular, this module can supervise all part activation and propagation, and can control the ordering of events. [0203] In order for propagation to happen, the wiring system needs to be notified when there is a possibility that the value of an output pin has changed. In an embodiment, this is done by creating event handlers for all (or a subset of all) events on an encapsulated Control. These handlers can call the Activate( ) method which can initiate propagation as described above. In various embodiments, non-terminating loops can be prevented by only propagating when a value changes, and limiting each pin to a single propagate event. [0204] FIG. 10 illustrates a depth-first propagation. As shown in FIG. 10 , display box 1002 can be a molecule editor that emits a value on pin MolFileString 1004 , and an event on StructureChanged 1006 whenever the user edits the molecular structure 1008 . The goal of the wiring network is to have this action trigger a new query. As will be recognized, the Query Object part 1010 , which performs the query, depends on two different paths that connect back to the molecule editor. For the wiring to work correctly, the updated query must be available from QueryBuilder 1016 (via the QueryString pin 1012 ) before the input from display box 1002 (via the DoSearch pin 1014 ) is received and the query is triggered. To ensure that the presence of QueryBuilder and QueryString in the proper order, modified propagation heuristics can be employed. [0205] In an embodiment, a breadth-first graph traversal algorithm tracks nodes that need to be handled. In an embodiment, the Part Manager (as described above) is operable to do this, and is further operable to maintain any number of queues with different priorities. Broadly stated, in this context, the goal of the Part Manager is to allow event activations after all values have arrived, and to attempt to order events so any dependencies are computed in the proper order. In one embodiment, depth-first propagation is utilized. In another embodiment breadth-first propagation is used. [0206] As will be recognized, the queues can contain output pins that have yet to transmit their values across attached wires. In an embodiment, two queues are utilized, one for value output pins and another for event output pins. [0207] One cycle of the Part Manager can be described as follows, although this is only a representative description: 1) dequeue a pin (see below); 2) send value across its attached wires; 3) input pins accept the value; 4) the associated part method is called possibly resulting in more output pins getting queued; 5) repeat until queues are empty [0209] As will be recognized, selecting the next pin to be propagated can be an important distinction. Accordingly, the Part Manager is operable to perform the following steps: if there are any pins on the value pin queue, choose one of them, otherwise, if there is exactly one pin on the event pin queue, choose that, otherwise, select one of the queued event pins based on its dependencies: For each pin, see if it has dependencies on any other pin (i.e., a backwards tree-crawl) If a pin with no dependencies is found, select it. If no such pin is found, there are circular dependencies and it's not possible to pick a good ordering, so give up and pick the first pin in the queue. [0216] This section describes some special-purpose parts that extend the basic mechanisms described above, as well as some parts that make up the library of built-in parts. Additionally, various terms are described below describing many terms associated with the present systems and methods. These parts can be used independently or collectively in various embodiments as described. [0217] Composite Parts [0218] Any programming language needs some sort of abstraction mechanism. In a visual wiring system this generally means the ability to collapse a network of parts and wires into a single component so that it can be easily reused. These can be referred to as Composite Parts. Composites are defined in separate XML files using the same syntax as forms, with additional syntax that allows pins of contained parts to be promoted to the surface of the composite. For instance, a composite can include a text box, a label, and some hidden mechanisms. [0219] Reference Parts [0220] Reference parts are a special kind of part that allows a form to contain a cross-reference to a part that is in its hierarchical scope, or otherwise not directly accessible (for instance, they can be used to create references between parts on different panes of a tabbed pane container). References can be used to change properties of their referenced part, to expose pins, or to add additional subparts. A reference can also be used to change the behavior, properties, or children of a class in an application's hierarchy of classes. [0221] FIG. 11 illustrates reference parts. As shown, FIG. 11 includes two references: one to the existing Help menu 1102 , and a reference to an added subpart called Advice Item 1104 . This item is then connected via an event wire 1106 to a dialog launcher part 1108 , which will pop up a dialog that is defined by a separate XML file. [0222] As described above, and in Appendix D, various files can have references, e.g., Application.xml, Workflow.xml and Form.xml can have some references. [0223] A reference can be a link (by name) to an object in the hierarchy. The hierarchy can preferably be composed of VDL Base->application->workflow->form. In this example, an object can only be reference by a lower level object. Once an object from one level is referenced by a lower level, the reference attributes (from the lower level) will change the attributes of the object. Once the level will change, the attributes will return to their initial states. [0224] For instance, a Form that disables a toolbar from the Base during the time frame that the Form can be displayed. The Base.xml may be: <Base>    <Window ...>    ...       <Toolbar name=”Base\MainToolbar”       enable=”true” visible=”true”>    ...    </Toolbar>    </Window> ... </Base> The FormCompLoc.xml may be: <Form>    ...    <!-- References can only modify the state of an object that is   upper in the hierarchy Base\application\workflow\from-->    <References>       <Reference name=”Base\MainToolbar”       enable=”false” visible=”false”/>    </References> </Form> [0225] Once the Application's Form has changed, the Base\MainToolbar may return automatically to its initial state (enable=“true” visible=“true”). If a user needs to have the bar disabled during a whole application, then the Reference can be done at the Application.xml level instead of at the Form.xml level. [0226] The ApplicationCompLoc.xml can be: <Application>    ...    <!-- References can only modify the state of an object that is   upper in the Hierarchy Base\application\workflow\from-->    <References>       <Reference name=”Base\MainToolbar”       enable=”false” visible=”false”/>    </References> </Application> [0227] Gates [0228] FIG. 12 illustrates gates as used in accordance with the present systems and methods. In an embodiment, gates are regular parts that allow finer-grained control of when values are transmitted along wires. For example: if the Text output pin 1202 of a textbox 1204 is directly connected to another textbox or a query generator, every character the user types will change the value of that pin and result in events propagating forward. This creates a very “live” feeling to an application but can cause performance problems if the receiving operation is expensive, and can also be disconcerting to a user. To change this, a gate part 1206 is inserted into the wire and triggered by the EnterKeyEvent (traveling via wire 1208 ). Now the Out pin of the gate 1210 won't transmit the Text value until the appropriate point. [0229] Bottles [0230] Bottles solve a semantic problem that is common to visual component languages. The problem is the dichotomy between objects that are relatively static (the components) and those that are in virtual motion along the wires (data values). A bottle essentially captures and holds a data object so that its properties may be accessed through wires. [0231] In a preferred embodiment, bottles accept as input an object of any type and a string indicating the property of interest. Such input can be stored (“bottled”). Bottles can provide two pins, Out and In, that make the value of the named property available and allow it to be set, respectively. Extensions to the implementation would allow the runtime creation of multiple pins exposing multiple properties, as well as other members of the bottled object such as events or methods. [0232] Functional Computation Parts [0233] The components set include a set of parts that perform functional computations, including arithmetic, Boolean logic, inequalities, and the like. These parts generally expose one or more input data pins and a single output data pin, and are conceptually pretty simple since they involve no state or events. Other parts of this type include the StringMaker, If/then/else switches, and parts for extracting parts of recordsets. [0234] Query-Related Parts [0235] In various embodiments, current applications are used to query and browse databases. Accordingly, a number of parts exist to aid this process. These include the Query Object, which accepts as input a query specification (in UQL, a variant of SQL) and emits a record set on an output pin. Other parts can display, store, or manipulate these recordsets. [0236] Additionally, another important part is the Data Aware Form (DAF): a form which can accept a RecordSet as input and distribute it via the wiring system to internal parts, which can extract and display individual fields. The DAF can also perform a similar process for query forms, where it gathers up query clauses from a variety of fields, sends them through Query Logic parts to combine them, and generates a complete UQL statement. [0237] Asynchronous Parts [0238] As described, most parts either perform UI tasks or simple computations that take a trivial amount of time. Parts that perform time-consuming tasks may need to perform them in a separate thread to avoid long user-visible delays. The query object described above works this way, since queries can take significant amounts of time. Generally a part will launch a thread when triggered by some arriving event, and when the thread completes it will put some values on output pins. In one embodiment, all propagation happens within a single thread. [0239] As will be recognized, other embodiments can be implemented, such as a part that interfaces to a barcode reader and uses it as input to a normal query process; a part that performs text-to-speech translation; numerical display parts that color-code their values according to range; and a part that wraps an Excel spreadsheet and allows query results to be wired in. These parts can then connected via the wiring language to utilize existing functionality (for example, the inputs or outputs of database queries). [0240] In an embodiment, to preserve screen real-estate, a separate logical view for doing wiring, in which the layout of components can be decoupled from their “physical” location in the end-user interface. In an embodiment, special serializing components or the addition of ordering annotations to the wires can be implemented to further facilitate the above operation. [0241] As will be recognized, setting up large forms can be simplified by allowing the creation of many wires in a single operation. Additionally, debugging can implement debugging tools that print traces of wiring activity; as well as more elaborate tools that include steppers and smarter tracers that can condense events down to a description more comprehensible. [0242] Search History [0243] FIG. 13 illustrates a typical search history tree. A description of the search history is included below, and a detailed explanation is included in Appendix C. In an embodiment, VDL Base uses a tree paradigm to represent the queries (arrows) and results (nodes) that the user has completed. In an embodiment, the VDL Base history is highly interactive. For example, users can click on arrows in the tree to navigate to the query forms used to specify those queries. Modifying the query form causes a new arrow to be sprouted that represents the new query. Clicking on a node (e.g., the filled circles in the tree) takes the user to the results form represented by that node. Dragging a query from one node to another node, applies that query to the new node (uses the result set represented by the new node as the search domain for that query). Dragging a node onto another node allows the user to use “list logic” to create a new result set from the two original result sets. For example, a popup window may request the type of action a user desires. In one embodiment, a user can right-click on nodes or arrows to operate on the queries or result sets they represent (e.g. save the form, export the result set, save a branch, rename, change the description, etc.) [0244] In an embodiment, the search history graph records and structures queries and other recordset producing operations, the results of these operations, and the relationships between them. It displays them in graphic form and allows the user to view and manage them. It typically is associated with a display pane, which it uses for displaying selected recordsets and queries. In one embodiment, multiple search panes each containing a search tree (or search elements) are available for a user to apply an existing node (results) or edge (query) onto a displayed node. For example, a node on one search screen can be dragged and dropped onto a node in a separate search screen. In this way, users can drag and drop search elements within and also between windows, panes, or search screens. Search elements can include filters, queries displayed as an arrows or elements in the library, results of pervious queries displayed as nodes or an elements in the library, etc. [0245] In an embodiment, the visual display of the search history is a directed graph consisting of nodes connected by edges. Nodes can represent search results (lists or recordsets) and edges can represent operations that generate new lists (queries other operations). Both nodes and edges can be active UI objects. Nodes present affordances for recordset operations such as revisiting a result set and starting a new search. Edges present affordances for query operations. [0246] The Search History Graph can consist of a control bar on top and a display area below. It can have an associated Display Pane, typically to the right, which is used for displaying selected items. The display shows the network of nodes and edges. One node or edge may be selected, in which case it is graphically highlighted. Multiple selection is not supported. [0247] Additionally, the search history can implement a menu with menu items such as Save, Save As, Cut/Copy/Paste, should be applied to the selected object when appropriate. [0248] As will be recognized, there may be more than one root node. Typically, the search history will start with a single root node that represents a data source. The single node can, however, also represent a result set from a search query. The display is laid out automatically, and reconfigures itself when nodes and edges are added or deleted. In an embodiment, manual layout mechanisms are also provided. [0249] FIGS. 14-21 illustrate typical user interface windows during form design. As shown, during visual form design, a user can drag and drop various components, parts, pins, wires, etc. (as described above) onto a form. The corresponding methods and functions are implemented using the systems and methods described. [0250] As shown in FIG. 14 , a form is displayed, whereby a user is presented with a search tree in window 1402 . The results displayed in window 1402 come from a previous user search. A user may drag a search element from a library of search elements onto a node or an arrow in a search tree to perform a new search. Such search elements can include filters, queries (displayed as an arrow or an element in the library), results of pervious queries (displayed as a node or an element in the library), etc. For example, a user may drag a molecular weight filter (box 1410 ) onto element 1408 , to further filter the results. By way of another example, a user may drag a predefined query from the library onto a node to further filter the results. By way of yet another example, a user may drag a result from the library onto an arrow representing a search query. As will be recognized, a new result node or a new search query can be added to the search element library such that it is available to be accessed by a user. [0251] As described in connection with FIG. 19 , search elements can also include nodes representing search results and arrows representing search queries that are already displayed on the search tree. In one embodiment, a user can actively modify a search tree by dragging and dropping search elements that are displayed on the screen. In another embodiment, a user can actively modify a search tree by dragging and dropping elements from a library of search elements. [0252] FIG. 15 illustrates that a new arrow 1502 has been formed representing the search modifier, and a new result node has been generated 1504. [0253] As illustrated in FIG. 16 , a user may click on an action (arrow) to modify search criteria. For example, the user may modify the molecular weight filter ( 1602 ) to <200 and click the run filter button 1603 . [0254] FIG. 17 illustrates the result of modifying the filter. As shown, arrow 1702 representing a new action and node 1704 representing new results have been generated. The results can be saved as shown by specifying a name ( 1720 ), description ( 1730 ), and clicking an “ok” button ( 1740 ). FIG. 18 illustrates the results of applying the new filter as described in FIG. 17 . [0255] FIG. 19 illustrates the effect of a drag and drop from one node to another node. As shown, the result node 1902 is dragged onto result node 1904 . As described above, the system recognized that the user wishes to combine the results of the two nodes, and accordingly requests the type of combination the user wishes in FIG. 20 . As shown in FIG. 21 , the user has chosen to OR the results, yielding a new result node 2102 . As will be recognized, the numbers presented with the result nodes indicate the number of entries corresponding to that node. That is, for node 1902 , there are 432 results items, and for node 1904 , there are 588 items. When these results are OR'ed, there are 1020 result items, as indicated in FIG. 21 . [0256] FIG. 22 illustrates a typical VDL workflow. As shown, a workflow may encompass a variety of workflow elements, including creating data sources, creating databases, creating forms, registering, output, UI navigation, search history, list logic, Graphs, Tasks, Searching, and Browsing. Additionally, flow may Hop Across elements to achieve a more efficient result. [0257] In an embodiment, the class elements, methods, functions, etc., are implemented as illustrated in Appendix A. In an embodiment, the present systems and methods are designed in accordance with the functional specification included as Appendix B. [0258] A further description of various embodiments is provided in Appendix D. Other embodiments will be apparent by those skilled in the art. [0259] For ease of discussion, functions of components may be described independently. Although components and their functions may be described independently, one skilled in the art will recognized that one component may be operable to perform the functions of any number of components. For example, where it is described that one component may be with an exposed first attribute, and a second component may be with an exposed second attribute, it should be recognized that one component may be operable to expose both the first and second attributes. [0260] While the present invention has been illustrated and described above regarding various embodiments, it is not intended to be limited to the details shown, since various modifications and structural changes may be made without departing from the spirit of the present invention. Additionally, although above descriptions are mostly directed to embodiments where .NET is used, one skilled in the art will recognize that the invention is not limited to such embodiments, and may be used on any number of platforms. Without further analysis, the foregoing will so fully reveal the gist of the present invention that others can, by applying current knowledge, readily adapt it for various applications without omitting features that, from the standpoint of prior art, fairly constitute essential characteristics of the generic or specific aspects of this invention.

A preferred embodiment comprises a visual language configured to utilize the infrastructure of a mainstream platform and take advantage of economic effects associated with a large network of users and component providers. In various aspects, systems and methods of the present invention enable translation of the primitives of a modem object-oriented language into a visual form and provide component composition facilities through a graphic interface. A preferred language is based on Microsoft's .NET platform, permits dataflow and event connections between .NET objects, and enables integration of a variety of disparate components such as query systems, browsers, and web services. Various aspects include the use of reflection to discover and expose object members, the use of the .NET type system to constrain and guide users' choices, and propagation algorithms that use heuristics to make the system conform to users' expectations.

REFERENCE TO COPENDING APPLICATION This is a continuation-in-part application of our copending application U.S. Ser. No. 750,372 filed Dec. 14, 1976, now abandoned. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to a device for the measurement of ionizing radiation dose. More particularly, the present invention relates to a device for measuring high-level ionizing radiation dose, in which the junction field effect transistor is adopted as a dose detector to effect the measurement of the absorbed radiation dose particularly in the high-level range of from 10 6 to 10 9 rads by utilizing the radiation effect on the junction field effect transistor (hereinafter referred to briefly as J-FET). The devices which have heretofore been developed for the measurement of high-level ionizing radiation dose include a chemical dosimeter which makes use of the chemical change caused in a sample in the form of a solution by the ionizing radiation, a thermal fluorescent dosimeter which utilizes the phenomenon that the energy entrapped by radiation within the measuring element is emitted as fluorescent light upon a thermal treatment, a plastic film dosimeter which utilizes the discoloration of plastics, such as polymethyl methacrylate and blue cellophane, caused by the ionizing radiation, glass dosimeter which utilizes the formation of color centers in glass, a solar battery dosimeter which utilizes the change in resistance of a solar battery and a hydrocarbon dosimeter which utilizes the chemical change in hydrocarbon. For the purpose of measurement of high-level ionizing radiation dose, all these conventional devices combine merits and demerits. To be specific, most chemical dosimeters are capable of measuring radiation dose to the level of about 10 7 rads at most and some of the hydrocarbon dosimeters permit dose measurement up to 10 9 rads. With these dosimeters, the test specimens cannot be reused, the treatments involved consume much time and the specimens required in the detection units cannot easily be reduced in size. With thermal fluorescent dosimeters, measurement of radiation dose beyond the level of 10 6 rads is not possible. With plastic dosimeters and glass dosimeters, the proportional relationship between the dose of radiation and the response is lost beyond the level of 10 7 rads. These dosimeters cannot be used for the measurement of dose higher than 10 8 rads and do not permit re-use of test specimens. With dosimeters utilizing solar batteries, although the proportional relationship between the ionizing radiation dose and the response is obtained over a wide range of from 10 4 rads to 10 8 rads, the dosimeters themselves have a disadvantage of being usable only within narrow temperature and humidity ranges and do not permit easy dimensional reduction. The J-FET is extensively used as the principal element in low-noise low-frequency amplifiers. It has been ascertained in the art that the noise of the J-FET is closely related to the defect centers causable such as by inclusion of impurity in semiconductor. The inventors have made a discovery that the defect center generated in the depletion layer near the channel layer in consequence of the irradiation of the ionizing radiation to J-FET functions to enhance the noise in the same way as the defect center of the type causable such as by inclusion of impurity and that the change in the square of the noise voltage is directly in proportion to the amount of the irradiated radiation dose or to the irradiated radiation fluence. This discovery has led to the present invention. An object of the present invention, therefore, is to provide a device which permits easy measurement of high-level ionizing radiation dose of the order of from 10 6 to 10 9 rads. Another object of this invention is to provide a device which uses a highly compact measuring unit and yet permits easy measurement of high-level ionizing radiation dose. A further object of this invention is to provide a device for the measurement of high-level radiation dose which permits ready regeneration of the measuring unit. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION To attain the objects described above according to this invention, there is provided a device for the measurement of ionizing radiation dose, comprising in combination a J-FET adapted to be irradiated by the ionizing radiation to be measured, means for detecting the noise voltage generated in said J-FET, means for computing the square of the noise voltage detected by said means for the detection of noise voltage before and after irradiation of the ionizing radiation under measurement to said J-FET, and means for determining the dose of the ionizing radiation under measurement on the basis of the values of the squares of said two noise voltages. Since the J-FET is adopted as the measuring element, the device of this invention provides easy measurement of high-level radiation dose on the order of 10 6 to 10 9 rads and the measuring element used in this device enjoys a notably long service life. If the measuring element is exposed to a dose of greater than 10 9 rads, it can be regenerated by being heated at 200° C. and put to use again. Another advantage brought about by the use of J-FET is the ample reduction obtainable in the size of the device. The other objects and advantages of the present invention will become apparent from the description to be given in further detail hereinbelow with reference to the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a block diagram of the device of this invention for the measurement of high-level ionizing radiation dose. FIG. 2 is an explanatory view showing the state wherein the J-FET in the device of FIG. 1 is irradiated by ionizing radiation. FIGS. 3 and 4 are graphs each showing the relation between the absorbed dose and noise voltage obtained by the use of the device of this invention for the measurement of ionizing radiation dose. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS J-FET's are extensively used as principal elements in low-noise, low-frequency amplifiers. It has been ascertained that the J-FET noise is closely related with defect centers such as originate in the presence of impurities included therein. When the J-FET is irradiated with ionizing radiation the defect centers in the depletion layer near the channel layer increase in volume density and, similarly to defect centers such as are caused by impurities, function to increase the noise. It has been confirmed that particularly in the case of a J-FET which generates a noise voltage of the order of several nV, the squared increment of noise voltage (e 2 nD -e 2 nO ) is in direct proportion to the amount of radiation dose "D" of ionizing radiation, as represented by the following formula: D=k·(e.sup.2.sub.nD -e.sup.2.sub.nO) wherein "e nO " stands for the noise voltage before the irradiation of the ionizing radiation, "e nD " for the noise voltage after the irradiation of the ionizing radiation and "k" for the value which is constant for the kind of J-FET 1 in use and is empirically determined. By using a J-FET as a dose detection element, measuring the noise voltage of the J-FET before and after the irradiation thereof with the ionizing radiation and calculating the increment based on the two values thus measured, the dose of the radiation can easily be determined. FIG. 1 is a block diagram representing one embodiment of the device of this invention for measuring high-level ionizing radiation dose. With reference to FIG. 1, the device for measuring the noise voltage of J-FET is roughly divided into four units. Specifically, the device comprises a signal oscillator 4 serving to bias the signal voltage to the gate of J-FET 1, bias control means 6 adapted to amplify the signal including the noise component of the J-FET and feeding back the amplified output to the gate of the J-FET for thereby stabilizing the J-FET operation, a noise detector 9 serving to extract only the noise component from the amplified signal issuing from the bias control means, and a display unit 12 serving to display the extracted noise component. From the frequency signal generated by the oscillator 4, the selector 5 singles out the prescribed spot frequency. The frequency signal thus selected is applied as the carrier-wave signal to the gate of the J-FET 1 via the relay 3 and the connector 2. By biasing the gate of the J-FET 1 as described above, the electric current flowing between the source and the drain of the J-FET is controlled and the electric current flowing from the drain and containing the noise component due to the defect center of the J-FET is forwarded through the connector 2 and the relay 3 to the low-noise amplifier 7 of the bias control means 6, with the result that the low-frequency component is amplified. The output of this amplifier 7 is fed back to the gate of the J-FET via the bias control circuit 8 for the purpose of stabilizing the operation of the J-FET and, at the same time, forwarded to the carrier wave extractor 11 of the noise detector 9. From the output signal which has been generated by the amplifier 7 and forwarded to the carrier wave extractor 11, only the noise component is separated by application of an output signal of the reverse-phase frequency signal from the oscillator 10. The noise-component signal from the extractor 11 is subjected to the squaring operation in the logic circuit 13, with the results of the operation indicated in the display 12. For the determination of the dose of radiation by use of the apparatus described above, the noise voltage of the J-FET 1 prior to irradiation of the ionizing radiation is measured by the method described above. Then, the J-FET 1 is irradiated by the ionizing radiation "R". During the irradiation of the radiation, the J-FET remains in an electroconductive state. For the protection of the various elements, therefore, the relay 3 is switched to its grounding position and the base and drain of the J-FET are grounded (FIG. 2). When the irradiation of ionizing radiation is completed, the relay 3 is reset and the J-FET is connected to the related elements. Then, the noise voltage of the J-FET is measured again. Because of the radiant energy absorbed, the J-FET has had new defect centers formed therein in addition to the formerly existing defect centers. Consequently, the display indicates a numerical value which corresponds to the square of the total of noise voltages generated by all the defect centers present in the J-FET. By subtracting from the value in the display the square of the noise voltage of the J-FET measured prior to the said irradiation of ionizing radiation, the dose of the radiation in the irradiation just completed can be determined. All the logical operations involved herein can easily be carried out by using known arithmetic circuit. For effective use in this determination, the J-FET is desired to be of a type which generates a noise voltage of the order of several nV or less when a frequency signal of 1 KHz is applied thereto. The noise voltage measuring circuit in the J-FET which has been described with reference to FIG. 1 is merely one example. Any of the known noise voltage measuring circuits for use in transistors can be used in its place. If the accumulated dose of radiation absorbed by the J-FET has exceeded 10 9 rads and, consequently the performance of the J-FET has been intolerably degraded, the J-FET can easily be restored to its initial condition for reuse by removing it from the connector 2 and then giving it a heat treatment at temperatures in the neighborhood of 200° C. for two hours. The graph of FIG. 3 shows the relation between the dose of the ionizing radiation absorbed (horizontal axis) and the magnitude of the increment of the square (e 2 n ) of noise voltage consequently observed (vertical axis) as determined by using a device of the construction described above. By the irradiation of a 24.8 MeV electron beam and the J-FET is found to give a noise voltage of about 34.64 nV in the frequency zone of 1 KHz for a dose of about 2 × 10 6 rads of ionizing radiation. For an increased dose of about 2 × 10 7 rads of ionizing radiation, it is found to give a noise voltage of about 110 nV. The two noise voltages, when raised to the second power, give the values of 1200 (nV) 2 and about 12000 (nV) 2 respectively. From the results, it is readily seen that the ionizing radiation dose is directly in proportion to the square of the noise voltage. FIG. 4 is a graph showing the relation between the dose of ionizing radiation and the noise voltage generated consequently as determined by irradiation of the ionizing radiation to a J-FET which, because of an excess increase in dose beyond the level of 10 9 rads, had its performance degraded and which, therefore, had been regenerated by a heat treatment at about 200° C. for two minutes. By use of the same electron beam as before, the J-FET gives a noise voltage of about 63.2 nV for a dose of about 6 × 10 6 rads and a noise voltage of about 257 nV for a dose of about 10 8 rads, indicating that the regenerated J-FET gives higher levels of noise voltage than the J-FET in its unregenerated state. The two noise voltages, when raised to their second power, give the values of about 4000 and about 66000 respectively. The results clearly indicate that the aforementioned proportional relationship similarly holds good even in this case. Thus for the same dose of ionizing radiation, the regenerated J-FET generates a higher noise voltage than the J-FET in its unregenerated state. However, since the noise voltage inherent to this particular J-FET is found by finding the noise voltage prior to the irradiation to the ionizing radiation, no incovenience is experienced in putting the regenerated J-FET to re-use. As described above, this invention uses the J-FET as the element for detecting the high-level dose of the ionizing radiation impinging thereon and effects the desired measurement of the dose of said ionizing radiation on the basis of the change in the square of noise voltage generated by said J-FET before and after the irradiation of said ionizing radiation to this J-FET. In this measurement, substantially no fading is observed. Moreover, the J-FET is such that it can be readily regenerated for reuse by a heat treatment at about 200° C. Since the positional resolving power in the detection of ionizing radiation is of the order of 0.5 mm, the device of this invention is suitable for determining the high-level dose distribution in a given substance being irradiated with ionizing radiations. Because of the adoption of this J-FET, the device enjoys many other advantages such as, for example, high stability of performance with respect to humidity, temperature, impact etc.

When the junction field effect transistor is irradiated by ionizing radiations from a radioactive material or a particle accelerator, defect centers are generated in the depletion layer near the channel layer. The defect centers introduce additional electron states in the forbidden gap of the semiconductor and these additional states cause a great increase of the noise voltage in the junction field effect transistor. The amount of ionizing radiations irradiated to the transistor is directly in proportion to the change of the square of the noise voltage caused by the defect centers. On the basis of this relationship, the dose of the irradiated ionizing radiation can be measured by finding the amount of this change in the square of noise voltage before and after irradiation of the ionizing radiation to the transistor.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a cruise control apparatus for automatically controlling the running speed of a car to a set value. 2. Description of the Related Art In the cruise control apparatus that automatically controls the traveling speed of a car to a specified value, the turning on of a command switch causes the car speed at the turn-on operation to be stored in a controller and, depending on a difference between a memory car speed and an actual car speed, a cruise command signal is given to a motor-driven actuator, which in turn drives a throttle valve to execute a cruise control to match the actual car speed to the memory car speed. As a result, the car cruises at a constant speed. The cruise control apparatus described above, however, has a problem that when the command switch is used frequently or when the cruise control is performed while the car is traveling on a road with long, continuous up and down slopes, the frequency of the actuator increases, raising the temperature of the actuator. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is an object of the present invention to provide a cruise control apparatus that can prevent an increase in the actuator temperature to improve the reliability of the actuator. The cruise control apparatus according to a first aspect of the invention comprises an actuator to open and close a throttle valve; a controller to drive and control the actuator; and an actuator temperature estimation means to estimate an ambient temperature of the actuator based on a frequency of operation of the actuator; wherein the controller cancels a cruise control when temperature data given by the actuator temperature estimation means exceeds a predetermined value. The cruise control apparatus according to a second aspect of the invention comprises a command switch operated to generate a cruise command signal for performing cruising; a controller having a control unit to give an actuator a drive signal for cruising at a constant speed upon receiving the cruise command signal generated by the command switch; an actuator to control the opening and closing of a throttle valve of an engine according to the drive signal from the controller; an actuator temperature estimation means to estimate an ambient temperature of the actuator based on a frequency of operation of the actuator; a temperature check means to check whether temperature data given by the actuator temperature estimation means is in excess of a predetermined value and, when it decides that the temperature data is in excess of the predetermined value, generate an output signal; and a cancel means to apply to the control unit a cancel command signal for stopping the cruising while it is supplied with the output signal from the temperature check means. The cruise control apparatus according to a third aspect of the invention comprises a command switch operated to generate a cruise command signal for performing cruising; a controller having a control unit to give an actuator a drive signal for cruising at a constant speed upon receiving the cruise command signal generated by the command switch; an actuator to control the opening and closing of a throttle valve of an engine according to the drive signal from the controller; an actuator temperature estimation means to estimate an ambient temperature of the actuator based on a frequency of operation of the actuator; and a temperature check means to check whether temperature data given by the actuator temperature estimation means is in excess of a predetermined value and, when it decides that the temperature data is in excess of the predetermined value, generate an output signal; wherein the control unit disables the acceptance of the cruise command signal from the command switch while the temperature check means is generating the output signal. The cruise control apparatus according to a fourth aspect of the invention comprises a command switch operated to generate a cruise command signal for performing cruising; a controller having a control unit to give an actuator a drive signal for cruising at a constant speed upon receiving the cruise command signal generated by the command switch; an actuator to control the opening and closing of a throttle valve of an engine according to the drive signal from the controller; an actuator temperature estimation means to estimate an ambient temperature of the actuator based on a frequency of operation of the actuator; a temperature check means to check whether temperature data given by the actuator temperature estimation means is in excess of a predetermined value and, when it decides that the temperature data from the actuator temperature estimation means is in excess of a first value, generate an output signal and continue to generate the output signal until the temperature data from the actuator temperature estimation means is below a predetermined second value, the second value being lower than the first value; and a cancel means to generate a cancel command signal for stopping the cruising while it is supplied with the output signal from the temperature check means. The cruise control apparatus according to a fifth aspect of the invention comprises a command switch operated to generate a cruise command signal for performing cruising; a controller having a control unit to give an actuator a drive signal for cruising at a constant speed upon receiving the cruise command signal generated by the command switch; an actuator to control the opening and closing of a throttle valve of an engine according to the drive signal from the controller; an actuator temperature estimation means to estimate an ambient temperature of the actuator based on a frequency of operation of the actuator; and a temperature check means to check whether temperature data given by the actuator temperature estimation means is in excess of a predetermined value and, when it decides that the temperature data from the actuator temperature estimation means is in excess of a first value, generate an output signal and continue to hold the output signal until the temperature data from the actuator temperature estimation means is below a predetermined second value, the second value being lower than the first value; wherein the control unit disables the acceptance of the cruise command signal from the command switch while the temperature check means is generating the output signal. The cruise control apparatus according to a sixth of the invention comprises a command switch operated to generate a cruise command signal for performing cruising; a controller having a control unit to give an actuator a drive signal for cruising at a constant speed upon receiving the cruise command signal generated by the command switch; an actuator to control the opening and closing of a throttle valve of an engine according to the drive signal from the controller; an actuator temperature estimation means to estimate an ambient temperature of the actuator based on a frequency of operation of the actuator; and a temperature check means to check whether temperature data given by the actuator temperature estimation means is in excess of a predetermined value; and a cancel means to generate an output signal when the temperature check means decides that the temperature data from the actuator temperature estimation means is in excess of a predetermined first value, and to apply a cancel command signal to the control unit while the cancel means is supplied with the output signal from the temperature check means until the temperature data from the actuator temperature estimation means is below a predetermined second value, the second value being lower than the first value; wherein the control unit disables the acceptance of the cruise command signal from the command switch while the temperature check means is generating the output signal. The cruise control apparatus according to a seventh aspect of the invention comprises a command switch operated to generate a cruise command signal for performing cruising; a controller having a control unit to give an actuator a drive signal for cruising at a constant speed upon receiving the cruise command signal generated by the command switch; an actuator to control the opening and closing of a throttle valve of an engine according to the drive signal from the controller; an actuator temperature estimation means to estimate an ambient temperature of the actuator based on a frequency of operation of the actuator; a temperature check means to check whether temperature data given by the actuator temperature estimation means is in excess of a predetermined value and, when it decides that the temperature data from the actuator temperature estimation means is in excess of the predetermined value, generate an output signal; a cancel means to apply to the control unit a first cancel command signal for stopping the cruising while it is supplied with the output signal from the temperature check means; and a cancel hold means to generate a second cancel command signal for a predetermined time interval when the cancel means generates the first cancel command signal. In the cruise control apparatus according to the first aspect of the invention, when the temperature data from the actuator temperature estimation means exceeds the predetermined value, the controller cancels the cruise control. Because the actuator is not used for the cruise control when its temperature becomes high, its temperature rise can be suppressed. In the cruise control apparatus according to the second aspect of the invention, when the temperature check means decides that the temperature data from the actuator temperature estimation means is in excess of the predetermined value, the cancel means applies a cancel command signal to the control unit to stop the cruising. When the temperature of the actuator becomes high, the cancel means cancels the cruising, stopping the operation of the actuator. This suppresses the actuator temperature rise. In the cruise control apparatus according to the third aspect of the invention, when the temperature check means decides that the temperature data from the actuator temperature estimation means is in excess of the predetermined temperature data, the control unit does not accept the cruise command signal from the command switch. Because the input from the command switch is not accepted when the actuator temperature becomes high, the cruising is stopped and the actuator is not operated, thus limiting an actuator temperature rise. In the cruise control apparatus according to the fourth aspect of the invention, when the temperature check means decides that the temperature data from the actuator temperature estimation means is in excess of the predetermined first value, the cancel means applies to the control unit a cancel command signal for stopping the cruising until the temperature data from the actuator temperature estimation means goes below the predetermined second value. Because the cruising is canceled by the cancel means until the actuator temperature goes below the predetermined temperature, the actuator temperature rise can be suppressed. In the cruise control apparatus according to the fifth aspect of the invention, when the temperature check means decides that the temperature data from the actuator temperature estimation means is in excess of the predetermined first value, the control unit does not accept the cruise command signal from the command switch until the temperature data from the actuator temperature estimation means goes below the predetermined second value. Because the command switch input is not accepted until the actuator temperature is below the predetermined temperature, the cruising is not performed and the actuator is not operated, and the actuator temperature rise can be suppressed. In the cruise control apparatus according to the sixth aspect of the invention, when the temperature check means decides that the temperature data from the actuator temperature estimation means is in excess of the predetermined first value, the cancel means applies the cancel command signal to the control unit until the temperature data from the actuator temperature estimation means goes below the predetermined second value. When the temperature check means decides that the temperature data from the actuator temperature estimation means is in excess of the predetermined first value, the control unit does not accept the cruise command signal from the command switch until the temperature data from the actuator temperature estimation means goes below the predetermined second value. Because the cruising is canceled and the command switch is not accepted until the actuator temperature goes below the predetermined temperature, the cruising control is stopped and the actuator is not operated. This suppresses the actuator temperature rise. In the cruise control apparatus according to the seventh aspect of the invention, when there is an output signal from the temperature check means, the cancel means applies to the control unit the first cancel command signal for stopping the cruising. When there is the first cancel command signal from the cancel means, the cancel hold means generates the second cancel command signal for a predetermined time interval. Because when the actuator temperature increases, the cruising is canceled by the cancel means and the cancel hold means, the cruising is stopped and the actuator is not operated. This suppresses the actuator temperature rise. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a block configuration diagram of the first embodiment of the cruise control apparatus according to the present invention; FIG. 2 is a characteristic diagram of current used for the control of the cruise control apparatus of FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is a flow chart showing the control operation of the cruise control apparatus of FIG. 1; FIG. 4 is a flow chart showing the control operation of the cruise control apparatus of FIG. 1; and FIG. 5 is a block configuration diagram of the second embodiment of the cruise control apparatus according to the present invention. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS FIGS. 1 to 4 show a first embodiment of the cruise control apparatus according to the present invention. The cruise control apparatus 1 shown comprises mainly a car speed sensor 2 , a command switch 3 , a cancel switch 4 , an actuator 5 , and a controller ECU. The controller ECU has an input interface 9 , a power supply circuit 10 , a reset circuit 11 , and a microcomputer 13 . The microcomputer 13 incorporates a control unit 14 , a car speed storage unit 15 , a clutch output unit (clutch output) 16 , a motor output unit (motor output) 17 , a temperature estimation unit (actuator temperature estimation unit) 18 , a temperature check unit 19 , and a cancel unit 20 . The car speed sensor 2 is built into the speed meter and, while the car is traveling, generates speed data proportional to the actual speed of the car in the form of a pulse signal. The car speed data generated by the car speed sensor 2 is given to the control unit 14 through the input interface 9 of the controller ECU. The command switch 3 is of an automatic reset type and attached to a steering wheel. With the cruise control canceled, the command switch 3 , when turned on, generates a cruise command signal, which is given to the control unit 14 through the input interface 9 of the controller ECU. The cancel switch 4 , like the command switch 3 , is an automatic reset type switch attached to the steering wheel. The cancel switch 4 , when turned on during the cruise control, generates a cancel command signal, which is then sent to the control unit 14 through the input interface 9 of the controller ECU. The cancel command signal is also generated when a brake switch is operated by the depression of a brake pedal not shown or when an automatic transmission not shown is changed from a neutral range to a parking range, or when a clutch pedal of a manual transmission not shown is operated. The actuator 5 has a step motor 5 a , a clutch 5 b , a reduction gear 5 c and an output pulley 5 d , all accommodated in an actuator case 5 e. The step motor 5 a has a first-phase stator coil 5 a 1 , a second-phase stator coil 5 a 2 and a third-phase stator coil 5 a 3 . The first-, second- and third-phase stator coils 5 a 1 , 5 a 2 , 5 a 3 are electrically connected to a drive circuit 12 of the controller ECU. The clutch 5 b is electrically connected to the drive circuit 12 of the controller ECU. The step motor 5 a has a rotor 5 f coupled to an input stage of the reduction gear 5 c . An output stage of the reduction gear 5 c is coupled through the clutch 5 b to the output pulley 5 d which in turn is connected to a throttle wire 22 . The throttle wire 22 is then connected to a throttle valve 24 of the engine through a throttle link 23 . The rotor 5 f of the step motor 5 a is rotated by exciting currents applied from the drive circuit 12 to the first-, second- and third-phase stator coils 5 a 1 , 5 a 2 , 5 a 3 . The rotation of the rotor 5 f causes the output pulley 5 d , through the reduction gear 5 c , to turn a predetermined angle to pull or return the throttle wire 22 to change the opening of the throttle valve 24 . At this time, if the clutch output unit 16 applies a clutch-on signal to the drive circuit 12 , the clutch 5 b is engaged to transmit the power of the output stage of the reduction gear 5 c to the output pulley 5 d . On the other hand if the clutch output unit 16 does not apply the clutch-on signal to the drive circuit 12 , the clutch 5 b is disengaged, preventing the power of the output stage of the reduction gear 5 c from being transmitted to the output pulley 5 d , so that the throttle valve 24 is automatically returned by a return spring. The power supply circuit 10 is electrically connected to a power source 30 and, when an ignition switch not shown is turned on, applies a predetermined voltage to the microcomputer 13 . The reset circuit 11 is electrically connected to the power source 30 and, when the ignition switch not shown is turned on, resets the microcomputer 13 to an initialized state. The drive circuit 12 is constructed of relays and switching transistors, and includes a clutch drive unit, a first-phase stator coil drive unit, a second-phase stator coil drive unit and a third-phase stator coil drive unit. When the drive circuit 12 is given a clutch-on signal from the clutch output unit 16 in the microcomputer 13 , the clutch drive unit of the drive circuit 12 is turned on to engage the clutch 5 b of the actuator 5 . When the clutch-on signal is not applied from the clutch output unit 16 in the microcomputer 13 to the drive circuit 12 , the clutch drive unit is not turned on, so that the clutch 5 b of the actuator 5 is disengaged. When a motor drive signal is given from the motor output unit 17 in the microcomputer 13 , the drive circuit 12 applies exciting currents from its first-, second- and third-phase stator coil drive units to the first-, second- and third-phase stator coils 5 a 1 , 5 a 2 , 5 a 3 of the step motor 5 a to rotate the rotor 5 f. When a cruise command signal is generated by the turn-on operation of the command switch 3 while the car is traveling, the car speed storage unit 15 stores in a predetermined memory area in the control unit 14 the car speed signal from the car speed sensor 2 as memory car speed data. The clutch output unit 16 converts the clutch on-command signal given by the control unit 14 into a clutch-on signal and sends it to the clutch drive unit of the drive circuit 12 . The motor output unit 17 converts a motor drive command signal given by the control unit 14 into a first output signal (output 1 in a flow chart), a second output signal (output 2 in the flow chart) and a third output signal (output 3 in the flow chart) and applies them to the first-, second- and third-phase stator coil drive units of the drive circuit 12 . The temperature estimation unit 18 calculates estimated coil temperatures T 1 of the first-, second- and third-phase stator coils 5 a 1 , 5 a 2 , 5 a 3 according to the operation frequency of the first-, second- and third-phase stator coil drive units of the motor output unit 17 . For the temperature estimation unit 18 to calculate the estimated coil temperatures T 1 of the first-, second- and third-phase stator coils 5 a 1 , 5 a 2 , 5 a 3 , the following first to tenth procedures are executed. In a first procedure, an ambient temperature Tair outside the actuator case 5 e is set to a predetermined value beforehand. It is also possible to measure a surrounding temperature including the ambient temperature Tair with an appropriate measuring device to determine the Tair. In a second procedure, the estimated coil temperatures T 1 of the first-, second- and third-phase stator coils 5 a 1 , 5 a 2 , 5 a 3 are set to an initial value T 0 calculated based on the ambient temperature Tair. In a third procedure, the voltage V of the power source 30 is set to a predetermined constant value. It is also possible to measure the voltage V of the power source 30 with an appropriate measuring device and use the measured value. In a fourth procedure, resistances R of the first-, second- and third-phase stator coils 5 a 1 , 5 a 2 , 5 a 3 are calculated by using the estimated coil temperatures T 1 and the following equation: R=R 0 ×( T 1 + A )/ B wherein R 0 is a resistance at a certain temperature Tx and represents a coil resistance reference value. Constants A and B are those calculated beforehand from a temperature characteristic of resistance of copper used as the material of the motor coil. They can be obtained by substituting t 1 =T 1 , t 2 =Tx, R(t 1 )=R(T 1 )=R and T(t 2 )=R(Tx)=R 0 into the following known equation:   R ( t 1 )= R ( t 2 )×( t 1 +234.5)/( t 2 +234.5) In a fifth procedure, the amounts of heat Q generated by the first-, second- and third-phase stator coils 5 a 1 , 5 a 2 , 5 a 3 are initialized to Q=0. In a sixth procedure, measurements are made of the time CNT 1 , CNT 2 , CNT 3 that elapse from the application of current to the first-, second- and third-phase stator coils 5 a 1 , 5 a 2 , 5 a 3 . For the measurement of the time, three counters are used to match the number of the stator coils of the step motor 5 a . In more specific terms, a first counter CNT 1 is used to measure the time of current application to the first-phase stator coil 5 a 1 , a second counter CNT 2 is used to measure the time of current application to the second-phase stator coil 5 a 2 , and a third counter CNT 3 is used to measure the time of current application to the third-phase stator coil 5 a 3 . In a seventh procedure, the sum I of currents supplied to the first-, second- and third-phase stator coils 5 a 1 , 5 a 2 , 5 a 3 is estimated as a function of the times that have elapsed from the start of conduction CNT 1 , CNT 2 , CNT 3 , the resistance R and the voltage V of the power source 30 . The currents I 1 , I 2 , I 3 supplied to the first-, second- and third-phase stator coils 5 a 1 , 5 a 2 , 5 a 3 are approximated by the following equations: When the time CNT 1 is CNT 1 <N: I 1 =K·CNT 1 When the time CNT 1 is CNT 1 >N: I 1 =I 0 At this time, the maximum current I 0 is I 0 =V/R and the time constant N is N=I 0 /k where k is a current gradient which is calculated from inductance of the stator coils. The maximum current I 0 has a characteristic for the actual current as shown in FIG. 2 . In an eighth procedure, a power consumption W of the step motor 5 a is calculated from the current value I and the power supply voltage V according to the following equation: W=V×I In a ninth procedure, the power consumption W is integrated to determine the generated heat Q of the first-, second- and third-phase stator coils 5 a 1 , 5 a 2 , 5 a 3 . In more concrete terms, for each unit time Δt, the following equation is used to calculate the generated heat:   Q=Q+W/Δt In a tenth procedure, after the integration of the power consumption W, the coil temperatures T 1 are calculated from the following recurrence equation: T 1 = T 1 + F 1 a ( T 1 , Tair )+ Q/C wherein F 1 a is a function representing a thermal transfer from the first-, second- and third-phase stator coils 5 a 1 , 5 a 2 , 5 a 3 to the atmosphere, and C is heat capacities dQ/dT of the first-, second- and third-phase stator coils 5 a 1 , 5 a 2 , 5 a 3 required to raise their temperatures by one degree. An example of approximation of F 1 a is as follows: F 1 a ( T 1 , Tair )= K 1 a× ( Tair−T 1 ) wherein K 1 a is a constant. From the above the coil temperature T 1 can be estimated. Further, when the first-, second- and third-phase stator coils 5 a 1 , 5 a 2 , 5 a 3 are accommodated in a case, the temperature of an intermediate material between the atmosphere and the coil is taken to be a temperature T 2 and the equation is changed so as to release heat through the intermediate material as described below to raise the estimation accuracy. At this time, it is necessary to initialize the temperature T 2 of the intermediate material by the second step. The temperatures T 1 , T 2 will be as follows: T 1 = T 1 + F 12 ( T 1 , T 2 )+ Q/C T 2 = T 2 + F 21 ( T 2 , T 1 )+ F 2 a ( T 2 , Tair ) wherein F 21 is a temperature variation of the intermediate material that is caused by heat moving from the intermediate material to the first-, second- and third-phase stator coils 5 a 1 , 5 a 2 , 5 a 3 , and F 2 a is a temperature variation of the intermediate material that is caused by heat moving from the intermediate material to the atmosphere. Examples of approximation of F 12 , F 21 and F 2 a are as follows:   F 12 ( T 2 , T 1 )= K 12 ×( T 2 − T 1 ) F 21 ( T 1 , T 2 )= K 21 ×( T 1 − T 2 ) F 2 a ( Tair, T 2 )= K 2 a× ( Tair−T 2 ) wherein K 12 , K 21 and K 2 a are constants. The temperature T 2 may, for example, be a temperature within the case T 2 , as shown in the flow chart. The temperature check unit 19 checks whether the coil temperature data obtained by the temperature estimation unit 18 is in excess of the predetermined first value (shown as a cancel temperature in the flow chart) and below the predetermined second value (shown as a recover temperature in the flow chart). When it is decided that the coil temperature data exceeds the first value, the temperature check unit 19 generates a cancel unit on-command signal. When the coil temperature data is found to be below the second value, the temperature check unit 19 cuts off the cancel unit on-command signal. The cancel unit on-command signal generated by the temperature check unit 19 is used to turn on the cancel unit 20 . The cancel unit 20 , when given the cancel unit on-command signal from the temperature check unit 19 , is turned on to apply a cancel command signal (first cancel command signal) to the control unit 14 . When the command switch 3 is turned on while the car is traveling at a speed desired by the driver, the cruise command signal from the command switch 3 is taken into the control unit 14 through the input interface 9 . The control unit 14 applies a clutch output unit on-command signal to the clutch output unit 16 , which is turned on to apply a clutch on-signal to the drive circuit 12 , which in turn engages the clutch 5 b of the actuator 5 . Then, the control unit 14 turns on the motor output unit 17 by a cruise control initialize set signal calculated by a built-in computation unit. The motor output unit 17 then applies a motor drive signal to the drive circuit 12 , which in turn applies exciting currents to the first-, second- and third-phase stator coils 5 a 1 , 5 a 2 , 5 a 3 of the step motor 5 a of the actuator 5 to rotate the rotor 5 f and therefore the output pulley 5 d. The control unit 14 compares the memory car speed data stored when the cruise command signal was generated and the actual car speed data given by the car speed sensor 2 , and then performs a predetermined computation using a difference between the memory car speed data and the actual car speed data and an acceleration obtained from a rate of change of the car speed data within a predetermined period of time. When the result of computation is negative, the control unit 14 activates a speed increase unit for a duration corresponding to the computation result. Conversely, when the result of computation is positive, the control unit 14 activates a speed decrease unit for a duration corresponding to that computation result. These cruise controls match the actual car speed data given by the car speed sensor 2 to the memory car speed data stored in the car speed storage unit 15 . While the cruise control is performed, the estimated coil temperatures T 1 of the first-, second- and third-phase stator coils 5 a 1 , 5 a 2 , 5 a 3 of the step motor 5 a are calculated successively. When the temperature check unit 19 decides that the coil temperature data estimated by the temperature estimation unit 18 are in excess of the predetermined first value, the cancel unit on-command signal is sent to the cancel unit 20 , which in turn sends the cancel command signal to the control unit 14 . When the cancel command signal is received, the control unit 14 cuts off the clutch output unit on-command signal, at which time the clutch drive unit of the drive circuit 12 is turned off disengaging the clutch 5 b of the actuator 5 , with the result that the opening adjustment of the throttle valve 24 is stopped, thus canceling the cruise control. After the temperature check unit 19 has decided that the coil temperature data estimated by the temperature estimation unit 18 is in excess of the predetermined first value until it decides that the coil temperature data estimated by the temperature estimation unit 18 is below the predetermined second value, the cancel unit 20 is turned on to apply the cancel command signal to the control unit 14 to cancel the cruise control. When the temperature check unit 19 decides that the coil temperature data estimated by the temperature estimation unit 18 is higher than the predetermined first value, the control unit 14 does not accept the input from the command switch 3 . This check is made by the control unit 14 checking the presence or absence of the cancel flag FLAG. After the temperature check unit 19 has decided that the coil temperature data estimated by the temperature estimation unit 18 is in excess of the predetermined first value until it decides that the coil temperature data estimated by the temperature estimation unit 18 is below the predetermined second value, the control unit 14 does not accept the input from the command switch 3 . This check is made by the control unit 14 checking the presence or absence of the cancel flag FLAG. The cruise control apparatus 1 described above operates according to the flow chart shown in FIGS. 3 and 4. The flow chart does not show the main part of the cruise control but explains mainly the control operation of the temperature estimation unit 18 , the temperature check unit 19 and the cancel unit 20 . First, in a step 50 an “initial value substitution” is executed and then the program moves to step 51 . The substitution of the initial values involves setting T 0 into the estimated coil temperatures T 1 , T 0 into the estimated in-case temperatures T 2 , 0 into the counter value of the first counter CNT 1 , 0 into the counter value of the second counter CNT 2 , 0 into the counter value of the third counter CNT 3 , and resetting the cancel flag FLAG. At step 51 , the fourth procedure by the temperature estimation unit 18 is executed to calculate the resistances R of the first-, second- and third-phase stator coils 5 a 1 , 5 a 2 , 5 a 3 of the step motor 5 a , before moving to the step 52 . At step 52 , the fifth procedure by the temperature estimation unit 18 is executed to initialize the generated heat Q of the first-, second- and third-phase stator coils 5 a 1 , 5 a 2 , 5 a 3 of the step motor 5 a , before moving to step 53 . At steps 53 , 54 and 55 , the sixth procedure by the temperature estimation unit 18 is executed to measure the time during which the first output signal is applied from the motor output unit 17 to the first-phase stator coil drive unit of the drive circuit 12 , counting the time data of current application to the first-phase stator coil 5 a 1 of the step motor 5 a by the first counter CNT 1 . After this the processing moves to step 56 . The first counter CNT 1 is counted up in synchronism with the turn-on or turn-off of the first output signal. Next, at steps 56 , 57 and 58 , a measurement is taken of the time during which the second output signal is applied from the motor output unit 17 to the second-phase stator coil drive unit of the drive circuit 12 , counting the time data of current application to the second-phase stator coil 5 a 2 of the step motor 5 a by the second counter CNT 2 . After this the processing moves to step 59 . The second counter CNT 2 is counted up in synchronism with the turn-on or turn-off of the second output signal. Next, at steps 59 , 60 and 61 , a measurement is taken of the time during which the third output signal is applied from the motor output unit 17 to the third-phase stator coil drive unit of the drive circuit 12 , counting the time data of current application to the third-phase stator coil 5 a 3 of the step motor 5 a by the third counter CNT 3 . After this the processing moves to step 62 . The third counter CNT 3 is counted up in synchronism with the turn-on or turn-off of the third output signal. At step 62 , the seventh procedure by the temperature estimation unit 18 is executed to calculate the current value I as a function of the time data of current application to the first-, second- and third-phase stator coils 5 a 1 , 5 a 2 , 5 a 3 of the step motor 5 a , the resistance value R determined by the fourth procedure and the supply voltage V shown in the third procedure. Then the program proceeds to step 63 . At step 63 , the eighth procedure by the temperature estimation unit 18 is executed to calculate the power consumption W from the current value I determined by the seventh procedure and the supply voltage V determined by the third procedure. Then the processing moves to step 64 . At step 64 , the ninth procedure by the temperature estimation unit 18 is executed to integrate the power consumption W determined by the eighth procedure to calculate the generated heat Q. Then the processing moves to step 65 . Step 65 checks whether the cancel flag FLAG for canceling the cruise control is set or not. Because the “cancel flag FLAG is not set,” the process proceeds to step 66 . Step 66 checks the input state of the command switch 3 . Because “there is an input from the command switch 3 ,” the processing moves to step 67 . Step 67 executes the “cruise start” processing before moving to step 68 . So, the clutch 5 b of the actuator 5 is engaged and the exciting currents are successively applied to the first-, second- and third-phase stator coils 5 a 1 , 5 a 2 , 5 a 3 to rotate the rotor 5 f , at which time the cruise control is started for matching the actual car speed data supplied from the car speed sensor 2 with the memory car speed data of the car speed storage unit 15 . Step 68 executes the “wait until a predetermined time Δt (0.25 ms is used here) elapses” processing before moving to step 69 . Step 69 checks the number of loops. Until a predetermined number of loops (600 loops are used here) is finished, the program returns to step 53 and executes the step 53 to step 68 repetitively. Then, after the predetermined number of loops has been completed, the program moves to step 70 . Step 70 executes the tenth procedure by the temperature estimation unit 18 to calculate the estimated coil temperatures T 1 (estimated in-case temperatures T 2 ), before moving to step 71 . Step 71 performs the check processing by the temperature check unit 19 to see whether the estimated coil temperatures T 1 calculated by step 70 exceed the first value (estimated in-case temperatures T 2 ). When the estimated coil temperatures T 1 exceed the first value, the program moves to step 72 . When the estimated coil temperatures T 1 do not exceed the first value, the program moves to step 75 . Step 72 checks whether the cruise control is being performed or not. Because “the cruise control is under way,” the program moves from step 72 to step 73 . If the cruise control is not under way, the program moves from step 72 to step 74 . Step 73 is a control operation performed by the cancel unit 20 according to the result of decision made by the temperature check unit 19 . Step 73 executes the “cruise cancel” processing, after which the program moves to step 74 where it sets the cancel flag FLAG (FLAG= 1 ). Then the program returns to step 51 . Executing the “cruise cancel” processing causes the cancel command signal to be applied to the control unit 14 . Having received the cancel command signal, the control unit 14 cuts off the clutch output unit on-command signal, turning off the clutch drive unit of the drive circuit 12 to disengage the clutch 5 b of the actuator 5 . This in turn cuts off the motor output unit on-command signal, stopping the opening adjustment of the throttle valve 24 and canceling the cruise control. Steps 51 through 64 are executed. Because step 65 determines that the “cancel flag FLAG is set,” the steps 66 and 67 are skipped, so that the control unit 14 does not accept the input of the command switch 3 . Then, steps 68 and 69 are executed to perform a predetermined number of loops to estimate temperatures by the temperature estimation unit 18 . When the loops are finished, the program moves to step 70 . While the loop is repeated, when the estimated coil temperatures T 1 become lower than the first value, the program moves from step 71 to step 75 where it causes the temperature check unit 19 to check whether the estimated coil temperatures T 1 calculated by step 70 are below the second value. When the estimated coil temperatures T 1 are not below the second value, the program moves from step 75 to step 51 where it resumes the predetermined loop of temperature estimation by the temperature estimation unit 18 . When the estimated coil temperatures T 1 are below the second value, the program moves from step 75 to step 76 where it “resets the cancel flag FLAG” before returning to step 51 where it resumes the predetermined loop of temperature estimation by the temperature estimation unit 18 . After the cancel flag FLAG is reset, the program moves from step 65 , which is in a predetermined loop of temperature estimation by the temperature estimation unit 18 , to step 66 where the input of the command switch 3 is accepted by the control unit 14 , thus resuming the cruise control. As described above, while the cruise control is performed, the temperature estimation unit 18 calculates the estimated coil temperatures T 1 of the first-, second- and third-phase stator coils 5 a 1 , 5 a 2 , 5 a 3 of the step motor 5 a . When the temperature check unit 19 has decided that the coil temperature data estimated by the temperature estimation unit 18 is in excess of the predetermined first value, the cancel unit 20 is turned on to disengage the clutch 5 b of the actuator 5 , stopping the opening adjustment of the throttle valve 24 and thereby canceling the cruise control. At the same time, the input of the command switch 3 is no longer accepted. After the temperature check unit 19 has decided that the coil temperature data estimated by the temperature estimation unit 18 is in excess of the predetermined first value until it decides that the coil temperature data estimated by the temperature estimation unit 18 is below the predetermined second value, the cancel unit 20 is turned on to apply the cancel command signal to the control unit 14 to cancel the cruise control. When the temperature check unit 19 decides that the coil temperature data estimated by the temperature estimation unit 18 is higher than the predetermined first value, the control unit 14 does not accept the input from the command switch 3 . After the temperature check unit 19 has decided that the coil temperature data estimated by the temperature estimation unit 18 is in excess of the predetermined first value until it decides that the coil temperature data estimated by the temperature estimation unit 18 is below the predetermined second value, the control unit 14 does not accept the input from the command switch 3 , with the result that the cruise control is not carried out. FIG. 5 shows a second embodiment of the cruise control apparatus according to the present invention. The microcomputer 13 in this case incorporates a cancel hold unit 21 in addition to the units of the first embodiment and other units of the second embodiment is the same of the first embodiment. When the cancel unit 20 generates a first cancel command signal, a timer built into the cancel hold unit 21 is turned on and, for a predetermined time interval until the timer's time is up, the cancel hold unit 21 applies a second cancel command signal to the control unit 14 . Because the control unit 14 is given the second cancel command signal from the cancel hold unit 21 triggered by the first cancel command signal from the cancel unit 20 , the clutch 5 b of the actuator 5 remains turned off, the exciting currents that were supplied to the first-, second- and third-phase stator coils 5 a 1 , 5 a 2 , 5 a 3 are kept turned off and the cruise control remains canceled for a predetermined time interval until the time of the timer in the cancel hold unit 21 is up. As described above, according to the cruise control apparatus in the first aspect of the invention, when the temperature data from the actuator temperature estimation means is in excess of the predetermined value, the controller cancels the cruise control. When the temperature of the actuator becomes high, the actuator can not use for the cruising control. This suppresses the actuator temperature rise. Preventing the temperature rise of the actuator can offer an excellent advantage of improving the reliability of the actuator. According to the cruise control apparatus in the second aspect of the invention, when the temperature check means decides that the temperature data from the actuator temperature estimation means is in excess of the predetermined value, the cancel means applies a cancel command signal to the control unit to stop the cruising. When the temperature of the actuator becomes high, the cancel means cancels the cruising, stopping the operation of the actuator. This suppresses the actuator temperature rise. Preventing the temperature rise of the actuator can offer an excellent advantage of improving the reliability of the actuator. According to the cruise control in the third aspect of the invention, when the temperature check means decides that the temperature data from the actuator temperature estimation means is in excess of the predetermined temperature data, the control unit does not accept the cruise command signal from the command switch. Because the input from the command switch is not accepted when the actuator temperature becomes high, the cruising is stopped and the actuator is not operated, thus limiting an actuator temperature rise. Preventing the temperature rise of the actuator can offer an excellent advantage of improving the reliability of the actuator. According to the cruise control in the fourth aspect of the invention, when the temperature check means decides that the temperature data from the actuator temperature estimation means is in excess of the predetermined first value, the cancel means applies to the control unit a cancel command signal for stopping the cruising until the temperature data from the actuator temperature estimation means goes below the predetermined second value. Because the cruising is canceled by the cancel means until the actuator temperature goes below the predetermined temperature, the actuator temperature rise can be suppressed. Preventing the temperature rise of the actuator can offer an excellent advantage of improving the reliability of the actuator. According to the cruise control apparatus in the firth aspect of the invention, when the temperature check means decides that the temperature data from the actuator temperature estimation means is in excess of the predetermined first value, the control unit does not accept the cruise command signal from the command switch until the temperature data from the actuator temperature estimation means goes below the predetermined second value. Because the command switch input is not accepted until the actuator temperature is below the predetermined temperature, the cruising is not performed and the actuator temperature rise can be suppressed. Preventing the temperature rise of the actuator can offer an excellent advantage of improving the reliability of the actuator. According to the cruise control apparatus in the six aspect of the invention, when the temperature check means decides that the temperature data from the actuator temperature estimation means is in excess of the predetermined first value, the cancel means applies the cancel command signal to the control unit until the temperature data from the actuator temperature estimation means goes below the predetermined second value. When the temperature check means decides that the temperature data from the actuator temperature estimation means is in excess of the predetermined first value, the control unit does not accept the cruise command signal from the command switch until the temperature data from the actuator temperature estimation means goes below the predetermined second value. Because the cruising is canceled and the command switch is not accepted until the actuator temperature goes below the predetermined temperature, the cruising control is stopped and the actuator is not operated. This suppresses the actuator temperature rise. Preventing the temperature rise of the actuator can offer an excellent advantage of improving the reliability of the actuator. According to the cruise control apparatus in the seventh aspect of the invention, when there is an output signal from the temperature check means, the cancel means applies to the control unit the first cancel command signal for stopping the cruising. When there is the first cancel command signal from the cancel means, the cancel hold means generates the second cancel command signal for a predetermined time interval. Because when the actuator temperature increases, the cruising is canceled by the cancel means and the cancel hold means, the cruising is stopped and the actuator is not operated. This suppresses the actuator temperature rise. Preventing the temperature rise of the actuator can offer an excellent advantage of improving the reliability of the actuator. While the presently preferred embodiments of the present invention have been shown and described, it is to be understood that the disclosure is for the purpose of illustration and that various changes and modifications may be made without departing from the scope of the invention as set forth in the appended claims.

There is provided a cruise control apparatus whose reliability can be improved by protecting the actuator from failing. A cruise control apparatus with a controller ECU capable of canceling the cruise control when the temperature data given by the actuator temperature estimation unit exceeds a predetermined value.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention This invention relates to a toy game, and more particularly to a toy game improved so as to be suitably applied to the children of today as a challenging player participation throwing game with weighted game pieces. 2. Related Art A toy game piece is one of typical traditional toys in Japan and commonly called a toy menko or merely a menko in Japan. A Japanese traditional toy menko or toy “dump” is made of a pasteboard. A menko or game using such toy menkos or toy games has been highly popular among children since early times. The menko game is generally practiced in such a manner that a game player strikes his own game piece against an opponent's game piece to overturn the latter, resulting in gaining it. Thus, the game exhibits increased gambling properties, to thereby be unsuitable as play for children. Also, a TV game has recently come into wide use among children. Such a circumstance causes the menko game to be rarely seen in the play world in spite of the fact that it exhibits increased play or game characteristics. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention has been made in view of the foregoing disadvantage of the prior art. Accordingly, it is an object of the present invention to provide a toy game which is improved so as to be suitably applied to children of today while exhibiting increased play or game characteristics as in a traditional toy game or menko. In accordance with the present invention, a toy game is provided. The toy game includes a game piece body and at least one weight member detachably mounted on the game piece body. The game piece body is formed into a plate-like configuration. The game piece body is provided with at least one weight mounting section for detachably mounting the weight member therethrough on the game piece body while preventing the weight member from being detached from the game piece body. In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, at least one of a card with indicia and a seal member for protecting the card may be arranged on un upper side of the game piece body. The card or seal can have a character or characteristics of the toy game piece described thereon. In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, the toy game is played on a game board made of an elastic material. In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, the toy game piece is generally formed into a square configuration. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS These and other objects and many of the attendant advantages of the present invention will be readily appreciated as the same becomes better understood by reference to the following detailed description when considered in connection with the accompanying drawings, in which like reference numerals designate like or corresponding parts throughout; wherein: FIG. 1 is a perspective view showing an embodiment of a toy game according to the present invention; FIG. 2 is an exploded perspective view of the toy game shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is a plan view showing a game piece body of the toy game shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 4 is a fragmentary sectional view taken along line X—X of FIG. 3; FIG. 5 is a perspective view showing mounting of a cover member on a rear side of the game piece body shown in FIG. 3; FIG. 6 is a perspective view showing a cover member which has been mounted on a rear side of the game piece body shown in FIG. 3; and FIG. 7 is a perspective view showing a toy game piece and a game board. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Now, a toy game according to the present invention will be described with reference to the accompanying drawings. Referring first to FIGS. 1 to 4 , an embodiment of a toy or game piece according to the present invention is illustrated. A toy game piece of the illustrated embodiment generally designated at reference numeral 1 in FIG. 1 is generally constituted by a game piece body 1 a , at least one weight member 2 , front cover members 3 a and 3 b which may have indicia, and a rear cover member 3 c. The game piece body la is made of a synthetic resin material and formed into a plate-like square shape of which each side has a length of about 70 mm. The game piece body 1 a , as shown in FIGS. 2 to 4 , is formed at each of four corners thereof with a holding groove 5 for holding the cover members 3 a and 3 b therein. The holding grooves 5 each are formed so as to be open along a face of the game piece body 1 a . The game piece body 1 a is also formed at a central portion of each of sides of a rear surface or side thereof with a holding pawl 6 for the rear cover member 3 c , so that a groove 7 may be defined between each of the holding pawls 6 and the rear surface or side of the game piece body 1 a , as shown in FIG. 5 . Further, the game piece body 1 a is formed at each of the four corners thereof with a through-hole 8 so as to extend in an axial direction thereof or so as to extend through the front and rear surfaces thereof. In addition, the game piece body 1 a is provided with four weight mounting sections 9 , each of which is arranged so as to permit the weight member 2 to be selectively mounted therein in a detachable manner. More specifically, the weight mounting sections 9 each provided on a rear side thereof with a pair of overhangs 10 in a manner to be opposite to each other. Also, the weight mounting sections 9 each are formed on a front side thereof with a circular opening, which is formed into a size covering the overhang 10 . The openings each are closed with each of bridges 11 formed on the front side of the game piece body 1 a. The weight member 2 may be made of a suitable material such as synthetic resin, wood, metal or the like and formed into substantially the same configuration as that of the rear side of each of the weight mounting sections 9 . Also, the weight member 2 is formed into a size sufficient to permit it to be fitted in the weight mounting section 9 arranged on the rear side thereof. Further, the weight member 2 is provided on both sides thereof with a pair of lugs 12 in correspondence to the overhangs 10 of each of the weight mounting sections 9 . In addition, the weight member 2 is formed at a central portion thereof with a slit groove 13 so as to extend therethrough. One of the front cover members which is designated at reference numeral 3 a is made of a paper material having a suitable pattern such as a character or the like applied thereto, resulting in being a label cover member. The other front cover member 3 b is made of a transparent plastic material, resulting in being a plastic cover member. Also, the rear cover member 3 c is made of a transparent plastic material. The cover members 3 a , 3 b and 3 c each are formed into a substantially square shape. The front cover members 3 a and 3 b may be replaced with a single cover member made of a plastic material and having any desired pattern printed thereon. The single cover member may be made in the form of either a card-like member or a seal-like member. Now, a manner of assembling the toy game piece of the illustrated embodiment thus constructed will be described. First of all, the weight member 2 is fitted in any desired one of the weight mounting sections 9 provided on the rear side of the game piece body 1 a as shown in FIG. 2 . Then, the weight member 2 is rotated by means of a coin or the like fitted in the slit groove 13 of the weight member 2 as shown in FIG. 5, so that the lugs 12 of the weight member 2 each may be moved to a position under each of the overhangs 10 , to thereby be held therein. This results in preventing the weight member 2 from being detached from the lower side of the game piece body 1 a . Also, the game piece body 1 a , as described above, is formed on the front side thereof with the bridges 11 , each of which prevents the weight member 2 from being detached from the front side of the game piece body 1 a . This permits the weight member 2 to be firmly held in the weight mounting section 9 . Then, the rear cover member 3 c is applied to the rear side of the game piece body 1 a , so that the central portion of each of the sides thereof is held by each of the holding pawls 6 . Subsequently, the label cover member 3 b and plastic cover member 3 a are superposedly arranged on the front side of the game piece body 1 a in order and then each of the corners of the cover members 3 a and 3 b is held in each of the holding grooves 5 of the game piece body 1 a as shown in FIGS. 1 and 4. This results in assembling of the toy game piece 1 being completed. For preparation of a game carried out using the toy game piece of the illustrated embodiment, the weight member 2 is selectively mounted in any desired one of the weight mounting sections 9 to adjust weight balance of the toy game piece 1 as desired. The rear cover member 3 is made of a transparent material as described above, so that the weight mounting section 9 in which the weight member 2 is mounted may be visibly observed from the rear side of the toy game 1 . Disassembling of the toy game piece 1 thus assembled is carried out by detaching the front and rear cover members 3 a , 3 b and 3 c from the game piece body 1 a and then rotating the weight member 2 in a direction opposite to that described above to release it from the game piece body 1 a. The toy game piece 1 of the illustrated embodiment constructed as described above may be preferably or conveniently played on a dedicated game board 14 constructed as shown in FIG. 7 . The game board 14 is preferably made of an elastic material and formed into a square configuration which has sides each formed into a length about 12 times as long as that of each of the sides of the toy game piece 1 . Elasticity of the game board 14 prevents the toy game piece 1 from being damaged when the latter is struck against the former. Also, such elasticity, when a game player strikes his toy game piece 1 against the game board 14 , permits the toy game piece 1 to relatively readily overturn the toy game piece of an opponent player on the game board 14 or flick it out thereof. For the purpose of enjoying a menko game using the toy game piece of the illustrated embodiment, it is desired to predetermine a rule for the game. More specifically, a win-loss record of the game is determined by a score. When a player carries out a striking operation or strikes his toy game piece against the toy game piece of an opponent player, to thereby overturn the opponent's toy game piece, he scores one point. The game may be carried out, for example, in a one-to-one or two-to-two relation. An order in which striking operation is carried out is determined by a kind of mora or tossing of a coin. Then, each of the game players selects any one of the four sides of the square game board 14 as his own position. In a one-to-one game (or a two-player game), two of the four sides of the game board 14 adjacent to each other are selected as positions for each of the two players. In this case, the two players each hold eight such toy game pieces 1 . In a two-to-two game (or a four-player game), one of the four sides is selected as a position for reach of the four players. Each of the four players holds four such toy game pieces 1 . During the game, each of the game players can carry out a striking operation only within his own position. Later striking players or players who carry out a striking operation later may each place any desired one of their own toy game pieces on the game board 14 . A first striking player or a player who first carries out a striking operation strikes any desired one of his own toy game pieces against any one of the toy game pieces of later striking players (or opponent players) placed on the game board 14 , as in the traditional toy menko. When such a striking operation by the first striking player causes overturning of the toy game piece 1 of any one of the remaining players or opponent players, the first striking player scores one point. Then, the game is advanced while keeping the overturned toy game piece left on the game board 4 . During advance of the game, when any one of later striking players strikes his toy game piece against the overturned toy game piece to overturn it again or permit it to face up, the score of the first striking player is invalidated or canceled. Also when a player strikes his toy game piece against the toy game piece of any opponent player to flick the latter out of the game board 14 , he is permitted to make a score. However, in this case, when the player causes his own toy game piece to be put out of the game board 14 , the opponent players each make a score. When any player concurrently overturns two or more toy game pieces of opponent players at a time, he scores predetermined points, as well as bonus points. When all players subject their own toy game pieces to the a striking operation or play, their scores are totalized and compared with each other, resulting in a player which has scored the highest score winning the game. The game carried out in such a manner as described above permits gambling properties as seen in the traditional toy game to be substantially eliminated from the toy game. Also, it permits the toy game to exhibit significantly enhanced game properties. Thus, the toy game of the illustrated embodiment provides a wholesome play or game. Also, in the illustrated embodiment, mounting of the weight member 2 on the rear side or rear surface of the game piece body 1 a leads to a variation in characteristics of the toy game 1 . For example, the toy game piece may be operated in such a manner that the weight mounting side of the toy game piece attacks the toy game piece of any opponent player. This leads to significant damage to the opponent's toy game piece and renders overturning of his own toy game piece difficult. Further, the label cover member which is one of the front cover members has a pattern or the like applied thereto, to thereby render a position in the game piece body at which the weight member is arranged invisible from the front side of the toy game piece. Thus, it is demanded that a player makes a game while supposing a position of a center of gravity of the toy game. This requires a skill and force, as well as good luck in order to overturn the toy game piece of any opponent player, resulting in the game being more complicated or sophisticated. Further, in the illustrated embodiment, the label cover member may have characteristics of the toy game piece 1 such as the number of weight members or the like displayed thereon. This permits a consumer to enjoy collection of only the label cover members or cards. The toy game piece of the illustrated embodiment may be generally formed into a circular configuration as a whole. In this instance as well, the toy game piece may be constructed in substantially the same manner as described above. Moreover, it is not necessary required that the rear cover member is transparent. As can be seen from the foregoing, the toy game piece of the present invention is so constructed that the game piece body is formed into a plate-like configuration and provided with at least one weight mounting section for detachably mounting the weight member therethrough on the game piece body while preventing the weight member from being detached from the game piece body. Such construction permits a center of gravity of the toy game piece to be suitably set as desired. Also, it permits an opponent player to be hard to visually recognize a position of the weight member in the toy game piece, so that the opponent player is required to play a game while presuming a position of a center of gravity of the toy game piece. Thus, in order to win a game, a player requires a skill and force, as well as good luck, resulting in the game being more complicated or sophisticated. Also, establishment of a rule for the game permits game characteristics of the toy game piece to be enhanced while eliminating gambling properties therefrom. Also, the toy game piece of the present invention may permit the card and/or seal to be arranged on the upper side of the game piece body, wherein the card and/or seal may have a character or characteristics of the toy game piece described thereon. This permits the game to be complicated or sophisticated and a player to enjoy collection of the card and/or seal as well as the game. Further, in the present invention, the toy game may be played on the game board made of an elastic material. This minimizes damage to the toy game piece and enhances game characteristics of the toy game. Moreover, in the present invention, the toy game piece may be generally formed into a square configuration. Such configuration of the toy game piece leads to enhancement in game characteristics of the toy game, because a player strikes a corner of his toy game piece or a side thereof against the toy game piece of an opponent player. While a preferred embodiment of the invention has been described with a certain degree of particularity with reference to the drawings, obvious modifications and variations are possible in light of the above teachings. It is therefore to be understood that within the scope of the appended claims, the invention may be practiced otherwise than as specifically described.

A game piece and game board assembly includes a game piece body having a weight mounting section. A weight member can be mounted at various locations on the weight mounting section to vary the center of gravity. The game piece can strike an opponent's game piece on a game board to score points. A cover can obscure the location of the weight member on the game piece.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0001] This invention relates to containers for holding machine readable storage media, and more particularly to a storage package intended for removably storing a recorded medium upon which information retrievable by reflected or refracted light is stored, and which features a folder formed from a prescored, unitary blank which is wrapped about and adhesively bonded to a disc tray to define the package. [0002] Media disc storage packages that utilize trays for holding one or more discs in combination with folders formed from paperboard or other suitable substrates are well known in the art. Such packages commonly include a disc tray made of injection-molded plastic positioned within one or more panels, or pages, of a plastic or paperboard substrate. Such packages are also commonly assembled using processes involving multiple steps performed with parts that are shipped to more than one location before the final packages are assembled. In particular, such processes often require that the folders and trays be assembled by one manufacturer, and then shipped to a separate manufacturer so that discs can be placed within the trays. The folders used in these packages are often folded and held together using tuck tabs and slit locks, which achieves closed, but not securely sealed, packages. The trays are often formed from several components, each of which must be custom-molded using a distinct injection molding process. [0003] Although media storage packages do exist in which component assembly, including disc placement, is fully automated, such packages require that a top spine sticker and a security sticker be separately manufactured and then placed on the top spine and left side of the package after assembly and prior to sale. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0004] These and other shortcomings of the prior art are addressed by the present invention, which provides a media storage package having an insert and folder which may be assembled together with a disc during an automated, servo-driven process. Specifically, the disc is positioned within the tray, which is then wrapped within a pre-scored, die-cut blank. The blank has panels and spines upon which graphic information can be pre-printed prior to wrapping the blank around the tray, which eliminates the need for top spine and security labels. The blank also features glue tabs which may be adhesively bonded to selected panels of the blank and side rims of the tray during assembly to form a completed package having spines superimposed over all four side rims of the tray. The inserts utilized in the subject invention may be molded from a single injection molding process, and include several features designed to reduce the weight, and thus the cost, of the assembled package. Importantly, the package described herein, both the paper and plastic portions, may be made from recycled materials, including post-consumer waste, in contrast to prior art packages which in many cases must be made from virgin materials to achieve an acceptable product. [0005] According to one aspect of the invention, a media disc storage includes a folder comprising at least first and second spaced-apart panels defining a space for enclosing a media disc; and a substantially rigid insert disposed between the panels. The insert spans the distance between the panels to provide structural support to the folder, and including an open disc well adapted to hold the media disc in the space between the panels. [0006] According to another aspect of the invention, a media disc storage package, includes a folder comprising at least first and second spaced-apart panels defining a space for enclosing a media disc; spines interconnecting the first and second panels to form a substantially continuous outer surface which includes an open side edge; and a substantially rigid insert disposed between the panels. The insert spans the distance between the panels to provide structural support to the folder, and includes an open disc well adapted to hold the media disc in the space between the panels. The insert has a frame having an outer perimeter circumscribed by the perimeter of the panels; and a tray carried by the frame, the tray defining an open disc well adapted to hold the media disc in the space between the panels. [0007] The tray is moveable, in a plane generally parallel to the first and second panels, between: a first position in which the disc well is disposed inside the space between the panels, and a second position in which the tray extends through the open side edge and the disc well is exposed for placement or retrieval of a disc. [0008] According to another aspect of the invention, an insert for a media disc storage package includes a generally planar floor; at least one upstanding rim extending from the floor so as to define an open disc well adapted to receive and locate a media disc therein; and a spring locking mechanism having: a flexible spring having at least one end connected to the insert; and a latch extending laterally from the spring. The latch is moveable with the spring, in a plane generally parallel to the first floor, between a first position in which at least a portion of the latch overlies the disc well; and a second position in which the latch is clear of the disc well. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0009] The invention may be best understood by reference to the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawing figures in which: [0010] FIG. 1 is a top view of a media storage package according to one aspect of the invention, showing an insert thereof in a partially-extended position; [0011] FIG. 2 is a top view of the media storage package of FIG. 1 , with the insert retracted; [0012] FIG. 3 is a top view of a blank for the storage package of FIG. 1 ; [0013] FIG. 4 is a top view of the blank of FIG. 3 in a partially-folded condition; [0014] FIG. 5 is a top view of the blank of FIG. 3 with an insert placed therein; [0015] FIG. 6 is a perspective view of an insert constructed according to one aspect of the invention; [0016] FIG. 7 is a top plan view of the insert of FIG. 6 ; [0017] FIG. 8 is a bottom plan view of the insert of FIG. 6 ; [0018] FIG. 8A is a top plan view of a blank for use with the insert of FIG. 6 ; [0019] FIG. 8B is a view taken along lines 8 B- 8 B of FIG. 8A ; [0020] FIG. 9 is a perspective view of an alternative insert; [0021] FIG. 10 is a top plan view of the insert of FIG. 9 ; [0022] FIG. 11 is a bottom plan view of the insert of FIG. 9 ; [0023] FIG. 12 is a top plan view of an alternative insert; [0024] FIG. 12A is a perspective view of another alternative insert; [0025] FIG. 13 is a top perspective view of another alternative insert; [0026] FIG. 14 is a bottom perspective view of the insert of FIG. 13 ; [0027] FIG. 15 is a top plan view of the insert of FIG. 13 ; [0028] FIG. 16 is a bottom plan view of the insert of FIG. 13 ; [0029] FIG. 16A is a perspective view of another alternative insert; [0030] FIG. 16B is an enlarged view of a portion of the insert of FIG. 16A ; [0031] FIG. 17 is a perspective view of another alternative insert; [0032] FIG. 18 is a top plan view of the insert of FIG. 17 with a disc placed in a locked position within the insert; [0033] FIG. 19 is an exploded perspective view of another alternative insert; [0034] FIG. 20 is a plan view of the front of the insert of FIG. 19 ; [0035] FIG. 21 is a partial view of a lower tray of the insert shown in FIG. 19 ; [0036] FIG. 22 is a partial cross-sectional view of a side rail and guide member like those which are shown in FIG. 19 ; [0037] FIG. 23 is a perspective view of an insert according to another embodiment of the invention; [0038] FIG. 24 is a perspective view of a portion of the insert shown in FIG. 23 ; [0039] FIG. 25 is a top plan view of the insert shown in FIG. 23 ; [0040] FIG. 26 is a bottom plan view of the insert shown in FIG. 23 ; [0041] FIG. 27 is a top plan view of an alternative optical media storage package; [0042] FIG. 28 is a top plan view of a blank used to form a folder for the storage package of FIG. 27 ; [0043] FIG. 29 is a top plan view of the blank and insert of FIG. 27 during assembly; [0044] FIG. 30 is a top plan view of the insert of FIG. 27 ; and [0045] FIG. 31 is a bottom plan view of the insert of FIG. 27 . DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0046] Referring now specifically to the drawings wherein like numerals indicate like or corresponding parts throughout the several views, an optical media storage package according to one embodiment of the invention is illustrated in FIG. 1 and shown generally at reference numeral 10 . The storage package 10 includes a folder 12 wrapped about a disc insert 14 . The insert 14 includes a frame 15 and a tray 16 that has a well 17 within which an optical disc “D” may be placed. As used herein, the term “insert” is meant to include a frame, a tray, or a combination of both a frame and a tray, or any other equivalents thereof. [0047] While the storage package may utilize a disc insert formed from any suitable materials, the insert 14 is preferably formed from injection molded plastic. One example of a suitable material is polypropylene. The design aspects of the insert 14 , for example the fact that it is normally hidden from view, and that it does not require long, 180-degree opening live hinges, allow it to be readily made from recycled pre- or post-consumer recycled plastics (e.g. ground-up plastic waste material or “regrinds”). Furthermore, although the disc “D” shown in FIG. 1 is a conventional compact disc, those skilled in the art will appreciate that the invention can be utilized with other optical discs, including but not limited to Fluorescent Versatile Discs, Digital Versatile Discs (“DVD”), High Definition Versatile Discs, Blu-ray Discs, multilayer optical discs, enhanced versatile discs, MiniDiscs, Holographic Discs, and Universal Media Discs. The invention can also be used with any other discs that are configured to include encoded information. Such discs include, but are not limited to, those configured for mechanically or magnetically recorded data, regardless of the size or use of the disc. [0048] Referring now to FIG. 2 and described in greater detail below with reference to FIGS. 2 through 5 , the folder 12 includes front and back walls 18 , 20 , an upper spine 22 , lower spine 24 , and side spines 26 , 29 that are configured, wrapped and optionally adhesively bonded in place around the frame 15 during assembly to completely enclose the insert 14 and disc “D” within the folder 12 . The walls 18 , 20 and spines 22 , 24 extend to a side edge 28 that defines an opening through which the tray 16 is removed from the folder. As is shown in FIG. 2 , a notch 30 is formed along the side edge 28 to permit an end user to grasp and remove the tray 16 from the folder 12 to access the disc “D”. The storage package 10 is shown in FIG. 1 with the tray 16 extending through the opening. The tray 16 is pivotally connected to the frame 15 , which permits the tray 16 to move between the open position shown in FIG. 1 to the closed position shown in FIG. 2 . In FIG. 1 , the tray 16 is shown partially extended such that the disc D is partially exposed and may be placed into or removed from the disc well 17 . If desired, the tray 16 may be further opened or extended to fully expose the disc D. A cover 32 extends from the back wall 20 and can be folded over the side edge 28 and front wall 18 to close the package 10 . [0049] Referring now to FIG. 3 , the folder 12 is preferably formed from a unitary blank 34 . While the blank 34 may comprise any suitable substrate, the blank 34 is preferably pre-sized, die-cut from paperboard, and scored to form hinges, which in turn define the various components of the folder 12 . The blank 34 may be made from recycled paperboard or other pre-or post-consumer recycled fibrous materials. More specifically, the blank 34 includes first, second, third and fourth panels 36 , 38 , 40 , 42 . The first panel 36 extends between a cover hinge 44 and a first hinge 46 . The first hinge 46 extends parallel to a second hinge 48 to form a cover spine 50 from which a cover tab 52 extends. The second panel 38 extends between the cover hinge 44 and a third hinge 54 . The third panel 40 similarly extends between fourth and fifth hinges 56 , 58 . [0050] The fourth panel 42 has an interior surface 43 , is interposed between a sixth hinge 60 and a side hinge 62 , and extends between the upper and lower spines 22 , 24 . The spines 22 , 24 are defined by respective upper and lower pairs of hinges 64 , 66 . As is shown in FIGS. 3 and 4 , upper and lower glue tabs 68 , 70 extend from the upper and lower spines 22 , 24 , respectively, and a side glue tab 72 extends from the side hinge 62 . An opening 74 is located at the side hinge 62 , and ultimately forms the notch 30 on the side edge 28 of the cover 32 shown in FIGS. 1 and 2 . [0051] Referring now to FIGS. 4 and 5 , to assemble the storage package 10 , the cover tab 52 and interior cover spine 50 are folded along the first and second hinges 46 , 48 so that the cover tab 52 extends at an angle toward the outer surface 80 of the first panel 36 . The first panel 36 is then folded along the cover hinge 44 with the panel 36 extending at an angle back toward the second panel 38 . The upper glue tab 68 and spine 22 , lower glue tab 70 and spine 24 , and side glue tab 72 are likewise folded along the upper pair of hinges 64 , lower pair of hinges 66 and side hinge 62 , respectively, to extend toward the interior 43 of the fourth panel 42 . As is shown in FIG. 5 , the first panel 36 is then adhesively bonded to the second panel 38 with the interior cover spine 50 superimposed over the side spine 29 , which gives the cover 32 a two-ply thickness and increased rigidity to protect the insert 14 and disc “D” wrapped within the folder 12 . [0052] Referring now to FIG. 4 , the side glue tab 72 is folded along side hinge 62 and adhesively bonded to the interior of the fourth panel 42 to define the notch 30 and side edge 28 . As is shown in FIG. 5 , the blank 34 is then wrapped about the insert 14 by first positioning the tray 16 and disc “D” disposed face down on the fourth panel 42 . The interior of the fourth panel 42 is then adhesively bonded to the frame 15 . The upper and lower glue tabs 68 , 70 are then folded over respective upper and lower ends 76 , 78 of the insert 14 and adhered to the frame 15 , so that the upper and lower spines 22 , 24 completely cover the upper and lower ends 76 , 78 . [0053] The fourth panel 42 and side spine 26 are next folded toward the third panel 40 along the fifth and sixth hinges 58 , 60 . The cover tab 52 is then disposed between the third panel 40 and the tray 16 , and the upper and lower glue tabs 68 , 70 are adhesively bonded to the interior of the third panel 40 to form the package 10 . [0054] Wrapping the blank 34 around the insert 14 in the manner illustrated in FIGS. 3 through 5 produces a package 10 in which there are spines 22 , 24 , 26 , 29 covering all four sides of the frame 15 . Adhesively bonding the glue tabs 68 , 70 , 72 to the interior of the third panel 40 further eliminates the use of standard folding technology, in which tuck tabs and slit locks are utilized to achieve closed, but loosely sealed, packages which require separate spine labels. In contrast, the package 10 has increased rigidity and does not require separate security stickers or top spine labels: all of the necessary graphic information can be printed directly on the spines and other surfaces of the folder 12 . [0055] Although the folder 12 shown in FIGS. 1 through 6 is designed to hold only one disc “D”, the package 10 may alternatively be designed to hold up to ten discs by increasing the width “w” of each of the spines. In particular, for each additional disc added, the width “w” is increased by approximately 1.4 mm (0.055 in.); however, additions to the width “w” may vary depending upon the type of disc the final package is intended to hold. [0056] FIGS. 6 through 8 illustrate the insert 14 in more detail. The insert 14 includes integrally formed frame 15 and tray 16 . A hinge 18 is likewise integrally formed with the frame 15 and tray 16 , and operates to allow pivotal movement of the tray 16 relative to the frame 15 . The tray 16 includes an outer rim 720 . A reinforcing rim 722 extends from the outer rim 720 . The outer rim 720 and reinforcing rim 722 cooperatively define a disc well 17 and a support floor 724 that both extend to a side edge 726 . [0057] The well 117 is protected by a disc keeper 730 , which is disposed on the outer rim 722 and extends inwardly over the well 17 for maintaining a disc in place within the well 17 . [0058] The frame 15 has a floor 734 from which a pair of opposed lateral rims 736 , 737 , a transverse side rim 738 and outer rim segments 740 , 741 extend. An inner rim 742 having a curved shape generally complimentary to that of the outer rim 722 extends from the rim segment 740 to the rim segment 741 . The inner rim 742 includes an arcuate segment 744 formed with an end segment 746 , which is in turn connected to the first rim segment 740 . [0059] The hinge 18 , tray 16 and frame 15 are formed as a single, integral and continuous piece both during and after assembly of the insert 14 . Specifically, the hinge 18 is integrally formed with a convex curved portion 732 that is disposed adjacent the convexly-curved arcuate segment 744 of the inner rim 742 . This configuration gives the area of the frame 15 adjacent the rim segment 740 a hooked shape for restricting the extent to which the tray 16 may pivot away from the tray 115 , and also defines a cavity within which the hinge 18 may pivot when the tray 16 is moved away from the inner rim 742 . [0060] The insert 14 also includes a spring locking mechanism 752 including a spring 754 . One end of the spring 754 is connected to the reinforcing rim 722 at a first end 731 , and an opposite end of the spring 754 is connected to the reinforcing rim 722 at the second end 733 adjacent to the convex curved portion 732 . A latch 760 is disposed on the spring 754 and extends inwardly toward the center of the well 17 . When in an unlocked position such as that shown in FIG. 7 , the spring 754 is bowed outwardly away from the insert 14 to allow access to the tray 16 . To place the locking mechanism 752 in a locked position, pressure is applied to the spring 754 , which causes the spring 754 to bow inwardly so that the latch 760 is disposed above the outer edge of a disc positioned in the well 17 and cooperates with the disk keeper 730 to retain the disc within the well 17 . [0061] Means may be provided for keeping the tray 16 aligned in-plane with the frame 15 and in a closed position. For example, the illustrated tray 16 includes a side tab 770 which projects from the outer rim 720 near the disc keeper 730 . When the tray 16 is closed, the side tab 770 is received between spaced-apart fingers 772 which project from the inner rim 742 of the frame 15 . The illustrated tray 16 also includes an end tab 774 which projects from the first end 731 thereof. When the tray 16 is closed, the end tab 774 is received between spaced-apart fingers 776 which project from the inner rim 742 of the frame 15 . The end tab 774 also includes a recess 778 that engages a complementary projection 780 of the frame to resist unintentional opening of the tray 16 . These features are particularly useful in keeping the tray 16 in a closed position and aligned with the frame 15 during assembly of the insert to the folder 12 . [0062] The frame 15 optionally includes one or integrally-molded raised bosses 782 having hooks 784 projecting therefrom. These hooks 784 may be used in attaching the insert 14 to a folder. [0063] For example, FIG. 8A illustrates a folder 812 similar in construction to folder 12 described above and including first, second, third, and fourth panels 836 , 838 , 840 , and 842 , respectively. The first panel 836 is shown folded over the second panel 838 and bonded thereto. Upper and lower glue tabs 868 and 870 are connected to the third panel 840 by upper and lower spines 822 and 824 , respectively. A side glue tab 872 , which is shown folded over and bonded to the fourth panel 842 , extends from a side hinge 862 . A notch 830 is formed in the side glue tab 872 and the fourth panel 842 . [0064] The upper and lower glue tabs 868 and 870 each have an opening 876 formed therein which receives the hook 784 and a portion of the boss 782 of the insert 14 . In FIG. 8A , the upper glue flap 868 is in a flat position while the lower glue flap 870 is folded down against the insert 14 . [0065] As shown in FIG. 8B , the bosses 782 and hooks 784 are sized and positioned such that, when the glue flaps 868 and 870 are folded down over the insert 14 , the hooks 784 will engage the openings 876 and hold the glue flaps 868 and 870 down against the insert 14 . With both the upper and lower glue flaps 868 and 870 folded down, they insert 14 is retained in the proper position and orientation against the folder 812 and the glue flaps 868 and 870 are ready to have the fourth panel 842 folded over and bonded to them. This configuration may be readily assembled in an automated or semi-automated fashion with a minimum of process steps and complications. [0066] A disc insert according to another embodiment of the invention is shown generally at 114 in FIG. 9 . The insert 114 includes an integrally formed frame 115 and tray 116 . A hinge 118 is likewise integrally formed with the frame 115 and tray 116 , and operates to allow pivotal movement of the tray 116 relative to the frame 115 . The tray 116 includes a reinforcing rim 120 . An outer rim 122 extends from the reinforcing rim 120 to define a disc well 117 and a support floor 124 that both extend to a side edge 126 . [0067] Two tabs 127 , 128 extend from the side edge 126 at angles generally perpendicular to the well 117 and floor 124 . The tabs 127 , 128 engage the fourth panel 42 when a folder 12 of the invention is wrapped around the insert 114 to provide additional rigidity to an assembled package and prevent the folder 12 from collapsing into the well 117 and damaging a disc. The well 117 is further protected by a disc keeper 130 , which is disposed on the outer rim 122 and extends inwardly over the well 117 for maintaining a disc in place within the well 117 . [0068] Although the insert 114 may be utilized with any suitable storage folder or container, the insert 114 is preferably wrapped within the folder 12 in a manner identical to that described above with respect to FIGS. 3 through 7 . Furthermore, while the tray 116 may have any suitable shape, the tray 116 preferably has a generally tear drop, or pear shape defined by the outer rim 122 , which extends from a first end 131 of the tray 116 through a sinuous, S-shaped curve 132 that terminates at a second end 133 . [0069] Referring now to FIG. 10 , the frame 115 has a floor 134 from which a pair of opposed lateral rims 136 , 137 , a transverse side rim 138 and outer rim segments 140 , 141 extend. An inner rim 142 having a curved shape generally complimentary to that of the outer rim 122 extends from the rim segment 140 to the rim segment 141 . The inner rim 142 includes an arcuate segment 144 formed with an end segment 146 , which is in turn connected to the first rim segment 140 . [0070] The inner and outer rims 142 , 122 are interconnected by two breakaway tabs 148 . The tabs 148 maintain the tray 116 in a fixed position relative to the frame 115 , but are designed to break in response to a force applied to the tray 116 during assembly. Breaking the tabs 148 permits the hinge 118 to pivot and the tray 116 to move away from the frame 115 in a manner like that illustrated in FIG. 2 . [0071] The hinge 118 , tray 116 and frame 115 are formed as a single, integral and continuous piece both during and after assembly of the insert 114 . Specifically, the hinge 118 is integrally formed with the S-shaped curve 132 and the arcuate segment 144 , which not only gives the area of the frame 115 adjacent the rim segment 140 a hooked shape for restricting the extent to which the tray 116 may actually pivot away from the tray 115 , but also defines a cavity 150 within which the hinge 118 may pivot when the tray 116 is moved away from the inner rim 142 . [0072] The insert 114 also includes a spring locking mechanism 152 including a spring 154 . One end 156 of the spring 154 is connected to the outer rim 120 , and an opposite end 158 is connected to the outer rim 120 at the second end 133 adjacent to the S-shaped curve 132 . A latch 160 is disposed on the spring 154 and extends inwardly toward the center of the well 117 . When in an unlocked position such as that shown in FIG. 10 , the spring 154 is bowed outwardly away from the insert 114 to allow access to the tray 116 . To place the locking mechanism 152 in a locked position, pressure is applied to the spring 154 , which causes the spring 154 to bow inwardly so that the latch 160 is disposed above the outer edge of a disc “D” positioned in the well 117 and cooperates with the disk keeper 130 to retain the disc “D” within the well 117 . [0073] A disc stored in the insert 114 is further protected by raised bumps 162 which are spaced apart on the disc well 117 . The bumps 162 may have any suitable shape and dimensions, be formed in any number, and be positioned at any locations on the well 117 ; however, each bump 162 preferably has a conical shape or alternatively, any other rounded shape, and measures about 0.762 mm (0.030 in.) by 0.2 mm (0.008 in.). The bumps 162 engage the non-media portion of a disc positioned in the well 117 to eliminate any contact between the components of the insert 114 and the media-containing portions of the disc. [0074] Although the spring locking mechanism 152 shown in FIGS. 9 and 10 is configured to move between locked and unlocked positions in response to manual pressure on the latch 160 , the spring locking mechanism 152 may alternatively be configured to automatically unlock when the cover 32 on a folder 12 is opened, and then automatically relock in response to the cover 32 being closed. [0075] An insert according to another embodiment of the invention is shown generally at reference numeral 214 in FIG. 12 . With the exception of the manner in which the disc well 217 is formed, the insert 214 is identical to the insert 114 shown in FIGS. 9 through 11 . In particular, the insert 214 has a tray 216 , frame 215 , and hinge 218 which have structures and functions identical to like elements of the insert 114 shown in FIGS. 8 through 10 . [0076] The insert 214 differs from the insert 114 in that the insert 214 does not include a solid, continuous floor, but instead features first and second floor portions 220 , 221 disposed between respective reinforcing rims 222 , 223 and an outer rim 224 . A generally X-shaped seat 226 is defined by first and second intersecting ribs 228 , 230 , a central support 232 and a C-shaped disc rim 234 , which is formed from the reinforcing rims 222 , 223 and a segment of the outer rim 224 . The ends of the C-shaped disc rim 234 are interconnected by a support rib 235 . [0077] The central support 232 is disposed at the intersection of the ribs 228 , 230 such that the ends of the first and second ribs 228 , 230 radiate outwardly from the central support 232 and are integrally formed with the disc rim 234 to define spaced openings, 236 , 237 , 238 , 239 . The X-shaped seat 226 and openings 236 , 237 , 238 , 239 not only reduce the weight of the insert 214 without compromising the structural integrity of the invention, but also result in substantial cost savings in the materials used to form the insert 214 . [0078] The insert 214 also includes two breakaway tabs (not shown) and a spring locking mechanism 240 , which have the same components and the same general features as the tabs 148 and locking mechanism 152 of the insert 114 . FIG. 12A shows the insert 214 after the tabs have been broken, with the hinge 218 pivoting the tray 216 away from the frame 215 in a manner like that described above with reference to FIGS. 9 through 12 . Although the inserts 114 and 214 are each shown with two tabs, any number of tabs may be used. [0079] An insert according to another embodiment of the invention is shown generally at 241 in FIG. 12A . With the exception of modifications to the tray, the disc keeper, and the spring locking mechanism, the insert 240 includes the same components and is formed from the same materials as the insert 214 . [0080] The insert 241 has a tray 243 which lacks the support rib 236 and the floor portions 220 , 222 of the insert 214 . The tray 243 instead has a single floor portion 242 that extends to an interior edge 245 . A central support 244 is disposed at the intersection of the first and second ribs 228 ′, 230 ′, and includes an opening 247 sized to receive a finger of an end user to permit the user to grasp the inner edge of a disc and remove the disc from the tray 241 . Furthermore, a first rim segment 250 extends from one end of the outer rim 224 of the tray 241 , and a second rim segment 252 extends from the opposite end of the outer rim 224 ′ to a respective one of two end rims 268 . The interior edge 243 interconnects the end rims 268 to form a rectangular opening 272 . [0081] The insert 240 includes a spring locking mechanism 274 which is disposed entirely on the exterior of the tray 215 ′. Specifically, the locking mechanism 274 has a spring member 276 attached to exterior surfaces of the first and second rim segments 250 , 251 . The spring member 276 is shown in FIG. 12A bowed outwardly away from the central support 244 in an unlocked position. A latch 278 having a thumb notch 280 is carried by the spring member 276 . When the in the unlocked position, the latch 278 overlies the opening 272 and is pulled away from the interior edge 245 to allow a disc to be inserted into the tray 240 . The spring locking mechanism 274 is moved to a locked position in the same manner as the spring locking mechanism 152 described above with reference to FIGS. 9 through 11 . However, once the mechanism 274 is locked, the spring member 276 is bowed inwardly into the opening 272 with the latch 278 overlying the interior edge 254 . When locked, the spring member 276 is also disposed against the first and second rim segments 250 , 252 so that the insert 240 will be completely enclosed within the folder 12 when assembled. [0082] The locking mechanism 274 may alternatively be configured to automatically unlock when the cover 32 is opened, and then automatically relock in response to the cover 32 being closed. [0083] The insert 240 also includes raised bumps 162 having a structure and function identical to the bumps 162 disposed on the insert 114 . [0084] Although the inserts 114 , 214 , 241 are designed to hold a maximum of two discs “D”, the inserts 114 , 214 , 241 may alternatively be designed to hold additional discs (for example up to ten discs) by increasing the depth “d” of the opposed lateral rims 136 , 137 , transverse side rim 138 and outer rim segments 140 , 141 by approximately 1.4 mm (0.055 in.) for each additional disc added; however, additions to the depth “d” may vary depending upon the type of disc the final insert is intended to store. [0085] The inserts 114 , 214 , 241 may also be molded so that the trays are pivoted outwardly away from the frames approximately 1.6 mm (¼ in.), with first and second bars mounted in parallel relation to one another on the tray and frame, respectively, so that the first and second bars interfere with each other when the tray is pivoted back into the frame to effectively “lock” the tray in position. [0086] Referring now to FIGS. 13 through 16 , an insert according to another embodiment of the invention is shown generally at reference numeral 314 . Unlike the inserts described above, the insert 314 lacks a tray capable of pivoting relative to a frame, but instead consists of a single tray 316 having a floor 320 with first, second, third and fourth floor portions 322 , 324 , 326 , 328 integrally formed together to define first, second, third and fourth corners 330 , 332 , 334 , 336 . The floor 320 also includes an X-shaped base 338 consisting of first and second diagonal base members 340 , 342 . The base members intersect at a central support 344 and opening 345 identical in structure and function to the support 244 and opening 247 of the insert 241 . The first base member 340 extends diagonally across the floor 320 from the first corner 330 to the third corner 334 , and the second base member 342 extends diagonally from the second corner 332 to the fourth corner 336 . Disposing the intersecting first and second base members 340 , 342 into the corners 330 , 332 , 334 , 336 in this manner stabilizes the insert 314 by reinforcing the floor portions 322 , 324 , 326 , 328 . [0087] The insert 314 also has a disc well defined by a C-shaped rim 348 . The rim 348 extends from a first end 349 , which is connected to the second base member 342 , to a second end 350 , which is connected to the first base member 340 . As is shown in FIG. 13 , a disc keeper 351 extends from the upper edge of the rim 348 radially inwardly toward the central support 344 . The keeper 351 overlies a tab 352 that extends inwardly from the third floor portion 326 toward the central support 344 . The keeper 351 , tab 352 and rim 348 define a compartment within which the outer edge of a disc is placed prior to positioning the disc within the rim 348 . [0088] The insert 314 includes raised bumps 354 which are spaced apart on the disc well 317 . The bumps 354 have a structure and function identical to the bumps 162 of the insert 114 . [0089] The tray 316 also includes an outer wall formed by lower and upper rims 358 , 360 , a lateral side rim 362 , and first and second rim segments 364 , 366 . As is best shown in FIGS. 14 and 15 , the first rim segment 364 extends from the upper rim 360 , and the second rim segment 366 extends from the lower rim 358 to a respective one of two end rims 368 . An interior edge 370 interconnects the end rims 368 to form a rectangular opening 372 in the first end portion 322 . [0090] The insert 314 includes a spring locking mechanism 374 similar in structure and function to the locking mechanism 274 ; however, the spring member 376 on the insert 314 is attached to first and second rim segments 364 , 366 which are in turn connected to the lower and upper rims 358 , 360 . The mechanism also includes a latch 378 having a shape that differs from the latch 278 and includes thumb notch 380 . The spring locking mechanism 374 is moved between unlocked and locked positions relative to the interior edge 370 in the same manner as the spring locking mechanism 274 described above with reference to FIG. 12A moves relative to the interior edge 254 . [0091] Although the insert 314 is designed to hold a maximum of two discs “D”, the insert 314 may alternatively be designed to hold additional discs (for example ten discs) by increasing the depth “d” of the outer wall by approximately 1.4 mm (0.055 in.) for each additional disc added; however, additions to the depth “d” may vary depending upon the type of disc the final insert is intended to store. [0092] An insert according to another embodiment of the invention is shown generally at 390 in FIG. 16A . With the exception of modifications to the tab and corners, the insert 390 includes the same components and is formed from the same materials as the insert 314 . As is shown in FIG. 16A , the tab 352 has been removed. The shape of the latch 378 has also been modified. Furthermore, raised segments 391 , 392 , 393 , 394 are formed in the respective corners 330 ′, 332 ′, 334 ′, 336 ′ and extend to the C-shaped rim 348 ′ to provide additional support to the fourth panel of a folder wrapped about the insert 390 . A detailed view of raised segment 394 is shown in FIG. 15B . [0093] Referring now to FIG. 17 , an insert 414 having components and functions substantially identical to those of the insert 314 has been further modified to include support ribs 416 . The ribs 416 are disposed on the first and second base segments 340 ′, 342 ′ to further reinforce the strength and stability of the insert 414 . Each of the ribs 416 extends along a selected one of the first or second base segments 340 , 342 from one of the corners 330 ″, 332 ″, 334 ″, 336 ″ to the C-shaped rim 348 ′. [0094] The C-shaped rim 348 ′ of the insert 414 has also been modified so that the first and second ends 349 ′, 350 ′ overlie the respective first and second base segments 340 ′, 342 ′ and are connected to the first floor portion 322 ′. In addition, the shape of the latch 378 ′ has been modified, the thumb notch 380 ′ enlarged, and the interior edge 370 ′ curved inwardly toward the central support 344 ′ to give an end user more room to manipulate the locking mechanism 374 ′ and remove a disc “D” like that shown in FIG. 18 from the insert 414 . The central support shown in FIGS. 17 and 18 may alternatively include an opening and raised bumps like the opening 345 and bumps 354 described above with reference to FIG. 13 . [0095] Referring now to FIG. 19 , an insert according to yet another alternative embodiment of the invention is shown generally at 430 . In contrast to the inserts 114 , 214 and 314 , which are each formed from a single injection-molded component, the insert 430 comprises two separately molded components: upper and lower trays 432 , 434 which are mated together to permit the trays to slide relative to one another. The lower tray 434 consists of a floor 436 with opposed side edges. Spaced guide members 440 extend parallel to one another along the entire length of the side edges 438 . The upper tray 432 includes a floor 442 upon which an annular disc rim 444 is disposed to define a well 446 within which a disc is positioned prior to wrapping the insert 430 in a folder such as the folder 12 . Spaced slide rails 448 extend parallel to one another along opposite side edges of the upper tray 432 . The slide rails 448 have a shape complementary to that of the guide members 440 to permit the rails 448 to be disposed within and slide relative to the guide members 440 . [0096] Referring now to FIG. 20 , the complementary shapes of the slide rails 448 and guide members 440 also permit the lower surface of the floor 442 of the upper tray 432 to be positioned in closely-conforming relation to the upper surface of the floor 436 of the lower tray 434 . In particular, each of the slide rails 448 includes a rim 450 from which a return flange 452 extends to define an upper groove 454 . As is best shown in FIG. 21 , each of the guide members 440 is formed by an interior flange portion 456 having a tail 458 that extends downwardly toward the floor 436 of the lower tray and terminates along a lower edge 460 which is integrally formed with a return flange 462 . The return flange 462 has a tail 464 which is perpendicular to the floor 436 and extends away from the lower edge 460 in a direction opposite and parallel to the tail 458 to define a lower groove 466 . The interconnected interior flange portion 456 and return flange 452 give each guide member 440 a generally S-shaped configuration. [0097] The upper and lower trays 432 , 434 are assembled by superimposing the upper tray 432 onto the lower tray 434 in a manner like that shown in FIG. 22 . In particular, each return flange 452 of the slide rails 448 is seated over a corresponding interior flange portion 456 of a respective one of the guide members 440 with the tail of the return flange 452 disposed within the lower groove 466 so that the slide rails 448 are aligned with the guide members 440 to permit sliding, translational movement of the upper tray relative to the lower tray. [0098] While the insert 430 may be utilized with any suitable conventional media folder formed from paperboard or another suitable substrate, the insert 430 is preferably utilized with the folder 12 . Assembly of the folder 12 around the insert 430 occurs in a manner similar to that which is described above with respect to FIGS. through 5 . The insert 430 is first assembled and loaded with a disc, and is then positioned with the upper tray 432 and disc rim 444 disposed against the fourth panel 42 of the blank 34 so that the two sets of coupled slide rails and guide members extend parallel to the upper and lower pairs of hinges 64 , 66 . The blank 34 is then wrapped around the insert 430 in a manner identical to that shown in FIGS. 1 and 7 , respectively to form a fully assembled storage package. [0099] Referring now to FIG. 23 , a media storage insert according to yet another alternative embodiment of the invention is shown generally at reference numeral 470 . Unlike the two-piece insert 430 described above with reference to FIGS. 19 though 22 , the components of the insert 470 are formed together as a single unit during the molding process and are then separated into two components, a tray 472 and frame 474 , prior to being wrapped within a folder. [0100] With the exception of sharing the common feature of having components that are capable of sliding movement relative to each other, the tray 472 and frame 474 of the insert 470 differ in structure from the upper and lower trays 432 , 434 of the insert 414 . As is shown in FIG. 23 , the tray 472 has a floor 476 within which a recessed disc well 478 is formed. The well 478 includes an annular wall 480 with an upper edge 482 that is flush with the floor 476 so that the well 478 is embedded completely within the floor 476 . The tray 472 also includes a rear edge 484 from which spaced guide rails 486 extend parallel to each other along opposite sides of the tray 490 to respective relief areas 488 , which are interconnected by a forward edge segment 490 . [0101] The frame 474 has a rear wall 492 from which spaced guide members 493 extend. Each guide member 493 extends parallel and adjacent to a respective one of the guide rails 486 of the tray 472 . Inwardly-extending shelf portions 494 are formed at the forward ends of the respective guide members 496 . As is best shown in FIG. 24 , each shelf portion 494 has a guide channel 495 and is positioned in closely-conforming relation to a respective one of the relief areas 488 so that the guide channels 495 are aligned with the guide rails 486 . [0102] The insert 470 includes four breakaway tabs 496 . While the tabs may have any suitable width, each tab 496 is preferably about 6.4 mm (¼ in.) wide. As is best shown in FIGS. 25 and 26 , two of the tabs 496 interconnect the rear wall 492 of the frame 474 along the rear edge 454 of the tray 472 . The remaining tabs 496 interconnect the shelf portions 494 and the relief areas 488 . The tabs 496 are broken in response to a force applied to the insert 470 prior to wrapping the insert 470 within a folder. Breaking the tabs 496 permits the guide rails 484 to side through the guide channels 495 and allow an end user to move the tray 472 away from the frame 474 to access a disc stored in the well 478 . [0103] Although the guide members 493 are configured to include the shelf portions 494 and guide channels 495 , each of the guide members 493 may alternatively be configured to include an interconnected flange portion and return flange used in the guide members 440 described above with reference to FIG. 19 , which would in turn give each guide member 493 a similar S-shaped configuration for cooperating with the guide rails 486 on the tray 472 . [0104] The inserts 430 , 470 may alternatively be configured to include an X-shaped structure similar that utilized on the base 338 of the insert 314 . Furthermore, while the inserts 430 and 470 may be wrapped within any suitable folder, the inserts 430 and 470 are specifically intended for use with a folder similar to the folder 512 described below with reference to FIGS. 27 through 29 . However, in contrast to the folder 512 , such folder is modified to include an inside spine glue flap which is scored to define a single hinge and then folded and adhesively bonded to the back side of a third panel to form a slip case having a folded, two-ply piece with a thumb notch for permitting an end user to access discs by accessing the sides of the inserts 430 , 470 . [0105] An optical media storage package according to another embodiment of the invention is shown generally at reference numeral 510 in FIG. 27 . The storage package 510 includes a folder 512 wrapped about a disc insert 514 . The front and back of the insert 514 are shown in FIGS. 30 and 31 . Although the structure of the insert 514 differs from that of the insert 14 , the insert 514 is formed from the same materials and can be used to store the same variety of optical media discs as the disc insert 14 . [0106] With the exception of adding a disc opening and altering certain spines, hinges and tabs, the folder 512 includes the same components and is formed from the same materials as the folder 12 . [0107] The folder 512 includes a disc opening 516 for permitting a disc to be placed within, and removed from, the insert 514 . As is shown in FIG. 28 , the disc opening 516 is formed on the fourth panel 42 ′ of a blank 534 and thus eliminates the need for an opening like that which is formed along the side edge 28 ′ of the folder 10 . The blank 534 instead includes a second side spine 536 , which is defined by the first side hinge 62 ′ and a second side hinge 538 . The blank 534 also lacks the cover tab 52 , first and second hinges 46 , 48 and the interior cover spine 50 of the folder 10 . The first panel 36 ′ of the blank 534 instead extends between an outside edge 540 and the cover hinge 44 ′. [0108] The storage package 510 is assembled by folding the first panel 36 ′ along the cover hinge 44 and adhesively bonding the first panel 36 ′ against the second panel 38 so that the outside edge 540 extends along the third hinge 54 ′. It is noted that the first panel 36 ′ is shown already folded over in this manner in FIGS. 27 through 29 . As is shown in FIG. 29 , the front of the insert 514 is then disposed against the interior surface of the fourth panel 42 ′ so that the insert 514 may be accessed through the disc opening 516 of the assembled folder 512 . The upper glue tab 68 ′, lower glue tab 70 ′ and side glue tab 72 ′ are then folded over the insert 514 and are adhered to one another, with the second side spine 536 wrapped around the insert 514 in place of the opening that would otherwise be formed along the side edge 28 ′ of the folder 12 . The fourth panel 42 ′ and side spine 29 ′ are next folded along the third and fourth hinges 54 ′, 56 ′ and the glue tabs 68 ′, 70 ′, 72 ′ are adhered to the third panel 40 ′ to arrive at the package 510 shown in FIG. 27 . When the cover 32 ′ of the folder 512 is closed, the first side spine 29 ′ is superimposed over the second side spine 536 so that the entire insert 514 is securely enclosed within the interior of the folder 512 . [0109] The storage package 510 may alternatively feature a blank, not shown, but similar to the blank 534 , in which the disc opening 516 is formed on the third panel 40 ′. To assemble the package 510 , the back of the insert 514 is disposed against the interior surface of the fourth panel 42 ′ so that the front of the insert 514 may be accessed through the disc opening 516 on the third panel after the package 510 is assembled. The remaining components of the blank 534 are wrapped around the insert 514 in a manner identical to that which is described above with reference to FIGS. 27 through 29 . The storage package 510 may also alternatively be formed to include five panels, with the second panel hinged and adhesively bonded to the back side of the first panel to create an inside page for use as a storage pocket for printed and other graphic materials. [0110] The storage package 510 may also include a tear-away insert disposed across a portion or overlying the entirety of the opening 516 . The insert (not shown) is connected to the folder 12 by a perforated line to permit the insert to be removed by an end user. Such an insert is formed from any suitable material, including but not limited to the same substrate used for the blank 534 , or a flexible material other than the die-cut substrate used for the blank 534 . [0111] Referring now to FIGS. 30 and 31 , the insert 514 consists of an outer frame 542 formed from opposed lateral frame portions 544 , 546 that are interconnected by upper and lower frame portions 548 , 550 to define first, second, third and fourth corners 552 , 554 , 556 , 558 . First and second tabs 559 are formed on the respective lateral frame portions 544 , 546 and extend inwardly toward the center of the insert 514 for supporting the outer edge of a disc. [0112] A first diagonal frame support 560 extends from the second corner 554 to the fourth corner 558 and intersects a second diagonal frame support 562 , which similarly extends from the first corner 552 to the third corner 556 to define cut-out areas 564 , 565 , 566 , 567 . [0113] A central support 568 is disposed at the intersection of the first and second diagonal frame supports 560 , 562 . The central support 568 and the tabs 559 cooperate with four rim segments 569 to define a disc seat 570 . Each of the frame supports 560 , 562 includes a pair of the rim segments 569 , which are disposed on the supports 560 , 562 in spaced-apart relation to the central support 568 . Each rim segment 569 is integrally formed with and extends perpendicularly to a selected one of the diagonal frame supports 560 , 562 , which in turn causes the disc seat 570 to be recessed relative to the lateral, upper and lower frame portions 544 , 546 , 548 , 550 . [0114] The insert 514 includes features specifically designed to enhance the protection of a disc stored within the seat 570 . As is best shown in FIG. 31 , the lateral, upper and lower frame portions 544 , 546 , 548 , 550 are reinforced by an outer side rim 572 that extends around the periphery of the outer frame 542 . The diagonal frame supports 560 , 562 are also reinforced. In particular, pairs of upper and lower support ribs 574 , 576 are disposed on the back sides of the diagonal frame supports 560 , 562 and extend from the corners of the frame 542 to the rim segments 569 . The disc seat 570 is further strengthened by a reinforcing bar 578 that interconnects the upper support ribs 574 above the central support 568 . [0115] The reinforcing bar 572 also stabilizes the diagonal frame supports 560 , 562 to allow a spring locking mechanism 580 to operate without difficulty. The spring locking mechanism 580 is disposed within the cut-out area 564 below the upper frame portion 548 and features an H-shaped member 582 mounted on a spring 584 which has ends 586 connected to the upper support ribs 574 . In the absence of pressure on the spring 584 , the web 585 of the H-shaped member 582 abuts a projection 588 which is integral with the upper frame portion 548 and extends toward the central support 568 . [0116] To place a disc in the insert 514 , the web 585 of the H-shaped member 582 is urged slightly upwards and away from the bar 578 , which likewise causes the spring 584 to flex outwardly away from the central support 568 . As the spring 584 flexes, the web 545 slides toward the projection 588 so that a lock bar 590 disposed on the back of the H-shaped member 582 slides behind the projection 588 in the manner shown in FIGS. 30 and 31 . This causes the H-shaped member 582 to move away from the central support 568 so that a disc can be placed in the insert 514 . The spring locking mechanism 580 returns to its original position when the lock bar 590 on the H-shaped member 582 is released from the projection 588 . [0117] The central support 568 may alternatively be formed with an opening like the opening 345 described above for permitting an end user to insert a finger in the opening to remove the disc from the tray. [0118] While the invention has been described with reference to exemplary embodiments, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes may be made and equivalents may be substituted for elements thereof without departing from the scope of the invention. In addition, many modifications may be made to adapt a particular situation or material to the teachings of the invention without departing from the essential scope thereof. Therefore, it is intended that the invention not be limited to the particular embodiments disclosed as the best mode contemplated for carrying out this invention, but that the invention will include all embodiments falling within the scope of the claims.

A media disc storage package includes: a folder including at least first and second spaced-apart panels defining a space for enclosing a media disc; and a substantially rigid insert disposed between the panels. The insert spans the distance between the panels to provide structural support to the folder, and includes an open disc well adapted to hold the media disc in the space between the panels.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0001] The present disclosure relates to furniture glides, and particularly to replaceable furniture glides used on the undersurfaces of articles of furniture to assist in moving furniture along a flooring surface and protecting the floor from scratching. BACKGROUND [0002] Furniture glides are used on the undersurfaces of furniture, particularly tables and chairs, to keep the furniture legs from scratching or wearing on floor surfaces. In prior art patents of this general type, arrangements are disclosed which include units which are removably attached to the feet of chairs and tables. As the ground engaging surface of the glide wears or becomes dirty through use, the entire unit must be replaced. After multiple replacements, the nail or screw securing the unit to the chair no longer holds with the desired force as the hole in which it is fastened becomes compromised. SUMMARY [0003] The present disclosure relates to a furniture glide with a replaceable ground engaging surface which includes a base component and a cup component which snap fit together. The base component is secured to a furniture leg or other undersurface with a fastener such as an annular brad or nail or screw. The cup component is attached to a ground engaging surface made of a non-scratch material such as, for example, felt or plastic. The ground engaging surface is positioned to lie between the cup component and the floor to prevent scratches or wear on the floor as the furniture rests or moves along the floor. [0004] The snap fit arrangement is important because this configuration allows the base and cup to securely fasten together for operation, preventing unintended loosening or separation of the two parts, but also provides for disassembly of the two components when the glide member becomes worn and needs to be replaced. When the ground engaging surface becomes worn or dirty, the cup component can be removed from the base component, which remains attached to the furniture by unsnapping and disengaging the base component from the cup component by hand or with an instrument such as a knife or screwdriver. A replacement glide member is then snapped over the base component without the need to replace the entire assembly. [0005] Additional features of the disclosure will become apparent to those skilled in the art upon consideration of the following detailed description of illustrative embodiments exemplifying the best mode of carrying out the disclosure as presently perceived. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0006] The present disclosure and the advantages thereof will become more apparent upon consideration of the following detailed description when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings of which: [0007] FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a chair fitted with a furniture glide on the undersurface of each of its four legs. [0008] FIG. 2A is a cutaway side view of one embodiment of the furniture glide assembly. [0009] FIG. 2B is an enlarged cutaway side view of the furniture glide assembly, detailing the snap fit engagement of the annular flange of the base member and the recessed cavity of the cup member. [0010] FIG. 3 is an exploded view of a furniture glide adapted to be coupled to a furniture leg showing the furniture leg, base member, annular brad fastener, cup member, and glide member. [0011] FIG. 4A is a side view of the furniture glide assembly with a cutaway portion showing the snap fit engagement between the base member and the cup member. [0012] FIG. 4B is an enlargement of the side view of the furniture glide assembly detailing the snap fit engagement of the base member and cup member. [0013] FIG. 5A is a perspective view showing an embodiment in which the fastener is a screw. [0014] FIG. 5B is a perspective view showing an assembled furniture glide of the embodiment of FIG. 5A . [0015] FIG. 6 is a perspective view of an alternate configuration of the furniture glide assembly in which the cup member is comprised of or coated in a ground engaging plastic material with a high degree of lubricity such as polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). [0016] FIG. 7A is perspective exploded view of another alternative configuration in which the cup member includes a radially extending lip for ease of removal from the base member. [0017] FIG. 7B is a perspective view of the assembled unit shown in FIG. 7A . [0018] FIG. 8 illustrates the separation of the cup component from the base component using a screwdriver. [0019] FIG. 9 illustrates the separation of the cup component from the base component by hand, utilizing the radially extending tab. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0020] While the present disclosure may be susceptible to different embodiments, there is shown in the drawings, and herein will be described in detail, embodiments with the understanding that the present description is to be considered an exemplification of the principles of the disclosure and is not intended to limit the disclosure to the details of construction and the arrangements of components set forth in the following description or illustrated in the drawings. [0021] FIG. 1 depicts a replaceable furniture glide 10 coupled to the underside of four furniture legs 12 . The furniture glide 10 includes a base member 14 , shown in FIG. 2A , which is adapted to be secured to the furniture leg 12 with one or more fasteners 16 such as an annular brad 18 . Attachment of the base member 14 to the bottom of the furniture leg 12 can be achieved by using a hammer if the fixture is an annular brad 18 or nail, as depicted in FIG. 2A , or with a screwdriver if the fastener 16 is a screw or other rotary fixation device, as shown in FIGS. 5A and 5B . [0022] The annular brad 18 , depicted in FIG. 2A , may be formed to include a flange 36 extending radially from its base. Flange 36 anchors the annular brad 18 within the base member 14 , to add stability and prevent dislodgment of the connection between the base member 14 and the furniture leg 12 . [0023] In an alternate configuration, the fastener 16 may be a screw, as depicted in FIG. 5A . In this configuration, the base member 14 includes a recessed inlet 23 and aperture 25 on its bottom wall 24 . Recessed inlet 23 is configured to create a shelf of the same dimension as the head of the screw or nail fastener, countersinking the screw or nail fastener within the base member 14 . Positioning the screw or nail fastener 16 within the base member 14 prevents interference between the base member 14 and the cup member 34 to allow the cup member 34 to rest flatly against the base member 14 . [0024] The base member 14 is preferably formed as a single piece of plastic or rubber. The base member includes a top wall 20 , a sidewall 22 , and a bottom wall 24 , as shown in FIG. 2A . When assembled, the top wall 20 is located in proximity to the bottom surface of a furniture leg. The sidewall 22 includes an annular flange 26 that extends radially from its periphery. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 2B , the annular flange 26 includes a planar sidewall 28 and a top wall 30 that is generally perpendicular to the sidewall 28 . The annular flange 26 is receivable in a groove 44 formed in lower cup member 34 . [0025] Once the base member 14 has been attached to the furniture leg 12 with fastener 16 , the base member 14 and cup member 34 are easily assembled by aligning the two pieces with respect to each other and applying pressure to the cup member 34 so that cup member 34 snaps over annular flange 26 of base member 14 , as detailed in FIG. 2B . [0026] Cup member 34 , as shown in FIG. 2B , is configured to be removably coupled to the base member 14 . As shown in FIG. 2A , the cup member 34 includes a top wall 38 formed to include a recess 32 . Recess 32 is defined by an annular sidewall 40 formed to include a tapered surface 41 extending downward at an inward angle from the top wall 38 , as shown in FIG. 2B . Tapered surface 41 of cup member 34 facilitates the assembly of the cup member 34 and base member 14 by expanding the sidewall 40 of cup member 34 to outwardly flex sidewall 40 over the annular flange 26 of the base member 14 . Tapered surface 41 also provides a point of entry for a screwdriver or other implement to aid in the removal of the cup member 34 from the base member 14 . [0027] Cup member 34 includes a retainer 43 , depicted in FIG. 2B , formed by the inward protrusion of the tapered surface 41 of the sidewall 40 of the cup member 34 . Retainer 43 is necessary to secure the annular flange 26 in the groove 44 of the cup member 34 , forming the secure snap fit arrangement. Retainer 43 has a second tapered surface 45 , shown in FIG. 2B , which tapers into the groove 44 where the sidewall 40 connects to a bottom wall 42 . [0028] The groove 44 is dimensioned to accept the annular flange 26 of the base member 14 to secure the unit in an interconnected snap fit engagement, as depicted in FIGS. 2A and 2B . This arrangement maintains the position between the base member 14 and the cup member 34 even though the furniture leg 12 may be moved, jostled, or otherwise repositioned. Second tapered surface 45 of the cup member 34 facilitates the removal of the annular flange 26 of the base member 14 from the groove 44 of the cup member. [0029] The cup member 34 also includes a bottom surface that is provided with a ground engaging glide member 46 , as shown in FIGS. 4A and 4B . Glide member 46 is preferably formed of felt or another scratch-resistant material such as plastic, including polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). Any plastic with a high degree of lubricity to facilitate sliding of the furniture across a flooring surface will work for the intended purpose. The glide member 46 is positioned to lie between the cup member 34 and the floor to prevent scratching or wear on the floor as the furniture leg 12 rests or moves along the floor surface. The glide member shown in FIG. 4A includes a top surface 48 lying in proximity to the bottom wall 42 of the cup component 34 and a bottom surface 50 adapted to engage the floor. [0030] When the glide member 46 becomes worn or dirty, the cup member 34 can be pried from the base member 14 , which stays fixed to the bottom of the furniture leg 12 , as shown, for example, in FIG. 8 . This can be accomplished by use of a screwdriver, knife or other implement to pry apart and separate the cup member 34 from the base member 14 , unsnapping the flange 26 on the periphery of the base member 14 from the groove 44 in the cup member 34 . The screwdriver can also be wedged between the leg of the chair and the cup member 34 to effectuate its removal. A replacement cup member with a new glide member can then be snapped into place. [0031] In an alternative configuration, depicted in FIG. 7A , the cup member 34 may include a radially extending tab 52 extending from the periphery of the cup member 34 . Radially extending tab 52 facilitates removal of the cup member 34 from the base member 14 when the glide member 46 becomes worn, as depicted in FIG. 9 . The base member 14 and cup member 34 can more easily be separated by applying pressure to the radially extending tab 52 and pulling the base member 14 and cup member 34 apart. The radially extending tab 52 also forms a pry point to allow removal of the cup member 34 with the screwdriver or other implement when attached to the furniture surface. [0032] In an alternate configuration, as depicted in FIG. 6 , the entire cup member 54 can be formed of or coated in non-scratch material, such as a plastic with a high degree of lubricity, such as polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). In this configuration, the removable cup member 54 is not provided with an additional glide member because the entire cup member 54 is formed to provide a non-scratch barrier between the furniture leg 12 and the floor. [0033] In this alternate configuration, the entire non-scratch or non-scratch coated cup member 54 can be unsnapped from the base member 14 and replaced if it becomes dirty, worn, or in the case of the coated cup member, loses its non-scratch coating. [0034] While embodiments have been illustrated and described in the drawings and foregoing description, such illustrations and descriptions are considered to be exemplary and not restrictive in character, it being understood that only illustrative embodiments have been shown and described and that all changes and modifications that come within the spirit of the disclosure are desired to be protected. The description and figures are intended as illustrations of embodiments of the disclosure, and are not intended to be construed as having or implying limitation of the disclosure to those embodiments. [0035] There are a plurality of advantages of the present disclosure arising from various features set forth in the description. It will be noted that alternative embodiments of the disclosure may not include all of the features described yet still benefit from at least some of the advantages of such features. Those of ordinary skill in the art may readily devise their own implementations of the disclosure and associated methods, without undue experimentation, that incorporate one or more of the features of the disclosure and fall within the spirit and scope of the present disclosure and the appended claims.

A replaceable furniture glide assembly for use with articles of furniture. The furniture glide assembly includes a base member removably attached to the undersurface of an article of furniture and a cup member which snap fits to removably engage with the base member. The cup member includes a glide member which engages with and protects the floor. The cup member can be easily removed by disengaging the snap fitting when the glide member becomes worn or needs to be replaced.

FIELD OF INVENTION The instant invention relates to the field of convertible units for use with babies and very young children. In particular to units that may be easily converted to an easel, toy storage and display unit or child's bed-side sleeping enclosure, hereinafter referred to for convenience as a "co-sleeper", that attaches securely to the parents' bed. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Furniture and fixtures for use by babies and small children often presents a problem for parents with limited living space. For this reason it is desirable that such furniture serve more than one purpose. As children mature rapidly and as their needs change as they mature, it is useful if furniture and fixtures designed for them can be used during different phases of their development. A bedside co-sleeper is very useful for an infant or very young child. However as the child grows, it will soon be desirable for him or her to have a separate bed. If the co-sleeper can then be put to other uses, the parents will save both space and the cost of other furniture. Various examples of such multi-purpose children's furniture have been patented and sold. In U.S. Pat. No. 5,349,709, issued to Cheng teaches a folding combination playpen and baby bed having an elevated floorboard. U.S. Pat. No. 5,339,470, issued to Shamie discloses a combination foldable playpen and dressing/changing table. Mariol adds an upper level to a playpen to provide a bassinet. The short legs of the upper level are inserted into openings in the top of the vertical supports of the playpen. (U.S. Pat. No. 5,553,336). U.S. Pat. No. 2,632,186, issued to Berk et al. discloses a portable combination crib and playpen. Saldana teaches a unit designed for home and travel that may be used as a support for a playpen, bassinet or baby chair (U.S. Pat. No. 2,691,176). Beside cribs that attached to the parents' bed were known at the turn of the century (U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,548,005; 620,069; 1,138,451; 1,283,169; 1,267,244) but fell out of favor for many years. Recently there has been a resurgence in the practice of having babies adjacent the parents' bed. Such bed-side cribs are taught in U.S. Pat. No. 5,172,435 to Griffin et al.; U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,148,561 to Tharalson et al; and 5,293,655 to Van Winkle et al. It is an objective of the present invention to provide an attractive piece of furniture that will serve as a sturdy bedside co-sleeper while providing alternative uses as the child matures. It is a further objective of the invention to provide a unit that can be readily converted to a child's easel. It is still a further objective of the present invention that the unit serves as a means to store or display a child's toys. It is yet a further objective of the invention that the unit be adaptable for use with platform-style beds that are typically lower than conventional beds. It is another objective of the present invention that the legs of the unit is adjustable to provide a comfortable working height when employed as a child's easel. Finally, it is an objective of the invention that the unit be convertible from one function to another without the use of tools and that no small loose parts are required that might be swallowed by the child. Other features and advantages of the invention will be seen from the following description and drawings. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION A multi-purpose bedside co-sleeper convertibly adapted for use as a child's easel, bassinet, couch and toy storage/display device may be constructed from the following components. A rigid enclosure that has an open top, a mattress base, first and second side walls, a back wall, and means for supporting the enclosure are provided. The mattress base has an upper surface, a lower surface, a front edge, a back edge, a first side edge and a second side edge. The back wall is removably attached to the first and second side walls. The first and second side walls and the back wall are of sufficient height to confine a small child inside. Each of the first and second side walls have a top edge, a bottom edge, a front edge and a back edge. Means are provided for adjusting the height of the co-sleeper relative to a ground surface. The mattress base is hingedly attached at its lower surface to the means for supporting the enclosure. Means are provided for alternatively positioning the mattress base at an acute angle to the ground surface, at a right angle to the ground surface and substantially parallel to the ground. At least one shelf is removably attached to the first and second side walls and means are provided for securing the multi-purpose bedside co-sleeper to the parental bed. In a variant of the invention, a front retaining lip is provided. The retaining lip is fixedly attached to the front edge of the mattress base and extends from the first side wall to the second side wall and extends above the mattress base for a first predetermined distance. A mattress pad is provided that is sized, shaped and located to removably cover the mattress base. In use, when the mattress pad is located over the mattress base the front retaining lip will prevent the mattress pad from sliding forwardly on the mattress base. In another variant of the invention, the means for supporting the enclosure further comprises a front leg portion and a rear leg portion. The front leg portion has a top edge, a bottom edge, a first side edge, a second side edge and a first knee opening of a first predetermined height. The front leg portion is fixedly attached to the first side wall and the second side wall and is spaced inwardly from the front edge of the mattress base by a second predetermined distance. The rear leg portion has a top edge, a bottom edge, a first side edge, a second side edge and a second knee opening of a second predetermined height. The rear leg portion is fixedly attached to the first side wall and the second side wall and is coplanar with the back wall. In use, when the enclosure is positioned in a first, lower position, the enclosure may be supported on the ground surface on the bottom edge of the front leg portion, bottom edge of the rear leg portion and the bottom edges of the first and second side walls. In yet another variation of the invention, the means for adjusting the height of the co-sleeper relative to a ground surface further comprises front and rear leg attachment portions extending downwardly from each of the-first and second side walls. A series of first vertically spaced adjustment holes extends through each of the front and rear leg attachment portions of the first and second side walls. Four adjustable leg members are provided, each including at least one second series of vertically spaced adjustment holes. The second series of adjustment holes is sized, shaped, and located to align with at least two of the first series of adjustment holes in each of the first and second side walls. Means are provided to removably secure each of the adjustable leg members to one of the first and second side walls. In use, when each of the adjustable leg members is secured to one of the first and second side walls in the first, lower position the enclosure will be at a height relative to the ground surface to serve as a bed-side co-sleeper, couch or toy display/storage device. When the leg members are secured to the first and second side walls in a second, higher position the enclosure will be at a height relative to the ground surface to serve as a child's easel or bassinet. In still another variation, the means for alternatively positioning the mattress base at at least one acute angle to the ground surface, at a right angle to the ground surface and substantially parallel thereto further comprises first and second receiving openings. Each of the receiving openings is located on one of the first and second side edges of the mattress base and is spaced from its front edge. Each of the receiving openings includes a securing means. A pair of first locating holes is provided, each of which is sized, shaped, and located to align with one of the first and second receiving openings when the mattress base is positioned at a right angle to the ground surface. At least one pair of second locating holes is provided, each of which is sized, shaped, and located to align with one of the first and second receiving openings when the mattress base is positioned at an acute right angle to the ground surface. First and second locating means are provided, each of the locating means is sized, shaped and located to pass through one of the first and second locating holes to engage the securing means in one of the first and second receiving openings. In use, the mattress base is positioned so that the first pair of locating holes is aligned with one of the receiving openings. Each of the locating means is then passed through one of the first pair of locating holes and into one of the receiving openings. The locating means then engage the securing means and the mattress base will be removably secured at a right angle to the ground surface, thus providing a back for the toy storage/display device. For use in an alternative mode, the mattress base is positioned so that one of the second pair of locating holes is aligned with the receiving openings. Next, each of the locating means is passed through one of the second pair of locating holes and into one of the receiving openings to engage the securing means. The mattress base will then be removably secured at an acute angle to the ground surface thus providing a suitable working surface for a child's easel. In yet a further variation of the invention, the securing means is a female thread fixedly attached within the receiving opening. In this variation, the locating means is a bolt sized, shaped and threaded to pass though one of the locating holes in one of the first and second side walls and removably engage the securing means. In still a further variation, the means for securing the multi-purpose bedside co-sleeper to the parental bed further comprises a strap member. The strap member has a length greater than twice the width of the parental bed and has a first end and a second end. A resistance plate member is provided. The resistance plate has at least two slots vertically aligned and centrally located through which the strap member is threaded such that the first end and the second end are substantially equidistant from the plate member. Strap member receiving means are fixedly attached to the first and second sides of the co-sleeper adjacent their back edges. Attachment cooperation means are slidably engaged near the first end and near the second end of the strap member for reversible connection to the strap member receiving means. Means for adjusting the length of the strap member are provided. These adjusting means also serve to tighten the strap member after connecting the attachment cooperation means to the strap member receiving means. In use, the strap member is properly positioned when it is located under the mattress of the parental bed and held in place by the resistance plate. The resistance plate is positioned vertically at the side of the parental bed opposite placement of the co-sleeper and the strap member is tightened so the co-sleeper is held fast to the parental bed. In another variation of the invention, the co-sleeper further comprises first and second guide slots. The guide are slots sized, shaped and located in the first and second side walls adjacent their front edges to constrain the strap member adjacent its first end and its second end, thereby more securely holding the co-sleeper to the parental bed. In still another variation, the co-sleeper further comprises a front wall. The front wall has a top edge, a bottom edge, a first side edge and a second side edge. The front wall is removably attached at its first side edge to the first side wall adjacent its front edge and removably attached at its second side edge to the second side wall adjacent its front edge. Means for removably attaching the front wall to the first and second side walls are provided. In use, when the front wall is attached to the first and second side walls its bottom edge will be located upon the front retaining lip of the mattress base and the co-sleeper will be convertibly adapted for use as a bassinet. In yet another variation of the invention, the means for removably attaching the front wall to the first and second side walls further comprises first and second receiving slide pairs. Each of the receiving slide pairs has a top portion and a bottom portion. Each of the top and bottom portions includes a C-shaped receiving channel extending vertically for the height of each portion. Means for securing the slide pairs to the first and second side edges of the front wall are provided. First and second guide member pairs are provided. Each of the guide member pairs has an upper portion and a lower portion. Each of the portions includes a protrusion sized, shaped and disposed to slidably engage the C-shaped receiving channel. Each of the upper portions includes a releasable retaining means and each of the upper and lower portions includes means for securing the guide member pairs to one of the first and second side walls. In use the first and second receiving slide pairs are secured to the first and second side edges of the front wall and the first and second guide member pairs are secured to the first and second side walls adjacent their front edges. The front wall is located between the first and second side walls with the first and second guide member pairs engaging the first and second receiving slide pairs. The retaining means of the upper portions of the first and second guide member pairs secure the first and second receiving slide pairs and the front wall may be removably secured to the enclosure for use as a bassinet. Still another variation, further comprises a base plate. The base plate has a top surface, a front edge, a back edge, a first side edge and a second side edge. The base plate extends from the front leg portion to the rear leg portion and from the first side wall to the second side wall. Means are provided for supporting the base plate adjacent to the top edge of the front leg portion and adjacent to the top edge of the rear leg portion. Means are also provided for lifting the base plate from the supporting means. Still a further variation of the invention, further comprises a storage shelf. The storage shelf has a top surface, a front edge, a back edge, a first side edge and a second side edge. The storage shelf extends from the front leg portion to the rear leg portion and from the first side wall to the second side wall. Means are provided for supporting the storage shelf at a level spaced below and parallel to the base plate and above the second knee opening of the rear leg portion. In use, when the base plate is lifted upwardly from the enclosure items may be placed upon the storage shelf and the base plate lowered over the items, thereby retaining the items in storage within the co-sleeper. In yet a further variation, the co-sleeper further comprises at least two sets of holes for removably securing the shelves to the first and second side walls. When the co-sleeper is utilized as a child's easel, the shelves may be located in a first position behind the angled mattress base, and when the co-sleeper is utilized as a toy storage/display device, the shelves may be located in a second position behind the upright mattress base. In yet another variation of the invention, the co-sleeper further comprises a couch pad. The couch pad is sized, shaped and located to provide a cushioning layer between a seated person and the mattress, side walls and back wall of the co-sleeper. Means are provided for securing the couch pad upon the mattress base, side walls and back wall of the co-sleeper. In a final variation, the co-sleeper further comprises an art supply holder. The holder is sized, shaped and located to accommodate an artist's paints, brushes, and other supplies. The art supply holder is removably attached to the front retaining lip of the mattress. DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a perspective view of the preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 2 is a cross-sectional side elevational view of the FIG. 1 embodiment; FIG. 3 is a perspective view of the FIG. 1 embodiment attached to a parental bed by the safety strap assembly; FIG. 4 is a perspective view of the FIG. 1 embodiment configured as a child's easel; FIG. 5 is a cross-sectional side elevational view of the FIG. 4 embodiment; FIG. 6 is a cross-sectional side elevational view of the FIG. 1 embodiment configured as a toy storage and display device; FIG. 7 is a perspective view of the FIG. 1 embodiment with the addition of a removable front wall; FIG. 8 is a perspective view of the removable front wall and upper attachment connector; FIG. 9 is a perspective view of the removable front wall and lower attachment connector; FIG. 10 is a perspective view of the FIG. 1 embodiment with removable couch pad attached; and FIG. 11 is a cross-sectional side elevation of the threaded attachment means. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT As illustrated in FIGS. 1-9, a multi-purpose bedside co-sleeper 10 convertibly adapted for use as a child's easel, bassinet, couch and toy storage/display device may be constructed from the following components. A rigid enclosure 14 that has an open top 18, a mattress base 22, first 26 and second 30 side walls, a back wall 34, and means 38 for supporting the enclosure 14 are provided. The mattress base 22 has an upper surface 42, a lower surface 46, a front edge 50, a back edge 54, a first side edge 58 and a second side edge 62. The back wall 34 is removably attached to the first 26 and second 30 side walls. The first 26 and second 30 side walls and the back wall 34 are of sufficient height to confine a small child inside. Each of the first 26 and second 30 side walls have a top edge 66, 70, a bottom edge 74, 78, a front edge 82, 86 and a back edge 90, 94. Means 98 are provided for adjusting the height of the co-sleeper 10 relative to a ground surface 102. The mattress base 22 is hingedly attached at its lower surface 46 to the means 38 for supporting the enclosure 14. Means 106 are provided for alternatively positioning the mattress base 22 at an acute angle to the ground surface 102, at a right angle to the ground surface 102 and substantially parallel to the ground 102. At least one shelf 110 is removably attached to the first 26 and second 30 side walls and means 114 are provided for securing the multi-purpose bedside co-sleeper 10 to a parental bed 118. In a variant of the invention, a front retaining lip 122 is provided. The retaining lip 122 is fixedly attached to the front edge 50 of the mattress base 22 and extends from the first side wall 26 to the second side wall 30 and extends above the mattress base 22 for a first predetermined distance 126. A mattress pad 130 is provided that is sized, shaped and located to removably cover the mattress base 22. In use, when the mattress pad 130 is located over the mattress base 22 the front retaining lip 122 will prevent the mattress pad 130 from sliding forwardly on the mattress base 22. In another variant of the invention, the means 38 for supporting the enclosure 14 further comprises a front leg portion 134 and a rear leg portion 138. The front leg portion 134 has a top edge 142, a bottom edge 146, a first side edge 150, a second side edge 154 and a first knee opening 158 of a first predetermined height 162. The front leg portion 134 is fixedly attached to the first side wall 26 and the second side wall 30 and is spaced inwardly from the front edge 50 of the mattress base 22 by a second predetermined distance 166. The rear leg portion 138 has a top edge 170, a bottom edge 174, a first side edge (not shown), a second side edge (not shown) and a second knee opening 186 of a second predetermined height 190. The rear leg portion 138 is fixedly attached to the first side wall 26 and the second side wall 30 and is coplanar with the back wall 34. In use, when the enclosure 14 is positioned in a first, lower position, the enclosure 14 may be supported on the ground surface 102 on the bottom edge 146 of the front leg portion 134, bottom edge 174 of the rear leg portion 138 and the bottom edges 74, 78 of the first 26 and second 30 side walls. In yet another variation of the invention, the means 98 for adjusting the height of the co-sleeper 10 relative to a ground surface 102 further comprises front 194 and rear 198 leg attachment portions extending downwardly from each of the first 26 and second 30 side walls. A series of first 202 vertically spaced adjustment holes extends through each of the front 194 and rear 198 leg attachment portions of the first 26 and second 30 side walls. Four adjustable leg members 206 are provided, each including at least one second 210 series of vertically spaced adjustment holes. The second 210 series of adjustment holes is sized, shaped, and located to align with at least two of the first 202 series of adjustment holes in each of the first 26 and second 30 side walls. Means 214 are provided to removably secure each of the adjustable leg members 206 to one of the first 26 and second 30 side walls. In use, when each of the adjustable leg members 206 is secured to one of the first 26 and second 30 side walls in the first, lower position the enclosure 14 will be at a height relative to the ground surface 102 to serve as a bed-side co-sleeper, couch or toy display/storage device. When the leg members 206 are secured to the first 26 and second 30 side walls in a second, higher position the enclosure 14 will be at a height relative to the ground surface 102 to serve as a child's easel or bassinet. In still another variation, the means 106 for alternatively positioning the mattress base 22 at at least one acute angle to the ground surface 102, at a right angle to the ground surface 102 and substantially parallel thereto further comprises first and second receiving openings (not shown). Each of the receiving openings is located on one of the first 58 and second 62 side edges of the mattress base 22 and is spaced from its front edge 50. Each of the receiving openings includes a securing means 226 (see FIG. 11). A pair of first locating holes 230 is provided, each of which is sized, shaped, and located to align with one of the first and second receiving openings when the mattress base 22 is positioned at a right angle to the ground surface 102. At least one pair of second locating holes 234 is provided, each of which is sized, shaped, and located to align with one of the first and second receiving openings when the mattress base 22 is positioned at an acute right angle to the ground surface 102. First and second locating means (not shown) are provided, each of the locating means is sized, shaped and located to pass through one of the first 230 and second 234 locating holes to engage the securing means 226 in one of the first and second receiving openings. In use, the mattress base 22 is positioned so that the first pair of locating holes 230 is aligned with one of the receiving openings. Each of the locating means is then passed through one of the first pair of locating holes 230 and into one of the receiving openings. The locating means then engage the securing means 226 and the mattress base 22 will be removably secured at a right angle to the ground surface 102, thus providing a back for the toy storage/display device. For use in an alternative mode, the mattress base 22 is positioned so that one of the second pair of locating holes 234 is aligned with the receiving openings. Next, each of the locating means is passed through one of the second 234 pair of locating holes and into one of the receiving openings to engage the securing means 226. The mattress base 22 will then be removably secured at an acute angle to the ground surface 102 thus providing a suitable working surface for a child's easel as illustrated in FIG. 4. In yet a further variation of the invention, the securing means 226 is a female thread 246 fixedly attached within the receiving opening. In this variation, the locating means is a bolt 250 sized, shaped and threaded to pass though one of the locating holes 230, 234 in one of the first 26 and second 30 side walls and removably engage the securing means 226 (see FIG. 11). In still a further variation, as illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 3, the means 114 for securing the multi-purpose bedside co-sleeper 10 to the parental bed 118 further comprises a strap member 254. The strap member 254 has a length greater than twice the width of the parental bed 118 and has a first end (not shown) and a second end 262. A resistance plate member 266 is provided. The resistance plate 266 has at least two slots 270 vertically aligned and centrally located through which the strap member 254 is threaded such that the first end and the second end 262 are substantially equidistant from the plate member 266. Strap member receiving means 274 are fixedly attached to the first 26 and second 30 sides of the co-sleeper adjacent their back edges 90, 94. Attachment cooperation means 278 are slidably engaged near the first end and near the second end 262 of the strap member 254 for reversible connection to the strap member receiving means 274. Means 280 for adjusting the length of the strap member 254 are provided. These adjusting means 280 also serve to tighten the strap member 254 after connecting the attachment cooperation means 278 to the strap member receiving means 274. In use, the strap member 254 is properly positioned when it is located under the mattress of the parental bed 118 and held in place by the resistance plate 266. The resistance plate 266 is positioned vertically at the side of the parental bed 118 opposite placement of the co-sleeper 10 and the strap member 254 is tightened so the co-sleeper 10 is held fast to the parental bed 118. In another variation of the invention, the co-sleeper 10 further comprises first 282 and second 286 guide slots. The guide slots 282, 286 are sized, shaped and located in the first 26 and second 30 side walls adjacent their front edges 82, 86 to constrain the strap member 254 adjacent its first end 258 and its second end 262, thereby more securely holding the co-sleeper 10 to the parental bed 118. In still another variation, illustrated in FIG. 7, the co-sleeper 10 further comprises a front wall 290. The front wall 290 has a top edge 294, a bottom edge 298, a first side edge 302 and a second side edge 306. The front wall 290 is removably attached at its first side edge 302 to the first side wall 26 adjacent its front edge 82 and removably attached at its second side edge 306 to the second side wall 30 adjacent its front edge 86. Means 310 for removably attaching the front wall 290 to the first 26 and second 30 side walls are provided. In use, when the front wall 290 is attached to the first 26 and second 30 side walls its bottom edge 298 will be located upon the front retaining lip 122 of the mattress base 22 and the co-sleeper 10 will be convertibly adapted for use as a bassinet. In yet another variation of the invention, as illustrated in FIGS. 7, 8 and 9, the means 310 for removably attaching the front wall 290 to the first 26 and second 30 side walls further comprises first 314 and second 318 receiving slide pairs. Each of the receiving slide pairs 314, 318 has a top portion 322 and a bottom portion 326. Each of the top 322 and bottom 326 portions includes a C-shaped receiving channel 330 extending vertically for the height of each portion 322, 326. Means (not shown) for securing the slide pairs 314, 318 to the first 302 and second 306 side edges of the front wall 290 are provided. First 346 and second 350 guide member pairs are provided. Each of the guide member pairs 346, 350 has an upper portion 348 and a lower portion 352. Each of the portions 348, 252 includes a protrusion 356 sized, shaped and disposed to slidably engage the C-shaped receiving channel 330. Each of the upper portions 348 includes a releasable retaining means 358 and each of the upper 348 and lower 352 portions includes means 362 for securing the guide member pairs 346, 350 to one of the first 26 and second 30 side walls. In use the first 314 and second 318 receiving slide pairs are secured to the first 302 and second 306 side edges of the front wall 290 and the first 346 and second 350 guide member pairs are secured to the first 26 and second 30 side walls adjacent their front edges 82, 86. The front wall 290 is located between the first 26 and second 30 side walls with the first 346 and second 350 guide member pairs engaging the first 314 and second 318 receiving slide pairs. The retaining means 358 of the upper portions 348 of the first 346 and second 350 guide member pairs secure the first 314 and second 318 receiving slide pairs and the front wall 290 may be removably secured to the enclosure 14 for use as a bassinet. Still another variation, as illustrated in FIGS. 5 and 6, further comprises a base plate 370. The base plate 370 has a top surface 374, a front edge 378, a back edge 382, a first side edge (not shown) and a second side edge (not shown). The base plate 370 extends from the front leg portion 134 to the rear leg portion 138 and from the first side wall 26 to the second side wall 30. Means 394 are provided for supporting the base plate 370 adjacent to the top edge 142 of the front leg portion 134 and adjacent to the top edge 170 of the rear leg portion 138. Means 398 are also provided for lifting the base plate 370 from the supporting means 394. Still a further variation of the invention, as illustrated in FIGS. 5 and 6, further comprises a storage shelf 402. The storage shelf 402 has a top surface 406, a front edge 410, a back edge 414, a first side edge (sot shown) and a second side edge (not shown). The storage shelf 402 extends from the front leg portion 134 to the rear leg portion 138 and from the first side wall 26 to the second side wall 30. Means 426 are provided for supporting the storage shelf 402 at a level spaced below and parallel to the base plate 370 and above the second knee opening 186 of the rear leg portion 138. In use, when the base plate 370 is lifted upwardly from the enclosure 14 items may be placed upon the storage shelf 402 and the base plate 370 lowered over the items, thereby retaining the items in storage within the co-sleeper 10. In yet a further variation, as illustrated in FIGS. 4, 5 and 6 the co-sleeper 10 further comprises at least two sets of holes 430, 434 for removably securing the shelves 110 to the first 26 and second 30 side walls. When the co-sleeper 10 is utilized as a child's easel, the shelves 110 may be located in a first position 438 behind the angled mattress base 22 (FIG. 5), and when the co-sleeper 10 is utilized as a toy storage/display device, the shelves 110 may be located in a second position 442 behind the upright mattress base 22 (FIG. 6). In yet another variation of the invention, as illustrated in FIG. 10, the co-sleeper 10 further comprises a couch pad 446. The couch pad 446 is sized, shaped and located to provide a cushioning layer between a seated person 450 and the mattress 130, side walls 26, 30 and back wall 34 of the co-sleeper 10. Means (not shown) are provided for securing the couch pad 446 upon the mattress 130, side walls 26, 30 and back wall 34 of the co-sleeper 10. In a final variation as illustrated in FIG. 4, the co-sleeper 10 further comprises an art supply holder 458. The holder 458 is sized, shaped and located to accommodate an artist's paints, brushes, and other supplies. The art supply holder 458 is removably attached to the front retaining lip 122 of the mattress base 22. While one embodiment of the multi-purpose bedside co-sleeper convertibly adapted for use as a child's easel, bassinet, couch and toy storage/display device 10 has been illustrated and described in detail, it is to be understood that this invention is not limited thereto and may be otherwise practiced within the scope of the following claims.

A bedside crib (hereinafter "co-sleeper") that attaches to the parental bed that may be easily converted for use as a child's easel, couch, bassinet or toy display/storage device. The co-sleeper provides a rigid enclosure formed of a pair of sides, front and rear leg portions, a removable back, a mattress base with front retaining lip, and at least one removable shelf. The mattress base is hingedly attached to the front leg portion to tilt upwardly at an acute angle to a ground surface to serve as a child's easel. When the mattress base is tilted at a right angle to the ground surface and the back of the co-sleeper is removed, the latter may serve as a toy storage/display device. A removable front allows the enclosure to function as a bassinet. Height-adjustable leg extensions attach to the sides to adjust the co-sleeper to different heights for use with various beds and to raise or lower the co-sleeper for use in alternative modes (bassinet, couch, etc.). The removable shelves attach in different positions using various mounting holes in the sides. A mattress pad is used with the invention as a co-sleeper and a couch pad is used with the device as a small couch. A strapping member and retaining plate secure the co-sleeper to the parental bed. A removable base plate mounts beneath the mattress and above a shelf to provide an enclosed storage space below the mattress base. An art supply holder is removably mounted to the front retaining lip.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a multi-phase PM-type stepping motor suitable for office automation equipments such as printers, high-speed facsimile equipments, plain paper copiers (PPCs), and so on. 2. Description of the Related Art A single-phase PM-type stepping motor which is a first example of prior art will be described with reference to FIGS. 34 and 35. FIG. 34 is a vertically-sectioned side view of a single-phase PM-type stepping motor 30 which is a first example of prior art. In FIG. 34, the reference numeral 31 represents a cylindrical rotor in which N (north) and S (south) poles are formed alternately in the circumferential direction in the outer circumferential surface thereof; 32, a rotating shaft of the rotor 31; and 33, a ring-like stator disposed so that the inner circumferential surface thereof is opposite to the outer circumferential surface of the rotor 31 through a gap. The reference numeral 34 represents a stator coil constituting the stator 33; 35, a stator yoke; 36a and 36b, motor mounting plates fixed to the stator yoke 35; and 37a and 37b, bearings provided on the mounting plates 36a and 36b respectively for rotatably supporting the rotating shaft 32. Next, the stator 33 will be described in detail with reference to FIG. 35. FIG. 35 is a vertically-sectioned side view illustrating the stator 33 in an exploded state. The stator yoke 35 is constituted by one and the other ring-like yoke elements 39a and 39b provided with comb-like pole teeth 38a and 38b extending in the axial direction along the inner circumferential surface of the stator coil 34. The pole teeth 38a and 38b are disposed so as to be adjacent to each other while shifted from each other in the circumferential direction. The stator coil 34 is constituted by a ring-like bobbin 40 surrounded by the yoke elements 39a and 39b and the pole teeth 38a and 38b, and a ring-like coil 41 wound on this bobbin 40. Next, description will be made about a two-phase PM-type stepping motor, which is a second example of prior art, with reference to FIG. 36. FIG. 36 is a vertically-sectioned side view of a two-phase PM-type stepping motor 50 which is a second example of prior art. In this stepping motor 50, a stator 53 is constituted by first and second stator portions 53a and 53b ganged together in the axial direction. In the single-phase PM-type stepping motor described above as the first example of prior art, however, the stator is constituted by a single stator portion. Accordingly, in order to determine the direction of rotation of the motor, the pole teeth of the stator, and the magnetic permeance or phase between magnetic poles of the rotor are necessary to be shifted properly. Alternatively, it is necessary to use any mechanical means to determined the direction of rotation of the motor. Such a motor is not therefore suitable for an equipment which requires high-speed rotation or high torque. On the other hand, according to the two-phase PM-type stepping motor as the second example of prior art which has been developed to solve the problems in the first example of prior art, the torque and rotation speed can be improved on a large scale, but it has problems in the points as follows. (1) The number of lead wires for the coil is large to be four, and it is necessary to use at least 8 transistors to constitute a driving circuit. (2) When the step angle is set to be fine, it is necessary to form a number of pole teeth, thereby causing a problem in construction work. (3) It is difficult to obtain high torque with a fine step angle. (4) In a three-phase PM-type stepping motor disclosed in JP-A-1-259748, the phase angle of current is 60°, and there is a problem that it is impossible to perform drive of 120° current-conduction. (5) In addition, when an multi-phase stepping motor according to the above prior art is provided as a 5-phase stepping motor by setting the number of stator cores n to be n=5, it is necessary to provide at least 10 lead-out terminals for the stator coil, and it is required to use at least 20 transistors to constitute a driving circuit. Therefore, there arises a problem that the driving circuit is so complicated that the cost increases on a large scale. It is therefore an object of the present invention to solve the foregoing problems, and to provide a multi-phase stepping motor in which the number of lead wires is reduced to simplify a driving circuit, while high torque can be outputted with a very fine step angle, and which can be manufactured at a low price. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In order to achieve the above object, according to a first aspect of the present invention, provided is a multi-phase PM-type stepping motor comprising: a rotor constituted by a cylindrical permanent magnet with N poles and S poles magnetized alternately on an outer circumferential surface of the rotor; stator cores having teeth arranged in opposition to the N poles or the S poles on the outer circumferential surface of the rotor through a predetermined air gap; and excitation coils wound in the stator cores and for magnetizing the stator cores to thereby rotate the rotor; wherein, when the number of the stator cores is represented by n (n is an odd number not smaller than 5), and the magnetization pitch angle of the permanent magnet is represented by P, the teeth of the stator cores are shifted from each other by an angle of 2P/n. According to a second aspect of the present invention, in the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor according to the first aspect of the present invention, the stator coils wound in the n stator cores are connected so as to have n terminals, and (n-1) or n of the n stator coils are bipolar-driven simultaneously by a driving circuit constituted by 2n transistors. According to a third aspect of the present invention, provided is a multi-phase PM-type stepping motor comprising: a rotor constituted by a cylindrical permanent magnet with N poles and S poles magnetized alternately on an outer circumferential surface of the rotor; stator cores having teeth arranged in opposition to the N poles or the S poles on the outer circumferential surface of the rotor through a predetermined air gap; and excitation coils wound in the stator cores for magnetizing the stator cores to thereby rotate the rotor; wherein, when the number of the stator cores is 5, and the magnetization pitch angle of the permanent magnet is represented by P, the teeth of the stator cores are shifted from each other by an angle of 2P/5. According to a fourth aspect of the present invention, provided is a multi-phase PM-type stepping motor comprising a group of n rotators and a group of n stators (n being an odd number not smaller than 3 associated with the n rotors respectively and correspondingly); each of the rotors being constituted by a cylindrical permanent magnet with N poles and S poles magnetized alternately on an outer circumferential surface of the rotor; each of the stators being constituted by a stator core having teeth arranged in opposition to the N poles or the S poles on the outer circumferential surface of the associated rotor through a predetermined air gap, and an excitation coil wound in the stator core for magnetizing the stator core to thereby rotate the associated rotor; the n stators being stacked one on another at the same pitch; the rotors being stacked one on another with a relation that magnetic poles of the m th rotor are shifted from magnetic poles of the (m-1) th rotor by an angle of 2P/n (m being an integer not smaller than 2 and not larger than n) where P represents the magnetization pitch angle of the permanent magnet. According to a fifth aspect of the present invention, in the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor according to the fourth aspect of the present invention, the stator coils wound in the n stator cores are connected so as to have n terminals, and (n-1) or n of the n stator coils are bipolar-driven simultaneously by a driving circuit constituted by 2n transistors. According to a sixth aspect of the present invention, provided is a multi-phase PM-type stepping motor comprising 3 rotators and 3 stators associated with the 3 rotors respectively and correspondingly; each of the rotors being constituted by a cylindrical permanent magnet with N poles and S poles magnetized alternately on an outer circumferential surface of the rotor; each of the stators being constituted by a stator core having teeth arranged in opposition to the N poles or the S poles on the outer circumferential surface of the associated rotor through a predetermined air gap, and an excitation coil wound in the stator core for magnetizing the stator core to thereby rotate the associated rotor; the 3 stators being stacked one on another at the same pitch; the rotors being stacked one on another with a relation that magnetic poles of a second one of the rotors are shifted from magnetic poles of a first one of the rotors by an angle of 2P/3, and magnetic poles of a third one of rotors are shifted from magnetic poles of the second rotor by an angle of 2P/3, where P represents the magnetization pitch angle of the permanent magnet. According to a seventh aspect of the present invention, provided is a multi-phase PM-type stepping motor comprising 5 rotators and 5 stators associated with the 5 rotors respectively and correspondingly; each of the rotors being constituted by a cylindrical permanent magnet with N poles and S poles magnetized alternately on an outer circumferential surface of the rotor; each of the stators being constituted by a stator core having teeth arranged in opposition to the N poles or the S poles on the outer circumferential surface of the associated rotor through a predetermined air gap, and an excitation coil wound in the stator core for magnetizing the stator core to thereby rotate the associated rotor; the 5 stators being stacked one on another at the same pitch; the rotors being stacked one on another with a relation that magnetic poles of a second one of the rotors are shifted from magnetic poles of a first one of the rotors by an angle of 2P/5, magnetic poles of a third one of the rotors are shifted from magnetic poles of the second rotor by an angle of 2P/5, magnetic poles of a fourth one of the rotors are shifted from magnetic poles of the third rotor by an angle of 2P/5, and magnetic poles of a fifth one of the rotors are shifted from magnetic poles of the fourth rotor by an angle of 2P/5, where P represents the magnetization pitch angle of the permanent magnet. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a vertically-sectioned side view of a multi-phase PM-type stepping motor of a first embodiment; FIG. 2 is an exploded perspective view of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor of the first embodiment; FIG. 3 is a development of the stator and rotor of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor of the first embodiment; FIG. 4 is a simplified diagram of stator coils for explaining the operation of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor of the first embodiment; FIG. 5 is a simplified diagram of a stator coil driving circuit for explaining the operation of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motors of the first embodiment; FIG. 6 is a simplified diagram illustrating a sequence of excitation of the stator coils for explaining the operation of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motors of the first embodiment; FIG. 7 is a simplified development of the pole teeth of the stator and magnetic poles of the rotor for explaining the operation of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor of the first embodiment; FIG. 8 is a diagram for explaining the stator coils of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor of the first embodiment; FIG. 9 is a diagram of a stator coil driving circuit in the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor of the first embodiment; FIG. 10 is a diagram illustrating a sequence of excitation of the stator coils in the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor of the first embodiment; FIG. 11 is a simplified development of the pole teeth of the stator and the magnetic poles of the rotor for explaining the operation of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor of the first embodiment; FIG. 12 is a table showing the relationship among the number M of magnetic poles of a rotor, the pitch τr of the magnetic poles of the rotor, and the step angle θs; FIG. 13 is a vertically-sectioned side view of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor of the second embodiment; FIG. 14 is an exploded perspective view of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor of the second embodiment; FIG. 15 is a development of the stator and rotor of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor of the second embodiment; FIG. 16 is a simplified diagram of stator coils for explaining the operation of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor of the second embodiment; FIG. 17 is a simplified diagram of a stator coil driving circuit for explaining the operation of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor of the second embodiment; FIG. 18 is a simplified diagram illustrating a sequence of excitation of the stator coils for explaining the operation of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor of the second embodiment; FIG. 19 is a simplified development of the pole teeth of the stator and magnetic poles of the rotor for explaining the operation of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor of the second embodiment; FIG. 20 is a diagram for explaining stator coils of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor of the second embodiment; FIG. 21 is a diagram of a stator coil driving circuit in the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor of the second embodiment; FIG. 22 is a diagram illustrating a sequence of excitation of the stator coils in the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor of the second embodiment; FIG. 23 is a simplified development of the pole teeth of the stator and the magnetic poles of the rotor for explaining the operation of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor of the second embodiment; FIG. 24 is a diagram illustrating a 3-phase excitation sequence of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor of the second embodiment; FIG. 25 is a diagram illustrating a 4-phase excitation sequence of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor of the second embodiment; FIG. 26 is a diagram illustrating a 5-phase excitation sequence of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor of the second embodiment; FIG. 27 is a diagram illustrating a 2-to-3-phase excitation sequence of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor of the second embodiment; FIG. 28 is a diagram illustrating a 3-to-4-phase excitation sequence of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor of the second embodiment; FIG. 29 is a diagram illustrating a 4-to-5-phase excitation sequence of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor of the second embodiment; FIG. 30 is a table showing the relationship among the number M of magnetic poles of a rotor, the pitch Tr of the magnetic poles of the rotor, and the step angle θs; FIG. 31 is a vertically-sectioned side view of a multi-phase PM-type stepping motor of a third embodiment; FIG. 32 is an exploded perspective view of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor of the third embodiment; FIG. 33 is a development of the stator and rotor of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor of the third embodiment; FIG. 34 is a vertically-sectioned side view of a single-phase PM-type stepping motor which is a first example of prior art; FIG. 35 is an exploded perspective view of the single-phase PM-type stepping motor which is the first example of prior art; and FIG. 36 is a vertically-sectioned side view of a two-phase PM-type stepping motor which is a second example of prior art. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS First Embodiment A first embodiment of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor according to the present invention will be described with reference to FIGS. 1 to 12. In this first embodiment, description will be made about the case in which the number n of stator cores used in the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor according to the present invention is set to 3, and a rotor is constituted by triganged first to third rotor portions. First, a basic configuration of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor of the first embodiment will be described with reference to FIGS. 1 to 3. FIG. 1 is a vertically-sectioned side view illustrating a multi-phase PM-type stepping motor 100 which is the first embodiment of the present invention, FIG. 2 is an exploded perspective view illustrating the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor 100, and FIG. 3 is a development of a stator 103 and a rotor 101 of the stepping motor 100. In the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor 100 of the first embodiment, as shown in FIGS. 1 and 2, the stator 103 is constituted by three, first to third, stator portions 103a to 103c ganged together in the axial direction. The positions of respective comb-like pole teeth 108a and 108b of each of the stator portions 103a to 103c and N and S magnetic poles on the outer circumferential surface of each of rotor portions 101a to 101c of the rotor 101 are established in such a manner as shown in FIG. 3. That is, when one or the other of the pole teeth 108a and 108b in each of the yoke elements 109a and 109b are arranged at a pole teeth pitch of τs, the other-side pole teeth 108b are shifted by τs/2 from the one-side pole teeth 108a in a circumferential direction in each of the stator portions 103a to 103c. Further, the first to third stator portions 103a to 103c are ganged together so that the respective pole teeth 108a of the first to third stator portions 103a to 103c are aligned in the axial direction and the respective pole teeth 108b of the first to third stator portions 103a to 103c are aligned in the axial direction. On the other hand, when the N and S poles of each of the rotor portions 101a to 101c of the rotor 101 are arranged at a pitch of τr respectively, the relation of τr=τs is established. Therefore, a distance P between N and S poles adjacent to each other is set so as to satisfy P=τr/2. The magnetic poles of the first rotor portion 101a are shifted by 2P/3 from those of the second rotor portion 101b, and the magnetic poles of the second rotor portion 101b are shifted by 2P/3 from those of the third rotor portion 101c. In FIG. 1, the reference numeral 102 represents a rotating shaft: 104, a stator coil; 106a and 106b, motor mounting plates; and 107a and 107b, bearings for the rotating shaft 102. In addition, in FIG. 2, the reference numeral 112 represents a motor housing. The operation of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor 100 of the first embodiment having such a configuration will be described with reference to FIGS. 4 to 12. FIG. 4 shows stator coils 104a to 104c formed of monofilament windings, and 6 external lead wires of those stator coils 104a to 104c. The stator coil 104 of FIG. 1 is a generic name of the stator coils 104a to 104c. FIG. 5 is a diagram of a driving circuit constituted by 6 PNP transistors TR1 to TR6 and 6 NPN transistors TR7 to TR12, for driving the stator coils 104a to 104c. FIG. 6 is a waveform diagram when the stator coils 104a to 104c are bipolar-driven by excitation signals 1 to 6 sequentially by using the driving circuit of FIG. 5, for simply explaining the operation of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor 100 according to the present invention. As described above, in the first embodiment, three stator portions are piled up with the same pitch to form a triple-ganged stator structure. On the other hand, the rotor portions 101a, 101b and 101c of the rotor 101 are arranged such that, when the magnetization pitch angle of the permanent magnet is assumed to be P, the magnetic poles of the second rotor portion 101b are shifted by 2P/3 relative to the magnetic poles of the first rotor portion 101a, and the magnetic poles of the third rotor portion 101c are shifted by 2P/3 relative to the magnetic poles of the second rotor portion 101b. FIG. 7 shows the operation when the stator coils are successively bipolar-driven with the excitation of FIG. 6 by using the driving circuit of FIG. 5. Step 1 in FIG. 7 shows the case where a current is made to flow only in the stator coil 104a so that all the one-side pole teeth 108a of the first stator portion 103a become S, while all the other-side pole teeth 108b of the first stator portion 103a become N. In this Step 1, therefore, the magnetic poles N of the first rotor portion 101a are attracted to S of the pole teeth 108a of the first stator portion 103a, while the magnetic poles S of the first rotor portion 101a are attracted to N of the pole teeth 108b of the first stator portion 103a so that the magnetic poles N of the first rotor portion 101a are aligned with S of the pole teeth 108a of the first stator portion 103a, while the magnetic poles S of the first rotor portion 101a are aligned with N of the pole teeth 108b of the first stator portion 103a respectively, as shown in FIG. 7. Next, in Step 2 in FIG. 7, a current is made to flow in the stator coil 104b so that the one-side pole teeth 108a of the second stator portion 103b become N, while the other-side pole teeth 108b of the second stator portion 103b become S. As a result, the magnetic poles S and N of the second rotor portion 101b are attracted by, moved to, and aligned with N and S of the pole teeth 108a and 108b of the second stator portion 103b respectively. At this time, the magnetic poles of the rotor 101 move by τr/6. Further, in Step 3 in FIG. 7, a current is made to flow in the stator coil 104c so that the one-side pole teeth 108a of the third stator portion 103c become S, while the other-side pole teeth 108b of the third stator portion 103c become N. As a result, the rotor 101 moves by one step so that the magnetic poles S and N of the third rotor portion 101c are attracted by, moved to, and aligned with N and S of the pole teeth 108b and 108a of the third stator portion 103c respectively. In Steps 4, 5 and 6, the direction of the current made to flow in the stator coils 104a to 104c is reversed to that in Steps 1, 2 and 3 respectively, as shown in FIG. 6. In such a manner, the rotor 101 is moved in the direction shown by arrows, so that the rotor 101 returns, in Step 7, to the initial position of Step 1. The step angle θs at this time is τr/6. Next, the operation of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor 100 of the first embodiment will be described specifically with reference to FIGS. 8 to 11. Here, FIG. 8 is a diagram for explaining the stator coils 104a to 104c of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor 100 of the first embodiment. FIG. 9 is a diagram of a stator coil driving circuit. FIG. 10 is a diagram illustrating an excitation sequence of the stator coils 104a to 104c. Further, FIG. 11 is a development of the pole teeth 108a and 108b in each of the stator portions 103a to 103c and the magnetic poles of the first to third rotor portions 101a to 101c, for simply explaining the operation of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor 100 of the first embodiment. That is, FIG. 11 shows the operation when the stator coils are successively bipolar-driven with the excitation of FIG. 10 by using the driving circuit of FIG. 9. In the first embodiment, as shown in FIG. 8, the stator coils 104a to 104c are connected in a star-connection so that the number of external lead wires is three. These lead wires are connected to a junction between a PNP transistor TR13 and an NPN transistor TR16 which are connected in series between a DC power source V and the ground, another junction between a PNP transistor TR14 and an NPN transistor TR17 which are also connected in series between the DC power source V and the ground, and a further junction between a PNP transistor TR15 and an NPN transistor TR18 which are also connected in series between the DC power source V and the ground, respectively, as shown in FIG. 9. Excitation signals 1 to 6 as shown in FIG. 10 are applied to this stator coil driving circuit to thereby bipolar-drive the first to third stator coils 104a to 104c. That is, in Step 1, as shown in FIG. 11, all the one-side pole teeth 108a of the first stator portion 103a and the other-side pole teeth 108b of the second stator portion 103b become S, while all the other-side pole teeth 108b of the first stator portion 103a and the one-side pole teeth 108a of the second stator portion 103b become N. In Step 2, all the one-side pole teeth 108a of the second stator portion 103b and the other-side pole teeth 108b of the third stator portion 103c become N, while all the other-side pole teeth 108b of the second stator portion 103b and the one-side pole teeth 108a of the third stator portion 103c become S. In Step 3, all the one-side pole teeth 108a of the third stator portion 103c and the other-side pole teeth 108b of the first stator portion 103a become S, while all the other-side pole teeth 108b of the third stator portion 103c and the one-side pole teeth 108a of the first stator portion 103a become N. In Steps 4, 5 and 6, as shown in FIG. 10, the direction of the current flowing in the stator coils 104a to 104c are reversed to that in Steps 1, 2 and 3, respectively. That is, N and S in the Steps 4 to 6 are reversed to those in the steps 1 to 3. In Step 7, the state returns to that in Step 1. The step angle Os in this embodiment is τr/6. The table in FIG. 12 shows the relationship among the number of magnetic poles M in each of the rotor portions 101a to 101c, the magnetic pole pitch τr of the same, and the step angle θs. Second Embodiment A second embodiment of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor according to the present invention will be described with reference to FIGS. 13 to 30. In this second embodiment, description will be made about the case in which the number n of stator cores used in the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor according to the present invention is set to 5, and a rotor is used in the form of a single structure. First, a basic configuration of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor of the second embodiment will be described with reference to FIGS. 13 to 15. FIG. 13 is a vertically-sectioned side view illustrating a multi-phase PM-type stepping motor 200 which is the second embodiment of the present invention, FIG. 14 is an exploded perspective view illustrating the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor 200, and FIG. 15 is a development of a stator 203 and a rotor 201 of the stepping motor 200. In the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor 200 of the second embodiment, as shown in FIGS. 13 and 14, the stator 203 is constituted by five, first to fifth, stator portions 203a to 203e ganged in the axial direction. The positions of respective comblike pole teeth 208a and 208b of each of the stator portions 203a to 203e and N and S magnetic poles on the outer circumferential surface of the rotor 201 are established in such a manner as shown in FIG. 15. That is, when one or the other of the pole teeth 208a and 208b in each of the yoke elements 209a and 209b are arranged at a pole teeth pitch of τs, the other-side pole teeth 208b are shifted by τs/2 from the one-side pole teeth 208a in a circumferential direction in each of the stator portions 203a to 203e. Further, the one-side pole teeth 208a of the second stator portion 203b are shifted by τs/5 from the one-side pole teeth 208a of the first stator portion 203a. Similarly, the one-side pole teeth 208a of the third stator portion 203c are shifted by τs/5 from the one-side pole teeth 208a of the second stator portion 203b. Similarly, the one-side pole teeth 208a of the fourth stator portion 203d are shifted by τs/5 from the one-side pole teeth 208a of the third stator portion 203c. Similarly, the one-side pole teeth 208a of the fifth stator portion 203e are shifted by τs/5 from the one-side pole teeth 208a of the fourth stator portion 203d. In addition, when the N and S poles of the rotor 201 are arranged at a pitch τr respectively, the relation of τr=τs is established. Therefore, a distance P between N and S poles adjacent to each other is set so as to satisfy P=τr/2. In FIG. 13, the reference numeral 202 represents a rotating shaft; 904, a stator coil; 206a and 206b, motor mounting plates; and 207a and 207b, bearings for the rotating shaft 202. In addition, in FIG. 14, the reference numeral 212 represents a motor housing. The operation of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor 200 of the second embodiment having such a configuration will be described with reference to FIGS. 16 to 27. FIG. 16 shows stator coils 204a to 204e formed of monofilament windings, and 10 external lead wires of those stator coils 204a to 204e. The stator coil 204 of FIG. 13 is a generic name of the stator coils 204a to 204e. FIG. 17 is a diagram of a driving circuit constituted by 10 PNP transistors TR21 to TR30 and 10 NPN transistors TR31 to TR40, for driving the stator coils 204a to 204e. FIG. 18 is a waveform diagram when the stator coils 204a to 204e are bipolar-driven by excitation signals 1 to 10 sequentially by using the driving circuit of FIG. 17, for simply explaining the operation of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor 200 of the second embodiment according to the present invention. Further, FIG. 19 is a development of the pole teeth 208a and 208b in each of the stator portions 203a to 203e and magnetic poles of the rotor 201 for simply explaining the operation of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor 200 according to the present invention. Step 1 in FIG. 19 shows the case where a current is made to flow only in the stator coil 204a so that all the one-side pole teeth 208a of the first stator portion 203a become N, while all the other-side pole teeth 208b of the first stator portion 203a become S. In this Step 1, therefore, the magnetic poles S of the rotor 201 are attracted to N of the pole teeth 208a of the first stator portion 203a, while the magnetic poles N of the rotor 201 are attracted to S of the pole teeth 208b of the first stator portion 203a so that the magnetic poles S of the rotor 201 are aligned with N of the pole teeth 208a of the first stator portion 203a, while the magnetic poles N of the rotor 201 are aligned with S of the pole teeth 208b of the first stator portion 203a, respectively, as shown in FIG. 19. Next, in Step 2 in FIG. 19, a current is made to flow only in the stator coil 204c so that the one-side pole teeth 208a of the third stator portion 203c become S, while the other-side pole teeth 208b of the third stator portion 203c become N. As a result, the magnetic poles N and S of the rotor 201 are attracted by, moved to and aligned with S and N of the pole teeth 208a and 208b of the third stator portion 203c, respectively. At this time, the magnetic poles of the rotor 201 move by τr/10. Further, in Step 3 in FIG. 19, a current is made to flow only in the stator coil 204e so that all the one-side pole teeth 208a of the fifth stator portion 203e become N, while all the other-side pole teeth 208b of the fifth stator portion 203e become S. As a result, the rotor 201 is moved by one step so that the magnetic poles S and N of the rotor 201 are attracted by, moved to, and aligned with N and S of the pole teeth 208a and 208b of the fifth stator portion 203e, respectively. Further, in Step 4 in FIG. 19, a current is made to flow only in the stator coil 204b so that all the one-side pole teeth 208a of the second stator portion 203b become S, while all the other-side pole teeth 208b of the second stator portion 203b become N. As a result, the magnetic poles S and N of the rotor 201 are attracted by, moved to, and aligned with N and S of the pole teeth 208a and 208b of the second stator portion 203b, respectively. Further, in Step 5 in FIG. 19, a current is made to flow only in the stator coil 204d so that all the one-side pole teeth 208a of the fourth stator portion 203d become S, while all the other-side pole teeth 208b of the fourth stator portion 203d become N. As a result, the magnetic poles N and S of the rotor 201 are attracted by, moved to, and aligned with S and N of the pole teeth 208a and 208b of the fourth stator portion 203d, respectively. In Steps 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10, the direction of the current made to flow in the stator coils 204a to 204e is reversed to that in Steps 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 respectively, as shown in FIG. 18. In such a manner, the rotor 201 is moved in the direction of arrows, so that the rotor 201 returns, in Step 11, to the initial position of Step 1. The step angle θs at this time is τr/10. Next, the operation of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor 200 of the second embodiment will be described specifically with reference to FIGS. 20 to 27. Here, FIG. 20 is a diagram for explaining the stator coils 204a to 204e of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor 200 of the second embodiment. FIG. 21 is a diagram of a stator coil driving circuit. FIG. 22 is a diagram illustrating an excitation sequence of the stator coils 204a to 204e. Further, FIG. 23 is a development of the pole teeth 208a and 208b in each of the stator portions 203a to 203e and the magnetic poles of the rotor 201, for simply explaining the operation of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor 200 of the second embodiment. In the second embodiment, as shown in FIG. 20, the stator coils 204a to 204e are connected in a star-connection so that the number of external lead wires is five. These lead wires are connected to a junction between a PNP transistor TR41 and an NPN transistor TR46 which are connected in series between a DC power source V and the ground, another junction between a PNP transistor TR42 and an NPN transistor TR47 which are also connected in series between the DC power source V and the ground, and a further junction between a PNP transistor TR43 and an NPN transistor TR48 which are also connected in series between the DC power source V and the ground, a still further junction between a PNP transistor TR44 and an NPN transistor TR49 which are also connected in series between the DC power source V and the ground, and a further junction between a PNP transistor TR45 and an NPN transistor TR50 which are also connected in series between the DC power source V and the ground, respectively, as shown in FIG. 21. Excitation signals 1 to 10 as shown in FIG. 22 are applied to this stator coil driving circuit to thereby bipolar-drive the first to fifth stator coils 204a to 204e. That is, in Step 1, as shown in FIG. 23, all the one-side pole teeth 208a of the first stator portion 203a and the other-side pole teeth 208b of the fourth stator portion 203d are made to become N, while all the other-side pole teeth 208b of the first stator portion 203a and the one-side pole teeth 208a of the fourth stator portion 203d are made to become S. In Step 2, the one-side pole teeth 208a of the third stator portion 203c are made to become S and the other-side pole teeth 208b of the third stator portion 203c are made to become N, while the one-side pole teeth 208a and the other-side pole teeth 208b of the first stator portion 203a are kept in N and S respectively. In Step 3, the one-side pole teeth 208a of the fifth stator portion 203e are made to become N and the other-side pole teeth 208b of the fifth stator portion 203e are made to become S, while the one-side pole teeth 208a and the other-side pole teeth 208b of the third stator portion 203c are kept in S and N respectively. In Step 4, the one-side pole teeth 208a of the second stator portion 203b are made to become S and the other-side pole teeth 208b of the second stator portion 203b are made to become N, while the one-side pole teeth 208a and the other-side pole teeth 208b of the fifth stator portion 203e are kept in N and S respectively. In Step 5, the one-side pole teeth 208a of the fourth stator portion 203d are made to become N and the other-side pole teeth 208b of the fourth stator portion 203d are made to become S, while the one-side pole teeth 208a and the other-side pole teeth 208b of the second stator portion 203b are kept in S and N respectively. In Steps 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10, as shown in FIG. 24, the direction of the current made to flow in the stator coils 204a to 204e is reversed to that in Steps 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 respectively to thereby make the N and S reverse to those in the steps 1 to 5. The state returns, in Step 11, to Step 1. The step angle θs in this embodiment is τr/10. FIGS. 24, 25 and 26 show sequence diagrams of three-phase excitation, four-phase excitation, and five-phase excitation, respectively, in the case of full-step operation, while FIGS. 27, 28 and 29 show sequence diagrams in the case of half-step operation. Since the operation of FIG. 23 applies similarly, the description about FIGS. 24 to 29 are omitted here. The table in FIG. 30 shows the relationship among the number of magnetic poles M of the rotor 201, the magnetic pole pitch τr of the rotor 201, and the step angle θs. Third Embodiment A third embodiment of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor according to the present invention will be described by using FIGS. 31 to 33 and with reference to FIG. 18. In this third embodiment, description will be made about the case in which the number n of stator cores used in the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor according to the present invention is set to 5, and a rotor is constituted by penta-ganged first to fifth rotor portions. First, a basic configuration of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor of the third embodiment will be described with reference to FIGS. 31 to 33. FIG. 31 is a vertically-sectioned side view illustrating a multi-phase PM-type stepping motor 300 which is the third embodiment of the present invention, FIG. 32 is an exploded perspective view illustrating the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor 300, and FIG. 33 is a development of a stator 303 and a rotor 301 of the stepping motor 300. In the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor 300 of the third embodiment, as shown in FIGS. 31 and 32, the stator 303 is constituted by five, first to fifth, stator portions 303a to 303e ganged in the axial direction, and the rotor 301 is constituted by five, first to fifth, rotor portions 301a to 301e ganged in the axial direction. The positions of respective comb-like pole teeth 308a and 308b of each of the stator portions 303a to 303e and N and S magnetic poles on the outer circumferential surface of each of the rotor portions 301a to 301e of the rotor 301 are established in such a manner as shown in FIG. 33. That is, when one or the other of the pole teeth 308a and 308b in each of the yoke elements 309a and 309b are arranged at a pole teeth pitch of τs, the other-side pole teeth 308b are shifted by τs/2 from the one-side pole teeth 308a in a circumferential direction in each of the first to fifth stator portions 303a to 303e so that first to fifth stator portions are ganged in a state that the respective pole teeth 308a of the first to fifth stator portions 303a to 303e are aligned with each other, and the respective pole teeth 308b of the first to fifth stator portions 303a to 303e are aligned with each other. On the other hand, when the N and S poles of each of the rotor portions 301a to 301e of the rotor 301 are arranged at a pitch τr respectively, the relation of τr=τs is established. Therefore, a distance P between N and S poles adjacent to each other is set so as to satisfy P=τr/2. The magnetic poles of the first rotor portion 301a and the magnetic poles of the second rotor portion 301b are shifted by 2P/5 from each other. The magnetic poles of the second rotor portion 301b and the magnetic poles of the third rotor portion 301c are shifted by 2P/5 from each other. The magnetic poles of the third rotor portion 301c and the magnetic poles of the fourth rotor portion 301d are shifted by 2P/5 from each other. The magnetic poles of the fourth rotor portion 301d and the magnetic poles of the fifth rotor portion 301e are shifted by 2P/5 from each other. In FIG. 31, the reference numeral 302 represents a rotating shaft: 304, a stator coil; 306a and 306b, motor mounting plates; and 307a and 307b, bearings for the rotating shaft 302. In addition, in FIG. 32, the reference numeral 312 represents a motor housing. The operation of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor 300 of the third embodiment is similar to that illustrated in FIG. 19, and therefore the operation will be decried without illustrating the steps in the drawings. In Step 1, a current is made to flow only in the stator coil 304a so that all the one-side pole teeth 308a of the first stator portion 303a become N, while all the other-side pole teeth 308b of the first stator portion 303a become S. In this Step 1, therefore, the magnetic poles S of the first rotor portion 301a are attracted to N of the pole teeth 308a of the first stator portion 303a, while the magnetic poles N of the first rotor portion 301a are attracted to S of the pole teeth 308b of the first stator portion 303a so that the magnetic poles S of the first rotor portion 301a are aligned with N of the pole teeth 308a of the first stator portion 303a, while the magnetic poles N of the first rotor portion 301a are aligned with S of the pole teeth 308b of the first stator portion 303a, respectively. Next, in Step 2, a current is made to flow only in the stator coil 304c so that the one-side pole teeth 308a of the third stator portion 303c become S, while the other-side pole teeth 308b of the third stator portion 303c become N. As a result, the magnetic poles N and S of the third rotor portion 301c are attracted by, moved to, and aligned with S and N of the pole teeth 308a and 308b of the third stator portion 303c, respectively. At this time, the magnetic poles of the rotor 301 move by τr/10. Further, in Step 3, a current is made to flow only in the stator coil 304e so that all the one-side pole teeth 308a of the fifth stator portion 303e become N, while all the other-side pole teeth 308b of the fifth stator portion 303e become S. As a result, the magnetic poles S and N of the fifth rotor portion 301e are attracted by, moved to, and aligned with N and S of the pole teeth 308a and 308b of the fifth stator portion 303e, respectively. Thus, the rotor 301 moves by one step. Further, in Step 4, a current is made to flow only in the stator coil 304b so that all the one-side pole teeth 308a of the second stator portion 303b become S, while all the other-side pole teeth 308b of the second stator portion 303b become N. As a result, the magnetic poles N and S of the second rotor portion 301b are attracted by, moved to, and aligned with S and N of the pole teeth 308a and 308b of the second stator portion 303b, respectively. Further, in Step 5, a current is made to flow only in the stator coil 304d so that all the one-side pole teeth 308a of the fourth stator portion 303d become N, while all the other-side pole teeth 308b of the fourth stator portion 303d become S. As a result, the magnetic poles S and N of the fourth rotor portion 301d are attracted by, moved to, and aligned with N and S of the pole teeth 308a and 308b of the fourth stator portion 303d, respectively. In Steps 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10, the direction of the current made to flow in the stat or coils 304a to 304e is reversed to that in Steps 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 respectively, similarly to the case shown in FIG. 18. In such a manner, the rotor 301 is moved in the direction of arrow similarly to the case shown in FIG. 18, so that the rotor 301 returns, in Step 11, to the initial position of Step 1. The step angle θs at this time is τr/10. The specific operation of the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor 300 of the third embodiment is similar to that shown in FIG. 23, and, therefore, the specific operation will be decried without illustrating the steps in the drawings. In Step 1, all the one-side pole teeth 308a of the first stator portion 303a and the other-side pole teeth 308b of the fourth stator portion 303d are made to become N, while all the other-side pole teeth 308b of the first stator portion 303a and the one-side pole teeth 308a of the fourth stator portion 303d are made to become S. In Step 2, the one-side pole teeth 308a of the third stator portion 303c are made to become S and the other-side pole teeth 308b of the third stator portion 303c are made to become N, while the one-side pole teeth 308a and the other-side pole teeth 308b of the first stator portion 303a are kept in N and S respectively. In Step 3, the one-side pole teeth 308a of the fifth stator portion 303e are made to become N and the other-side pole teeth 308b of the fifth stator portion 303e are made to become S, while the one-side pole teeth 308a and the other-side pole teeth 308b of the third stator portion 303c are kept in S and N respectively. In Step 4, the one-side pole teeth 308a of the second stator portion 303b are made to become S and the other-side pole teeth 308b of the second stator portion 303b are made to become N, while the one-side pole teeth 308a and the other-side pole teeth 308b of the fifth stator portion 303e are kept in N and S respectively. In Step 5, the one-side pole teeth 308a of the fourth stator portion 303d are made to become N and the other-side pole teeth 308b of the fourth stator portion 303d are made to become S, while the one-side pole teeth 308a and the other-side pole teeth 308b of the second stator portion 303b are kept in S and N respectively. In Steps 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10, the direction of the current made to flow in the stator coils 304a to 304e is reversed to that in Steps 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, respectively, to thereby make the N and S reverse to the case in the steps 1 to 5. The state returns, in Step 11, to Step 1. Configured as mentioned above, the multi-phase PM-type stepping motor according to the present invention has superior effects as follows. (1) Since magnetic poles can be made wider than those in a two-phase PM-type stepping motor when the same step angle is to be obtained, the torque is improved by 20% or more in comparison with a conventional motor having the same shape. (2) In the case where the number of magnetic poles of a rotor is the same, a smaller step angle can be obtained in comparison with a two-phase PM-type stepping motor. (3) While a conventional two-phase PM-type stepping motor requires at least 4 lead wires and 8 transistors for a driving circuit, the stepping motor according to the present invention requires only three lead wires and 6 transistors. Accordingly, the driving circuit can be simplified on a large scale. (4) While the phase angle of a current is 60° in a known three-phase PM-type stepping motor, the phase angle is 120° in the stepping motor according to the present invention. Accordingly, the stepping motor can be used also as a brushless motor if a position detection means is provided. (5) Developed into a multi-phase PM-type stepping motor of n=3, the stepping motor according to the present invention can be used also as a three-phase AC motor if the impedance of windings is changed. (6) When a conventional stepping motor of the prior art is developed into a five-phase PM-type stepping motor by making n=5, at least 10 lead-out terminals of stator coils are required. Therefore, at least 20 transistors are required for a driving circuit. However, when the stepping motor according to the present invention is developed into a five-phase PM-type stepping motor by making n=5, the number of lead wires can be reduced to 5, and the number of transistors can be reduced to 10. Accordingly, the driving circuit can be simplified on a large scale. (7) Developed into a three-phase PM-type stepping motor by making n=3, the stepping motor according to the present invention can be operated also under delta connection. Developed into a five-phase PM-type stepping motor by making n=5, the stepping motor can be operated also under pentagonal connection. Various driving systems can be selected in comparison with the case of a two-phase PM-type stepping motor.

A multi-phase PM-type stepping motor comprising: a rotor constituted by a cylindrical permanent magnet with N poles and S poles magnetized alternately on an outer circumferential surface of the rotor; stator cores having teeth arranged in opposition to the N poles or the S poles on the outer circumferential surface of the rotor through a predetermined air gap; and excitation coils wound in the stator cores and for magnetizing the stator cores to thereby rotate the rotor; wherein, when the number of the stator cores is represented by n (n is an odd number not smaller than 5), and the magnetization pitch angle of the permanent magnet is represented by P, the teeth of the stator cores are shifted from each other by an angle of 2P/n.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application is a continuation of International application No. PCT/GB98/03572 filed Nov. 27, 1998 the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to compositions for nasal administration of drugs and particularly to compositions for nasal administration of drugs for treating erectile dysfunction, such as apomorphine. The invention also relates to the nasal administration of drugs for treating erectile dysfunction. Erectile dysfunction is a major medical problem in middle-aged males. A variety of medical treatments has been proposed including local injections as well as hormone therapy. The prostaglandins have been especially useful in this regard. Other drugs suitable for the treatment of dysfunction include alpha-adrenoreceptor antagonists, e.g. phentolamine, phenoxybenzamine, yohimbine, moxislyte delaquamine; compounds with central D 2 -receptor antagonist activity, e.g. apomorphine; compounds that act primarily by blocking the re-uptake of serotonin into nerve terminals, e.g. tadone and chlorophenylpiperazine; competitive and selective inhibitors of c-GMP type V phosphodiesterases, e.g. sildenafil; L-arginine; and papaverine. Presently, administration of the above drugs can often involve the local injection of the penis with attendant problems of compliance. A more discreet, non-invasive method for the treatment of erectile dysfunction would be of considerable advantage. A drug for erectile dysfunction could be given orally in order to be absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, but it is well known by those skilled in the art that oral absorption can be slow since the drug has to pass through the stomach into the small intestine to the absorptive regions. The appearance of the drug in the intestine can be delayed by food. Thus, oral absorption tends to be erratic and unpredictable. Hence, this route of delivery is not feasible. The buccal cavity, including the sublingual and buccal tissues, is an alternative site for administration. However, generally speaking drug absorption from this site is slow since the tissues of the mouth are not intended for the efficient uptake of substances, unlike the intestines. Moreover, drugs placed in the mouth can be bitter as well as irritant. The lungs offer another site for the delivery of drugs. The lungs can provide rapid absorption, but administration needs to be conducted with a device in the form of a nebulizer or inhaler and can be limited by the dose. Many drugs are irritant when blown into the lungs and can cause bronchospasm. It is known that the nasal epithelium has good permeability and a good blood supply and that drugs that are metabolised after oral administration can be well absorbed from the nose since this route avoids the first-pass metabolic effect in the liver. Hence, the nasal administration of drugs for the treatment of erectile dysfunction is potentially attractive and has been attempted. However, side effects and adverse reactions were common. It is known that the drug apomorphine (6aR)-5, 6, 6a, 7-tetrahydro-6-methyl-4H-dibenzo(d, e, g) quinoline-10, 11-diol hemihydrate can be effective in the treatment of erectile dysfunction (DanJou et al. Brit. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 26, 733, 1988). However, the drug is better known for its use in disease conditions such as Parkinsonism where oral, rectal and nasal routes have been reported. Intranasal apomorphine has been shown to be useful in Parkinson's disease (Sam et al. Eur. J. Drug Metab. Pharmacokinet. 20, 27, 1995; Dewey et al. Clin. Neuropharmacol. 19, 193, 1996), but is associated with transient nasal blockage and a burning sensation. (Kleedorifer et al, Neurology 41, 761, 1991). The extent of nasal absorption of apomorphine can be enhanced using various agents such as those described by Merkus that include cyclodextrins (WO-91/22445). The bioavailability, defined as the quantity of drug appearing in the systemic circulation as compared to a control in the form of a subcutaneous injection, is stated to be about 40%. While local reactions and side effects may be acceptable for a patient receiving nasal apomorphine for the treatment of Parkinson's disease, such side effects would be totally inappropriate for an apparently healthy patient taking nasal apomorphine for the treatment of erectile dysfunction. Attention has been given to the route of administration of apomorphine for use in erectile dysfunction with an emphasis on convenience. Heaton et al. (Neurology, 45, 200-205) compared different routes of administration in a study conducted in patients. They reported that nasal administration of apomorphine gave rapid onset of action but was associated with unacceptable side effects such as yawning, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, blurred vision, diaphoresis, pallor and mild hypertension and, therefore, was not suitable. Their preferred system was a sublingual formulation as further defined in U.S. Pat No. 5,624,677 and WO-95/28930. However, as discussed above, while sublingual formulations can lead to the absorption of drugs, it is known that such absorption can be slow and variable. Moreover, the quantity absorbed may be limited due to the poor permeability of the oral mucosal membranes in man. In addition, a green colouration of the tongue following sublingual apomorphine has been reported together with poor taste and mucosal ulceration. Thus, the nasal administration of apomorphine has been described in the prior art literature and in patents. The formulations described were generally simple in nature and all would have led to a pulsatile delivery of the drug resulting in a sharp and high initial peak in the plasma level-time profile leading to local reactions and side effects. In particular, none of the nasal formulations described in the prior art comprised an additive intended to modulate the rapid absorption of the drug. In WO-94/27576 it is disclosed that the nasal delivery of nicotine could be modified to provide a combination of a peak level (to provide the so-called “buzz” effect of nicotine delivered by a cigarette) and a subsequent controlled release phase. Thus, WO-94/27576 deals with the problem of providing input of nicotine into the bloodstream over a prolonged period of time. The reduction of the plasma level-time profile in order to minimize side effects and adverse reactions for drugs used in the treatment of erectile dysfunction such as apomorphine is neither mentioned nor suggested. Ugowk et al (J. Control. Rel. 48, 1997, 302) has described mucoadhesive nasal forms for apomorphine hydrochloride for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. An attempt was made to incorporate apomorphine into gelatin microspheres, but the encapsulation efficiencies were reported to be sometimes very low. Moreover, the drug was released rapidly. Ugowk et al also described powder formulations of apomorphine together with polycarbophil or carbomer (carboxypolymethylene) where 100 mg of apomorphine was combined with 1 g of polymer and then freeze dried. The compositions of the present invention were not described. Thus, the prior art teaches that the nasal delivery of most drugs for the treatment of erectile dysfunction tends to be associated with unacceptable side effects. Controlled release nasal formulations for the treatment of erectile dysfunction have not been described previously. As a result of investigations into this problem, the applicant has realised that the adverse reactions and side effects associated with the nasal administration of drugs for treating erectile dysfunction such as apomorphine may be the result of an inappropriate plasma level/time profile and, more specifically, a result of an initial high peak plasma level. We have also realised that such side effects may be reduced and even eliminated by combining the drug with certain pharmaceutical excipients that provide a controlled release effect such as polysaccharides and block copolymers containing ethylene oxide (oxyethylene) moieties. More particularly, we have now discovered controlled release nasal formulations for drugs intended for the treatment of erectile dysfunction that will provide an initial rise in plasma level of the drug followed by a more sustained level of drug input. These nasal formulations can provide a flatter plasma level/time profile after nasal administration by which we mean a reduction in the peak plasma level, but not necessarily a reduction in the area under the plasma level versus time profile. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION According to a first aspect of the present invention there is provided a composition for nasal delivery comprising a drug suitable for the treatment of erectile dysfunction, wherein the composition is adapted to provide an initial rise in plasma level followed by a sustained plasma level of the drug. According to a second aspect of the present invention there is provided a composition for nasal delivery comprising a drug useful in the treatment of erectile dysfunction, e.g. apomorphine or a salt thereof, and one or more excipients, e.g. in the form of anionic or cationic polysaccharides depending on the drug or block copolymers containing ethylene oxide moieties, wherein the composition is adapted to provide an initial rise in plasma level followed by a sustained plasma level of the drug. It will be apparent to those skilled in the art that some of the drugs described herein as being useful in the treatment of erectile dysfunction are also known to be useful in the treatment of other conditions and that the compositions of the invention containing such drugs could also be used in the treatment of these other conditions. A particular example is apomorphine for treating Parkinson's disease. With such compositions it is now possible to administer drugs that are suitable for treating erectile dysfunction through the nasal cavity to give a blood level versus time profile of the drug in the systemic circulation that may provide an effective erection in patients with erectile dysfunction, but without significant adverse reactions and side effects. As discussed above, a simple nasal spray containing such a drug is an unsatisfactory dosage form since it provides a high peak level of the drug in the blood initially followed by a rapid decline in this level leading to adverse reactions and poor efficacy. When drugs are administered using the nasal formulations of the invention, the initial rise in drug plasma level is rapid, although not as rapid as the rise that results when the same drugs are administered using conventional nasal formulations. Moreover, the peak plasma level of drug attained with the nasal formulations of the invention is not as high as that attained with conventional nasal formulations. By “initial rise in plasma level of the drug” we mean that the peak plasma level will typically be attained in a time less than 45 minutes, preferably in less than 30 minutes and more preferably in less than 15 minutes after nasal application. The peak in the plasma level concentration versus time profile (e.g. in ng/ml) will typically be reduced to 75% or less, preferably 50% or less of the level obtained with an immediate release formulation of the drug, e.g. as is obtained with conventional nasal spray solutions which are not adapted to provide a controlled release effect. Each drug will have its own particular range of effective concentration depending upon the properties of the drug. For example, for apomorphine the “initial rise in plasma level” of the drug should be to a level between 0.05 and 50 ng/ml, preferably between 0.25 and 10 ng/ml and more preferably between 0.5 and 5.0 ng/ml in less than 30 minutes, preferably in less than 20 minutes and more preferably in less than 10 minutes after nasal application of the composition. By a “sustained plasma level” of drug we mean that the plasma level is typically maintained at a level that is necessary for a clinical effect (effective concentration) for between 5 and 120 minutes, preferably between 10 and 60 minutes and more preferably between 15 and 45 minutes. In a preferred embodiment, the plasma level of drug will remain at approximately the level attained after the initial rise in plasma level for between 5 and 120 min, preferably between 10 and 60 min and more preferably between 15 and 45 min. The drugs which are used in the compositions of the invention may be weakly basic or weakly acidic. By “a weak base” we mean drugs with a pKa less than 10 and by “a weak acid” we mean drugs with a pKa more than 2.5. Drugs which are suitable for use in the nasal compositions of the invention include alpha-adrenoreceptor antagonists, e.g. phentolamine, phenoxybenzamine, yohimbine, moxislyte delaquamine; compounds with central D 2 -receptor antagonist activity, e.g. apomorphine; compounds that act primarily by blocking the re-uptake of serotonin into nerve terminals, e.g. trazadone and chlorophenylpiperazine; competitive and selective inhibitors of c-GMP type V phosphodiesterases, e.g. sildenafil; L-arginine; and papaverine. Pharmaceutically acceptable derivatives of the above compounds, such as the pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof may also be used. A detailed review of these drugs is included in the review entitled Drugs for the Treatment of Impotence by Gascia-Reboll et al. Drugs and Aging 11, 140-151 (1997). Preferred drugs include those with central D 2 -receptor antagonist activity or the alpha-adrenoreceptor antagonists. Drugs with central D 2 -receptor antagonist activity are of particular interest, especially apomorphine. A variety of pharmaceutically acceptable excipients can be employed in the compositions of the invention including those that form a complex with or entrap the drug. Particular materials include the polysaccharides and PEGylated block copolymers, i.e. block copolymers containing a block made up of repeating ethylene oxide moieties. Suitable excipients in the case of liquid compositions include natural polymeric materials, such as sodium alginate, xanthan, gellan gum, welan, rhamsan, agar, carageenan, dextran sulphate, keratan, dermatan, pectin, hyaluronic acid and salts thereof. Modified polysaccharide materials such as carboxymethyl cellulose can also be employed as can block copolymers containing one or more blocks made up of repeating ethylene oxide units. These materials are given as examples and the list is not to be taken as exhaustive. In one method for preparing liquid compositions, the excipient material such as a polysaccharide or a block copolymer containing ethylene oxide moieties is dissolve in ultrapure water or a buffer system or in ultrapure water to which has been added various salts such as sodium chloride. The solution is stirred overnight or until the material has dissolved. With apomorphine, the drug may be dissolved in a similar aqueous system and added to the solution of the excipient material. Alternatively, the apomorphine may be dissolved directly in the excipient solution. A suitable concentration of apomorphine in the final liquid composition is in the range of from 1 mg/ml to 200 mg/ml, preferably in the range of from 2 mg/ml to 100 mg/ml and more preferably in the range of from 5 mg/ml to 50 mg/ml. The concentration of excipient material needed is dependent on the type of material used but is typically between 0.01% w/v and 50% w/v, by which we mean from 0.01 to 50 g of excipient per 100 mls of the liquid, e.g. water. A preferred concentration of the excipient material is in the range 0.1% w/v to 50% w/v, i.e. 0.1 to 50 g of excipient per 100 mls of the liquid, more preferably in the range 0.5% w/v to 50% w/v and particularly in the range 1.0% w/v to 30% w/v. For powder compositions, it is possible to use carboxylated starch microspheres or positively charged microspheres available from Perstorp (Sweden) and microspheres produced from natural polymers such as carboxylmethyl cellulose, sodium alginate and chitosan. In one method for preparing powder systems, microspheres having a mean diameter of between 0.5 μm-300 μm are suspended in water or in water containing the dissolved drug and the formulation freeze dried. If the microspheres are suspended in pure water, then the drug is added to this suspension prior to freeze dying. With apomorphine, the final concentration of apomorphine per mg of microsphere is typically between 0.01 mg/mg and 5.0 mg/mg, preferably between 0.02 mg/mg and 2.5 mg/mg and more preferably between 0.025 mg/mg and 0.25 mg/mg. Weight ratios of drug to microspheres in the range of from 1 part drug to 5 to 10 parts of the microspheres are especially preferred. In another method for preparing powder systems in the form of microspheres, the drug such as apomorphine and the microspheres are mixed mechanically in the dry state. When drugs other than apomorphine are employed, the above processes and amounts may be modified readily in accordance with techniques well known to those skilled in the art. It would also be possible to freeze dry a liquid composition for reconstitution before use by the addition of water. Preferred excipient materials for liquid compositions include pectin, gellan gum, alginate, welan, rhamsan, xanthan and carageenan, particularly pectin, gellan gum, alginate, welan and rhamsan and especially pectin and gellan gum. Gellan gum is the deacetylated form of the extracellular polysaccharide from Pseudomonas elodae. Native/high-acyl gellan is composed of a linear sequence of tetra-saccharide repeating units containing D-glucuronopyranosyl, D-glucopyranosyl and L-rhamnopyranosyl units and acyl groups. Alginate is composed of two building blocks of monomeric units namely β-D-mannuronopyranosyl and α-guluronopyranosyl units. The ratio of D-mannuronic acid and L-guluronic acid components and their sequence predetermines the properties observed for alginates extracted from different seaweed sources. Welan is produced by an Alcaligene species. Welan has the same basic repeating unit as gellan but with a single glycosyl sidechain substituent. The side unit can be either an α-L-rhamnopyranosyl or an α-L-mannopyranosyl unit linked (1−>3) to the 4-0 -substituted β-D-glucopyranosyl unit in the backbone. Rhamsan is produced by an Alcaligenes species. Rhamsan has the same repeating backbone unit as that of gellan but with a disaccharide sidechain on 0-6 of the 3-O-substituted β-D-glucopyranosyl unit. The side chain is a β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1-6)-α-D-glucopyranosyl unit. Xanthan is produced by a number of Xanthomonas strains. The polymer backbone, made up of (l−>4)-linked βD-glucopyranosyl units is identical to that of cellulose. To alternate D-glucosyl units at the 0-3 position, a trisaccharide side chain containing a D-glucoronosyl unit between two D-mannosyl units is attached. The terminal β-D-mannopyranosyl unit is glycosidically linked to the 0-4 position of the β-D-glucopyranosyluronic acid unit, which in turn is glycosidically linked to the 0-2 position of an α-D-mannopyranosyl unit. Carageenan is a group of linear galactan polysaccharides extracted from red seaweeds of the Gigartinaceae, Hypneaceae, Solieriaceae, Phyllophoraceae and Furcellariaceae families. Pectin is an especially preferred material and is obtained from the dilute acid extract of the inner portion of the rind of citrus fruits or from apple pomace. It consists of partially methoxylated polygalacturonic acids. The gelling properties of pectin solutions can be controlled by the concentration of the pectin, the type of pectin, especially the degree of esterification and the presence of added salts. Mixtures of excipients can also be used, such as mixtures of pectin or gellan with other polymers such as alginate, gelling of the mixture being caused by the pectin or gellan gum. Other combinations of gums can also be used, particularly where the combination gives a synergistic effect, for example in terms of gelation properties. An example is xanthan—locust bean gum combinations. A preferred excipient for liquid compositions is one that allows the composition to be administered as a mobile liquid but in the nasal cavity will cause the composition to gel, thereby providing a bioadhesive effect which acts to hold the drug at the absorptive surface for an extended period of time. The anionic polysaccharides pectin and gellan are examples of materials which when formulated into a suitable composition will gel in the nasal cavity owing to the presence of cations in the nasal fluids. The liquid compositions comprising pectin or gellan will typically comprise from 0.01 to 20% w/v of the pectin or gellan in water or an aqueous buffer system, by which we mean that the pectin or gellan will be present in an amount of from 0.01 to 20 g per 100 mls of water or aqueous buffer. A preferred concentration for the pectin or gellan in the water or aqueous buffer is in the range of from 0.1% to 15% w/v, more preferably 0.1 to 5.0% w/v and particularly 0.2% to 1% w/v. For gelling to occur in the nasal cavity with a liquid composition comprising an excipient which gels in the presence of ions, such as pectin or gellan gum, it is likely to be necessary to add monovalent and/or divalent cations to the composition so that it is close to the point of electrolyte induced gelation. When such a composition is administered to the nasal cavity, the endogenous cations present in the nasal fluids will cause the mobile liquid composition to gel. In other words, the ionic strength of the composition is kept sufficiently low to obtain a low viscosity formulation that is easy to administer, but sufficiently high to ensure gelation once administered into the nasal cavity where gelation will take place due to the presence of cations in the nasal fluids. Suitable cations for adding to the composition include sodium, potassium, magnesium and calcium. The ionic concentrations are chosen according to the degree of gelling required, and allowing for the effect that ionised drug present may have on gelling since certain drug molecules that are weakly basic and positively charged such as apomoxphine will also act as monovalent cations and will tend to have an effect on the gelling properties of the pectin or gellan system. For example, for a liquid composition comprising 0.2% w/v of gellan, i.e. 0.2 g of gellan per 100 mls of liquid, the divalent ions calcium and magnesium give maximum gel hardness and modulus at molar concentrations approximately one fortieth ({fraction (1/40)}) of those required with the monovalent ions sodium and potassium. A finite concentration of each cation is required to induce gelation. The ionic strength for a liquid nasal composition comprising 0.5% w/v of pectin or gellan gum can be in the range of 0.1 mM-50 mM for monovalent cations with the preferred range being 1 mM-5 mM and in the range of 0.1 mM-5 mM for divalent cations with the preferred range being 0.15 mM to 1 mM. For higher concentrations of pectin or gellan gum the ionic strengths should be lowered accordingly. The cations will compete with a positively charged drug such as apomorphine for binding with the anionic polysaccharide and the concentration of cations should be controlled so that a sufficient amount of positively charged drug will bind with the ion-exchanged anionic polysaccharide. The complex between a basic drug such as apomorphine and the ion-exchange anionic polysaccharide forms as a result of ionic interaction between the negatively charged polysaccharide and the positively charged drug. The pH of the composition must therefore be such that the two species are well ionised. With apomorphine, the pH should be kept in the range of from pH 3 to pH 8, preferably in the range of from pH 4 to pH 6, by the presence of appropriate buffers or acids. For these ion-exchange polysaccharides, the positively charged drug such as apomorphine can be added either as the base or as a salt. When the drug is used in its salt form it will tend to ionise once in an aqueous environment and if it is in base form the pH of the system can be controlled by the addition of appropriate acids so as to ensure that the drug is ionised and able to interact with the polysaccharide. Block copolymers such as a poloxamer (polyoxyethylene-polyoxypropylene block copolymer) or a block copolymer of polylactic acid and polyoxyethylene (PLA-PEG) may also be used as the excipient in liquid compositions. The poloxamers can be obtained from BASF as the Pluronic™ and Tetronic™ series with different molecular weights and block structures. A preferred block copolymer is Pluronic™ F127 also known as Poloxamer 407. Other polymers which may be used as an excipient include PLA-PEG copolymers which can be synthesised by the methods described in EP-A-0166596 or by the methods described by Deng et al (J. Polymer Sci. Part C Polymer letters, 24, 411, 1988), Zhu et al. (J. Polym. Sci. Polm. Chem. 27,2151, 1989) or Gref et al (Science,263, 1600, 1994),PCT/WO95/03357. Water soluble linear tri-block copolymers of PLA-PEG that gel when the temperature is raised are especially preferred. These are described by Jeong et al. Nature. 388, 860, 1997. A suitable concentration of the block copolymer in the liquid formulation is from 5 to 50% w/v, by which we mean from 5 to 50 g of copolymer per 100 mls of the liquid, e.g. water, with a concentration between 10 and 30% w/v being particularly preferred. The liquid nasal compositions of the invention can also contain any other pharmacologically-acceptable, non-toxic ingredients such as preservatives, antioxidants and flavourings. Benzalkonium chloride may be used as a preservative. It is o known that apomorphine can demonte instability, probably due to auto-oxidation. Thus, stabilising agents such as sodium metabisulphite or ascorbic acid can be included in the compositions. When the formulations according to the present invention are in the form of microspheres, polysaccharide microspheres may be used including those which carry suitable anionic groups such as carboxylic acid residues, carboxymethyl groups, sulphopropyl groups and methylsulphonate groups or cationic groups such as amino groups. Carboxylated starch microspheres are especially preferred. Carboxylated starch microspheres (Cadexomer™) are available from Perstorp (Sweden). Other suitable materials for the microspheres include hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulphate, alginate, heparin and heparin-albumin conjugates, as described in Kwon et al. (Int. J. Pharm. 79, 191, 1991). Further materials that may be used for the microspheres include carboxymethyl dextran (e.g. CM Sephadex™), sulphopropyl dextran (e.g. SP Sephadex™), carboxymethyl agarose (e.g. CM Sepharose™), carboxymethyl cellulose, cellulose phosphate, sulphoxyethyl cellulose, agarose (e.g. Sepharose™), cellulose beads (e.g. Sephacel ™) and dextran beads (e.g. Sephadex ™) which are all available from Pharmacia, Sweden. The term microsphere as used herein refers particularly to substantially spherical particles which can be a monolithic solid sphere or a small capsule. To ensure correct deposition in the nasal cavity, the microspheres preferably have a mean diameter of between 0.5 and 250 μm, preferably between 10 μm and 150 μm and more preferably between 10 and 100 μm as measured using a conventional light microscope. Microspheres can be made by procedures well known in the art including spray drying, coacervation and emulsification (see for example Davis et al. Microsphere and Drug Therapy, Elsevier, 1984; Benoit et al. Biodegradable Microspheres: Advances in Production Technologies, Chapter 3, Ed. Benita, S, Dekker, New York, 1996; Microencapsulation and related Drug Processes, Ed. Deasy, Dekker, 1984, New York, pp 82, 181 and 225; U.S. Pat. No. 2,730,457 and U.S. Pat. No. 3,663,687). In the spray drying process, the material used to form the body of the microsphere is dissolved in a suitable solvent (usually water) and the solution spray dried by passing it through an atomisation nozzle into a heated chamber. The solvent evaporates to leave solid particles in the form of microspheres. In the process of coacervation, microspheres can be produced by interacting a solution of a polysaccharide carrying a positive charge with a solution of a polysaccharide carrying a negative charge. The polysaccharides interact to form an insoluble coupling that can be recovered as microspheres. In the emulsification process, an aqueous solution of the polysaccharide is dispersed in an oil phase to produce a water in oil emulsion in which the polysaccharide solution is in the form of discrete droplets dispersed in oil. The microspheres can be formed by heating, chilling or cross-linking the polysaccharide and recovered by dissolving the oil in a suitable solvent. The microspheres can be hardened before combining with the drug by well known cross-inking procedures such as heat treatment or by using chemical cross-linking agents. Suitable agents include dialdehydes, including glyoxal, malondialdehyde, succinicaldehyde, adipaldehyde, glutaraldehyde and phthalaldehyde, diketones such as butadione, epichlorohydrin, polyphosphate and borate. Dialdehydes are used to cross-link proteins such as albumin by interaction with amino groups and diketones form Schiff bases with amino groups. Epichlorohydrin converts compounds with nucleophilic centres such as amino or hydroxyl to epoxide derivatives. The cross-linkers used for ion-exchange microspheres should not be directed towards the negatively or alternatively positively charged groups required for binding the drug. For microsphere compositions of the invention, the drug such as apomorphine is preferably in salt form to ensure that it is ionised. The drug is sorbed to the microspheres by admixing with the microspheres after their formation. This may be achieved by suspending the microspheres in an aqueous buffer and then adding the drug in solution. The microspheres can then be recovered by a process of freeze drying. The drug can be combined with the microspheres at different ratios. A quantity of microspheres greater than that of the drug on a weight to weight basis is preferred. The amount chosen will be dictated by the dose of the drug and the complexation properties of the microsphere. It is possible to control the shape of the plasma level time profile by the amount of anionic or cationic polysaccharide material or polymer that is added to the nasal formulation containing the drug useful in erectile dysfunction. Taking apomorphine as the drug, a plasma level suitable for the treatment of erectile dysfunction is believed to be from 0.5 to 5.0 ng/ml. The duration of effect should be from 15 to 30 minutes. A suitable nasal dose of apomorphine will be between 0.5 and 5.0 mg. A preferred nasal dose will be between 1.0 and 3.0 mg. The formulation, if in the form of a liquid, can be administered using a simple nasal spray device available from companies such as Valois or Pfeiffer. Microspheres or other powder formulations can be administered using a powder device. Suitable powder devices are available from Bespak in the United Kingdom. Other suitable powder devices are the nasal insufflators used for drugs such as Rhinocort™ (marketed by Teijin in Japan). The device from Direct Haler (Denrmark) can also be used. Such nasal devices can be passive with the patient having to draw a dose of the powder into the nasal cavity from the device through their own inspiration or active with powder being blown into the nasal cavity through some mechanical process, e.g. using a rubber bulb or spring system. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS Those skilled in the art will also appreciate that many of the currently available devices for the administration of dry powders to the lung can easily be adapted to deliver the powder formulations of this invention to the nose. Suitable devices include those available from Dura, Valois, Glaxo-Wellcome, Norton, Fisons, Leiras (RPR). These devices are well described in the prior art and are known by names such as Ultrahaler™, Prohaler™ and Easi-breathe™. The dry powder devices intended for lung delivery can be modified by the attachment of a small nozzle. The device from Orion in Finland is available with such a nasal nozzle system. In the drawings: FIG. 1 is a schematic drawing of a Franz diffusion cell. FIG. 2 is a graph showing the release of apomorphine from liquid formulations prepared from Pectin and Pluronic™ F127 and from a simple apomorphine solution as control. FIG. 3 is a graph showing the plasma level versus time profile expected for a liquid apomorphine formulation comprising a gelling polysaccharide excipient following nasal administration to a rat. FIG. 4 is a graph showing the plasma level versus time profile expected for a liquid apomorphine formulation comprising a block copolymer excipient following nasal administration to a rat. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The present invention is now illustrated but not limited with reference to the following examples. The following examples provide details of the preparation and release properties of nasal formulations useful for the delivery of drugs intended for the treatment of erectile dysfunction such as apomorphine. The release of the drug was measured using a diffision cell apparatus based on an original design by Franz. Such Franz diffusion cells for measuring drug release are familiar to the skilled person and are described in WO-94/27576. The diffusion of the drug across an artificial membrane in the form of cellulose nitrate into an electrolyte solution chosen to simulate the ionic environment of the nasal cavity was conducted at 37° C. A diagram of the apparatus is provided in FIG. 1 . The electrolyte fluid had the following composition: Na + ions—150 mEq/ 1 K + ions—40 mEq/ 1 , Ca 2+ ions—8 mEq/ 1 A 2 mg/ml aqueous solution of apomorphine was used as a control. 20 mg of apomorphine were weighed into a 10 ml volumetric flask and the flask contents made up to volume with water. In each experiment a 50 μl aliquot of the formulation was applied to the membrane in order to measure diffusion across the membrane. EXAMPLE 1 Pectin Based Formulation Into a 25 ml volumetric flask was weighed 250 mg of pectin 110 (obtained from Copenhagen Pectin A/S). 15 ml of ultrapure water was then added and the solution stirred overnight on a magnetic stirrer. The flask contents were made up to volume with ultrapure water. 10 mg of apomorphine (obtained from Sigma) were weighed into a 5 ml volumetric flask. To the flask was added 3 ml of the 10 mg/ml pectin 110 solution. The mixture was stired for 30 minutes and the flask contents made to volume with the 10 mg/ml pectin 110 solution. EXAMPLE 2 Pluronic™ F127 Formulation Pluronic™ F127 (Poloxamer 407) was obtained from BASF. Into a 100 ml conical flask was weighed 10 g of Pluronic™ F127.50 ml of ultrapure water was then added and the solution left to stir on a magnetic stirrer. The conical flask was sealed with parafilm and was placed in the refrigerator at 5° C. for 30 minutes. This ensures that the Pluronic™ F127 solution is in the liquid state since solutions of this block copolymer are known to gel when the temperature is raised. 10 mg of apomorphine were weighed into a 5 ml volumetric flask. To the flask was added 3 ml of the cooled, 200 mg/ml Pluronic™ F127 solution. The mixture was allowed to stir and the flask contents made to volume with the 200 mg/ml Pluronic™ F127 solution. EXAMPLE 3 Measurement of Drug Release Kinetics The Franz diffusion cell apparatus was used to measure diffusion of drug across an artificial cellulose nitrate membrane (0.45 μm thickness) from the following formulations: I. 2 mg/ml apomorphine (control solution) II. 2 mg/ml apomorphine/10 mg/ml pectin 110 III. 2 mg/ml apomorphine/200 mg/ml Pluronic™ F127 In each case a 50 μl aliquot of formulation was applied to the membrane in order to measure diffusion of drug across the membrane. The Pluronic™ F127 formulation had to be cooled for at least 30 minutes at 5° C. to keep the formulation in the liquid state. For each of the formulations I to III, two Franz diffusion cell release profiles were obtained, the data absorbance vs time were meaned, expressed as a percentage and plotted. The results are illustrated in FIG. 2 . The control solution of apomorphine alone diffused rapidly through the cellulose nitrate membrane with 100% of the drug entering the Franz diffusion cell in 60 minutes. In contrast, approximately 60% of the apomorphine was released from the pectin 110 system and approximately 80% of the apomorphine was released from the Pluronic™ ™ F127 after 60 minutes. After 120 minutes, 96% and 92% of the apomorphine was released from the pectin 110 and Pluronic™ F127 systems respectively. EXAMPLE 4 A Microsphere Based Formulation Starch microspheres carrying carboxyl groups (Cadexomer™) were obtained from Perstorp Fine Chemical Companies, Sweden. The microspheres had a particle diameter in the range of 53-106 micron in the unswollen state. 5 g of a 10:1 weight ratio of carboxylated to non-carboxylated starch microspheres were mixed with 20 mls of an aqueous solution of apomorphine (pH adjusted to 7) at a concentration of 5% w/v (i.e. 5 g of apomorphine per 100 mls of solution). The system was freeze dried and 50 mg doses of the powder were packed into gelatin capsules for administration by a nasal insufflator device. EXAMPLE 5 Preparation of Apomorphine Polymer Complex An apomorphine/gellan complex was prepared as follows. A gellan solution was prepared by adding 500 mg of gellan to 15 ml of water. The resulting mixture was stirred overnight on a magnetic stirrer to dissolve the gellan in the water. The solution was then made up to 25 ml with water. An aqueous solution of apomorphine 10 mg/ml was added to the gellan solution. A cloudy mixture resulted. This was stirred and the precipitate allowed to settle. e slurry was centrifuged and the recovered precipitate washed with deionized water to remove excess drug. The precipitate was recovered once again by centrifugation and freeze dried in a 100 ml round bottom flask at −60° C. for 24 hours. A fluffy material was produced. This can be placed in suspension in a suitable vehicle such as saline and then dosed intranasally as a spray. The material can also be dosed as a powder by physical admixture with adhesive microspheres such as starch microspheres as described in PCT/GB88/00836. EXAMPLE 6 Pharmacokinetic Evaluation The beneficial properties of the formulations that comprise this invention can be evaluated in a suitable animal model such as the rat in order to determine the changed pharmacokinetic profile of the drug as compared to a simple nasal solution. Anaesthetised male Sprague-Dawley rats (body weight 250 g to 330 g) can be used in such experiments. The rats are starved for 12 hours prior to dosing. Anaesthesia is induced by interitoneal administration of urethane (1.25 g/kg of either a 10% w/v or 40% w tv solution) and maintained by additional doses of 1 mL of a 40% w/v solution as required. The animals are modified surgically so as to maintain respiratory function and to prevent the nasal formulation reaching the gastrointestinal tract. Blood samples are obtained by cannulation of the jugular vein. This method has been described in detail by Hirai (Int J. Pharn. 1, 317, 1981) and modified by Fisher et al. (J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 39, 357, 1987). The formulations are dosed into the nasal cavity in a volume of 50 μl. Blood samples are collected at suitable time intervals in order to obtain a pharmacokinetic profile (e.g. 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 15, 20, 45, 60, 90, 120 mins post administration). The blood samples are assayed for drug by standard HPLC. For apomorphine, the method is based on HPLC with electrochemical detection as described by Sam et al. (J. Chromat. of B. 658, 311, 1994). A dose of 0.5 mg of apomorphine is used for liquid polysaccharide and microsphere formulations. This dose is chosen in order to obtain sufficient concentration for analysis. For liquid formulations based on gelling block copolymers a dose of 1 mg of apomorphine is used. When employing a simple solution form of apomorphine a sharp peak in the plasma level profile is found. However, for the polysaccharide based systems in solution, suspension or microsphere form a delayed peak of about 30 minutes is found. The peak height is substantially reduced (for example from 1400 ng/ml for the simple nasal solution to 350 ng/ml for the polysaccharide liquid system described in Example 1. For the poloxamer vehicle a similar delay in the peak height is found and a delay in the time to maximum from less than 10 minutes to greater than 30 minutes. The plasma concentration is reduced from about 1500 ng/ml for a simple nasal solution to about 750 ng/ml for the Poloxamer 407 (Pluronic™ F-127 system) described in Example 2. Representative curves are shown in FIGS. 3 and 4. It will be clear to the skilled artisan that the formulations described in the foregoing examples can be further modified for ease of administration by the addition of other known pharmaceutical excipients. Also other drugs useful in the treatment of erectile dysfunction can be used in place of the apomorphine.

There is provided a composition for the nasal delivery of a drug suitable for the treatment of erectile dysfunction to a mammal wherein the composition is adapted to provide an initial rise in plasma level followed by a sustained plasma level of the drug.

TECHNICAL FIELD [0001] The present invention relates to a method for storing upgraded coal, and particle-size-controlled coal. BACKGROUND ART [0002] Coal for use in a thermal power plant or an iron mill is typically stored in a form of a pile in an outdoor yard. The coal stored in such a way may generate heat through a reaction with oxygen in air, leading to spontaneous ignition. In particular, low-grade coal is porous and high in oxidation reactivity, and therefore easily generates heat. To measure this, water is typically sprinkled to the pile to prevent the spontaneous ignition. This measure however requires periodic sprinkling. Hence, there is a demand for a method for efficiently preventing the spontaneous ignition. [0003] Under such a circumstance, there have been developed techniques for preventing the spontaneous ignition of the coal pile, such as a technique of covering a pile surface with resin or the like (see Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication No. Hei5 (1993)-230480 and Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication No. 2000-297288), and a technique of spraying a surfactant containing a free radical scavenger or an oxygen trapping compound (see Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication No. 2001-164254). Each of such techniques however requires the resin, the free radical scavenger, or the like, and may cause an increase in cost. [0004] In addition, there has been developed a method for producing upgraded coal from low-grade coal (porous coal) that is high in water content and low in calorific power (see Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication No. Hei7 (1995)-7-233383). In this method, first, porous coal is pulverized into particles, and then mixed with a mixed oil including a heavy oil content and a solvent oil content to produce a material slurry. Subsequently, the material slurry is preheated and heated to accelerate dehydration of the porous coal, and to allow the mixed oil to penetrate into pores of the porous coal, so that a dehydrated slurry is yielded. Subsequently, the upgraded porous coal and the mixed oil are separated from the dehydrated slurry, and then the upgraded porous coal is dried (dehydrated). The dried, upgraded porous coal is cooled and molded if desired. According to such a method, the water content of the porous coal is decreased, and the heavy oil adheres onto the inside of each pore of the porous coal, so that an upgraded coal high in calorific power is produced. [0005] The upgraded coal produced by such a method is molded into briquettes from the viewpoint of workability including transporting operation and of suppressing dusting. When the briquettes are stored in a form of a pile, the pile is high in gas permeability since the briquettes have the same shape. Hence, when a coal having relatively high oxidation reactivity is piled, or when the pile has a great height, temperature of the pile increases in a relatively short time. For such an upgraded coal, therefore, there is a particular need for a storing technique that allows spontaneous ignition to be reduced. CITATION LIST Patent Literature [0006] PTL 1: Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication No. Hei5 (1993)-230480 [0007] PTL 2: Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication No. 2000-297288 [0008] PTL 3: Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication No. 2001-164254 [0009] PTL 4: Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication No. Heil (1995)-233383 SUMMARY OF INVENTION Technical Problem [0010] An object of the invention, which has been made in light of the above-described circumstances, is to provide an economical method for storing upgraded coal, which suppresses spontaneous ignition of a pile, and provide particle-size-controlled coal reduced in spontaneous ignition during storage. Solution to Problem [0011] The invention, which has been made to solve the problem, is a method for storing upgraded coal, the method involving the step of piling a particulate coal containing upgraded coal, the particulate coal containing particles each having a particle diameter of 10 mm or less in an amount of 50 mass % or more. [0012] In the method for storing upgraded coal, the particulate coal to be piled contains the relatively small particles each having a particle diameter of 10 mm or less in the amount of 50 mass % or more. When the coal having such a particle size distribution is piled, spaces are filled with the small particles, and a pile low in gas permeability is formed. According to the method for storing upgraded coal, therefore, spontaneous ignition of a pile can be economically suppressed without using a special material or the like. [0013] The particulate coal preferably contains particles each having a particle diameter of 1 mm or less in an amount of 25 mass % or more, and particles each having a particle diameter of 0.15 mm or less in an amount of 7 mass % or more. Using the further small particles within such a range as described above allows spaces in the pile to be more effectively filled, and allows the suppressive ability of spontaneous ignition to be improved. [0014] The particulate coal preferably contains particles each having a particle diameter of 10 mm or less in an amount of 90 mass % or less. The particulate coal, which contains particles each having a particle diameter of 10 mm or less in the amount of 90 mass % or less, is used as described above, thereby making it possible to improve workability and the like. [0015] The method for storing the upgraded coal further involves the steps of [0016] molding a briquette out of the upgraded coal, and [0017] pulverizing the briquette, [0018] in which a pulverized product produced through the pulverizing step is preferably used as at least some of the particulate coal. [0019] In this way, the molded briquette is pulverized into the upgraded coal (pulverized product) having a small particle diameter. It is thereby possible to easily produce a coal having a desired particle size distribution without newly providing a special apparatus or the like. [0020] The particle-size-controlled coal of the invention contains upgraded coal, in which the content of particles each having a particle diameter of 10 mm or less is 50 to 90 mass %. The particle-size-controlled coal is a particulate coal having such a broad particle size distribution, which therefore makes it possible to form a pile suppressed in spontaneous ignition without degrading workability. [0021] Herein, “particle diameter” refers to a value measured in accordance with the dry sieving in JIS Z 8815 (1994) Test sieving—General Requirements. Advantageous Effects of Invention [0022] As described hereinbefore, according to the method for storing upgraded coal of the invention, spontaneous ignition of a pile is suppressed without causing an increase in cost. The particle-size-controlled coal of the invention allows formation of a pile reduced in spontaneous ignition. Consequently, according to the particle-size-controlled coal and the method for storing upgraded coal of the invention, it is possible to improve usability of the upgraded coal produced from low-grade coal. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS [0023] FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram illustrating a pile formed in an embodiment. [0024] FIG. 2-1 is a diagram illustrating measurement results of piles in comparative example 1. [0025] FIG. 2-2 is a diagram illustrating measurement results of piles in comparative example 2. [0026] FIG. 2-3 is a diagram illustrating measurement results of piles in comparative example 3. [0027] FIG. 2-4 is a diagram illustrating measurement results of piles in Example 1. [0028] FIG. 2-5 is a diagram illustrating measurement results of piles in Example 2 and comparative example 5. [0029] FIG. 2-6 is a diagram illustrating measurement results of piles in Example 3. [0030] FIG. 3 is a diagram illustrating particle size distribution of each type of coal in the embodiment. DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS [0031] Hereinafter, the method for storing upgraded coal and the particle-size-controlled coal of the invention will be described in detail. <Method for Storing Upgraded Coal> [0032] The method for storing upgraded coal of the invention involves the step of [0033] (C) Piling a particulate coal containing upgraded coal, and preferably further includes the steps of, before the step (C), [0034] (A) Molding a briquette out of the upgraded coal, and [0035] (B) Pulverizing the briquette. [0036] An example of the method for manufacturing the upgraded coal for use in that storing method is now described. The method for manufacturing the upgraded coal includes the steps of [0037] pulverizing porous coal (low-grade coal) into particles (pulverizing step), [0038] mixing the pulverized porous coal with oil to produce a material slurry (mixing step), [0039] preheating the material slurry (preheating step), [0040] heating the material slurry to produce a dehydrated slurry (heating step), [0041] separating the dehydrated slurry into upgraded porous coal and the oil (solid-liquid separation step), and [0042] drying the separated, upgraded porous coal (drying step). (Pulverizing Step) [0043] In the pulverizing step, the porous coal is pulverized into a particulate coal having a preferred particle diameter. Such pulverization is performed using a known pulverizer or the like. The particulate porous coal, which has been pulverized in the above way so as to be subjected to the mixing step, has any particle diameter without limitation, for example, 0.05 to 2.0 mm, preferably 0.1 to 0.5 mm. [0044] The porous coal is a so-called low-grade coal that contains a large quantity of water and is desirably dehydrated. The porous coal has a water content of, for example, 20 to 70 mass %. Examples of such a porous coal include brown coal, lignite, and subbituminous coal (such as Samarangau coal). (Mixing Step) [0045] In the mixing step, the particulate porous coal is mixed with oil to produce the material slurry. The mixing step is performed using, for example, a known mixing chamber. The oil is preferably a mixed oil including a heavy oil content and a solvent oil content. Hereinafter, description is made with an exemplary case using such a mixed oil. [0046] For example, the heavy oil content is an oil composed of a heavy content that has substantially no vapor pressure even at 400° C., or an oil containing a large amount of such a heavy content. For example, the heavy oil content includes asphalt. The solvent oil content is an oil that disperses the heavy oil content. The solvent oil content preferably includes a low-boiling oil content from the viewpoint of affinity with the heavy oil content, handling ability of a slurry including the solvent oil content, ease of penetration into the pores, and the like. Specifically, petroleum-derived oil (such as light oil, kerosene, or heavy oil) is preferred. [0047] Using such a mixed oil including the heavy oil content and the solvent oil content results in appropriate fluidity of the mixed oil. Hence, using the mixed oil promotes penetration of the heavy oil content into the pores of the porous coal while such penetration is difficult by the heavy oil content alone. The mixed oil contains the heavy oil content in an amount of, for example, 0.25 to 15 mass %. [0048] Any mixing ratio of the mixed oil to the porous coal may be used without limitation. For example, the amount of the heavy oil content relative to the porous coal is 0.5 to 30 mass, preferably 0.5 to 5 mass %. (Preheating Step) [0049] The material slurry produced through the mixing step is typically preheated prior to the heating step. While any preheating condition may be used without limitation, the material slurry is typically heated to a temperature near the boiling point of water at operation pressure. (Heating Step) [0050] In the heating step, the material slurry is heated to produce a dehydrated slurry. Such heating is performed using a known apparatus such as a heat exchanger and an evaporator. During this heating, dehydration of the porous coal is advanced, and the mixed oil increasingly penetrates into the pores of the porous coal. Specifically, the insides of the pores of the porous coal are covered one after another with the mixed oil containing the heavy oil content, and substantially the entire area of the openings of the pores is finally filled with the mixed oil. The heavy oil content in the mixed oil tends to be selectively absorbed to an active spot, and the attached heavy oil content is less likely to be detached; hence, the heavy oil content should be attached with priority to the solvent oil content. The inner surface of each pore is thus sealed from the external air, thereby the spontaneous ignitability can be lowered. In addition, a large amount of water is removed by the dehydration, and the mixed oil, particularly the heavy oil content, preferentially fills the insides of the pores, resulting in an increase in calorie of the porous coal as a whole. (Solid-Liquid Separation Step) [0051] In the solid-liquid separation step, the dehydrated slurry is separated into an upgraded porous coal and the mixed oil. Such separation is performed using a known apparatus such as a centrifuge and a filter. The mixed oil separated through this step can be reused in the mixing step. (Drying Step) [0052] In the drying step, the separated upgraded porous coal is dried. Such drying is performed using a known steam tube dryer, for example. The oil (solvent oil content) vaporized in the drying step can be recovered and reused in the mixing step. [0053] The upgraded coal produced by such a method is reduced in water content in the heating step, and is high in calorific power since the heavy oil adheres onto the insides of the pores. [0054] The steps of the method for storing upgraded coal are now described. (A) Molding Step [0055] In the step (A), the particulate upgraded coal (upgraded porous coal) is pressure-molded into briquettes (lamp coals). Such molding is performed using a known granulator such as a double-roll molding machine. The molding may be performed while the particulate upgraded coal is humidified, or while a binder such as starch is mixed in the coal. Such operation improves moldability. [0056] Each briquette may have any size without limitation, for example, has a size of 1 to 100 cm 3 . The briquette may also have any shape without limitation, for example, a sphere, a spheroid, a rectangular column, and a cylinder. (B) Pulverizing Step [0057] In the step (B), the briquette produced through the step (A) is pulverized to produce an upgraded coal (a pulverized product) having a small particle diameter. In this way, the molded briquette is pulverized into the upgraded coal having a small particle diameter. It is thereby possible to easily produce an upgraded coal having a desired particle size distribution without newly providing a special apparatus or the like. [0058] Such pulverization may be performed by any method without limitation, for example, by using a pulverizer, or by simply dropping the briquette from a height. For example, the briquette is allowed to be scooped up by a wheel loader and dropped, and thereby pulverized. In this operation, for example, particle size distribution of a resultant pulverized product is easily controlled by varying a drop distance, the number of times of dropping, or the like. [0059] The drop distance is appropriately 1 to 5 m. Dropping the briquette from such a height makes it possible to efficiently pulverize the briquette into particles having an appropriate particle size distribution. The number of times of dropping is preferably 10 to 50. Such a number of times of dropping allows the briquette to be efficiently pulverized into particles having an appropriate particle size distribution. [0060] In the pulverizing step (B), some non-pulverized briquette may be left in the resultant pulverized product. Only some of the briquette molded in the step (A) may be subjected to the pulverizing step (B). (C) Piling Step [0061] In the step (C), the particulate coal, which contains the upgraded coal and has a specific particle size distribution, is piled to form a pile. Such piling is performed using a known machine such as a conveyor belt. [0062] In the step (C), the particulate coal derived from the briquette pulverized in the step (B) can be used as the upgraded coal having the appropriate particle size distribution. The pulverized product may further contain a non-pulverized briquette, a particulate or powdered upgraded coal being unmolded, or a defective molding produced through the molding step or the like to control the particle size. Alternatively, the upgraded coal other than the pulverized product can be exclusively used to control the particle size. [0063] In the step (C), a non-upgraded coal can be added to control the particle size of the coal as a whole. The ratio of the non-upgraded coal to the entire particulate coal to be piled is, by mass percent, preferably 30 mass % or less, and more preferably 10 mass % or less. Decreasing the usage of the non-upgraded coal prevents lowering of combustion efficiency of the coal. [0064] The coal to be subjected to the piling step (C) contains the particles each having a particle diameter of 10 mm or less in an amount having a lower limit of 50 mass %. The relatively small particles each having a particle diameter of 10 mm or less is used in the certain amount as described above. This allows the small particles to fill spaces of the coal being piled, leading to formation of a pile having low gas permeability. According to the method for storing upgraded coal, therefore, spontaneous ignition of the pile can be economically suppressed without using a special material or the like. [0065] The upper limit of the content of the particles each having a particle diameter of 10 mm or less is preferably 90 mass %, more preferably 70 mass %, and further preferably 65 mass %. The content of the particles each having a particle diameter of 10 mm or less is controlled to be equal to or lower than the upper limit as described above. This allows a coal having a certain size to be mixedly contained, leading to improvement in workability and the like. [0066] The coal preferably contains the particles each having a particle diameter of 1 mm or less in an amount having a lower limit of 25 mass %. The lower limit of the content of the particles each having a particle diameter of 0.15 mm or less is preferably 7 mass %. Such further small particles are used within the above-described range of particle size distribution. This allows spaces in the pile to be further closely filled, leading to improvement in the suppressive ability of spontaneous ignition. [0067] The upper limit of the content of the particles each having a particle diameter of 1 mm or less is preferably 40 mass %, and more preferably 35 mass %. The upper limit of the content of the particles each having a particle diameter of 0.15 mm or less is preferably 20 mass %, and more preferably 15 mass %. The upper limits of the contents of the fine particles are each controlled to be within the above-described range, thereby making it possible to suppress dusting, and improve workability and others. [0068] During the piling, water or a surfactant solution may be sprayed onto the coal. Such operation allows dusting or ignition from the formed pile to be further reduced. [0069] In this way, according to the method for storing upgraded coal, spontaneous ignition of the pile can be economically suppressed without using a special machine or material only by controlling the particle size distribution of the coal to be used. <Particle-Size-Controlled Coal> [0070] The particle-size-controlled coal of the invention contains the upgraded coal, in which the content of particles each having a particle diameter of 10 mm or less is 50 to 90 mass %. [0071] The particle-size-controlled coal is the particulate coal for use in the method for storing upgraded coal as described above. The method for manufacturing the particle-size-controlled coal and the preferable particle diameter thereof are also similar to those of the above-described particulate coal, and description of them is omitted. [0072] The particle-size-controlled coal is a particulate coal having such a broad particle size distribution, which therefore makes it possible to form a pile suppressed in spontaneous ignition without degrading workability. Embodiment [0073] Although the invention is now described more in detail with an embodiment, the invention is not limited thereto. Examples 1 to 3 and Comparative Examples 1 to 5 [0074] There was prepared a powdered upgraded coal (UBC-P) that was produced through a step of mixing subbituminous coal (raw coal) as a material with a mixed oil including a heavy oil content and a solvent oil content, and heating such a mixture. The powdered upgraded coal was molded into a briquette-shaped upgraded coal (UBC-B, size: 47×47×28 mm). The UBC-B was dropped from a height of 3 m using a wheel loader and pulverized, so that UBC-B (pulverized) was produced. The number of times of dropping and other conditions are as described later. [0075] The UBC-B, the UBC-B (pulverized), the UBC-P, and the raw coal were mixed in mass ratios listed in Table 1, and such mixtures were used to form coal piles about 1 m in height. Supplementary notes are shown in the lower part of Table 1. [0000] TABLE 1 Comparative Comparative Comparative Comparative Comparative example 1 example 2 example 3 example 4 Example 1 example 5 Example 2 Example 3 Pile-No −10 −20 −40 −40-New −100 −40-B −40-B-New −Raw-20 Evaluation Not suffocated Not suffocated Not suffocated Not suffocated Suffocated Not suffocated Suffocated Suffocated Mixing UBC-B 100 100 100 100 — — — — ratio UBC-B — — — — — 100 100 100 (mass ratio) (pulverized) UBC-P 10 20 40 40 + 15 100 38 38 — Raw Coal — — — — — — 15 19 Real UBC-B 1920 1900 1700 1700 — — — — weight UBC-B — — — — — 1706 1706 1650 (kg) (pulverized) UBC-P 189 383 680 680 + 250 2483 645 645 — Raw coal — — — — — — 250 320 [0076] For comparative examples 1 to 4, the UBC-B and the UBC-P were mixedly used. For comparative example 4, 15 mass parts of the UBC-P was further sprinkled onto the surface of Pile-40 as the comparative example 3. For Example 1, only the UBC-P was used. For comparative example 5, a coal pulverized according to the following procedure was used. [0077] (Dropping UBC-B 10 times)→(Mixing the UBC-B with UBC-P)→(Dropping the mixture 10 times) [0078] For Example 2, the raw coal was further mixed in the mixture of the comparative example 5. [0079] For Example 3, the number of times of dropping was 30. Evaluation [0080] As illustrated FIG. 1 , gas analysis (concentrations of 02, CO, and CO 2 ) and temperature measurement were performed at measurement points e 1 , e 2 , and e 3 at depths of 25 cm, 50 cm, and 75 cm, respectively, in a direction perpendicular to a slope of the pile from a position P about 129 cm away from the bottom of a pile 1 . Results of them are shown in FIGS. 2-1 to 6 . [0081] Piles that were suffocated (substantially zero in oxygen concentration) were three piles of Pile-100 (Example 1, UBC-P only), Pile-40-B-New (Example 2, UBC-B (pulverized): UBC-P: raw coal=100: 38: 15), and Pile-Raw20 (Example 3, UBC-B (pulverized): raw coal=100: 19). Each suffocated pile had a substantially zero oxygen concentration in a depth range of deeper than 50 cm (while having a high oxygen concentration in a region near its surface). [0082] Measurement results of particle size distributions of the coals as materials of the piles (the Examples 1 to 3, the comparative examples 1 to 3 and 5, Example 4 described later, and UBC-B before dropping and the raw coal as references) are shown in FIG. 3 and Table 2. The particle size distributions are each a value obtained through analysis using a shake sieving machine from FRITSCH. [0000] TABLE 2 PSD Analysis (wt %) 0.075 mm 0.15 mm 0.25 mm 0.5 mm 1 mm 2 mm 5 mm 10 mm 20 mm 30 mm total Example 1 3.22 7.19 12.38 21.14 29.36 34.82 51.37 64.06 91.57 96.24 100 Example 2 7.14 11.22 16.23 23.17 29.81 35.09 45.63 51.88 73.61 87.46 100 Example 3 7.93 11.35 16.72 24.43 31.94 37.10 49.37 57.67 82.10 94.02 100 Example 4 3.74 7.76 12.26 19.13 26.28 34.25 50.48 60.04 81.97 90.63 100 Comparative example 1 0.33 0.76 1.32 2.27 3.19 3.88 6.03 7.91 31.42 59.57 100 Comparative example 2 0.57 1.30 2.24 3.84 5.37 6.46 9.81 12.59 36.43 62.62 100 Comparative example 3 0.95 2.14 3.69 6.31 8.80 10.51 15.75 19.95 44.31 67.43 100 Comparative example 5 1.27 3.93 7.99 15.60 22.78 27.78 42.71 53.45 82.25 93.80 100 UBC-B 0.04 0.12 0.22 0.38 0.58 0.78 1.50 2.30 25.40 55.90 100 (before dropping) P pulverized raw coal 45.11 55.00 69.20 79.65 90.86 97.79 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100 [0083] FIG. 3 shows that the proportion of the particles each having a particle diameter of 10 mm or less is high, 50 or more mass %, in the particle size distribution of the coal of each of the Examples 1 to 3 succeeded in suffocation of the pile. Example 4 [0084] The UBC-P was controllably mixed with another type of coal into a particle size distribution of the Example 4 shown in FIG. 3 and Table 2. Such a mixture was used to form a pile that was then subjected to gas analysis as with the Example 1 and others, so that the pile was determined to be suffocated. INDUSTRIAL APPLICABILITY [0085] As described hereinbefore, the method for storing upgraded coal of the invention can be economically suppressed in spontaneous ignition of the pile, and can be widely used in a thermal power plant, an iron mill, and others. LIST OF REFERENCE SIGNS [0000] 1 pile e 1 , e 2 , e 3 measurement point

A method for storing upgraded coal, which is economical and whereby it becomes possible to prevent the spontaneous ignition of piles; and grain-size-controlled coal which rarely undergoes spontaneous ignition during storage. The method for storing upgraded coal includes piling up granular coal containing upgraded coal, wherein the content of grains each having a grain size of 10 mm or less in the coal is 50 mass % or more. It is preferred that the content of grains each having a grain size of 1 mm or less is 25 mass % or more and the content of grains each having a grain size of 0.15 mm or less is 7 mass % or more in the coal.

RELATED APPLICATION DATA This application is a continuation of PCT application no. PCT/US2013/075317, designating the United States and filed Dec. 16, 2013; which claims the benefit U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/779,169, filed on Mar. 13, 2013 and U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/738,355, filed on Dec. 17, 2012; each of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties. STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENT INTERESTS This invention was made with government support under P50 HG005550 awarded by National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. BACKGROUND Bacterial and archaeal CRISPR systems rely on crRNAs in complex with Cas proteins to direct degradation of complementary sequences present within invading viral and plasmid DNA (1-3). A recent in vitro reconstitution of the S. pyogenes type II CRISPR system demonstrated that crRNA fused to a normally trans-encoded tracrRNA is sufficient to direct Cas9 protein to sequence-specifically cleave target DNA sequences matching the crRNA (4). SUMMARY The present disclosure references documents numerically which are listed at the end of the present disclosure. The document corresponding to the number is incorporated by reference into the specification as a supporting reference corresponding to the number as if fully cited. According to one aspect of the present disclosure, a eukaryotic cell is transfected with a two component system including RNA complementary to genomic DNA and an enzyme that interacts with the RNA. The RNA and the enzyme are expressed by the cell. The RNA of the RNA/enzyme complex then binds to complementary genomic DNA. The enzyme then performs a function, such as cleavage of the genomic DNA. The RNA includes between about 10 nucleotides to about 250 nucleotides. The RNA includes between about 20 nucleotides to about 100 nucleotides. According to certain aspects, the enzyme may perform any desired function in a site specific manner for which the enzyme has been engineered. According to one aspect, the eukaryotic cell is a yeast cell, plant cell or mammalian cell. According to one aspect, the enzyme cleaves genomic sequences targeted by RNA sequences (see references (4-6)), thereby creating a genomically altered eukaryotic cell. According to one aspect, the present disclosure provides a method of genetically altering a human cell by including a nucleic acid encoding an RNA complementary to genomic DNA into the genome of the cell and a nucleic acid encoding an enzyme that performs a desired function on genomic DNA into the genome of the cell. According to one aspect, the RNA and the enzyme are expressed, According to one aspect, the RNA hybridizes with complementary genomic DNA. According to one aspect, the enzyme is activated to perform a desired function, such as cleavage, in a site specific manner when the RNA is hybridized to the complementary genomic DNA. According to one aspect, the RNA and the enzyme are components of a bacterial Type II CRISPR system. According to one aspect, a method of altering a eukaryotic cell is providing including transfecting the eukaryotic cell with a nucleic acid encoding RNA complementary to genomic DNA of the eukaryotic cell, transfecting the eukaryotic cell with a nucleic acid encoding an enzyme that interacts with the RNA and cleaves the genomic DNA in a site specific manner, wherein the cell expresses the RNA and the enzyme, the RNA binds to complementary genomic DNA and the enzyme cleaves the genomic DNA in a site specific manner. According to one aspect, the enzyme is Cas9 or modified Cas9 or a homolog of Cas9. According to one aspect, the eukaryotic cell is a yeast cell, a plant cell or a mammalian cell. According to one aspect, the RNA includes between about 10 to about 250 nucleotides. According to one aspect, the RNA includes between about 20 to about 100 nucleotides. According to one aspect, a method of altering a human cell is provided including transfecting the human cell with a nucleic acid encoding RNA complementary to genomic DNA of the eukaryotic cell, transfecting the human cell with a nucleic acid encoding an enzyme that interacts with the RNA and cleaves the genomic DNA in a site specific manner, wherein the human cell expresses the RNA and the enzyme, the RNA binds to complementary genomic DNA and the enzyme cleaves the genomic DNA in a site specific manner. According to one aspect, the enzyme is Cas9 or modified Cas9 or a homolog of Cas9. According to one aspect, the RNA includes between about 10 to about 250 nucleotides. According to one aspect, the RNA includes between about 20 to about 100 nucleotides. According to one aspect, a method of altering a eukaryotic cell at a plurality of genomic DNA sites is provided including transfecting the eukaryotic cell with a plurality of nucleic acids encoding RNAs complementary to different sites on genomic DNA of the eukaryotic cell, transfecting the eukaryotic cell with a nucleic acid encoding an enzyme that interacts with the RNA and cleaves the genomic DNA in a site specific manner, wherein the cell expresses the RNAs and the enzyme, the RNAs bind to complementary genomic DNA and the enzyme cleaves the genomic DNA in a site specific manner. According to one aspect, the enzyme is Cas9. According to one aspect, the eukaryotic cell is a yeast cell, a plant cell or a mammalian cell. According to one aspect, the RNA includes between about 10 to about 250 nucleotides. According to one aspect, the RNA includes between about 20 to about 100 nucleotides. The patent or application file contains at least one drawing executed in color. Copies of this patent or patent application publication with color drawing(s) will be provided by the Office upon request and payment of the necessary fee. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIGS. 1A-1C depict genome editing in human cells using an engineered type II CRISPR system. (A) sets forth SEQ ID NO:17; (B) sets forth SEQ ID NO:18. FIGS. 2A-2F depict RNA-guided genome editing of the native AAVS1 locus in multiple cell types. (A) sets forth SEQ ID NO:19; (E) sets forth SEQ ID NOs:20 and 21. FIGS. 3A-3C depict a process mediated by two catalytic domains in the Cas9 protein. (A) sets forth SEQ ID NO:22; (B) sets forth SEQ ID NO:23; (C) sets forth SEQ ID NOs:24-31. FIG. 4 depicts that all possible combinations of the repair DNA donor, Cas9 protein, and gRNA were tested for their ability to effect successful HR in 293Ts. FIGS. 5A-5B depict the analysis of gRNA and Cas9 mediated genome editing. (B) sets forth SEQ ID NO:19. FIGS. 6A-6B depict 293T stable lines each bearing a distinct GFP reporter construct. (A) depicts sequences set forth as SEQ ID NOs;32-34. FIG. 7 depicts gRNAs targeting the flanking GFP sequences of the reporter described in FIG. 1B (in 293Ts). FIGS. 8A-8B depict 293T stable lines each bearing a distinct GFP reporter construct. (A) depicts sequences set forth as SEQ ID NOs;35-36. FIGS. 9A-9C depict human iPS cells (PGP1) that were nucleofected with constructs. (A) sets forth SEQ ID NO:19. FIGS. 10A-10B depict RNA-guided NHEJ in K562 cells. (A) sets forth SEQ ID NO:19. FIGS. 11A-11B depict RNA-guided NHEJ in 293T cells. (A) sets forth SEQ ID NO:19. FIGS. 12A-12C depict HR at the endogenous AAVS1 locus using either a dsDNA donor or a short oligonucleotide donor. (C) sets forth SEQ ID NOs:37-38. FIGS. 13A-13B depict the methodology for multiplex synthesis, retrieval and U6 expression vector cloning of guide RNAs targeting genes in the human genome. (A) sets forth SEQ ID NOs:39-41. FIGS. 14A-14D depict CRISPR mediated RNA-guided transcriptional activation. (A) sets forth SEQ ID NOs:42-43. FIGS. 15A-15B depict gRNA sequence flexibility and applications thereof. (A) sets forth SEQ ID NO:44. DETAILED DESCRIPTION According to one aspect, a human codon-optimized version of the Cas9 protein bearing a C-terminus SV40 nuclear localization signal is synthetized and cloned into a mammalian expression system ( FIG. 1A and FIG. 3A ). Accordingly, FIG. 1 is directed to genome editing in human cells using an engineered type II CRISPR system. As shown in FIG. 1A , RNA-guided gene targeting in human cells involves co-expression of the Cas9 protein bearing a C-terminus SV40 nuclear localization signal with one or more guide RNAs (gRNAs) expressed from the human U6 polymerase III promoter. Cas9 unwinds the DNA duplex and cleaves both strands upon recognition of a target sequence by the gRNA, but only if the correct protospacer-adjacent motif (PAM) is present at the 3′ end. Any genomic sequence of the form GN 20 GG can in principle be targeted. As shown in FIG. 1B , a genomically integrated GFP coding sequence is disrupted by the insertion of a stop codon and a 68 bp genomic fragment from the AAVS1 locus. Restoration of the GFP sequence by homologous recombination (HR) with an appropriate donor sequence results in GFP + cells that can be quantitated by FACS. T1 and T2 gRNAs target sequences within the AAVS1 fragment. Binding sites for the two halves of the TAL effector nuclease heterodimer (TALEN) are underlined. As shown in FIG. 1C , bar graph depict HR efficiencies induced by T1, T2, and TALEN-mediated nuclease activity at the target locus, as measured by FACS. Representative FACS plots and microscopy images of the targeted cells are depicted below (scale bar is 100 microns). Data is mean+/−SEM (N=3). According to one aspect, to direct Cas9 to cleave sequences of interest, crRNA-tracrRNA fusion transcripts are expressed, hereafter referred to as guide RNAs (gRNAs), from the human U6 polymerase III promoter. According to one aspect, gRNAs are directly transcribed by the cell. This aspect advantageously avoids reconstituting the RNA processing machinery employed by bacterial CRISPR systems ( FIG. 1A and FIG. 3B ) (see references (4, 7-9)). According to one aspect, a method is provided for altering genomic DNA using a U6 transcription initiating with G and a PAM (protospacer-adjacent motif) sequence −NGG following the 20 bp crRNA target. According to this aspect, the target genomic site is in the form of GN 20 GG (See FIG. 3C ). According to one aspect, a GFP reporter assay ( FIG. 1B ) in 293T cells was developed similar to one previously described (see reference (10)) to test the functionality of the genome engineering methods described herein. According to one aspect, a stable cell line was established bearing a genomically integrated GFP coding sequence disrupted by the insertion of a stop codon and a 68 bp genomic fragment from the AAVS1 locus that renders the expressed protein fragment non-fluorescent. Homologous recombination (HR) using an appropriate repair donor can restore the normal GFP sequence, which allows one to quantify the resulting GFP + cells by flow activated cell sorting (FACS). According to one aspect, a method is provided of homologous recombination (HR). Two gRNAs are constructed, T1 and T2, that target the intervening AAVS1 fragment ( FIG. 1 b ). Their activity to that of a previously described TAL effector nuclease heterodimer (TALEN) targeting the same region (see reference (11)) was compared. Successful HR events were observed using all three targeting reagents, with gene correction rates using the T1 and T2 gRNAs approaching 3% and 8% respectively ( FIG. 1C ). This RNA-mediated editing process was notably rapid, with the first detectable GFP + cells appearing ˜20 hours post transfection compared to ˜40 hours for the AAVS1 TALENs. HR was observed only upon simultaneous introduction of the repair donor, Cas9 protein, and gRNA, confirming that all components are required for genome editing ( FIG. 4 ). While no apparent toxicity associated with Cas9/crRNA expression was noted, work with ZFNs and TALENs has shown that nicking only one strand further reduces toxicity. Accordingly, a Cas9D10A mutant was tested that is known to function as a nickase in vitro, which yielded similar HR but lower non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) rates ( FIG. 5 ) (see references (4, 5)). Consistent with (4) where a related Cas9 protein is shown to cut both strands 6 bp upstream of the PAM, NHEJ data confirmed that most deletions or insertions occurred at the 3′ end of the target sequence ( FIG. 5B ). Also confirmed was that mutating the target genomic site prevents the gRNA from effecting HR at that locus, demonstrating that CRISPR-mediated genome editing is sequence specific ( FIG. 6 ). It was showed that two gRNAs targeting sites in the GFP gene, and also three additional gRNAs targeting fragments from homologous regions of the DNA methyl transferase 3a (DNMT3a) and DNMT3b genes could sequence specifically induce significant HR in the engineered reporter cell lines ( FIG. 7 , 8 ). Together these results confirm that RNA-guided genome targeting in human cells induces robust HR across multiple target sites. According to certain aspects, a native locus was modified. gRNAs were used to target the AAVS1 locus located in the PPP1R12C gene on chromosome 19, which is ubiquitously expressed across most tissues ( FIG. 2A ) in 293Ts, K562s, and PGP1 human iPS cells (see reference (12)) and analyzed the results by next-generation sequencing of the targeted locus. Accordingly, FIG. 2 is directed to RNA-guided genome editing of the native AAVS1 locus in multiple cell types. As shown in FIG. 2A , T1 (red) and T2 (green) gRNAs target sequences in an intron of the PPP1R12C gene within the chromosome 19 AAVS1 locus. As shown in FIG. 2B , total count and location of deletions caused by NHEJ in 293Ts, K562s, and PGP1 iPS cells following expression of Cas9 and either T1 or T2 gRNAs as quantified by next-generation sequencing is provided. Red and green dash lines demarcate the boundaries of the T1 and T2 gRNA targeting sites. NHEJ frequencies for T1 and T2 gRNAs were 10% and 25% in 293T, 13% and 38% in K562, and 2% and 4% in PGP1 iPS cells, respectively. As shown in FIG. 2C , DNA donor architecture for HR at the AAVS1 locus, and the locations of sequencing primers (arrows) for detecting successful targeted events, are depicted. As shown in FIG. 2D , PCR assay three days post transfection demonstrates that only cells expressing the donor, Cas9 and T2 gRNA exhibit successful HR events. As shown in FIG. 2E , successful HR was confirmed by Sanger sequencing of the PCR amplicon showing that the expected DNA bases at both the genome-donor and donor-insert boundaries are present. As shown in FIG. 2F , successfully targeted clones of 293T cells were selected with puromycin for 2 weeks. Microscope images of two representative GFP+ clones is shown (scale bar is 100 microns). Consistent with results for the GFP reporter assay, high numbers of NHEJ events were observed at the endogenous locus for all three cell types. The two gRNAs T1 and T2 achieved NHEJ rates of 10 and 25% in 293Ts, 13 and 38% in K562s, and 2 and 4% in PGP1-iPS cells, respectively ( FIG. 2B ). No overt toxicity was observed from the Cas9 and crRNA expression required to induce NHEJ in any of these cell types ( FIG. 9 ). As expected, NHEJ-mediated deletions for T1 and T2 were centered around the target site positions, further validating the sequence specificity of this targeting process ( FIG. 9 , 10 , 11 ). Simultaneous introduction of both T1 and T2 gRNAs resulted in high efficiency deletion of the intervening 19 bp fragment ( FIG. 10 ), demonstrating that multiplexed editing of genomic loci is feasible using this approach. According to one aspect, HR is used to integrate either a dsDNA donor construct (see reference (H)) or an oligo donor into the native AAVS1 locus ( FIG. 2C , FIG. 12 ). HR-mediated integration was confirmed using both approaches by PCR ( FIG. 2D , FIG. 12 ) and Sanger sequencing ( FIG. 2E ). 293T or iPS clones were readily derived from the pool of modified cells using puromycin selection over two weeks ( FIG. 2F , FIG. 12 ). These results demonstrate that Cas9 is capable of efficiently integrating foreign DNA at endogenous loci in human cells. Accordingly, one aspect of the present disclosure includes a method of integrating foreign DNA into the genome of a cell using homologous recombination and Cas9. According to one aspect, an RNA-guided genome editing system is provided which can readily be adapted to modify other genomic sites by simply modifying the sequence of the gRNA expression vector to match a compatible sequence in the locus of interest. According to this aspect, 190,000 specifically gRNA-targetable sequences targeting about 40.5% exons of genes in the human genome were generated. These target sequences were incorporated into a 200 bp format compatible with multiplex synthesis on DNA arrays (see reference (14)) ( FIG. 13 ). According to this aspect, a ready genome-wide reference of potential target sites in the human genome and a methodology for multiplex gRNA synthesis is provided. According to one aspect, methods are provided for multiplexing genomic alterations in a cell by using one or more or a plurality of RNA/enzyme systems described herein to alter the genome of a cell at a plurality of locations. According to one aspect, target sites perfectly match the PAM sequence NGG and the 8-12 base “seed sequence” at the 3′ end of the gRNA. According to certain aspects, perfect match is not required of the remaining 8-12 bases. According to certain aspects, Cas9 will function with single mismatches at the 5′ end. According to certain aspects, the target locus's underlying chromatin structure and epigenetic state may affect efficiency of Cas9 function. According to certain aspects, Cas9 homologs having higher specificity are included as useful enzymes. One of skill in the art will be able to identify or engineer suitable Cas9 homologs. According to one aspect, CRISPR-targetable sequences include those having different PAM requirements (see reference (9)), or directed evolution. According to one aspect, inactivating one of the Cas9 nuclease domains increases the ratio of HR to NHEJ and may reduce toxicity ( FIG. 3A , FIG. 5 ) (4, 5), while inactivating both domains may enable Cas9 to function as a retargetable DNA binding protein. Embodiments of the present disclosure have broad utility in synthetic biology (see references (21, 22)), the direct and multiplexed perturbation of gene networks (see references (13, 23)), and targeted ex vivo (see references (24-26)) and in vivo gene therapy (see reference (27)). According to certain aspects, a “re-engineerable organism” is provided as a model system for biological discovery and in vivo screening. According to one aspect, a “re-engineerable mouse” bearing an inducible Cas9 transgene is provided, and localized delivery (using adeno-associated viruses, for example) of libraries of gRNAs targeting multiple genes or regulatory elements allow one to screen for mutations that result in the onset of tumors in the target tissue type. Use of Cas9 homologs or nuclease-null variants bearing effector domains (such as activators) allow one to multiplex activate or repress genes in vivo. According to this aspect, one could screen for factors that enable phenotypes such as: tissue-regeneration, trans-differentiation etc. According to certain aspects, (a) use of DNA-arrays enables multiplex synthesis of defined gRNA libraries (refer FIG. 13 ); and (b) gRNAs being small in size (refer FIG. 3 b ) are packaged and delivered using a multitude of non-viral or viral delivery methods. According to one aspect, the lower toxicities observed with “nickases” for genome engineering applications is achieved by inactivating one of the Cas9 nuclease domains, either the nicking of the DNA strand base-paired with the RNA or nicking its complement. Inactivating both domains allows Cas9 to function as a retargetable DNA binding protein. According to one aspect, the Cas9 retargetable DNA binding protein is attached (a) to transcriptional activation or repression domains for modulating target gene expression, including but not limited to chromatin remodeling, histone modification, silencing, insulation, direct interactions with the transcriptional machinery; (b) to nuclease domains such as FokI to enable ‘highly specific’ genome editing contingent upon dimerization of adjacent gRNA-Cas9 complexes; (c) to fluorescent proteins for visualizing genomic loci and chromosome dynamics; or (d) to other fluorescent molecules such as protein or nucleic acid bound organic fluorophores, quantum dots, molecular beacons and echo probes or molecular beacon replacements; (e) to multivalent ligand-binding protein domains that enable programmable manipulation of genome-wide 3D architecture. According to one aspect, the transcriptional activation and repression components can employ CRISPR systems naturally or synthetically orthogonal, such that the gRNAs only bind to the activator or repressor class of Cas. This allows a large set of gRNAs to tune multiple targets. According to certain aspects, the use of gRNAs provide the ability to multiplex than mRNAs in part due to the smaller size—100 vs. 2000 nucleotide lengths respectively. This is particularly valuable when nucleic acid delivery is size limited, as in viral packaging. This enables multiple instances of cleavage, nicking, activation, or repression—or combinations thereof. The ability to easily target multiple regulatory targets allows the coarse-or-fine-tuning or regulatory networks without being constrained to the natural regulatory circuits downstream of specific regulatory factors (e.g. the 4 mRNAs used in reprogramming fibroblasts into IPSCs). Examples of multiplexing applications include: 1. Establishing (major and minor) histocompatibility alleles, haplotypes, and genotypes for human (or animal) tissue/organ transplantation. This aspect results e.g. in HLA homozygous cell lines or humanized animal breeds—or—a set of gRNAs capable of superimposing such HLA alleles onto an otherwise desirable cell lines or breeds. 2. Multiplex cis-regulatory element (CRE=signals for transcription, splicing, translation, RNA and protein folding, degradation, etc.) mutations in a single cell (or a collection of cells) can be used for efficiently studying the complex sets of regulatory interaction that can occur in normal development or pathological, synthetic or pharmaceutical scenarios. According to one aspect, the CREs are (or can be made) somewhat orthogonal (i.e. low cross talk) so that many can be tested in one setting—e.g. in an expensive animal embryo time series. One exemplary application is with RNA fluorescent in situ sequencing (FISSeq). 3. Multiplex combinations of CRE mutations and/or epigenetic activation or repression of CREs can be used to alter or reprogram iPSCs or ESCs or other stem cells or non-stem cells to any cell type or combination of cell types for use in organs-on-chips or other cell and organ cultures for purposes of testing pharmaceuticals (small molecules, proteins, RNAs, cells, animal, plant or microbial cells, aerosols and other delivery methods), transplantation strategies, personalization strategies, etc. 4. Making multiplex mutant human cells for use in diagnostic testing (and/or DNA sequencing) for medical genetics. To the extent that the chromosomal location and context of a human genome allele (or epigenetic mark) can influence the accuracy of a clinical genetic diagnosis, it is important to have alleles present in the correct location in a reference genome—rather than in an ectopic (aka transgenic) location or in a separate piece of synthetic DNA. One embodiment is a series of independent cell lines one per each diagnostic human SNP, or structural variant. Alternatively, one embodiment includes multiplex sets of alleles in the same cell. In some cases multiplex changes in one gene (or multiple genes) will be desirable under the assumption of independent testing. In other cases, particular haplotype combinations of alleles allows testing of sequencing (genotyping) methods which accurately establish haplotype phase (i.e. whether one or both copies of a gene are affected in an individual person or somatic cell type. 5. Repetitive elements or endogenous viral elements can be targeted with engineered Cas+gRNA systems in microbes, plants, animals, or human cells to reduce deleterious transposition or to aid in sequencing or other analytic genomic/transcriptomic/proteomic/diagnostic tools (in which nearly identical copies can be problematic). The following references identified by number in the foregoing section are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties. 1. B. Wiedenheft, S. H. Sternberg, J. A. Doudna, Nature 482, 331 (Feb. 16, 2012). 2. D. Bhaya, M. Davison, R. Barrangou, Annual review of genetics 45, 273 (2011). 3. M. P. Terns, R. M. Terns, Current opinion in microbiology 14, 321 (June 2011). 4. M. Jinek et al., Science 337, 816 (Aug. 17, 2012). 5. G. Gasiunas, R. Barrangou, P. Horvath, V. Siksnys, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 109, E2579 (Sep. 25, 2012). 6. R. Sapranauskas et al., Nucleic acids research 39, 9275 (November 2011). 7. T. R. Brummelkamp, R. Bernards, R. Agami, Science 296, 550 (Apr. 19, 2002). 8. M. Miyagishi, K. Taira, Nature biotechnology 20, 497 (May 2002). 9. E. Deltcheva et al., Nature 471, 602 (Mar. 31, 2011). 10. J. Zou, P. Mali, X. Huang, S. N. Dowey, L. Cheng, Blood 118, 4599 (Oct. 27, 2011). 11. N. E. Sanjana et al., Nature protocols 7, 171 (January 2012). 12. J. H. Lee et al., PLoS Genet 5, e1000718 (November 2009). 13. D. Hockemeyer et al., Nature biotechnology 27, 851 (September 2009). 14. S. Kosuri et al., Nature biotechnology 28, 1295 (December 2010). 15. V. Pattanayak, C. L. Ramirez, J. K. Joung, D. R. Liu, Nature methods 8, 765 (September 2011). 16. N. M. King, O. Cohen-Haguenauer, Molecular therapy: the journal of the American Society of Gene Therapy 16, 432 (March 2008). 17. Y. G. Kim, J. Cha, S. Chandrasegaran, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 93, 1156 (Feb. 6, 1996). 18. E. J. Rebar, C. O. Pabo, Science 263, 671 (Feb. 4, 1994). 19. J. Boch et al., Science 326, 1509 (Dec. 11, 2009). 20. M. J. Moscou, A. J. Bogdanove, Science 326, 1501 (Dec. 11, 2009). 21. A. S. Khalil, J. J. Collins, Nature reviews. Genetics 11, 367 (May 2010). 22. P. E. Purnick, R. Weiss, Nature reviews. Molecular cell biology 10, 410 (June 2009). 23. J. Zou et al., Cell stem cell 5, 97 (Jul. 2, 2009). 24. N. Holt et al., Nature biotechnology 28, 839 (August 2010). 25. F. D. Urnov et al., Nature 435, 646 (Jun. 2, 2005). 26. A. Lombardo et al., Nature biotechnology 25, 1298 (November 2007). 27. H. Li et al., Nature 475, 217 (Jul. 14, 2011). The following examples are set forth as being representative of the present disclosure. These examples are not to be construed as limiting the scope of the present disclosure as these and other equivalent embodiments will be apparent in view of the present disclosure, figures and accompanying claims. EXAMPLE I The Type II CRISPR-Cas System According to one aspect, embodiments of the present disclosure utilize short RNA to identify foreign nucleic acids for activity by a nuclease in a eukaryotic cell. According to a certain aspect of the present disclosure, a eukaryotic cell is altered to include within its genome nucleic acids encoding one or more short RNA and one or more nucleases which are activated by the binding of a short RNA to a target DNA sequence. According to certain aspects, exemplary short RNA/enzyme systems may be identified within bacteria or archaea, such as (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated (Cas) systems that use short RNA to direct degradation of foreign nucleic acids. CRISPR (“clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats”) defense involves acquisition and integration of new targeting “spacers” from invading virus or plasmid DNA into the CRISPR locus, expression and processing of short guiding CRISPR RNAs (crRNAs) consisting of spacer-repeat units, and cleavage of nucleic acids (most commonly DNA) complementary to the spacer. Three classes of CRISPR systems are generally known and are referred to as Type I, Type II or Type III). According to one aspect, a particular useful enzyme according to the present disclosure to cleave dsDNA is the single effector enzyme, Cas9, common to Type II. (See reference (1)). Within bacteria, the Type II effector system consists of a long pre-crRNA transcribed from the spacer-containing CRISPR locus, the multifunctional Cas9 protein, and a tracrRNA important for gRNA processing. The tracrRNAs hybridize to the repeat regions separating the spacers of the pre-crRNA, initiating dsRNA cleavage by endogenous RNase III, which is followed by a second cleavage event within each spacer by Cas9, producing mature crRNAs that remain associated with the tracrRNA and Cas9. According to one aspect, eukaryotic cells of the present disclosure are engineered to avoid use of RNase III and the crRNA processing in general. See reference (2). According to one aspect, the enzyme of the present disclosure, such as Cas9 unwinds the DNA duplex and searches for sequences matching the crRNA to cleave. Target recognition occurs upon detection of complementarity between a “protospacer” sequence in the target DNA and the remaining spacer sequence in the crRNA. Importantly, Cas9 cuts the DNA only if a correct protospacer-adjacent motif (PAM) is also present at the 3′ end. According to certain aspects, different protospacer-adjacent motif can be utilized. For example, the S. pyogenes system requires an NGG sequence, where N can be any nucleotide. S. thermophilus Type II systems require NGGNG (see reference (3)) and NNAGAAW (see reference (4)), respectively, while different S. mutans systems tolerate NGG or NAAR (see reference (5)). Bioinformatic analyses have generated extensive databases of CRISPR loci in a variety of bacteria that may serve to identify additional useful PAMs and expand the set of CRISPR-targetable sequences (see references (6, 7)). In S. thermophilus , Cas9 generates a blunt-ended double-stranded break 3 bp prior to the 3′ end of the protospacer (see reference (8)), a process mediated by two catalytic domains in the Cas9 protein: an HNH domain that cleaves the complementary strand of the DNA and a RuvC-like domain that cleaves the non-complementary strand (See FIG. 1A and FIG. 3 ). While the S. pyogenes system has not been characterized to the same level of precision, DSB formation also occurs towards the 3′ end of the protospacer. If one of the two nuclease domains is inactivated, Cas9 will function as a nickase in vitro (see reference (2)) and in human cells (see FIG. 5 ). According to one aspect, the specificity of gRNA-directed Cas9 cleavage is used as a mechanism for genome engineering in a eukaryotic cell. According to one aspect, hybridization of the gRNA need not be 100 percent in order for the enzyme to recognize the gRNA/DNA hybrid and affect cleavage. Some off-target activity could occur. For example, the S. pyogenes system tolerates mismatches in the first 6 bases out of the 20 bp mature spacer sequence in vitro. According to one aspect, greater stringency may be beneficial in vivo when potential off-target sites matching (last 14 bp) NGG exist within the human reference genome for the gRNAs. The effect of mismatches and enzyme activity in general are described in references (9), (2), (10), and (4). According to certain aspects, specificity may be improved. When interference is sensitive to the melting temperature of the gRNA-DNA hybrid, AT-rich target sequences may have fewer off-target sites. Carefully choosing target sites to avoid pseudo-sites with at least 14 bp matching sequences elsewhere in the genome may improve specificity. The use of a Cas9 variant requiring a longer PAM sequence may reduce the frequency of off-target sites. Directed evolution may improve Cas9 specificity to a level sufficient to completely preclude off-target activity, ideally requiring a perfect 20 bp gRNA match with a minimal PAM. Accordingly, modification to the Cas9 protein is a representative embodiment of the present disclosure. As such, novel methods permitting many rounds of evolution in a short timeframe (see reference (11) and envisioned. CRISPR systems useful in the present disclosure are described in references (12, 13). EXAMPLE II Plasmid Construction The Cas9 gene sequence was human codon optimized and assembled by hierarchical fusion PCR assembly of 9 500 bp gBlocks ordered from IDT. FIG. 3A for the engineered type II CRISPR system for human cells shows the expression format and full sequence of the cas9 gene insert. The RuvC-like and HNH motifs, and the C-terminus SV40 NLS are respectively highlighted by blue, brown and orange colors. Cas9_D10A was similarly constructed. The resulting full-length products were cloned into the pcDNA3.3-TOPO vector (Invitrogen). The target gRNA expression constructs were directly ordered as individual 455 bp gBlocks from IDT and either cloned into the pCR-BluntII-TOPO vector (Invitrogen) or per amplified. FIG. 3B shows the U6 promoter based expression scheme for the guide RNAs and predicted RNA transcript secondary structure. The use of the U6 promoter constrains the 1 st position in the RNA transcript to be a ‘G’ and thus all genomic sites of the form GN 20 GG can be targeted using this approach. FIG. 3C shows the 7 gRNAs used. The vectors for the HR reporter assay involving a broken GFP were constructed by fusion PCR assembly of the GFP sequence bearing the stop codon and 68 bp AAVS1 fragment (or mutants thereof see FIG. 6 ), or 58 bp fragments from the DNMT3a and DNMT3b genomic loci (see FIG. 8 ) assembled into the EGIP lentivector from Addgene (plasmid #26777). These lentivectors were then used to establish the GFP reporter stable lines. TALENs used in this study were constructed using the protocols described in (14). All DNA reagents developed in this study are available at Addgene. EXAMPLE III Cell Culture PGP1 iPS cells were maintained on Matrigel (BD Biosciences)-coated plates in mTeSR1 (Stemcell Technologies). Cultures were passaged every 5-7 d with TrypLE Express (Invitrogen). K562 cells were grown and maintained in RPMI (Invitrogen) containing 15% FBS. HEK 293T cells were cultured in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (DMEM, Invitrogen) high glucose supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS, Invitrogen), penicillin/streptomycin (pen/strep, Invitrogen), and non-essential amino acids (NEAA, Invitrogen). All cells were maintained at 37° C. and 5% CO 2 in a humidified incubator. EXAMPLE IV Gene Targeting of PGP1 iPS, K562 and 293Ts PGP1 iPS cells were cultured in Rho kinase (ROCK) inhibitor (Calbiochem) 2 h before nucleofection. Cells were harvest using TrypLE Express (Invitrogen) and 2×10 6 cells were resuspended in P3 reagent (Lonza) with 1 μg Cas9 plasmid, 1 μg gRNA and/or 1 μg DNA donor plasmid, and nucleofected according to manufacturer's instruction (Lonza). Cells were subsequently plated on an mTeSR1-coated plate in mTeSR1 medium supplemented with ROCK inhibitor for the first 24 h. For K562s, 2×10 6 cells were resuspended in SF reagent (Lonza) with 1 μg Cas9 plasmid, 1 μg gRNA and/or 1 μg DNA donor plasmid, and nucleofected according to manufacturer's instruction (Lonza). For 293Ts, 0.1×10 6 cells were transfected with 1 μg Cas9 plasmid, 1 μg gRNA and/or 1 μg DNA donor plasmid using Lipofectamine 2000 as per the manufacturer's protocols. The DNA donors used for endogenous AAVS1 targeting were either a dsDNA donor ( FIG. 2C ) or a 90 mer oligonucleotide. The former has flanking short homology arms and a SA-2A-puromycin-CaGGS-eGFP cassette to enrich for successfully targeted cells. The targeting efficiency was assessed as follows. Cells were harvested 3 days after nucleofection and the genomic DNA of ˜1×10 6 cells was extracted using prepGEM (ZyGEM). PCR was conducted to amplify the targeting region with genomic DNA derived from the cells and amplicons were deep sequenced by MiSeq Personal Sequencer (Illumina) with coverage >200,000 reads. The sequencing data was analyzed to estimate NHEJ efficiencies. The reference AAVS 1 sequence analyzed is: (SEQ ID NO: 1) CACTTCAGGACAGCATGTTTGCTGCCTCCAGGGATCCT GTGTCCCCGAGCTGGGACCACCTTATATTCCCAGGGCC GGTTAATGTGGCTCTGGTTCTGGGTACTTTTATCTGTC CCCTCCACCCCACAGTGGGGCCACTAGGGACAGGATTG GTGACAGAAAAGCCCCATCCTTAGGCCTCCTCCTTCCT AGTCTCCTGATATTGGGTCTAACCCCCACCTCCTGTTA GGCAGATTCCTTATCTGGTGACACACCCCCATTTCCTGGA  The PCR primers for amplifying the targeting regions in the human genome are: AAVS1-R (SEQ ID NO: 2) CTCGGCATTCCTGCTGAACCGCTCTTCCGATCT  acaggaggtgggggttagac AAVS1-F.1 (SEQ ID NO: 3) ACACTCTTTCCCTACACGACGCTCTTCCGATCTCGTGAT tatattcccagggccggtta AAVS1-F.2 (SEQ ID NO: 4) ACACTCTTTCCCTACACGACGCTCTTCCGATCTACATCG tatattcccagggccggtta AAVS1-F.3 (SEQ ID NO: 5) ACACTCTTTCCCTACACGACGCTCTTCCGATCTGCCTAA tatattcccagggccggtta AAVS1-F.4 (SEQ ID NO: 6) ACACTCTTTCCCTACACGACGCTCTTCCGATCTTGGTCA tatattcccagggccggtta AAVS1-F.5 (SEQ ID NO: 7) ACACTCTTTCCCTACACGACGCTCTTCCGATCTCACTGT tatattcccagggccggtta AAVS1-F.6 (SEQ ID NO: 8) ACACTCTTTCCCTACACGACGCTCTTCCGATCTATTGGC tatattcccagggccggtta AAVS1-F.7 (SEQ ID NO: 9) ACACTCTTTCCCTACACGACGCTCTTCCGATCTGATCTG tatattcccagggccggtta AAVS1-F.8 (SEQ ID NO: 10) ACACTCTTTCCCTACACGACGCTCTTCCGATCTTCAAGT tatattcccagggccggtta AAVS1-F.9 (SEQ ID NO: 11) ACACTCTTTCCCTACACGACGCTCTTCCGATCTCTGATC tatattcccagggccggtta AAVS1-F.10 (SEQ ID NO: 12) ACACTCTTTCCCTACACGACGCTCTTCCGATCTAAGCTA tatattcccagggccggtta AAVS1-F.11  (SEQ ID NO: 13) ACACTCTTTCCCTACACGACGCTCTTCCGATCTGTAGCC tatattcccagggccggtta AAVS1-F.12 (SEQ ID NO: 14) ACACTCTTTCCCTACACGACGCTCTTCCGATCTTACAAG tatattcccagggccggtta To analyze the HR events using the DNA donor in FIG. 2C , the primers used were: HR_AAVS1-F (SEQ ID NO: 15) CTGCCGTCTCTCTCCTGAGT  HR_Puro-R  (SEQ ID NO: 16) GTGGGCTTGTACTCGGTCAT EXAMPLE V Bioinformatics Approach for Computing Human Exon CRISPR Targets and Methodology for their Multiplexed Synthesis A set of gRNA gene sequences that maximally target specific locations in human exons but minimally target other locations in the genome were determined as follows. According to one aspect, maximally efficient targeting by a gRNA is achieved by 23nt sequences, the 5′-most 20 nt of which exactly complement a desired location, while the three 3′-most bases must be of the form NGG. Additionally, the 5′-most nt must be a G to establish a pol-III transcription start site. However, according to (2), mispairing of the six 5′-most nt of a 20 bp gRNA against its genomic target does not abrogate Cas9-mediated cleavage so long as the last 14 nt pairs properly, but mispairing of the eight 5′-most nt along with pairing of the last 12 nt does, while the case of the seven 5-most nt mispairs and 13 3′ pairs was not tested. To be conservative regarding off-target effects, one condition was that the case of the seven 5′-most mispairs is, like the case of six, permissive of cleavage, so that pairing of the 3′-most 13 nt is sufficient for cleavage. To identify CRISPR target sites within human exons that should be cleavable without off-target cuts, all 23 bp sequences of the form 5′-GBBBB BBBBB BBBBB BBBBB NGG-3′ (form 1) were examined, where the B's represent the bases at the exon location, for which no sequence of the form 5′-NNNNN NNBBB BBBBB BBBBB NGG-3′ (form 2) existed at any other location in the human genome. Specifically, (i) a BED file of locations of coding regions of all RefSeq genes the GRCh37/hg19 human genome from the UCSC Genome Browser (15-17) was downloaded. Coding exon locations in this BED file comprised a set of 346089 mappings of RefSeq mRNA accessions to the hg19 genome. However, some RefSeq mRNA accessions mapped to multiple genomic locations (probable gene duplications), and many accessions mapped to subsets of the same set of exon locations (multiple isoforms of the same genes). To distinguish apparently duplicated gene instances and consolidate multiple references to the same genomic exon instance by multiple RefSeq isoform accessions, (ii) unique numerical suffixes to 705 RefSeq accession numbers that had multiple genomic locations were added, and (iii) the mergeBed function of BEDTools (18) (v2.16.2-zip-87e3926) was used to consolidate overlapping exon locations into merged exon regions. These steps reduced the initial set of 346089 RefSeq exon locations to 192783 distinct genomic regions. The hg19 sequence for all merged exon regions were downloaded using the UCSC Table Browser, adding 20 bp of padding on each end. (iv) Using custom perl code, 1657793 instances of form 1 were identified within this exonic sequence. (v) These sequences were then filtered for the existence of off-target occurrences of form 2: For each merged exon form 1 target, the 3′-most 13 bp specific (B) “core” sequences were extracted and, for each core generated the four 16 bp sequences 5′-BBB BBBBB BBBBB NGG-3′ (N=A, C, G, and T), and searched the entire hg19 genome for exact matches to these 6631172 sequences using Bowtie version 0.12.8 (19) using the parameters −1 16-v 0-k 2. Any exon target site for which there was more than a single match was rejected. Note that because any specific 13 bp core sequence followed by the sequence NGG confers only 15 bp of specificity, there should be on average ˜5.6 matches to an extended core sequence in a random ˜3 Gb sequence (both strands). Therefore, most of the 1657793 initially identified targets were rejected; however 189864 sequences passed this filter. These comprise the set of CRISPR-targetable exonic locations in the human genome. The 189864 sequences target locations in 78028 merged exonic regions (˜40.5% of the total of 192783 merged human exon regions) at a multiplicity of ˜2.4 sites per targeted exonic region. To assess targeting at a gene level, RefSeq mRNA mappings were clustered so that any two RefSeq accessions (including the gene duplicates distinguished in (ii)) that overlap a merged exon region are counted as a single gene cluster, the 189864 exonic specific CRISPR sites target 17104 out of 18872 gene clusters (˜90.6% of all gene clusters) at a multiplicity of ˜11.1 per targeted gene cluster. (Note that while these gene clusters collapse RefSeq mRNA accessions that represent multiple isoforms of a single transcribed gene into a single entity, they will also collapse overlapping distinct genes as well as genes with antisense transcripts.) At the level of original RefSeq accessions, the 189864 sequences targeted exonic regions in 30563 out of a total of 43726 (˜69.9%) mapped RefSeq accessions (including distinguished gene duplicates) at a multiplicity of ˜6.2 sites per targeted mapped RefSeq accession. According to one aspect, the database can be refined by correlating performance with factors, such as base composition and secondary structure of both gRNAs and genomic targets (20, 21), and the epigenetic state of these targets in human cell lines for which this information is available (22). EXAMPLE VI Multiplex Synthesis The target sequences were incorporated into a 200 bp format that is compatible for multiplex synthesis on DNA arrays (23, 24). According to one aspect the method allows for targeted retrieval of a specific or pools of gRNA sequences from the DNA array based oligonucleotide pool and its rapid cloning into a common expression vector ( FIG. 13A ). Specifically, a 12 k oligonucleotide pool from CustomArray Inc. was synthesized. Furthermore, gRNAs of choice from this library ( FIG. 13B ) were successfully retrieved. We observed an error rate of ˜4 mutations per 1000 bp of synthesized DNA. EXAMPLE VII RNA-Guided Genome Editing Requires Both Cas9 and Guide RNA for Successful Targeting Using the GFP reporter assay described in FIG. 1B , all possible combinations of the repair DNA donor, Cas9 protein, and gRNA were tested for their ability to effect successful HR (in 293Ts). As shown in FIG. 4 , GFP+ cells were observed only when all the 3 components were present, validating that these CRISPR components are essential for RNA-guided genome editing. Data is mean+/−SEM (N=3). EXAMPLE VIII Analysis of gRNA and Cas9 Mediated Genome Editing The CRISPR mediated genome editing process was examined using either (A) a GFP reporter assay as described earlier results of which are shown in FIG. 5A , and (B) deep sequencing of the targeted loci (in 293Ts), results of which are shown in FIG. 5B . As comparison, a D10A mutant for Cas9 was tested that has been shown in earlier reports to function as a nickase in in vitro assays. As shown in FIG. 5 , both Cas9 and Cas9D10A can effect successful HR at nearly similar rates. Deep sequencing however confirms that while Cas9 shows robust NHEJ at the targeted loci, the D10A mutant has significantly diminished NHEJ rates (as would be expected from its putative ability to only nick DNA). Also, consistent with the known biochemistry of the Cas9 protein, NHEJ data confirms that most base-pair deletions or insertions occurred near the 3′ end of the target sequence: the peak is ˜3-4 bases upstream of the PAM site, with a median deletion frequency of ˜9-10 bp. Data is mean+/−SEM (N=3). EXAMPLE IX RNA-Guided Genome Editing is Target Sequence Specific Similar to the GFP reporter assay described in FIG. 1B , 3 293T stable lines each bearing a distinct GFP reporter construct were developed. These are distinguished by the sequence of the AAVS1 fragment insert (as indicated in the FIG. 6 ). One line harbored the wild-type fragment while the two other lines were mutated at 6 bp (highlighted in red). Each of the lines was then targeted by one of the following 4 reagents: a GFP-ZFN pair that can target all cell types since its targeted sequence was in the flanking GFP fragments and hence present in along cell lines; a AAVS1 TALEN that could potentially target only the wt-AAVS1 fragment since the mutations in the other two lines should render the left TALEN unable to bind their sites; the T1 gRNA which can also potentially target only the wt-AAVS1 fragment, since its target site is also disrupted in the two mutant lines; and finally the T2 gRNA which should be able to target all 3 cell lines since, unlike the T1 gRNA, its target site is unaltered among the 3 lines. ZFN modified all 3 cell types, the AAVS1 TALENs and the T1 gRNA only targeted the wt-AAVS1 cell type, and the T2 gRNA successfully targets all 3 cell types. These results together confirm that the guide RNA mediated editing is target sequence specific. Data is mean+/−SEM (N=3). EXAMPLE X Guide RNAs Targeted to the GFP Sequence Enable Robust Genome Editing In addition to the 2 gRNAs targeting the AAVS1 insert, two additional gRNAs targeting the flanking GFP sequences of the reporter described in FIG. 1B (in 293Ts) were tested. As shown in FIG. 7 , these gRNAs were also able to effect robust HR at this engineered locus. Data is mean+/−SEM (N=3). EXAMPLE XI RNA-Guided Genome Editing is Target Sequence Specific, and Demonstrates Similar Targeting Efficiencies as ZFNs or TALENs Similar to the GFP reporter assay described in FIG. 1B , two 293T stable lines each bearing a distinct GFP reporter construct were developed. These are distinguished by the sequence of the fragment insert (as indicated in FIG. 8 ). One line harbored a 58 bp fragment from the DNMT3a gene while the other line bore a homologous 58 bp fragment from the DNMT3b gene. The sequence differences are highlighted in red. Each of the lines was then targeted by one of the following 6 reagents: a GFP-ZFN pair that can target all cell types since its targeted sequence was in the flanking GFP fragments and hence present in along cell lines; a pair of TALENs that potentially target either DNMT3a or DNMT3b fragments; a pair of gRNAs that can potentially target only the DNMT3a fragment; and finally a gRNA that should potentially only target the DNMT3b fragment. As indicated in FIG. 8 , the ZFN modified all 3 cell types, and the TALENs and gRNAs only their respective targets. Furthermore the efficiencies of targeting were comparable across the 6 targeting reagents. These results together confirm that RNA-guided editing is target sequence specific and demonstrates similar targeting efficiencies as ZFNs or TALENs. Data is mean+/−SEM (N=3). EXAMPLE XII RNA-Guided NHEJ in Human iPS Cells Human iPS cells (PGP1) were nucleofected with constructs indicated in the left panel of FIG. 9 . 4 days after nucleofection, NHEJ rate was measured by assessing genomic deletion and insertion rate at double-strand breaks (DSBs) by deep sequencing. Panel 1: Deletion rate detected at targeting region. Red dash lines: boundary of T1 RNA targeting site; green dash lines: boundary of T2 RNA targeting site. The deletion incidence at each nucleotide position was plotted in black lines and the deletion rate as the percentage of reads carrying deletions was calculated. Panel 2: Insertion rate detected at targeting region. Red dash lines: boundary of T1 RNA targeting site; green dash lines: boundary of T2 RNA targeting site. The incidence of insertion at the genomic location where the first insertion junction was detected was plotted in black lines and the insertion rate as the percentage of reads carrying insertions was calculated. Panel 3: Deletion size distribution. The frequencies of different size deletions among the whole NHEJ population was plotted. Panel 4: insertion size distribution. The frequencies of different sizes insertions among the whole NHEJ population was plotted. iPS targeting by both gRNAs is efficient (2-4%), sequence specific (as shown by the shift in position of the NHEJ deletion distributions), and reaffirming the results of FIG. 4 , the NGS-based analysis also shows that both the Cas9 protein and the gRNA are essential for NHEJ events at the target locus. EXAMPLE XIII RNA-Guided NHEJ in K562 Cells K562 cells were nucleated with constructs indicated in the left panel of FIG. 10 . 4 days after nucleofection, NHEJ rate was measured by assessing genomic deletion and insertion rate at DSBs by deep sequencing. Panel 1: Deletion rate detected at targeting region. Red dash lines: boundary of T1 RNA targeting site; green dash lines: boundary of T2 RNA targeting site. The deletion incidence at each nucleotide position was plotted in black lines and the deletion rate as the percentage of reads carrying deletions was calculated. Panel 2: Insertion rate detected at targeting region. Red dash lines: boundary of T1 RNA targeting site; green dash lines: boundary of T2 RNA targeting site. The incidence of insertion at the genomic location where the first insertion junction was detected was plotted in black lines and the insertion rate as the percentage of reads carrying insertions was calculated. Panel 3: Deletion size distribution. The frequencies of different size deletions among the whole NHEJ population was plotted. Panel 4: insertion size distribution. The frequencies of different sizes insertions among the whole NHEJ population was plotted. K562 targeting by both gRNAs is efficient (13-38%) and sequence specific (as shown by the shift in position of the NHEJ deletion distributions). Importantly, as evidenced by the peaks in the histogram of observed frequencies of deletion sizes, simultaneous introduction of both T1 and T2 guide RNAs resulted in high efficiency deletion of the intervening 19 bp fragment, demonstrating that multiplexed editing of genomic loci is also feasible using this approach. EXAMPLE XIV RNA-Guided NHEJ in 293T Cells 293T cells were transfected with constructs indicated in the left panel of FIG. 11 . 4 days after nucleofection, NHEJ rate was measured by assessing genomic deletion and insertion rate at DSBs by deep sequencing. Panel 1: Deletion rate detected at targeting region. Red dash lines: boundary of T1 RNA targeting site; green dash lines: boundary of T2 RNA targeting site. The deletion incidence at each nucleotide position was plotted in black lines and the deletion rate as the percentage of reads carrying deletions was calculated. Panel 2: Insertion rate detected at targeting region. Red dash lines: boundary of T1 RNA targeting site; green dash lines: boundary of T2 RNA targeting site. The incidence of insertion at the genomic location where the first insertion junction was detected was plotted in black lines and the insertion rate as the percentage of reads carrying insertions was calculated. Panel 3: Deletion size distribution. The frequencies of different size deletions among the whole NHEJ population was plotted. Panel 4: insertion size distribution. The frequencies of different sizes insertions among the whole NHEJ population was plotted. 293T targeting by both gRNAs is efficient (10-24%) and sequence specific (as shown by the shift in position of the NHEJ deletion distributions). EXAMPLE XV HR at the Endogenous AAVS1 Locus Using Either a dsDNA Donor or a Short Oligonucleotide Donor As shown in FIG. 12A , PCR screen (with reference to FIG. 2C ) confirmed that 21/24 randomly picked 293T clones were successfully targeted. As shown in FIG. 12B , similar PCR screen confirmed 3/7 randomly picked PGP1-iPS clones were also successfully targeted. As shown in FIG. 12C , short 90 mer oligos could also effect robust targeting at the endogenous AAVS1 locus (shown here for K562 cells). EXAMPLE XVI Methodology for Multiplex Synthesis, Retrieval and U6 Expression Vector Cloning of Guide RNAs Targeting Genes in the Human Genome A resource of about 190 k bioinformatically computed unique gRNA sites targeting ˜40.5% of all exons of genes in the human genome was generated. As shown in FIG. 13A , the gRNA target sites were incorporated into a 200 bp format that is compatible for multiplex synthesis on DNA arrays. Specifically, the design allows for (i) targeted retrieval of a specific or pools of gRNA targets from the DNA array oligonucleotide pool (through 3 sequential rounds of nested PCR as indicated in the figure schematic); and (ii) rapid cloning into a common expression vector which upon linearization using an AflII site serves as a recipient for Gibson assembly mediated incorporation of the gRNA insert fragment. As shown in FIG. 13B , the method was used to accomplish targeted retrieval of 10 unique gRNAs from a 12 k oligonucleotide pool synthesized by CustomArray Inc. EXAMPLE XVII CRISPR Mediated RNA-Guided Transcriptional Activation The CRISPR-Cas system has an adaptive immune defense system in bacteria and functions to ‘cleave’ invading nucleic acids. According to one aspect, the CRISPR-CAS system is engineered to function in human cells, and to ‘cleave’ genomic DNA. This is achieved by a short guide RNA directing a Cas9 protein (which has nuclease function) to a target sequence complementary to the spacer in the guide RNA. The ability to ‘cleave’ DNA enables a host of applications related to genome editing, and also targeted genome regulation. Towards this, the Cas9 protein was mutated to make it nuclease-null by introducing mutations that are predicted to abrogate coupling to Mg2+ (known to be important for the nuclease functions of the RuvC-like and HNH-like domains): specifically, combinations of D10A, D839A, H840A and N863A mutations were introduced. The thus generated Cas9 nuclease-null protein (as confirmed by its ability to not cut DNA by sequencing analysis) and hereafter referred to as Cas9R-H-, was then coupled to a transcriptional activation domain, here VP64, enabling the CRISPR-cas system to function as a RNA guided transcription factor (see FIG. 14 ). The Cas9R-H-+VP64 fusion enables RNA-guided transcriptional activation at the two reporters shown. Specifically, both FACS analysis and immunofluorescence imaging demonstrates that the protein enables gRNA sequence specific targeting of the corresponding reporters, and furthermore, the resulting transcription activation as assayed by expression of a dTomato fluorescent protein was at levels similar to those induced by a convention TALE-VP64 fusion protein. EXAMPLE XVIII gRNA Sequence Flexibility and Applications Thereof Flexibility of the gRNA scaffold sequence to designer sequence insertions was determined by systematically assaying for a range of the random sequence insertions on the 5′, middle and 3′ portions of the gRNA: specifically, 1 bp, 5 bp, 10 bp, 20 bp, and 40 bp inserts were made in the gRNA sequence at the 5′, middle, and 3′ ends of the gRNA (the exact positions of the insertion are highlighted in ‘red’ in FIG. 15 ). This gRNA was then tested for functionality by its ability to induce HR in a GFP reporter assay (as described herein). It is evident that gRNAs are flexible to sequence insertions on the 5′ and 3′ ends (as measured by retained HR inducing activity). Accordingly, aspects of the present disclosure are directed to tagging of small-molecule responsive RNA aptamers that may trigger onset of gRNA activity, or gRNA visualization. Additionally, aspects of the present disclosure are directed to tethering of ssDNA donors to gRNAs via hybridization, thus enabling coupling of genomic target cutting and immediate physical localization of repair template which can promote homologous recombination rates over error-prone non-homologous end-joining. The following references identified in the Examples section by number are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties for all purposes. REFERENCES 1. K. S. Makarova et al., Evolution and classification of the CRISPR-Cas systems. Nature reviews. Microbiology 9, 467 (June 2011). 2. M. Jinek et al., A programmable dual-RNA-guided DNA endonuclease in adaptive bacterial immunity. Science 337, 816 (Aug. 17, 2012). 3. P. Horvath, R. Barrangou, CRISPR/Cas, the immune system of bacteria and archaea. Science 327, 167 (Jan. 8, 2010). 4. H. Deveau et al., Phage response to CRISPR-encoded resistance in Streptococcus thermophilus. Journal of bacteriology 190, 1390 (February 2008). 5. J. R. van der Ploeg, Analysis of CRISPR in Streptococcus mutans suggests frequent occurrence of acquired immunity against infection by M102-like bacteriophages. Microbiology 155, 1966 (June 2009). 6. M. Rho, Y. W. Wu, H. Tang, T. G. Doak, Y. Ye, Diverse CRISPRs evolving in human microbiomes. PLoS genetics 8, e1002441 (2012). 7. D. T. Pride et al., Analysis of streptococcal CRISPRs from human saliva reveals substantial sequence diversity within and between subjects over time. Genome research 21, 126 (January 2011). 8. G. Gasiunas, R. Barrangou, P. Horvath, V. Siksnys, Cas9-crRNA ribonucleoprotein complex mediates specific DNA cleavage for adaptive immunity in bacteria. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 109, E2579 (Sep. 25, 2012). 9. R. Sapranauskas et al., The Streptococcus thermophilus CRISPR/Cas system provides immunity in Escherichia coli. Nucleic acids research 39, 9275 (November 2011). 10. J. E. Garneau et al., The CRISPR/Cas bacterial immune system cleaves bacteriophage and plasmid DNA. Nature 468, 67 (Nov. 4, 2010). 11. K. M. Esvelt, J. C. Carlson, D. R. Liu, A system for the continuous directed evolution of biomolecules. Nature 472, 499 (Apr. 28, 2011). 12. R. Barrangou, P. Horvath, CRISPR: new horizons in phage resistance and strain identification. Annual review of food science and technology 3, 143 (2012). 13. B. Wiedenheft, S. H. Sternberg, J. A. Doudna, RNA-guided genetic silencing systems in bacteria and archaea. Nature 482, 331 (Feb. 16, 2012). 14. N. E. Sanjana et al., A transcription activator-like effector toolbox for genome engineering. Nature protocols 7, 171 (January 2012). 15. W. J. Kent et al., The human genome browser at UCSC. Genome Res 12, 996 (June 2002). 16. T. R. Dreszer et al., The UCSC Genome Browser database: extensions and updates 2011. Nucleic Acids Res 40, D918 (January 2012). 17. D. Karolchik et al., The UCSC Table Browser data retrieval tool. Nucleic Acids Res 32, D493 (Jan. 1, 2004). 18. A. R. Quinlan, I. M. Hall, BEDTools: a flexible suite of utilities for comparing genomic features. Bioinformatics 26, 841 (Mar. 15, 2010). 19. B. Langmead, C. Trapnell, M. Pop, S. L. Salzberg, Ultrafast and memory-efficient alignment of short DNA sequences to the human genome. Genome Biol 10, R25 (2009). 20. R. Lorenz et al., ViennaRNA Package 2.0. Algorithms for molecular biology: AMB 6, 26 (2011). 21. D. H. Mathews, J. Sabina, M. Zuker, D. H. Turner, Expanded sequence dependence of thermodynamic parameters improves prediction of RNA secondary structure. Journal of molecular biology 288, 911 (May 21, 1999). 22. R. E. Thurman et al., The accessible chromatin landscape of the human genome. Nature 489, 75 (Sep. 6, 2012). 23. S. Kosuri et al., Scalable gene synthesis by selective amplification of DNA pools from high-fidelity microchips. Nature biotechnology 28, 1295 (December 2010). 24. Q. Xu, M. R. Schlabach, G. J. Hannon, S. J. Elledge, Design of 240,000 orthogonal 25 mer DNA barcode probes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 106, 2289 (Feb. 17, 2009).

A method of altering a eukaryotic cell is provided including transfecting the eukaryotic cell with a nucleic acid encoding RNA complementary to genomic DNA of the eukaryotic cell, transfecting the eukaryotic cell with a nucleic acid encoding an enzyme that interacts with the RNA and cleaves the genomic DNA in a site specific manner, wherein the cell expresses the RNA and the enzyme, the RNA binds to complementary genomic DNA and the enzyme cleaves the genomic DNA in a site specific manner.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0001] 1. Field of the Invention [0002] The present invention relates to a method for ablating hyaluronan-based hydrogels with X-rays and a method for fabricating three-dimensional microchannels of hyaluronan hydrogels with the X-ray ablation technique. [0003] 2. Background of the Related Art [0004] Phase transition triggered by external perturbation is quite important for “intelligent materials” and a key issue in diverse fields ranging from biomedicine to chemistry, physics, and materials science. [0005] Hydrogels-three-dimensional networks of crosslinked polymer chains-exhibit transitions in response to perturbations such as electric fields, temperature changes, pH changes, concentration changes, enzymes, electron beams, sound, and light. Hydrogels are actively studied with the objective to develop new technologies to control fluidity, viscoelasticity, solvent volatility, optical transmission, ion transport, and other properties. [0006] Hyaluronan (salt form of hyaluronic acid, HA) is an important extracellular and cell-surface associated polysaccharide. It is commonly synthesized as a large, negatively charged, linear polysaccharide that is composed of repeating disaccharide units of glucuronic acid and N-acetylglucosamine: [−β(1,4)−GlcUA−β(1,3)−GlcNAc−] r . HA has an important role in tissue homeostasis and biomechanical integrity via remarkable physicochemical characteristics such as viscoelastic and hygroscopic properties. These properties of HA lead to its widespread applications for bioengineered tissue scaffolds. Related physiological functions stimulate interest on its role in cell biology, pathology, immunology, and cancer research. The microfabrication of cell-laden HA architecture to resemble three-dimensional (3D) cellular microenvironments is also an important issue in HA. The HA molecular weight (MW) is, in general term, of critical importance because of its remarkable effects on cell activities. Although low MW HA, required for safe biomedical applications, is produced by enzymatic or non-enzymatic degradations, there are few reports on the safe, effective methods to fabricate 3D architectures of HA hydrogels. [0007] As mentioned above, Hyaluronan hydrogels are promising materials for tissue scaffolds or cellular microenvironments, but it is still a great challenge to fabricate three-dimensional architectures. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0008] Here we describe a versatile and robust protocol to fabricate three-dimensional microchannels of hyaluronan hydrogels with a finely tunable X-ray ablation technique. The principle of X-ray ablation is that polymer chains rapidly degrade by X-ray irradiation. This protocol will open new opportunities for tunable three-dimensional hydrogel architectures. [0009] Therefore, it is the first object of the present invention to provide a method for ablating hyaluronan-based hydrogels with X-rays. [0010] And, it is the second object of the present invention to provide a method for fabricating three-dimensional microchannels of hyaluronan hydrogels with X-ray ablation. [0011] To accomplish the first object, according to one aspect of the present invention, there is provided a method for ablating hyaluronan-based hydrogels, the method comprising the steps of: (a) preparing hyaluronan-based hydrogels; and (b) performing X-ray irradiation to the hyaluronan-based hydrogels to induce a degradation of the hyaluronan-based hydrogels by a gel-to-sol transition during the X-ray irradiation. [0014] Preferably, the X-ray irradiation may be performed using hard X-rays. [0015] Preferably, the X-ray irradiation may be performed using X-rays in the range of 10-60 keV. [0016] Preferably, the degradation kinetics of the hyaluronan-based hydrogels may be determined by total X-ray dose during the X-ray irradiation. [0017] Preferably, the total X-ray dose to initiate the transition may be in the range of 0.2˜1 J g −1 . [0018] Preferably, the total X-ray dose to complete the transition may be in the range of 2˜4 J g −1 . [0019] To accomplish the second object, according to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a method for fabricating three-dimensional microchannels of hyaluronan-based hydrogels with X-ray ablation, the method comprising the steps of: (a) preparing hyaluronan-based hydrogels; and (b) performing X-ray irradiation to the hyaluronan-based hydrogels via a mask transmitting X-rays locally to induce a degradation of the hyaluronan-based hydrogels by a gel-to-sol transition during the X-ray irradiation. [0022] Preferably, the X-ray irradiation may be performed using hard X-rays. [0023] Preferably, the X-ray irradiation may be performed using X-rays in the range of 10-60 keV. [0024] Preferably, the depth and the width of the microchannels may be tunable by adjusting the X-ray dose and the mask width, respectively. [0025] Preferably, the degradation kinetics of the hyaluronan-based hydrogels may be determined by the total X-ray dose during the X-ray irradiation. [0026] Preferably, the total X-ray dose to initiate the transition may be in the range of 0.2˜1 J g −1 . [0027] Preferably, the total X-ray dose to complete the transition may be in the range of 2˜4 J g −1 . BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0028] The above and other objects, features and advantages of the present invention will be apparent from the following detailed description of the preferred embodiments of the invention in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: [0029] FIG. 1 shows Schematic illustration of X-ray ablation for HA hydrogels. The depth and the width in a single channel are tunable by adjusting the X-ray dose and the mask width, respectively. As an example, a HA architecture of 100-μm-width coherent microchannels fabricated using the X-ray ablation is demonstrated; [0030] FIG. 2 shows (a) schematic view of Sequential in-situ microradiographs showing a gel-to-sol transition of ca. 1 mg of HA hydrogel crosslinked with DVS during X-ray irradiation of ca. 1 kGy s −1 . Spherical silica balls (˜120 μm in diameter) initially remained in the top region of the ‘gel’ HA medium, and then fell down to the bottom of the capillary tube (ca. 1200 μm in diameter) during irradiation, clearly indicating a X-ray induced gel-to-sol transition, and shows (b) Sol-gel phase diagram for the X-ray dose rate and the irradiation time. The ablation (degradation) kinetics is determined by the total X-ray dose; [0031] FIG. 3 shows UV spectra (main) and FT-IR spectra (inset) of HA-DVS hydrogel sample after irradiation with X-rays of ca. 1 kGy s −1 . The arrow and the gray zone indicate the absorption band evolution at 260˜270 nm in the UV spectra and at 1700˜1750 cm −1 in the FT-IR spectra. The rapid band evolution within one minute indicates a rapid X-ray-induced chain scission in HA; [0032] FIG. 4 shows UV spectra (main) and FT-IR spectra (inset) of HA raw materials (powders or solutions, MW=232 kDa) after irradiation with X-rays of ca. 1 kGy s −1 . The same band evolutions of HA raw materials and HA-DVS hydrogel suggest that the X-ray irradiation cleaves the HA backbone; and [0033] FIG. 5 shows GPC analysis of HA (MW=232 kDa) and HA-DVS hydrogel samples after X-ray irradiation up to 60 seconds. The GPC data show that the molecular weights of the HA hydrogels and the HA-DVS hydrogels significantly decreased with the X-ray irradiation (dose rate=1 kGy s −1 ), indicating the chain scission by the X-ray irradiation. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT [0034] The preferred embodiments of the invention will be hereafter described in detail, with reference to the accompanying drawings. [0035] Here, we report a novel protocol using a short X-ray irradiation to ablate bulky HA hydrogels based on well controlled degradation kinetics: ca. 1 mg of HA rapidly degrades within 30 s of hard-X-ray irradiation, with the same specific cleavage as in enzymatic degradation. Based on using such a fast X-ray ablation process, we were able to fabricate three-dimensional HA hydrogel microchannels, as illustrated in FIG. 1 . We note that the depth and the width in a single channel are tunable by adjusting the X-ray dose and the mask width, respectively. The X-ray irradiation of HA raw materials and HA-based hydrogels (crosslinked with divinyl sulfone) was performed using synchrotron hard X-rays (10-60 keV), which were also used to image the induced degradation in real time. The fast degradation kinetics is due to a rapid chain scission associated with the formation of carbonyl or carboxyl groups in the HA backbone. In general, the X-ray ablation of the HA-based hydrogels could be quite effective in cleaving bulky HA architecture for 3D cellular microenvironments. [0036] FIG. 2 a shows schematic views of representative in-situ microradiographs that demonstrate a real time gel-to-sol transition of HA hydrogel crosslinked with divinyl sulfone (DVS) during X-ray irradiation. Spherical silica balls (˜120 μm in diameter) that initially stayed in the top region of the HA hydrogel, fell down to the bottom with irradiation time, clearly indicating the X-ray-induced gel-to-sol transition. The irradiated mass of the HA-DVS hydrogel (MW=232 kDa, density≈1 g cm −3 ) was ca. 1 mg in a capillary tube (ca. 1200 μm in diameter). As already mentioned, the transition was very fast: this mass degraded within 30 s of irradiation. [0037] The ablation kinetics depends on the X-ray dose rate (or flux) and on the irradiation time, as illustrated in the sol-gel phase diagram of FIG. 2 b (the X-ray dose rate of FIG. 2 a was ca. 1 kGy s −1 ). However, it is the total X-ray dose (=the X-ray dose rate times the irradiation time) that actually determines the kinetics. The total dose required to ‘initiate’ the transition is approximately fixed and ≈0.2˜1 J g −1 (=kGy) (from the lower dashed line), as shown in FIG. 2 b . The total dose to ‘complete’ the transition is also approximately fixed, ≈2˜4 J g −1 (from the upper dashed line). This suggests that the total energy (total X-ray dose) required for the transition is constant even if the flux changes. At a total dose of 1˜2 J g −1 the gel and the sol states coexist. These findings are important since they show that the degradation kinetics can be controlled by modifying the total dose. [0038] We explain the principle of the X-ray ablation process. The HA-DVS hydrogel degradation at ca. 1 kGy s −1 was monitored with UV and FT-IR spectroscopes ( FIG. 3 ). The absorption band at 260˜270 nm (indicated by the arrow) in the UV spectra is due to carbonyl or carboxyl groups. The intensity increase of the band with the irradiation time is due to the increase of the total dose-(see FIG. 2 b ). As shown in the FT-IR spectra in the inset of FIG. 3 , a similar increase with the irradiation time is observed for the absorption band at 1700˜1750 cm −1 (indicated by the gray zone) that also corresponds to carbonyl or carboxyl groups. The same band evolutions were found in the UV and FT-IR spectra of the HA raw material (powders or solutions, MW=232 kDa) ( FIG. 4 ). The UV and the FT-IR spectra of the two HA and HA-DVS hydrogel samples suggest that the X-ray irradiation cleaves the HA backbone. We note that the band evolution within one minute is quite marked in the UV and the FT-IR spectra, indicating that the irradiation-induced chain scission is very rapid. As shown in FIG. 5 , gel permeation chromatography (GPC) detected a significant reduction of the molecular weight by X-ray irradiation in the HA and the HA DVS hydrogel samples. The splitting of the GPC spectra for hard X-rays is similar to the depolymerization process of HA by soft X-rays. This result corroborates the conclusion that the HA backbone is cleaved by X-ray irradiation. Also note that the X-ray-induced degradation of the HA-DVS hydrogels corresponds to no significant changes in the FT-IR spectra except for the band at 1700˜1750 cm −1 , similar to enzyme-induced HA degradation. This indicates that the X-ray ablation process results from the controlled degradation of specific chains in the HA molecules. The formation of carbonyl or carboxyl groups is attributed to the scission of glycosidic linkages between monosaccharide units in HA. We thus conclude that the fast degradation kinetics is due to a rapid chain scission associated with the formation of carbonyl or carboxyl groups in the HA backbone. [0039] To summarize, we presented a novel protocol for microfabrication of HA-based hydrogels with a short hard-X-ray irradiation (X-ray ablation). This protocol could be quite effective in cleaving bulky HA architecture for 3D cellular microenvironments. Compared to other approaches such as laser ablation, X-ray irradiation offers the advantages of high penetration, local irradiation, non-thermal character, and remote control—possibly opening up new opportunities in 3D HA hydrogel microfabrication for a variety of biological and medical applications. [0040] In the preferred embodiments of the present invention are used experimental conditions as follows: [0041] Materials: Sodium hyaluronate, sodium salt of hyaluronic acid (HA), with a molecular weight (MW) of 234 kDa was purchased from Lifecore Co. (Chaska, Minn.). HA with a MW over 2 million, under the trade name of Suvenyl®, was obtained from Chugai Pharmaceutical Co. (Tokyo, Japan). Divinyl sulfone (DVS) was purchased from Tokyo Chemical Industry Co. (Tokyo, Japan). Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and methanol were obtained from Wako Pure Chemical Industries (Osaka, Japan). All the chemicals were used without further purification. [0042] HA-DVS hydrogel preparation: HA (68 mg) was dissolved in 1.68 mL of 0.2N NaOH (pH=13). After complete dissolution, 20.02 μL of DVS was added to the HA solution for the crosslinking reaction with the hydroxyl groups of HA. The molar ratio of DVS to hydroxyl group was 1:1. The final precursor solution was mixed completely, and 100 μL of the solution were inserted into each one of 15 syringes (volume=1 mL). After incubation at 37° C. for 1 h to complete the crosslinking reaction for HA-DVS hydrogel preparation, the syringes were sealed with prewashed dialysis membrane tube (MWCO of 7 kDa) and dialyzed against PBS for 24 h. The ions (Na + and OH − ) diffused out through the dialysis membrane neutralizing the pH inside HA-DVS hydrogels [0043] X-ray irradiation and real-time phase-contrast X-ray microscopy: The X-ray irradiation and the real-time phase-contrast X-ray imaging were performed using hard X-rays (10-60 keV) at the 7B2 beamline available at the Pohang Light Source (PLS) 2.5 GeV, 150 mA storage ring in Pohang, Korea. Spatially-coherent synchrotron X-rays were used to track the detailed gel-to-sol transition during X-ray irradiation, using a CdWO 4 scintillator crystal and a CCD (charge-coupled device) camera. The scintillator-specimen distance was set at 150 mm to optimize phase-contrast enhancement. The beam spot size was tuned to 1.50×1.13 mm 2 and the microradiology spatial resolution was 0.5 μm. The X-ray dose rate was controlled by adding silicon attenuators and measured with a previously calibrated ion chamber. The sequential microradiographs were taken with an interval time (acquisition time of 0.1 s and data transmission time of 0.4 s) of 0.5 s. Sequential snapshots in a movie were treated with the Image-Pro Plus software. [0044] UV, FT-IR, GPC measurements: UV absorption spectra were obtained using SHIMADZU UV-2550 spectrophotometer at the range of 220-600 nm. FT-IR spectra were measured at a spectral resolution of 4 cm −1 with a Bomem DA8 FT-IR spectrometer equipped with a liquid nitrogen-cooled MCT detector. GPC analysis was performed using the following system: Waters 1525 binary HPLC pump, Waters 2487 dual λ absorbance detector, Waters 717 plus autosampler, Ultrahydrogel TM 1000 and TM 250 columns (7.8 mm×30 cm) (Milford, Mass., USA). Eluant was 34 mM phosphate buffer (pH 6.6)/methanol=80:20 (v/v) and the flow rate was 1 mL/min. Detection wavelength was 210 nm. [0045] While the present invention has been described with reference to the particular illustrative embodiments, it is not to be restricted by the embodiments but only by the appended claims. It is to be appreciated that those skilled in the art can change or modify the embodiments without departing from the scope and spirit of the present invention.

Disclosed is a method for ablating hyaluronan-based hydrogels with X-rays, the method comprising the steps of: (a) preparing hyaluronan-based hydrogels; and (b) performing X-ray irradiation to the hyaluronan-based hydrogels to induce a degradation of the hyaluronan-based hydrogels by a gel-to-sol transition during the X-ray irradiation. Disclosed is also a method for fabricating three-dimensional microchannels of hyaluronan hydrogels with a finely tunable X-ray ablation technique.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to the field of adjustable mounting hardware for mounting and supporting an enclosure or other object from an architectural mass such as a wall, more particularly it relates to a ball swivel clamping mechanism, contained inside a rear region of an enclosure, typically a loudspeaker enclosure, that can be adjusted, locked and released from a convenient frontal location. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION There are many requirements for mounting an object such as an enclosed loudspeaker onto a wall in both residential and public locations. Generally the enclosure is rectangular and is simply fastened flat against the wall in a parallel relation. However, in many instances where such parallel or orthogonal orientation is unsatisfactory, swivel mountings have been utilized, typically attached onto the rear of the enclosure. Such structure has generally suffered the shortcoming that the required access to the mechanism at the rear of the enclosure for orientation adjustment, installation or removal is inconvenient. DISCUSSION OF RELATED KNOWN ART Ball-and-socket type mounting hardware of known art has been utilized in the general field of the present invention, however with regard to loudspeakers enclosures and the like, swivel mounting hardware of known art attached externally onto the rear of the enclosure has tended to be not only unsightly but inconvenient with regard to clamping in place due to the poor accessibility to clamping mechanism located at the rear of the supported enclosure. U.S. Pat. No. 5,251,859 to Cyrell et al, assigned to Omnimount Systems, exemplifies a ball type adjustable support that can support an audio loudspeaker. Attached to the rear if the enclosure and extending rearwardly therefrom is a mechanism having a fixed clamp plate, co-operating with a removable jaw plate to engage a ball attached by a rod to building structure. Such structure is unsightly due to the bulk of the clamp plate and jaw plate protruding to the rear; also it is inconvenient to clamp and/or release the ball for speaker orientation since this must be performed in an inaccessible and often "blind" region behind the speaker enclosure. In view of known art of swivel enclosure mounting, there is an unfullfilled need for improvements that provide better appearance and more convenient adjustment of orientation and clamping in the selected orientation; more particularly such adjustment should be concealed within the enclosure and made available from a frontal region thereof. OBJECTS OF THE INVENTION It is a primary object of the present invention to provide, for mounting an enclosure such as a loudspeaker enclosure to a wall or other architectural mass, an adjustable swivel socket mechanism that is enclosed within the enclosure for mating with a swivel mounting ball on a cantilever shaft, typically secured to a wall by a mounting flange. It is a further and equally important object that the enclosure and the swivel mechanism be constructed and arranged to be easily installed, oriented, locked in place, released and removed from a working location to the front of the enclosure. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The abovementioned objects have been accomplished by the present invention of a ball-and-socket type mounting mechanism, contained within the enclosure, having a fixed jaw and a movable jaw that can be adjusted through an opening in the front of the enclosure. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The above and further objects, features and advantages of the present invention will be more fully understood from the following description taken with the accompanying drawings in which: FIG. 1 is a three-dimensional view of a loudspeaker enclosure shown separated from a wall-mounted ball portion of a ball-and-socket mounting assembly, as seen from a forward viewpoint, indicating front-panel adjustment access in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 2 depicts the subject matter of FIG. 1 as seen from a rearward viewsoint showing the absence of any external mounting mechanism, in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 3 is a cross-sectional side view of the loudspeaker enclosure of FIG. 1 taken through central axis 3-3', showing the ball clamped in place in a socket mechanism of the present invention located within the enclosure. FIG. 4 is a cross-sectional side view of the socket mechanism of FIG. 3 showing the movable jaw retracted and the ball in process of removal. FIG. 5 is a cross-sectional side view of the ball socket mechanism of FIGS. 3 and 4 shown in an initial shipping condition. FIGS. 6A-E are the following views of the ball socket mechanism housing of FIGS. 3-5: elevational side, front, rear, top and bottom, respectively. FIGS. 6F and 6G are cross-sectional views of the ball socket mechanism housing of FIGS. 3-5 taken through axis 6F and 6F' of FIG. 6D respectively. FIGS. 7A-7E are the following views of the movable jaw part of the ball socket mechanism of FIGS. 3-6: elevational side, front, rear, top and bottom, respectively. FIG. 7E is a cross-sectional view of the movable jaw part of the ball socket mechanism of FIGS. 3-6 taken through axis 7F of FIG. 7D. DETAILED DESCRIPTION FIG. 1 is a three-dimensional view of a loudspeaker enclosure 10 utilizing a ball-and-socket swivel-mount of the present invention. The enclosure 10 is shown separated from a ball portion 12 of the mount having a ball 12A at the end of a mounting arm 12B, typically a round shaft or tube mounted in cantilever fashion by a flange 12C to a wall 14, shown in part. The front of the enclosure 10 is covered by a grille 16 which is provided with an access aperture 16A through which a tool can be inserted to manipulate the enclosed swivel-mount socket mechanism. FIG. 2 is a three-dimensional view of the subject matter of FIG. 1 as seen from a viewpoint located to the rear of the enclosure 10 and wall 14, revealing, as part of the rear panel 10A, a generally rectangular enclosure plate 10B mounted centrally and defining a circular ball opening 10C for entry of ball 12A. FIG. 3 is a cross-sectional side view of the loudspeaker enclosure 10 taken through axis 3-3' of FIG. 1. Ball 12A, which may be formed integrally with shaft 12B as shown, has entered the enclosure 10 through ball opening 10C of enclosure plate 10B and has entered a socket mechanism assembled in a housing frame 20 configured with two side plates 20A spaced apart by two integrally-joined cross-members: a fixed jaw 20B at the bottom rear and an adjustment screw block 20C at the top front. Ball 12A is clamped in place between fixed jaw 20B and a movable jaw part 22 which is a separate part pivoted on a pin 24 and thus retained in housing frame 20. Rear panel 10A of the main enclosure body is formed internally to provide a sub-enclosure 10D which surrounds and supports the socket mechanism housing frame 20 and which retains pin 24 in place between the two opposite side plates 20A. An adjustment screw 28 is threaded through a nut 30 which is retained in a cavity in adjustment screw block 20C whose open upper side is enclosed by the top portion of sub-enclosure 10D. The rear of housing frame 20 becomes enclosed by a portion of enclosure plate 10B. A screwdriver 26 is shown inserted through aperture 16A of front grille 16 and through a guide tube 18B, which is formed integrally with the front panel 18. Screwdriver 26 is shown engaging the head of adjustment screw 28, which can be threadedly tightened against a vertical screw bearing surface on movable jaw part 22 so as to clamp it onto ball 12A against fixed jaw 20B. Fixed jaw 20B is configured with a downwardly-extending tailpiece 20D which is integrally joined by a pair of integrally-formed end brackets 20E, one at each side of tailpiece 20D, to a crossbar 20F thus forming a loop that extends to the rear into a cavity 10E formed in enclosure plate 10B. This loop, which is accessible from outside the enclosure 10, can be utilized to tether a safety cable such as may be required by earthquake/fire safety regulations in public locations. The upper portion of the front panel 18 is shaped to form a tweeter horn 18A including a mounting interface for a tweeter driver 32 shown in outline. The lower portion of the front panel 18 is formed with an opening to mount a woofer speaker 34 shown in outline. Mounting facilities are provided inside enclosure 10 for associated components such as crossover networks. Component 36 is shown mounted to rear panel 10A via internal and external metal plates 36A and 36B which provide heat dissipation and structural strength. Auxiliary components 38 and 40 are shown as representing items for which mounting facilities such as integral threaded bushings may be provided in the molding of the main body of enclosure 10. The available range of orientation of the enclosure is indicated by dashed outlines 12B' and 12B" showing ball shaft 12B at the limits of the angle formed by ball shaft 12B relative to the enclosure 10. Of course, in an installed situation, shaft 12B remains fixed while the enclosure 10 can be oriented within the range indicated. The enclosure 10 is seen to consist of two main parts: (1) the main enclosure body including the top, side and bottom panels, back panel 10A including enclosure plate 10B and sub-enclosure 10D, and (2) the front panel 18 including horn 18A and guide tube 18B. FIG. 4 is a cross-sectional side view of the socket mechanism in housing frame 20 contained within sub-enclosure 10D of FIG. 3, showing adjustment screw 28 backed off so as to retract movable jaw part 22 sufficiently to release ball 12A and allow it to pass through opening 10C of enclosure plate 10B as shown, as required for initial installation and for removal of the enclosure from the wall-mounted ball assembly. FIG. 5 is a cross-sectional side view of the socket mechanism in housing frame 20, similar to FIG. 4 but shown in an initial shipping condition wherein enclosure plate 10B as originally fabricated and supplied includes a round knockout plug 10F fitted with a screwdriver slot 10G. Plug 10F includes a cantilevered shelf 10H extending inwardly upon which movable jaw part 22 is shown resting; in this condition, movable jaw part 22 may be urged downwardly upon shelf 10H by rotating screw 28 for the purpose of securing movable jaw part 22 against looseness and rattling that could otherwise occur during initial shipment and handling. Plug 10F is initially attached around its circular edge to plate 10B by an intentionally weak joint that can be broken away by leverage of a screwdriver applied in slot 10G so that plug 10F can be removed and discarded at the time of initial installation, leaving exposed the opening 10C (FIGS. 3 and 4) in place of plug 10F. FIGS. 6A-E are following orthogonal views of the mechanism housing frame 20 shown in FIGS. 3-5: elevational side, front, rear, top and bottom views respectively, showing housing frame 20 and its cross-members: fixed jaw 20B and screw-adjustment block 20C. FIG. 6A is an elevational view of one of the two symmetrical side plates 20A of mechanism housing frame 20, showing one of the two end brackets 20E extending down from the bottom. Hole 20G is provided for pivot pin (24, FIG. 3). FIG. 6B, the front view of housing 20, shows cross-member screw-adjustment block 20C defining a U-shaped journal 20H through which adjustment screw (28, FIGS. 3-5) can be accessed by a screwdriver, and shows tailpiece 20D extending downwardly. FIG. 6C, the rear view of housing 20, shows, at the top, a U-shaped journal 20J in cross-member block 20C for supporting the rear portion of the adjustment screw (28, FIGS. 3-5), and shows crossbar 20F at the bottom. FIG. 6D, the top view of housing 20 shows the scalloped edge pattern of socket recess 20K formed in the cross-member fixed jaw 20A for ball engagement. Also shown are journals 20H, 20L and 20J formed in crossmember block 20C: the cavity formed between journals 20H and 20L provides space for the head of the screw (28) and cavity between journals 20L and 20J captivates the nut (30). FIG. 6E, the bottom view of the housing 20, shows the combination of crossbar 20F, two side brackets 20E and tailpiece 20D forming a loop, as shown, that will protrude through the rear of the enclosure, available for safety cable attachment if required. FIGS. 7A-7E are the following views of the movable jaw part 22 of the ball socket mechanism of FIGS. 3-5: elevational side, front, rear, top and bottom views respectively. FIG. 7A is an elevational side view of one of two symmetrical sides of movable jaw part 22 configured to have an adjustment screw bearing surface 22A and support gusset 22B. FIG. 7B is a front view of movable jaw part 22, showing bearing surface 22A. FIG. 7C is a rear view of movable jaw part 22 showing the support gusset 22B. FIG. 7D, the top view of movable jaw part 22, shows screw bearing surface 22A and support gusset 22B. FIG. 7E, the bottom view of movable jaw part 22, shows the scalloped pattern of the socket recess 22C for ball engagement, configured the same as the fixed jaw socket recess (20K, FIG. 6D). FIG. 7F is a cross-sectional view taken through axis 7F-7F' of FIG. 7D. Referring once again to FIGS. 3-5, typically the mechanism housing frame 20 (which includes two side plates 20A with two cross-members: fixed jaw 20B and adjustment screw block 20C) and the movable jaw part 22 are preferably die cast from aluminum, while the two parts of the main enclosure 10 (front panel 18 including horn 18A and guide tube 18B, and rear enclosure including rear panel 10A, enclosure plate 10B and sub-enclosure 10D) are preferably injection-molded from high impact polystyrene plastic. Sub-enclosure 10D, shown molded integrally with the enclosure rear panel 10A, could alternatively be made as a separate part and attached to rear panel 10A by known fastening means. As an option, a coaxial passageway may be provided through ball 12A and shaft 12B (FIG. 3) such that shaft 12B would form a tubular conduit for enclosing speaker connecting wires from behind the wall to the interior of the enclosure, thus providing the aesthetic advantage of concealing the speaker wires. The adjustment screw and the corresponding tool could be made with a screw-head style different than the regular slot head described above: this could be another conventional style such as Philips, square or hex socket, or it could be a specialized proprietary style to prevent unauthorized adjustment or removal. Alternatively the threaded element of the adjustment screw could be extended by a shaft to a front or side exterior location of the enclosure where a knob or other means could be provided to enable clamping adjustment without need for a tool. The principle of the invention may be applied to loudspeaker enclosures of various sizes and with different loudspeaker complements, to enclosures other than loudspeaker enclosures and to other objects requiring a similar kind of adjustable pivoted support from a relatively fixed mass. The invention may be embodied and practiced in other specific forms without departing from the spirit and essential characteristics thereof. The present embodiments are therefore to be considered in all respects as illustrative and not restrictive, the scope of the invention being indicated by the appended claims rather than by the foregoing description; and all variations, substitutions and changes which come within the meaning and range of equivalency of the claims are therefore intended to be embraced therein.

For adjustably mounting an enclosure such as a loudspeaker to an architectural mass such as on a wall, a ball-and-socket swivel mounting mechanism is enclosed within a rear region of the enclosure, thus eliminating unsightly conventional external swivel-mounting apparatus. A mounting ball, at the end of a shaft cantilevered to the wall, enters the mounting mechanism through a circular opening in a central region of the rear panel of the enclosure. The ball is clamped between a fixed jaw and a movable jaw actuated by an adjusting screw via which the jaw-clamping force can be applied, adjusted and released by a tool inserted through an opening in the front of the enclosure and directed by an internal guide tube to engage the adjusting screw; thus all installation, orientation adjustment, clamping in place and removal of the enclosure can be performed conveniently from the front of the enclosure.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/276,418, filed on Sep. 12, 2009, entitled DECENTRALIZED ELECTRICITY GENERATION, STORAGE AND DISTRIBUTION DEVICES, which is incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] The subject matter disclosed herein relates to a method and apparatus for conversion of energy to electricity from a plurality of different sources for immediate use, storage of electricity for later use (e.g., charging a battery), and distribution of safe, regulated electricity for end-use to provide energy services. [0003] Many of the devices used to conduct day-to-day activities (e.g., devices providing lighting, communication, entertainment, news, medicine, etc.) require electricity to either power the devices directly or to charge the batteries used to power those devices. It is estimated that nearly one in four people on the planet (more than 1.6 billion people) lack access to electricity, many of whom live in the developing world at the base of the economic pyramid. It is also estimated that an additional billion people struggle with unreliable access to electricity. While these populations have access to electricity, the power plants and distribution grid are overloaded, under-maintained and therefore unreliable, resulting in power outages, often several outages each day, many spanning several hours or even days. As a result, this negatively impacts the economy, the ability for these populations to rise up the economic pyramid and the ability to improve quality of life. [0004] The framework of traditional centralized power generation and grid distribution is not meeting the needs of these people because large power plant installations are costly and prone to delays and the grid improvements required to distribute this electricity is expensive as well. Even alternatives such as petrol-powered generators (e.g., diesel or gasoline) and the current offering of solar photovoltaic home systems experience only limited success because of cost (e.g., high operating cost purchasing fossil fuel, or high upfront cost to purchase solar home systems) and reliability issues (e.g., inexpensive generators often experience malfunctions and the current offering of solar home systems require installation, maintenance and support). [0005] And yet, despite these challenges, it is estimated that there are presently over 500 million off-grid mobile phone subscribers and countless other off-grid appliances (e.g., lights, radios, televisions, refrigerators, etc.). To power these appliances, millions of people at the base of the pyramid have re-appropriated 12V direct current (DC) lead-acid car batteries to serve the need of energy storage and electricity distribution. However, the practice of using jumper cables or twisting bare wires to connect appliances leaves much to be desired where such usage of unprotected batteries is dangerous, significantly reduces battery life, and frequently causes sparks and even electrocution. [0006] Populations in areas that do have access to reliable sources of electricity under normal circumstances may be subject to natural disasters, blackouts, or planned recreational activities to remote locations (e.g., camping or hiking) that result in prolonged periods of time where users do not have access to electricity to operate or charge their appliances. Some users that do have access to a modern power distribution grid, for environmental reasons, may choose to use renewable energy sources when possible (e.g., solar power, kinetic power, etc.). In some cases, users may employ kinetic generators operated by rotating and driving a shaft with a device driven by natural forces (e.g., wind turbine, hydro turbine, etc.) or by human/animal forces (e.g., bicycle generator, hand-crank, animal generator, etc.) to create the required electricity. Often times, however, these systems do not supply sufficient power to supply the electricity necessary for powering or charging devices for prolonged periods of time without requiring excessive amounts of effort by the users or performance by the devices. In addition, many these systems can only accept one type of energy source and may be damaged if another source were inadvertently connected. [0007] It would be advantageous to provide a method and apparatus for supplying electrical power for people who do not have access to reliable electricity to improve the quality of life for these individuals, provide a safer and more effective source of electrical power, and provide the flexibility to use a plurality of different types of energy sources, including renewable energy sources. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0008] In one embodiment of the invention, a method and apparatus are disclosed for identifying different types of energy sources used to charge a battery by receiving energy from at least one of the different types of energy sources at input terminals, identifying the type of energy source, and selecting a mode for charging the battery based on the type of energy source identified. [0009] In another embodiment of the invention, a method and apparatus are disclosed for protecting against certain energy sources used to charge a battery by determining the voltage at input terminals isolated from the battery by a switch, continuously determining if the voltage of the energy source at the input terminals is less than a maximum source voltage threshold and greater than a minimum source voltage threshold, opening the switch to disconnect the energy source from the battery and resetting a counter to zero if these conditions are not met, incrementing the counter if the voltage of the energy source at the input terminals is greater than a minimum source voltage threshold, closing the switch to connect the energy source to the battery if the counter has exceeded a counting threshold, confirming that the energy source is not an alternating current (AC) source, and continuously determining if the voltage of the energy source at the input terminals is greater than a minimum source voltage threshold. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0010] So that the manner in which the features of the invention can be understood, a detailed description of the invention may be had by reference to certain embodiments, some of which are illustrated in the accompanying drawings. It is to be noted, however, that the drawings illustrate only certain embodiments of this invention and are therefore not to be considered limiting of its scope, for the scope of the invention encompasses other equally effective embodiments. The drawings are not necessarily to scale, emphasis generally being placed upon illustrating the features of certain embodiments of invention. Thus, for further understanding of the invention, reference can be made to the following detailed description, read in connection with the drawings in which: [0011] FIG. 1 illustrates an electrical power system in an exemplary embodiment of the invention. [0012] FIG. 2 illustrates an input cable connection to the power center in an exemplary embodiment of the invention. [0013] FIG. 3 illustrates a bicycle mounted on a bicycle generator adapter in an exemplary embodiment of the invention. [0014] FIG. 4 illustrates a bicycle generator adapter (without the bicycle) in an exemplary embodiment of the invention. [0015] FIG. 5 illustrates a user interface of a power center in an exemplary embodiment of the invention. [0016] FIG. 6 is a block diagram of a power center in an exemplary embodiment of the invention. [0017] FIG. 7 is a block diagram of a charge circuit in an exemplary embodiment of the invention. [0018] FIG. 8 is a flow diagram for charge input protection in one exemplary embodiment of the invention. [0019] FIG. 9 is a flow diagram for energy source identification in one exemplary embodiment of the invention. [0020] FIG. 10 is a flow diagram for the charging mode of a solar panel in one exemplary embodiment of the invention. [0021] FIG. 11 is a flow diagram for the charging mode of a wall outlet adapter in one exemplary embodiment of the invention. [0022] FIG. 12 is a flow diagram for the charging mode of a bicycle generator in one exemplary embodiment of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0023] FIG. 1 illustrates an electrical power system 1 in an exemplary embodiment of the invention. The electrical power system 1 can include a plurality of different types of energy sources (e.g., a solar panel 30 providing solar power from solar cells 31 , a wall outlet adapter 33 (e.g., wall wart or power brick) providing grid power from a wall outlet 32 , a bicycle generator 52 providing human-generated power from riding a bicycle 40 , a wind turbine 34 providing wind-generated power, a hydro turbine (not shown) providing hydro-generated power, attachments to animals (not shown) providing animal-generated power, etc.). The plurality of different energy sources can be connected to a power center 10 using input cables 17 . In one embodiment, only one of the plurality of different energy sources can be connected to the power center 10 at a time, while in another embodiment, multiple energy sources can be connected to the power center 10 at the same time. FIG. 2 illustrates an input cable 17 connection to the power center 10 in an exemplary embodiment of the invention in which the input cable 17 is terminated with input cable plugs 18 (e.g., banana plugs) that are inserted into the input terminals 16 (e.g., banana jacks or binding posts) at the rear of the power center 10 . In another embodiment, bare wires can be attached to the screw terminals located on the input terminals 16 , providing further flexibility for connecting a plurality of different energy sources. [0024] The power center 10 can also have a plurality of outputs, including one or more 12V DC cigarette lighter outputs 12 (also known as cigar lighter adapters), one or more 5V DC USB outputs 14 , and one or more AC outputs (e.g., 90-260V, types A-L, etc) (not shown). The cigarette lighter outputs 12 can be used to power a plurality of devices (e.g., a light 60 , water purifier (not shown), refrigerator (not shown)) using a cigarette lighter output cable 13 , while the USB outputs 14 can be used to power a plurality of other devices (e.g., mobile telephone 62 , radio 64 , LCD television (not shown)) using a USB output cable 15 . In one embodiment, the light 60 can be a fluorescent or incandescent bulb. In other embodiments, the light 60 can be one or more LEDs or other alternative light sources. Use of AC outputs (not shown) would require a DC to AC converter to provide AC power from a DC battery. [0025] FIG. 3 illustrates a bicycle 40 mounted on a bicycle generator adapter 50 in an exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 4 illustrates a bicycle generator adapter 50 (without the bicycle 40 ) in an exemplary embodiment of the invention. The bicycle 40 has a front gear 42 with a certain number of front gear teeth (GT F ) 43 connected via a chain 41 to drive a rear gear 44 with a certain number of rear gear teeth (GT R ) 45 . The outer tread of the rear tire 46 comes into contact with the roller 54 of bicycle generator adapter 50 and causes the roller 54 to rotate along with the rear tire 46 during cycling. The roller 54 can be mounted to the stand 51 of the bicycle generator adaptor 50 using a roller mount 55 that can rotate or pivot to allow the roller 54 to contact rear tires 46 of different dimensions. The roller mount 55 and all components mounted to the stand 51 of the bicycle adapter 50 using the roller mount 55 are firmly attached to the stand 51 , but can also be removed from the stand 51 when the bicycle generator 52 is not in use. The stand 51 can also be folded when not in use. [0026] The roller mount 55 can be attached to the rear wheel axle 48 of the rear wheel 46 using a tensioning mechanism 58 including hooks 59 attached to the roller mount 55 on one end and attached to the rear wheel axle 48 on the other end to keep the roller 54 in contact with the rear tire 46 during cycling to help avoid slippage between the rear tire 46 and the roller 54 . The tensioning mechanism 58 can be made of various materials (e.g., elastic, bungee cord, non-stretchable cord (e.g., nylon), inner tube rubber). [0027] The roller 54 is connected to a shaft 53 that drives the bicycle generator 52 . In one embodiment, the shaft 53 can extend beyond the bicycle generator 52 and support a fan 56 that can rotate along with the shaft 53 providing air cooling of the bicycle generator 52 , improving the capacity and performance of the device. The bicycle generator 52 can be a 36V brushed DC motor. Other voltage motors (e.g., 24V) and types of motors (e.g., brushless DC motors) can also be used in other embodiments. The power output of the bicycle generator 52 can be increased or decreased based on the speed of rotation (RPM) of the shaft 53 (e.g., the faster the rotation, the more power is generated). In one embodiment, the speed of rotation of the shaft (S RPM ) can be determined by the cadence (C RAM ) of the cyclist, gear ratio (R G ) (i.e., the ratio of the number of front gear teeth (GT F ) 43 to the number of rear gear teeth (GT R ) 45 ), and the rear tire/roller ratio (R TR ) (i.e., ratio of the diameter of the rear tire (D T ) to the diameter of the roller (D R )). [0000] R G = G   T F G   T R ( 1 ) R TR = D T D R ( 2 ) S RPM = C RPM * R G * R TR ( 3 ) [0028] In one exemplary embodiment, the bicycle 40 and bicycle generator adapter 50 can have the following parameters, with a user cycling at a cadence (C RPM ) of 40 RPM resulting in a shaft speed (S RPM ) of 2,352 RPM: [0000] R G = GT F GT R = 42 20 = 2.1 ( 4 ) R TR = D T D R = 28 1 = 28 ( 5 ) S RPM = C RPM * R G * R TR = 40 * 2.1 * 28 = 2 , 352 ( 6 ) [0029] As can be seen from these equations, varying one or more of these parameters can increase or decrease the resulting shaft speed (S RPM ), which will determine the amount of electrical power generated. For example, increasing the cadence (C RPM ), gear ratio (R G ), or rear tire/roller ratio (R TR ) will increase the shaft speed (S RPM ), which will increase the amount of electrical power generated (e.g., in the range of 30 W to 100 W). Various combinations of these parameters from different bicycles can produce shaft speeds (S RPM ) such as 3,000 RPM or more, with a desired power output such as 100 W or more. Accomplishing such high shaft speeds (S RPM ) and power output without the use of a gear box improves the reliability of the bicycle generator 52 and reduces the cost. [0030] In one embodiment, the roller 54 can be a 1″ (25.4 mm) diameter extruded aluminum tube with no additional surface treatment. Rollers 54 of other materials (e.g., polypropylene) and dimensions can also be used. A roller 54 with a larger diameter (e.g., 1.25″ (31.75 mm)) will reduce the rear tire/roller ratio (R TR ) and require a higher cadence (C RPM ) to provide the same amount of power as a smaller diameter, while a roller 54 with a smaller diameter (e.g., 0.75″ (19.05 mm)) will increase the rear tire/roller ratio (R TR ) and only require a lower cadence (C RPM ) to provide the same amount of power as a larger diameter. Use of a smaller diameter roller 54 , however, can increase the slip (SL) that occurs between the rear tire 46 and roller 54 during cycling, leading to inefficiencies (i.e., cycling effort not resulting in rotation of the roller 54 and shaft 53 ). The smaller diameter roller 54 can also result in more voltage spikes of higher amplitude which can cause damage to the electronics of the power center 10 . Use of a low-friction polypropylene roller 54 can also increase the slip (SL) as compared with the use of extruded aluminum. It is desirable to keep slip to a minimum as the greater the amount of slip (SL), the slower the shaft speed (S RPM ) as shown in the following equation, modifying equation (3) to account for slip (SL) (shown as a percentage, where no slip under ideal conditions would be SL=0.00 and ten percent slip would be SL=0.10) [0000] S RPM =C RPM *R G *R TR *(1 −SL )  (7) [0031] In order to maintain slip below acceptable levels (e.g., below 10%), the tensioning mechanism 58 with hooks 59 on each end can be adjusted (e.g., with straps) to provide varying amounts of pressure from the roller 54 onto the rear tire 46 (e.g., 4.5 kg, 6.0 kg, 8.5 kg, etc.). The use of higher pressure, however, can increase the amount of energy needed by the user to provide the necessary cadence (C RPM ) and increase the amount of wear on the rear tire 46 . Similarly, including texture on the roller 46 to increase the friction between the roller 54 and the rear tire 46 reduces slip but also increases the amount of wear on the rear tire 46 . [0032] FIG. 5 illustrates a user interface 11 of a power center 10 in an exemplary embodiment of the invention. The user interface 11 can include a plurality of elements designed to convey information about the power center 10 to the user (e.g., state of charge of the power center 10 , whether the battery of the power center 10 is charging or discharging, the rate of charging or discharging of the battery, whether maintenance is required, and whether an error or fault has occurred). [0033] As shown in FIG. 5 , the state/rate of charge indicator 20 can be a funnel or inverted cone shaped display of a plurality of LEDs or other visual indicators. LEDs can be used based on their reliability and long life as well as their low power consumption. The brightness and related current draw of the each of the LEDs can be controlled by selecting an appropriately series resister (e.g., 330 ohms). In one embodiment, the state/rate of charge indicator 20 can include a red first (low) state/rate LED 21 , an amber second state/rate LED 22 , an amber third state/rate LED 23 , and an amber fourth state/rate LED 24 to provide the required information. For example, if the red first (low) state/rate LED 21 were continuously illuminated, that would communicate to a user that the battery of the power center 10 has 25% or less of full capacity charge remaining, while if all four LEDs 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 were continuously illuminated, including the amber fourth state/rate LED 24 , that would communicate to the user that the power center 10 has more than 75% of full capacity charge remaining. [0034] When the power center 10 is charging/discharging, as indicated by the amber charge/discharge LED 25 (e.g., illuminated only when the battery is charging and turned off when the battery is not charging), the particular percentage range of remaining battery charge at that moment (e.g., 50% to 75%) can be communicated by flashing the corresponding charge/discharge LED (e.g., amber third state/rate LED 23 ) during charging/discharging. In addition, the rate of flashing of the corresponding charge/discharge LED can be determined by the rate of charging/discharging of the battery (e.g., the faster the rate of charging/discharging, the higher the frequency of flashing of the LED). In an alternative embodiment, the charge/discharge LEDs 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 can be illuminated in a cascading or rippling fashion to indicate charging or discharging of the battery of the power center 10 . [0035] The need for maintenance of the power center 10 can be communicated to the user by the red maintenance LED 26 , which can be illuminated to, e.g., indicate to the user that a full charge of the battery is required to optimize battery performance and life. In the event of a fault or other error, all of the LEDs can flash for a predetermined amount of time to alert the user of the existence of the error or fault, and that the outputs 12 , 14 have been disconnected. In the event of a fault or other error, the multi-function pushbutton 28 can be pressed to reset the power center 10 to reactivate the outputs 12 , 14 or to accept an energy source. In addition, the multi-function pushbutton 28 can be pressed during normal conditions to display the state of charge on the state/rate of charge indicator 20 . If the power center 10 is off, the multi-function pushbutton 28 can be pressed to energize the power center 10 . [0036] In addition to the information about the power center 10 conveyed to the user by the user interface 11 , the power center 10 can also include an audible device to provide information and feedback. For example, a buzzer can be used that can play several different notes based on the switching frequency to provide audible notification when a particular event occurs (e.g., a positive sound to indicate the beginning of charging/discharging, a positive sound to indicate the completion of 1 watt-hour of charging, a negative sound if voltage is approaching dangerous levels, a beeping negative sound to indicate the presence of a fault, a continuous negative sound to indicate the use of an improper input device). [0037] The power center 10 can also include a plastic enclosure with a dimple (not shown) on the underside of the unit at its center of gravity, shaped appropriately to rest on the top of a user's head during transport. [0038] FIG. 6 is a block diagram of a power center 10 in one exemplary embodiment of the invention. The power center 10 includes a battery 2 , which can be a sealed, maintenance free 12V DC lead-acid battery. The power center 10 can include a microcontroller unit (MCU) 4 powered by the battery 2 (e.g., at 5V DC or 3.3V DC) that communicates relevant information about the power center 10 to the user through the user interface 11 discussed previously. For example, the MCU 4 can be directly connected to power the LEDs 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 of the user interface 11 through a resistor without the need for driver circuitry. [0039] The MCU 4 can also control the operation and interaction of the other components of the power center 10 to manage power measurements, and control the inputs and outputs to the power center 10 to optimize battery performance and life. The MCU 4 dynamically controls the charge circuit 6 , which is responsible for receiving power from a plurality of different types of energy sources attached to the input terminals 16 and using that power to charge the battery 2 in a safe and efficient way. The MCU 4 also dynamically controls the discharge circuit 8 , which supplies power to and monitors the outputs 12 , 14 to prevent the user from drawing power out of the battery 2 in a manner that might damage the battery 2 . [0040] FIG. 7 is a block diagram of a charge circuit 6 in an exemplary embodiment of the invention. The charge circuit 6 can include a charge input protection circuit 102 for protecting the power center 10 from being damaged by certain harmful or inappropriate energy sources connected to the input terminals 16 . A charge input switch 104 (provided hardware (mechanical (e.g., relay) or electrical (e.g., MOSFET)) or software) located after the charge input protection circuit 102 can isolate the energy sources from the power center 10 by serving as a gatekeeper to allow current (closed state) or block current (open state) from the sources from flowing into the remainder of power center 10 depending on whether those sources have been approved by the MCU 4 . A conventional buck regulator 106 can be used to step down source voltages for correct charging of the battery 2 and to modulate any excess power when the battery 2 charge is near full. The MCU 4 can use current and voltage sensor readings to identify the particular energy source attached to the input terminals 16 . Once the particular energy source has been identified, a charging mode 110 tailored to the particular energy source connected can be used to charge the battery 2 . In one embodiment, the charge circuit 6 can accommodate charging voltages from 16V DC (minimum) to 30V DC (maximum) and charge the battery 2 at up to 4 A or 50 W depending on the available input power from the energy source. Other embodiments could include different ranges for charging voltages, currents, and wattages. [0041] Turning first to the protection offered by the charge circuit 6 , in one embodiment, the power center 10 should be able to withstand energy source voltages of up to 300V, alternating current (AC) sources, and inadvertent connections to the input terminals 16 with reverse polarity without damaging the power center 10 . In order to accomplish this protection, the charge input protection circuit 102 can include a conventional full bridge rectifier on the input terminals 16 that allows the MCU 4 to read input voltage safely in the case of an AC energy source. The charge input protection circuit 102 can also include a conventional rectifier diode, rated up to 300V, so that if energy source is inadvertently connected with reverse polarity to the input terminals 16 , no voltage will be sensed by the MCU 4 . The rectifier diode can be used in addition to the full bridge rectifier since the full bridge rectifier would make a energy source connected with reverse polarity to the input terminals 16 appear positive. The charge input protection circuit 102 can also include a voltage divider to scale down voltages of up to 300V. If the energy source connected to the input terminals 16 is determined to be safe, the current from the energy source will bypass the full bridge rectifier and rectifier diode so as not to incur any substantial power losses across those components. Protected by the full bridge rectifier, rectifier diode, and/or voltage divider, the MCU 4 can safely detect overvoltage and AC inputs of up to 300V. [0042] FIG. 8 is a flow diagram for charge input protection performed by the MCU 4 with the charge circuit 6 in one exemplary embodiment of the invention. When the energy source is connected to the input terminals 16 , the current from the energy source first passes through the full bridge rectifier, rectifier diode, and/or voltage divider of the charge input protection circuit 102 as discussed previously, protecting the MCU 4 . The initial or reset state of the MCU 4 at step 200 of the charge input protection has an AC flag set to “UNKNOWN” since it is has not been determined whether there is an inappropriate AC source, an AC counter (C) in the MCU set to 0 (C=0), and the charge input switch 104 in an open state (i.e., the current from the charge source cannot flow into the remainder of the power center 10 ). [0043] In one embodiment of the invention, the voltage of the energy source is checked periodically (e.g., every 1 ms or some other interval) at the overvoltage check step 202 to determine if the voltage is greater than a maximum source voltage threshold (e.g., 90V). If the voltage is greater than the maximum source voltage threshold, the power center 10 goes into to a fault condition and opens the charge input switch 104 at step 204 . If the voltage is not greater than the maximum source voltage threshold, the voltage of the energy source will continue to be checked periodically in a continuous loop. [0044] In addition to checking for overvoltage, the voltage of the energy source is checked to make sure that it is not providing an AC signal that would damage the power center 10 . The voltage is checked at step 206 to determine if the voltage of the energy source is greater than a minimum source voltage threshold (e.g., 5V) but still less than the maximum source voltage threshold. If the voltage of the energy source is not greater than the minimum source voltage threshold, the system returns to the initial or reset state step 200 , and the AC counter (e.g., a timer) timer (C) is reset to zero. Using this test, if the voltage of the energy source is an AC signal with a frequency of 60 Hz (i.e., a period of 16.6 ms), the voltage will go through a complete cycle and, therefore, drop below the minimum voltage threshold every 16.6 ms, resetting the AC counter (C) to zero at step 200 . If the voltage of the energy source is greater than the minimum source voltage threshold, the status of the AC flag is checked at step 208 to see if it is “UNKNOWN.” If the status of the AC flag is not “UNKNOWN,” the system returns to the initial or reset state step 200 , and the AC counter (C) is reset to zero. If the status of the AC flag is “UNKNOWN,” the AC counter (C) is incremented (e.g., by 1 ms or some other time interval) at step 210 . Next, the AC counter (C) is checked to see if it is greater than an AC counting threshold (e.g., 600 ms) at step 212 . If the AC counter (C) is not greater than the AC counting threshold, the system loops back and repeats the tests performed at steps 206 and 208 to check again for minimum voltage and the status of the AC flag. If the AC counter (C) is greater than the AC counting threshold, the AC flag is set to “SAFE” and the charge input switch 104 is closed (allowing current to flow from the charge source into the remainder of power center 10 ) at step 214 based on the fact that the voltage of the energy source cannot be an AC voltage since it would have reset the AC counter (C=0) with a voltage below the minimum voltage threshold before the counting threshold was reached (i.e., the AC counter (C) would have reset after 16.6 ms for a 60 Hz AC signal). [0045] As shown in FIG. 7 , after passing through the charge input protection circuit 102 and charge input switch 104 , the signal from the energy source is received by the conventional buck regulator 106 , which converts the voltage of the energy source down to a lower voltage (e.g., 12V) for charging of the battery 2 . In one embodiment, the buck regulator 106 can use a transistor (e.g., a MOSFET) as a switch to alternatively connect (switch closed) and disconnect (switch open) the energy source, (e.g., at a frequency of 25 kHz). By varying the duty cycle (i.e., time that the switch is closed and the charge source is connected) of the buck regulator 106 using pulse width modulation (PWM), the MCU 4 can control charging of the battery 2 . [0046] FIG. 9 is a flow diagram for energy source identification performed by the MCU 4 with the charge circuit 6 in one exemplary embodiment of the invention. As discussed previously and as shown in FIG. 1 , the electrical power system 1 can include a plurality of different types of energy sources (e.g., a solar panel 30 , wall outlet adapter 33 , windmill 34 , bicycle generator 52 ). In one embodiment of the invention, the power center 10 can identify the particular energy source connected to the input terminals 16 . At step 300 , the charge input switch 104 is open when the energy source is connected to the input terminals 16 . At step 302 , the initial source voltage (V I ) at the input terminals 16 is measured by the MCU 4 . At step 304 , the MCU 4 measures the voltage transition time (T VT ) that it takes to transition from a point where there is substantially no voltage on the input terminals 16 (e.g., just prior to connection of the energy source) to a point where the voltage of the energy source is substantially constant and/or at or above the minimum charging voltage (e.g., 16V DC). If the voltage transition time (T VT ) is greater than a voltage transition time threshold (e.g., 30 ms), indicating that the constant charging voltage was arrived at relatively slowly, the energy source is most likely a source that provides substantially varying voltage output (e.g., bicycle generator 52 , wind turbine 34 , hydro turbine, hand-crank, animal generator, etc.). Accordingly, at step 305 and after it has been determined that the energy source is safe, the charge input switch 104 can be closed and charging for a bicycle generator 52 (or wind turbine 34 , hydro turbine, etc.) can begin. [0047] If the voltage transition time (T VT ) is less than a voltage transition time threshold (e.g., 30 ms), indicating that the constant charging voltage was arrived at almost instantaneously, the energy source is most likely a source that provides substantially constant voltage outputs (e.g., a solar panel 30 , wall outlet adapter 33 , etc.). Additional steps can be used in order to distinguish between the solar panel 30 and the wall outlet adapter 33 . At step 306 and after it has been determined that the energy source is safe, the charge input switch 104 can be closed. At step 308 , the MCU 4 can increment the charging current of the source (I C ) by increasing the duty cycle of the buck regulator until a charge current threshold (e.g., I C =500 mA) is reached. At step 310 , the energy source voltage (V C ) at the input terminals is measured by the MCU 4 . At step 312 , the MCU 4 determines if the difference between the energy source voltage (V C ) and the initial source voltage (V I ) is greater than a voltage sag threshold (e.g., 1V DC). If the voltage had decreased or sagged less than the voltage sag threshold, then the energy source is most likely a source that provides a substantially constant voltage output under both load and no load conditions (e.g., a wall outlet adapter 33 ). If the voltage has sagged more than the voltage sag threshold, then the energy source is most likely a source that experiences substantial voltage sag under load conditions (e.g, a solar panel 30 ). As shown in FIG. 6 , after the energy source has been identified, the power center 10 can enter the appropriate charging mode 110 for that particular energy source. In other embodiments of the invention, different techniques can be used to identify the energy source, including monitoring manual switches, communication over power, a digital handshake, or the use of special tip that plugs into the power center 10 to indicate the particular source employed. [0048] FIG. 10 is a flow diagram for the charging mode 110 of the solar panel 30 in one exemplary embodiment of the invention. If the energy source is a solar panel 30 , the MCU 4 can dynamically track the maximum power point of the solar panel 30 , which depends upon voltage and current and changes as the solar panel 30 receives different levels of sunlight. In order to track the maximum power point, the MCU 4 continually monitors the effects of incrementing or decrementing the charging current (I C ) of the solar panel 30 to see if there is a more optimal charging point. In one embodiment, the MCU 4 can measure the original power output of the solar panel 30 (P O ) (e.g., the charging current (I C ) of the solar panel 30 multiplied by the output voltage of the solar panel 30 ) at step 400 . Next, the MCU 4 can increment the charging current (I C ) of the solar panel 30 by a step (e.g., 0.05 A) by increasing the duty cycle of the buck regulator at step 402 . After incrementing the charging current (I C ), the MCU 4 can check if the charging current (I C ) is less than the maximum (I MAX ) allowable charging current (e.g., 4 A) at step 404 . If the charging current (I C ) of the solar panel 30 is not less than the maximum allowable charging current (I MAX ), the MCU 4 can decrement the charging current (I C ) of the solar panel 30 by a step at step 406 and repeat the process. If the charging current (I C ) of the solar panel 30 is less than the maximum allowable charging current (I MAX ), the MCU 4 can then measure the new power output (P N ) of the solar panel 30 at step 408 based on the new charging current of the solar panel 30 to determine if the new power output (P N ) is greater than the original power output (P O ) at step 410 (i.e., to determine if incrementing the charging current improved the power output of the solar panel 30 ). If the new power output (P N ) of the solar panel 30 is greater than the original power output (P O ), the MCU 4 can repeat the process starting at step 400 . If the new power output (P N ) of the solar panel 30 is not greater than the original power output (P O ), the MCU 4 can decrement the charging current (I C ) of the solar panel 30 by a step at step 406 and repeat the process. The rate of incrementing or decrementing the charging current (I C ) of the solar panel 30 can be done relatively slowly since a rapid change in the charging current (I C ) could result in an unstable input voltage of the solar panel 30 since the voltage is current dependent. For example, the rate of incrementing the charging current (I C ) of the solar panel 30 should be chosen to avoid the possibility of decreasing the input voltage of the solar panel 30 below the minimum charging voltage (e.g., 16V DC). [0049] FIG. 11 is a flow diagram for the charging mode 110 of a wall outlet adapter 33 in one exemplary embodiment of the invention. If the energy source is a wall outlet adapter 33 , the MCU 4 can dynamically determine the maximum current rating of the wall outlet adapter 33 , which will provide a rated constant voltage up to a rated maximum current. Since the voltage provided by the wall outlet adapter 33 will remain constant until the maximum current rating is exceeded, at which point the voltage will decrease (or sag), by incrementing the charging current (I C ) of the wall outlet adapter 33 and monitoring the voltage of the wall outlet adapter 33 , the MCU 4 can determine when the maximum current of the wall outlet adapter 33 is reached. In one embodiment, the MCU 4 can measure the original voltage (V O ) of the wall outlet adapter 33 at step 500 . Next, the MCU 4 can increment the charging current (I C ) of the wall outlet adapter 33 by a step (e.g., 0.1 A) at step 502 by increasing the duty cycle of the buck regulator 106 . After incrementing the charging current (I C ), the MCU 4 can check if the charging current is less than the maximum allowable charging current (I MAX ) (e.g., 4 A) at step 504 . If the charging current (I C ) of the wall outlet adapter 33 is not less than the maximum allowable charging current (I MAX ), the MCU 4 can decrement the charging current (I C ) of the wall outlet adapter 33 by a step at step 514 and charge at this current level. If the charging current (I C ) of the wall outlet adapter 33 is equal to the maximum allowable charging current (I MAX ) (not shown), the MCU 4 charge at this current level. If the charging current (I C ) of the wall outlet adapter 33 is less than the maximum allowable charging current (I MAX ), the MCU 4 can then measure the new voltage (V N ) of the wall outlet adapter 33 at step 506 to determine if the new voltage (V N ) has decreased (or sagged) less than a voltage sag threshold (e.g., 0.5V DC) as compared with the original voltage (V O ) at step 508 . If the voltage sag is not less than the voltage sag threshold, the MCU 4 can decrement the charging current (I C ) of the wall outlet adapter 33 by a step at step 514 and charge at this current level. If the voltage sag is less than the voltage sag threshold, the MCU 4 can next determine the internal battery voltage (V B ) of the power center 10 as step 510 , and then determine if the internal battery voltage (V B ) is less than the maximum safe internal battery voltage (V M ) at step 512 . If the internal battery voltage (V B ) is not less than the maximum safe internal battery voltage (V M ), the MCU 4 can decrement the charging current (I C ) of the wall outlet adapter 33 by a step at step 514 and charge at this current level. If the internal battery voltage (V B ) is less than the maximum safe internal battery voltage (V M ), the MCU 4 charge at this current level, increment the charging current (I C ) of the wall outlet adapter 33 by a step at 502 , and repeat the process. The rate of incrementing or decrementing the charging current (I C ) of the wall outlet adapter 33 can be done relatively quickly as compared to the solar panel 30 . [0050] FIG. 12 is a flow diagram for the charging mode 110 of a bicycle generator 52 in one exemplary embodiment of the invention. If the energy source is a bicycle generator 52 , the MCU 4 can dynamically determine the internal battery voltage (V B ) to make sure that it is less than the maximum safe internal battery voltage (V M ), which changes based on the state of charge of the battery 2 . In one embodiment, the MCU 4 can increment the charging current (I C ) of the bicycle generator 52 by a step (e.g., 0.1 A) at step 600 by increasing the duty cycle of the buck regulator 106 . After incrementing the charging current ( 0 , the MCU 4 can check if the charging current is less than the maximum allowable charging current (I MAX ) (e.g., 4 A) at step 504 . If the charging current (I C ) of the bicycle generator 52 is not less than the maximum allowable charging current (I MAX ), the MCU 4 can decrement the charging current (I C ) of the bicycle generator 52 by a step at step 608 and repeat the test at step 602 . If the charging current (I C ) of the bicycle generator 52 is less than the maximum allowable charging current (I MAX ), the MCU 4 can next determine the internal battery voltage (V B ) of the power center 10 as step 604 , and then determine if the internal battery voltage (V B ) is less than the maximum safe internal battery voltage (V M ) at step 606 . If the internal battery voltage (V B ) is not less than the maximum safe internal battery voltage (V M ), the MCU 4 can decrement the charging current (I C ) of the bicycle generator 52 by a step at step 608 and repeat the test at step 602 . If the internal battery voltage (V B ) is less than the maximum safe internal battery voltage (V M ), the MCU 4 can increment the charging current (I C ) of the bicycle generator 52 by a step at 600 and repeat the process. [0051] In one exemplary embodiment of the invention, a thermistor is used to measure ambient temperature. If the temperature falls outside of a safe operating range for the battery (e.g., −20° C. to 60° C.), the inputs and outputs are disabled, and an error message is displayed. Otherwise, if the ambient temperature is above 25° C., the maximum battery voltage for charging is reduced (e.g., by 24 mV/° C.) to protect the battery from damage due to overcharging, because the battery capacity is elevated at temperatures above 25° C. [0052] As discussed previously and shown in FIG. 5 , the need for maintenance of the power center 10 can be communicated to the user by the red maintenance LED 26 , which can be illuminated to indicate to the user that a full charge of the battery 2 is required to optimize battery performance and life. Repeated charging of the battery 2 without fully charging the battery 2 can significantly reduce the life of the battery 2 . In one embodiment of the invention, a counter or timer can be used to track the number of charges between full charges and/or the time between full charges and compare those numbers to thresholds based on proper maintenance of the battery 2 . For example, if it is advisable to complete a full charge after every seven incomplete charges, a counter can be used to count each of the incomplete charges. When that counter reaches seven, red maintenance LED 26 can be illuminated and reset when the MCU 4 determines that the battery 2 has been fully charged. Similarly, if it is advisable to complete a full charge after every seven days, a timer can be used to track the time. When the timer reaches seven days, red maintenance LED 26 can be illuminated and reset when the MCU 4 determines that the battery 2 has been fully charged. The MCU 4 can also measure cumulative power throughput and, after a certain threshold has been reached (e.g., 200 watt-hours), illuminate red maintenance LED 26 . [0053] Returning to FIG. 6 , the MCU 4 controls the discharge circuit 8 , which regulates power to and monitors the outputs 12 , 14 to prevent the user from drawing power out of the battery 2 in a manner that might damage the battery 2 . The MCU 4 monitors the output currents and disables the outputs 12 , 14 if the user attempts to draw too much power or if a short circuit occurs. In one embodiment, the 12V DC cigarette lighter outputs 12 are powered directly from the battery 2 , and the 5V DC USB outputs 14 are powered from the battery 2 through a 5V switching regulator. The outputs 12 , 14 can be equipped with current sensors to measure the current draw. [0054] This written description uses examples to disclose the invention, including the best mode, and also to enable any person skilled in the art to practice the invention, including making and using any devices or systems and performing any incorporated methods. The patentable scope of the invention is defined by the claims, and may include other examples that occur to those skilled in the art. Such other examples are intended to be within the scope of the claims if they have structural elements that do not differ from the literal language of the claims, or if they include equivalent structural elements with insubstantial differences from the literal language of the claims.

A method and apparatus for identifying different types of energy sources used to charge a battery by receiving energy from at least one of the different types of energy sources at input terminals, identifying the type of energy source, and selecting a mode for charging the battery based on the type of energy source identified. A method and apparatus for protecting against certain energy sources used to charge a battery is also disclosed.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to the field of immunoassays for determining the presence or quantifying the amount of gemcitabine in human biological samples in order to rapidly determine optimal drug concentrations during chemotherapy. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Cancer is a term used to describe a group of malignancies that all share the common trait of developing when cells in a part of the body begin to grow out of control. Most cancers form as tumors, but can also manifest in the blood and circulate through other to tissues where they grow. Cancer malignancies are most commonly treated with a combination of surgery, chemotherapy, and/or radiation therapy. The type of treatment used to treat a specific cancer depends upon several factors including the type of cancer malignancy and the stage during which it was diagnosed. Gemcitabine is a commonly used cytotoxic agent that is used for the treatment of Pancreatic Cancer; Poplin et al J Clin Oncol, 27, 23, 3778-85, 2009 and Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer; Zinner, R G, et al., Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys, 73, 1, 119-27 2009; and Treat, J A, et al., Ann Oncol, 2009. Gemcitabine is also used as an adjuvant treatment in pancreatic cancer (Saif, M W, JOP, 10, 4, 373-7 2009; Li, J and M W Saif, JOP, 10, 4, 361-5 2009). Although it is widely used, this compound has been associated with debilitating side effects such as myelosupression, along with liver and kidney damage. By monitoring the levels of gemcitabine in the body and adjusting the dose these side effects can be better controlled and limited in patients. Gemcitabine is the hydrochloride salt of the formula: There is often high variable relationship between the dose of gemcitabine and the resulting serum drug concentration that affects therapeutic effect. This is especially prevalent in women and elderly patients. These groups display a lower clearance, resulting in higher plasma concentrations for any given dose. Gemcitabine (I) is metabolized in the body by cytidine deaminase (CDA) to its main pharmaceutically inactive metabolite: 2′,2′-difluoro-2′-deoxyuridine (dFdU) which has the formula: In preparing human biological samples such as blood and plasma samples for immunoassays it is necessary to use tetrahydrouridine (THU). This preservative acts to inhibit cytidine deaminase activity during the collection of patient samples to prevent further metabolism of gemcitabine to the inactive metabolite of the compound of formula II. The preservative tetrahydrouridine has the following formula: The degree of intra- and inter-individual pharmacokinetic variability of gemcitabine varies greatly and is impacted by many factors, including: Organ function Genetic regulation Disease state Age Time of sampling, Mode of drug administration, and Technique-related administration. As a result of this variability, equal doses of the same drug in different individuals can result in dramatically different clinical outcomes, as illustrated below (Hon, Y Y and W E Evans, Clin Chem, 44, 2, 388-400 1998.). The effectiveness of the same gemcitabine dosage varies significantly based upon individual drug metabolism and the ultimate serum drug concentration in the patient. Therapeutic drug management would provide the clinician with insight on patient variation in both oral and intravenous drug administrations. With therapeutic drug management, drug dosages could be individualized to the patient, and the chances of effectively treating the cancer without the unwanted side effects would be much higher (Nieto, Y, Curr Drug Metab, 2, 1, 53-66 2001). In addition, therapeutic drug management of gemcitabine would serve as an excellent tool to ensure compliance in administering chemotherapy with the actual prescribed dosage and achievement of the effective serum concentration levels. It has been found that variability in serum concentration is not only due to physiological factors, but can also result from variation in administration technique (Caffo, O, S Fallani, E Marangon, S Nobili, M I Cassetta, V Murgia, F Sala, A Novelli, E Mini, M Zucchetti and E Galligioni, Cancer Chemother Pharmacol, 2010). Routine therapeutic drug management of gemcitabine would require the availability of simple automated tests adaptable to general laboratory equipment. Tests that best fit these criteria are immunoassays such as a radioimmunoassay and an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. However the corresponding antibodies used in these immunoassays must demonstrate a broad cross-reactivity to gemcitabine, without any substantial activity to non-pharmaceutically active gemcitabine metabolites and the preservative of formula III. In order to be effective in monitoring drug levels of gemcitabine, the antibody should be most specific to the active compound, gemcitabine and display very low cross-reactivity to no cross-reactivity to the non-pharmaceutically active metabolite, 2′,2′-difluoro-2′-deoxyuridine (the compound of Formula II) and the preservative tetrahydrouridine (the compound of Formula III). SUMMARY OF INVENTION In accordance with this invention, a new class of antibodies have been produced which are substantially selectively reactive to gemcitabine so as to bind to gemcitabine without any substantial cross reactivity to non-pharmaceutically active gemcitabine metabolites, particularly 2′,2′-difluoro-2′-deoxyuridine. In addition these antibodies do not react with the preservative, tetrahydrouridine, which is necessary in collecting patient samples to stabilize the gemcitabine in the collected patient samples. By selectively reactive, it is meant that these antibodies only react with the pharmaceutically active gemcitabine molecule and do not substantially react with the non-pharmaceutically active gemcitabine metabolites, the most important and basic blocking metabolite being 2′,2′-difluoro-2′-deoxyuridine and the preservative, tetrahydrouridine. It has been found that by using immunogens which are conjugates of an immunogenic carrier having a reactive thiol or amino functional group with 5-substituted gemcitabine compounds of the formula: wherein B is —CH 2 — or Y is an organic spacing group; X is a functional group capable of binding to said carrier through said amino or thiol group; and p is an integer from 0 to 1 or salts thereof; produce antibodies which are specific for gemcitabine and do not substantially react with or bind with non-pharmaceutical active metabolites particularly 2′,2′-difluoro-2′-deoxyuridine as well as tetrahydrouridine. The provision of these antibodies which substantially selectively react with gemcitabine and do not cross react with 2′,2′-difluoro-2′-deoxyuridine and tetrahydrouridine allows one to produce an immunoassay which can specifically detect and monitor gemcitabine in the fluid samples of patients being treated with gemcitabine. Also included within this invention are reagents and kits for said immunoassay. DETAILED DESCRIPTION In accordance with this invention, a new class of antibodies is provided which are substantially selectively reactive with gemcitabine and do not substantially react or cross react with pharmaceutically inactive gemcitabine metabolites, particularly 2′,2′-difluoro-2′-deoxyuridine and the preservative, tetrahydrouridine. It has been discovered that through the use of these derivatives of the compound of Formula IV or salts thereof, as immunogens, this new class of antibodies of this invention are provided. It is through the use of these antibodies that an immunoassay, including reagents and kits for such immunoassay for detecting and/or quantifying gemcitabine in blood, plasma or other body fluid samples has been developed. By use of this immunoassay, the presence and amount of gemcitabine in body fluid samples, preferably a blood or plasma sample, can be detected and/or quantified. In this manner, a patient being treated with gemcitabine can be monitored during therapy and his treatment adjusted in accordance with said monitoring. By means of this invention one achieves the therapeutic drug management of gemcitabine in cancer patients being treated with gemcitabine as a chemotherapeutic agent. The reagents utilized in the assay of this invention are conjugates of a carrier containing a reactive thiol or amino group with the compounds of Formula IV or salts thereof. Preferably the carriers contain a polyamine polymer, which contains a reactive thiol or amino group. In preparing the immunogens, the carriers are immunogenic polymers which preferably contain a polyamine polymer, having a reactive thiol or amino group. When used in an immunoassay, these conjugates are competitive binding partners with the gemcitabine present in the sample for the binding with the antibodies of this invention. Therefore, the amount of conjugate reagent which binds to the antibody will be inversely proportional to the amount of gemcitabine in the sample. In accordance with this invention, the assay utilizes any conventional measuring means for detecting and measuring the amount of said conjugate which is bound or unbound to the antibody. Through the use of said means, the amount of the bound or unbound conjugate can be determined. Generally, the amount of gemcitabine in a sample is determined by correlating the measured amount of the bound or unbound conjugate produced by the gemcitabine in the sample with values of the bound or unbound conjugate determined from a standard or calibration curve obtained from samples containing known amounts of gemcitabine, which known amounts are in the range expected for the sample to be tested. These studies for producing calibration curves are determined using the same immunoassay procedure as used for the sample. The conjugates, which include the immunogens, are prepared from compounds of the formula IV or salts thereof. The carriers, including the immunogens, having a reactive terminal amino or thiol group, are linked to the ligand portion which has the formula: wherein X′ is —CH 2 — or a functional linking group, Y, B and p are as above. This ligand portion may be linked to one or more active thiol or amino sites on the carrier containing the polyamine polymer. Preferably these carriers contain a polymer, most preferred a polyamine polymer, containing a reactive thiol or amino group. Definitions Throughout this description the following definitions are to be understood: The term gemcitabine includes gemcitabine as well as the pharmaceutically acceptable salts of gemcitabine. The terms “immunogen” and “immunogenic” refer to substances capable of eliciting, producing, or generating an immune response in an organism. The term “conjugate” refers to any substance formed from the joining together of two parts. Representative conjugates in accordance with the present invention include those formed by the joining together of a small molecule, such as the compound of formula IV and a large molecule, such as a carrier or a polyamine polymer, particularly protein. In the conjugate the small molecule maybe joined at one or more active sites on the large molecule. The term conjugate includes the term immunogen. “Haptens” are partial or incomplete antigens. They are carrier-free substances, mostly low molecular weight substances, which are not capable of stimulating antibody formation, but which do react with antibodies. The latter are formed by coupling a hapten to a high molecular weight immunogenic carrier and then injecting this coupled product, i.e., immunogen, into a human or animal subject. The hapten of this invention is gemcitabine. As used herein, a “spacing group” or “spacer” refers to a portion of a chemical structure which connects two or more substructures such as haptens, carriers, immunogens, labels, or tracers through a CH 2 or functional linking group. These spacer groups will be enumerated hereinafter in this application. The atoms of a spacing group and the atoms of a chain within the spacing group are themselves connected by chemical bonds. Among the preferred spacers are straight or branched, saturated or unsaturated, carbon chains. Theses carbon chains may also include one or more heteroatoms within the chain or at termini of the chains. By “heteroatoms” is meant atoms other than carbon which are chosen from the group consisting of oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur. Spacing groups may also include cyclic or aromatic groups as part of the chain or as a substitution on one of the atoms in the chain. The number of atoms in the spacing group is determined by counting the atoms other than hydrogen. The number of atoms in a chain within a spacing group is determined by counting the number of atoms other than hydrogen along the shortest route between the substructures being connected. A functional linking group may be used to activate, e.g., provide an available functional site on, a hapten or spacing group for synthesizing a conjugate of a hapten with a label or carrier or polyamine polymer. An “immunogenic carrier,” as the terms are used herein, is an immunogenic substance, commonly a protein or a protein modified to carry a reactive thiol or amino group, that can join with a hapten, in this case gemcitabine, thereby enabling these hapten derivatives to induce an immune response and elicit the production of antibodies that can bind specifically with these haptens. The immunogenic carriers and the linking groups will be enumerated hereinafter in this application. Among the immunogenic carrier substances are included proteins, glycoproteins, complex polyamino-polysaccharides, particles, and nucleic acids that are recognized as foreign and thereby elicit an immunologic response from the host. The polyamino-polysaccharides may be prepared from polysaccharides using any of the conventional means known for this preparation. Also various protein types may be employed as a poly(amino acid) immunogenic carrier. These types include albumins, serum proteins, lipoproteins, etc. Illustrative proteins include bovine serum albumin (BSA), keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH), egg ovalbumin, bovine thyroglobulin (BTG) etc. Alternatively, synthetic poly(amino acids) may be utilized. Alternatively these proteins can be modified so as to contain a reactive thiol group. Immunogenic carriers can also include poly amino-polysaccharides, which are a high molecular weight polymer built up by repeated condensations of monosaccharides. Examples of polysaccharides are starches, glycogen, cellulose, carbohydrate gums such as gum arabic, agar, and so forth. The polysaccharide may also contain polyamino acid residues and/or lipid residues. The immunogenic carrier can also be a poly(nucleic acid) either alone or conjugated to one of the above mentioned poly(amino acids) or polysaccharides. The immunogenic carrier can also include solid particles. The particles are generally at least about 0.02 microns (μm) and not more than about 100 μm, and usually about 0.05 μm to 10 μm in diameter. The particle can be organic or inorganic, swellable or non-swellable, porous or non-porous, optimally of a density approximating water, generally from about 0.7 to 1.5 g/mL, and composed of material that can be transparent, partially transparent, or opaque. The particles can be biological materials such as cells and microorganisms, including non-limiting examples such as erythrocytes, leukocytes, lymphocytes, hybridomas, Streptococcus, Staphylococcus aureus, E. coli , and viruses. The particles can also be comprised of organic and inorganic polymers, liposomes, latex, phospholipid vesicles, or lipoproteins. “Poly(amino acid)” or “polypeptide” is a polyamide formed from amino acids. Poly(amino acids) will generally range from about 2,000 molecular weight, having no upper molecular weight limit, normally being less than 10,000,000 and usually not more than about 600,000 daltons. There will usually be different ranges, depending on whether an immunogenic carrier or an enzyme is involved. A “peptide” is any compound formed by the linkage of two or more amino acids by amide (peptide) bonds, usually a polymer of α-amino acids in which the α-amino group of each amino acid residue (except the NH 2 terminus) is linked to the α-carboxyl group of the next residue in a linear chain. The terms peptide, polypeptide and poly(amino acid) are used synonymously herein to refer to this class of compounds without restriction as to size. The largest members of this class are referred to as proteins. These polymer peptides can be modified by conventional means to convert the reactive NH 2 terminal group into a terminal SH group. A “label,” “detector molecule,” or “tracer” is any molecule which produces, or can be induced to produce, a detectable signal. The label can be conjugated to an analyte, immunogen, antibody, or to another molecule such as a receptor or a molecule that can bind to a receptor such as a ligand, particularly a hapten. Non-limiting examples of labels include radioactive isotopes, enzymes, enzyme fragments, enzyme substrates, enzyme inhibitors, coenzymes, catalysts, fluorophores, dyes, chemiluminescers, luminescers, or sensitizers; a non-magnetic or magnetic particle, a solid support, a liposome, a ligand, or a receptor. The term “antibody” refers to a specific protein binding partner for an antigen and is any substance, or group of substances, which has a specific binding affinity for an antigen to the exclusion of other substances. The generic term antibody subsumes polyclonal antibodies, monoclonal antibodies and antibody fragments. The term “derivative” refers to a chemical compound or molecule made from a parent compound by one or more chemical reactions. The term “carrier” refers to solid particles and/or polymeric polymers such as immunogenic polymers such as those mentioned above. Where the carrier is a solid particle, the solid particle may be bound, coated with or otherwise attached to a polyamine polymer to provide one or more reactive sites for bonding to the functional group X in the compounds of the formula IV. The term “reagent kit,” or “test kit,” refers to an assembly of materials that are used in performing an assay. The reagents can be provided in packaged combination in the same or in separate containers, depending on their cross-reactivity and stabilitiy, and in liquid or in lyophilized form. The amounts and proportions of reagents provided in the kit can be selected so as to provide optimum results for a particular application. A reagent kit embodying features of the present invention comprises antibodies specific for gemcitabine. The kit may further comprise ligands of the analyte and calibration and control materials. The reagents may remain in liquid form or may be lyophilized. The phrase “calibration and control materials” refers to any standard or reference material containing a known amount of a drug to be measured. The concentration of drug is calculated by comparing the results obtained for the unknown specimen with the results obtained for the standard. This is commonly done by constructing a calibration curve. The term “biological sample” includes, but is not limited to, any quantity of a substance from a living thing or formerly living thing. Such living things include, but are not limited to, humans, mice, monkeys, rats, rabbits, horses, and other animals. Such substances include, but are not limited to, blood, serum, plasma, urine, cells, organs, tissues, bone, bone marrow, lymph, lymph nodes, synovial tissue, chondrocytes, synovial macrophages, endothelial cells, and skin. Reagents and Immunogens In constructing an immunoassay, a conjugate of gemcitabine is constructed to compete with the gemcitabine in the sample for binding sites on the antibodies. In the immunoassay of this invention, the reagents are the conjugates of the 5′ substituted gemcitabine derivatives of the compounds of formula IV and the antibodies having the aforementioned requisite properties. In the compounds of formula IV-B, the linker spacer constitutes the —B—(Y) p —X′ portion of this molecule. In these linkers X′ and the spacer —B—(Y) p —X′ are conventional in preparing conjugates and immunogens. Any of the conventional spacer-linking groups utilized to prepare conjugates and immunogens for immunoassays can be utilized in the compounds of formula IV-B. Such conventional linkers and spacers are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,501,987 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,101,015. Among the preferred spacer groups are included the spacer groups hereinbefore mentioned. Particularly preferred spacing groups are groups such as alkylene containing from 1 to 10 carbon atoms, wherein n and o are integers from 0 to 6, and m is an integer from 1 to 6 with alkylene being the especially preferred spacing group. With respect to the above structures of the spacing group designated by Y, the functional group X is connected at the terminal position at the right side of the structure i.e. where (CH 2 )m and (CH 2 )o are located. In the compounds of formula IV-B, X′ is —CH 2 — or a functional group linking the spacer, to an amine or thiol group on the polymeric carrier. The group X′ is the result of the terminal functional group X in the compounds of Formula IV which is capable of binding to the amino or thiol group in the polyamine polymer used as either the carrier or as the immunogen. Any terminal functional group capable of reacting with an amine or thiol group can be utilized as the functional group X in the compounds of formula IV. These terminal functional groups preferably included within X are: wherein R 3 is hydrogen or taken together with its attached oxygen atom forms a reactive ester and R 4 is oxygen or sulfur. The —N═C═R 4 , radical can be an isocyanate or as isothiocyanate. The active esters formed by —OR 3 include imidoester, such as N-hydroxysuccinamide, 1-hydroxy benzotriazole and p-nitrophenyl ester. However any active ester which can react with an amine or thiol group can be used. The carboxylic group and the active esters are coupled to the carrier or immunogenic polymer by conventional means. The amine group on the polyamine polymer, such as a protein, produces an amide group which connects the spacer to the polymeric immunogens or carrier to form the conjugates of this invention. When X in the compound of formula IV is these compounds preferably react with the free amino group of the polymeric or immunogenic carrier. On the other hand, when X in the compound of formula IV is the maleimide radical of the formula this compound preferably reacts with the thiol (or SH) group which may be present on the polymeric or protein carrier, including the immunogens. In this case where X is the maleimide radical the compound of the formula IV has the structure: In accordance with a preferred embodiment, these compounds of formula IV-C are reacted to attach to a polymeric protein which has been modified to convert an amino group to a thiol group. This can be done by the reacting a free amino group of a polymeric protein carrier with a compound of the formula wherein R 15 is a thiol protecting group; R 3 is as above; and v is an integer of from 1 to 4. This reaction is carried out in an aqueous medium by mixing the protein containing carrier with the compound of formula V in an aqueous medium. In this reaction temperature and pressure are not critical and the reaction can be carried out at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. Temperatures of from 10° C. to 25° C. are generally preferred. In the compound of formula V which is reacted with the compound of Formula IV-C, any conventional thiol protecting agent can be utilized. The thiol protecting groups are well known in the art with 2-pyridyldthio being the preferred protecting group. By this reaction, the thiol group, SH— becomes the functional group of the carrier which bonds the compound of formula IV to the remainder of the carrier In the next step, before reacting with the compound of Formula IV-C with the thiol modified carrier, the thiol protecting group of carrier is removed by conventional means from the resulting reaction product which is formed by reacting the compound of formula V with the carrier. Any conventional means for removing a thiol protecting group can be utilized in carrying out this reaction. However, in utilizing a means to remove the thiol protecting group, care must be taken that the reactants be soluble in the aqueous medium and do not in any way destroy or harm the polyamine polymer contained in the carrier. A preferred means for removing this protecting group is by the use of dithiothreitol as an agent to reduce the resultant condensation product. This reduction can be carried out by simply adding the reducing agent to the reaction medium without utilizing higher pressures or temperatures. This reduction can be carried out at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. While the above method represents one means for converting a reactive terminal amino group on the polyamine polymeric containing carrier to a thiol group, any conventional means for carrying out this conversion can be utilized. Methods for converting terminal amino groups on polyamine polymeric containing carriers to thiol groups are well known in the art and can be employed in accordance with this invention. The reaction of the polymeric polyamine containing carrier having a terminal reactive thiol group with the compound of formula IV where X is a functional group capable of binding to the terminal thiol group carried by the carrier can be carried out by conventional means. The maleimide of IV C is reacted with the thiol group carried by the polyamine polymeric carrier. Any well known means for addition of a thiol across a maleimide double bond can be utilized in producing the conjugates of formula IV which are conjugated through a thiol bridge. In the conjugates, bonded through amide bonds which conjugates include the immunogens of the present invention, the chemical bond between the carboxyl group containing gemcitabine haptens and the amino groups on the carrier or immunogen can be obtained using a variety of methods known to one skilled in the art. It is frequently preferable to form amide bonds by first activating the carboxylic acid moiety of the gemcitabine hapten in the compound of formula IV or their pharmaceutically acceptable salts by reacting the carboxy group with a leaving group reagent (e.g., N-hydroxysuccinimide, 1-hydroxybenzotriazole, p-nitrophenol and the like). An activating reagent such as dicyclohexylcarbodiimide, diisopropylcarbodiimide and the like can be used. The activated form of the carboxyl group in the gemcitabine hapten of the compound of Formula IV or its pharmaceutically acceptable salts is then reacted in a buffered solution containing the protein carrier. In preparing the amino bonded conjugates where the gemcitabine derivative of formula IV contains a primary or secondary amino group as well as the carboxyl group, it is necessary to use an amine protecting group during the activation and coupling reactions to prevent the conjugates from reacting with themselves. Typically, the amines on the gemcitabine derivative of formula IV are protected by forming the corresponding N-trifluoroacetamide, N-tertbutyloxycarbonyl urethane (N-t-BOC urethane), N-carbobenzyloxy urethane or similar structure. Once the coupling reaction to the immunogenic polymer or carrier has been accomplished, as described above, the amine protecting group can be removed using reagents that do not otherwise alter the structure of the immunogen or conjugate. Such reagents and methods are known to one skilled in the art and include weak or strong aqueous or anhydrous acids, weak or strong aqueous or anhydrous bases, hydride-containing reagents such as sodium borohydride or sodium cyanoborohydride and catalytic hydrogenation. Various methods of conjugating haptens and carriers are also disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 3,996,344 and U.S. Pat. No. 4,016,146, which are herein incorporated by reference. On the other hand in preparing amino conjugates where X is a terminal isocyanate or thioisocyanate radical in the compound of formula IV, these radicals when reacted with the free amine of a polyamine polymer produce the conjugate or immunogen of formula IV-B where X′ is where R 4 is as above, which functionally connects with the amino group on the polyamine carrier or on the immunogenic polypeptide. In preparing the amino conjugates of the compounds of formula IV where X is an aldehyde group these compounds may be connected to the amine group of the polyamine polypeptide or carrier through an amine linkage by reductive amination. Any conventional method of condensing an aldehyde with an amine such as through reductive amination can be used to form this linkage. In this case, X′ in the ligand, portion of formula IV-B- is —CH 2 . The compound of formula IV and from this compound, the compound of formula IV-B, are prepared from gemcitabine (the compound of formula I). However in preparing the compound of formula IV, from the compound of formula I, it is necessary to selectively protect the hydroxy group of that 3′ position and the amino group at the 4 position on the compound of formula I, what affecting the free hydroxy group at the 5′ position to produce a compound of the formula. wherein R 10 is a hydrolyzable hydroxy protecting group; and R 11 is a hydrolyzable amino protecting groups In preparing the compound of formula I-C the compound of formula I is reactive to convert the free hydroxy group to a hydrolyzable hydroxy protecting group. Any conventional method of converting a free hydroxy group into a hydrolyzable hydroxy protecting group can by used. This reaction should occur under mild alkaline conditions, so that the hydroxy group at the 3′ position is protected while leaving the hydroxy group at the 5′ position free. The hydroxy group at the 3′ position in the compound of formula I-C is far more reactive than the hydroxy group at the 5′ position. Therefore under mild alkaline aqueous conditions such as using sodium bicarbonate in an aqueous medium will provide a protecting group at the 3′ hydroxy position without affecting the hydroxy group at the 5′ position. Any conventional hydroxy protecting group which is easily hydrolizable can be utilitzed. The preferred hydroxy protecting group is a tertiary butoxy carbonyl group formed by reacting the compound of formula I with tertiary butoxy carbonate under mildly alkaline aqueous conditions at room temperature. Any other conventional hydroxy protecting groups can be utilized. Among the preferred hydroxy protecting groups are the ester groups formed by reacting the 3′ hydroxy group in the compound of formula I with a alkanoic acid under mild alkaline conditions to form the ester at the 3′ position while leaving the hydroxy group at the 5′ position free. The compound of formula I with the protected 3′ hydroxy group can be converted to the compound of formula I-C by the same reaction that was used to protect the hydroxy group at the 3′ position except that elevated temperatures i.e. from 35° C. to 70° C. are utilized. In this manner the compound of formula I-C is formed from the compound of formula I. The 5′-substituted compounds of formula IV where B is —CH 2 — are formed by reacting the 5′-hydroxy group of gemcitabine with a halide of the formula: halo-CH 2 —(Y) p —X  VIII-B wherein p, Y and X are as above. In the next step of forming the compound of formula IV from gemcitabine, any conventional means of reacting an alcohol to form ethers can be utilized to condense the compound of formula VIII-B with the 5′ hydroxy position on the gemcitabine. The use of a halide in the compound of formula VIII-B provides an efficient means for forming such ethers by condensing with the alcohol. On the other hand, where Y in the compound of formula VIII-B contains functional groups, which may interfere with this reaction to form the compound of formula II-B, these functional groups can be protected by means of suitable protecting groups which can be removed after this reaction as described hereinabove. The 5′-substituted compounds of formula IV where B is is produced by reacting 5′-hydroxy group on gemcitabine with an amino compound of the formula: NH 2 —CH 2 —(Y) p —X  IX wherein X, Y and p are as above. After first converting the 5′-hydroxy group on gemcitabine to the chloroformatic group Any conventional means of converting a hydroxy group to a chloroformatic group can be used. After the formulation of a chloroformate, the halo group of the chloroformate is condensed with the amine group in the compound of formula IX. Prior to this reaction, the reactive group on gemcitabine and/or on the compound of formula IX are protected as described hereinabove with a conventional protecting group. These protecting groups can be removed after this halide condensation by conventional means such as described hereinbefore. The compound of formula IV-B can be converted into the immunogens and/or the conjugate reagents of this invention by reacting these compounds with a polyamine or a polypeptide carrier which contains a terminal amino group. The same polypeptide can be utilized as the carrier and as the immunogenic polymer carrier in the immunogen of this invention provided that the polyamine or polypeptide carrier used to generate the antigen is immunologically active. However, to form the conjugates, these polymers need not produce an immunological response as needed for the immunogens. In accordance with this invention, the various functional groups represented by X in the compounds of formula IV-B can be conjugated to the polymeric material by conventional means of attaching a functional group to an amine or thiol group contained within the polymeric carrier. The compounds of formula IV as either the reagent, conjugate including the immunogen prepared therefrom can be present or used in the immunoassay of this invention in its salt form or as a free base. The free amino group in the compound of formula IV and in the conjugate including immunogen prepared therefrom readily forms salts with acids preferably pharmaceutically acceptable acids. Any acid salt of the compound of formula IV and the conjugates including immunogen prepared therefrom can be used in this invention. These salts s including both inorganic and organic acids such as, for example, acetic, benzenesulfonic, benzoic, camphorsulfonic, citric, ethenesulfonic, dichloroacetic, formic, fumaric, gluconic, glutamic, hippuric, hydrobromic, hydrochloric, isethionic, lactic, maleic, malic, mandelic, methanesulfonic, mucic, nitric, oxalic, pamoic, pantothenic, phosphoric, succinic, sulfuric, tartaric, oxalic, p-toluenesulfonic and the like. Particularly preferred are fumaric, hydrochloric, hydrobromic, phosphoric, succinic, sulfuric and methanesulfonic acids. Antibodies The present invention also relates to novel antibodies including monoclonal antibodies to gemcitabine produced by utilizing the aforementioned immunogens. In accordance with this invention it has been found that these antibodies produced in accordance with this invention are selectively reactive with gemcitabine and do not react with non-pharmaceutically active metabolites and other compounds which would interfere with immunoassays for gemcitabine. The most problematic of these gemcitabine metabolites is 2′,2′-difluoro-2′-deoxyuridine and the most problematic preservative is tetrahydrouridine. The ability of the antibodies of this invention not to react with these inactive metabolites and this preservative makes these antibodies particularly valuable in providing an immunoassay for gemcitabine. The present invention relates to novel antibodies and monoclonal antibodies to gemcitabine. The antisera of the invention can be conveniently produced by immunizing host animals with the immunogens of this invention. Suitable host animals include rodents, such as, for example, mice, rats, rabbits, guinea pigs and the like, or higher mammals such as goats, sheep, horses and the like. Initial doses, bleedings and booster shots can be given according to accepted protocols for eliciting immune responses in animals, e.g., in a preferred embodiment mice received an initial dose of 100 ug immunogen/mouse, i.p. and one or more subsequent booster shots of between 50 and 100 ug immunogen/mouse over a six month period. Through periodic bleeding, the blood samples of the immunized mice were observed to develop antibodies against gemcitabine utilizing conventional immunoassays. These methods provide a convenient way to screen for hosts which are producing antisera having the desired activity. The antibodies were also screened against the major pharmaceutically inactive metabolites of gemcitabine, particularly 2′,2′-difluoro-2′-deoxyuridine and the preservative is tetrahydrouridine and showed no substantial binding to these compounds. Monoclonal antibodies are produced conveniently by immunizing Balb/c mice according to the above schedule followed by injecting the mice with 100 ug immunogen i.p. or i.v. on three successive days starting four days prior to the cell fusion. Other protocols well known in the antibody art may of course be utilized as well. The complete immunization protocol detailed herein provided an optimum protocol for serum antibody response for the antibody to gemcitabine. B lymphocytes obtained from the spleen, peripheral blood, lymph nodes or other tissue of the host may be used as the monoclonal antibody producing cell. Most preferred are B lymphocytes obtained from the spleen. Hybridomas capable of generating the desired monoclonal antibodies of the invention are obtained by fusing such B lymphocytes with an immortal cell line, which is a cell line that which imparts long term tissue culture stability on the hybrid cell. In the preferred embodiment of the invention the immortal cell may be a lymphoblastoid cell or a plasmacytoma cell such as a myeloma cell. Murine hybridomas which produce gemcitabine monoclonal antibodies are formed by the fusion of mouse myeloma cells and spleen cells from mice immunized against gemcitabine-protein conjugates. Chimeric and humanized monoclonal antibodies can be produced by cloning the antibody expressing genes from the hybridoma cells and employing recombinant DNA methods now well known in the art to either join the subsequence of the mouse variable region to human constant regions or to combine human framework regions with complementary determining regions (CDR's) from a donor mouse or rat immunoglobulin. An improved method for carrying out humanization of murine monoclonal antibodies which provides antibodies of enhanced affinities is set forth in International Patent Application WO 92/11018. Polypeptide fragments comprising only a portion of the primary antibody structure may be produced, which fragments possess one or more immunoglobulin activities. These polypeptide fragments may be produced by proteolytic cleavage of intact antibodies by methods well known in the art, or by inserting stop codons at the desired locations in expression vectors containing the antibody genes using site-directed mutageneses to produce Fab fragments or (Fab′) 2 fragments. Single chain antibodies may be produced by joining VL and VH regions with a DNA linker (see Huston et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 85:5879-5883 (1988) and Bird et al., Science, 242:423-426 (1988)). The antibodies of this invention are selective for gemcitabine without having any substantial cross-reactivity with the major pharmaceutically non active metabolites of gemcitabine which is 2′,2′-difluoro-2′-deoxyuridine and the preservative is tetrahydrouridine. By having no substantial cross-reactivity it is meant that the antibodies of this invention have a cross reactivity relative to gemcitabine with its non-pharmaceutically active metabolites, including the 2′,2′-difluoro-2′-deoxyuridine and this preservative of less than 20%. Those antibodies having a cross reactivity of less than 15% are preferred. Immunoassays In accordance with this invention, the conjugates and the antibodies generated from the immunogens of the compounds of IV or salts thereof can be utilized as reagents for the determination of gemcitabine in patient samples. This determination is performed by means of an immunoassay. Any immunoassay in which the reagent conjugates formed from the compounds of IV or salts thereof compete with the gemcitabine in the sample for binding sites on the antibodies generated in accordance with this invention can be utilized to determine the presence of gemcitabine in a patient sample. The manner for conducting such an assay for gemcitabine in a sample suspected of containing gemcitabine, comprises combining an (a) aqueous medium sample, (b) an antibody to gemcitabine generated in accordance with this invention and (c) the conjugates formed from the compounds of formula IV or salts thereof. The amount of gemcitabine in the sample can be determined by measuring the inhibition of the binding to the specific antibody of a known amount of the conjugate added to the mixture of the sample and antibody. The result of the inhibition of such binding of the known amount of conjugates by the unknown sample is compared to the results obtained in the same assay by utilizing known standard solutions of gemcitabine. Various means can be utilized to measure the amount of conjugate formed from the compounds of formula IV or salts thereof bound to the antibody. One method is where binding of the conjugates to the antibody causes a decrease in the rate of rotation of a fluorophore conjugate. The amount of decrease in the rate of rotation of a fluorophore conjugate in the liquid mixture can be detected by the fluorescent polarization technique such as disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,269,511 and 4,420,568. On the other hand, the antibody can be coated or absorbed on nanoparticles so that when these particles react with the gemcitabine conjugates formed from the compounds formula IV or salts thereof, these nanoparticles form an aggregate. However, when the antibody coated or absorbed nanoparticles react with the gemcitabine in the sample, the gemcitabine from the sample bound to these nanoparticles does not cause aggregation of the antibody nanoparticles. The amount of aggregation or agglutination can be measured in the assay mixture by absorbance. On the other hand, these assays can be carried out by having either the antibody or the gemcitabine conjugates attached to a solid support such as a microtiter plate or any other conventional solid support including solid particles. Attaching antibodies and proteins to such solid particles is well known in the art. Any conventional method can be utilized for carrying out such attachments. In many cases, in order to aid measurement, labels may be placed upon the antibodies, conjugates or solid particles, such as radioactive labels or enzyme labels, as aids in detecting the amount of the conjugates formed from the compounds of formula IV or salts thereof which is bound or unbound with the antibody. Other suitable labels include chromophores, fluorophores, etc. As a matter of convenience, assay components of the present invention can be provided in a kit, a packaged combination with predetermined amounts of new reagents employed in assaying for gemcitabine. These reagents include the antibody of this invention, as well as, the conjugates formed from the compounds of formula IV or salts thereof. In addition to these necessary reagents, additives such as ancillary reagents may be included in these kits, for example, stabilizers, buffers and the like. The relative amounts of the various reagents may vary widely to provide for concentrations in solution of the reagents which substantially optimize the sensitivity of the assay. Reagents can be provided in solution or as a dry powder, usually lyophilized, including excipients which on dissolution will provide for a reagent solution having the appropriate concentrations for performing the assay. EXAMPLES In the examples, the following abbreviations are used for designating the following: EtOAc Ethyl acetate Na 2 CO 3 Sodium Bicarbonate Boc 2 O Di-tert-butyl dicarbonate CDI 1,1′-carbonyldiimidazole Na 2 SO 4 Sodium Sulfate CH 2 Cl 2 Dichloromethane THF Tetrahydrofuran N 2 Nitrogen gas THF tetrahydrofuran TFA trifluoroacetic acid DMSO Dimethylsulfoxide s-NHS sulfo-N-hydroxy succinimide EDC 1-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-3-ethylcarbodiimide hydrochloride KLH Keyhole Limpet Hemocyanin BSA Bovine serum albumin PBS Phosphate buffered saline NaCl sodium chloride HRP horse radish-peroxidase ANS 8-Anilino-1-naphthalenesulfonic acid TMB 3,3′,5,5′-Tetramethylbenzidine TRIS Tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane hydrochloride di-H 2 O deionized water The phosphate buffer composition has an aqueous solution containing 15.4 mM Sodium phosphate dibasic (Na 2 HPO 4 ) 4.6 mM Sodium phosphate monobasic (NaH 2 PO 4 ) pH=7.2±0.10 In the Examples, Scheme 1 and Scheme 2 below set forth the specific compounds prepared and referred to by numbers in the Examples. The schemes are as follows: Example 1 Preparation of 5′-O—N-carbonyl(gemcitabine)-6′-aminocaproate [7] (scheme 1) Compound [1] (1.2 g, 4.0 mmol) and Boc 2 O (0.88 g, 4.0 mmol) were stirred in dioxane (60 mL) and a solution of Na 2 CO 3 (2.12 g, 20.0 mmol) in water (15 mL) was added. The reaction mixture was stirred at 25° C. for 48 hours to produce [2] in the mixture. Water (40 mL) was added to the reaction mixture and the product [2] was extracted with EtOAc. The EtOAc organic phase was washed with brine, dried (Na 2 SO 4 ), and evaporated to a white solid, which was then triturated with 10% CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes to obtain compound [2] (1.26 g, 87%). Compound [2] (1.25 g, 3.44 mmol) and Boc 2 O (7.52 g, 34.40 mmol) were mixed in dioxane (100 mL) and heated at 37° C. for 48 hours to provide [3]. The solvent was evaporated to a white solid and the white solid was triturated with 10% CH 2 Cl 2 /hexanes to obtain the compound [3] (1.30 g, 82%). Compound [3] (1.30 g, 2.80 mmol) and 1,1′-carbonyldiimidazole (0.52 g, 3.20 mmol) were mixed in THF (20 mL) and heated at 50° C. for 6 hours. The solvent was evaporated, the residue was dissolved in EtOAc, washed with water, dried with Na 2 SO 4 , and the solvent was evaporated to give compound [4] as a white solid (1.60 g, 100%). Compound [4] (1.50 g, 2.69 mmol) and compound [5] (0.60 g, 3.23 mmol) were mixed in THF (20 mL) and heated at 50° C. for 24 hours. The reaction mixture was diluted with EtOAc, sequentially washed with water and brine, dried with Na 2 SO 4 , and evaporated to a white solid. This material was purified by flash chromatography with 10-50% EtOAc/hexanes to obtain compound [6] (1.40 g, 77%). Compound [6] (1.40 g, 2.07 mmol) was dissolved in anhydrous CH 2 Cl 2 (15 mL) and TFA (15 mL) was added to the stirred solution at 0° C. under N 2 . The stirring was continued at 0° C. for 3 hours and then at 15° C. for 1 hour. The solvent was removed under reduced pressure, and the resulting residue was dissolved in water and lyophilized to isolate compound [7] (1.04 g, 94%) as a white powder. Example 2 Preparation of 5′-O—N-carbonyl-(gemcitabine)-6′-methylcarbamoyl benzoic acid [12] (Scheme 2) Compound [4] (0.60 g, 1.08 mmol) and compound [10] (0.38 g, 1.19 mmol) were mixed in THF (20 mL) and heated at reflux for 24 hours. The reaction mixture was diluted with EtOAc, washed sequentially with water and brine, dried with Na 2 SO 4 , and evaporated to a white solid. This material was purified by flash chromatography with 10-90% EtOAc/hexanes to obtain compound [11] (0.47 g, 54%). Compound [11](0.47 g, 0.58 mmol) was dissolved in anhydrous CH 2 Cl 2 (10 mL) and TFA (10 mL) was added at 0° C. under N 2 . The stirring was continued at 0° C. for 3 h and then at 15° C. for 1 h. The solvent was removed under reduced pressure and the resulting residue was dissolved in water and lyophilized to isolate compound [12] (0.33 g, 85%) as an off-white powder. Example 3 General Method for Preparing s-NHS Activated Drug Derivatives from the Corresponding Acids [7] & [12] Gemcitabine acid derivatives [7] & [12] were activated with EDC and s-NHS to produce the s-NHS activated esters of gemcitabine [8] & [13] for eventual conjugation to proteins (examples 4 and 5). Example 3a Preparation of s-NHS activated ester 5′-O—N-carbonyl(gemcitabine)-6′-aminocaproate Compound [7], example 1, scheme 1, (101.3 mg) was dissolved in 10 mL of DMSO to which was added s-NHS (121.7 mg) and EDC (107.1 mg). The reaction mixture was stirred for 20 hours at ambient temperature under a nitrogen atmosphere to produce compound [8]. The reaction mixture was used directly in examples 4 and 5a. Example 3b Preparation of s-NHS activated ester 5′-O—N-carbonyl-(gemcitabine)-6′-methylcarbamoyl benzoic acid [13] Compound [12], example 2, scheme 2 (22.7 mg) was dissolved in 2.2 mL of DMSO and s-NHS (19.2 mg) and EDC (21.9 mg) were added. The reaction mixture was stirred for 20 hours at ambient temperature under a nitrogen atmosphere to produce compound [13]. The reaction mixture was used directly in example 5b. Example 4 Preparation of KLH Immunogen with Activated Hapten, Gemcitabine-[9]-KLH The s-NHS activated ester of gemcitabine [8] was conjugated with KLH to be used as the immunogen for monoclonal antibody development. Example 4a Preparation of the Gemcitabine-[9]-KLH Conjugate A protein solution of KLH was prepared by dissolving 300 mg of KLH in 15 mL of phosphate buffer (50 mM, pH 7.5), followed by addition of 4.74 mL of compound [8] prepared in Example 3a. The reaction mixture of KLH and compound [8] was allowed to stir for 20 hours at room temperature to produce the gemcitabine [9]-KLH conjugate. The gemcitabine [9]-KLH conjugate was then purified by dialysis against 30% DMSO in phosphate buffer (50 mM, pH 7.5) at room temperature. Thereafter the DMSO proportion was reduced stepwise: 20%, 10% and 0%. The last dialysis was performed against phosphate buffer at 4° C. The gemcitabine [9]-KLH conjugate was characterized by ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy. The conjugate was diluted to a final concentration of 2 mg/mL in phosphate buffer (50 mM, pH 7.5). Example 5a Preparation of BSA Conjugate with Activated Hapten, Gemcitabine-[9]-BSA A protein solution of BSA was prepared by dissolving 1 g BSA in phosphate buffer (50 mM, pH 7.5) for a final concentration of 50 mg/mL. To this protein solution was added 0.83 mL of s-NHS activated gemcitabine derivative [8] prepared in Example 3a. The amount of s-NHS activated gemcitabine derivative [8] added to the protein solution of BSA was calculated for a 1:1 molar ratio between the derivative of gemcitabine [8] and BSA. The mixture of BSA and activated gemcitabine derivative [8] was allowed to stir for 18 hours at room temperature to produce the conjugate of the activated gemcitabine ester [8] and BSA. This conjugate was then purified by dialysis against 20% DMSO in phosphate buffer (50 mM, pH 7.5) at room temperature. Thereafter the DMSO proportion was reduced stepwise: 10% and 0%. The last dialysis was performed against phosphate buffer at 4° C. The purified gemcitabine [9]-BSA conjugate was characterized by UV/VIS spectroscopy. Example 5b Preparation of BSA Conjugate with Activated Hapten [13] Gemcitabine-[14]-BSA A protein solution of BSA was prepared by dissolving 1 g BSA in phosphate buffer (50 mM, pH 7.5) for a final concentration of 50 mg/mL. To 10.0 mL of the protein solution of BSA while stirring on ice, was added 0.620 mL of s-NHS activated gemcitabine derivative [13] prepared in Example 3b. The amount of s-NHS activated gemcitabine derivative [13] added to the protein solution of BSA was calculated for a 1:1 molar ratio between the derivative of gemcitabine [15] and BSA. The mixture of BSA and activated gemcitabine derivative [15] was allowed to stir for 18 hours at room temperature to produce the conjugate of the activated gemcitabine ester [15] and BSA. This conjugate was then purified by dialysis against 15% DMSO in phosphate buffer (50 mM, pH 7.5) at room temperature. Thereafter the DMSO proportion was reduced stepwise: 10%, 5%, and 0%. The last dialysis was performed against phosphate buffer at 4° C. The purified gemcitabine [14]-BSA conjugate was characterized by UV/VIS spectroscopy. Example 6 Preparation of Polyclonal Antibodies to Gemcitabine [9] Ten female BALB/c mice were immunized i.p. with 100 μg/mouse of gemcitabine [9]-KLH immunogen, as prepared in Example 4, emulsified in Complete Freund's adjuvant. The mice were boosted once, four weeks after the initial injection with 100 μg/mouse of the same immunogen emulsified in Incomplete Freund's Adjuvant. Twenty days after the boost, test bleeds containing polyclonal antibodies from each mouse were obtained by orbital bleed. The anti-serum from these test bleeds containing gemcitabine antibodies were evaluated in Examples 8 and 9. Example 7a Microtiter Plate Sensitization Procedure with Gemcitabine [9]-BSA Conjugate The ELISA method for measuring Gemcitabine concentrations was performed in polystyrene microtiter plates (Nunc MaxiSorp F8 Immunomodules) optimized for protein binding and containing 96 wells per plate. Each well was coated with Gemcitabine [9]-BSA conjugate (prepared as in Example 5a) by adding 300 μL of Gemcitabine [9]-BSA conjugate at 10 μg/mL in 0.05M sodium carbonate, pH 9.6, and incubating for three hours at room temperature. The wells were washed with 0.05 M sodium carbonate, pH 9.6 and then were blocked with 375 μL of 5% sucrose, 0.2% sodium caseinate solution for 30 minutes at room temperature. After removal of the post-coat solution the plates were dried at 37° C. overnight. Example 7b Microtiter Plate Sensitization Procedure with Gemcitabine [14]-BSA Conjugate The ELISA method for measuring Gemcitabine concentrations was performed in polystyrene microtiter plates (Nunc MaxiSorp F8 Immunomodules) optimized for protein binding and containing 96 wells per plate. Each well was coated with Gemcitabine [14]-BSA conjugate (prepared as in Example 5b) by adding 300 μL of gemcitabine [14]-BSA conjugate at 10 μg/mL in 0.05M sodium carbonate, pH 9.6, and incubating for three hours at room temperature. The wells were washed with 0.05M sodium carbonate, pH 9.6 and then were blocked with 375 μL of 5% sucrose, 0.2% sodium caseinate solution for 30 minutes at room temperature. After removal of the post-coat solution the plates were dried at 37° C. overnight. Example 8 Antibody Screening Procedure—Titer This procedure is to find the dilution of antibody to be tested for displacement as in Example 9. The ELISA method for screening gemcitabine antibodies (produced in Example 6) was performed with the microtiter plates that were sensitized with gemcitabine-BSA conjugate prepared in Examples 7a and 7b. The antibody screening assay was performed by diluting the murine serum from test bleeds (as in Example 6) containing polyclonal gemcitabine antibodies to 1:10, 1:100, 1:1,000 and 1:10,000 (volume/volume) in phosphate buffered saline containing 0.1% BSA and 0.01% thimerosal. To each well of gem citabine-BSA sensitized wells (prepared in Examples 7a and 7b) 50 μL phosphate buffered saline containing 0.1% BSA and 0.01% thimerosal and 50 μL of diluted antibody were added and incubated for 10 minutes at room temperature with shaking. During this incubation antibody binds to the gemcitabine-BSA conjugate passively absorbed in the wells (Examples 7a and 7b). The wells of the plates were washed three times with 0.02 M TRIS, 0.9% NaCl, 0.5% Tween-80 and 0.001% thimerosal, pH 7.8 to remove any unbound antibody. To detect the amount of Gemcitabine antibody bound to the gemcitabine-BSA conjugate in the wells, 100 μL of a goat anti-mouse antibody-HRP enzyme conjugate (Jackson Immunoresearch) diluted to a specific activity (approximately 1/3000) in PBS with 0.1% BSA, 0.05% ANS, 0.01% thimerosal, capable of binding specifically with murine immunoglobulins and producing a colored product when incubated with a substrate, in this example TMB, were added to each well. After an incubation of 10 minutes at room temperature with shaking, during which the goat anti-mouse antibody-HRP enzyme conjugate binds to gemcitabine antibodies in the wells, the plates were again washed three times to remove unbound goat anti-mouse antibody-HRP enzyme conjugate. To develop a measurable color in the wells washing was followed by the addition of 100 μL of TMB (TMB Substrate, BioFx), the substrate for HRP, to develop color form minutes shaking at room temperature. Following the incubation for color development, the absorbance was determined at 650 nm (Molecular Devices Plate Reader). The amount of antibody in a well was proportional to the absorbance measured and was expressed as the dilution (titer) resulting in an absorbance of 1.5. Titers were determined by graphing antibody dilution of the antibody measured (x-axis) vs. absorbance 650 nm (y-axis) and interpolating the titer at an absorbance of 1.5. The titer which produced absorbance of 1.5 determined the concentration (dilution) of antibody used in the indirect competitive microtiter plate assay described in Example 9. Example 9 Indirect Competitive Microtiter Plate Immunoassay Procedure Determining IC 50 and Cross-Reactivity for Antibodies to Gemcitabine The ELISA method for determining IC 50 values and cross-reactivity was performed with the microtiter plates that were sensitized with gemcitabine-BSA conjugates as described in Examples 7a and 7b. The analytes—gemcitabine and 2′,2′-difluoro-2′-deoxyuridine were diluted in diH 2 O over a concentration range of 1 to 10,000 ng/mL for gemcitabine [9]-BSA microtiter plates and 0.5 to 1,000 ng/mL for gemcitabine [14]-BSA microtiter plates. Each of the assays were performed by incubating 50 μL of the analyte solution with 50 μL of one of the antibodies selected from the polyclonal antibodies produced in Example 6 with the immunogen of Example 4. The assays were all performed by diluting the concentration of the antibodies in each of the wells to the titer determined in Example 8. During the 10 minute incubation (at room temperature with shaking) there is a competition of antibody binding for the gemcitabine-BSA conjugate in the well (produced in Examples 7a and 7b) and the analyte in solution. Following this incubation the wells of the plate were washed three times with 0.02 M TRIS, 0.9% NaCl, 0.5% Tween-80 and 0.001% thimerosal, pH 7.8 to remove any material that was not bound. To detect the amount of gemcitabine antibody bound to the gemcitabine-BSA conjugate in the wells (produced in Examples 7a and 7b), 100 μL of a goat anti-mouse antibody-HRP enzyme conjugate (Jackson Immunoresearch) diluted to a predetermined specific activity (approximately 1/3000) in PBS with 0.1% BSA, 0.05% ANS, 0.01% thimerosal, capable of binding specifically with murine immunoglobulins and producing a colored product when incubated with a substrate, in this example TMB, were added to each well. After an incubation of 10 minutes at room temperature with shaking, during which the goat anti-mouse antibody-HRP enzyme conjugate binds to gemcitabine antibodies in the wells, the plates were again washed three times to remove unbound secondary conjugate. To develop a measurable color in the wells washing was followed by the addition of 100 μL of TMB (TMB Substrate, BioFx), the substrate for HRP, to develop color in a 10 minute incubation with shaking at room temperature. Following the incubation for color development, 50 μL of stop solution (1.5% sodium fluoride in di-H 2 O) was added to each well to stop the color development and after 20 seconds of shaking the absorbance was determined at 650 nm (Molecular Devices Plate Reader). The amount of antibody in a well was proportional to the absorbance measured and inversely proportional to the amount of gemcitabine in the sample. The IC 50 values of gemcitabine and 2′,2′-difluoro-2′-deoxyuridine were determined by constructing dose-response curves with the absorbance in the wells plotted versus analyte concentration in the wells. The absorbance of the color in the wells containing analyte was compared to that with no analyte and a standard curve was generated. The IC 50 value for a given analyte was defined as the concentration of analyte that was required to have 50% of the absorbance of the wells containing no analyte. The cross-reactivity was calculated as the ratio of the IC 50 for gemcitabine to the IC 50 value for 2′,2′-difluoro-2′-deoxyuridine and expressed as a percent. When measured with this pool of antibodies, the percent cross-reactivities relative to gemcitabine for 2′,2′-difluoro-2′-deoxyuridine were 0.2-0.8%, and the percent cross-reactivities relative to gemcitabine for 3,4,5,6-tetrahydrouridine were 0.009-0.1%. Results for monoclonal antibodies to gemcitabine are in table I below. TABLE I Cross-reactivity of competitive immunoassay using monoclonal antibodies to gemcitabine (Example 9). Plates coated with gemcitabine[9]-BSA conjugate (Example 9) Gemcitabine dFdU THU % cross- % cross- IC50 IC50 IC50 reactivity reactivity Subclone # (ng/mL) (ng/mL) (ng/mL) dFdU THU 5H8-24 11 3530 >100,000 0.2 <0.009 2F12-24 31 8294 >100,000 0.4 <0.03 12A5-24 14 4748 >100,000 0.3 <0.01 14G3-15 9 3709 >100,000 0.3 <0.1 3E10-6 136 16341 >100,000 0.8 <0.009 As seen from these tables, the antibodies of this invention are substantially selectively reactive with the active form of gemcitabine with minimal cross-reactivity with both the inactive metabolite 2′,2′-difluoro-2′-deoxyuridine and 3,4,5,6-tetrahydrouridine.

The present invention comprises novel analogs of gemcitabine and novel gemcitabine immunogens leased out of, i.e., derived from, the 5′-hydroxy position of gemcitabine. The invention also comprises unique monoclonal antibodies generated using gemcitabine linked immunogens as well as unique conjugates and tracers which antibodies, conjugates, and tracers are useful in immunoassays for the quantification and monitoring of gemcitabine in biological fluids.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present application relates to a rotary regenerative heat exchanger, and more particularly to the sealing of the diaphragms or vanes of the rotor relative to the separator plates between different paths of fluid medium through the heat exchanger as the rotor rotates within its housing. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Rotary regenerative heat exchangers are well known, and an example of such heat exchanger is described in our EP-A-0599577. The stator, often termed the rotor housing, includes means for introducing along a first path into the spaces between the radial diaphragms or vanes of the rotor, at least a first fluid which is relatively hot and gives up its heat to heat exchange media contained within those spaces, and a second path for a relatively cool fluid which passes through a different sector of the rotor to recover heat from the heat exchange media in that particular part of the heat exchanger rotor. As the rotor rotates the heated heat exchange media from the first sector passes from the first path to the second path to give up its heat to the relatively cool fluid. Often there will be additional fluid flow paths, for example in the case where the relatively hot fluid is flue gas from a combustion unit and the relatively cool fluid may comprise the combustion gas and secondary air which may pass through the heat exchanger in different sectors of the rotor housing. In order to prevent transfer of fluid and thermal energy between the zones of differing temperature in the rotor housing or stator, particularly in the case where there may be substantial pressure differences between the fluids flowing through the rotor heat exchange media pockets in the different paths, it is necessary to provide sealing means to ensure that the pockets within the rotor forming part of one sector are sealed from the pockets of an adjacent sector. Where substantial pressure differences arise between the two adjacent pockets in such a system, the sealing effect is frequently enhanced by ensuring that the stator plate past which the seals move, and which separates the one sector from the other, seals simultaneously with two or more of the vanes or diaphragms, thereby giving an enhanced labyrinth sealing effect. However, this has the disadvantage that the dead space between adjacent sectors increases in order to allow several of the diaphragms to seal against the sector plate. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In accordance with a first aspect of the present invention there is provided a rotary regenerative heat exchanger comprising:—a rotor having a plurality of radial vanes defining between them spaces in which fluid treatment medium is located; a stator forming a housing for the rotor and defining first and further fluid flow paths to and through the rotor in different sectors thereof; sector plates of the stator, extending in the radial direction relative to the rotor axis and serving to separate the heat exchange sectors corresponding to said first and further fluid flow paths; and seal means on said radially extending vanes to seal against said sector plates as the respective rotor vane sweeps in close relationship to said sector plate during rotation of the rotor, characterized in that additional vanes are provided between the first mentioned vanes, over a radially outer annulus of the rotor, said additional vanes including further seals to seal against said sector plates. Preferably the seal means extend over the edges of the vanes at the end faces of the rotor and also over the edges of the vanes at the radially outer edges. A second aspect of the invention provides a rotor for a rotary regenerative heat exchanger, comprising:—a hub; a plurality of radially extending vanes defining between them sector-shaped spaces to receive heat exchange media and defining first and second opposed faces of the rotor and an axially extending face between them; and first and second sets of radially extending seals on said rotor to seal with first and second opposed stator plates, respectively, some of said seals extending along each said vane on both the first face and the second face; characterised in that each said set of radially extending seals includes seals extending along secondary vanes between the first mentioned vanes over a radially outer annulus of the rotor but not over a radially inner annulus thereof. In order that the present invention may more readily be understood the following description is given, merely by way of example, with reference to the accompanying drawings in which: DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a rotor within its housing or stator, and therefore generally illustrates a rotary fluid treatment apparatus, in this case a heat exchanger; FIG. 2 is a schematic view looking down on the apparatus of FIG. 1 along the direction of the axis of the rotor, and illustrating the rotor vanes and the sector plates of a conventional fluid treatment rotor; FIG. 3 is a view corresponding to FIG. 2 but showing a first embodiment of rotor according to the present invention; FIG. 4 is a view, similar to FIG. 3 , but showing a construction of sector plate having parallel sides over both the inner and outer annuli of the rotor, giving enhanced gas through flow area in the outer annulus; FIG. 5 is a view similar to FIG. 3 , but showing a “triple” heat exchanger having the cool air sector divided into two, comprising a minor portion serving as primary air sector at a higher pressure and a major portion serving as a secondary air sector at a minor pressure; and FIG. 6 shows a “quadruple” heat exchanger in which there are two secondary air sectors, one to each side of the primary air sector. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Referring now to the drawings, FIG. 1 shows in perspective a conventional rotary regenerative heat exchanger with a rotor 2 rotating within a housing 4 or stator which is extended at its upper end by first and second gas guidance funnels 6 and 8 and at its lower end by first and second gas guidance funnels 10 and 12 , respectively. Although not shown in FIG. 1 , there is an isolation between the first gas conduit defined by the funnels 6 and 10 on the lefthand side of the apparatus and a second gas conduit formed by the righthand guide funnels 8 and 12 . The rotor 2 has radially extending vanes 14 which are joined together by transverse plates 16 to define pockets within which is disposed heat exchange media 18 which, during the course of a revolution of the rotor 2 within the housing 4 , will pass from a first, heat-receiving, zone where gas is given up to the heat exchange media by a first hot gas flow to a second, heat-relinquishing, zone where the same heat exchange media then gives up its heat to a second cooler gas flow, the two gas flows passing parallel to the axis of rotation 19 of the rotor 2 . The top plan view shown in FIG. 2 illustrates schematically such a conventional rotor 2 having, in this case, 48 radial vanes each of which will carry a radial seal along its top edge and another along its bottom edge, and an axial seal along its radially outer edge such that there is substantially continuous sealing along and around the entire vane when that vane is in a region between the first and second sectors where the vane is in sealing engagement with a sector plate 20 of the stator. At other times when the vane is passing through one of the two sectors it may optionally still seal along its radially outer edge, against the cylindrical wall 22 ( FIG. 1 ) of the stator housing 4 . FIG. 2 shows additional axial seals 14 a on the radially outer ends of the vanes 14 , serving to seal against the concave cylindrical surface of the axial sector plate 21 which extends axially to join the upper sector plate 20 with the lower sector plate 20 (not shown in the drawings). In practice the rotor 2 will rotate very slowly, often of the order of one revolution per minute. The plan view of FIG. 2 shows at the top of the drawing a first sector 24 , in this case in the hotter zone of the apparatus, through which flue gas from a combustion unit passes to give up its heat to the heat exchange media carried by the rotor. The lower sector 26 in FIG. 2 is in the cooler zone where the heat of the heat exchange media is given up to the flow of cool inlet air to the combustion unit. In this case the flue gas will be at a lower pressure than the incoming air which is being supercharged into the combustion unit. The present invention is implemented in the rotors illustrated in FIGS. 3 to 6 . FIG. 3 shows a first embodiment in which the 48 primary vanes 14 of FIG. 2 are supplemented over an outer annulus of the rotor by secondary vanes 15 each of which is provided with seals at each end of the rotor (top and bottom of the vane as shown in FIG. 3 ) and an axial seal. Over the radially inner annulus of the rotor there are no such supplementary vanes. Such supplementary vanes in this region would clutter the rotor and give rise to constructional problems which are avoided by having the secondary vanes 15 over the radially outer annulus. FIG. 3 shows additionally a circumferentially extending seal 19 on a wall dividing the inner annulus where continuous primary vanes 14 are placed, from the outer annulus to which the additional secondary vanes 15 are confined. This is in order to ensure that there is no gas flow under the sector plate 20 in a radial direction between the inner and outer annuli, and thus the full benefit of the enhanced sealing over the outer annulus can be achieved without being compromised by the sealing using only the primary vanes 14 over the inner annulus. FIG. 3 also shows that there are axially extending seals 15 a on the secondary vanes 15 . Relative to the shape of the sector plate in FIG. 2 , the sector plate 20 of FIG. 3 has a substantially parallel sided region near the hub of the rotor, inboard of the circumferentially extending seal 19 , and a divergent section over the radially outer annulus where the secondary vanes 15 are additionally provided. In the example shown in FIG. 3 , the divergent outer portion of the sector plate has an angular extent sufficient to seal simultaneously against four of the vanes 14 , 15 of the rotor, whereas the part of the sector plate 20 over the radially inner annulus seals over two of the primary vanes 14 . In practice it has been found that the sealing demands in the radially inner annulus are much less critical than those over the radially outer annulus so it is sufficient to have only double sealing on the inner annulus. It should of course be understood that the number (48) of primary vanes shown in FIGS. 2 and 3 is simply one example, and that likewise the number of secondary vanes (again 48 ) in FIG. 3 is equally chosen as an example. There may, for example, be more than one secondary vane 15 between two adjacent primary vanes 14 , and equally there may be any number of the primary vanes other than the 48 shown. The modified construction of sector plate 20 ′ in FIG. 4 has the advantage of being able to maximise the gas throughflow passage in the hot (flue gas) sector shown in the upper part of the drawing and the cooler (air) sector shown in the lower half of FIG. 4 . As compared with the sector plates 20 of FIG. 3 , the sector plates 20 ′ of FIG. 4 have parallel sided construction even over the outer annulus and this liberates an additional region 23 cross-hatched in FIG. 4 . This can be achieved without compromising the sealing effect since the seal over the radially inner annulus is double sealing in that at least two of the primary vanes 14 will be in contact with the respective sector plate 20 over their whole radial extent within the inner annulus, and in this case the presence of the secondary vanes 15 provides that over the outer annulus there will be at least three vanes 14 , 15 in contact with the respective sector plate over their full radial extent in the outer annulus to give triple sealing. As a further modification, it would even be possible for the sector plate 20 ′ to have a radially outward tapering construction such that its width at the outer circumference of the rotor is still adequate to maintain triple sealing (sealing with three separate vanes 14 , 15 at all times), and thereby increase further the cross-section of the additional areas 23 of FIG. 4 , giving rise to still larger flow cross-sections for the gas flow passage and the air flow passage. FIG. 5 shows a third embodiment of the present invention and illustrates the configuration where the cooler air zone is divided into two separate air zones, a primary air zone of relatively smaller angular extent and a secondary air sector of relatively larger angular extent. The embodiment of FIG. 5 is particularly suitable for use with the air flow through a powdered coal burner where the primary air provides a drying and powder-conveying action, the secondary air serves as combustion air, and the flue gas is able to give up its heat in the gas sector. A variation of this arrangement will be shown in FIG. 6 where there are two separate secondary air flow sectors. The rotor construction of FIG. 5 is also used in FIG. 6 , but the stator differs in FIG. 6 in having two secondary air zones which are disposed to either side of the primary air zone and therefore separate the primary air zone from the gas or hot zone. The configuration of each sector plate 20 in FIG. 3 is repeated in FIGS. 5 and 6 , the only difference being that in FIG. 5 there are three such sector plates, because of the three separate zones, and in FIG. 6 there are four such sector plates in view of the four separate zones. In FIG. 6 the hot zone for the flue gas still occupies preferably half of the angular extent of the rotor whereas the primary zone and the two secondary air zones are of equal angular extent and together occupy the other half of the rotor. In practice the primary air driven by the high pressure primary fan will make a pass through the primary zone A in FIG. 5 and will then pass to a coal pulverising mill where it will serve to dry the coal and convey it in powdered form to the burner(s) of the boiler. The secondary air driven through the secondary zone B at a somewhat reduced pressure will pass to the burner to serve as combustion air. In the case of FIG. 5 this secondary flow passes through the single secondary sector B whereas in FIG. 6 the secondary air flow will be divided before passing through the two secondary air zones C and D in parallel. Thus in the case of the heat exchanger of FIG. 5 the relatively hot heat exchange media leaving the hot (exhaust gas) zone passes firstly into the primary high pressure air path where it remains for a relatively short time but then passes to the single secondary air path B where it remains in contact with the secondary air for a much longer duration. In the case of FIG. 6 the hot heat exchange media first of all encounters the secondary air at medium pressure in the relatively small cross-section secondary air path C and then passes to the primary air path at much higher pressure and lower temperature in the primary path A, and any residual heat is then given up to the secondary air in the secondary air segment D before the heat exchange media returns to the hot (flue gas) path to be reheated. Although not shown in FIGS. 2 to 6 , in each case the rotor will still include transversely extending plates to brace the structure of the rotor which will be many meters in diameter. Although the enhancement of the sealing effect through the addition of the secondary vanes 15 is confined to the outer annulus of the heater, this effect is achievable both at the top and the bottom (i.e. the opposite axial faces) of the rotor and also on the circumferential face, due to the axial seal bars and seals. The leakage effects are normally more pronounced over the outer annulus than over the inner, due to the fact that the running clearances between the rotor sealing vanes and the stationary sector sealing plates will be larger over the outer annulus than over the inner annulus. The larger running clearances over the outer annulus arc a consequence of the thermal ‘hogging’ or ‘capping’ of the rotor structure due to the temperature gradient through the depth of the rotor during normal operation. By enhancing the sealing effect over the outer annulus, this potential cause of leakage can be minimised giving a noticeable improvement in the overall thermal efficiency of the process in which the heat exchanger of the present invention is used.

A rotary regenerative heat exchanger includes a rotor having primary vanes 14 extending between the hub and the periphery of the rotor, and additional secondary vanes 15 between said primary vanes and extending over an outer annulus of the rotor. Such an arrangement facilitates having several of the primary and secondary vanes sealed with respect to a sector plate over the outer annulus as compared with the number of primary vanes sealing with the same sector plate over the inner annulus.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION [0001] This application claims the benefit of Netherlands Patent Application No. 2009050 entitled “Device for Blocking a Vehicle, Method Therefore and Loading-Unloading Station Provided Therewith” filed Jun. 21, 2012, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] 1. Field of the Invention [0003] The present invention relates to a device for blocking a vehicle such as a truck. Such devices are generally used in practice to block a truck during loading and unloading thereof, for instance at a loading-unloading station of a distribution centre. [0004] 2. Description of Related Art [0005] Devices for blocking trucks are per se known and are for instance described in EP 1 120 371 and EP 0 684 915. The blocking device known herefrom makes use of a drive to displace a carriage over a guide track. As soon as the truck is positioned correctly relative to the loading-unloading station a blocking means is extended and/or displaced in order to hold the rear wheel of the truck therewith and make driving or rolling away impossible. Such blocking devices are relatively complex due to the number of parts required, and particularly the drives required. [0006] A blocking device is also known from NL 2004466. The blocking device known herefrom makes use of displacing means to displace a carriage from a first rest position to a second blocking position, wherein use is made of an energy storage system such that energy produced by the first vehicle as it drives away can be used to displace the carriage for a second vehicle. [0007] A problem occurring in practice with blocking devices is the great variation in vehicles which can occur. Different vehicles have different wheel diameters. The blocking device does not therefore operate optimally for all vehicles, whereby locations provided with a blocking device, such as at a distribution centre, cannot be employed with full flexibility for all types of vehicle. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0008] The present invention has for its object to obviate or at least reduce the above stated problems with blocking devices. [0009] The present invention provides for this purpose a device for blocking a vehicle, comprising a guide track disposed along a driveway; a blocking means for blocking a wheel of the vehicle; and height-adjusting means for height adjustment of the guide track and/or the blocking means during use. [0013] A guide track according to the invention is for instance disposed along a driveway of a loading-unloading station of for instance a distribution center. A truck is reverse parked along the guide track for the purpose of loading and unloading. [0014] In the blocking position the blocking means, which in a currently preferred embodiment is provided on the carriage guided by the guide track, preferably engages on the rear wheel of a vehicle which is moving backwards relative to the device. Alternatively, the blocking means is for instance provided directly on the guide track. [0015] The blocking means preferably takes the form of a type of rod extending substantially in a direction away from the longitudinal direction of the guide track such that no rotating or folding movement need be performed in order to carry the blocking means to the activated and blocking position in which the vehicle is held fast. [0016] Further provided according to the invention are height-adjusting means with which the guide track can be adjusted in the height during use. Height adjustment of the guide track results in the guide track, and the blocking means directly or indirectly connected thereto, being adjusted in the height relative to the ground surface, and thereby relative to the vehicle. Alternatively or additionally, the height-adjusting means can also directly adjust the blocking means in the height. Use can for instance be made here of a substantially vertical and/or rotation movement of the blocking means relative to the for instance fixedly disposed guide track. [0017] The blocking means can for instance be brought to the correct height in hydraulic manner by the height-adjusting means. In such an embodiment the guide track can if desired be disposed fixedly. It would in principle be possible in such an embodiment to optionally dispense with a guide track, although this will result in drawbacks in respect of positioning the vehicle and/or blocking means. Alternatively or additionally, a guide track can be provided in height-adjustable manner with an adjustability over a determined range in continuous or discontinuous manner (for instance using bolts and a predetermined pattern of holes). [0018] By providing height-adjusting means the blocking means can engage at a desired height on the wheel of the vehicle. The height-adjusting means are adapted here to the vehicle for blocking. This can be performed manually by a driver and/or a location manager, for instance an employee of the distribution center, as well as automatically. The engaging height of the blocking means on the wheel of the vehicle for blocking is hereby adapted to the type of vehicle. This increases the possible uses of the device according to the invention. It is also possible to adapt the actual engaging height of the blocking means to the blocking requirement, for instance a relatively low engaging height in order to prevent the vehicle rolling away during loading and/or unloading, and for instance a relatively high engaging height in order to prevent unauthorized driving away with the vehicle during parking of the vehicle. This enhances the applicability and the possible uses of the device according to the invention. [0019] In a currently preferred embodiment the device is provided with a carriage which is displaceable relative to the guide track such that the carriage can follow a moving truck. Preferably provided on the carriage is a locking member with which the carriage can be releasably locked relative to the guide track. The locking member preferably engages directly on the guide track. It is however also possible for the locking member to engage on for instance a ground surface on which the guide track is placed. The carriage is in this way also locked relative to the guide track. Using the displacing means the carriage can be moved from a first rest position, in which blocking of the vehicle is realized, to a second blocking position in which it is possible, following locking of the carriage relative to the guide track, to block the vehicle such that it is held stationary at the desired position. The displacing means further enable a reverse movement of the carriage after unlocking from the second blocking position such that the carriage returns to the first rest position. The vehicle can leave said position by being driven away from the blocking device. [0020] In a preferred embodiment the locking can be realized immediately after the vehicle has come to a standstill by having the carriage co-displace with the tire of the vehicle. [0021] The height-adjusting means preferably engage directly or indirectly at least at one position on the guide track and/or the blocking means. [0022] When the height-adjusting means engage directly on the blocking means, it is for instance possible to adjust a blocking means displaceable along the guide track in the height relative to the guide track using the height-adjusting means. A height-adjustable blocking means can hereby be provided at the desired position. [0023] If the height-adjusting means engage at one position on the guide track, the guide track can be placed at an adjustable angle relative to the ground surface when the height-adjusting means engage on or close to an outer end of the guide track. An alternative and/or additional embodiment is likewise possible wherein the height-adjusting means engage at one position on the guide track and the guide track as a whole is adjusted in the height using additional guides, for instance by displacing the guide track as a whole in the height. If the guide track is adjustable at an angle, the height of the blocking means can likewise be adapted to the wheel of the vehicle to be blocked. In a possible embodiment one outer end of the guide track is provided rotatably around a fastening point and height-adjusting means engage on the other outer end. [0024] In an advantageous preferred embodiment according to the present invention the height-adjusting means engage directly or indirectly at a second position on the guide track. [0025] Having the height-adjusting means engage at a second position on the guide track achieves that the whole guide track is adjustable in the height in controllable manner relative to the ground surface. A matching relation between a blocking means and the wheel to be blocked of the vehicle for blocking can hereby be achieved in accurate manner. [0026] In an advantageous preferred embodiment according to the present invention the device is provided with height-adjustable coupling means for fixing or holding the guide track at a desired height. [0027] Providing coupling means enables the guide track to be positioned at a nominal working height. These coupling means are for instance embodied as a bolt connection to an upright to which the guide track can be attached at a number of adjustable nominal fixed positions. This has the advantage that the nominal guide track height is adjustable subject to the anticipated category of vehicles, for instance delivery vans or trucks. Variation within these categories of vehicle can also be taken into account by applying the height-adjusting means according to the invention. When after a period of time a different category of vehicle has to be blocked, the nominal working height can be modified using the coupling means. This further increases the flexibility of the device according to the present invention. [0028] In an advantageous preferred embodiment according to the present invention the device comprises an anti-roll mode, wherein the blocking means engages at a first height, and a locking mode wherein the blocking means engages at a second, greater height. [0029] Providing a first rolling locking mode and a second locking mode enables the blocking means, depending on the situation, to engage at the optimum height. It has been found that during loading and unloading of a vehicle a blocking has the main purpose of preventing the vehicle from rolling away. For this purpose the blocking means has to engage on the wheel for blocking at a height of preferably at least 35% of the wheel diameter. If a vehicle is parked at the position for a longer period, for instance overnight, it is additionally desirable to prevent undesired movement of the vehicle, i.e. it is locked. The blocking means must here engage high on the wheel, preferably at least at 45% of the wheel diameter. It has been found that at this greater height it is no longer possible to displace the vehicle as it were over the blocking means. The selection of the setting for the anti-roll mode or the locking mode can be made by the driver of the vehicle and/or the employee of the loading-unloading station where the device is positioned, or in a more automatic manner wherein the setting is for instance made dependent on the use of the loading-unloading station. A coupling is present for this purpose between the control of the loading-unloading station on the one hand and the blocking device on the other. The use of at least two different adjustable heights achieves that the blocking can be made dependent on the wishes of the users. Engagement at a lower height as anti-rolling has the advantage that it can be performed relatively easily and quickly, wherein the attendant risk of damage is reduced. For locking purposes, for instance overnight, a greater height has to be employed so that there is actual locking. A careful positioning can be carried out for this purpose. The overall effectiveness of blocking means according to the invention is hereby increased. [0030] In a further advantageous preferred embodiment according to the present invention the device comprises a detector for detecting the required engaging height of the blocking means. [0031] Providing a detector allows the setting of the height-adjusting means to be performed in automatic or semiautomatic manner. This reduces the chance of mistakes. [0032] In a currently preferred embodiment the detector comprises determining means which are provided with at least a first contact means on a first side of the wheel and a second contact means on the other side of the wheel as seen in the travel direction thereof during use of the device. These contact means are for instance embodied as rollers engaging on the tread surface of the wheel. By determining the mutual distance between the at least two contact means while they are in contact with the wheel, and also the height of the contact means relative to the ground surface over which the wheel moves, it is possible to determine the diameter of the wheel for blocking. On the basis of the wheel height, and preferably in combination with the selection between the possible modes, including the locking mode and the anti-roll mode, the detector is hereby able to determine the required effective engaging height for the blocking means. A user-friendly device can in this way be realized according to the invention. In addition, an effective blocking means is realized through the use of the detector, wherein there is no loss of time waiting for a setting, since the detector is preferably operative during positioning of the vehicle relative to the guide track. [0033] In a further advantageous preferred embodiment according to the present invention the blocking means is provided on a displaceable carriage guided by the guide track. [0034] A flexible positioning of the blocking means relative to the vehicle is possible due to the use of the above discussed carriage. This makes use in practice a good deal easier. The carriage can be driven in various ways, including making use of a flexible member, such as a steel cable, and other similar ways as described in NL 2004466. The blocking device according to the present invention preferably makes use of a locking member, likewise as according to NL 2004466. [0035] In a further advantageous preferred embodiment according to the present invention the device comprises displacing means for displacing the carriage between a first rest position of the blocking means and a second blocking position, wherein the displacing means are provided with an energy storage system such that energy supplied by the vehicle is usable to displace the carriage. [0036] The use of an energy storage system for a blocking device is per se known from the above cited document NL 2004466. The height-adjusting means are preferably also operatively connected to the energy storage system for the purpose of displacing the guide track in the height. Potential energy can hereby be recovered in effective manner during the downward movement of the guide track and subsequently used for a subsequent vehicle during the upward movement of the guide track. An energy-efficient device is in this way realized. [0037] The present invention further relates to a loading-unloading station provided with a device as described above. [0038] Such a loading-unloading station provides the same effects and advantages as described in respect of the device. In addition, the use of the height-adjusting means makes it possible to use each individual station for all categories and types of vehicle. This further increases the utility of such a station. [0039] The present invention further also relates to a method for blocking a vehicle in a desired position, comprising of providing a device as described above. [0040] Such a method likewise provides the same effects and advantages as described in respect of the device and/or the loading-unloading station. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0041] Further advantages, features and details of the invention are elucidated on the basis of preferred embodiments thereof, wherein reference is made to the accompanying drawings, in which: [0042] FIG. 1 shows a view of a loading-unloading station at a distribution centre; [0043] FIGS. 2A-F show views of a first embodiment of the blocking device according to the invention; [0044] FIGS. 3A-F show views of alternative embodiments according to the invention; [0045] FIGS. 4A-B show views of a further embodiment according to the present invention; and [0046] FIGS. 5A-B and 6 A-B show views of a further embodiment according to the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0047] A loading-unloading location 2 ( FIG. 1 ) is provided at a building 4 . Each loading-unloading location 2 is provided with an opening or door 6 and a so-called dock shelter 8 for protection thereof. A truck 10 is reversed to loading-unloading location 2 , inter alia with rear wheels 12 . Truck 10 moves here substantially parallel to blocking device 14 . [0048] A blocking device 16 ( FIG. 2A-F ) is placed on the ground surface 18 . Device 16 is provided with guide track 20 which in the shown embodiment can be adjusted in the height relative to ground surface 18 using height-adjusting means 22 . Height-adjusting means 22 comprise an arm 24 , which is connected to support 28 on ground surface 18 using rotation shaft 26 , and a second arm 30 which is connected to second support 34 on ground surface 18 using second rotation shaft 32 . At the other outer ends the arms 24 , 30 are connected via respective rotation shafts 32 , 34 to guide track 20 . [0049] Provided in the shown embodiment on the front side of device 16 is an element 36 running obliquely upward and, at the other outer end of guide track 20 , a second rectangular element 38 for the purpose of indicating the position of device 16 . On the side where a wheel W is driven into device 16 , usually in reverse, is situated a ground plate 40 in which, in the shown embodiment, two recesses 42 , 44 are provided in which a first contact rod 46 and a second contact rod 48 are provided in the rest position ( FIG. 2A ). As soon as a wheel W reaches ground plate 40 , carriage 50 with contact elements 46 , 48 is uncoupled from ground plate 40 and, using wheels or rollers 52 , displaced in guide 54 of guide track 20 . In the shown embodiment contact means 46 , 48 also form blocking means. [0050] In the shown embodiment contact means 46 , 48 are in contact on either side with wheel W during use. Contact means 46 is mounted here on sub-part 56 of carriage 50 and contact means 48 on sub-part 58 of carriage 50 . In the shown embodiment sub-parts 56 , 58 are mutually connected using a spring 60 so that during use contact means 46 , 48 are held against the tread surface of wheel W. [0051] In the shown embodiment rollers 62 form part of the drive and/or locking mechanism in similar manner as described in NL 2004466. [0052] In the shown embodiment the mutual distance between sub-carriages 56 , 58 and the height of contact means 46 , 48 relative to ground surface 18 are determined using detectors 64 , 66 . The desired height adjustment can in this way be determined. [0053] In the shown embodiment wheel W has for instance a diameter of about 1050 mm and a first anti-roll height of guide track 20 is about 350 mm and a second locking height 450 mm ( FIG. 2E ). The adjustment between the different heights is possible via adjusting button 68 . This can otherwise be performed in fully automatic manner. [0054] As soon as wheel W moves backwards over ground plate 40 , contact means 44 , 46 are released and will follow wheel W. Arms 24 , 30 are simultaneously moved such that guide track 20 is carried upward from ground surface 18 as carriage 50 follows wheel W. During following the desired blocking height is determined in the shown embodiment using detectors 64 , 66 and setting 68 . Wheel W is then secured at the desired position. [0055] In an alternative embodiment blocking device 70 ( FIG. 3A-3F ) is for the greater part provided with the same components as the above discussed blocking device 16 . Only the differences will therefore be discussed below. Blocking device 70 is provided on only one side with height-adjusting means 22 . Also provided is a carriage 72 which consists in this embodiment of a single part. It is noted here that blocking device 70 can likewise be provided with a carriage 50 provided with sub-part 56 and sub-part 58 , while blocking device 16 ( FIG. 2A-F ) can also be provided with a single carriage 72 ( FIG. 3A-F ). It is otherwise the case that components of the shown separate embodiments are interchangeable. [0056] Blocking device 70 is further provided with coupling means 74 wherein guide track 76 is connected at one outer end to upright 80 using rotation shaft 78 . In the shown embodiment guide track 76 is in the rest position ( FIG. 3A ) with a first outer end placed on ground surface 18 . Wheel W travels over the ground plate 82 with a recess 84 arranged therein for blocking element 86 , after which blocking element 86 and carriage 72 will follow wheel W, wherein guide track 76 is simultaneously carried upward ( FIG. 3C ). [0057] In the shown embodiment of device 70 guide track 76 is then further displaceable in the height ( FIG. 3E ) by making use of guides 88 on the outer ends of guide track 76 . Guide track 76 can hereby be carried further upward, for instance from a height of about 350 mm to a height of about 450 mm. [0058] It is optionally also possible to provide guide track 76 only with this height-displaceable option, wherein guide track 76 is displaced from ground surface 18 to the desired height, or to provide guide track 76 rotatably only at an outer end, wherein guide track 76 therefore lies at an angle to ground surface 18 in most positions of use. [0059] In the shown embodiment blocking device 70 is embodied such that in a first nominal position ( FIG. 3C and D) guide track 76 is provided at the anti-roll height, wherein blocking element 86 prevents wheel W rolling away during for instance loading and unloading. In a locking position ( FIG. 3E and F) guide track 76 is brought to a greater height such that blocking element 86 locks wheel W against undesired driving away thereof. [0060] A further alternative embodiment of blocking device 90 ( FIG. 4A-B ) is based largely on blocking device 10 ( FIG. 2A-F ). In the shown embodiment blocking device 90 ( FIG. 4A-B ) is provided with a carriage 92 enclosing guide track 94 for the greater part. Blocking element 96 blocks wheel W. Blocking device 90 is provided with guide track 94 on which a guide surface or guide rail 98 is provided over which carriage 92 is displaceable with wheels 100 . Travel wheels 102 enable displacement of carriage 92 over guide track 94 . [0061] Blocking element or blocking rod 96 engages on tread surface 104 of wheel W. In the shown embodiment travel wheels 102 move in bent edge 103 of side edge 105 . [0062] When a truck has to be positioned close to opening 6 of loading-unloading location 2 , it will move first with rear wheel 12 over ground plate 40 in backward direction. The passage of rear wheel W is detected using sensors 106 , 108 , ( FIG. 2A ), after which carriage 50 is released if blocking rod 48 is present in recess 44 , and will follow this wheel 12 in the direction of opening 6 . [0063] Sensors 106 , 108 can be diverse types of sensor, for instance for determining the wheel diameter and/or detecting obstacles such as mudguards. [0064] After reaching the desired loading-unloading position for truck 10 , the locking and/or anti-rolling is activated in the above described manner using control button 68 . Once loading and/or unloading is fully completed, the locking and/or the anti-rolling is disengaged and truck 10 can move forward along guide track 20 . In the advantageous embodiment carriage 20 is pushed forward here such that telescopic springs (not shown) of the energy storage system 110 ( FIG. 2A ) are extended and thereby as it were tensioned. Once truck 10 has reached the front side of guide track 20 , blocking rod 48 is pressed into recess 44 of ground plate 40 . Energy is hereby stored in system 110 and ready for use with a subsequent truck 10 . Use can also be made of telescopic springs during the change in height of guide track 20 , whereby no or only minimal net external energy need be supplied for the purpose of height adjustment of guide track 20 . [0065] In a further alternative embodiment blocking device 112 ( FIG. 5A-B and 6 A-B) is provided with a height-adjustable blocking rod 114 which can engage on wheel W. Guide track 116 is fixedly dispensed and carriage 118 moves substantially only in horizontal direction over guide track 116 . Carriage 118 can be secured in known manner here on guide track 116 using fixation mechanism 120 . Arm 124 on which blocking rod 114 is mounted is rotated around shaft 126 via mechanism 122 . As a result of the rotation the rod 114 is moved in the height relative to the ground surface and the wheel W movable thereon. In the shown embodiment the height-adjustable guide 128 is co-displaced here between a high position ( FIG. 6A and 6B ) and a low position ( FIG. 5A and B), wherein the height varies for instance from 425 mm to 325 mm. Other heights are also possible. It will be apparent that diverse components of the shown embodiments are mutually interchangeable. As already discussed, carriage 20 can for instance also be applied in other embodiments. Ground plate 40 can for instance also be used in other embodiments. The optional use of the energy storage system 110 can likewise be implemented in the different embodiments. Other components can also be used here. [0066] In the shown embodiments guide track is 20 , 94 are provided over a length of about 3 to 3.5 m, and guide track 20 , 94 is adjustable in the height from ground surface 18 to a height of about 500 mm thereabove. Other heights are of course also possible. Intermediate heights are likewise possible in diverse embodiments, wherein specific possibilities are provided for said anti-roll mode and locking mode. [0067] The present invention is by no means limited to the above described preferred embodiments thereof. The rights sought are defined by the following claims, within the scope of which many modifications can be envisaged. It is noted here that diverse mechanical reversals are possible within the scope of protection of the present invention. This relates for instance to tensioning and slackening of spring 60 in blocking device 16 .

Disclosed is a device for blocking a vehicle, a method making use of such a device and a loading-unloading station provided therewith. The device includes a guide track disposed along a driveway, a blocking means for blocking a wheel of the vehicle, and height-adjusting means for height adjustment of the guide track and/or the blocking means during use. The device preferably includes an anti-roll mode, wherein the blocking means engages at a first height, and a locking mode, wherein the blocking means engages at a second, greater height

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION In order to restore the function of a loose artificial hip joint, various major and minor problems have to be surmounted. The major problems are the anchorage problems related to achieving stable fixation despite often large defects remaining in the bony support after the joint components have been removed. Minor problems involve filling in the defects with bone from tissue banks; this is accomplished using “morcellized bone” plastics of the appropriate size. (Lamerigts, N. M. P., 1998. Proefschrift an der katholischen Universitt Niymegen.) Once the bony support structure has been reinforced with bone from tissue banks, the corresponding joint replacement components can be cemented in. In order to use such a procedure, the bony structures must be sufficiently stable to achieve a stable overall anchorage. However, these bone structures often are no longer present, and as a result, very special demands are placed on the implant. Therefore, there is a genuine need for systems that can be adapted to the given situation that is when large defects are present, and that take various biomechanical fixation principles into account. With this background as a foundation, a novel approach to the problem of revision operations (i.e., replacement of the femur component of a prosthesis) was unexpectedly discovered. PRIOR ART The extent of the defects in the bony femur bed after the removal of a loose, previously implanted prosthesis may vary. This has led to attempts to classify bone defects, for example in the DGOT (Bettin, D., Katthagen, B. D., (1997), Die DGOT-Klassifkation von Knochendefekten bei Huft-Totalendoprothese-Rev-isionsoperationen [The DGOT Classification of Bone Defects in Total Hip Endoprosthesis Revision Operations], Z. Orthop. 135). In some cases, the bone damage is considerable. Treatment of the loose prosthesis or implant components involves complete removal of the components and, if present, the bone cement that was previously used, as well as all of the connective tissue surrounding the previous implant, that connects the implant to the bone. Not until this has been done can one realistically assess the extent of bone loss. Often, the only way to anchor a new implant component is to reach beyond all defects and anchor the component deep in the portion of the femur diaphysis (the shaft of the long bone) that is still healthy, frequently without the use of cement. Another method is to reconstruct the bone with morcellized bone from tissue banks and use cement to reattach such a component. This is described in detail in Lamerigts, N. M., (1998), The Incorporative Process of Morcellized Bone Graft. Proefschrift University Nijmegen (Catholic University). In both cases, proximal anchoring, that is, near the upper end of the bone is usually not stable. The implants in the femur are usually very long and heavy, and much poorer results are obtained than in primary operations. Tests and simple experiments on cadaver bones unexpectedly revealed very efficient ways to anchor and fix femur components in defective bone support structures, even components having short shafts. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION A prosthesis anchorage system comprises a modular replacement insert for the femur for repairing artificial hip joints. The anchorage system provides a femur stem that is segmented and will insert into the femur canal, and can be elongated to a length so that portions of the femur stem will be aligned in the canal with bone that provides a solid holding action for the stem when replacing a previously installed stem that has become loosened. The base modular section includes an axial or central cylinder that inserts into adjacent stem sections and which serves to hold the stem sections in alignment. At the proximal end of the femur, a shoulder stem section is used. The shoulder stem section has a surface that will permit attaching a mating shoulder on a neck and head prosthesis securely with tension carrying members. The length of the femur stem inserted into the femur canal can be adjusted to accommodate a wide variety of conditions when a hip joint is to be replaced. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a view of femur shaft for a prosthesis illustrated schematically in place; FIG. 2 is a fragmentary sectional view taken as on line 2 — 2 in FIG. 1; and FIG. 3 is a view similar to FIG. 1 with a modified construction. DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The modular tension anchorage system of the present invention allows one to adapt the implant to various defect conditions encountered in revising (replacing) a loose femur implant stem or shaft component. The invention takes various defects that have t be dealt with into account with regard to the stem or shaft length and various additional anchoring possibilities in the proximal femur canal. The modular system essentially is comprised of a femural or medullary stem or shaft ( 100 ), made up of one or more stem segments. The femural stem or shaft 100 corresponds in size to a cylinder opening in the bone forming the femural or medullary canal, the projection lines of which are indicated at 110 A in FIG. 1, and which canal is located around the medullary canal axis 130 . Various stem segments must be used in sequence along this open cylinder along the medullary or femural canal and centered on the canal axis 130 . The base or distal stem segment ( 100 . 3 ) may be of various lengths, and it is always comprised of the tip ( 102 ) and an axial or center cylinder ( 103 ). One stem segment—in rare instances two or more stem segments ( 100 . 2 , 100 . 3 )—may be arranged on top of each other along the axial cylinder ( 103 ). A shoulder segment ( 100 . 1 ) always follows or is placed above the inserted stem. The contact surface ( 105 ) on the proximal or upper end the base stem segment 100 . 3 is concave. The corresponding or mating distal end of the center or next higher stem segment is convex, or vice versa. The corresponding or mating ends of the stem segments may also engage one another conically or in other words with the end of one segment having a cone shape and the end of the adjacent segment having a mating receptacle. A curved, interlocking surface design between the ends of the adjacent segments has proved to be particularly effective. Such a surface prevents rotation and takes tension loads on the lateral side of the stem and compression loads on the medial side of the stem into account. The axial cylinder ( 103 ) and the corresponding hole centered on axis 130 in which the axial cylinder 103 fits in the adjacent stem segments or shoulder segment 100 . 1 are smooth, or they are structured with a locating groove and nubs to prevent rotation. The length of the prosthesis is determined based on how far it needs to extend into the femur canal so the distal end is beyond bone defects. A center stem segment ( 100 . 2 ) is inserted with the hole ( 106 ) receiving the central axial cylinder ( 103 ) that is also in the base segment ( 100 . 3 ). The cross section ( 108 ) of the metaphysial or proximal shoulder segment ( 100 . 1 ) as shown in FIG. 2 consists of the lateral cylinder ( 112 ), which is hollow ( 109 ), for receiving the central axial cylinder ( 103 ). The connecting segment ( 111 ), joins the lateral cylinder ( 112 ) and the medial portion ( 110 ), and the connecting segment ( 111 ) forms the convex-concave ( 104 ) convex contour of the dorsal side. The channel for the tension anchor (thrust rod) ( 50 ) passes through bore ( 113 ) across the extended areas of the medial portion of the metaphysial shoulder segment ( 100 . 1 ). The metaphysial shoulder segment ( 100 . 1 ) exhibits a parabolically curved concave outer surface (See FIGS. 1 and 3) medially, ventrally, and dorsally in a U-shape for force transfer. The outer surface of the shoulder segment is centered on a collum centrum axis that is the central axis of the head prosthesis 301 and the central axis of the cone 300 . The head prosthesis includes a neck having a base 200 and a ball at an outer end. The base ( 200 ) of the the head prosthesis ( 301 ) has additional holes for tension anchors ( 60 ) and cables (( 70 ) in a bore ( 71 )). The thrust anchor ( 50 ) is held in the cone ( 300 ) of the prosthesis ( 301 ), and axially through the cone ( 300 ) like a tension screw, as shown, having a washer ( 54 ) and screw head ( 51 ) so the anchor ( 50 ) can be threaded into a nut ( 55 ) in the cone ( 300 ). The nut ( 55 ) in the cone ( 300 ) is prevented from turning. The other tension anchors can also be embodied as simple tension screws (for example 60 ), in which case the screw head would be located in the shoulder ( 200 ) and the tension screw would extend through the shoulder so the thread would be located on and threaded into the lateral side of the femur bone to anchor the tension screw or tension carrying member in the femur. EXAMPLE After making absolutely sure the diagnosis is loosening of the implanted hip prosthesis, the joint is exposed via the old access incision. The scar tissue is carefully removed, the joint is dislocated or separated from the femur shaft generally along plane 114 , and the old, loose femur shaft is removed. Usually the old shaft can simply be pulled out; in a rare case, an instrument needs to be used to hammer it out. The old bone cement and connective tissue in the femur canal are then carefully removed. An ultrasonic titanium chisel can be very useful in this procedure. The bone channel, or femur canal from which the connective tissue has been removed, is rinsed carefully using a jet lavage, and the bony structure is then reconstructed. To do this, tissue bank bone is ground up in a mill, and this “morcellized” bone is mixed in a 50:50 ratio with a shell-shaped bone ceramic used as the granulate—for example: Synthacer.RTM.—and it is then forced up against the walls in the intermedullary or femur canal with the aid of a trial shaft. Drainage tubes are then inserted into the canal via the fossa intertrochanterica, and a vacuum is applied to these drainage tubes. Then, the intermedullary tissue is carefully rinsed with H 2 O 2 and the canal is filled with bone cement using a snorkel application system. The prosthesis stem assembly of the necessary length stem segments including at least the base stem segment ( 100 . 3 ) and, if needed, one other stem segment, and also the shoulder segment ( 100 . 1 ) are axially inserted into the femur bone canal, which is filled with bone cement and morcellized bone. After the cement has cured with the new femur stem and shoulder segment in place, a hole ( 113 ) is drilled in the prosthesis shoulder segment along the axis of the cone ( 300 ), and, if necessary, additional holes are drilled through the shoulder segment and cone, and the cone ( 300 ) is stably anchored into the bone of the femur by means of tension anchors ( 50 ) or tension screws ( 60 ) that extend through the femur and shoulder segment to clamp the cone in place. The cone is positioned so the offset 101 of the center of rotation to the axis 130 is correct. The screws ( 60 ) can also be advantageously screwed in through the still-soft cement, provided that holes were drilled in advance in the femur. The advantage of this is that the bone cement shrinks onto the screw thread. If conditions in the femur bone are still stable after removal of the old implant, the prosthesis stem system can also be anchored stably in the femur bone without using bone cement.

A modular prosthesis for replacement of hip joints has a shaft that fits into the femur canal to replace a previous prosthesis, which is made up of sections aligned and held on a cylinder that extends through the sections. In this matter, the length of the shaft can be changed to insure that the shaft will be aligned with bone sections that have not been damaged from the previous prosthesis. The shaft includes a shoulder segment adjacent the proximal end of the femur to attach to ball or head prosthesis using tension carrying screws or elements.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION AND RELATED ART [0001] The present invention relates to an image forming apparatus which has an image bearing belt and a cleaning blade, and scrapes the image bearing belt with the cleaning blade to clean the image bearing belt. [0002] There have been in wide use image forming apparatuses which form a toner image on the image bearing member of their image formation station, transfer the toner image onto a sheet of recording medium, and fix the toner image to a sheet of recording medium by applying heat and pressure to the sheet of recording medium and the toner image thereon, with the use of their fixing device. Some of them transfer the toner image directly onto a sheet of recording medium, whereas others transfer the toner image onto their intermediary transfer belt from the image bearing member, and then, onto a sheet of recording medium from the intermediary transfer belt; they indirectly transfer the toner image onto a sheet of recording medium. Further, some of them are of the so-called tandem type. That is, they have multiple image formation stations which sequentially form toner images, one for one, and sequentially transfer in layers the toner images onto their intermediary transfer belt, or a sheet of recording medium on their recording medium conveyance belt. [0003] In the case of some image forming apparatuses in which multiple image formation stations are aligned in tandem along the image bearing belt, a toner images for adjusting an image forming apparatus in settings (which are not going to be transferred onto a sheet of recording medium) is formed in the image formation stations, and are transferred onto the intermediary transfer belt. [0004] An image forming apparatus disclosed in Japanese Laid-open Patent Application 2002-311719, which transfers a toner image for adjusting the apparatus, onto its intermediary transfer belt, is provided with a belt cleaning device having a cleaning blade, which is placed in the adjacencies of the belt. [0005] A toner image for adjusting an image forming apparatus in settings is such a toner image that is used only for controlling the apparatus in image formation process. Thus, it is not transferred onto a sheet of recording medium, and is scrapped away from the intermediary transfer belt by the cleaning blade to be recovered as waste toner. [0006] Japanese Laid-open Patent Application 2002-311719 discloses also a toner image for rejuvenating the developer (toner) in the developing device, which is for adjusting the amount by which the developer (mixture of toner and carrier) is replenished with a fresh supply of toner, in order to keep the toner in the developer, stable in the amount of electrical charge. [0007] Japanese Laid-open Patent Application 2005-274789 discloses a Dmax adjustment toner image, which is for adjusting an image forming apparatus in terms of the development contrast of an electrostatic latent image (which apparatus forms), in order to keep the apparatus stable in terms of the highest level of post-fixation image density. [0008] Further, Japanese Laid-open Patent Application 2003-345143 discloses another toner image for adjusting an image forming apparatus. This toner image is for adjusting the image forming apparatus in terms of the average length of time the toner particles in the developing device of the image forming apparatus stayed in the developing device. It forms in the pattern of a strip (toner strip), on a photosensitive drum, as the toner in the developer (made up of toner and carrier) in the developing device is discharged by a preset amount. [0009] In a case where a cleaning blade is placed in contact with a belt (intermediary transfer belt, for example) to clean the belt, in such a manner that its cleaning edge is on the upstream side of its base portion in terms of the moving direction of the belt, increasing the contact pressure between the blade and belt increases the friction between the blade and belt, causing thereby the belt to fluctuate in its moving speed during an image forming operation. Therefore, it is desired that a toner image for supplying the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade with toner is formed and transferred onto the intermediary transfer belt, with preset intervals, to ensure that a proper amount of toner always remains across the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade. [0010] In recent years, image forming apparatuses have been increased in the speed of their intermediary transfer belt (or recording medium conveyance belt) to increase the apparatuses in productivity. Consequently, they have increased in the amount of shock which occurs as the toner image formed on the intermediary transfer belt to control the image forming apparatus collides with the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade to be scraped away. [0011] Thus, the changes which occurs to the amount of deformation of the cleaning blade, which occurs while an image forming apparatus is in operation, were measured with the use of a strain gauge attached to the cleaning blade. The results confirmed that the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade deforms when the control toner image is scraped away by the cleaning blade. They also confirmed that in a case where the deformation is substantial, the image forming apparatus outputs images of lower quality, which is attributable to the insufficient cleaning of the intermediary transfer belt, immediately after the occurrence of deformation to the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade. [0012] Thus, an experiment was carried out to find out the effects of the order in which the multiple image formation stations of an image forming apparatus are made to form an adjustment toner image, amount by which toner is adhered to the intermediary transfer belt to form an adjustment toner image, type of an adjustment image, efficiency with which an adjustment toner image is transferred, and/or the like factors, upon the amount of deformation of the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade. The experiment revealed the conditions under which the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade is smaller in the amount of deformation. For example, it was confirmed that in a case where the multiple image formation stations are the same in the amount of the toner adhered to the intermediary transfer belt per unit area to form a toner strip, the amount of deformation of the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade was smallest when the most downstream image formation station was the first one to form an adjustment toner image ( FIG. 4 ). SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0013] Thus, the primary object of the present invention is to provide an image forming apparatus which is significantly smaller in the amount of shock to which the cleaning edge of its cleaning blade is subjected when an adjustment toner image on the intermediary transferring means (belt) is scraped away by the cleaning blade of the apparatus by colliding with the cleaning blade, being therefore significantly smaller in the amount of the damage which the cleaning edge might sustains, than any image forming apparatus in accordance with the prior art. [0014] According to an aspect of the present invention, there is provided a An image forming apparatus comprising a rotatable belt member; a cleaning blade contacted to said belt member; a plurality of image forming stations including a first image forming station and a second image forming station for forming first and second adjustment toner images, respectively, on said belt member in a transfer portion, said second image forming station and said arranged in a rotational moving direction of the belt member, said second image forming station being disposed downstreammost position, and said first image forming station being disposed upstream of said second image forming station and downstream of said cleaning blade with respect to a rotational moving direction of the belt member; a detecting member for detecting the first adjustment toner image and the second adjustment toner image, at a position opposing said belt member; a changing portion for changing image forming conditions of the image forming stations on the basis of a result of detection of the detecting member, a controller for controlling said first image forming station and said second image forming station such that in a region between adjacent ones of the same images in a continuous image formations, the second adjustment toner image reaches said cleaning blade before the first adjustment toner image reaches said cleaning blade. [0015] The shock to which the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade of an image forming apparatus is subjected when an adjustment toner image is scraped away by colliding into the cleaning blade can be significantly reduced by forming a lubricational toner image before the adjustment toner image is formed, so that a toner layer is formed along the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade before the adjustment toner image collides with the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade. [0016] As will be described later in detail, the greater the adjustment toner image in the number of the transfer stations through which it was conveyed while being subjected to compressional pressure, the greater it is in the “amount of the deformation which it causes to the cleaning edge of a cleaning blade when it is scraped away by the cleaning edge, and which is measured by a strain gauge attached to the cleaning blade”. Further, the greater the adjustment toner image in the amount of bond among the toner particles in the toner image, the greater it is in the amount of deformation it causes to the cleaning edge. Further, the greater the adjustment toner image in the amount of adhesive force between an adjustment toner image and the image bearing surface of the intermediary transfer belt, the greater the amount of deformation it causes to the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade. Further, the greater the adjustment toner image in the amount per unit area by which toner was adhered to the image bearing surface of the intermediary transfer belt, the greater it is in the amount of deformation it causes to the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade. The conditions for forming a lubricational image, and the conditions for transferring the lubricational toner image, are set in consideration of the above-described discoveries. [0017] Therefore, an image forming apparatus in accordance with the present invention is significantly smaller in the amount of shock, to which the cleaning edge of its cleaning blade is subjected when an adjustment toner image, which is substantially greater than an ordinary toner image, in the amount of shock which a cleaning blade for cleaning the intermediary transfer belt of an image forming apparatus is subjected as it encounters the toner image on the intermediary transfer belt, than any image forming apparatus in accordance with the prior art. Thus, it is significantly smaller in the amount of damage which the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade sustains as the cleaning edge encounters the adjustment toner image, than any image forming apparatus in accordance with the prior art. [0018] These and other objects, features, and advantages of the present invention will become more apparent upon consideration of the following description of the preferred embodiments of the present invention, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0019] FIG. 1 is a schematic drawing of a typical image forming apparatus to which the present invention is applicable. It shows the general structure of the apparatus. [0020] FIG. 2 is a schematic sectional view of the belt cleaning device of the image forming apparatus shown in FIG. 1 . It shows the structure of the device. [0021] FIG. 3 is a drawing for describing the device of the image forming apparatus shown in FIG. 1 , which is for evaluating the amount of the deformation of the cleaning blade. [0022] FIG. 4 is a drawing for describing the relationship between the color of an adjustment toner image (strip) and the amount of the deformation which the toner image (strip) causes to the cleaning blade. [0023] FIG. 5 is a flowchart of the operational sequence of the image forming apparatus in the first embodiment, for forming toner strips for adjusting the image forming apparatus. [0024] FIG. 6 is a flowchart of the operational sequence of the first comparative image forming apparatus, for forming toner strips for adjusting the image forming apparatus. [0025] FIG. 7 is a graph which shows the effects of the first embodiment of the present invention. [0026] FIG. 8 is a graph which shows the relationship between the amount per unit area by which toner is adhered to the intermediary transfer belt of the image forming apparatus in the first embodiment, to form toner strips for adjusting the image forming apparatus on the intermediary transfer belt, and the amount of the deformation which the toner strips caused to the cleaning blade. [0027] FIG. 9 is a flowchart of the operational sequence of the image forming apparatus in the second embodiment, for forming toner strips for adjusting the image forming apparatus. [0028] FIG. 10 is a flowchart of the operational sequence of the second comparative image forming apparatus, for forming toner strips for adjusting the image forming apparatus. [0029] FIG. 11 is a drawing for describing the effect of the second embodiment of the present invention. [0030] FIG. 12 is a flowchart of the operational sequence of the image forming apparatus in a modified version of the second embodiment, for forming toner strips for adjusting the image forming apparatus. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS [0031] Hereinafter, embodiments of the present invention are described in detail with reference to the appended drawings. The following embodiments of the present invention are not intended to limit the present invention in scope. That is, the present invention is applicable to any image forming apparatus, which may be partially or entirely different in structure from those in the following embodiments of the present invention, as long as it is structured so that before a toner image for adjusting the image forming apparatus (which hereafter may be referred to simply as adjustment toner image or strip) is scraped away by the cleaning blade of the image forming apparatus, a toner image which is smaller than the adjustment toner image, in the amount of the shock which the cleaning edge is subjected when the cleaning blade scrapes away the toner image on the intermediary transfer belt, is supplied to the cleaning edge of the belt cleaning blade. [0032] That is, not only is the present invention applicable to an image forming apparatus which uses two-component developer, but also, an image forming apparatus which uses single-component developer. Further, the present invention is applicable to an image forming apparatus regardless of its type, that is, whether the image forming apparatus is of the full color or black-and-white type, single-drum or multiple-drum type, direct transfer or indirect transfer type. Further, it is applicable to an image forming apparatus regardless of the type of recording medium used by the apparatus, method for charging an image bearing component, method for exposing an image bearing member, method for transferring an image, method for fixing a toner image. In the following description of the embodiments of the present invention, only the primary sections of the image forming apparatus, which are related to the formation and transfer of a toner image, are described. However, the present invention is also applicable to various printing machines, copying machines, facsimile machines, etc., which are combinations of an image forming apparatus such as those in the following embodiments, and other devices, equipments, casings, etc. Further, it is also applicable to a multifunction apparatus, that is, an apparatus capable of performing two or more functions of the apparatuses listed above. <Image Forming Apparatus> [0033] FIG. 1 is a drawing for describing a typical image forming apparatus to which the present invention is applicable. An image forming apparatus 100 , shown in FIG. 1 , is a full-color printer of the so-called tandem type, and also, of the indirect transfer type. Thus, it has an intermediary transfer belt 8 , and four image formation stations 1 Y, 1 M, 1 C and 1 Bk which form yellow, magenta, cyan, and black monochromatic images, respectively. The four image formation stations are aligned in tandem in the adjacencies of the intermediary transfer belt 8 . [0034] In the image formation station 1 Y, a yellow toner image is formed on its photosensitive drum 2 Y, and is transferred onto the intermediary transfer belt 8 . In the image formation station 1 M, a magenta toner image is formed on its photosensitive drum 2 M, and is transferred onto the intermediary transfer belt 8 . In the image formation stations 1 C, and 1 Bk, cyan and black toner images are formed on photosensitive drums 2 C and 2 Bk, respectively, and are transferred onto the intermediary transfer belt 8 . [0035] After being transferred onto the intermediary transfer belt 8 , the toner images, different in color, are conveyed to a secondary transfer station T 2 , and transferred together (secondary transfer) onto a sheet P of recording medium, in the station T 2 . While the toner images, different in color, are formed as described above, a sheet P of recording medium is moved out of a recording medium cassette 41 by a pickup roller 42 , while being separated from the rest of the sheets P in the cassette 41 . Then, it is sent to a pair of registration rollers 43 , which releases the sheet P with such a timing that the sheet P arrives at the secondary transfer station T 2 at the same time as the toner image on the intermediary transfer belt 8 arrives at the secondary transfer station T 2 . In the secondary transfer station T 2 , the toner images on the intermediary transfer belt 8 are transferred onto the sheet P. After the transfer of the toner images onto the sheet P, the sheet P is sent to the fixing device 11 , in which the toner images on the sheet P are fixed to the sheet P by the heat and pressure applied to the sheet P and the toner images thereon, by the fixing device 11 . Then, the sheet P is discharged into a delivery tray 45 of the image forming apparatus 100 . [0036] The image formation stations 1 Y, 1 M, 1 C and 1 Bk are roughly the same in structure, although they are different in the color of the toner which their developing devices 4 Y, 4 M, 4 C and 4 Bk use. Hereafter, therefore, only the image formation station 1 Y is described, since the image formation stations 1 M, 1 C and 1 Bk are the same in description except for the suffix (M, C or Bk) of their referential codes. [0037] The image formation station 1 Y has the photosensitive drum 2 Y, and means for processing the photosensitive drum 2 Y, which are charging roller 3 Y, exposing device 7 Y, developing device 4 Y, primary transfer roller 5 Y, and drum cleaning device 6 Y, which are in the adjacencies of the peripheral surface of the photosensitive drum 2 Y. The photosensitive drum 2 Y is made up of an aluminum cylinder, and a negatively chargeable photosensitive layer formed on the peripheral surface of the aluminum cylinder. It is rotatable at a preset process speed in the direction indicated by an arrow mark R 1 in FIG. 1 . As an alternating voltage, which is a combination of a DC voltage VD and an AC voltage, is applied to the charge roller 3 Y, the charge roller 3 Y uniformly charges the peripheral surface of the photosensitive drum 2 Y to a preset level VD of negative polarity, which will be the potential level of unexposed points of the peripheral surface of the photosensitive drum 2 Y. [0038] As image formation signals (image data) are inputted into the image forming apparatus 100 from an external apparatus (personal computer, for example), the image formation signal processing section of the image forming apparatus 100 turns the image data into digital data with which the beam of laser light is modulated as it is emitted by the exposing device 7 Y to form the yellow (magenta, cyan, or black) monochromatic toner image. The exposing device 7 Y writes an electrostatic image of the yellow monochromatic image on the peripheral surface of the photosensitive drum 2 Y by scanning the uniformly charged portion of the peripheral surface of the photosensitive drum 2 Y with the beam of laser light which it emits while modulating the beam of laser light with the digital image formation data, and deflecting it with its rotational mirror. The developing device 4 Y develops the electrostatic image on the peripheral surface of the photosensitive drum 2 Y into a visible image, that is, an image formed of yellow toner, by causing the toner to transfer onto the peripheral surface of the photosensitive drum 2 Y, in the pattern of the electrostatic image thereon. [0039] The primary transfer roller 5 Y is kept pressed upon the inward surface of the intermediary transfer belt 8 , forming thereby the primary transfer station TY between the peripheral surface of the photosensitive drum 2 Y and intermediary transfer belt 8 . As positive DC voltage is applied to the primary transfer roller 5 Y, the toner image on the photosensitive drum 2 Y, which is negative in polarity, is transferred onto the intermediary transfer belt 8 (primary transfer). The drum cleaning device 6 Y recovers the transfer residual toner, that is, the toner which failed to be transferred from the photosensitive drum 2 Y onto the intermediary transfer belt 8 , and therefore remaining on the peripheral surface of the photosensitive drum 2 Y after the primary transfer of the toner image. [0040] The intermediary transfer belt 8 is supported by a belt driving roller 14 , a belt tensioning roller 16 , a belt backing roller 9 , and a idler roller 17 , in such a manner that it extends between the driving roller 14 and belt backing roller 9 , between the belt tensioning roller and 16 and roller 13 a , between the roller 13 a and an idler roller 17 , and between the idler roller 17 and belt driving roller 14 . It circularly moves in the direction indicated by an arrow mark R 2 by being driven by the belt driving roller 14 . The image forming apparatus 100 is provided with an optical sensor 15 , which is positioned so that it faces the portion of the outward surface of the intermediary transfer belt 8 , which corresponds in position to the idler roller 17 . The optical sensor 15 outputs a voltage (signal), the amplitude of which is proportional to the amount by which toner is adhered, per unit area, to the intermediary transfer belt 8 to form a toner image (adjustment toner image) for adjusting the image forming apparatus 100 . More specifically, it projects a beam of infrared light upon the adjustment toner image, which was formed on the photosensitive drum 2 Y and transferred onto the intermediary transfer belt 8 from the photosensitive drum 2 Y, and detects the portion of the beam reflected by the adjustment toner image on the intermediary transfer belt 8 . Then, it outputs voltage, the magnitude of which is proportional to the amount by which toner was adhered, per unit area, to the intermediary transfer belt 8 . [0041] The fixing device 11 has a heat roller 11 a and a pressure roller 11 b , which are heated by their internal heater. The heat roller 11 and pressure roller 11 b form a heating nip by being kept pressed upon each other. As a sheet P of recording medium, on which unfixed toners are present, is conveyed through the heating nip, the toner images come into contact with the heat roller 11 a , being thereby melted. Then, as the sheet P is moved out of the heating nip, the melted toner images solidify while adhering to the surface of the sheet P; the toner images become fixed to the sheet P. <Belt Cleaning Device> [0042] FIG. 2 is a drawing for describing the structure of the belt cleaning device 12 of the image forming apparatus 100 . As will be evident from FIG. 2 , the image forming apparatus 100 is provided with the belt cleaning device 12 , which is for removing the toner, paper dust, and the like contaminants remaining on the surface of the intermediary transfer belt 8 after the transfer of the toner images from the intermediary transfer belt 8 onto the sheet P of recording medium. The belt cleaning device 12 in this embodiment is of the blade type; it has a cleaning blade 12 b which is placed in contact with the intermediary transfer belt 8 to scrape the intermediary transfer belt 8 to remove the contaminants such as the residual toner, paper dust, etc., from the intermediary transfer belt 8 . [0043] The belt cleaning device 12 has also a scooping sheet 12 c and a screw 12 d . As the intermediary transfer belt 8 is circularly moved, the intermediary transfer belt 8 is scraped by the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade 12 b , which is kept in contact with the portion of the intermediary transfer belt 8 , by which the intermediary transfer belt 8 is supported by the belt tensioning roller 16 . Thus, the transfer residual toner, paper dust, and the like contaminants, are scraped away from the intermediary transfer belt 8 by the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade 12 b , scooped up by the scooping sheet 12 c , and delivered to the screw 12 d , which delivers the recovered transfer residual toner, and the like, to a waste toner container 33 , which is on the front side of the image forming apparatus 100 , and in which the waste toner and the like are to be stored. [0044] The cleaning blade 12 b is kept in contact with the intermediary transfer belt 8 , with a pair of springs, in such an attitude that it is tilted in the opposite direction from the moving direction of the intermediary transfer belt 8 , and also, that the angle of its contact relative to the intermediary transfer belt 8 becomes 17 degrees. It is made of urethane rubber, and is 1-2 mm in thickness. [0045] The scooping sheet 12 c is made of polyethylene-terephthalate, and is 20-50 μm in thickness. It is for preventing the problem that as the transfer residual toner is scraped away from the intermediary transfer belt 8 , it temporarily accumulates along the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade 12 b , lumps, and falls. It is kept in contact with the intermediary transfer belt 8 in such an attitude that it is tilted in the same direction as the moving direction of the intermediary transfer belt 8 , with its scooping edge being in contact with the intermediary transfer belt 8 . <Toner Image for Adjusting Image Forming Apparatus> [0046] An example of toner image for adjusting an image forming apparatus is a toner strip formed for automatically rejuvenating the developer in the developing device. That is, in order to keep the developer in the developing device stable in the amount of toner charge at a preset level to ensure that the amount by which toner is adhered to the electrostatic image on the photosensitive drum per unit area to developer the electrostatic image remains stable at a preset level, the amount by which the developing device is replenished with toner is adjusted. More specifically, the developing device 4 Y negatively charges the toner in the developer (combination of toner and carrier) in the developer container, by circulating the developer in the developer container while stirring the developer. The developing device 4 Y develops the electrostatic image on the photosensitive drum 2 Y by transferring the negatively charged toner onto the peripheral surface of the photosensitive drum 2 Y. That is, the developer in the developer container is borne on the peripheral surface of the development roller, and made to crest to form a “magnetic brush” which rubs the peripheral surface of the photosensitive drum 2 Y. Further, the alternating voltage, which is a combination of a DC voltage and an AC voltage, is applied to the development sleeve. Thus, only the negatively charged toner particles in the developer are transferred onto the peripheral surface of the photosensitive drum 2 Y in the pattern of the electrostatic latent image on the peripheral surface of the photosensitive drum 2 Y. Thus, in order to compensate for the toner consumed for image formation, the developing device 4 Y is automatically replenished with a fresh supply of toner (ATR Adjustment Control). [0047] Referring to FIG. 1( b ), in the ATR control, an electrostatic image which is preset in development contrast (50% in gradation scale) is formed on the peripheral surface of the photosensitive drum 2 Y, and is developed by the developing device 4 Y into a toner image Q, or the ATR adjustment toner image. [0048] More specifically, the ATR adjustment toner image Q is formed through the following steps. Referring to FIG. 1 , in a case where a potential level sensor is not on the photosensitive drum 2 Y, it is impossible to vary the photosensitive drum 2 Y in the amount of surface potential in order to measure the amount by which toner is adhered, per unit area, to the peripheral surface of the photosensitive drum 2 Y. In this embodiment, therefore, the ATR adjustment toner image Q is formed in an analog fashion, that is, without exposing the peripheral surface of the photosensitive drum 2 Y with the exposing device 7 Y. [0049] The development contrast of the ATR adjustment toner image Q is the difference in the amount of potential between the potential level of a given point of the electrostatic image, to which toner is to be adhered, and the potential level of the DC voltage applied to the development sleeve. It is proportional to the amount of electricity, per unit area, of the peripheral surface of the photosensitive drum 2 Y, which is to be cancelled by the electrical charge of the toner. Thus, the ATR adjustment toner image Q is formed in the shape of a long and narrow strip, the length of which in terms of the widthwise direction of the intermediary transfer belt 8 , that is, the direction perpendicular to the moving direction of the intermediary transfer belt 8 , is equal to the widest electrostatic image which can be formed on the peripheral surface of the photosensitive drum 2 Y and can be developed by the developing device 4 Y. [0050] After the formation of four ATR adjustment toner images Q in the four image formation stations 1 Y, 1 M, 1 C, and 1 Bk, one for one, the four ATR adjustment toner images Q are transferred onto the intermediary transfer belt 8 . Then, the amount by which toner was adhered to the peripheral surface of the each photosensitive drum 2 ( 2 Y, 2 M, 2 C and Bk) to form each ATR adjustment toner image, is detected by the optical sensor 15 . Then, all the ATR adjustment toner images are conveyed to the belt cleaning device 12 , and are recovered by the device 12 . [0051] Another example of the toner image for adjusting an image forming apparatus is a roughly square toner image formed as an image for adjusting the image forming apparatus 100 in Dmax. An operation for controlling the image forming apparatus 100 in Dmax is such an operation that adjusts an image forming apparatus in development contrast to ensure that the highest density of an image which will be outputted by the apparatus will be at the preset level. In the case of the image forming apparatus 100 , the frequency with which the image forming apparatus 100 is controlled in Dmax is less than the frequency with which the image forming apparatus 100 is controlled in ATR amount. In Dmax control, multiple Dmax adjustment toner images, which are 100% in gradation scale, are formed with the development contrast set at various levels. The four Dmax adjustment toner images formed in the four image formation stations 1 Y, 1 M, 1 C and 1 Bk, one for one, are transferred onto the intermediary transfer belt 8 , and the amount of the toner per unit area of each toner image is detected by the optical sensor 15 . Then, the four Dmax adjustment toner images are conveyed to the belt cleaning device 12 and are recovered by the device 12 . [0052] Another example of the toner image for adjusting an image forming apparatus is a toner strip which is formed to prevent the problem that the developer in the developing device degrades in terms of chargeability. As the toner particles in the developing device 4 Y increase in the average length of time they were stirred, they degrade in various properties. Therefore, as a substantial number of images which are low in toner consumption (greater in amount of area which is not covered with toner) are continuously formed, the control section 110 forms a toner “strip” on the peripheral surface of the photosensitive drum 2 Y to cause the developing device 4 Y to discharge a preset amount of toner. [0053] More specifically, in order to cause the developing device 4 Y to discharge a preset amount of toner, the image forming apparatus 100 is controlled as follows: The control section 110 calculates the amount of toner consumption per sheet of recording medium for each color (each image formation station), and calculates the amount of difference between the amount of toner consumption and a preset threshold value. Further, the control section 110 calculates the cumulative amount of the difference between the toner consumption and the preset threshold value while a preset number of images are formed. Then, it decides whether the cumulative amount has reached a preset value. If it decides that the cumulative amount has reached the preset value, it causes the developing device 4 Y to discharge the preset amount of toner onto the photosensitive drum 2 Y. [0054] If the control section 110 determines that all the image formation stations (developing devices 4 Y, 4 M, 4 C and 4 Bk) have been small in the amount of toner consumed for image formation, that is, are large in the amount of difference between the amount of toner consumption and the preset threshold value, the control section 110 causes all the developing devices 4 to discharge the preset amount of toner. In comparison, if the control section 110 determines that only black toner has been used for image formation, it causes the developing devices 4 Y, 4 M and 4 C to discharge the preset amount of toner. Further, if the control section 110 determines that only three color toners (Y, M and Bk toners) have been used, it causes only the developing device 4 C to discharge the preset amount of toner. [0055] In other words, the toner in each developing device 4 , which has degraded in terms of chargeability, is removed from the developing device 4 , by the preset amount through the above described process. Thus, the developing device 4 is replenished with fresh toner by the preset amount. Therefore, the developing device 4 is prevented from becoming excessive in the average length of time toner particles remain therein. [0056] To describe in detail the process for causing the developing device 4 to discharge the preset amount of toner, the DC voltage to be applied to the charge roller 3 Y is temporarily reduced in magnitude to form an electrostatic image on the peripheral surface of the photosensitive drum 2 without exposing the peripheral surface of the photosensitive drum 2 . Then, the thus formed electrostatic image is developed to form a “toner strip”. The four toner “strips” formed in the four image formation stations 1 Y, 1 M, 1 C and 1 Bk, one for one, are transferred onto the intermediary transfer belt 8 , conveyed to the belt cleaning device 12 , and recovered by the device 12 . [0057] The photosensitive drums 2 Y, 2 M, 2 C and 2 Bk of the image forming apparatus 100 are small in diameter (30 mm). Therefore, it is virtually impossible to place the optical sensor 15 in the immediate adjacencies of the photosensitive drums 2 . Further, even if it is possible to place the optical sensor 15 in the adjacencies of the photosensitive drums 2 , placing the optical sensor 15 in the adjacencies of each photosensitive drum 2 requires four optical sensors 15 . Thus, the ATR adjustment toner images (or Dmax adjustment toner images) formed on the photosensitive drums 2 Y, 2 M, 2 C and 2 Bk, one for one, are transferred onto the intermediary transfer belt 8 (primary transfer), and then, the optical sensor 15 , positioned in the adjacencies of the image bearing surface of the intermediary transfer belt 8 , is used to detect the amount of the toner which each ATR adjustment toner images (or Dmax adjustment toner images) on the intermediary transfer belt 8 has per unit area. These adjustment toner images are made to move through the secondary transfer station T 2 , by the application of negative voltage to the secondary transfer roller 10 . Then, they are recovered by the cleaning device 12 . [0058] It is possible to transfer the toner images for adjusting an image forming apparatus (which hereafter may be referred to simply as adjustment toner image or strip) back onto the photosensitive drum 2 Y from the intermediary transfer belt 8 , by circularly moving the intermediary transfer belt 8 one full turn while applying negative voltage to the primary transfer roller 5 Y, so that they can be recovered by the drum cleaning device 6 Y. In principle, as long as negative voltage is applied to the primary transfer roller 5 Y, the adjustment toner images can be recovered by the drum cleaning device 6 Y without transferring them onto the intermediary transfer belt 8 . However, as the photosensitive drums 2 Y, 2 M, 2 C and 2 Bk were reduced in size, the drum cleaning devices 6 Y, 6 M, 6 C and 6 Bk also were reduced in size. Therefore, the drum cleaning devices 6 Y, 6 M, 6 C and 6 Bk have no room for recovering the adjustment toner images. [0000] <Amount of Load to which Cleaning Blade is Subjected when Cleaning Blade Scrapes Away Adjustment Toner Image> [0059] Referring to FIG. 2 , the amount of the toner on the portion of the intermediary transfer belt 8 which is on the immediately downstream side of the secondary transfer station T 2 , that is, the amount of residual toner on the intermediary transfer belt 8 , is substantially smaller than the amount of the toner on the portion of the peripheral surface of the photosensitive drum 2 which is on the immediately downstream side of the primary transfer station TY. Thus, the amount by which the transfer residual toner traceable to the normal image is scraped away from the intermediary transfer belt 8 by the cleaning device 12 is very small. Therefore, the transfer residual toner on the intermediary transfer belt 8 can be satisfactorily removed by the belt cleaning device 12 , even if the contact pressure between the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade 12 b and intermediary transfer belt 8 is very small. [0060] In the case of the adjustment toner images, they are not transferred onto a sheet of recording medium. That is, they reach the belt cleaning device 12 in entirety. Therefore, the cleaning device 12 has to recover a large amount of toner. In other words, in the operation for adjusting (correcting) the image forming apparatus 100 , the adjustment toner images, which are greater in the amount of toner per unit area (higher in image density), are formed (transferred) onto the intermediary transfer belt 8 . Therefore, it is more likely for the cleaning blade 12 b to be required to recover a large amount of toner than in the normal image forming operation. In other words, in the operation for adjusting the image forming apparatus 100 , it is more likely for the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade 12 b to become damaged than in the normal image forming operation. Once the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade 12 b is damaged, the cleaning device 12 is likely to fail to properly clean the intermediary transfer belt 8 , and therefore, the image forming apparatus 100 is likely to reduce in image quality. As a part or parts of the cleaning edge portion of the cleaning blade 12 are made to buckle downstream in terms of the moving direction of the intermediary transfer belt 8 , being therefore pulled (folded back) into the nip between the cleaning edge and intermediary transfer belt 8 , by the toner images on the intermediary transfer belt 8 , it becomes easier for toner particles to slip through the portions of the nip, which correspond to the buckled portions of the cleaning edge. [0061] Some adjustment toner images slip through the nip between the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade 12 and intermediary transfer belt 8 by slipping into the underside of the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade 12 d , and pushing up the cleaning edge, which results in the unsatisfactory cleaning of the intermediary transfer belt 8 . The amount of the force which an adjustment toner image applies upward to the cleaning blade 12 b is affected by the amount by which toner is recovered by the cleaning device 12 , and/or the amount of adhesive force between the intermediary transfer belt 8 and the toner thereon. [0062] The image forming apparatus 100 has the image formation stations 1 Y, 1 M, 1 C and 1 Bk, which are aligned in tandem along the intermediary transfer belt 8 . Therefore, an adjustment toner image formed in the image formation station 1 Y, that is, the most upstream one in terms of the moving direction of the intermediary transfer belt 8 , is moved through the primary transfer stations TM, TC and TBk as well as the primary transfer station TY. Further, each time the adjustment toner image formed in the image formation station 1 Y is moved through a primary transfer station T, the mechanical adhesion between the adjustment toner image and intermediary transfer belt 8 increases in strength. Therefore, the adjustment toner image (which is greater in amount of toner per unit area), which is formed in the image formation station 1 Y, that is, the most upstream station, sometimes becomes a serious amount of load to the cleaning blade 12 b , which is large enough to cause the cleaning blade 12 b to unsatisfactorily clean the intermediary transfer belt 8 . <Device for Evaluating Cleaning Blade Deformation> [0063] FIG. 3 is a drawing of the device for evaluating the deformation of the cleaning blade 12 b . As is evident from FIG. 3 , the amount of deformation of the cleaning blade 12 b was measured by a strain gauge 32 (product of Kyowa Co., Ltd.) adhered to the rear surface (outward surface) of the cleaning blade 12 b . The strain gauge 32 is made to deform by the expansion and contraction of the surface of the cleaning blade 12 b . As it deforms, it changes in the amount of electrical resistance. A signal amplifier 34 detects the output voltage of the strain gauge 32 by flowing a preset amount of electrical current through the gauge 32 , and amplifies the output voltage. An A/D converter 35 converts the amplified analog signal into digital signal. A personal computer 36 functions as a voltmeter, and outputs the amount of the deformation of the strain gauge 32 , with preset intervals which are synchronized with the circular movement of the intermediary transfer belt 8 . Experiment 1 [0064] FIG. 4 is a drawing for describing the relationship between the color of a toner strip and the amount of the deformation of the cleaning blade 12 b . In this experiment, a substantial number of prints are continuously formed with the use of the image forming apparatus 100 shown in FIG. 1 . During the image forming operation, the image formation stations 1 Y, 1 M, 1 C and 1 Bk were made to output a toner strip with different timings for every 100 prints, and the toner strips were transferred onto the intermediary transfer belt 8 (primary transfer). Then, each toner strip was moved through the secondary transfer station T 2 while negative voltage was applied to the secondary transfer roller 10 . Then, each toner strip was recovered by the cleaning device 12 . [0065] The electrostatic image for each toner strip was formed without using the exposing devices 7 Y, 7 M, 7 C and 7 Bk. More specifically, an electrostatic image, the dimension of which in terms of the widthwise direction of the intermediary transfer belt 8 is equal to charging range of the charge roller 3 in its lengthwise direction, is formed on the photosensitive drum 2 , by keeping the DC voltage VD of the alternating voltage which is to be applied to the charge rollers 3 Y, 3 M, 3 C and 3 Bk, lower than the normal voltage, for a length of time which is equivalent to the dimension of the toner strip in the moving direction of the intermediary transfer belt 8 . By reducing the DC voltage VD from −600 V to −200 V, +400 V of development contrast was realized between the potential level of the peripheral surface of the photosensitive drum 2 and the AC voltage Vdc of the alternating voltage applied to the development sleeve of the developing device 4 , whereby the electrostatic image was developed into a toner strip, the amount of the toner of which per unit area is equivalent to the post-fixation reflection density of 1.0. [0066] Referring to FIG. 4 , as the intermediary transfer belt 8 begins to be circularly moved, the cleaning blade 12 b is made to deform by the pressure applied thereto by the intermediary transfer belt 8 . Then, each time a toner strip, which is yellow, magenta, cyan, or black toner strip, reaches the cleaning blade 12 b , the cleaning blade 12 b increased in the amount of the deformation attributable to the toner strip. Further, the amount of the deformation of the cleaning blade 12 b was significantly affected by in which image formation station the toner strip was formed. [0067] The yellow toner strip, which is formed in the image formation station 1 Y, that is, the most upstream image formation station in terms of the moving direction of the intermediary transfer belt 8 was the largest in the amount by which the cleaning blade 12 b was deformed by the toner strip, whereas the black toner strip, which was formed in the image formation station 1 Bk, that is, the most downstream one in terms of the moving direction of the intermediary transfer belt 8 , was smallest in the amount of the deformation of the cleaning blade 12 , for the following reason. [0068] Each time an adjustment toner strip is moved through the primary transfer station T (TY, TM, TC or TBk), in which the toner strip is pressed upon the intermediary transfer belt 8 by the primary transfer roller 5 ( 5 Y, 5 M, 5 C or 5 Bk), the toner strip is increased in its adhesive strength to the intermediary transfer belt 8 . The greater a toner strip in the adhesive strength to the intermediary transfer belt 8 , the more resistant it is to the impact which occurs as it collides with the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade 12 b , and the greater it is in the amount of force necessary to be applied thereto to scrape it away from the intermediary transfer belt 8 . Therefore, if two toner strips are equal in the amount of toner per unit area thereof, the toner strip which is greater in the number of times it was moved through the primary transfer station T (TY, TM, TC and TBk), that is, the interface between the photosensitive drum 2 and intermediary transfer belt 8 , is greater in the amount of damage to the cleaning blade 12 b. [0069] When a certain amount of toner is staying at the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade 12 b , the friction between the intermediary transfer belt 8 and cleaning blade 12 b remains relatively low. Thus, the amount of friction which the cleaning blade encounters as it scrapes away the toner strip is substantially smaller than when no toner is staying at the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade 12 b . That is, the toner particles staying along the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade 12 b function as lubricant, which reduces the impact which will occur as the toner strip collides with the cleaning edge. Embodiment 1 [0070] FIG. 5 is a flowchart of the operational sequence for outputting adjustment toner strips, in the first embodiment. In the first embodiment, in order to minimize the amount of the load to which the cleaning blade 12 b is subjected, the image forming apparatus 100 is operated to arrange the four adjustment toner strips, different in color, on the intermediary transfer belt 8 , based on the results of the first experiment, so that the four toner strips reach the cleaning blade in the order of the least damage to the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade 12 b. [0071] Referring to FIG. 1 , the image formation stations 1 Y, 1 M, 1 C and 1 Bk form four toner strips (examples of adjustment toner images, which are as wide as development range in terms of widthwise direction of intermediary transfer belt 8 ), one for one, and transfers the four toner strips onto the intermediary transfer belt 8 (example of intermediary transfer medium) while applying pressure to the four toner images. The cleaning blade 12 b is kept pressed upon the intermediary transfer belt 8 , and recovers the four ATR adjustment toner images as the four images are conveyed by the intermediary transfer belt 8 . The control section 110 (example of controlling means) controls the image formation stations 1 Y, 1 M, 1 C, and 1 Bk in such a manner that the cleaning blade 12 b is supplied with a lubricational toner image before the first ATR adjustment toner image arrives at the cleaning blade 12 b . The lubricational toner image is the toner strip QBk formed in the image formation station 1 Bk, and is delivered to the cleaning blade 12 b before the toner strips QY, QM and QC formed in the image formation stations 1 Y, 1 M and 1 C, respectively, sequentially arrive at the cleaning blade 12 b . More specifically, the control section 110 controls the exposing devices 7 Y, 7 M, 7 C and 7 Bk in the image formation timing in order to position the four toner strips in the above described order on the intermediary transfer belt 8 . [0072] Next, referring to FIG. 4 , in terms of the amount of the deformation of the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade 12 b which a toner image on the intermediary transfer belt 8 causes as it is scraped away by the cleaning blade 12 , the toner strip QBk, which is an example of lubricational toner image, is smaller than any of the ATR adjustment toner images. The amount of the deformation which a toner image on the intermediary transfer belt 8 causes to the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade 12 b as the toner image is scraped away by the cleaning blade 12 can be measured by solidly attaching the strain gauge 32 to the cleaning blade 12 b as shown in FIG. 3 . [0073] Referring to FIG. 5 along with FIG. 1 , as the control section 110 receives an image formation job, it makes the image forming apparatus 100 begin an image forming operation, and begins to count the number of prints formed (W 1 ). As the print count reaches the print count value of the job (value in image formation counter in W 2 ), the control section 110 ends the image forming operation (W 5 ). Each time the print count reaches the preset value (value in counter in W 2 ), the control section 110 makes the image forming apparatus 100 form four toner strips on photosensitive drums 2 Y, 2 M, 2 C and 2 Bk, one for one, and transfer the toner strips onto the intermediary transfer belt 8 . In this embodiment, the preset value in the counter in W 2 is 100. The toner strips are conveyed to the belt cleaning device 12 , scraped away from the intermediary transfer belt 8 by the cleaning blade 12 b of the cleaning device 12 , and recovered by the cleaning device 12 (W 3 ). More concretely, referring to FIG. 2 , the timing with which the writing of an electrostatic latent image is started on the photosensitive drums 2 Y, 2 M, 2 C and 2 Bk, and ended, are set so that the black, cyan, magenta, and yellow toner strips QBk, QC, QM and QY are transferred onto the intermediary transfer belt 8 , with no gap among them, in the listed order, black QBk being the first one in terms of the moving direction of the intermediary transfer belt 8 . In terms of the moving direction of the intermediary transfer belt 8 , the four toner strips are sequentially transferred onto the intermediary transfer belt 8 (primary transfer), starting from the most downstream image formation station 1 . That is, the four image formation stations sequentially are made to form four toner strips, different in color, one for one, starting from the black image forming station 1 Bk, that is, the most downstream one. [0074] With the image forming apparatus 100 being controlled by the control section 110 as described above, the toner strip which is the least adhesive to the intermediary transfer belt 8 is the first one to be delivered to the cleaning blade 12 b , and forms a toner layer along the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade 12 b , minimizing thereby the amount of load to which the cleaning blade 12 b will be subjected when the subsequent toner strips (ATR adjustment toner images), which are substantially more adhesive to the intermediary transfer belt 8 than the lubricational toner strip, are scraped away by the cleaning blade 12 b. [0075] In the first embodiment, the four toner strips, different in color, are sequentially formed, starting in the black toner image formation station 1 Bk, that is, the most downstream one in terms of the moving direction of the intermediary transfer belt 8 . Therefore, a toner layer, which functions as lubricant, is formed along the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade 12 b , without subjecting the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade 12 b to a significant amount of load. Therefore, the image forming apparatus 100 is minimized in the amount of the load to which the cleaning blade 12 b is subjected when the ATR adjustment toner images are scraped away from the intermediary transfer belt 8 by the cleaning blade 12 b . Therefore, it is unlikely for the cleaning blade 12 b to fail to satisfactorily clean the intermediary transfer belt 8 . [0076] The modified version of the second embodiment, which will be described later, is an example of the embodiment of the present invention, which was realized in anticipation of “toner discharge+Dmax control” and “toner discharge+ATR control”. Another modified version of the second embodiment is realized in anticipation of “lubricational toner image+Dmax control” and “lubricational toner image+ATR control”. In comparison to these embodiments and their modifications, in the first embodiment, the black toner strip or black toner patch, which is smallest in the amount of the load to which the cleaning blade 12 b is subjected when the cleaning blade 12 b scrapes away a toner image on the intermediary transfer belt 8 , is used as the lubricational toner image for lubricating the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade 12 b before the toner strips or patches, which are different in color from the black toner strips or patches, are formed. <Comparative Image Forming Apparatus 1 > [0077] FIG. 6 is a flowchart of the operational sequence of the first of the comparative image forming apparatuses, for forming toner strips. FIG. 7 is a drawing for describing the effects of the first embodiment of the present invention. [0078] In the case of the first example of comparative image forming apparatus, the image forming apparatus is controlled so that the four toner strips are arranged on the intermediary transfer belt 8 in the reverse order to the one in the first embodiment. The first example of comparative image forming apparatus is different from the image forming apparatus 100 in the first embodiment only in the order in which the four toner strips are outputted; otherwise, the two are the same in operational sequence. Thus, the steps in the operational sequence of the first example of comparative image forming apparatus, shown in FIG. 6 , which are the same as the counterparts in the first embodiment, are given the same referential codes as the counterparts, and are not going to be described here in order not to repeat the same description. [0079] Referring to FIG. 6 along with FIG. 1 , the first example of comparative image forming apparatus makes the four image formation stations 1 sequentially form four toner strips, one for one, starting from the image formation station 1 Y for forming a yellow toner image, that is, the most upstream image formation station in terms of the moving direction of the intermediary transfer belt 8 , and transfers (primary transfer) them onto the intermediary transfer belt 8 (W 3 ). [0080] Next, referring to FIG. 7 along with FIG. 2 , the image forming apparatus 100 was used to output a substantial number of prints, while outputting toner strips, different in color, for every 100 prints. Then, the image forming apparatus 100 , that is, the apparatus in the first embodiment, was compared with the first example of comparative image forming apparatus, in terms of the amount of cleaning blade deformation. In the case of the first example of comparative image forming apparatus, the cleaning blade 12 b suffered from a large amount of compressional deformation with the same timing as the arrival of the yellow toner strips at the cleaning blade 12 b , as shown in FIG. 7( a ). In comparison, in the case of the image forming apparatus 100 in the first embodiment, the cleaning blade 12 b did not suffer from a large amount of compressional deformation when the black toner strip QBk, or the most upstream one, reached the cleaning blade 12 b , as shown in FIG. 7( b ). Further, even when the cyan, magenta, and yellow toner strips QC, QM and QY sequentially reached the cleaning blade 12 b , the blade 12 b did not sustain conspicuous amount of compressional deformation. <Modified Version of Embodiment 1> [0081] Although this modified version (first version) of the first embodiment is similar to the first embodiment in that the first toner strip sent to the cleaning blade 12 b was the toner strip QBk, that is, the toner strip formed in the image formation station 1 Bk, it is different from the first embodiment in terms of the order in which the cyan, magenta, and yellow toner strips QC, QM and QY were sent to the cleaning blade 12 b after the black toner strip QBk. The image forming apparatus in this modified version of the first embodiment was subjected to the same experiment as the one described above. The results of the experiment were the same as those obtained by the image forming apparatus 100 in the first embodiment, confirming that the first embodiment is effective regardless of the order in which the yellow, magenta, and cyan toner strips are delivered to the cleaning blade 12 b . That is, an image forming apparatus can be very effectively prevented from failing to satisfactorily clean its intermediary transfer belt 8 , simply by controlling the apparatus in such a manner that when the apparatus forms the toner strips for controlling the apparatus, it makes the image formation station 1 Bk, that is, the most downstream one, the first one to form a toner strips, or the black toner strip. [0082] Further, the intermediary transfer belt 8 was stopped immediately after the black toner strip QBk, that is, the toner strip formed in the image formation station 1 Bk, was sent to the cleaning blade 12 b . Then, the cleaning blade 12 b was removed from the image forming apparatus 100 . Then, its cleaning edge was examined with the use of a stereo-microscope. The examination proved the presence of a toner layer; a toner layer was formed by the black toner strip QBk. [0083] The experiment carried out with the use of the image forming apparatus in the first modified version of the first embodiment proved that as long as a toner strip which is small in the amount of load to which the cleaning blade 12 b is subjected when the cleaning blade 12 b scrapes away a toner image on the intermediary transfer belt 8 is the first one to be sent to the cleaning blade 12 b during an operation for adjusting (correcting) an image forming apparatus in image density, a toner layer is formed along the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade 12 b . The amount of the impact to which the cleaning blade 12 b is subjected by a toner strip is affected by the amount of toner per unit area of the toner strip. Therefore, the image forming apparatus 100 is controlled so that a toner strip which is small in the amount of its toner per unit area will be the first one to be transferred onto the intermediary transfer belt 8 , and then, those which are larger in the amount of toner per unit area are transferred onto the intermediary transfer belt 8 . [0084] Once a toner layer is formed along the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade 12 b , the cleaning blade 12 b substantially reduces anyway in the amount by which it is deformed by a toner image on the intermediary transfer belt 8 . Thus, it is not mandatory that the toner strips are to be sequentially formed and transferred onto the intermediary transfer belt 8 , starting from the one which is formed in the most downstream image formation station. In other words, the modified version of the first embodiment also can prevent the cleaning edge of a cleaning blade from being deformed and/or reduced in service life by the toner strip formed to control an image forming apparatus, and therefore, can make it unlikely for the cleaning blade to fail to satisfactorily clean the intermediary transfer belt. [0085] Further, the effects of the first embodiment can be enhanced by reducing to zero (0 μA) the current which is to be flowed in the primary transfer station when toner images other than the toner images formed and transferred onto the intermediary transfer medium to be measured in density are moved between the primary transfer means and an image bearing member. Experiment 2 [0086] FIG. 8 is a drawing for describing the relationship between the amount of toner per unit area of a toner strip and the amount of the deformation of the cleaning blade 12 b . The image forming apparatus 100 shown in FIG. 1 was used to continuously output a substantial number of prints, while controlling the image forming apparatus 100 in such a manner that adjustment toner strips are formed and transferred onto the intermediary transfer belt 8 in the image formation stations 1 Y for forming a yellow toner strips, for every 100 prints, and also, that the yellow stripes become different in the amount of toner per unit area. The toner strips different in the amount of toner per unit area, were moved through the secondary transfer station T 2 while applying negative voltage to the secondary transfer roller 10 , and then, were recovered by the belt cleaning device 12 . [0087] The amount by which toner was adhered to the peripheral surface of a photosensitive drum to form a toner strip was set by changing the DC voltage VD of the alternating voltage to be applied to the charge rollers 3 Y, 3 M, 3 C and 3 Bk in order to adjust an electrostatic latent image in the development contrast, which is the different in potential level between the AC voltage of the alternating voltage to be applied to the development sleeve of the developing device, and the potential level of the toner particles on the photosensitive drum. More concretely, the image forming apparatus 100 was designed so that the density of the yellow toner strip QY can be set in steps between Levels 15 and 1, a level 15 being the highest level of density. As the image forming apparatus is lowered in steps in the density setting for the yellow toner strip, from Level 15 (14, 13, 12 . . . 2, 1), the yellow toner strip reduces in the amount of toner per unit area. When the density setting is 0, the image forming apparatus does not form a yellow toner strip. [0088] Referring to FIG. 8 , when two toner strips are the same in the number of times they moved through the primary transfer station, the one which was greater in the density setting, and therefore, greater in the amount of toner per unit area, was greater in the amount of the compressional deformation it caused to the cleaning blade 12 b . Further, changing the image formation station 1 Y in density setting changed the amount of the compressional deformation which the cleaning blade 12 b sustained when the toner strip QY arrived at the cleaning blade 12 b. [0089] A toner strip formed in an image formation station 1 which was relatively low in density setting (Level 4, for example), caused hardly any deformation to the cleaning blade 12 b . On the other hand, a toner strip formed in an image formation station 1 which was higher in density (Level 15, for example) caused a substantial amount of deformation to the cleaning blade 12 b . That is, it was confirmed that the density setting for an image formation station affects the amount by which the cleaning blade 12 b is deformed; the higher the density setting, the greater will be the amount of the deformation which the cleaning blade will sustain. [0090] To elaborate, the greater a toner strip in the amount of toner per unit area, the greater the amount of the load to which the cleaning blade 12 b will be subjected when it scrapes away the toner strip, and therefore, the greater the amount by which the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade 12 b deforms by being pushed downstream by the toner strip in terms of the moving direction of the intermediary transfer belt 8 . On the contrary, the smaller a toner strip in the amount of toner per unit area, the smaller of the amount of the load to which the cleaning blade 12 b will be subjected when it scraps away the toner strip, and therefore, the smaller the amount by which the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade 12 b is pushed downstream by the toner strip in terms of the moving direction of the intermediary transfer belt 8 . Embodiment 2 [0091] FIG. 9 is a flowchart of the operational sequence to be carried out by the image forming apparatus in the second embodiment of the present invention, in order for the apparatus to form toner strips for adjusting (controlling) the apparatus. In the second embodiment, based on the results of the second experiment, a toner strip which is low in density, being therefore small in the amount of the load upon the cleaning blade 12 b is the first one to be delivered to the cleaning blade 12 . That is, when multiple toner strips are sequentially transferred onto the intermediary transfer belt 8 and are sent to the cleaning blade 12 b , the toner strip which is the lowest in density is the first one to be formed so that it will be recovered first by the cleaning blade 12 b . Thus, a toner layer is formed along the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade 12 b by the toner strip which is low in density, being therefore small in the amount of load upon the cleaning blade, before the subsequent toner strips which are higher in density are recovered by the cleaning blade 12 b . Therefore, the amount of load to which the cleaning blade 12 b in this embodiment is subjected when the toner strips which are greater in the amount of toner per unit area collide with the cleaning blade 12 b is significantly smaller than that to which a cleaning blade ( 12 b ) of any electrophotographic image forming apparatus in accordance with the prior art is subjected. [0092] Next, referring to FIG. 9 along with FIG. 1 , as the control section 110 receives an image formation job, it makes the image forming apparatus 100 begin an image forming operation, and begins to count the number of prints formed (W 1 ). As the print count reaches the print count value of the job (value in image formation counter in W 2 ), the control section 110 ends the image forming operation (W 6 ). Each time the print count reaches the preset value (value in counter in W 2 ), the control section 110 makes the image forming apparatus 100 form four toner strips which are low in density, on the photosensitive drums 2 Y, 2 M, 2 C and 2 Bk, one for one, and transfer the toner strips onto the intermediary transfer belt 8 . In this embodiment, the preset value in the counter in W 2 is 100. The four toner strips are conveyed to the belt cleaning device 12 , scraped away from the intermediary transfer belt 8 by the cleaning blade 12 b of the cleaning device 12 , and recovered by the cleaning device 12 (W 3 ). Then, the control section 110 makes the image forming apparatus 100 form four toner strips which are higher in density on the photosensitive drums 2 Y, 2 M, 2 C and 2 Bk, one for one, transfer the toner strips onto the intermediary transfer belt 8 , and scrape them away from the intermediary transfer belt 8 with the cleaning blade 12 b , and recover them into the cleaning device 12 . <Example 2 of Comparative Image Forming Apparatus> [0093] FIG. 10 is a flowchart of the toner strip forming sequence of the second example of comparative image forming apparatus, and FIG. 11 is a drawing for describing the effects of the second embodiment. [0094] The second example of comparative image forming apparatus transfers the aforementioned adjustment toner strips onto the intermediary transfer belt 8 in the conventional order, that is, the reverse order to the one in the second embodiment. That is, the second example of comparative image forming apparatus is different from the image forming apparatus in the second embodiment only in the order in which the adjustment toner strips are formed; otherwise, it is the same as the image forming apparatus in the second embodiment. Thus, the steps in the operational sequence of the second example of comparative image forming apparatus, shown in FIG. 10 , which are the same as the counterparts in the second embodiment, are given the same referential codes as the counterparts, and are not going to be described here in order not to repeat the same description. [0095] Referring to FIG. 10 along with FIG. 1 , the control section 110 makes the second example of comparative image forming apparatus sequentially form four toner strips which are higher in density setting, on the photosensitive drums 2 Y, 2 M, 2 C and 2 Bk, one for one, and transfer them onto the intermediary transfer belt 8 . Then, the control section 110 makes the image forming apparatus convey the toner strips to the cleaning device 12 , scrape the toner strips away from the intermediary transfer belt 8 with the use of the cleaning blade 12 b , and recover the toner resulting from the scraping (W 3 ′). Then, the control section 110 makes the image forming apparatus form toner strips, which are lower in density setting, on the photosensitive drums 2 Y, 2 M, 2 C and 2 Bk, one for one, and process the toner strips in the same manner as the toner strips which are higher in density setting were processed (W 4 ′). [0096] Next, referring to FIG. 11 along with FIG. 2 , the image forming apparatus 100 was used to output a substantial number of prints, while outputting adjustment toner strips, different in color, for every 100 prints. Then, the image forming apparatus 100 , that is, the apparatus in the second embodiment, was compared with the second example of comparative image forming apparatus, in terms of the amount of the cleaning blade deformation which occurred when the toner strips arrived at the cleaning blade 12 b for the first time. The image forming apparatus in the second embodiment, which forms the toner strip which are higher in density setting, after it forms the toner strips which are lower in density setting, was smaller in the amount of the deformation of the cleaning blade 12 b than the image forming apparatus which forms the toner strips in the reverse order to the order in which the second example of comparative image forming apparatus forms the toner strips. <Modified Version of Embodiment 2> [0097] The image forming apparatus 100 can be operated in such a manner that multiple toner strips for adjusting the apparatus 100 in properties, which are different in density setting, are formed with the presence of physical intervals. As for the typical usage for the toner strips which are relatively high in density setting, they are transferred onto the intermediary transfer belt 8 to be measured in the amount of toner per unit area to control an electrostatic image forming apparatus in Dmax (highest level of density), and/or to rejuvenate the developer in a developing device, for example. In the case of a toner strip which is formed to make a developing device simply expel a certain amount of toner to rejuvenate the developer in the developing device, and therefore, does not need to be measured in the amount of toner per unit area, it does not need to be controlled in density level and development contrast. Thus, it can be utilized as the adjustment toner strip in the second embodiment, which is smaller in the amount of toner per unit area. [0098] Thus, when the image forming apparatus in a modified version of the second embodiment, is made to sequentially form toner strips with equal physical intervals in order to control the apparatus in Dmax or rejuvenate the developer in the developing device, a toner strip (strips), the density setting of which is lower than the normal toner image, is sent to the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade 12 b before the toner strips for adjusting (controlling) the apparatus are sent. Then, the toner strips for Dmax control (adjustment) or the toner strips for automatically rejuvenating the developer in the developing device are sent to the cleaning blade 12 to ensure that the apparatus adjustment toner strips, which are higher in density setting, will be scraped away by the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade 12 b after the cleaning edge is provided with a supple amount of toner particles. [0099] In the modified version of the second embodiment, in a case where the timing with which the toner strips for controlling the image forming apparatus in Dmax are formed coincides with the timing with which the toner strips for rejuvenating the developer in the developing device, the control operation which uses the toner strips which are lower in density setting is carried first, and then, the control operation which uses the toner strips which are higher in density setting is carried out. Further, after the expelling of a preset amount of toner from the developing device, the amount by which toner is adhered to the intermediary transfer belt 8 is measured. Then, the control operation which uses the toner strips which are smaller in the amount of toner per unit area is carried first, and then, the control operation which uses the toner images strips which are larger in the amount of toner per unit area is carried out. [0100] In a case where the timing with which the toner strips which are higher in density setting coincides with the timing with which the toner strips which are lower in density setting, the toner strip which is lower in density setting and is to be formed in the downstream image formation station in terms of the moving direction of the intermediary transfer belt 8 is formed first. It the timing with which a toner strip which is greater in the amount of toner per unit area is transferred onto the intermediary transfer belt 8 coincides with the timing with which a toner strip which is smaller in the amount of toner per unit area is transferred onto the intermediary transfer belt 8 , the toner strip which is smaller in the amount of toner per unit area is formed first. [0101] With the image forming apparatus 100 being controlled as described above, the modified version of the second embodiment is just as effective as the second embodiment in terms of the reduction of the deformation of the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade 12 b which occurs as an apparatus adjustment toner strip which is greater in the amount of toner per unit area arrives at the cleaning blade 12 b . That is, the modified version of the second embodiment also can provide an electrophotographic image forming apparatus, which is significantly smaller in the amount of the load to which the cleaning edge of its cleaning blade is subjected, being therefore significantly smaller in the amount of the deformation of the cleaning edge. That is, the modified version of the second embodiment also can prevent an image forming apparatus from suffering from the problem that it is reduced in image quality by the unsatisfactory cleaning of its intermediary transfer belt (or recording medium conveyance belt) by its cleaning blade. <Second Modified Version of Embodiment 2> [0102] FIG. 12 is a flowchart of the toner strip forming operation of the image forming apparatus in the second modified version of the second embodiment. The first modified version of the second embodiment was related to the control to be carried out when the timing with a toner strip which is higher in density setting is formed becomes coincidental with the timing with which a toner strip which is lower in density setting is formed. In comparison, in the second modified version of the second embodiment, in a case where an electrophotographic image forming apparatus is controlled (adjusted) in Dmax (or developer in developing device is rejuvenated), using toner images strips which are higher in density setting, a toner strip which is lower in density setting and has nothing to do with the control (adjustment) is intentionally formed. That is, a lubricational toner image is formed in the most downstream image formation station, with the density set lower than the apparatus adjustment toner strips. Therefore, it is smaller in the amount of toner per unit area of intermediary transfer belt 8 than the apparatus adjustment toner image strips formed in the image formation stations other than the most downstream one. [0103] A lubricational toner image strip is formed to be longer than the apparatus adjustment toner strips in terms of the belt width direction, that is, the direction perpendicular to the moving direction of the intermediary transfer belt 8 . [0104] The second embodiment and the second modified version of the second embodiment are the same except that in the second modified version of the second embodiment, the formation of a toner strip which is lower in density setting is limited to the image formation station 1 Bk. Therefore, the steps in the operational sequence of the second example of comparative image forming apparatus, shown in FIG. 12 , which are the same in content as the counterparts in the second embodiment, are given the same referential codes as the counterparts, and are not going to be described here in order not to repeat the same description. [0105] Referring to FIG. 12 , in the second modified version of the second embodiment, before toner strips which are higher in density setting are formed (W 4 ) are formed, a toner strip which is lower in density setting is formed and transferred onto the intermediary transfer belt 8 , and is recovered by the belt cleaning device 12 (W 3 ). As long as a supple amount of toner is remaining along the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade 12 b , the high density toner strips may be formed with the presence of gaps or no gaps among them. [0106] In the second modified version of the second embodiment, a toner strip which is low in density setting was formed in the black image formation station 1 Bk. However, it may be formed in any one of the image formations other than the black image formation station 1 Bk. In a case where only a single toner strip which is higher in density setting is formed, a toner strip which is lower in density setting is to be formed in one of the image formation stations which are on the downstream side of the image formation station in which the high density toner strip is formed, in terms of the moving direction of the intermediary transfer belt 8 . Further, in a case where only a single toner strip which is greater in the amount of toner per unit area is formed, a toner strip which is smaller in the amount of toner per unit area than the single toner strip which is greater in the amount of toner per unit area, is formed and supplied to the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade 12 b before the toner strip which is greater in the amount of toner per unit area is formed. [0107] The second modified version of the second embodiment also can minimize the amount by which the cleaning blade 12 b of the apparatus 100 is deformed, by reducing the image forming apparatus 100 in the amount of the load to which the cleaning blade of the apparatus 100 is subjected. That is, it can prevent the cleaning device of an electrophotographic image forming apparatus from unsatisfactorily cleaning the intermediary transfer belt of the image forming apparatus. [0108] Regarding the discharging of toner onto a photosensitive drum, it sometimes occurs that four image formation stations, different in the color of the toner they uses, are made to simultaneously discharge toner. It is also possible that toner consumption occurs mostly to three of the four image formation stations, and therefore, only one of the four image forming stations is made to discharge toner. In such a case, only the image formation station which was low in toner consumption is made to form a toner strip for causing a developing device to discharge a preset amount of toner, and transfer the toner strip onto the intermediary transfer belt, with such a timing that the toner strip will follow a lubricational toner strip on the intermediary transfer belt. Also in such a case, the lubricational toner strip is desired to be formed in the most downstream image formation station, as in the first embodiment. Further, from the standpoint of minimizing wasteful toner consumption, a lubricational toner strip is desired to be as small as possible in the amount of toner per unit area. Embodiment 3 [0109] The apparatus adjustment toner strips formed by the image forming apparatuses in the first and second embodiments in order to measure the amount by which toner is adhered to the peripheral surface of a photosensitive drum toners, must be transferred onto the intermediary transfer belt 8 so that the toner strips can be measure in the amount of toner per unit area. However, a toner strip for causing the developing device 4 Y to discharge a preset amount of toner does not need to be measured in the amount of toner per unit area. Therefore, it does not need to be transferred onto the intermediary transfer belt 8 . In other words, it is not necessary that the toner strip formed on the photosensitive drum 2 Y is entirely transferred onto the intermediary transfer belt 8 . [0110] Thus, in a case where a toner strip which does not need to be measured in the amount of toner per unit area is transferred (primary transfer) onto the intermediary transfer belt 8 , the transfer current is reduced from 50 μA, which makes the primary transfer roller highest in transfer efficiency. More concretely, the control section 110 makes the efficiency with which a lubricational toner strip is transferred onto the intermediary transfer belt 8 , lower than the efficiency with which the apparatus adjustment toner strips formed in the image forming stations other than the most downstream one, are transferred onto thee intermediary transfer belt 8 . Reducing transfer current lowers the transfer efficiency, which in turn reduces the amount by which the toner particles in the lubricational toner strip is transferred (primary transfer) onto the intermediary transfer belt 8 , reducing thereby the amount of the load to which the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade 12 b is subjected when the lubricational toner strip is scraped away by the cleaning blade 12 b . Further, reducing the transfer current weakens the bond among the toner particles in the toner strip on the intermediary transfer belt 8 , further reducing the amount of the load to which the cleaning edge of the cleaning blade 12 b is subjected when the cleaning blade 12 b scrapes away the toner strip. [0111] From the standpoint of enhancing the effects of the third embodiment, the transfer current for the primary transfer station TY may be reduced to 0 μA. The amount of the voltage to be applied to the primary transfer station TY when a toner strip other than the one formed to be measured in the amount of toner per unit area on the intermediary transfer belt 8 is moved through the primary transfer station TY, may be fixed to the value immediate before the transfer current begins to flow. Embodiment 4 [0112] The image forming apparatuses in the first and second embodiments employed the intermediary transfer belt 8 . However, the first and second embodiments are applicable to an image forming apparatus which employs a recording medium conveyance belt to which a sheet of recording medium is adhered to be conveyed sequentially through multiple image formation stations of the apparatus so that multiple toner images are transferred in layers onto the sheet of recording medium, as disclosed in the first patent document described above (Japanese Laid-open Patent Application 2002-311719). [0113] An image forming apparatus which transfers an apparatus adjust toner strip onto its recording medium conveyance belt, and scrapes the toner strip away from the belt with its cleaning blade, suffers from the same problem as the image forming apparatuses in the first and second embodiments, which have the intermediary transfer belt 8 , because it is possible for a sheet of recording medium to be soiled by coming into contact with the recording medium conveyance belt which failed to be properly cleaned by a cleaning blade. Thus, the recording medium conveyance belt also has to be superbly cleaned. That is, the present invention is applicable to any image forming apparatus which employs a component which in the form of a belt, and a cleaning blade for cleaning the component in the form of a belt. That is, not only is the present invention applicable to an image forming apparatus such as those in the preceding embodiment, but also, a copying machine, a printer, a facsimile machine, and a multifunction image forming apparatus capable of two or more functions of the preceding image forming apparatus, as long as they employ a component which is in the form of a belt, and a cleaning blade for cleaning the component in the form of a belt. [0114] While the invention has been described with reference to the structures disclosed herein, it is not confined to the details set forth, and this application is intended to cover such modifications or changes as may come within the purposes of the improvements or the scope of the following claims. [0115] This application claims priority from Japanese Patent Application No. 014449/2012 filed Jan. 26, 2012 which is hereby incorporated by reference.

An image forming apparatus includes a rotatable belt; a cleaning blade contacted to the belt; image forming stations including a first station and a second station for forming first and second adjustment toner images, respectively, on the belt, the second station being disposed downstreammost position, and the first station being disposed upstream of the second station and downstream of the cleaning blade with respect to a rotational direction of the belt; a detector for detecting the first image and the second image, at a position opposing the belt; a changing portion for changing image forming conditions of the stations on the basis of a result of detection of the detector, a controller for controlling the stations such that in a region between adjacent ones of the same images in a continuous image formations, the second image reaches the blade before the first image reaches the blade.

CROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/740,993 filed on Dec. 19, 2003, and incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/740,993, and thereby this application, claims the benefit of provisional application Ser. No. 60/434,933 filed on Dec. 19, 2002 and provisional application Ser. No. 60/495,985, filed on Aug. 18, 2003, both documents incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This application relates generally to a body harness, and also to a full body harness with integral support line for emergency crews or for general safety use. More specifically, this application relates to a harness adaptable for class I, class II, and/or class III service for use by safety personnel (such as firefighters, for example) for situations that call for emergency activity in areas where falls from an unsafe height are possible (such as rescues from skyscrapers, cliffs, or other raised locations, for example). BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Firefighters traditionally wear outer clothing that is known in the art as turnout gear. Turnout gear includes a large coat and pants that typically have an inner liner and an outer layer. The outer layer or shell is usually constructed from materials that are resistant to abrasion, flame, heat, and water. In addition to the turnout gear coat and pants, firefighters also wear a helmet, thick gloves, and a large oxygen tank. As can be appreciated, the equipment is heavy and bulky, and there is understandably a great resistance by firefighters to add any further equipment to what is already in use. Unfortunately, for firefighters entering a burning building, especially a high-rise building, the conventional equipment typically does not include means to facilitate escape from a window or roof of the building. Moreover, for a firefighter who is injured and incapable of escaping from the building, the conventional equipment does not include means to facilitate lifting, lowering, or dragging the injured firefighter from the building. In the past, an unsatisfactory solution to this problem has been to carry lengths of rope in a coat pocket (which can be lost or difficult to retrieve) or a coil of rope over-the-shoulder (which can get snagged on things in the building, be dropped, or is otherwise inconvenient for the firefighter to carry). Alternatively, firefighters may utilize bulky and complex body harnesses that may be easily entangled and difficult to put on properly, leading to excessive dress time and delays. Therefore, it is common for firefighters to enter tall buildings during a fire either without a support line or harness, or with an unreliable support line or a harness improperly fitted or fastened together, which can lead to failure of the rescue equipment when it is needed most. Further, when a firefighter is incapacitated, he must be physically lifted and carried, or dragged by his coat by a rescuer, which can greatly burden another rescuer. Therefore, there exists a need in the art for a means to facilitate escape from upper floors of a building which incorporates a full-body harness that meets or exceeds current safety requirements, is easily adjustable for individual firefighters, and is easy to put on and take off. There also exists a need in the art for a means and method for rescuing incapacitated people from buildings. Finally, there exists a need in the art for firefighter turnout gear that incorporates such escape and rescue means. A number of harnesses have been developed in an attempt to satisfy some of the above determined needs. For example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,970,517 and 6,487,725 to the present inventor, both incorporated herein by reference, disclose a harness with an integrated support line. Many of the harness units that currently exist have a number of problems and shortcomings. For example, the connecting ends of current harnesses, when unbuckled, may lead to the harness device getting separated and spread out, such that it can be difficult for the wearer to easily find the ends to strap the harness together, or the harness might get tangled up in firefighting clothing or in the support lines. Further, many currently available harnesses are limited in their ability to be adjusted to closely fit the individual, and thus can be uncomfortable when worn, or even maladjusted, preventing their proper functioning. Even further, many existing harnesses may become entangled or are difficult to properly adjust and are difficult to put on and/or take off, leading to delays in getting the firefighter to the rescue. Furthermore, there are three basic types of harnesses for emergency work defined by the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) as defined in the NFPA 1983: Standard on Fire Service Life Safety Rope and System Components, incorporated herein by reference. A class I harness is primarily a positioning belt to catch the wearer if he slips, and is for personal egress. A Class I harness fastens around the waist and around thighs or under buttocks, and is designed to be used for emergency escape with a design load of about three hundred lbf or more. A class II harness is suitable for rappelling work and is one that fastens around the waist and around the thighs or under the buttocks, and is designed for rescue with a design load of six hundred lbf or more. Finally, a class III harness is a full-body harness that fastens around the waist or chest, around the thighs or under the buttocks, and over the shoulders, and is designed for rescue with a design load of six hundred lbf or more and which provides maximum fall protection. It would be beneficial to have a single design that could satisfy all of these needs, and be adjustable to be utilized as a Class I, Class II, or a Class III harness. Finally, current system configurations of various personnel lowering devices (PLDs) utilize nylon webbing, antiquated descending devices and small snap hooks and rings. Such a system requires two hands to deploy and operate. Several problems are that they are bulky and difficult to operate, may melt if the user descends is too fast, and become tangled easily. The user must pull out the system, connect the descending device to the parachute harness, and finally wrap the nylon webbing with the ring around the riser. Without being able to see the connection, the user must connect the snap hook to the small ring. This is very difficult even when you able to see the connection point. The snap hook and ring are very small and difficult to use with gloved hands. The tensile strength of the hardware and webbing is questionable. Too many steps are needed to deploy and use. Once the steps are completed, the user must feed the Nylon webbing through the descending device perfectly straight. If not, the webbing could tangle. The user must descend at a slow rate to prevent heat build up and melting the Nylon webbing. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Provided is a harness comprising: a first configuration for making the harness a class I harness; a second configuration for making the harness a class II harness; and a third configuration for making the harness a class III harness. Each of the configurations can be implemented by a user configuring the harness while putting it on. Also provided is a harness comprising: a harness body portion and one or more of a leg strap, a chest strap, a back strap, and a shoulder strap (with the shoulder strap having a shoulder pull handle for adjusting the shoulder strap). The harness also comprising a support line module including a support line with the support line module and the harness body portion being secured to one another. Further provided is a harness comprising a harness body portion including: a first configuration for making the harness a class I harness; a second configuration for making the harness a class II harness; and a third configuration for making the harness a class III harness. Each of the configurations can be implemented by a user configuring the harness while putting it on. The above harness also comprises a support line module including a support line. The support line module and the harness body portion are secured to one another in the above harness. Also provided is a harness comprising: a harness body portion having a first end and a second end; a fastener for releasably securing the first end to the second end to releasably secure the harness body portion around a user; and a support line module containing a support line. The support line module and the harness body portion of the above harness are releasably secured to one another, and the support line has a first end which can be extended from the support line module and a second end that is releasably secured to one of the harness body portion and the support line module. The above harness also comprises a leg strap, with one part connected to the harness body portion and another part releasably secured to the harness body portion for wearing around the legs of the user. The above harness also comprises a shoulder strap with one part connected to the harness body portion and another part releasably secured to the harness body portion for wearing around the shoulders and chest of the user. Still further provided is harness comprising: a shoulder strap for wearing across the shoulder of a user and a waist strap assembly connected to the shoulder strap. The ends of the waist strap assembly can be buckled across the waist of the user. The harness also comprises a leg strap connected to the shoulder strap. The waist strap is connected to the leg strap. The harness is adjustable for providing: a first configuration for making the harness a class I harness; a second configuration for making the harness a class II harness; and a third configuration for making the harness a class III harness. Each of the configurations can be implemented by a user configuring the harness while putting it on. Also provided is harness comprising: a left shoulder strap for wearing across the left shoulder of a user; a right shoulder strap for wearing across the right shoulder of a user and connected to the left shoulder strap; and a waist strap assembly connected to the left shoulder strap and connected to the right shoulder strap. The waist strap assembly can be buckled across the waist of the user. The harness also comprises a left leg strap for wearing across the left leg or left thigh of the user and connected to the right shoulder strap; and a right leg strap for wearing across a right leg or right thigh of the user and connected to the left shoulder strap. The left leg strap and the right leg strap are connected to each other, and the waist strap is connected to the right leg strap and also connected to the left leg strap. Even further provided is a harness comprising: a left shoulder strap; a right shoulder strap connected to the left shoulder strap for wearing behind a user and also connected to the left shoulder strap for wearing in front of the user; a right waist strap connected to one or both of the right shoulder strap and the left shoulder strap; a left waist strap connected to one or both of the right shoulder strap and the left shoulder strap; a waist buckle assembly for connecting the left waist strap to the right waist strap for wearing around the waist of the user; a leg buckle assembly for connecting to the waist buckle assembly; a left leg strap for crossing a left leg or left thigh of the user connected to the leg buckle assembly and also connected to one or both of the right shoulder strap and the left shoulder strap; and a right leg strap for crossing a right leg or right thigh of the user connected to the leg buckle assembly and also connected to one or both of the right shoulder strap and the left shoulder strap. Also provided is a harness comprising: a left shoulder strap; a right shoulder strap connected to the left shoulder strap at a central back connection point for wearing across the back of a user; a chest strap for wearing across the chest of the user and connected to the right shoulder strap and also connected to the left shoulder strap; a back strap connected to the right shoulder strap and also connected to the left shoulder strap; a right waist strap connected to the back strap; a left waist strap connected to the back strap; a waist buckle assembly for connecting the left waist strap to the right waist strap for wearing around the waist of the user; a leg buckle assembly for connecting to the waist buckle assembly; a left leg strap for wearing across a left leg or left thigh of the user and connected to the leg buckle assembly and also connected to the back strap and also connected to the right shoulders strap; and a right leg strap for wearing across a right leg or right thigh of the user and connected to the leg buckle assembly and also connected to the back strap and also connected to the left shoulder strap. And further provided is a harness comprising: a left shoulder strap including: a first left shoulder strap end having a right shoulder strap pull handle; and a second left shoulder strap end; a right shoulder strap including: a first right shoulder strap end having a left shoulder strap pull handle and adjustably connected to the second end of the left shoulder strap for adjusting the left shoulder strap via the left shoulder strap pull handle; and a second right shoulder strap end adjustably connected to the first left shoulder strap end for adjusting the right shoulder strap via the right shoulder strap pull handle. The right shoulder strap of the above harness is connected to the left shoulder strap at a central back connection point for crossing the back of a user. The above harness further comprises a chest strap including a chest pull handle and a buckle at one end for adjusting the chest strap, the chest strap for crossing the chest of the user and being connected to the right shoulder strap at one of the one end and another end and also connected to the left shoulder strap at the other of the one end and the another end; a back strap including: a first back strap end; and a second back strap end. The back strap of the above harness is moveably connected to the right shoulder strap near the first end and moveably connected to the left shoulder strap near the second end. The above harness further comprises a right waist strap including: a first right waist strap end having a right waist strap pull handle; and a second right waist strap end connected to the second end of the back strap. The above harness further comprises a left waist strap including: a first left waist strap end having a left waist strap pull handle; and a second left waist strap end connected to the first end of the back strap. The above harness further comprises a waist buckle assembly for releasably connecting the first left waist strap end to the first right waist strap end across the waist of the user; a leg buckle assembly for releasably connecting to the waist buckle assembly; a left leg strap including: a first left leg strap end having a left leg pull handle; and a second left leg strap end connected to the leg buckle assembly. The left leg strap is for crossing a left leg or left thigh of the user, and the left leg strap is adjustably connected to the back strap for adjusting the left leg strap via the left leg strap pull handle. Finally, the above harness also comprises: a right leg strap including: a first right leg strap end having a right leg pull handle; and a second right leg strap end connected to the leg buckle assembly. The right leg strap of the above harness is for crossing a right leg or right thigh of the user, and the right leg strap is adjustably connected to the back strap for adjusting the right leg strap via the right leg strap pull handle. Further provided is the above harness further comprising a support line module containing a support line, the support line module and the harness being releasably secured to one another, wherein the support line has a first end which can be extended from the support line module and a second end being releasably secured to one of the harness and the support line module. The above harness is adjustable for providing: a first configuration for making the harness a class I harness; a second configuration for making the harness a class II harness; and a third configuration for making the harness a class III harness. Each of the configurations of the above harness can be implemented by a user configuring the harness while putting it on. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows a schematic of a front view of an embodiment of the full-body harness being worn by an individual; FIG. 2 shows a schematic of a back view of an embodiment of the full-body harness being worn by an individual; FIG. 3 shows a schematic of a front view of the embodiment of the full-body harness; FIG. 4 shows a schematic of a back view of the embodiment of the full-body harness; FIG. 5 shows a schematic of a close up of an example adjusting buckle for the embodiment of the full-body harness; and FIG. 6 shows a schematic of a close up of an example adjusting buckle for the embodiment of the full-body harness with the straps loosened and in phantom. FIG. 7 is a schematic of a front view of an embodiment of the full-body harness with integral support line being worn by an individual; FIG. 8 is a schematic of an exploded perspective view of the harness body and support line module according to the present invention; FIG. 9 is a schematic of a perspective view of a sleeve enclosure for the harness and support line hardware; FIG. 10 is a schematic of a perspective view of the harness body with both leg strap and shoulder strap attachments for adaptation to a class III full body harness. FIG. 11 is a schematic of a perspective view of the harness body with leg strap attachment for adaptation to a class II harness; FIG. 12 is a schematic of a perspective view of a cover for the support line module that provides for mounting of a self contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) unit; FIGS. 13-17 show an embodiment of a personnel lowering device (PLD) utilizing a harness, a support line in a carrying device, and a parachute. FIG. 18 shows a descending device that might be utilized with the PLD of FIGS. 13-17 ; FIG. 19 shows an escape line pouch having channels as might be utilized with the PLD of FIGS. 13-18 ; and FIG. 20 shows a pouch that holds the descending device and hardware as might be utilized with the PLD of FIGS. 13-19 . DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Provided is an adaptable full-body harness with integral support line, as described hereinbelow, which can be worn as a class I, class II, and/or class III harness, depending on the straps that are buckled. The harness assembly can be removably fastened to the interior of an outer garment, such as a firefighter's turnout gear, or to a self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA). The harness assembly includes a harness body which is primarily a waist or chest belt meeting the requirements of a class I harness. The harness body may include a support line module, in which the support line is received and stored, is movable relative to the harness body, is accessible from an exterior of the outer garment, and is more easily deployed. The harness further includes leg straps that, when utilized as specified herein, transform the harness into a class II harness. Further included are shoulder straps that may be attached to the harness body for modification to a class III harness. These straps may be stored in pouches attached to the harness when not in use. Thus, by varying the components being fastened and utilized, the harness can be converted from a class I harness (e.g., using the harness body only) to a class II harness (e.g., adding use of the leg/buttocks straps), and finally to a class III harness (e.g., utilizing the shoulder straps) for maximum fall protection. The full-body harness is substantially constructed from a sufficiently strong strap material to support a firefighter carrying firefighter equipment, with various portions of the strap sewn together in a manner to maintain the proper strength, such as the device described above. Further, various portions of the straps can be further covered with a material to protect the strap, avoid chafing human skin, or to protect other garments against abrading and/or chafing during use, for example. Additional material can also be added with padding, if desired, for a more comfortable wearing experience, and the harness can be modified to integrate with additional firefighting equipment, for example. FIG. 1 shows one possible preferred embodiment of the full-body harness being worn by an individual 1 , while FIG. 2 shows a corresponding back view. Additional embodiments are also contemplated that are within the scope of the invention but not necessarily shown. Note that directions (such as front and back, up and down, or left and right) are taken from the perspective of the individual 1 who is properly wearing the full-body harness. The individual 1 is shown in FIG. 1 with the preferred embodiment of the full-body harness 100 (hereinafter the full-body harness) (see also FIG. 3 ); worn in a proper fashion. The full-body harness is substantially constructed from a sufficiently strong strap material to support a firefighter carrying firefighter equipment, with various portions of the strap sewn together in a manner to maintain the proper strength. Further, various portions of the straps can be further covered with a material to protect the strap, avoid chafing human skin, or to protect other garments against abrading and/or chafing during use, for example. Additional material can also be added with padding, if desired, for a more comfortable wearing experience, and the harness can be modified to integrate with additional firefighting equipment, for example. FIG. 3 shows a front view of the full-body harness 100 without the individual 1 . As shown in FIGS. 1 and 3 , the full-body harness has a right shoulder strap 105 , covered with a right shoulder pad 101 , said right shoulder strap 105 going through the right shoulder pad 101 , over the individual's right shoulder. Also shown is a left shoulder strap 104 , covered with and going through a left shoulder pad 102 , said left shoulder strap 104 going over the individual's left shoulder. The shoulder pads 101 , 102 are provided to increase comfort by distributing shoulder strap forces across a larger area, and the shoulder pads 101 , 102 can be padded for additional comfort. Shoulder straps 104 and 105 are connected to opposite ends of a chest strap 103 , respectively, near first ends of shoulder straps 104 , 105 . A first end of left shoulder strap 104 is connected to a left shoulder adjusting buckle 125 , while a first end of right shoulder strap 105 is similarly connected to a right shoulder adjusting buckle 124 . Each first end is preferably connected to the corresponding shoulder buckle 124 , 125 by looping the first end through the corresponding buckle and then sewing the end of each strap at a respective right and left connection point 111 , 110 . The chest strap 103 can be tightened by pulling a chest pull handle 113 connected to a first end of the chest strap 103 . Pulling the chest pull handle 113 pulls a portion of the chest strap 103 through a chest buckle 123 , which, when the full-body harness is worn, grips and holds the chest strap 103 in a tightened position. The chest strap 103 can be loosened by pushing the chest strap 103 back through the chest buckle 123 , for example. Tightening the chest strap 103 also tends to tighten the right and left shoulder straps 104 , 105 to some extent, and tends to bring their ends closer together. The chest buckle 123 is connected to the left shoulder strap 104 at left connection point 110 by looping a short length of strap through the buckle 123 and sewing the ends of the short length of strap to the left shoulder strap 104 at left connection point 110 . A second end of the chest strap 103 is connected to the right shoulder strap 105 at connection point 111 . The connection can be made by sewing the straps together, for example. The chest pull handle 113 can be a separate component connected to the end of the chest strap 103 , or, preferably, the chest pull handle 113 is integrally formed by looping the end of the chest strap 103 back onto itself and fastening the end to a portion of the strap 103 , thus creating the pull handle. The chest strap 103 can be fastened and unfastened by utilizing the chest buckle 123 . Chest buckle 123 could be chosen from any of a number of different buckle types, with preference to those that are quickly and easily fastened, but unlikely to spontaneously unfasten when the full-body harness is properly worn. Further, the chest buckle 123 preferably allows the length of the chest strap to be adjusted. The buckles chosen should allow the length of the chest strap 103 to be adjusted, and tend to stay fastened when the chest strap 103 is under tension, and also allowing a relaxing of the strap tension for the buckle to be unbuckled, making inadvertent or spontaneous unfastening unlikely. The right shoulder strap 105 is further adjusted by pulling a right shoulder pull handle 114 . The right shoulder pull handle 114 can be a separate component connected to a second end of the left shoulder strap 104 , or, preferably, the right shoulder pull handle 114 is integrally formed by looping the second end of the left shoulder strap 104 back onto itself and fastening the second end to a portion of the strap 104 , thus creating the pull handle 114 . Pulling the right shoulder pull handle 114 pulls a portion of the left shoulder strap 104 through the right shoulder adjusting buckle 124 , which, when the full-body harness is worn, thereby grips and holds the left shoulder strap 104 in a tightened position, thereby adjusting the right shoulder strap 105 . FIGS. 5 and 6 show one preferred design of the right shoulder buckle 124 in more detail, the operation of which can also be generally applied to the other strap adjusting buckles described herein. Referring back to FIGS. 1 & 3 , the left shoulder strap 104 is adjusted in a similar manner, by pulling a left shoulder pull handle 115 . The left shoulder pull handle 115 can be a separate component connected to a second end of the right shoulder strap 105 , or, preferably, the left shoulder pull handle 115 is integrally formed by looping the second end of the right shoulder strap 105 back onto itself and fastening the second end to a portion of the strap 105 , thus creating the pull handle 115 . Pulling the left shoulder pull handle 115 pulls a portion of the right shoulder strap 105 through the left shoulder adjusting buckle 125 which, when the full-body harness is worn, thereby grips and holds the right shoulder strap 105 in a tightened position, thereby adjusting the left shoulder strap 104 . The right and left shoulder adjusting buckles 124 , 125 , are chosen such that when the corresponding shoulder strap 104 , 105 , respectively, is pulled through it as described hereinabove, the corresponding buckle 124 , 125 is designed to then catch the corresponding shoulder strap 104 , 105 , such that it is maintained under tension, and will not loosen. The shoulder buckles are further designed such that they tend to increase their ability to hold onto the straps as the tension in the strap increases. Accordingly, the shoulder straps 104 , 105 are unlikely to loosen under use when the full-body harness is properly installed and worn. The buckles used for one preferred embodiment are shown in FIGS. 4 and 5 , although various other types of buckles may also be used. FIGS. 1 and 3 also show a right waist strap 107 and a left waist strap 108 . Also shown are a right waist pull handle 117 connected to a first end of the right waist strap 107 , and a left waist pull handle 218 ( FIG. 2 ) connected to a first end of the left waist strap 108 . The waist pull handles 117 , 218 can be separate components connected to the first ends of the waist pull straps 107 , 108 , respectively, or, preferably, the waist pull handles 117 , 218 can be integrally formed with the waist pull straps 107 , 108 , by looping the first end of the corresponding waist pull strap back onto itself and fastening the end to a portion of the corresponding waist pull strap, such as by sewing, thus creating the pull handle. A second end of the right waist strap 107 is connected to a waist buckle clip assembly 141 by looping the second end of the right waist strap 107 through the waist buckle clip assembly 141 , and also through a harness ring 150 and then sewing the second end to a portion of the right waist strap 107 onto a portion of the right waist strap 107 between the harness ring 150 and the waist buckle clip assembly 141 . The harness ring 150 is loosely attached to the right waist strap 107 , but little lateral motion is allowed. The harness ring 150 is for attaching a rope or other safety device thereto to provide a safety connection. Typically, the rope or safety device would have some form of a clip assembly similar to the waist buckle clip assembly 141 for attaching the rope to the harness ring 150 . Alternative means of connecting the harness ring 150 to the full-body harness are also within the scope of the invention. Similarly, a second end of the left waist strap 108 is connected to a waist buckle loop 143 by looping the second end of the left waist strap 108 through the waist buckle loop 143 and then sewing the second end to the waist strap 108 . The harness ring 150 , or an additional harness ring (not shown), could also be incorporated with the left waist strap 108 as described for the right waist strap 107 hereinabove, if desired. When installing the full-body harness on a person, the preferred embodiment has the waist buckle clip assembly 141 connected, via a clip device, to the waist buckle loop 143 , thus operatively connecting the right waist strap 107 to the left waist strap 108 . Removing the harness requires that the clip of the waist buckle clip assembly 141 be unattached from the waist buckle loop 143 . The clip should preferably be some type of safety clip that cannot be inadvertently disconnected under use, but can be manually disconnected without too much difficulty. Although the preferred embodiment uses a clip assembly/loop arrangement for operatively connecting the waist straps 107 , 108 , numerous other connecting mechanisms can also be employed without straying from the inventive concept. The right waist strap 107 is moveably connected to, and loops through, a right waist adjusting buckle 126 . Further, the left waist strap 108 is moveably connected to, and loops through, a left waist adjusting buckle 226 . These waist adjusting buckles 126 , 226 , operate similarly to the shoulder adjusting buckles 124 , 125 . The waist fitting of the full-body harness is adjusted by pulling on the left and right waist pull handles 117 , 218 , to pull the right and left waist straps 107 , 108 through the corresponding waist adjusting buckles 126 , 226 . The waist adjusting buckles 126 , 226 then grip the corresponding waist straps 107 , 108 while the waist straps are under tension, keeping a proper adjustment. More tension on each waist strap typically will increase the grip thereon by the corresponding waist adjusting buckle, making the straps unlikely to loosen under use when the full-body harness is properly installed and worn. Reducing the tension on the waist straps allows the waist strap adjustment to be manually loosened. A left leg strap 151 and a right leg strap 152 are shown in FIGS. 1-4 . These leg straps connect at a crotch end 109 , as shown in FIGS. 1 & 3 . Preferably, the left and right leg straps 151 and 152 are comprised of a single strap which is then folded over forming a loop which traps a leg buckle clip assembly 145 , and then fixing the folded loop at crotch end 109 by sewing the overlap portion, thus forming crotch end 109 . The leg buckle clip assembly 145 will preferably be similar to the waist buckle clip assembly 141 . The leg clip assembly 145 is meant to be connected to the waist buckle loop 143 when the full-body harness is put on, providing buttocks support described in more detail later below. Now referring to FIGS. 2 and 4 , the left and right leg straps 151 and 152 each form a “loop” that is used to support the buttocks of the individual 1 wearing the full-body harness 100 . A left leg strap 151 is looped through a left leg adjusting buckle 306 , while a right leg strap 152 is looped through a right leg adjusting buckle 305 . The leg adjusting buckles 305 , 306 are preferably of a similar design and operation to the shoulder adjusting buckles 124 , 125 , described hereinabove. Referring to FIGS. 3 and 4 , a second end of the left leg strap 151 has a left leg pull handle 213 , while a second end of the right leg strap 152 has a right leg pull handle 212 . The left and right leg pull handles 212 , 213 can be separate components connected to second ends of the leg straps 151 , 152 , respectively, or, alternatively, the leg pull handles 213 , 212 can be integrally formed with the corresponding leg strap by looping the first end of the corresponding leg strap back onto itself and fastening the end to a portion of the corresponding leg strap, thus creating the pull handles 212 , 213 . FIGS. 2 & 4 further show that the shoulder straps 104 , 105 cross over and are connected at central back connection point 315 . Further, a back loop 215 made from strap material is shown connected to the central back connection point 315 . Back loop 215 can be used for stowage purposes, for example, or for connecting to additional equipment. Also connected to the back loop 215 is a central strip 303 of strap material sewn to connection point 315 . As further shown in FIGS. 2 & 4 , the right shoulder strap 105 crosses over at the central back connection point 315 , and continues on to loop through left back ring 308 , with the right shoulder strap continuing on to loop through the left shoulder adjusting buckle 125 , and finally ending at the left shoulder pull handle 115 , as described hereinabove. Similarly, the left shoulder strap 104 crosses over at the central back connection point 315 , and continues on to loop through right back ring 307 , with the left shoulder strap continuing on to loop through the right shoulder adjusting buckle 124 , and finally ending at the right shoulder pull handle 114 , as described hereinabove. Also shown in FIGS. 2 & 4 , the right and left back rings 307 , 308 have a short length of strap material looping through them with both ends of each loop of strap material connected to an opposite end of a back strap 325 at right and left back connection points 317 , 316 , respectively, the ends preferably being sewn together and to the back strap 325 . Also shown is a back pad 205 , which is connected to the back strap 325 by sewing ends of the back strap 325 to ends of the back pad 205 , such as at right and left back connection points 317 , 316 , or other points nearby. Further shown are the right leg adjusting buckle 305 and the left leg adjusting buckle 306 , also connected to the back strap 325 by looping a short length of strap material through them and sewing the ends together and to the back strap 325 at the corresponding right and left back connection points 317 , 316 . Preferably, the same short strap length can be used to secure both the left/right leg adjusting buckles 306 , 305 , and the corresponding left/right back rings 308 , 307 , by looping and folding one end of the strap through the buckle and the other end through the corresponding ring, and sewing the ends at the corresponding back connection point, for example. Although not shown in FIGS. 2 & 4 , the waist adjusting buckles 126 , 226 (seen in FIG. 3 ) are also preferably connected to the back pad 205 by looping ends of the back strap 325 therethrough, and folding and sewing these ends to a portion of the back strap 325 and the back pad 205 , to secure the buckles 126 , 226 thereto at, or near, the back connection points 317 , 316 . Alternatively, a short length of strap material could be looped through each buckle with the ends sewn together either at, or near, the back connection points 317 , 316 . Waist ring 250 , shown in FIG. 3 , is also preferably connected to the back pad 205 by using a length of strap material that goes through the waist ring 250 with both ends sewn to the back pad 205 . It is possible to utilize the same length of strap material used for a nearby purpose, such as the length of strap used to connect the right waist adjusting buckle 126 , or by using ends of the back strap 325 looped therethrough. The connection to the back strap 325 is at, or near, the back connection point 317 . Additional features shown in FIGS. 2 & 4 include left and right short back straps 326 , 327 , with female snap portions embedded therein. Left strip 311 and right strip 312 are shown sewn to the back strap 325 . The typical scenario for putting the full-body harness 100 on will now be described. Note that FIGS. 1 & 2 show front and back views, respectively, of the harness being worn by an individual. First, the full-body harness should have the waist buckle clip assembly 141 and the leg buckle clip assembly 145 clips disconnected from the waist buckle loop 143 . The chest buckle 123 should also be disconnected. Further, all straps should be manually loosened, if necessary, to easily slip on the harness. The harness is then put on the individual 1 by placing the shoulder pads 101 , 102 over each shoulder. The chest buckle 123 can then be connected. The waist buckle clip assembly clip can also be attached to the waist buckle loop 143 . Further, the leg buckle clip assembly 145 and crotch end 109 should be pulled between the legs of the individual 1 , and the leg buckle clip assembly 145 clip can be connected to the waist buckle loop 143 . The individual 1 can adjust the full-body harness by pulling the chest pull handle 113 to adjust the chest strap 103 ; pulling the right and left shoulder pull handles 114 , 115 , to adjust the right and left shoulder straps 105 , 104 ; pulling the right and left waist pull handles 117 , 218 to adjust the waist straps 107 , 108 ; and pulling the right and left leg pull handles 212 , 213 to adjust the right and left leg straps 152 , 151 . Due to the interconnectivity of the various straps, the adjustments interact such that a better fit may be obtained by first grossly adjusting the various straps but allowing some play, and then fine-tuning the adjustment as necessary. The harness can be removed by disconnecting the various buckles and clips. Some manual loosening of the various straps through the adjusting buckles may first be required in order to easily disconnect the connecting buckles. Through use of these various buckles and fasteners, the harness can be converted between class I, II, and III configurations. Next, modifications for integrating a support line to a full-body harness will be described. The wearer 2 is shown in FIG. 7 with the embodiment of a full-body harness combined with integral support line 600 (hereinafter the full-body harness), worn in a proper fashion. FIG. 8 shows an exploded view of the embodiment of the class I harness assembly with the integral support line, without showing further attachments for modification to a class II or class III harness, which was described hereinabove. The harness assembly 660 includes a harness body portion 680 (which could be a waist strap assembly made up of one or two waist straps, for example), a support line module 710 , and a support line 700 . The support line is constructed from a durable, high strength material, such as Kevlar® tubular webbing, for example. The harness body portion 680 has a first end 720 and a second end 740 . A loop of material 770 is secured to the harness body portion first end 720 , preferably by stitching or equivalent permanent attachment means. In addition, a second loop 775 may be provided to allow for attachment to a ladder or position hook (not shown). A harness body clip 760 and adjusting buckle 765 are provided to adjust the tightness of the harness body portion and to removably secure the first and second ends 720 , 740 together, as illustrated. The support line module 710 is shaped generally as a hollow pouch or length of material, and is adapted to receive the support line 700 . More preferably, and as illustrated in FIG. 8 the support line module 710 defines a series of elongated, hollow chambers which each receive a portion of the support line 700 . As discussed previously, because the support line is preferably shaped as a flat ribbon, several loops of the support line 700 may be received in each of the elongated chambers. The support line module 710 also defines, at one side, a harness chamber 712 into which the harness body portion 680 is slidably inserted. During assembly, the harness body portion 680 is slidably inserted or threaded through the harness chamber 712 , and the first and second ends 720 , 740 of the harness body portion 680 project from opposite ends of the harness chamber 712 . When the harness body portion is inserted into the harness chamber 712 , the support line first and second ends 820 , 830 , with associated first and second carabiners 780 , 800 , positioned near the harness body portion first end 720 . The second carabiner 800 is secured to the harness body loop 770 , or in the alternative, to a hook or carabiner fastened to the harness body loop 770 . The support line module 710 also preferably has a securing fastener 722 , such as a strip of one gender of hook-and-loop type fasteners, attached to the outer surface of the module 710 . The securing fastener 722 cooperates with an opposite gender mating fastener (not shown) provided on the inside surface of the coat or other protective gear to removably secure the harness assembly 660 to the outer gear. In the construction shown in FIG. 8 , the module 710 may be easily removed and replaced after use of the support line to provide a new support line for future use. Once the support line 700 is deployed or removed from the support line module 710 , and thus likely needs to be replaced, the harness assembly 660 may be removed from the coat or pants, and the harness body portion 680 is slidably removed from the harness body chamber 712 . The harness body portion 680 may then be slidably inserted into a harness body chamber of a new module having a fresh or new support line 700 therein, and then the original harness body portion 680 and new support line module 710 are re-installed in the coat or pants. Accordingly, this construction greatly simplifies replacement of the support line. This is considered quite important in safety harness applications wherein a support line may only be used one time before it is discarded, or where the line may often be damaged during use. Referring to FIG. 9 a further embodiment of the invention includes a sleeve 717 attached to an end of the harness chamber 712 . The sleeve 717 consists of a sheet of durable fabric designed to fold together to enclose the carabiners 780 , 800 (shown in FIG. 8 ) and any other support line and harness hardware. The folded ends of the sleeve 717 and the end of the harness body portion 680 are fastened together, utilizing, for example, mating hook-and-loop type fastener strips 718 to secure the sleeve in the closed condition and allow for easy access of the harness and support line hardware. FIG. 10 shows a front view of the full-body harness 600 without the integral support line module 710 , whereas FIG. 11 shows a respective class II harness embodiment, also without the integral support line module. The harness further comprises a leg strap 615 , shown in FIGS. 10 and 11 , a portion of which is fastened to the back portion of the harness body portion 680 , through openings in the harness chamber 712 (shown in FIG. 8 ), by adjusting buckles 620 , which allow for adjustment of the length that the leg strap extends from the harness body portion 680 , to properly fit around the legs of the wearer. Alternately or additionally, adjusting buckles could be installed on shoulder straps 645 for the same or different purpose. A leg strap clip assembly 625 is connected to an end of the leg strap 615 , and fastens to the front portion of the harness body portion 680 , or to a suitable buckle or other fastener connected thereto, where the leg strap 615 is slipped around the groin of the wearer 2 , creating the class II harness. A leg strap pouch 618 may be fastened to the outside of the rear portion of the harness body portion 680 , or alternatively to the outside of the harness chamber 712 , and is designed to contain the leg strap 615 when it is not in use. A pull cord (not shown) or similar device may be attached to the leg strap 615 to provide for easy deployment of the leg strap 615 from the pouch 618 in the event of an emergency. This embodiment of the invention includes a back strap 635 attached to the back of the harness body portion 680 , through openings in the harness chamber 712 (seen in FIG. 9 , but not shown in FIGS. 10 / 11 ), at two points (not shown) to the outside of the waist strap pouch 618 or harness body portion 680 . The back strap 635 may be configured and reinforced to form a loop 638 at the upper portion of the harness 600 , suitable for carrying, dragging, or supporting an incapacitated wearer of the harness. Referring again to the embodiment of FIG. 10 , attached to the sides of the back strap 635 is the shoulder strap 645 . Additionally, buckles or similar devices (not shown) may be employed to adjust the shoulder strap 645 to better fit the wearer. A shoulder strap clip assembly 655 is connected to an end of the shoulder strap 645 and fastens to the front portion of the harness body portion, or to a suitable buckle or other fastener connected thereto, when the shoulder strap 645 is slipped around the shoulders and chest of the wearer, creating the class III harness when combined with use of the leg strap 615 . A shoulder strap pouch 648 is preferably fastened to the back of the shoulder portions of the back strap 635 and is designed to contain the shoulder strap 645 when it is not in use. A pull cord (not shown) or similar device may be attached to the shoulder strap 645 to provide for easy deployment of the shoulder strap 645 from the pouch 648 in the event of an emergency. The back strap 635 or shoulder strap pouch 648 may be fastened to the inside of the wearer's turnout gear or coat in order to maintain its upright position while the shoulder strap 645 is not in use. In an alternate embodiment (not shown), the back strap 635 and shoulder strap 645 may both be stored in a pouch attached to the harness assembly 660 , and a mechanism, such as a pull cord, may be used to deploy both the back strap 635 and shoulder strap 645 in case of an emergency. FIG. 12 shows a housing 900 that, in an alternative embodiment, adapts the harness system for mounting of a self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA), including oxygen tank, commonly used by firefighters (SCBA not shown). The housing 900 is slipped over the harness body portion 680 and harness chamber 712 , shown in FIG. 8 , and has openings provided for access by the leg strap 615 and shoulder strap 645 , shown in FIG. 10 . The housing 900 , preferably constructed of a durable fabric, utilizes one or more straps 905 and tabs 915 to tether portions of the SCBA (not shown) to the back of the harness. In first use of the harness of FIG. 10 , the harness base assembly 660 is put on a wearer by fastening the ends 720 , 740 of the harness body portion 680 around the waist of the wearer. The back strap 635 and back of the support line module 710 ( FIG. 8 ) are fastened to the inside fasteners of an outer coat or other outer gear to be worn by the wearer, or may be fastened to the SCBA housing 900 ( FIG. 12 ). As needed, the leg strap 615 may be deployed from the leg strap pouch 618 , pulling the strap 615 between the wearer's legs, and attaching the leg strap clip assembly 625 to the front portion of the harness body portion 680 , or to a suitable buckle or other fastener connected thereto, thereby comprising the class II harness (an embodiment of which is shown in FIG. 11 without the shoulder straps). Further, the shoulder strap 645 (see FIG. 10 ) may be deployed from the shoulder strap pouch 648 , pulling the strap 645 over the shoulders, head, and chest of the wearer, and attaching the shoulder strap clip assembly 655 to the front portion of the harness body portion 680 , or to a suitable buckle or fastener connected thereto, thereby comprising the class III harness. As indicated above, a pull cord or other such mechanism may be utilized for the wearer to more easily access the leg and shoulder straps 615 , 645 while the harness 600 and outer gear is worn. Note that modifications similar to those described above can be made to the full-body harness embodiments shown in FIGS. 1-3 to adapt it for use with the integral support line and/or SCBA housing. Furthermore, the full-body harness or any variation described herein can also be adapted for various other uses. In one such application, a harness can be attached to a parachute for safety, emergency, and/or entertainment (e.g., skydiving) applications. For example, one of the disclosed harnesses with or without the disclosed egress system (the support line and/or support line module as disclosed herein) can be adapted for use in conjunction with a military parachute. This system is referred to by the military as a PLD (personnel lowering device). The harness can also be used by the Oil and Gas Industry, the Construction Industry, the Utility and Telecom Industry and Municipalities for various safety and emergency functions. Furthermore, any of the above harnesses could also be adapted to include an SCBA attachment, for example as disclosed herein, to provide additional functionality, such as for application where the air is tainted or oxygen in short supply. FIGS. 13-17 show one embodiment of a personnel lowering device (PLD) utilizing a harness, a support line in a carrying device (e.g., module and/or pouch), and a parachute. This embodiment of the invention is used for a PLD which is provided with a pre-rigged system attached to a parachute. Simply open the pouch on shoulder strap, pull out carabiner, and wrap the riser. This PLD system requires only one hand (left or right) to deploy and use. A 6000 lb rated carabiner and Kevlar tubular webbing has at least a 5500 lb tensile strength, and a temperature rating of at least 862 degrees F. It is a pre-rigged system allowing one handed operation with a PED descender, is compact and lightweight, can be UL Certified to the NFPA 1983 standards for life safety, and provides an emergency egress/escape line is housed in a channeled pouch that prevents the line from accidentally being deployed, and adding a layer of protection as well. FIG. 18 shows a descending device that might be utilized with the PLD of FIGS. 13-17 ; FIG. 19 shows an escape line pouch (module) having channels as might be utilized with the PLD of FIGS. 13-18 ; and FIG. 20 shows a pouch that holds the descending device and hardware as might be utilized with the PLD of FIGS. 13-19 . The invention has been described hereinabove using specific examples; however, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that various alternatives may be used and equivalents may be substituted for components or steps described herein, or the order of steps may be changed, or substitutes for the described components provided, without deviating from the scope of the invention. Modifications may be necessary to adapt the invention to a particular situation or to particular needs without departing from the scope of the invention. It is intended that the invention not be limited to the particular implementation described herein, but that the claims be given their broadest interpretation to cover all embodiments, literal or equivalent, covered thereby.

A full-body harness, with or without an integral support line, with the harness being adaptable for class I, class II, and/or class III service, and for use by safety personnel (such as firefighters, military personnel, rescue workers etc.) or others for situations that call for emergency activity in areas where falls from an unsafe height are possible, or for use for entertainment purposes such as climbing, rappelling, or skydiving, for example.

The present application claims priority from Japanese patent application No. JP 2005-076238 filed on Mar. 17, 2005, the content of which is hereby incorporated by reference into this application. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a network apparatus and an event processing method, in particular, enabling to notify and/or receive an event through a network. Upon an appearance of a digital television, installing the Web browser therein, and also a recorder enabling to set a program recording with using the Web browser from a personal computer (PC), etc., on the market, advancement or improvement is achieved upon network-enabled audio/visual (AV) equipment. Also, UPnP Device Architecture is a regulation for providing devices, for example, for mutually finding out the equipments connected to the network, thereby operating, or an event notification of notifying conditional change(s), which is/are generated within the network equipments, on the network, and it is adopted into the AV equipments and printers; i.e., it becomes a kind of standard regulation in that industry (shown in the following Non-Patent Document 1). [Non-Patent Document 1] UPnP Device Architecture BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Although the UPnP Device Architecture provides the device for the event notification, however for the network equipment of receiving the event therefrom, it is necessary to know the meaning and the processing method thereof, for every event, so as to execute the process fitting to that event. For that reason, a controller for operating other network equipments has an implementation of installing the processes in advance, fitting to the events to be generated in any kind of the equipments to be operated, but being limited within a certain degree thereof, such as, a camera or a printer, etc. In case when increasing the equipments, i.e., the operable targets, it can be deal with, for the PC, by installing control applications therein, fitting to that operable targets. However, on the contrary to the above, it is difficult to install the program, newly, in such as, a television, for example, after being shipped as a product (i.e., a installed-type equipment). Then, according to the present invention, there is provided a device for an event notification, which needs no interpretation of meaning of the event notified, and processing thereof, and thereby making also such installed-type equipments being operable fitting to the events, which are generated within the various kinds of network equipments. Within the present invention, the network equipment for notifying an event to other network equipment (hereinafter, being called by an “event notifying apparatus”) provides a cause or reason of generating the event, a method for processing and/or a user interface for an event processing thereof, in the form of a Web page. And, when notifying the event, the notification is made, through displaying the reason of generating the event, and/or including a URL (Uniform Resource Locater) for accessing a Web page for prompting a process for dealing with the event to a user into an event parameter. The network equipment for receiving the event (hereinafter, being called by a “event receiving apparatus”) comprises a Web browser, and it notifies the user that it receives the event from other network equipment, through a popup icon or the like, when receiving the event. When the user shows an intention of executing the event process by means of a remote controller or the like, the Web browser is initiated, and then access is made to the URL included in the event parameter, thereby displaying a screen. The user is able to know the reason of generating the event, or conduct the operation of the event process, with using the browser. According to the present invention, there is no need of meanings relating to respective events, nor definition of an event for enabling the event process, nor regulation for the processing protocol, between the event notifying apparatus and the event receiving apparatus. The event notifying apparatus notifies the URL for accessing a HTML (HyperText Markup Language) corresponding to the event, in the form of an event parameter, and also provide a HTML file for showing the reason of generating the event corresponding to the request from the Web browser, and/or a HTML file for prompting the process corresponding to the event. The event receiving apparatus enables the event process, but only accessing to the URL included in the event parameter, by means of the Web browser. In this manner, applying the event processing method of the Web method therein enables the event receiving apparatus to conduct the event process, by taking no consideration about the kind of the event notifying apparatus. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Those and other objects, features and advantages of the present invention will become more readily apparent from the following detailed description when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings wherein: FIG. 1 is a view for showing the entire configuration of a network; FIG. 2 is a block diagram for showing the structures of an event notifying apparatus; and FIG. 3 is a block diagram for showing the structures of an event receiving apparatus. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Hereinafter, an embodiment according to the present invention will be fully explained, by referring to the attached drawings, FIGS. 1 to 3 . FIG. 1 shows a home network, which is built up with network equipments according to the present invention. FIG. 2 is the block diagram which shows an example of the structures of the event notifying apparatus according to the present invention. And, FIG. 3 is the block diagram which shows an example of the structures of the event receiving apparatus according to the present invention. In FIG. 1 , reference numerals 101 , 102 and 103 depict network equipments, which are connected with a network 100 . The reference numerals 102 and 103 depict event notifying apparatuses, each notifying other network equipments of the change within an inner condition of itself, etc. The reference numeral 101 depicts an event receiving apparatus for receiving an event, which is issued by other network equipments. Further, a reference numeral 104 depicts an event message, which the event notifying apparatus 102 issues. This includes a URL of an event process Web page, which the apparatus 102 provides, in the form of an event parameter. A reference numeral 105 depicts a Web page obtain message, which the event receiving apparatus 101 issues. A reference numeral 108 is a Web screen, which can be obtained by means of the Web page obtain message 105 , and as an example thereof, it shows a page for showing a picture, which is picked up by a camera of the network equipment 102 . In the similar manner, a reference numeral 106 is an event message, which the event notifying apparatus 103 issues. This includes a URL of the event process Web page, which the apparatus 103 provides, in the form of the event parameter. A reference numeral 107 is a Web page obtain message, which the event receiving apparatus 101 issues. And, a reference numeral 109 is a Web screen, which can be obtained by means of the Web page obtain message 107 . As an example, there is shown a setup screen of the network equipment 103 . FIG. 2 is the block diagram for showing the structures of the event notifying apparatus. A reference 200 depicts the event notifying apparatus, corresponds to those 102 and 103 in FIG. 1 . Herein, parts depending on separate functions of the apparatus are omitted from. A reference numeral 201 depicts a network means for conducting transmission of data between the other network apparatuses through the network. A reference numeral 202 depicts an event producing means for producing an event and notifying the event to the network through the network means, 203 a Web server, 204 a file storing means for storing information, such as, the HTML file, which the Web server transmits upon requests from other network equipments, for example, 205 an event correspondence storing means for managing URL information corresponding to the events, and 206 a means inherent or unique to the equipment (an equipment unique means), for converting operation of the equipment into control protocol unique to the equipment, which is required from the Web browser of the other network equipment to the Web server, or for requesting the event producing means to notify the conditional change generated within the equipment to the network, in the form of the event. Within the event notifying apparatus 200 , a request is made from the equipment unique means 206 to the event producing means 202 when the conditional change is generated, to be an object of event notification. The event producing means 202 required to issue an event obtains the URL of the Web page for executing the process corresponding to the event to be issued, by referring to the event correspondence means 205 , and issues it to the other network equipment as the event parameter. As a method for notifying the event, the URL is added into a user parameter region or area, in accordance with the event protocol of the UPnP, for example. FIG. 3 is a block diagram for showing the structures of the event receiving apparatus. A reference numeral 300 depicts the event receiving apparatus, and it corresponds to 101 shown in FIG. 1 . A reference numeral 301 depicts a network means for transmitting data between the other networks apparatuses through the network. A reference numeral depicts a means for receiving the event notified through the network. A reference numeral 302 depicts a display means for producing signals, which outputs a user I/G screen that the event receiving means produces and a Web browser screen of 304 , for the purpose of monitoring thereof. The reference numeral 304 is a Web browser. A reference numeral 305 depicts a monitor. A reference numeral 306 depicts an input means, and it transmits the input signal 305 , which is inputted through a infrared remote controller, a mouse, and/or a keyboard, etc., to the Web browser 304 . In the event receiving apparatus 300 , receipt of the event is displayed on the monitor with using an icon or the like, thereby notifying it to a user through the display means 302 , when the event is inputted into the event receiving means through the network means 301 . When the user noticing the receipt of the event shows an intention of the event process with using the input apparatus, such as, the remoter controller, then the event receiving means 303 takes out the URL from the invention parameter received, and delivers it to the Web browser, so as to obtain the Web page for the event process, thereby displaying it to the user through the display means 302 . Through the Web screen displayed, the user can notice the content of the event. Also, the user can operate the Web screen through the input means 306 , so as to make remote control upon the network equipment generating the event. For example, in the network, to which the camera 102 and the printer 103 are connected, as is shown in FIG. 1 , it is assumed that the camera generates an event of detecting an object (an object detection event) when something moves on the front thereof, and that the printer generates an event when an operation error generated therein. With the event notification of the UPnP, the event and/or the operation parameter are regulated for each kind of the equipments, such as, the printer, or the camera, for example, and the equipment receiving the event executes the process, subjectively or actively, corresponding to the event. Namely, in case when the event receiving apparatus 101 receives the object detection event of the camera 102 , there is a necessity for the event receiving apparatus 101 to determine what the event received is, thereby to display the operation corresponding to that, such as, an image of the camera 102 , on the monitor, for example. Also, in case when receiving the event from the printer 103 , there is a necessity to determine the events received, and thereby execute the process corresponding to that. On the contrary thereto, with the method according to the present invention, processing of the event is left to the event notifying apparatus, i.e., a side of notifying the event. Further, there is included the URL for accessing the Web page executing the process of the event generated by itself within the event notification, in the form of the event parameter. For that reason, the event receiving apparatus is able to deal with the various kinds of the events, but only with provision of the Web browser. Also, with the event notification protocol according to the present invention, it is possible to deal with, by defining an event process URL tag, such as, <e:url> within a region of an event notification protocol vender of the UPnP, so as to put the event processing URL therein, for example. In this instance, for the UPnP-enable equipments, it is possible to install the event processes therein, according to the present invention, easily. With applicability of the present invention into industry, it can be applied widely, such as, an event notification, and an event receiving process through the network, for example. The present invention may be embodied in other specific forms without departing from the spirit or essential feature or characteristics thereof. The present embodiment(s) is/are therefore to be considered in all respects as illustrative and not restrictive, the scope of the invention being indicated by the appended claims rather than by the forgoing description and range of equivalency of the claims are therefore to be embraces therein.

For enabling to deal with various kinds of events, but without knowing the meaning of the event issued by network equipments, an event notifying equipment notifies URL for an event receiving equipment to access a HTML file corresponding to the event, in the form of an event parameter, thereby providing a HTML file for indicating a reason of generating the event and a HTML file for prompting a process corresponding to the event, in response to a request from a Web browser. An event receiving apparatus is able to execute the event process only by accessing to the URL included in the event parameter.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0001] The present invention relates to a method for designing of an elliptical structure, and the same. BACKGROUND [0002] Conventional building structures are typically square, rectangular, and circular in horizontal section, and although some of them use walls having a variety of curves as outer walls and the like, structures which horizontal section is elliptical are not often encountered. If structures which outer walls partly adopts an elliptic curve can be encountered, those which are entirely elliptical in horizontal section, in other words, which entire perimeter forms an elliptical cylinder are rarely encountered. However, structures which horizontal section is elliptical are extremely graceful in shape, and have a high strength, therefore, as future building structures providing a novel feeling and a beautiful appearance, they can be greatly expected to be popularized. [0003] Then, the present invention provides efficient and economic means for serving the design, drawing, land survey, manufacture, and construction in building an elliptical structure. [0004] The elliptic curve is a quadratic curve which is characterized in that the sum of the distances from a particular point thereon to the two focuses of ellipse is constant. For drawing an elliptic curve, two coordinate points which are to be on the elliptic curve may be connected to each other with a single straight line as a convenient method, or with a polygonal line approximate to the elliptic curve as a more precise method. However, for connecting two coordinate points to each other with a polygonal line, the distance between the two coordinate points must be finely divided, and minute polygonal line components must be drawn, being connected to one another. Therefore, to connect two coordinate points by means of such a polygonal line to provide an approximate elliptic curve, complex computations and operations are required. Thus, using such an approximate elliptic curve which is thus obtained means that it requires intricate calculations and drawings in designing an elliptical structure, and that it is not efficient, economical, and feasible in land surveying on the building site for the elliptical structure, and fabricating member materials for the structure. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0005] The present invention eliminates these problems by connecting circular segments to provide an approximate elliptic curve. The locus of a circle is determined depending upon the center and the radius, and thus a circular segment can be easily drawn. Therefore, connecting circular segments to generate an approximate elliptic curve makes the design and drawing of elliptical structures substantially more efficient and provides feasible means for constructing elliptical structures. [0006] The first purpose of the present invention is to provide an approximate elliptic curve for an elliptical structure by connecting circular segments. [0007] The second purpose of the present invention is to provide a method for designing an elliptical structure efficiently, economically, and practically by connecting circular segments to generate an approximate elliptic curve. [0008] The third purpose of the present invention is to provide an elliptical structure which can be efficiently, economically and practically designed by connecting circular segments to generate an approximate elliptic curve. [0009] These purposes can be achieved by the present invention, which embodiments will be described here with reference to the accompanying drawings. It is needless to say that any possible modifications and variations of the present invention can be covered by the claims which are later given. [0010] As shown in the accompanying drawings which are described later, the present invention provides the following items [1], [2], and [3]: [0011] [1] A method for designing an elliptical structure (A) which is symmetrical about the major axis (M) and the minor axis (N) thereof, and has an outline (B 1 ) of an approximate elliptic curve, comprising the steps of: [0012] a) establishing a first fixed point (C 1 ) outside the elliptical structure (A); from the first fixed point (C 1 ), drawing a straight line segment (L 0 ) to the farthest end point of the minor axis (N) through the intersecting point (o) of the major axis (M) and the minor axis (N); and drawing a first circular segment (d 1 ) from said farthest end point (P 0 ) of the minor axis (N) with the use of the first fixed point (C 1 ) as the center and the first straight line segment (L 1 ) having the same length as that of said straight line segment (L 1 ) as the radius, through an arbitrary angle a α 1 set at said first fixed point (C 1 ); [0013] b) establishing a second fixed point (C 2 ) on said first straight line segment (L 1 ); and drawing a second circular segment (d 2 ) following said first circular segment (d 1 ) with the use of the second fixed point (C 2 ) as the center and the second straight line segment (L 2 ) as the radius, through an arbitrary angle a α 2 set at said second fixed point (C 2 ); [0014] c) establishing a third fixed point (C 3 ) on said second straight line segment (L 2 ); and drawing a third circular segment (d 3 ) following said second circular segment (d 2 ) with the use of the third fixed point (C 3 ) as the center and the third straight line segment (L 3 ) as the radius, through an arbitrary angle a, 3 set at said third fixed point (C 3 ); [0015] d) repeating this step as required; [0016] e) finally drawing an nth circular segment (d n ) following (n−1)th circular segment (d n−1 ) and ranging from the finish end (P n−1 ) of the (n−1)th circular segment (d n−1 ) to the major axis (M) with the use of the intersecting point (C n ) of (n−1)th straight line segment (L n−1 ) and the major axis (M) as the center, and a part of the (n−1)th straight line segment (L n−1 ) as the radius; and [0017] f) using these steps to draw a part of the outline (B 1 ) in each of the other quadrants for drawing the entire outline (B 1 ). [0018] [2] A method for designing an elliptical structure (A) which is symmetrical about the major axis (M) and the minor axis (N) thereof, and has an outline (B 2 ) of an approximate elliptic curve, comprising the steps of: [0019] a) establishing a first fixed point (C,) outside the elliptical structure (A); from the first fixed point (C 1 ), drawing a straight line segment (L 0 ) to the farthest end point (P 0 ) of the minor axis (N) through the intersecting point (o) of the major axis (M) and the minor axis (N); and drawing a first circular segment (d 10 ) from said farthest end point (P 0 ) of the minor axis (N) with the use of the first fixed point (C 1 ) as the center and a first straight line segment (L 10 ) having the same length as the straight line segment (L 0 ) as the radius, through an arbitrary angle α 1 set at said first fixed point (C 1 ); [0020] b) establishing a second fixed point (C 20 ) on said first straight line segment (L 10 ); and drawing a second circular segment (d 20 ) following said first circular segment (d 10 ) with the use of the second fixed point (C 20 ) as the center and the second straight line segment (L 20 ) as the radius, through an arbitrary angle a 2 set at said second fixed point (C 20 ); [0021] c) finally drawing a third circular segment (d 30 ) following the second circular segment (d 20 ) and ranging from the finish end (P 20 ) of the second circular segment (d 20 ) to the major axis (M) with the use of the intersecting point (C 30 ) of the second straight line segment (L 20 ) and the major axis (M) as the center, and a part of the second straight line segment (L 20 ) as the radius; and [0022] d) using these steps to draw a part of the outline (B 2 ) in each of the other quadrants for drawing the entire outline (B 2 ). [0023] [3] An elliptical structure (A) which has an outline (B 1 ), (B 2 ) of an approximate elliptic curve, being constructed using building materials designed by the method as mentioned in either of the item [1] and item [2]. BRIEF OF THE DESCRIPTION [0024] [0024]FIG. 1 shows a bird's eye view of an elliptical structure (A) to be built on the present invention; [0025] [0025]FIG. 2 is an example of elliptic curve drawn for the elliptical structure as shown in FIG. 1; [0026] [0026]FIG. 3 shows an embodiment of the method for designing an elliptical structure according to the present invention; and [0027] [0027]FIG. 4 shows another embodiment of the method for designing an elliptical structure according to the present invention. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT [0028] [0028]FIG. 1 shows a bird's eye view of an elliptical structure (A) to be built on the present invention. FIG. 2 is an example of elliptic curve drawn for the elliptical structure (A) as shown in FIG. 1, which outline or perimeter basically forms an ellipse, the elliptic curve being provided as a result of mathematical computation made by manual operation or by using such means as a computer. The elliptic curve has a major axis (M) and a minor axis (N) on the coordinate axes x and y (providing center lines), respectively, a partial outline (b 1 ), (b 2 ), (b 3 ), and (b 4 ) in the first quadrant (I), the second quadrant (II), the third quadrant (E), and the fourth quadrant (IV), respectively, being connected to one another to provide a complete outline (B) which forms an ellipse, and the elliptic curve is symmetrical about the major axis (M) and also about the minor axis (N). [0029] Thus, with the present invention, the elliptic curve for the elliptical structure (A) is provided by connecting circular segments to one another. [0030] Specifically, as shown in FIG. 3, an outline (B 1 ) approximating said outline (B) is created by connecting circular segments to one another. In other words, the major axis (M) and the minor axis (N) for the outline (B 1 ), i.e., the coordinate axes x and y are established, and a first fixed point (C 1 ) is established on the coordinate axis y. By drawing a straight line segment (L 0 ), which has a length equal to half the length of the previously established minor axis (N) plus the length from the first fixed point (C 1 ) to the major axis (M), i.e., the origin (o), which is the intersecting point of the major axis (M) and the minor axis (N), a point (P 0 ) which must exist on the outline (B 1 ) is determined. An angle a α 1 is set at said first fixed point (C 1 ), and a first circular segment (d 1 ) is drawn from the point (P 0 ) to a point (P 1 ) with the first fixed point (C 1 ) being used as the center, and a first straight line segment (L 1 ), which length is set at the same as the length of the straight line segment (L 0 ), being used as the radius. In this context, the point (P 1 ) provides a point where a first tangent line segment (k 1 ) at the end of the first circular segment (d 1 ) forms a right angle with the first straight line segment (L 1 ), in other words, an angle γ 1 at the point (P 1 ) is 90 deg. The first circular segment (d 1 ) drawn provides the partial outline (b 1 ) as mentioned above. [0031] Next, a point distant from the first fixed point (C 1 ) by an arbitrary length l 1 . is established as a second fixed point (C 2 ) on the first straight line segment (L 3 ); an angle of a 2 is set to draw a second straight line segment (L 2 ) to a point (P 2 ); and with the second fixed point (C 2 ) being used as the center, and the second straight line segment (L 2 ) being used as the radius, a second circular segment (d 2 ), which follows the first circular segment (d 1 ), is drawn to the point (P 2 ). The beginning of the second circular segment (d 2 ) provides a point where a second tangent line segment (k′ 1 ) at the start end of the second circular segment (d 2 ) forms a right angle with the first straight line segment (L 1 ), in other words, an angle γ′ 1 at the point (P 1 ) is 90 deg. Thus, the angle γ 1 plus the angle γ′ 1 is equal to 180 deg, and at the point (P 1 ), the first tangent line segment (k 1 ) for the first circular segment (d 1 ) and the second tangent line segment (k′ 1 ) at the start end of the second circular segment (d 2 ) form a straight line segment, thereby the first circular segment (d 1 ) drawn previously and the second circular segment (d 2 ) drawn subsequently are smoothly and curvedly connected to each other with no offset being produced. [0032] Next, a point distant from the second fixed point (C 2 ) by an arbitrary length l 2 is established as a third fixed point (C 3 ) on the second straight line segment (L 2 ); an angle of α 3 is set to draw a third straight line segment (L 3 ) to a point (P 3 ); and with the third fixed point (C 3 ) being used as the center, and the third straight line segment (L 3 ) being used as the radius, a third circular segment (d 3 ), which follows the second circular segment (d 2 ), is drawn to the point (P 3 ). The beginning of the third circular segment (d 3 ) provides a point where a third tangent line segment (k 2 ) at the finish end of the second circular segment (d 2 ) and a fourth tangent line segment (k′ 2 ) at the start end of the third circular segment (d 3 ) form a right angle with the second straight line segment (L 2 ), respectively, in other words, an angle δ 2 , γ′ 2 at the point (P 2 ) is 90 deg. Thus, the angle γ 2 plus the angle γ′ 2 is equal to 180 deg, and at the point (P 2 ), the third tangent line segment (k 2 ) for the second circular segment (d 2 ) and the fourth tangent line segment (k′ 2 ) for the third circular segment (d 3 ) form a straight line segment, thereby the second circular segment (d 2 ) drawn previously and the third circular segment (d 3 ) drawn subsequently are smoothly and curvedly connected to each other with no offset being produced. [0033] Next, a point distant from the third fixed point (C 3 ) by an arbitrary length l 3 is established as a fourth fixed point (C 4 ) on the third straight line segment (L 3 ); an angle of a α 4 is set to draw a fourth straight line segment (L 4 ) to a point (P 4 ); a point where the major axis (M) intersects with the fourth straight line segment (L 4 ) is established as a fifth fixed point (C 5 ), which is the final fixed point; and a fifth circular segment (d 5 ), which follows the fourth circular segment (d 4 ), is drawn to the major axis (M) to provide a point (P 5 ). By this, one end of the major axis (M) is actually established. The angle which the third straight line segment (L 3 ) forms with tangent line segments at the point (P 3 ) and that which the fourth straight line segment (L 4 ) forms with tangent line segments at the point (P 4 ) are 180 deg (as a result of 90 deg plus 90 deg), respectively, as is the case at the point (P 2 ). In this way, a partial outline (b,) is sequentially formed in the first quadrant (I) for the outline (B 1 ). [0034] If the values of angles α 1 , α 2 , α 3 , and α 4 , and the values of lengths l 1 l 2 , and l 3 are given, the values of lengths l 4 and l 5 can be determined by calculation (as later described). Then, as can be easily conjectured from FIG. 4 (although this figure illustrates another embodiment of the present invention), the same technique is used to draw a partial outline (b 2 ) at left of the first fixed point (C 1 ) in the second quadrant (II) for the outline (B 1 ), and for the third quadrant (III) and the fourth quadrant (IV), a fixed point (C′ 1 ) is established at the point symmetrical to the first fixed point (C 1 ), and by the same technique, partial outlines (b 3 ) and (b 4 ) are drawn. Now, said entire outline (B 1 ) has been formed by these partial outlines (b 1 ), (b 2 ), (b 3 ) and (b 4 ). By increasing the number of angles α 1 as α 1 , α 2 , α 3 , α 4 , and α 5 , . . . , and the number of straight line segments L, as L 1 , L 2 , L 3 , and L 4 , . . . , the deviation of the components of the outline (B 1 ) from the corresponding components of the real elliptic curve can be decreased, in other words, the precision of the outline (B 1 ) created can be enhanced. [0035] In FIG. 3, the length of the straight line segment (L 0 ) is equal to the distance between the first fixed point (C 1 ) and the point (P 0 ); the length of the first straight line segment (L 1 ) is equal to the distance between the first fixed point (C 1 ) and the point (P 1 ); the length of the second straight line segment (L 2 ) is equal to the distance between the second fixed point (C 2 ) and the point (P 2 ); the length of the fourth straight line segment (L 4 ) is equal to the distance between the fourth fixed point (C 4 ) and the point (P 4 ); (although it is not indicated in the figure), the length of the nth straight line segment (L n ) is equal to the distance between the nth fixed point (C n ) and the point (P n ); and the intersecting point of the major axis (M) and the (n−1)th straight line segment (L n−1 ) provide the nth fixed point (C n ), which is the final fixed point. [0036] Further, in FIG. 3, the length l 1 is equal to the distance between the first fixed point (C 1 ) and the second fixed point (C 2 ); the length l 2 is equal to the distance between the second fixed point (C 2 ) and the third fixed point (C 3 ); the length l 3 is equal to the distance between the third fixed point (C 3 ) and the fourth fixed point (C 4 ); the length l 4 is equal to the distance between the fourth fixed point (C 4 ) and the fifth fixed point (C 5 ); and here the distance between the fifth fixed point (C 5 ) and the point (P 4 ) is equal to the distance between the fifth fixed point (C 5 ) and the point (P 5 ), therefore, the length of the fifth straight line segment (L 5 ) is equal to the length l 5 . Here, the length of the fifth straight line segment (L 5 ) is equal to the distance between the fifth fixed point (C 5 ) and the point (P 5 ), which is equal to the length of the fourth straight line segment (L 4 ) minus the length l 4 . The fifth fixed point (C 5 ) is said final fixed point, which provides the intersecting point of the fourth straight line segment (L 4 ) drawn from the fourth fixed point (C 4 ) and the major axis (M). By drawing a fifth circular segment (d 5 ), which follows the fourth circular segment (d 4 ), from the point (P 4 ) to the major axis (M), with the fifth fixed point (C 5 ) being used as the center, said point (P 5 ) is provided. Thereby, as stated above, the partial outline (b 1 ) is completed in the first quadrant. Here, if a straight line segment (s) which is parallel to the y axis is drawn from the fourth fixed point (C 4 ) toward the x axis, the angle θ formed between the straight line segment (s) and the fourth straight line segment (L 4 ) is equal to the sum of the angles α 1 , α 2 , α 3 , and α 4 . [0037] Hereinbelow, it will be described that, by arbitrarily determining the distance between the first fixed point (C 1 ) and the point (P 0 ), the distance between the first fixed point (C 1 ) and the origin (o), half the length of the minor axis (N), i.e., [N/2], the lengths l 1 , l 2 , and l 3 , the angles α 1 , α 2 , α 3 , and α 4 , the lengths l 4 and l 5 can be determined. In FIG. 3, it is assumed that the intersecting point of a straight line drawn from the second fixed point (C 2 ) in parallel with the x axis and intersecting with the y axis is E 1 , the distance between the first fixed point (C 1 ) and E 1 is l′ 1 ; the intersecting point of a straight line drawn from the third fixed point (C 3 ) in parallel with the x axis and intersecting with the y axis is E 2 , the distance between E 1 and E 2 is l′ 2 ; and the intersecting point of a straight line drawn from the fourth fixed point (C 4 ) in parallel with the x axis and intersecting with the y axis is E 3 , the distance between E 2 and E 3 is l′ 3 . Then, l′ 2 is equal to the distance between E 1 and E 2 ; l′ 3 is equal to the distance between E 2 and E 3 ; and l′ 4 is equal to the distance between E 3 and the origin (o). Here is a description using mathematical expressions. cos     α 1 = l 1 ′ l 1   l 1 = l 1 ′ cos     α 1     l 1 ′ = l 1     cos     α 1 ( 1 ) l 2 = l 2 ′ cos     ( α 1 + α 2 )     l 2 ′ = l 2     cos     ( α 1 + α 2 ) ( 2 ) l 3 = l 3 ′ cos     ( α 1 + α 2 + α 3 )     l 3 ′ = l 3     cos     ( α 1 + α 2 + α 3 ) ( 3 ) [0038] If C 1,0 denotes the distance between C 1 and o, and P 0 , C 1 the distance between P 0 and C 1 , C 1,0 =P 0 , C 1 −N/ 2 [0039] is a known number, and l′ 1 , l′ 2 , and l′ 3 can be calculated from the above equations (1), (2), and (3), thus, l′ 4 can be determined from the equation: l′ 4 =C 1,0 −l′ 1 −l′ 2 −l′ 3 [0040] Then, by the equation: cos     θ = l 4 ′ l 4 [0041] the value of l 4 can be determined as follows: l 4 = l 4 ′ cos     θ [0042] where θ is expressed by the following equation: θ=α 1 +α 2 +α 3 +α 4 [0043] Then, the length of the fourth straight line segment (L 4 ) is equal to the length of the straight line segment (L 0 ) minus (l 1 +l 2 +l 3 ), and l 5 is equal to the length of L 4 minus l 4 , thus, the value of l 5 can be calculated. [0044] The length of the nth straight line segment (L n ), where n≧2, is equal to the length of the (n−1)th straight line segment (L n−1 ) minus l n−1 , where l n−1 is expressed by the following equation: l n - 1 = l n - 1 ′ cos     ( α 1 + α 2 + ⋯ + α n - 1 ) [0045] [0045]FIG. 4 shows another embodiment. In FIG. 4, to create an outline (B 2 ) which approximate said outline (B), the major axis (M) and the minor axis (N) for the outline (B 2 ) of a building (A), i.e., the coordinate axes x and y are established; a first fixed point (C 1 ) is established on the coordinate axis y; by drawing a straight line segment (L 0 ), which has a length equal to half the length of the previously established minor axis (N) plus the length from the first fixed point (C 1 ) to the major axis (M), i.e., the origin (o), which is the intersecting point of the major axis (M) and the minor axis (N), a point (P 0 ) which must exist on the outline (B 2 ) is determined; an angle α 1 is set at said first fixed point (C 1 ); a first circular segment (d 10 ) is drawn from the point (P 0 ) to a point (P 10 ) with the first fixed point (C 1 ) being used as the center, and a first straight line segment (L 10 ), which length is set at the same as the length of the straight line segment (L 0 ), being used as the radius. The point (P 10 ) provides a point where an angle γ 1 at the point (P 10 ) is 90 deg, in other words, a first tangent line segment (k 10 ) at the end of the first circular segment (d 10 ) forms a right angle with the first straight line segment (L 10 ). [0046] Next, a point distant from the first fixed point (C 1 ) by an arbitrary length l 10 is established as a second fixed point (C 20 ) on the first straight line segment (L 10 ); An angle of α 2 is set to draw a second straight line segment (L 20 ) to a point (P 20 ); and with the second fixed point (C 20 ) being used as the center, and the second straight line segment (L 20 ) being used as the radius, a second circular segment (d 20 ), which follows the first circular segment (d 10 ), is drawn to the point (P 20 ). The beginning of the second circular segment (d 20 ) provides a point where a second tangent line segment (k′ 10 ) at the start end of the second circular segment (d 20 ) forms a right angle with the first straight line segment (L 10 ), in other words, an angle γ′ 1 at the point (P 10 ) is 90 deg. Thus, the angle γ 1 plus the angle γ′ 1 is equal to 180 deg, and at the point (P 10 ), the first tangent line segment (k 10 ) for the first circular segment (d 10 ) and the second tangent line segment (k′ 10 ) at the start end of the second circular segment (d 20 ) form a straight line segment, thereby the first circular segment (d 10 ) drawn previously and the second circular segment (d 20 ) drawn subsequently are smoothly and curvedly connected to each other with no offset being produced. [0047] Also at the point (P 20 ), the angle γ 2 plus the angle γ′ 2 is equal to 180 deg, and at the point (P 20 ), a third tangent line segment (k 20 ) for the second circular segment (d 20 ) and a fourth tangent line segment (k′ 20 ) at the start end of a third circular segment (d 30 ) (later described) form a straight line segment, thereby the second circular segment (d 20 ) drawn previously and the third circular segment (d 30 ) drawn subsequently are smoothly and curvedly connected to each other with no offset being produced. [0048] In this case, the second circular segment (d 20 ) intersects with the major axis at an angle of α 3 , and the sum of the angles α 1 , α 2 , and α 3 is equal to 90°By using this intersecting point as a third fixed point (C 30 ) (the final fixed point), the third circular segment (d 30 ), which follows the second circular segment (d 20 ), is drawn to the major axis (M). Thereby, one end of the major axis (M), i.e., a point (P 30 ), is determined. In this way, a partial outline (b 1 ) is sequentially formed in the first quadrant (I) for the outline (B 2 ). [0049] In FIG. 4, the length of the straight line segment (L 0 ) is equal to the distance between the first fixed point (C 1 ) and the point (P 0 ); the length of the first straight line segment (L 10 ) is equal to the distance between the first fixed point (C 1 ) and the point (P 10 ); and the length of the second straight line segment (L 20 ) is equal to the distance between the second fixed point (C 20 ) and the point (P 20 ). Therefore, if the values of angles α 1 and α 2 , and the value of length l 10 are given, the length of the second straight line segment (L 20 ) is determined, and the values of lengths l 20 and l 30 can be determined by calculation. In other words, if the third fixed point (C 30 ) is established, the length l 20 can be determined, and thus the length l 30 can be determined from the relationship: the length l 30 is equal to the length of the second straight line segment (L 20 ) subtracted by the length l 20 . [0050] Thus, also in the present embodiment, the elliptic curve for an elliptical structure (A) can be formed by connecting circular segments to one another. [0051] Then, as shown in FIG. 4, the same technique is used to draw a partial outline (b 2 ) at left of the first fixed point (C 1 ) in the second quadrant (II) for the outline (B 2 ), and for the third quadrant (III) and the fourth quadrant (IV), a fixed point (C′ 1 ) is established at the point symmetrical to the first fixed point (C 1 ), and by the same technique, partial outlines (b 3 ) and (b 4 ) are drawn. Now, said entire outline (B 2 ) has been formed by these partial outlines (b 1 ), (b 2 ), (b 3 ) and (b 4 ). [0052] Thus, with the present invention, the members based on the first circular segment (d 1 ) to the fifth circular segment (d 5 ), and the first circular segment (d 1 ) to the third circular segment (d 3 ) as shown in FIGS. 3 and 4, respectively, are individually designed and manufactured to be connected to one another for creating building materials for all the four quadrants, which are then assembled to one another to provide a particular floor of the elliptical structure (A), and all the floors are jointed to one another to provide an entire elliptical structure (A). [0053] The present invention can provide efficient and economic means for serving the design, drawing, land survey, manufacture, and construction in building an elliptical structure on a particular site. The present invention allows forming the outline of an elliptical structure by connecting circular segments while smoothly forming the joint of the respective circular segments, and makes it possible to perform the related computation by setting the radii of the respective circular segments and the required angles, thus permitting efficient construction of elliptical structures. Such elliptical structures are excellent in structural strength, durable, and helpful to prevent strong wind blowing along a street of highrise buildings.

A method for designing an elliptical structure with an outline of an approximate elliptic curve, which is generated by connecting circular segments to one another, and an elliptical structure created on said method. A first fixed point is established outside the elliptical structure; from the first fixed point, a straight line segment is drawn to the farthest end point of the minor axis through the origin; a first circular segment is drawn from said farthest end point of the minor axis with the use of the first fixed point as the center and the first straight line segment having the same length as that of said straight line segment as the radius, through an arbitrary angle set at said first fixed point; a second fixed point is established on said first straight line segment; a second circular segment following said first circular segment is drawn with the use of the second fixed point as the center and the second straight line segment as the radius, through an arbitrary angle set at said second fixed point; this step is repeated as required; an nth circular segment following (n−1)th circular segment and ranging from the finish end of the (n−1)th circular segment to the major axis is drawn with the use of the intersecting point of (n−1)th straight line segment and the major axis as the center, and a part of the (n−1)th straight line segment as the radius; and these steps are used to draw a part of the outline in each of the other quadrants for drawing the entire outline.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to improvement of workflow in an office, and more particularly to a workflow system capable of dynamically changing a route. BACKGROUND Although a paperless form-processing system was first proposed some time ago, it cannot be said that paperless form-processing systems are in widespread use today, due to the complexity of slip processing, problems in handling exceptional processing, and the like. To computerize a large number of slips requires a simple way of defining forms and routes, and a flexible routing function for implementing an approval system. Related work is disclosed in the gazettes of Japanese Patent Laid-Open Nos. Hei 10(1998)-49603, Hei 10(1998)-177610 and Hei 5(1993)-216736, for example. The gazette of Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. Hei 10(1998)-49603 discloses a technique for preventing leakage of confidential information in the following manner. When data is circulated from a process A to a different process B, data to be defined by process A is set so that the data cannot be read by process B. The gazette of Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. Hei 10(1998)-177610 discloses a technique for simplifying operations in the following manner. In a workflow system for prescribing operations to be performed by a plurality of persons in charge and passing data between the persons in charge, prescribed data conversion is executed before assigning operations to a next person in charge. Thus, documents in different forms are transmitted to the persons in charge according to the contents of the documents. The gazette of Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. Hei 5(1993)-216736 discloses the following technique. When the destination of a computerized document (slip) varies according to the content of the document or according to the identity of an issuer of the document, a route rule and an addressee, which depend on the document to be processed, are determined by referring to an organizational directory. As described above, conventional workflow systems may define a route for determining individual persons in charge by referring to data, and a route for designating a fixed external workflow definition, in order to dynamically change a circulation route according to data values. However, although duties for dynamically designating a department in charge are general, it is necessary to define a workflow which considers the specific case where the in-department circulation route varies for every department and also varies according to the maximum number of departments to which data is to be circulated. In the case where a person-in-charge-level dynamic route or a workflow definition using a fixed external route and a conditional branch is used, the route becomes more complicated in proportion to the maximum number of departments to which data is to be circulated. Thus, it becomes difficult even to give an accurate definition due to the large number of combinations of flow conditions. For example, in the case where an electronic form approval system is used to circulate a form in order to get approval of a decision, frequently the form is concurrently sent to a large number of lower-level departments whose approvals must all be secured before requesting higher-level approval. However, patterns of approvals may vary according to each department. Moreover, the departments to which the form is sent vary according to its subject. Consequently, some forms may be circulated to tens of departments. To automate such activities has heretofore required the use of an exclusive development tool or the like. However, for example as described above in designing a form to be circulated to tens of departments and an approval route, the design of a workflow is necessarily based on the assumed maximum number of departments. Thus, the display screen of the development tool becomes large and complicated, which causes not only complex user operation, but also high costs when changing designs in response to organizational changes. In order to make a complicated dynamic change in a workflow, such as switching routes, it is necessary to develop an exclusive program and execute the program halfway through the workflow. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention solves the foregoing technical problems. An object of the present invention is to realize, by a simple definition, a complicated workflow, for example a workflow such as circulation of a form among a plurality of departments where the circulation route varies in each department. Another object of the present invention is to enable adaptibility to a combination of complicated route patterns even when an exclusive program to be executed halfway through a workflow is not developed. To accomplish the foregoing objects, the present invention provides a mechanism for dynamically changing a sub-route in a route definition by designating a project variable as a node. Moreover, the present invention enables multiplexing and treating a synchronous type parallel route as one node by designating an array type variable as the project variable. According to an aspect of the present invention, a workflow system for passing data between persons in charge who use computer terminals in accordance with a workflow via a network to which the computer terminals are connected, comprises: designing means for designing the workflow by creating projects, each of which consists of a workflow definition and a data definition to be referred to by the workflow definition, the workflow definition defining nodes indicative of operations to be assigned to the persons in charge and paths for determining a processing order of the nodes; storing means for storing the created projects; and process managing means for managing processes, each indicating a unit of duties of the workflow by using the stored projects to assign the operations to the persons in charge. In the workflow system, data is defined by a project type and an array of the project type. Preferably, the designing means designs the workflow by handling the projects, each having the array whose elements are of different kinds. As a result, a complex workflow definition can be simplified based on using the project. According to another aspect of the present invention, a workflow system comprises: manipulating computer terminals for executing a workflow between persons in charge, the manipulating computer terminals being connected to a network; a designing computer terminal for designing the workflow by designating project variables for multiplexing a plurality of processes for nodes, each indicating a unit of operations to be handled; and a workflow server for managing the designed workflow and providing access to the manipulating computer terminals in accordance with activities that indicate operations assigned to the nodes. Herein, the term “processes” refers to a unit of duties of the workflow. For example, an “August business report” and a “September business report” are different processes, but these processes are regarded as a project that indicates the same “business report”. Therefore, in this case, the same route pattern is used for the above-mentioned processes, even though these processes differ from each other in their contents. In this example, processes are different in the same project. However, the processes to be multiplexed as a node may consitute in different projects as well. In the workflow system, the project variables are designated by using a workflow definition of the nodes and paths for determining the processing order of the nodes, and a data definition to be referred to by the workflow definition. This is effective in determining resources such as a route and a field definition, for example. Preferably, definition IDs for identifying the project variables are defined as attributes of the project variables. The workflow server may store information concerning the project variables by using the definition IDs, as a project may be uniquely selected to reuse resources such as a route and a field of another project. Furthermore, the manipulating computer terminals inform the workflow server of the termination of the activities after the execution of the assigned operations, and the workflow server completes the process after the termination of all the activities of the workflow. According to the present invention, an information processing apparatus such as a workflow server connected via a network to a plurality of computer terminals for executing a workflow, comprises: project managing means for managing projects, each of which includes a workflow definition comprising a plurality of nodes and paths for connecting the plurality of nodes and a data definition to be referred to by the workflow definition by using definition IDs for uniquely defining the projects; process managing means for managing processes, each indicating a unit of duty of the workflow by using the managed projects; and user managing means for providing an access to the computer terminals in accordance with the managed processes. According to the present invention, an information processing apparatus including a computer terminal or the like for defining a workflow involving computer terminals connected to a network, comprises: workflow definition determining means for selecting nodes, which indicate duties to be assigned to executors in charge of workflow, and connecting paths, which determine the processing order of the nodes, thereby determining a workflow definition; data defining means for defining executing users for the selected nodes and for defining conditions for making the paths effective; and register instructing means for giving an instruction to add information capable of specifying the workflow definition and data definition (for example, a definition ID that uniquely specifies a project by identifying the project's workflow definition and the data definition) to the determined workflow definition and the defined data definition, and to register the definition ID. According to an aspect of the present invention, a method for defining a workflow using a plurality of computer terminals connected to a network, comprises the steps of: selecting nodes that indicate duties to be assigned to executors in charge of workflow; selecting a project array type node for multiplexing a process, a route pattern, and a data set as one of the selected nodes; connecting the selected nodes to the selected project array type node by using paths; and selecting, for example, a project to be arranged according to the selected project array type node. In the method for defining a workflow, the project can be a unit that includes in combination a workflow definition that includes a plurality of nodes and paths for connecting the plurality of nodes, and a data definition that can be set and referred to by the process indicating a unit of duties of the workflow. Preferably, the selected project has an array whose elements are of different kinds, because a parallel route can be multiplexed by one node by designating the array type variables. According to another aspect of the present invention, a method for defining a workflow to be executed by a plurality of computer terminals connected to a network, comprises the steps of: introducing a node that includes of a project type variable capable of handling a combination of a data set and a route integrally, as one node of the workflow; and designating the project type variable as an array, thereby treating as one node a plurality of child processes (sub-processes) to be branched synchronously. In the method for defining a workflow, a default prototype is used in the absence of an explicit setting as the project type variable. Moreover, the term “child process (sub-process)” used herein means both a route pattern and the data set. In a storage medium of the present invention, which stores a program to be executed by a computer so that inputting means of the computer can read the program, the program causes the computer to execute the steps of: selecting nodes that indicate duties to be assigned to executors in charge of workflow; selecting a project array type node for multiplexing a process, a route pattern, and a data set as one of the nodes; connecting the nodes to the project array type node by using paths; and selecting a project to be arranged according to the project array type node. A program stored in another storage medium of the present invention causes a computer to execute the steps of: introducing a node that includes a project type variable capable of handling a combination of a data set and a route integrally, as one node of a workflow; and designating the project type variable as an array, thereby treating as one node a plurality of child processes to be branched synchronously. A medium such as a CD-ROM may be the storage medium. A program transmitting apparatus which the present invention is applied to, comprises: storing means for storing a program for causing a computer to execute the steps of selecting nodes that indicate duties to be assigned to executors in charge of workflow; selecting a project array type node for multiplexing a process, a route pattern, and a data set as one of the selected nodes; connecting the nodes to the project array type node by using paths; and selecting a project to be arranged according to the project array type node; and transmitting means for reading out the program from the storing means and transmitting the program. Another program transmitting apparatus which the present invention is applied to, comprises: storing means for storing a program for causing a computer to execute the steps of introducing as one node of a workflow a node that includes a project type variable capable of handling a combination of a data set and a route integrally, and designating the project type variable as an array, thereby treating as one node a plurality of child processes to be branched synchronously; and transmitting means for reading out the program from the storing means and transmitting the program. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS For a more complete understanding of the present invention and the advantages thereof, reference is now made to the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. FIG. 1 is an illustration of a general configuration of a workflow system which an embodiment of the present invention may be applied to. FIGS. 2( a ) and 2 ( b ) are illustrations of a project (process definition) expressing a flow of processing of operations to be performed. FIG. 3 is an illustration of a general configuration of a workflow server. FIGS. 4( a ) and 4 ( b ) are illustrations of examples of registered projects. FIG. 5 is an illustration of an example of a definition created by a process defining method. FIG. 6 is an exemplary table showing the status of a process storage. FIG. 7 is an illustration of an example of an operation screen for a workflow operation to be obtained by an operator. FIG. 8 is a table of data to be transmitted to a client request management program. FIG. 9 is a flowchart of a procedure for evaluating data setting to be executed by the client request management program. FIG. 10 is a table of an example of a status obtained by the process storage as the result of evaluation of the data shown in FIG. 8 . FIG. 11 is a flowchart of a procedure of a flow evaluation. FIG. 12 is a flowchart of a procedure for assigning an executing user. FIG. 13 is a flowchart of a procedure for a completion operation. FIG. 14 is a table of a status of the process storage obtained by the execution of the operations shown in FIGS. 11 , 12 and 13 . FIG. 15 is an illustration of the whole process flow. FIG. 16 is an illustration of the case where other data is designated as the data of “Route to:” shown in FIG. 7 . FIG. 17 is an illustration of the whole process flow in the case where the data shown in FIG. 16 is designated as “Route to:”. FIGS. 18( a ) and 18 ( b ) are illustrations of an example of operations to be performed by a workflow designer and a slip submitter. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The present invention will be described in detail below by referring to an exemplary embodiment shown in the accompanying drawings. First, some of the terms used in describing the embodiment will be defined. Workflow Definition: A workflow definition refers to a definition that includes a plurality of nodes and paths for connecting the nodes. Node: A node refers to a unit of an operation definition included in the workflow definition. An actual operator and a data input screen are assigned to a node. Data Definition: A data definition refers to a definition of data which a process can set and refer to. The data definition defines a data name, a data type, or a data array. The data type includes a character string type and a numerical value type. Data Attribute Definition: A data attribute definition refers to a definition of an attribute for limiting a value of data and forms a part of the data definition. The attribute of character type data includes a limit on the number of characters, and so on. The attribute of numerical value type data includes designation of a range, and so on. Project: A project refers to a unit of a combination of the workflow definition and the data definition. The project is equivalent to a process definition. The project is identified by a definition ID. When the project is determined, the workflow definition and the data definition are also determined. Process: A process refers to a unit of duties of a workflow. The process corresponds to an embodied project. The duties of the process are performed according to a route pattern indicated by the workflow definition of the project which the process is based on. Moreover, a data set indicated by the data definition stores the contents varying according to the process. Activity: An activity refers to an operation assigned to a node. When an operator is assigned to an activity, the operator is to operate the activity. Next, an exemplary embodiment will be specifically described. As an aid to understandings, the exemplary embodiment will be first described with reference to examples of applications. FIGS. 18( a ) and 18 ( b ) are illustrations of an example of manipulations to be performed by a workflow designer and a slip submitter, showing a simple example which the embodiment may be applied to. To multiplex the same route pattern, the workflow designer sets a node so that the node may refer to a project type array variable PRJ [ ], as shown in FIG. 18( a ). In this case, a definition ID “bumon(department) — prj” of a project is set as a prototype attribute of PRJ (to be adopted in the absence of explicit setting). The expresssion “Project=Field(ID)+Sub-route: bumon” shown in FIG. 18( a ) means that “A node for referring to project type data generates and executes child processes as an activity of the node by using a definition of a project referred to by the node. Also to generate and execute child processes using the same project “bumon”, the node can circulate data to different users (or departments) by separately setting IDs of the child processes, that is, the name data thereof.” As shown in FIG. 18( b ), a user who submits a form enters IDs (soumu (general affairs), keiri (accounting) and eigyou (sales)) of departments which should dynamically give an approval at the time when the user submits the slip. The IDs are linked to variable IDs of array elements of the variable PRJ by an INPUT tag shown in FIG. 18( b ). Data values are substituted in the following manner. Since bumon — prj is set as the prototype attribute of the project, child processes created as the activity of the node by using the project of a project definition ID (bumon — prj) are set, and then the values are set to data in the child processes, that is, the variable IDs. To operate a slip as duty processing, the node generates as many child processes as array elements and executes the child processes in parallel, because the node is set so as to refer to a project type array. A route defined by the project bumon — prj is used, and a head node is set by a data reference designation so as to refer to IDs, that is, name data. Thus, ID=“soumu”, ID=“keiri” and ID=“eigyou” are evaluated. Then, data is transmitted to the departments and approved by the respective persons in charge in the departments. Thus, a series of workflows can be realized in the above-described manner. To multiplex different route patterns, the workflow designer sets a node in the same manner so that the node may refer to the project type array variable PRJ [ ]. Then, a user who submits a slip enters definition IDs (soumu — prj, keiri — prj and eigyou — prj) of a project for departments which should dynamically give an approval at the time when the user submits the slip. The IDs are set as separate projects in the array elements of the variable PRJ by the INPUT tag. To operate the slip, the node generates as many child processes as array elements and executes the child processes in parallel, because the node is set so as to refer to the project type array. At this time, the different project IDs (soumu — prj, keiri — prj and eigyou — prj) are evaluated, and different types of child processes are set. Routes defined by the separate projects are used, and data is transmitted to the departments by using the separate routes to be approved by the respective persons in charge in the departments. The child processes go to a next node in synchronization with one another. A workflow using multiplexed different route patterns is realized in the above-described manner. The same parent project can be used as a parent project including a substantial route design of the above-mentioned flow to multiplex the same route pattern and to multiplex different route patterns. As described above, in the exemplary embodiment, a structural unit of an application that includes of a plurality of resources such as the workflow definition, the data definition, a display format, and a linked program is called a project. In this concept of “project”, the project ID which may be of a project name or the like is adopted in order to uniquely determine name spaces of resources such as elements including nodes in the workflow definition and variable names defined by the data definition. Moreover, the concept of “project type data” is introduced into the project in order to reuse the resources such as the workflow definition and the data definition of another project. A node is set by the workflow definition so as to refer to the project type data, whereby the so-called “child processes” are realized. Furthermore, the project type data is defined as an array type, whereby the child processes are realized in parallel. The above-mentioned concepts enable a flexible control of the child processes and data in the child processes. Next, the exemplary embodiment will be described in detail starting with the configuration of the whole system. FIG. 1 is an illustration of a general configuration of a workflow system which the present invention may be applied to. The workflow system of the exemplary embodiment includes a designing computer terminal 10 for designing a workflow, manipulating computer terminals 20 for operating the workflows provided for persons in charge who perform duties, and a workflow server 30 for storing various types of programs for executing the workflows. The designing computer terminal 10 , the manipulating computer terminals 20 , and the workflow server 30 are connected to one another and form a network. The designing computer terminal 10 includes functions for designing the workflow and definition functions for realizing duty processing by the workflow system. A user who defines duty processing uses the designing computer terminal 10 to define a procedure of the duty processing for the workflow system. The manipulating computer terminals 20 have functions for executing previously-designated duties. The manipulating computer terminals 20 are arranged so that a plurality of persons in charge of duties may use the manipulating computer terminals 20 . A designer uses the designing computer terminal 10 to enter his or her identification information and thus log on the workflow system. Moreover, the designer uses the functions for designing the workflow to design a flow of operations of duties to be performed and a data structure for use in the operations. FIGS. 2( a ) and 2 ( b ) are illustrations of a project (process definition) expressing the flow of the operations of the duties to be performed. FIG. 2( a ) shows an example of the workflow definition. FIG. 2( b ) shows an example of the data definition to be referred to by the workflow definition. In FIG. 2( a ), circles are called nodes and indicate duties to be assigned to persons in charge (persons in charge of duties). Arrows are called paths and indicate the order of processing duties, that is, a connection of operations. In the exemplary embodiment, it is assumed that all the nodes refer to a single data definition and that passing of necessary data between processes is performed according to the paths indicated by the arrows. However, a plurality of data definitions may be present, and passing of different data may be defined by the paths. In FIG. 2( b ), “String (character string type)” is defined as a User ID and a Name, “String [ ]” is defined as an Address, and “Integer (numerical value type)” is defined as an Age. The designer using the designing computer terminal 10 uses a design tool to arrange the nodes and to connect the paths in order to determine the processing order. The attributes of the nodes and the paths can be prescribed. The names of the nodes and persons in charge, that is, executing users, are defined as the attributes of the nodes. Types of assignment of the executing user include a direct designation for directly inputting the user ID, a relationship designation defined by the relationship between an operating user and another operating user (for example, a relationship between an operating user of a node A and a superior of the operating user, and the like), and a data reference designation for taking values of data defined by the data definition shown in FIG. 2( b ) as an operating user. Conditions for enabling the paths are defined as the attributes of the paths. A project created by the designing computer terminal 10 as described above is registered in the workflow server 30 . At this time, the definition ID capable of uniquely specifying the project is additionally registered in the workflow server 30 . Each flow of separate duties created from the project corresponds to a process. Each of the operations forming the process, that is, an operation assigned to each person in charge, corresponds to an activity. A person in charge uses one of the manipulating computer terminals 20 to enter his or her identification information and thus log on the workflow system. Each person in charge refers to the workflow definition shown in FIG. 2( a ), thereby creating a new process, or viewing an activity assigned to him or her and executing a designated operation. An operation assigned to each person in charge corresponds to a node of the workflow definition shown in FIG. 2( a ). Upon completion by the person in charge, an operation is assigned to a next person in charge according to the paths of the workflow definition. FIG. 3 is an explanatory illustration of a general configuration of the workflow server 30 . The workflow server 30 comprises managing means: a project management program 31 , a process management program 32 , a client request management program 33 , and a user management program 34 . Moreover, the workflow server 30 also comprises storing means: a workflow definition storage 35 , a data definition storage 36 , a process storage 37 , a workflow status storage 38 , and a user information storage 39 . The above-mentioned storing means may be located anywhere in the network. The project management program 31 causes the workflow definition storage 35 and the data definition storage 36 to retain data on the workflow definitions and the data definitions of projects defined by the designer using the designing computer terminal 10 . Thus, the project management program 31 manages the retained data. The projects are respectively identified by the definition IDs. The registration of a new definition and the correction of an existing definition are managed by the project management program 31 using the definition ID. When a person in charge creates a new process, the project management program 31 creates a list of processes which the person in charge can create, by using the data stored in the workflow definition storage 35 and the data definition storage 36 . The process management program 32 manages the process created by using the definition of the project. The process has a definition ID, and a process ID for identifying a plurality of processes created by the same definition. A combination of the definition ID and the process ID manages a process. The process storage 37 stores an activity under execution, the identification of a person in charge (including an executing user) who executes or should execute the activity, and data used in the process. When an activity ends, it is assigned to a next person in charge in accordance with the above-mentioned information. The process management program 32 writes an event status on the workflow status storage 38 at each time of the occurrence of an event such as the creation of the process, the assignment of the activity, or the completion of the process. The client request management program 33 includes functions for honoring requests from persons in charge who use the manipulating computer terminals 20 . The client request management program 33 also includes functions for providing a person in charge with a list of activities that are currently assigned to the person in charge (that is, activities which an executing user is a person in charge) and for honoring a request to terminate the activity assigned to the person in charge. Moreover, the client request management program 33 provides an operating status of a process by using information remaining in the workflow status storage 38 . The user management program 34 controls the authorization of persons in charge to participate in the workflow system. Thus, the user management program 34 registers user information in the user information storage 39 and makes access to the user information as needed. When a new user attempts to log on the system by using the manipulating computer terminal 20 , the user management program 34 checks an ID and a password entered by the user. The user information storage 39 retains information such as organizations which users belong to, hierarchical structures of the organizations, relationships between the users and their superiors, and the range of the authorities of the users. Reference is made to the information to assign a person in charge to a next activity. The information to be referred to varies according to the attribute of the node of the workflow definition as shown in FIG. 2( a ), for example. Next, operation of the workflow system of the exemplary embodiment will be described. FIGS. 4( a ) and 4 ( b ) are illustrations of an example of a registered project. In this case, it is assumed that a project “definition A” and a project “definition B” are previously registered. The projects are registered as a unit of a combination of the workflow definition and the data definition, as mentioned above. In the project “definition A” shown in FIG. 4( a ), when a process using the project “definition A” is started, a person in charge of an activity corresponding to the Node A is first assigned to a person who is substituted for process data User ID. After the end of the activity, an activity corresponding to a Node B is assigned to a superior of the user who has executed the activity of the Node A. In the project “definition B” shown in FIG. 4( b ), when a process using the project “definition B” is started, the person in charge of the activity corresponding to the Node A is first assigned to the person who is substituted for the process data User ID. After the end of the activity, a person in charge of an activity of a Node C is assigned to a person who is substituted for process data Reviewer. Furthermore, a person in charge of the activity corresponding to the Node B is assigned to the superior of the user who has executed the activity of the Node A. The project “definition A” has a “definition A” as the definition ID, and the project “definition B” has a “definition B” as the definition ID, respectively. FIG. 5 is an illustration of an example of a definition created by an exemplary process defining method. First, the designer creates the definition shown in FIG. 5 by using the design tool of the designing computer terminal 10 . In this example, a project array type node 53 is provided between a typical node 51 and a typical node 52 . The Node B of the workflow definition of a project “definition C” shown in FIG. 5 and Depts of the data definition thereof correspond to the defining method to be adopted by the exemplary embodiment. The assignment of a user to the Node B is performed by referring to data in the same manner as the conventional definition, but the type of data to be referred to is defined as a project type array. A process created from another project is substituted for an element of the project type array as the value of the process. It should be noted that the process of the project “definition A” is substituted in the absence of explicit setting of the definition ID because the “definition A” is given to Depts as the prototype attribute. The above-mentioned definition means that a process indicated by the project type data Depts is substituted when the activity of the Node B is enabled, and means that a plurality of other processes are simultaneously started as the activity when the project is defined by the array. The defined project is transmitted to the workflow server 30 and is retained in the workflow definition storage 35 and the data definition storage 36 via the project management program 31 . In this case, it is assumed that a “definition C” is given and retained as the definition ID. In the workflow system of the exemplary embodiment, when a person in charge A creates a new process as a new workflow by using the project “definition C” shown in FIG. 5 , a request for a new creation is sent to the client request management program 33 of the workflow server 30 . Upon receipt of the request, the client request management program 33 requests the process management program 32 to create a new process. Then, the “definition C” and “C 001 ” are set in the process storage 37 as the definition ID and the process ID, respectively, and thus a new process is created and retained in the process storage 37 . FIG. 6 is a table of an example of a status of the process storage 37 . Since the individual processes in the process storage 37 are identified by the combination of the definition ID and the process ID, as the identification representation, “definition C: C 001 ” is described. A request to start the process is also sent to the process management program 32 via the client request management program 33 , and thus the “Node A” and the “person in charge A” are set as the activity and the executing user, respectively. In the status shown in FIG. 6 , when the person in charge A logs on the workflow system by using the manipulating computer terminal 20 , the person in charge A can determine the activity “Node A” of “definition C: C 001 ” assigned to the person in charge A as the executing user. When the person in charge A requests the system to start the activity by using the terminal, a linked program is activated and thus the person in charge A can obtain an operation screen. FIG. 7 is an illustration of an example of an operation screen for a workflow manipulation to be obtained by a person in charge. FIG. 8 is a table of data to be transmitted to the client request management program 33 . In this case, set values are determined according to data names to be substituted. The operation screen shown in FIG. 7 has data entry areas for the data structure defined by the data definition of the project “definition C”. In the example shown in FIG. 7 , text entry areas indicated by labels “Name:” and “Subject:” are linked to data names to be substituted “Name” and “Subject” of the data structure of the project “definition C”, respectively, as shown in FIG. 8 . The first column in the first row of a table indicated by a label “Route to:” shown in FIG. 7 is linked to “Depts[ 1 ]” shown in FIG. 8 , and the second column is linked to a data name “Depts[ 2 ]. UserID”. In the same manner, the first and second columns in the second row or later are linked to data names “Depts[n]” and “Depts[n]. UserID”, respectively. As described above with reference to FIG. 5 , in this example, the process of the project “definition A” is substituted for “Depts[ 1 ]” and “Depts[ 2 ]” having no explicit setting of the definition ID because the “definition A” is given as the prototype attribute. When the person in charge A determines the operation by entering information on the manipulation screen as shown in FIG. 7 , the information is transmitted to the client request management program 33 of the workflow server 30 in a form as shown in FIG. 8 . FIG. 9 is a flowchart of a procedure for evaluating data setting to be executed by the client request management program 33 . The description is given with regard to an example of data setting in the first row of “Route to:” on the entry screen shown in FIG. 7 . In this example, the substitution data name to be substituted, which is previously assigned to the entry on the entry screen is “Depts[ 1 ]. UserID”, and the input value “soumu” is taken as the set value. This is the set entry corresponding to the third row shown in FIG. 8 . First, when the client request management program 33 receives a request to set the value, an evaluation logic is called using the current process “definition C: C 001 ” as a “parent process” (step S 101 ). Then, the first data name portion of the data name to be substituted is set for “Evaluation data name” (step S 102 ). Then, an array subscript portion of the first data name of the data name to be substituted is set for “INDEX” (step S 103 ). Then, a portion of the substitution data name excluding Evaluation data name and INDEX is set for “Remaining phrase” (step S 104 ). Since the substitution data name is “Depts[ 1 ]. UserID”, “Depts”, “[ 1 ]” and “UserID” are obtained as “Evaluation data name”, “INDEX” and “Remaining phrase”, respectively. Then, a judgment is made as to whether or not the data of the evaluation data name is defined in the parent process (step S 105 ). When the data is not defined, this means that an attempt is made to set a value for data not defined by the data definition, and therefore an error is detected (step S 106 ). When the data is defined in step S 105 , data having the evaluation data name in the parent process is set for “Evaluation data” (step S 107 ). Since “Depts” is defined by the data definition of the project “definition C” of the process, the value thereof is taken as “Evaluation data”. Then, a judgment is made as to whether or not the type of the evaluation data is the project type (step S 108 ). When the type is not the project type, a set value is substituted for the INDEX element of the evaluation data (step S 109 ). When the type is the project type, a judgment is made as to whether or not the remaining phrase is blank (step S 110 ). In the above-mentioned example, the evaluation data “Depts” in step S 106 is defined as “Project [ ]” by the data definition of “definition C”, and thus it turns out that the array is the project type array. Since “UserID” is set for “Remaining phrase”, “Remaining phrase” is not blank. When “Remaining phrase” is not blank in step S 110 , a judgment is made as to whether or not “Evaluation data” indicates a process (step S 111 ). In this example, when a check is made as to whether or not “Evaluation data” indicates the process, the data of “definition C: C 001 ” shown in FIG. 6 indicates that the process is not yet indicated in this status, and thus the operation goes to a check of the prototype attribute. That is, a judgment is made as to whether or not the prototype attribute is defined for the evaluation data (step S 112 ). When the prototype attribute is not defined, this means that an attempt is made to make a direct access to internal data without setting the definition ID for the internal data of data whose prototype attribute is not defined, and therefore an error is detected (step S 115 ). In this example, the prototype attribute of the evaluation data “Depts” is defined as “definition A” by the data definition of “definition C”. Therefore, the prototype attribute is set for the definition ID, a process is created, and setting is made so as to indicate the process created by the INDEX element of the evaluation data (step S 113 ). That is, the process is created from the project whose definition ID is “definition A”, and the process having “definition A” and “A 001 ” as an identifier is retained in the process storage 37 . Moreover, “definition A: A 001 ” is set for the “INDEX” element of “Evaluation data”, that is, “Depts[ 1 ]” so as to indicate the process. Then, the process indicated by the “INDEX” element of “Evaluation data” is set for the parent process, and the remaining phrase is set for the data name to be substituted (step S 114 ). In this example, the process “definition A: A 001 ” indicated by the “INDEX” element of “Evaluation data”, that is, “Depts[ 1 ]” is set for “Parent process”, and “Remaining phrase”, that is, “UserID” is set for “Data name to be substituted”. After that, the operation jumps to step S 102 . When the evaluation data indicates the process in step S 111 , the operation goes directly to step S 114 . When further evaluation is made, “UserID” is obtained as “Evaluation data name” (step S 102 ), “” (blank character) is obtained as “INDEX” (step S 103 ), and “” (blank character) is obtained as “Remaining phrase” (step S 104 ). Since “UserID” is defined by the data definition of the project “definition A” of the process (step S 105 ), the value thereof is taken as “Evaluation data” (step S 107 ). Since the “INDEX” element of “Evaluation data”, that is, “UserID” is defined as “String” by the data definition of “definition A”, it turns out that the type is the character type, not the project type (step S 108 ). Therefore, the set value “soumu” is set for the data “UserID” of the process “definition A: A 001 ” that finally indicates whether or not the process is “Parent process” (step S 109 ). When the remaining phrase is blank in step S 110 , a judgment is made as to whether or not “Evaluation data” indicates a process (step S 116 ). When “Evaluation data” does not indicate the process, the set value is set for the definition ID, the process is created, and setting is made so as to indicate the process created by the “INDEX”, element of “Evaluation data” (step S 117 ). If the definition ID of “Evaluation data” is equal to the set value when “Evaluation data” indicates the process in step S 116 (step S 118 ), this means that an attempt is made to set a different definition ID from the already-set definition ID, and therefore an error is detected. FIG. 10 is a table of an example of a status obtained by the process storage 37 as the result of evaluation of all the data shown in FIG. 8 . In this case, the results of evaluation can be obtained according to the entries, that is, the definition ID, the process ID, the parent process, the activity, the executing user, the data, and the number of child processes for identifying the project. For example, when the person in charge A terminates the operation of the activity, a request to terminate the operation is sent to the client request management program 33 of the workflow server 30 . The client request management program 33 calls the process management program 32 , fetches the process of “definition C: C 001 ” from the process storage 37 , fetches the workflow definition of the project “definition C” from the workflow definition storage 35 , and thus makes a flow evaluation. FIG. 11 is a flowchart of a procedure of the flow evaluation of the exemplary embodiment. In the procedure of the flow evaluation, whether or not the number of child processes is equal to zero is first judged in the status of the process storage 37 shown in FIG. 10 (step S 201 ). When the number of child processes is not equal to zero, the operation of the procedure of the evaluation ends. When the number of child processes is equal to zero, an activity name is obtained (step S 202 ). At this time, whether or not the activity name is blank is judged (step S 203 ). When the activity name is not blank, the workflow definition storage 35 is searched for a path starting at the activity name (step S 204 ). Then, the presence or absence of the path starting at the activity name is judged (step S 205 ). When the path starting at the activity name is absent, an operation for completion is executed (step S 206 ) and thus the operation ends. When the path starting at the activity name is present, a flow definition is searched for a node specified as an endpoint node of the path (step S 207 ), and an executing user ID is specified in accordance with the contents of designation of the node for which the search is made (step S 208 ). When the activity name is blank in step S 203 , the workflow definition storage 35 is searched for the heading activity name (step S 209 ), and the operation goes to step S 208 . After step S 208 , the node and the specified user ID are set for the activity of the process and the operating user ID, respectively (step S 210 ). Then, whether or not another matching route is present is judged (step S 211 ). When another matching route is present, the process is copied (step S 212 ), and the operation returns to step S 207 . When another matching route is not present, the operation for the procedure of the flow evaluation ends. FIG. 12 is a flowchart of a procedure for assigning an executing user. First, the type of assignment is obtained (step S 301 ), and whether or not the type is the direct designation is judged (step S 302 ). When the type is the direct designation, a user designated by the definition is fetched (step S 303 ), and the operation for the procedure for assigning the executing user ends. When the type is not the direct designation, the procedures vary according to whether or not the type is the relationship designation (step S 304 ). When the type is the relationship designation, a designated relationship is fetched (step S 305 ). Then, a search is made for the user information by using the relationship (step S 306 ). Then, a user satisfying the relationship is obtained (step S 307 ). Then, the operation of the procedure for assigning the executing user ends. When the type is not the relationship designation in step S 304 , a judgment is made as to whether or not data is referred to (step S 308 ). When data is not referred to, the operation of the procedure for assigning the executing user ends. When data is referred to, the type of designated data is checked (step S 309 ). The following operations vary according to whether or not the data type is the project type (step S 310 ). That is, when the data type is the project type, child processes indicated by the data are obtained (step S 311 ), and the number of elements of the data (the number of child processes to be started) is substituted for the number of child processes (step S 312 ). Then, the flow evaluation is applied to all the child processes, and the process is started (step S 313 ). Then, a series of operations ends. When the data type is not the project type, a data value is fetched (step S 314 ). The data value is taken as a user (step S 315 ). Then, the operation for the procedure for assigning the executing user ends. FIG. 13 is a flowchart of a procedure for the completion operation of the exemplary embodiment. In the completion operation, first, the activity of the process is cleared (step S 401 ), and the executing user is cleared (step S 402 ). Then, a check is made as to whether or not the process is the child process having the parent process (steps S 403 and S 404 ). When the process is the child process, the count of the child processes of the parent process is decremented by one (step S 405 ), and the flow evaluation of the parent process is executed (step S 406 ). Finally, the information is deleted from the process storage 37 (step S 407 ), and the completion operation ends. When the process is not the child process, the information is deleted from the process storage 37 (step S 407 ), and the completion operation ends. FIG. 14 is a table of a status of the process storage 37 obtained by the execution of the operations shown in FIGS. 11 , 12 and 13 . The status shown in FIG. 10 is changed to the status shown in FIG. 14 by the operations shown in FIGS. 11 to 13 . In the status shown in FIG. 14 , the child process “definition A: A 001 ”, the child process “definition A: A 002 ” and the child process “definition B: C 001 ” are assigned to a person in charge who has the user ID “soumu”, a person in charge who has the user ID “keiri” and a person who has the user ID “eigyou”, respectively. In other words, the three child processes are executed in parallel. When the assigned user logs on the workflow system the user may learn of the activity which he or she is assigned to as the executing user, and the user may then execute the activity. For example, when the person in charge who has the user ID “soumu” terminates the activity, the process “definition A: A 001 ” is assigned to his or her superior. FIG. 15 is an illustration of the whole process flow of the above-mentioned examples. In the process flow, in the project “definition C” shown in FIG. 5 , the activity of the Node B is enabled, and the processes are substituted by the processes indicated by the project type data Depts[ 1 ] to Depts[ 3 ]. In other words, a parallel route formed of two routes of the definition A and a route of the definition B is multiplexed and treated as one node, and thus a kind of node 54 formed of three sub-routes can be executed between the typical nodes 51 and 52 . FIG. 16 shows the case where other data is designated as the data of “Route to:” shown in FIG. 7 . As in the case described with reference to FIG. 8 , the data shown in FIG. 16 is transmitted to the client request management program 33 . In this case, Depts[ 1 ] to Depts[ 4 ] are treated as the project array type data. Depts[ 1 ] and Depts[ 2 ] are set as “definition B”, Depts[ 3 ] and Depts[ 4 ] are set as “definition A”, and Depts[ 1 ]. UserID to Depts[ 4 ]. UserID are set as User 1 to User 4 . FIG. 17 is an illustration of the whole process flow in the case where the data shown in FIG. 16 is designated as “Route to:”. In the project “definition C” shown in FIG. 5 , the activity of the Node B is enabled, and the processes are substituted by the processes indicated by the project type data Depts[ 1 ] to Depts[ 4 ]. In other words, a parallel route formed of two routes of the definition A and two routes of the definition B are multiplexed and treated as one node, and thus a kind of node 55 formed of four sub-routes can be executed between the typical nodes 51 and 52 . In the exemplary embodiment, the above operations are performed so that the project type and the array thereof may be defined as data that can be defined by the data definition. Moreover, the definition ID of the previously-designated project, which is called the prototype attribute, may be designated as the attribute of the project type data. When a process is created, a data set is created in accordance with the data definition of a project in which the process is defined, and the data set is stored in the process storage 37 . The value of the data created as mentioned above can be set on the screen linked to each node. The data defined as the project type has the definition ID added thereto as described above. When the definition ID of the project is designated, a new data set is created in accordance with the data definition of the designated project. After that, the new data can be set and referred to. Even if the definition ID of the project is not particularly designated, the definition ID is set for the prototype attribute, whereby the data set can be automatically created at the time when the data is referred to or set for the first time in accordance with the prototype attribute, that is, the data definition of the project. Therefore, it is not necessary to explicitly designate the definition ID. When data is the array data, as many definitions ID of the projects as necessary elements are designated, whereby data of a plurality of projects can be treated as one data. Also when the prototype attribute of the array data is set, the data set is automatically created for the array elements at the time when a value is referred to or set for the first time. Immediately after the creation of the process or after the end of the activity, a node to be enabled next is found in accordance with the workflow definition. When a person in charge is assigned to the node to be enabled, an operation is assigned to the person in charge. When the node is defined so as to refer to data, a person in charge is identified by using a value indicated by the data, whereby the person in charge assigns to an operation. When the node is defined so as to refer to the project type data, a child process is created from another workflow definition indicated by the data, and thus the child process itself is taken as the activity of the node. At this time, an actual person in charge of the operation can evaluate and determine the head node of the child process. Furthermore, when the node stores the project type data as the array, child processes are created for all elements of the array, and thus the child processes themselves can be taken as the activity of the node. In a group of child processes created by referring to the array, the activity of the node of the parent process ends when all the child processes are completed. As described above, according to the exemplary embodiment, the route definition designates a project variable as the node, whereby a sub-route can be dynamically changed. Moreover, an array type variable is designated as the project variable, whereby a synchronous type parallel route can be multiplexed and treated as one node. In other words, since a substantial route definition designates only the project variable as the node, user operation can be greatly simplified and therefore adaptation can be easily made to a change in organizations, or the like. Moreover, a person in charge, that is, a slip submitter, only designates on a slip the departments which should give an approval, thereby facilitating designing a slip or the like for use in a circular to be sent around for approval of a decision, which can concurrently ask for approval of a plurality of departments. Note that the programs for executing the workflow described by referring to the embodiment are stored in a storage medium that is commercially available. A typical storage medium is a medium such as a CD-ROM storing software for executing the processing of the programs. In the case where the program is downloaded through the Internet or the like, it is the case, needless to say, that the storage media also include a medium of a program transmitting apparatus and a storage medium such as a hard disk storing the downloaded program. The programs stored in the above-mentioned storage media can be read by, for example, a CD-ROM driver functioning as inputting means. For example, the program transmitting apparatus may satisfactorily comprise interface means (transmitting means) which can supply a program capable of realizing the embodiment in response to a download request from a computer terminal connected to the Internet. As described above, according to the present invention, the design of a complicated workflow can be realized by a simple definition. Although a preferred embodiment of the present invention has been described in detail, it should be understood that various changes, substitutions and alternations can be made therein without departing from spirit and scope of the inventions as defined by the appended claims.

A workflow system for a paperless office, an information processing apparatus, a method for simply defining a complicated workflow, for example, a workflow such as a circulation among a plurality of departments where the circulation route varies in each department, and a storage medium. A workflow system comprises: a manipulating computer terminal for executing a workflow between persons in charge, a computer terminal for designing the workflow by designating project variables for multiplexing a plurality of paths for nodes, each indicating a unit of operation to be handled; and a workflow server for managing the designed workflow and accessing the manipulating computer terminals in accordance with activities that indicate operations assigned to the nodes.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Imidazolines are a family of compounds based on a five-membered ring structure containing two nitrogen atoms and a double bond. The ring is numbered in such fashion that the nitrogens carry the lowest combinations of numbers: ##STR2## Commercially, imidazolines are made from the reaction of fatty acid, fatty alkyl (e.g. methyl) esters, or fatty triglycerides with a polyamine such as, diethylenetriamine (DETA), aminoethylethanolamine (AEEA), ethylenediamine (EDA), or triethylenetetramine (TETA). The intermediate amidoamine is dehydrated to yield the cyclic imidazoline product. While the manufacture of imidazolines on a commercial scale is relatively easy, the product is not easy to store or use without hydrolysis. Numerous authors have commented on the instability of the imidazoline molecule. Linfield, JAOCS, 61, No. 2 (1984), p 439, states that the imidazolines are unstable and in the presence of water revert to the amidoamine starting material by standing overnight at room temperature. Wechsler, et al., U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,269,730 and 4,189,593, caution that during the reduced pressure dehydration to make the imidazoline, care must be taken to avoid any contact between the reactant and air which would cause rapid and severe darkening of the product. Butler, et al., J. Chem. Res., (5), 84 (1981) report decomposition of the imidazoline ring under atmospheric conditions in 2-9 days provided the compound contains a cis-olefin system. Bristline, et al., JAOCS, 60, No. 4 (1983), p 823, showed that the imidazoline ring content in a system decreased from 38% to 6% imidazoline in 72 hours with the addition of 2% H 2 O (half-life of 24 hours). Even in a sealed container, these authors reported 5-8% loss in ring content over 18 months. Their conclusion was that, "When used as intermediates, imidazolines should be reacted promptly and prolonged storage should be avoided". Bristline, et al., JAOCS, 60, (1983), p 1676, showed that, "The imidazoline is hydrolyzed quantitatively to the diamide in the presence of water in ca. four days at room temperature." This well-documented hydrolytic instability has inhibited the commercialization of imidazolines for aqueous applications. When imidazolines are protonated or quaternized, however, their hydrolytic stability is dramatically increased as is their water compatibility. Commercial producers, then, often manufacture the protonated or quaternized derivatives of imidazolines. Imidazolone-derived amphoterics are known to be excellent foamers and good cleaners, yet are substances of low toxicity possessing properties of low-irritancy to both skin and eye. Hunting, "Amphoteric Surfactants", Cosmetics & Toiletries, 95, November, 1980, p 95, and references cited therein, reports that these amphoterics also are bacteriostatic. Certain fatty imidazoline derivatives are liquid material at ambient temperature. These materials are derived from highly unsaturated fatty acid sources such as, for example, tall oil, soya oil, and oleic acid. These types of imidazolines usually are used in applications where light color is not required as they tend toward darker colors due to the characteristics of the sources for unsaturated fatty acids and oils. Hydrogenated fatty acids and esters typically yield light colored products, but also produce higher melting point materials when converted to imidazolines. Despite the foregoing, commonly-assigned application U.S. Ser. No. 07/155,768, filed Feb. 16, 1988, discloses an imidazoline product which is light-colored and color-stabilized. Such product is formed by pre-treating the polyamine reactant with an effective amount of a hydride prior to the amide-forming reaction with a fatty acid or ester. The resulting stabilized imidazoline product is reported to be storable as a liquid under conventional liquid imidazoline-storage conditions for a sufficient time to permit the product to be shipped from the manufacturing site to another location whereat the imidazoline product is to be used. This time period is reported to range from a few days to two weeks or so. Despite this significant advance in the handling and storage of liquid imidazolines, further extension of shelf life is desirable. BROAD STATEMENT OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed to an imidazoline product which can be stored in ordinary containers for several months and remain quite stable for use. Broadly, the present invention comprises a stable, free-flowing particulate imidazoline product of the structure ##STR3## where R 1 and R 2 independently are a saturated C 12 -C 22 alkyl group. The imidazoline product is made by condensing and cyclizing a fatty acid or ester and a polyamine, wherein the molten, cyclized, solvent-free product is rapidly cooled to particulate form. The preferred rapid cooling process comprises prilling or spray cooling utilizing a prilling or cooling tower and a spinning disk, for example. No special precautions with respect to humidity control or oxygen control need be provided during this atomization operation. The method of forming the stable, free-flowing particulate imidazoline product forms yet another aspect of the present invention. Advantages of the present invention include the ability to provide an imidazoline product in a convenient form which is easy to store and use. Another advantage is an imidazoline product which is remarkably stable in the presence of atmospheric moisture and atmospheric oxygen. Yet another advantage is an imidazoline product which can be converted into a stable, easily-handleable form without taking special precautions during the particulate-forming operation. These and other advantages will be easily apparent to those skilled in the art based upon the disclosure contained herein. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Imidazolines are manufactured, stored, and transported in the substantial absence of oxygen for minimizing color degradation of the product. Good quality nitrogen can contain up to 2% oxygen while liquid nitrogen normally contains about 10 ppm oxygen or thereabouts. Even using liquid nitrogen as the source for the gas blanket which fills the headspace in the container, the imidazoline liquid product will lose color over time. Thus, little commercial use of imidazolines have been made where a light colored product is necessary. It is not unusual for the manufacturing and the use sites to be located quite a distance apart, thus necessitating transportation and storage times of a few days to a few weeks being required of the imidazoline product. By providing a particulate imidazoline product not prone to color degradation, the formulator will be presented a lighter colored product, thus enabling the formulator to dye the final formulation to a pleasing appearance. Moroever, the imidazoline product can be converted into a variety of final forms including, for example, an amine salt in situ when dispersed in acid aqueous solutions in the formulation of fabric softener dispersions. The imidazoline product, not being a quaternary ammonium compound, can be added to anionic compounds without fear of complexing, thus offering the opportunity to develope unique detergency/softening/anti-static properties not obtained when quaternary ammonium compounds are used, for example, in laundry products where anionic/cationic complexes can form. Unexpectedly, it was discovered that when the molten, cyclized, solvent-free imidazoline product was rapidly cooled and provided in particulate form, that it could be stored and handled without the necessity of extraordinary precaution precluding admission of atmospheric oxygen and/or atmospheric moisture, yet maintain its free-flowing particulate nature without apparent loss of imidazoline content which would render the product unsuitable for its intended uses. Even the particulate-forming operation, such as a spray chilling operation, can be conducted under ordinary conditions wherein prevailing environmental air can be used in the tower wherein the particulates are formed. The product has been stored in 2,000 pound sacks with samples taken from the bottom over a six month period. These samples revealed that the product retained its free-flowing nature with virtually no imidazoline content lost. Truly, such results are remarkable. The reasons for such stability of the product are not fully understood presently. A variety of theories can be postulated as to why the oxygen and moisture sensitive imidazoline product as reported in the literature appears to be substantially unaffected by oxygen and water when produced and provided in the novel form disclosed herein. Since none of these theories have been fully evaluated, they will not be speculated upon herein. It is important only that the stable, free-flowing nature of the imidazoline particulate product can be produced economically and reliably at commercial scale operations to produce a product possessing the characteristics disclosed herein. The first step in forming the novel particulate imidazoline product of the present invention comprises the reaction of a fatty acid or fatty acid ester reactant with a polyamine under amide-forming reaction conditions. The polyamine can be hydride pretreated in accordance with U.S. Ser. No. 07/155,768, discussed above, or the resulting imidazoline liquid product can be hydride treated as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 3,468,904. Regardless of whether the hydride stabilization step is practiced, the fatty acid or ester reactant and polyamine are reacted under amide-forming conditions which comprehend the temperature in excess of 100° C. and usually in the range of about 125° to 300° C. for reaction times ranging from about 4 to 12 hours. After the amide intermediate has formed, application vacuum with resultant water distillation from the reaction mixture results in the formation of the cyclic imidazoline product. It appears important in the formation of the stable particulate imidazoline product that the fluent cyclic imidazoline product as-made is not cooled, but is maintained in its liquid, fluent state at elevated temperature and admitted directly into a particulate-forming operation. That is, since the imidazoline product is solid at room temperature, the as-made molten imidazoline product should not be cooled to solidification and reheated for forming the particulates of the present invention unless loss of imidazolline content can be tolerated. Also, the imidazoline product should not be dispersed in solvent for maintaining its fluidity for admission to a particulate forming operation. A wide variety of techniques are known in the art for converting molten, fluent material to particulate form. The use of spray chilling involving spray nozzles, spinning disks, spinning bells, and like techniques are well known in the art. The particle size range desirably is between about 50 and 150 microns in average particle size. Alternatively, the molten, fluent imidazoline product can be admitted onto chilled rolls for rapidly forming solid sheets of the imidazoline product which then are subjected to an attrition operation for forming imidazoline particulates. Of course, the type and degree of milling will determine the final particle size of the imidazoline product. Other techniques may be envisioned for rapidly solidifying the molten imidazoline for rapidly forming particulates thereof. As noted above, during these operations, normal handling techniques for the equipment used can be maintained. That is, as the Examples will demonstrate with respect to use of a chilling tower and spinning disk, the prevailing atmospheric conditions, including relative humidity, in the plant were not altered in the spray chilling operation. The lack of need for special handling techniques contributes to the overall economies and efficiencies of the process. With respect to imidazolines, the literature is replete in descriptions of suitable polyamines and suitable fatty acids or esters thereof useful in imidazoline formation. Briefly, fatty acids typically are monobasic aliphatic acids containing from about 8 to 30 carbon atoms and more often from about 12 to 22 carbon atoms. Typically, fatty acids are derived from natural triglyceride sources, e.g. vegetable oils, though they may be derived from animal, fish, or nut oil, or they may be synthetic in nature. Esters of such fatty acids also can be used as is well known in the art. Briefly, polyamines useful in making imidazolines include ethylene diamine, diethylene, triamine, triethylene tetramine, aminoethylethanol amine, hydroxyethyl diethylene triamine, and the like and mixtures thereof. The foregoing list of fatty acids and polyamines merely is exemplary of the broad nature of imidazolines which can be stabilized in accordance with the precepts of the present invention. Anti-oxidants and/or sequestrants can be used in the stabilized imidazoline liquid product as is necessary, desirable, or convenient in conventional fashion. Preferred imidazolines for use in the invention include, for example, 1-[hydrogenated tallow amido ethyl],2-hydrogenated tallow imidazoline (also the fractionated tallow imidazoline) and 1-[coco amido ethyl],2-coco imidazoline. The following example shows how the present invention has been practiced but should not be construed as limiting. In this application, all percentages and proportions are by weight unless otherwise expressly indicated. Also, all citations disclosed herein are expressly incorporated herein by reference. EXAMPLE 1-[hydrogenated tallow amido ethyl],2-hydrogenated tallow imidazoline made at a commercial plant operating in this country was spray congealed in an industrial spray tower. The imidazoline feedstock had a color of 3 expressed in Gardner units. The feedstock was fed to the spray chiller at the rate of about 70 pounds per minute. The temperature/humidity in the spray chiller was the ambient air prevailing at the plant. Test runs were conducted during various seasonal time periods, including July, with no special provision being made for dehumidifying the air in the chiller nor utilizing a nitrogen atmosphere. The powdered imidazoline product obtained from the spray chiller had a particle size of about 100 microns and was in free-flowing particulate form. A test melt of the product indicated a Gardner color of 4, a loss of only one unit from the feedstock. This material was stored in 2,000 pound sacks with samples taken from the bottom over a six month period. These samples revealed that the product retained its free-flowing nature. Using U.V. spectroscopy, the feedstock was shown to have a ring content of about 96%. This is the measure of the degree of cyclyzation of the imidazoline feedstock. After spraying, this spectroscopy procedure revealed that the ring content still was around 90%, thus indicating that very little degradation of the product, both in terms of color and ring content, occurred during the prilling operation.

Disclosed is a stable, free-flowing particulate imidazoline product of the structure: ##STR1## where R 1 and R 2 independently are a saturated C 12 -C 22 alkyl group. The product is made by condensing and cyclyzing a fatty acid or ester and a polyamine wherein the molten, cyclyzed, solvent-free product is rapidly cooled to a particulate form.

REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This is a continuation of application Ser. No. 09/073,757 filed May 6, 1998, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,075,441, which is a continuation of application Ser. No. 08/708,617 filed Sep. 5, 1996, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,801,628. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates generally to the field of controlling and tracking access to various types of objects, and in its most preferred embodiments, to integrating an electronic identification code and tracking system to continually inventory a plurality of objects. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Many objects have intrinsic value of their own or have value because they enable access to other valuable objects. For instance, jewelry and coins have intrinsic value due to the value of their precious stones or metals, automobiles have intrinsic value due to their ability to provide transportation, and files of business information have intrinsic value due to the content of the information contained within the files. Due to their intrinsic value and the potential for theft or misuse, jewelry, coins, and files are often kept in lockable storage cases or cabinets, while automobiles have their own door, trunk, and ignition locks. Because keys to the locks enable access to such objects, the keys, themselves, have value as well. Other objects may be inherently dangerous or create legal liability because unauthorized use of such an object can create a safety hazard for others. For instance, explosives and many medicines are inherently dangerous if used or dispensed improperly by untrained individuals. Also, unauthorized use or copying of keys to apartments or hotel rooms can enable theft of personal valuables and can create personal safety hazards to tenants and guests. Regardless of the source of an object's value, its dangerous nature, or its potential for creating legal liability, business owners, landlords, and hotel proprietors have sought, over the years, to restrict access to the above-described objects, and others, by limiting their access to only those individuals who require access to the objects in order to perform their job functions. Typically, access has been restricted by first placing the objects in a lockable container for which a limited number of keys exist. Then, control over the removal and re-insertion of an object stored in the container has been maintained by employing manual procedural methods such as issuing keys for the container to only select individuals (i.e., usually managers or supervisors), requiring an employee or maintenance worker to request that a manager or supervisor provide access to the container for removal and/or re-insertion of objects from/to the container, and requiring the employee or worker to sign for any object removed and/or re-inserted from/to the container. For example, many automobile dealers place the keys to vehicles on their lot inside a locked box. When a potential customer desires to take a vehicle on a test drive, the customer's salesperson requests that a manager open the box so that the salesperson can remove the keys to the vehicle from the locked box. Similarly, many apartment landlords store the keys to tenants' units in a locked container and require maintenance workers to request use of a key when it is necessary for them to enter a tenant's unit to perform various maintenance tasks. Likewise, many hospitals provide only nursing supervisors with a key to a medicine cabinet and require other nurses to request that the supervisor open the cabinet to enable the removal of medicine for a patient. Unfortunately, such manual apparatus and methods have met with limited success since they typically rely heavily on the thoroughness of humans to consistently follow designated procedures. Also, such systems are often fraught with the potential for misuse and abuse due to the dishonesty of some individuals and the inability of the systems themselves to detect possible misuse and abuse. For instance, once a salesperson or maintenance worker gains access to a key, the salesperson or worker may keep the key out of the locked container until the next day unless a manager or landlord reviews a log at the end of the day to determine which, if any, keys have not been returned to the locked container. By keeping the key overnight, a salesperson or cohort may steal a car (or items from a car) or a worker may return to an apartment complex during the night to burglarize a unit and, potentially, cause physical harm to a tenant. Additionally, by keeping a key out of the locked container for a longer period of time than necessary without the knowledge of a manager or landlord, the key may be copied or become lost by the salesperson or maintenance worker. The limited success and inherent problems of manual systems suggest the need for a system which automatically controls access to and tracks the use of various types of objects. At least one automatic system has been developed and used in the past. The system employed a lockable container for storing objects which were each attached to a unique assembly identified by a conventional bar-code symbol printed on a tongue of the assembly. The container incorporated an enclosure and a drawer which, after unlocking, could be slidably removed or inserted into the enclosure, thereby creating relative movement between the drawer and a bar-code scanner mounted to the enclosure. When stored in the container, the tongue of each assembly extended downward through an aperture in a top panel of the drawer to enable reading of the bar-code for each assembly by the bar-code scanner whenever the drawer was moved relative to the enclosure. Because the bar-code scanner required relative movement between the drawer and the enclosure to function, the bar-codes associated with each object could only be read if the drawer was opened or closed. Therefore, the system had no way of detecting the presence or absence of an object unless the drawer was opened or closed, for example, by a manager or landlord. Thus, the system could not accurately track the amount of time that an object was not present in the container, nor could it determine who actually had possession of the object. Also, because the assemblies were not restrained and were therefore, prone to variable, random movement relative to the drawer and enclosure, misreads by the bar-code scanner were a continual problem requiring repeated openings and closings of the drawer to effect accurate reading of all of the bar-codes on the present assemblies. Other problems, including dust and dirt present on the bar-codes, also caused misreads by the bar-code scanner. Additionally, because the bar-codes were visible on the assemblies, they could be easily copied by an individual for the creation of substitute objects designed to “fool”,the system, thereby compromising the security supposedly provided by the system. There is a need, therefore, in the industry for a system which controls access to and tracks the use of objects of various types which address these and other related, and unrelated, problems. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Briefly described, the present invention includes an inventoriable-object control and tracking system which limits access to an inventoriable-object, tracks activities performed related to the object, and automatically detects the absence of the object for an inordinate amount of time. More particularly, the present invention includes an inventory control and tracking system which couples an electronic device, having a unique identification code, to an inventoriable-object and interfaces the device to a remote controller through a novelly-designed interface to enable periodic, consistent, and accurate identification of the object's presence or absence. In the preferred embodiments of the apparatus of the present invention, each of a plurality of inventoriable objects is coupled to an object identification assembly having an electronic device mounted to an interface member of the assembly. The electronic device stores a unique identification code which is invisible to the eye, but electronically readable upon supply of a proper sequence of signals to the electronic device. By associating each inventoriable object with a different electronic device and, hence, a different identification code, the system provides a unique, trackable identification code for each object. Each identification assembly is receivable by a connector comprised of opposed, self-aligning, spring contacts having separate portions which independently deflect to insure and maintain consistent electrical interaction of the electronic device and connector. Each connector is one of a plurality of connectors which are electrically attached to a backplane with one contact of each connector being electrically connected to a positive data line and the other contact of each connector being electrically connected .to a negative return line. The positive-connected contacts are arranged on the backplane in columns, while the negative-connected contacts are arranged on the backplane in rows, thereby defining a row and column matrix arrangement of connectors in which each connector has an associated row and column address and is independently, electrically-addressable from the other connectors of the matrix arrangement. The plurality of connectors and backplane are offset relative to panel which defines a polarized slot or opening aligned with each connector (the combination of a slot, or opening, and a connector being referred to herein as a receptacle) for receipt of an object identification assembly. The polarized design of each slot and opening enables receipt of an object identification assembly in only one orientation, thereby insuring that an identification assembly is always properly oriented for receipt by a connector. The rows and columns of contacts are, in accordance with the preferred embodiments of the present invention, electrically coupled to a local controller by flexible cabling which enables relative motion between the backplane and the local controller should such relative motion be necessary in a particular embodiment. The local controller includes an electrically addressable switch which controls the supply of electrical power to most of the electronic components of the local controller. The addressable switch has a unique address and must electronically receive its address before it allows the supply of electrical power to the remaining electronic components of the local controller, thereby minimizing the opportunity for unauthorized operation of the local controller. The local controller also includes row and column address decoding and access circuitry which enables the unique identification of and independent interaction between a remote controller and each of the plurality of connectors to allow reading of the identification code of an electronic device by the remote controller when the electronic device resides in a connector. The remote controller connects electrically to and communicates with the local controller, in a bidirectional manner, using a parallel computer interface commonly employed for communication between computers and printers. Signals, including output data from the electrical devices, are transferred through the parallel interface in a serial protocol instead of the parallel protocol typically employed for communication between most computers and printers. The remote controller includes a central processing unit and a storage device to enable receipt and storage of data from the local controller which is related to the presence or absence of an object identification assembly and, hence, an object from the backplane. In accordance with the first preferred embodiment of the present invention, a backplane and top panel are rigidly positioned within a cavity of a drawer which is slidably mounted within a surrounding enclosure. The top panel is oriented to enable user access for the insertion and removal of object identification assemblies when the drawer is extended in an open position from within the enclosure. A flexible cable attaches electrically to the rear of the backplane and extends forward beneath the backplane where it connects to a local controller which is mounted to the enclosure. The flexing and routing of the cable enable motion of the drawer relative to the local controller without binding of the cable. The local controller connects electrically to a face plate connector, substantially similar to those mounted to the backplane, which resides in a face plate of the drawer. The face plate connector is accessible from the front of the drawer at all times for receipt of a personal identification assembly (i.e., an object identification assembly without a coupled inventoriable-object for use by a user to provide a unique identification code for the user) from a user. The local controller also connects to an electrically-actuated lock which is located at the rear of the enclosure cavity for interaction with and securing of the drawer when the drawer is oriented in a closed position within the enclosure and for release of the drawer from the enclosure in response to appropriate signals communicated to the local controller from a remote controller. A drawer switch, also connected to the local controller, is positioned to contact the drawer when the drawer is positioned completely within the enclosure and to indicate the position of the drawer (i.e., open or closed) to the remote controller. The local controller is additionally connected, via parallel ribbon cabling, to a pair of pass-through parallel port connectors (also referred to herein as data communication interfaces) mounted to and extending through the rear of the enclosure. One of the pass-through parallel port connectors receives a parallel cable extending to the enclosure from a parallel port of the remote controller, while the other pass-through parallel port connector receives a parallel cable extending from the enclosure to a printer. The parallel cable (also referred to herein as a communication link) extending between the enclosure and remote controller defines a plurality of parallel communication paths which enable the remote controller to communicate with the local controller and the various components connected to or a part of the local controller including, for example, the connectors, the addressable switch, the face plate connector, the electrically-actuated lock, and the drawer switch. In an alternate embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention, multiple enclosures are daisy-chainable together using parallel cables, serving as data communication links, which extend between the pass-through parallel ports (or data communication interfaces) of each enclosure, thereby causing the parallel ports and cables to function as a parallel bus. The enclosures of this alternate embodiment are substantially similar to the enclosure of the first preferred embodiment and, therefore, include components and elements substantially similar to those of the enclosure of the first preferred embodiment. For example, the local controller of each enclosure of the alternate embodiment includes an addressable switch having a unique address which enables an addressable switch and, hence, its local controller to be uniquely selected from those of other enclosures for operation by and communication with a remote controller. According to a second preferred embodiment of the present invention, each inventoriable-object of a first plurality of inventoriable-objects (for example, a vehicle ignition key) is coupled to an object identification assembly of a first plurality of object identification assemblies and each inventoriable-object of a second plurality of inventoriable-objects (different than those of the first plurality of inventoriable-objects and including, for example, a vehicle license plate) is coupled to an object identification assembly of a second plurality of object identification assemblies (different than those of the first plurality of object identification assemblies). A first backplane and a first plurality of connectors (substantially similar to those of the first preferred embodiment), attached to the first backplane and defining a row and column matrix arrangement of connectors, are positioned within a cavity of a drawer which is slidably mounted within a surrounding enclosure. The first backplane and first plurality of connectors reside near the front of the drawer's cavity for receipt of object identification assemblies of the first plurality of object identification assemblies. A second backplane and a second plurality of connectors (substantially similar to those of the first preferred embodiment), attached to the second backplane and defining a row and column matrix arrangement having a single row and multiple columns of connectors, are positioned near the rear of the drawer's cavity and receive object identification assemblies of the second plurality of object identification assemblies. The second plurality of connectors and second backplane are offset from a panel having polarized openings which are each aligned with a connector of the second plurality of connectors. Flexible cables connect the first and second pluralities of connectors to a local controller and, hence, to a remote controller which are substantially similar in structure and function to the local and remote controllers of the first preferred embodiment of the present invention. In accordance with preferred methods of the present invention, the above-described connectors receive a plurality of object identification assemblies with each connector receiving one object identification assembly which extends through an aligned, polarized slot or opening in a panel. The remote controller executes a plurality of software routines which communicate bi-directionally and serially with the local controller, via the data communication links and interfaces, to control access to and tracking of the plurality (or pluralities) of object identification assemblies received by the backplane (or backplanes). The software routines provide a plurality of functions including for example, but not limited to: addressing/selecting a local controller's addressable switch to cause the local controller to become active (i.e., power up the remainder of its electronic components); reading the unique identification code stored by an electronic device of a personal identification assembly which is received by a face plate connector of an enclosure's drawer; signaling a local controller; and its electrically-actuated lock, to release its drawer from its enclosure; requesting a local controller to return data which indicates the current position of its connected drawer switch and, hence, the position of a drawer; and, causing a local controller, after being activated, to uniquely address and read the identification code of the electronic device of each object identification assembly present in a connector of a row and column matrix of connectors coupled to the local controller. When directed by a remote controller to uniquely address and read the identification codes of the present electronic devices, a local controller outputs each identification code to the remote controller for further processing, including, for instance, logging of all removals and insertions (or replacements) of object identification assemblies (and, hence, inventoriable-objects), determination of the current location (slot or opening, and drawer) of each object identification assembly, and periodic checking to determine whether or not an object identification assembly is absent from the connectors of a backplane and if so, whether or not the object identification assembly has been absent for an inordinate amount of time. Note that the remote controller may request that a local controller read and output the identification codes of any electronic devices present in a connector matrix at any time (whether or not its associated drawer is open, partially open, or closed relative to its enclosure) and without requiring any movement, relative or absolute, of the inventoriable-objects, their coupled object identification assemblies, or their corresponding connectors, drawers, or enclosures. According to the preferred method of the present invention, a face plate connector of a drawer receives a personal identification assembly in response to a prompt issued to a user and a remote controller, functioning in cooperation with the drawer's local controller, reads the identification code stored by the electronic device of the personal identification assembly. Upon receiving a password from the user attempting to gain access to the system and verifying that the password is valid for the personal identification assembly received by the face plate connector, the remote controller prompts the user to identify the type of activity that the user wishes to perform on an object identification assembly (for example, removal of an object identification assembly from a drawer or insertion of an object identification assembly into a drawer). If the user indicates that lie wishes to remove an object identification assembly from an enclosure, the remote controller prompts for and receives the identity of an object desired by a user for removal and then determines which enclosure, of a plurality of enclosures (if more than one enclosure is present in the system), stores the object identification assembly which is coupled to the object desired by the user. The remote controller next displays the slot or opening location of the object identification assembly (and, hence, the location of the desired object) relative to the other slots and/or openings in the enclosure's drawer on a display screen shown by the system's video monitor and causes the enclosure's drawer electrically-actuated lock to be released by signaling the enclosure's local controller to operate the lock mechanism. If, on the other hand, the user indicates that he wishes to insert (or return) an object identification assembly into an enclosure and if the system is configured to track multiple objects, the remote controller prompts for and receives input from the user which identifies the type of object to be received by a drawer. The remote controller then determines the location of one or more empty slots or openings in an enclosure, suitable for the type of object to be received, and displays the locations on a display screen shown on the system's video monitor. The remote controller subsequently signals the appropriate local controller, via a data communication link and interface, to cause the electrically-actuated lock of the corresponding enclosure to operate, thereby releasing the enclosure's drawer for insertion of the object by the user. The remote controller, acting in conjunction with the local controller and in accordance with the preferred method of the present invention, repeatedly scans the backplane connectors to identify which object identification assemblies have been removed or replaced and logs the identification code of the removed or replaced assemblies along with the date/time, location of the assemblies, and the identification code read from the personal identification assembly received by the face plate connector (i.e., thereby identifying the user accessing the drawer). The remote controller also monitors the drawer switch to determine whether or not the drawer has been open for an excessive amount of time. If so, the remote controller sounds an alarm to alert someone to close the drawer. If not, the remote controller continues to scan the backplane connectors and continues to monitor the drawer switch until the remote controller detects that the drawer has been closed. Once the drawer is closed, the remote controller performs a final scan of the backplane connectors to identify and log object identification assemblies which are present in the drawer. The remote controller then processes the identification codes of the present object identification assemblies to make a final determination of which assemblies have been removed or inserted while the drawer was open, a determination as to which user performed the removal or insertion, and a determination of the date and time which identifies when the assemblies were removed from or inserted into the drawer. The remote controller subsequently determines whether or not any assemblies have been removed from the system for an excessive amount of time and, if so, issues an alarm to call attention to the missing assemblies. Accordingly, an object of the present invention is to control access to and monitor activities related to a plurality of inventoriable-objects. Another object of the present invention is to detect the presence or absence of an object. Still another object of the present invention is to detect the presence or absence of an object without movement of the object or an interface member coupled to the object. Still another object of the present invention is to detect the presence or absence of an object without movement of the object, or an interface member coupled to the object, relative to another component. Still another object of the present invention is to detect the presence or absence of an object at any time. Still another object of the present invention is to detect the presence or absence of an object with the object's receiver in any position or orientation. Still another object of the present invention is to rapidly locate a particular object. Still another object of the present invention is to display the location of a particular object. Still another object of the present invention is to suggest a storage location for the return of an object. Still another object of the present invention is to log the removal and replacement of objects by the object's identification code, the user's identification code, and the date/time of removal and replacement. Still another object of the present invention is to identify objects which have been removed for an excessive period of time. Still another object of the present invention is to uniquely identify an object with an identification code which is difficult to copy. Still another object of the present invention is to attach an object to an assembly which enables tracking of the object. Still another object of the present invention is to interface an electronic device, having a unique identification code, and a connector to enable accurate, repeatable reading of the identification code from the electronic device. Still another object of the present invention is to form a connector, for receipt of an electronic device, from opposed contacts having portions which deflect independently to insure electrical connection with the electronic device. Still another object of the present invention is to form a row and column matrix of contacts from a plurality of two-contact connectors by electrically connecting a first contact of each connector to a row of the matrix and a second contact of each connector to a column of the matrix. Still another object of the present invention is to individually address each connector to determine whether or not an identification assembly and, hence, an object is present. Still another object of the present invention is to retrieve the identification code from each of a plurality of identification assemblies. Still another object of the present invention is to enable bidirectional, serial communication between a remote controller and an identification assembly using a parallel communication path. Still another object of the present invention is to control access to a plurality of objects by storing them in an enclosure and controlling access to the enclosure. Still another object of the present invention is to identify a user who removes or replaces an object from the enclosure. Still another object of the present invention is to supply a unique address to a local controller in order to activate and enable operation of the local controller. Still another object of the present invention is to determine whether or not a drawer resides fully within an enclosure. Still another object of the present invention is to release a drawer from an enclosure by operating an electrically-actuated lock. Still another object of the present invention is to enable daisy-chaining of a plurality of enclosures in a parallel bus arrangement. Other objects, features, and advantages of the present invention will become apparent upon reading and understanding the present specification when taken in conjunction with the appended drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a front, perspective, pictorial representation of an inventoriable-object control and tracking system in accordance with the first preferred embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2 is a back, schematic view of the inventoriable-object control and tracking system of FIG. 1 . FIG. 3 is a front, perspective, pictorial representation of an inventoriable-object control and tracking system in accordance with an alternate embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 4 is an isolated, front, perspective, schematic view of an enclosure and drawer of the inventoriable-object control and tracking system of FIG. 1 . FIG. 5 is an isolated, top, plan view of an assembly retaining structure of the drawer of FIG. 4 . FIG. 6 is an isolated, top, plan view of a slot of the assembly retaining structure of FIG. 5 . FIG. 7 is a partial, right side view of the assembly retaining structure of FIG. 5 . FIG. 8 is a partial, front view of the assembly retaining structure of FIG. 5 . FIG. 9 is an isolated, front view of a contact of the assembly retaining structure of FIG. 7 and 8. FIG. 10 is a side view of the contact of FIG. 9 . FIG. 11 is a bottom, plan view of the contact of FIG. 9 . FIG. 12 is an isolated, front view of an identification assembly in accordance with the first preferred embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 13 is an isolated, side view of the identification assembly of FIG. 12 . FIG. 14 is a front view of the electronic device of FIG. 12 . FIG. 15 is a side view of the electronic device of FIG. 14 . FIG. 16 is a top, plan, schematic view of the backplane of the assembly retaining structure of FIGS. 7 and 8. FIG. 17 is a side, pictorial view of the enclosure and drawer of FIG. 4, where the drawer is fully-inserted into the enclosure. FIG. 18 is an isolated, front view of a utility panel of the enclosure of FIG. 4 . FIG. 19 is an electrical schematic of the local controller of FIG. 17 . FIG. 20 is an electrical schematic of the parallel port section of FIG. 19 . FIG. 21 is an electrical schematic of the receive direction section of FIG. 19 . FIG. 22 is an electrical schematic of the receive/transmit data section of FIG. 19 . FIG. 23 is an electrical schematic of the enable section of FIG. 19 . FIG. 24 is an electrical schematic of the matrix communication section of FIG. 19 . FIG. 25 is an electrical schematic of the receive/transmit ID slot data section of FIG. 19 FIG. 26 is an electrical schematic of the transmit enclosure position section of FIG. 19 FIG. 27 is an electrical schematic of the lock driver section of FIG. 19 . FIG. 28 is an electrical schematic of the LED driver section of FIG. 19 . FIG. 29 is an electrical schematic of the power supply section of FIG. 19 . FIG. 30 is an isolated, front, perspective, schematic view of an enclosure and drawer of an inventoriable-object control and tracking system in accordance with a second referred embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 31 is an isolated, front, elevational view of an opening of the second assembly retaining structure of FIG. 30 . FIG. 32 is an isolated, right side, elevational view of the channel member of the drawer of FIG. 30 . FIG. 33 is a front, perspective view of an object identification assembly of a second plurality of object identification assemblies of the second preferred embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 34 is a front, elevational view of the interface member of the object identification assembly of FIG. 33 . FIG. 35 is a top, plan view of the interface member of FIG. 33 . FIG. 36 is a partial, top, plan view of a second assembly retaining structure of FIG. 30 . FIG. 37 is a flowchart representation of a preferred method in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Referring now to the drawings, in which like numerals represent like components throughout the several views, an inventory control and tracking system 50 , in accordance with the first preferred embodiment of the present invention, is displayed in FIGS. 1 and 2. The inventory control and tracking system 50 comprises an inventoriable-object storage unit 52 which is electronically interposed between a remote controller 54 and a printer 56 . An example of a remote controller 54 , acceptable in accordance with the present invention, is an IBM-compatible personal computer having a central processing unit, a hard disk drive, a random access memory, a keyboard, a video interface, and a parallel communications port 58 (or data communication interface 58 ). A video monitor 60 resides atop the remote controller 54 and receives video data for display to system users. The components of the remote controller 54 and video monitor 60 perform in accordance with their conventional functions, thereby enabling the execution of computer software routines as described below. It is understood that the scope of the present invention includes other forms of remote controllers having similar capabilities and performing similar functions. FIG. 2 displays the rear of the remote controller 54 , the storage unit 52 , and the printer 56 and better illustrates the electronic connection of the three components than does FIG. 1 . As seen in FIG. 2, the storage unit 52 has a utility panel 62 and a back panel 64 which defines a cut-out 66 for receipt of electrical connectors attached to a portion of the utility panel 62 visible through the cut-out 66 . The utility panel 62 , discussed below in more detail, resides inside the storage unit 52 and against the back panel 64 . The utility panel 62 includes bi-directional, parallel data communications ports 68 , 70 (or data communication interfaces 68 , 70 ) which are interconnected in a pin-for-pin arrangement to enable parallel communications signals supplied to port 68 to be accessed at port 70 and vice versa (e.g., configuring the ports 68 , 70 as “pass-through”,or “daisy-chainable” parallel data communications ports 68 , 70 ). A parallel data communication path 72 (or data communication link 72 ) extends between the parallel communications port 58 of the remote controller 54 and parallel data communications port 68 of the storage unit 52 . Preferably, the parallel data communication path 72 is a conventional parallel data cable well-known to those in the computer industry. As discussed below, the parallel data communication path 72 carries data signals, in a serial protocol, bi-directionally between the remote controller 54 and the storage unit 52 . Another parallel data communication path 74 (or data communication link 74 ) extends between the pass-through, parallel data communications port 70 and a parallel data communications port 76 present at the back of the printer 56 to carry data signals, in a parallel protocol, from the remote controller 54 to the printer 56 . The utility panel 62 also includes power supply connectors 78 , 80 which are connected together inside the storage unit 52 to allow one connector 78 to receive electrical power from a power source (not shown), while the other connector 80 supplies electrical power to an additional storage unit 52 as described below. A fuse holder 82 and fuse (not visible) are secured to utility panel 62 and are electrically connected to the power supply connectors 78 , 80 . The fuse protects internal electronic components of the storage unit 52 against over-current conditions. The back panel 64 also includes a key lock assembly 84 , discussed below, having an externally accessible keyway as seen in FIG. 2 . The key lock assembly 84 enables a user, in an extreme situation, to manually override an electrically-actuated lock mechanism 218 (see FIG. 17 ). Note that in an alternate preferred embodiment of the present invention, as seen in FIG. 3, multiple storage units 52 ′ (substantially similar to those of the first preferred embodiment) are employed to increase the number of inventoriable objects which may be stored and tracked by the system 50 ′. The pass-through, parallel data communications ports 68 ′, 70 ′ (or data communication interfaces 68 ′, 70 ′) of each storage unit 52 ′ are interconnected by parallel data communication paths 74 a ′, 74 b ′ (or data communication links 74 a ′, 74 b ′) to enable the remote controller 54 ′ to communicate serially, using a serial data protocol, with each storage unit 52 ′. It is understood that the scope of the present invention includes various system configurations, including those configurations having a plurality of storage units 52 ′. FIG. 4 displays an isolated, front, perspective, schematic view of a storage unit 52 in accordance with the first preferred embodiment of the present invention. The storage unit 52 comprises an enclosure 86 having a front face 88 , a right side 90 , and a back 92 . The enclosure 86 defines a cavity 94 which is accessible via an opening 96 defined by the front face 88 . The cavity 94 slidably receives a drawer 98 which is shown partially extended from the cavity 94 in FIG. 4 . The drawer 98 has a right side member 100 , a left side member 102 , a front face assembly 104 , and a back member 106 . The front face assembly 104 has a front face plate 108 and an inset handle 110 which is flush with the front face plate 108 . The inset handle 110 enables easy withdrawal of the drawer 98 from the enclosure 86 after release of the drawer 98 by the electrically-actuated lock mechanism 218 (see FIGS. 17 and 18 ). The front face plate 108 defines an ID slot 112 for receipt of a user's personal identification assembly. A connector, similar to those described below, is mounted directly behind the ID slot 112 and within the front face assembly 104 for establishing electrical contact with the electronic device of a user's personal identification assembly. LED's 113 are positioned in the front face 88 and flash when the enclosure 86 is activated as discussed below. The drawer 98 defines a reservoir 114 which receives an assembly retaining structure 116 having a top panel 118 . The top panel 118 defines a plurality of slots 120 , shown schematically in FIG. 4, which define a row and column matrix 122 . FIG. 5, a top plan view of the top panel 11 . 8 , more accurately displays the slot matrix 122 where the rows of slots 120 are labeled with letters A-O and the columns of slots 120 are labeled with numbers 1 - 16 . Note that each slot 120 has an outer perimeter 124 which is shaped to receive a tongue portion 184 of an object identification assembly 182 described below (see FIG. 12 ). As seen in the isolated, top plan view of FIG. 6, the outer perimeter 124 of each slot 120 is symmetrical about a center lateral axis 126 , but is not symmetric about a center longitudinal axis 128 . The lack of symmetry about center longitudinal axis 128 causes each slot 120 to be “polarized”, thereby allowing receipt of the tongue portion 184 of an object identification assembly 182 in only one orientation. Such polarization of each slot 120 is necessary to properly orient an object identification assembly 182 , which, when present in a drawer 98 , depends through a slot 120 , for electrical interaction with a connector I 54 as described below. A portion of the assembly retaining structure 116 , in accordance with the preferred embodiment, is shown in the right side and front partial views of FIGS. 7 and 8. The views also display an object identification assembly 182 which is received by a slot 120 of the top panel 118 of the assembly retaining structure 116 . In addition to the top panel 118 , the assembly retaining structure 116 includes a backplane 130 positioned beneath and opposed to the top panel 118 . The backplane 130 is held in position relative to the top panel 118 by a plurality of standoffs 132 which are periodically located between the backplane 130 and top panel 118 . Each standoff 132 is secured to the top panel 118 by a press-in stud 134 having a head 136 which lies flush with an upper surface 138 of the top panel 118 . Each stud 134 extends downward through a hole 140 defined by the top panel 118 and is received by a hole 142 defined by a standoff 132 . Each standoff 132 is secured to the backplane 130 by a screw 144 having a head 146 which rests against a bottom surface 148 of the backplane 130 . The screw 144 extends through a hole 150 defined by the backplane 130 and is received by a threaded hole 152 defined by the standoff 132 . The assembly retaining structure 116 further comprises a plurality of connectors 154 with one connector 154 being positioned directly beneath and aligned with each slot 120 of the row and column slot matrix 122 , thereby defining a row and column matrix of connectors 156 opposed to the row and column slot matrix 122 and residing between the top panel 118 and the backplane 130 . FIG. 7 displays two connectors 154 a,b , each being a member of a different row of the matrix of connectors 156 , while FIG. 8 shows the same two connectors 154 a,b , each also being a member of a different column of the matrix of connectors 156 . Each connector 154 comprises a pair of opposed contacts 158 which are each rigidly mounted to a top surface 160 of the backplane 130 by a rivet 162 . The opposed contacts 158 define a gap 164 between the contacts 158 for receipt of an object identification assembly 182 by connector 154 a as illustrated in FIGS. 7 and 8. FIGS. 9-11 display left side, front, and bottom views of a single contact 158 in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the present invention. Each contact 154 includes an upper portion 166 , a mid-portion 168 , and a base portion 170 . The upper portion 166 is angled relative to the mid-portion 168 to enhance the reception of an object identification assembly 182 by guiding a received object identification assembly 182 toward the gap 164 defined between the contacts 158 . The mid-portion 168 of each contact 158 is angled relative to the base portion 170 and includes a tongue 172 which is, itself, angled relative to the mid-portion 168 . Upon receiving an object identification assembly 182 , as seen in FIG. 8, the mid-portion 168 and the tongue 172 deflect independently to insure electrical connectivity between the contact 158 and an electronic device 194 of the object identification assembly 182 . The base portion 170 resides atop and adjacent to a plated foil pad on the backplane 130 and defines a hole 174 for receipt of rivet 162 which extends through a plated-through hole 176 defined by an electrically-conductive surface of the backplane 130 . The plated foil pad, base portion 170 , and rivet 162 are crimped together, forcing expansion of the rivet 162 to fill the plated-through hole 176 , thereby creating electrical continuity between the backplane 130 , rivet 162 , and the contact 158 . The base portion 170 includes a tab 178 which depends from the base portion 170 and extends through a hole 180 defined by an electrically-conductive surface of the backplane 130 to aid in orienting the contact 158 relative to the backplane 130 . FIGS. 7 and 8 display connector 154 a in receipt of an object identification assembly 182 which is more clearly illustrated in FIGS. 12 and 13. In accordance with the first preferred embodiment, each object identification assembly 182 comprises an inventoriable-object 202 and an interface member 183 having a tongue portion 184 , an object connection portion 186 , and a main portion 188 which extends between the tongue and object connection portions 184 , 186 . Preferably, each interface member 183 is manufactured from plastic. The tongue portion 184 depends from the main portion 188 and, in conjunction with the main portion 188 , defines shoulders 190 which abut the top surface 138 of the top panel 118 , as seen in FIG. 7, when the tongue portion 184 is positioned within a slot 120 . The shoulders 190 prevent excessive downward travel of the interface member 183 through a slot 120 and aid in properly positioning the interface member 183 relative to a connector 154 . The sides of the tongue portion 184 are tapered to improve the ease of insertion into a slot 120 and to center the interface member 183 in the slot 120 . The tongue portion 184 defines a hole 192 which receives and secures an electronic device 194 . The object connection portion 186 defines apertures 196 (FIG. 12) and aperture 196 a receives a tubular rivet 198 which receives a blind rivet 199 . A washer 200 , which resides adjacent to the object connection portion 186 , cooperates with the blind rivet 199 to connect an inventoriable object 202 to the interface member 183 . In FIGS. 7 and 8, the inventoriable object 202 is a key, however, it is understood that the scope of the present invention encompasses the connection of a different inventoriable object selected from a variety of other types of inventoriable objects. The electronic device 194 is shown more clearly in the front view of FIG. 14 and the right side view of FIG. 15 . The electronic device 194 has a positive data contact 204 and a negative return contact 206 which are electrically engaged by the mid and tongue portions 168 , 172 of contacts 158 a,b , respectively, of a connector 154 . Internally, the electronic device 194 includes a memory which permanently stores a unique identification code. Upon connection of an inventoriable object 202 to an interface member 183 , the identification code in the electronic device 194 is associated with the inventoriable object 202 . The identification code is electronically readable, upon supply of the appropriate input data signals, from the electronic device 194 via its bidirectional data contact 204 . An electronic device 194 , acceptable in accordance with the preferred embodiments of the present invention, is a DS 1990A Touch Memory Device available from Dallas Semiconductor Corporation of Dallas, Tex. and includes a 48-bit serial number (i.e., which is a unique identification code), an 8-bit CRC code, and an 8-bit family code. It is understood that the scope of the present invention includes other electronic devices having a unique, electronically-readable identification code. It is also understood that the scope of the present invention includes other electronic devices having internal random access memories and timers which are electronically-communicable therewith and which enable additional functionality beyond the identification of objects. The connectors 154 , as discussed above and seen schematically in FIG. 16, are arranged in a row and column matrix 156 on the backplane 130 with each connector 154 having a row address and a column address. Each connector 154 includes a contact 158 a which is electrically connected to one of a plurality of column data lines 208 and a contact 158 b which is electrically connected to one of a plurality of row return lines 210 . In accordance with the first preferred embodiment, each column data line 208 is a positive data line and each row return line 210 is a negative return line. By selecting the column data line 208 and the row return line 210 connected to a connector 154 , it is possible, as described below, to determine whether or not an electronic device 194 and, hence, an object identification assembly 182 is present between the contacts 158 . If an electronic device 194 is present, it is possible, as described below, to read the identification code of the electronic device 194 and, hence, the identification code of the object identification assembly 182 via column data line 208 . FIG. 17 displays the enclosure 86 with a drawer 98 , holding an object identification assembly 182 , fully-inserted into the cavity 94 defined by the enclosure 86 . Note that portions of the enclosure 86 , drawer 98 , and lock mounting bracket 212 have been cut-away to enable viewing of various components located inside the enclosure 86 . As seen in FIG. 17, the assembly retaining structure 116 resides above a local controller 214 which is mounted to the enclosure 86 in proximity to the drawer's front face assembly 104 . A flexible cable 216 transfers electrical signals between the local controller 214 and the backplane 130 of the assembly retaining structure 116 . The local controller 214 and the flexible cable 216 are positioned relative to the backplane 130 so that the flexible cable 216 rolls when the drawer 98 is withdrawn or inserted into the enclosure 86 . The local controller 214 is also electrically connected to parallel data communications ports 68 , 70 (or data communication interfaces 68 , 70 ) by a ribbon cable 217 (see FIG. 18) to enable bidirectional serial communication with the remote controller 54 . The parallel data communications ports 68 , 70 are hidden by the electrically-actuated lock mechanism 218 and lock mounting bracket 212 in FIG. 17, but are visible in FIG. 18 and are connected to the utility panel 62 which resides inside cavity 94 adjacent to the back panel 64 of the enclosure 86 . Power supply lines 220 are electrically connected in series, via fuse holder 82 and pilot light 83 , to power supply connectors 78 , 80 (which are connected together in parallel) and to the local controller 214 . Lock signal lines 222 and drawer switch signal lines 224 are electrically interposed between the local controller 214 and the electrically-actuated lock mechanism 218 and drawer switch 248 , respectively. LED lines 490 , 492 electrically connect the local controller 214 to the LED's 113 . The electrically-actuated lock mechanism 218 , illustrated in FIGS. 17 and 18, is held in place by lock mounting bracket 212 which is secured to the utility panel 62 . The lock mechanism 218 includes a solenoid actuator 226 which is located in a well 228 defined by the lock mounting bracket 212 . The solenoid actuator 226 is positioned to enable interaction of the solenoid's plunger 230 with a keeper plate 232 . A bearing 234 , pressed into the keeper plate 232 , defines a bore for receipt of a shaft 236 which is rigidly attached to the lock mounting bracket 212 and extends through the bore. The bearing 234 enables the keeper plate 232 to rotate relative to the shaft 236 when the keeper plate 232 is rotated by linear movement of the solenoid actuator's plunger 230 . A biasing member (not visible) is positioned about the solenoid's plunger 230 between the solenoid actuator 226 and the keeper plate 232 . The keeper plate 232 defines a keeper slot 238 which receives a striker rod 240 when the drawer 98 is filly-inserted into the enclosure 86 . The striker rod 240 is rigidly mounted in a striker bracket 242 which is attached to the rear of the drawer 98 . Upon energization of the solenoid actuator 226 and the subsequent interaction of the solenoid's plunger 230 and keeper plate 232 , the keeper slot 238 rotates away from the striker rod 240 , thereby freeing the striker rod 240 and enabling the drawer 98 to be withdrawn from the enclosure 86 . Upon de-energization of the solenoid actuator 226 , the biasing member forces the keeper plate 232 to return to its normally-locked position. Note that key lock assembly 84 includes a striker plate 244 which, when rotated by an authorized user in an extreme situation, engages the keeper plate 232 to cause rotation of the keeper plate 232 away from striker rod 240 . In accordance with the first preferred embodiment, the drawer switch 248 is mounted to a side of the lock mounting bracket 212 and includes a microswitch 250 and a switch actuator 252 . The switch actuator 252 extends from the microswitch 250 adjacent to a cut-out 254 defined by the lock mounting bracket 212 . When the drawer 98 is filly-inserted into the enclosure 86 , a portion of tile striker bracket 242 resides within the cut-out 254 and engages the switch actuator 252 . FIG. 19 displays a block diagram representation of the circuitry of the local controller 214 in accordance with the preferred embodiments of the present invention and identifies a plurality of major sections of the circuitry, including a parallel port section 300 , a receive direction section 302 , a receive/transmit data section 304 , a matrix communications section 306 , a transmit enclosure position section 308 , a receive/transmit ID slot data section 310 , a lock driver section 312 , an LED driver section 314 , an enable section 316 , and a power supply section 318 . To provide a more understandable description of the circuitry, the discussion below focuses on each section individually and describes its inputs, outputs, and relationship to the other sections of the local controller 214 . The parallel port section 300 is displayed in FIG. 20, according to the preferred embodiments of the present invention, and includes a parallel connector 330 which connects to ribbon cable 217 for transmission and receipt of a plurality of signals from the remote controller 54 . The parallel connector 330 includes a BUSY line 332 , a plurality of data lines 334 , an ACK line 336 , a STROBE line 338 , a PAPEROUT line 340 , an AFEED line 344 , an ERR line 346 , an INITIAL line 348 , a SELIN line 350 , a plurality of remote controller return lines 352 , a RCGND line 354 , and a plurality of mounting ground lines 356 . The data lines 334 are protected by transient voltage suppressors 360 and series resistor network 362 . Signals carried by the data lines 334 are shaped and buffered by inverting Schmitt buffer 335 to yield stable signals on column and row select lines 364 , 366 for use by the matrix communications section 306 . The inverting Schmitt buffer 335 is enabled by the signal on the EN5V line 368 whenever the drawer is activated. The ACK line 336 , the AFEED line 344 , the ERR line 346 , the INITIAL line 348 , the SELIN line 350 , and the BUSY line 332 are protected by transient voltage suppressors 370 and series damping resistors (not shown in FIG. 20 ). The ACK line 336 is an output from the local controller 214 and carries serial signals from the ID slot connector. The AFEED line 344 is an input to the local controller 214 and carries serial data to an addressable switch 394 , the row and column matrix of connectors 156 , and the ID slot connector. The ERR line 346 is an output from the local controller 214 and carries a signal from the drawer switch 248 which is representative of the position of the drawer 98 relative to the enclosure 86 . The INITIAL line 348 is an input to the local controller 214 and carries a signal which is employed, in conjunction with a signal on the SELIN line 350 , to derive data direction signals SDIR 372 and NSDIR 374 . The SELIN line 350 is an input to the local controller 214 and carries a signal which is employed with the signal on the INITIAL line 348 , as described above, and enables selection of the local controller 214 to output data to the parallel connector 330 , thereby avoiding potential data collisions with data intended for use by the printer 56 . The BUSY line 332 is an output line and carries serial data from the connectors 154 of the row and column matrix of connectors 156 and the addressable switch 394 . The RCGND line 354 is an input line and carries a signal which resets the addressable switch 394 whenever the connection is lost between the remote controller 54 and enclosure 86 . The receive direction section 302 , according to the preferred embodiments of the present invention, is shown in FIG. 21 and receives signals on the INITIAL line 348 and SELIN line 350 from the parallel port section 300 . The SELIN signal is shaped and buffered by the inverting Schmitt buffers 376 , 378 . The INITIAL signal is shaped and buffered by the inverting Schmitt buffer 380 and inverted by the inverting Schmitt buffer 382 . The AND gates 384 , 386 receive the buffered SELIN signal and the inverted and non-inverted INITIAL signals to produce the data direction signals SDIR 372 and NSDIR 374 which are used as data routing signals throughout the local controller 214 . The receive/transmit data section 304 , displayed in FIG. 22 in accordance with the preferred embodiments of the present invention, receives signals on the AFEED line 344 and RCGND line 354 and outputs signals on the BUSY line 332 . Signals on the AFEED line 344 are shaped and buffered by the inverting Schmitt buffers 388 , 390 to generate signals on MATRIX IN line 392 for use by the matrix communications section 306 . An inverted signal on AFEED line 344 is NANDed with the signal on NSDIR line 374 to deliver serial data to an addressable switch 394 having a memory which stores a unique identification code (also referred to herein as an address). An inverted signal on AFEED line 344 is also routed to the DATAIN line 396 for use by the receive/transmit ID slot data section 310 . A high signal on the RCGND line 354 , caused by the loss of the connection between the remote controller 54 and the local controller 214 , is gated by NAND gate 398 to create a low reset signal which resets the addressable switch 394 and, thereby deactivates the drawer 98 . In response to the receipt of appropriate input data (including a switch address) from AFEED line 344 , via NAND gate 375 , the addressable switch 394 outputs serial data to an inverting Schmitt buffer 400 which provides inverted serial data to a two line-to-one line, open collector multiplexor 402 comprised of NAND gates 404 , 406 . Serial output data available from the addressable switch 394 , upon receipt of appropriate input data, includes a unique identification code for the switch, data residing in the switch's memory, and the status of the switch's bidirectional port. Preferably, the addressable switch is a DS2405 from Dallas Semiconductor Corporation of Dallas, Texas. A MATRIX OUT line 408 , from the matrix communications section 306 , and the EN5V line 368 , from the enable section 316 , also connect to the multiplexor 402 . Upon application of the appropriate SDIR and NSDIR signals 372 , 374 and EN5V signal 368 , the multiplexor 402 selects serial data from either the MATRIX OUT line 408 (i.e., from the matrix communications section 306 ) or the addressable switch 394 and outputs the selected serial data on the BUSY line 332 for receipt by the parallel port section 300 . The addressable switch 394 has an input/output port 410 which is used to create an enable signal for the drawer 98 on ENABLE line 412 . Upon receipt of an appropriate input signal, the addressable switch 394 sets the input/output port 410 to a low state which activates the drawer 98 to enable functions including communication with the ID slot connector, the drawer switch. 248 , and the matrix communications section 306 (and, hence, the row and column matrix of connectors 156 ). The enable section 316 , shown in FIG. 23 in accordance with the preferred embodiments of the present invention, receives an enable signal on ENABLE line 412 and outputs a power signal on the EN5V line 368 which is utilized to turn on and off various electronic components of the local controller 214 . When the enable signal is low, the enable section 316 , using NAND gate 414 and MOSFET transistor 416 , creates a 5-volt signal on the EN5V line 368 , thereby turning on various electronic components. When the enable signal is high, the enable section 316 creates, preferably, a 0-volt signal on the ENSV line 368 , thereby turning off various electronic components. The matrix communication section 306 , according to the preferred embodiments of the present invention, is displayed in FIG. 24 and has inputs including column and row select lines 364 , 366 , MATRIX IN line 392 , NSDIR line 374 , and the EN5V line 368 . The matrix communication section 306 communicates bi-directionally with the row and column matrix of connectors 156 via a connector 418 , which is attached to flexible cable 216 , to supply connectors 154 with input data from the MATRIX IN line 392 and to receive output data generated by the electronic devices 194 of the object identification assemblies 182 which are present in the enclosure 86 . A demultiplexor 420 receives input data from the MATRIX IN line 392 and column select lines 364 . Upon being enabled by a power signal received on EN5V line 368 and a low signal on NSDIR line 374 , the demultiplexor 420 decodes the received column selection signal (which identifies the column, of the row and column matrix of connectors 156 , in which the connector 154 to be communicated with resides) to transfer the serial input data on MATRIX IN line 392 to the identified column data line 208 of the row and column matrix of connectors 156 . The column data lines 208 are pulled up by resistor networks 422 , 424 and reflected signals traveling on column data lines 208 are dampened by resistor networks 426 , 428 . The column data lines 208 are protected against transient voltages by transient voltage suppressors 430 , 432 . A decoder 434 receives the row selection signal (which identifies the row, of the row and column matrix of connectors 156 , in which the connector 154 to be communicated with resides) on row select lines 364 and, upon being enabled by a power signal received on EN5V line 368 , the decoder 434 defines a row return line 210 (which is associated with the connector 154 with which communication is desired) by connecting the row return line 210 to an active, low-level logic state, thereby transitioning the row return line 210 from the floating-level logic state in which it normally exists when not selected by the decoder 434 . Resistor networks 436 , 438 dampen reflected signals traveling on the row return lines 210 and transient voltages are suppressed by transient voltage suppressors 440 , 442 . Resistor networks 435 , 437 , connected to row return lines 210 , prevent oscillation of the signals communicated by the row return lines 210 . Once a column select line 364 and a row select line 366 have been identified (and, hence, a unique connector 154 ) by the demultiplexor 420 and decoder 434 , respectively, data communication with the corresponding connector 154 of the row and column matrix of connectors 156 is established, thereby enabling transmission of signals to the connector 154 . The matrix communication section 306 also comprises cascaded multiplexors 444 , 446 which are connected to column data lines 208 , column select lines 364 , and EN5V line 368 . Note that inverter 448 inverts the fourth column select line 364 to enable multiplexor 444 to operate when multiplexor 446 does not and vice versa. Upon being enabled by a power signal received on EN5V line 368 , the multiplexors 444 , 446 transfer the serial output data from the previously identified column data line 208 (and, hence, from a connector 154 of the row and column matrix of connectors 156 ) to an inverting Schmitt buffer 450 for output on MATRIX OUT line 408 and reception by multiplexor 402 of the receive/transmit data section 304 . Decoder 434 also provides an output signal on IDENABLE line 452 for receipt by the receive/transmit ID slot data section 310 . IDSLOT line 454 is connected, via the flexible cable 216 , to the positive data line of the ID slot connector to provide a bi-directional communication path. The receive/transmit ID slot data section 310 , illustrated in FIG. 25 in accordance with the preferred embodiments of the present invention, receives a signal on the DATAIN line 396 from the receive/transmit data section 304 and supplies it to IDSLOT line 454 after selection by NAND gates 456 , 458 using a routing signal on the NSDIR line 374 and a routing signal on the IDENABLE line 452 which has been inverted by inverter 460 . Serial data from the ID slot connector is transferred on IDSLOT line 454 to the inverting Schmitt buffer 462 for supply to a two line-to-one line multiplexor 464 comprising NAND gates 466 , 468 . NAND gate 466 receives input serial data from IDSLOT line 454 and a selection signal on NSDIR line 374 . NAND gate 468 receives input serial data from IDSLOT line 454 and a selection signal on SDIR line 372 , in addition to a power signal on EN5V line 368 . Upon selecting a NAND gate's output by using the selection signals on SDIR and NSDIR lines 372 , 374 (i.e., thereby selecting data from an ID slot of an activated drawer or a non-activated drawer), the output signal is provided on ACK line 336 to the parallel port section 300 . The transmit enclosure position section 308 , seen in FIG. 26 according to the preferred embodiments of the present invention, receives a signal from the drawer switch 248 on POSITION line 224 (also referred to herein as drawer switch signal line 224 ). The signal is debounced utilizing an RC circuit 472 and an inverting Schmitt buffer 474 . Transient voltages are suppressed by transient voltage suppressor 476 . The inverting Schmitt buffer 474 provides an input signal to a multiplexor 478 including NAND gates 480 , 482 . NAND gate 480 receives input data from the inverting Schmitt buffer 474 , receives a selection signal from NSDIR line 374 , and a power signal from EN5V line 368 . NAND gate 482 receives input data from the inverting Schmitt buffer 474 and receives a selection signal from SDIR line 372 . Upon selecting a NAND gate's output by using the selection signals on SDIR and NSDIR lines 372 , 374 (i.e., thereby selecting data from a drawer switch 248 of an activated drawer or a non-activated drawer), the output signal is provided on ERR line 346 to the parallel port section 300 . The lock driver section 312 , according to the preferred embodiments of the present invention, is displayed in FIG. 27 and receives input signals from the inverted fourth line of the column select lines 364 of the matrix communication section 306 , the third line of the column select lines 364 , the NSDIR line 374 , and receives a power signal on EN5V line 368 . The input signals are ANDed by AND gates 484 , 486 to turn on and off MOSFET transistor 488 . When the MOSFET transistor 488 is turned on, it causes the solenoid actuator 226 to be energized via lock signal lines 222 , thereby unlocking the electrically-actuated lock mechanism 218 . When the MOSFET transistor 488 is turned off, the solenoid actuator 226 is not energized, thereby enabling the keeper plate 232 to return to its locked position as shown in FIG. 17 . The LED driver section 314 , displayed in FIG. 28 in accordance with the preferred embodiments of the present invention, receives a power signal on EN5V line 368 when the drawer 98 is activated and supplies power to LED's 113 via LED lines 490 , 492 . The LED driver section 314 includes an oscillator 494 which causes the LED's 113 to flash. The power supply section 318 , shown in FIG. 29 according to the preferred embodiments of the present invention, receives input power from the fuse holder 82 on the utility panel 62 and conditions and regulates the power to provide a stable source of electrical energy for the local controller 214 and related components. The power supply section 318 includes decoupling capacitors 496 , 498 to filter out high-speed switching noise created by the logic circuits incorporated in the local controller 214 . FIG. 30 displays an isolated, front, perspective, schematic view of a storage unit 52 ′ of an inventoriable-object control and tracking system in accordance with a second preferred embodiment of the present invention. The storage unit 52 ′ is substantially similar to storage units 52 of the first preferred embodiment of the present invention, having an enclosure 86 ′ and a drawer 98 ′ with an assembly retaining structure 116 ′ (referred to in the second preferred embodiment, as a first assembly retaining structure 116 ′) for receipt of object identification assemblies 182 ′ (referred to in the second preferred embodiment, as a first plurality of object identification assemblies 182 ′) and a local controller 214 ′, and additionally includes a second assembly retaining structure 500 for receiving object identification assemblies 502 of a second plurality of object identification assemblies 502 . The second assembly retaining structure 500 rests atop the top panel 118 ′ of the first assembly retaining structure 116 ′ and comprises a base 504 (i.e., a drip pan for catching any liquid which may drop off of an object identification assembly 502 while the assembly 502 resides in the second assembly retaining structure 500 ) having upwardly extending walls 506 which bound a top surface 508 and define a recess 510 . The second assembly retaining structure 500 further comprises a housing 512 which extends upward from the top surface 508 of the base 504 and adjacent the back member 106 ′ of the drawer 98 ′ and a channel member 514 which is mounted, within recess 510 , atop the top surface 508 of the base 504 . The housing 512 , as seen in FIGS. 30 and 36 in accordance with the second preferred embodiment of the present invention, has a first panel 516 , an opposed second panel 518 , and a third panel 522 extending between the first and second panels 516 , 518 to partially define a cavity 520 within housing 512 . The first panel 516 , located nearest the front face assembly 104 ′ of the drawer 98 ′, defines a plurality of openings 524 with each opening 524 being defined by an edge 526 (or outer perimeter) which is shaped to receive a portion of an object identification assembly 502 of a second plurality of object identification assemblies 502 (see FIG. 33 ). As illustrated in FIG. 31, the first panel 516 also defines a longitudinal axis 528 and a lateral axis 530 extending through each opening 524 . Note that the edge 526 defining each opening 524 is asymmetrical about both axes 528 , 530 , thereby enabling each opening 524 to receive an object identification assembly 502 in only one orientation relative to the opening 524 . Such “polarization” of each opening 524 is necessary to orient each object identification assembly 502 relative to the housing 512 for proper electrical interaction as described below. Note also that object identification assemblies 502 of the second plurality of object identification assemblies 502 , as seen in FIG. 34, differ from object identification assemblies 182 ′ of the first plurality of object identification assemblies 182 ′ (described above with respect to the first preferred embodiment of the present invention) which are received by slots 120 ′ of top panel 118 ′ of first assembly retaining structure 116 ′. The channel member 514 of the second assembly retaining structure 500 , displayed in FIGS. 30, 32 , and 36 in accordance with the second preferred embodiment of the present invention, has a first leg 532 and a second leg 534 connected by a web 536 which is secured to base 504 of the second assembly retaining structure 500 by fasteners 538 . The legs 532 , 534 extend between the upwardly rising walls 506 of the base 504 of the second assembly retaining structure 500 with the first leg 532 being positioned nearer the housing 512 and the second leg 534 being positioned nearer the front face assembly 104 ′ of the drawer 98 ′. The legs 532 , 534 also extend upward from the top surface 508 of base 504 with the first leg 532 extending to a greater elevation than the second leg 534 . The first leg 532 and web 536 define a plurality of slots 540 , each slot 540 being aligned with a corresponding opening 524 defined by the first panel 516 of housing 512 for receipt of an object identification assembly 502 . The portions of the first leg 532 adjacent the slots 540 guide the object identification assemblies 502 during insertion and removal of object identification assemblies 502 from the second assembly retaining structure 500 , and provide support for and limit lateral movement of an object identification assembly 502 present in a slot 540 . Note that each slot 540 , preferably, extends through the entire vertical height of the first leg 532 and through the entire thickness of the web 536 and that a corresponding opening 524 , preferably, extends downward to the top surface 508 of base 504 , thereby enabling a received object identification assembly 502 to contact the top surface 508 of base 504 when the assembly 502 is positioned for proper electrical interaction as described below. Note also that the vertical height of the second leg 532 is, preferably, selected to enable an object identification assembly 502 to barely clear the second leg 532 during insertion and removal of object identification assemblies 502 from the second assembly retaining structure 500 . In accordance with the second preferred embodiment of the present invention and as displayed in FIG. 33, an object identification assembly 502 comprises an object 542 to be tracked (such as, for example, but not limitation, a license plate), an electronic device 544 having a memory which stores a unique identification code, and an interface member 546 which couples the object 542 and the electronic device 544 . The electronic device 544 is, like electronic device 194 ′ of the first preferred embodiment, a DS1990A Touch Memory Device available from Dallas Semiconductor Corporation of Dallas, Texas and has a positive data contact 543 and a negative return contact 545 . The object 542 has a front 548 , a back 550 , side edges 552 , and a top edge 554 . The interface member 546 (see FIGS. 34 and 35) wraps about side edge 552 a of the object 542 and includes a first portion 556 adjacent to the front 548 of the object 542 and a second portion 558 adjacent to the back 550 of the object 542 . The first portion 556 of the interface member 546 defines a hole 560 extending therethrough for receipt of the electronic device 544 which contacts, both physically and electrically, the front 548 of the object 542 near top edge 554 and side edge 552 a . A crimp ring 561 resides about the electronic device 544 , adjacent to the first portion 556 of the interface member 546 , and secures the electronic device 544 to the interface member 546 . The second portion 558 of the interface member 546 extends adjacent to the back 550 of the object 542 from side edge 552 a in a direction toward side edge 552 b and defines a plurality of slots 562 which receive fasteners 564 , thereby securing the object 542 to the interface member 546 and electrically connecting the return line contact of the electronic device 544 to the interface member 546 and to the object 542 . Note that, in accordance with the second preferred embodiment of the present invention, the object identification assembly 502 further includes a magnet-holding bracket 566 which is secured to the rear of the second portion 558 of the interface member 546 . In an alternate preferred embodiment of the present invention, the magnet-holding bracket 566 is not present. The second assembly retaining structure 500 , in accordance with the second preferred embodiment of the present invention, additionally comprises a backplane 568 and plurality of connectors 570 which are substantially similar to the backplane 130 ′ and plurality of connectors 154 ′ of the preferred embodiment of the present invention. As seen in FIG. 36, the backplane 568 resides within housing 512 and is secured to the second panel 518 of the housing 512 in a vertical orientation by a plurality of standoffs (not visible). Each connector 570 of the plurality of connectors 570 is positioned directly behind a corresponding opening 524 of the plurality of openings 524 defined by the first panel 516 of housing 512 . The connectors 570 define a matrix having, preferably, a single row and multiple columns of connectors 570 . Each connector 570 comprises a pair of opposed contacts 572 (substantially similar to contacts 158 ′ of connectors 154 ′ of the preferred embodiment of the present invention) which are rigidly mounted to backplane 568 by rivets 574 . Each contact 572 a is electrically connected to one of a plurality of column data lines and each contact 572 b is electrically connected to a row return line in a manner substantially similar to the contacts 158 ′ of connectors 154 ′. The backplane 568 and its column data lines and row return line connect to local controller 214 ′ via a flexible cable (not visible) in order to transfer electrical signals between the backplane 568 and the local controller 214 ′. When an object identification assembly 502 is present between the contacts 572 of a particular connector 570 , the positive data contact 543 engages a contact 572 a and the negative return contact 545 engages a contact 572 b of the particular connector 570 . By selecting the column data line and row return line connected to the particular connector 570 , it is possible, as described below, to determine whether or not an electronic device 544 and, hence, an object identification assembly 502 of the second plurality of object identification assemblies 502 is present between the contacts 572 of the particular connector 570 . If an electronic device 544 is present, it is possible, as described below, to read the identification code stored within the electronic device 544 and, hence, the identification code of the object identification assembly 502 via the column data line. In accordance with a preferred method of the present invention as illustrated in FIG. 37, the process starts at step 600 and advances to step 602 where the system 50 initializes itself, locates the address of the parallel port 58 of the remote controller 54 which is connected to the storage unit 52 , and determines the speed at which software must execute in order to perform serial communications over parallel communication paths 58 . Next, at step 604 ; the system 50 begins a process of identifying a user who wishes to perform an activity on an object identification assembly 182 , 202 such as, for example, inserting an object identification assembly 182 , 202 into a drawer 98 for receipt by a respective assembly retaining structure 116 , 500 or removing an object identification assembly 182 , 202 from a respective assembly retaining structure 116 , 500 . At step 604 , the system 50 prompts a user to insert his personal identification assembly into the ID slot 112 of a drawer 98 by displaying prompt text on the video monitor 60 . After prompting the user, the system 50 , at step 606 , takes control over all access to the remote controller's parallel port 58 to prevent data collisions created by other application software programs attempting to communicate, via the parallel port 58 , to the printer 56 . Once the system 50 has control over the parallel port 58 , the system 50 , at step 608 , reads the ID slots 112 of the various drawers 98 (if more than one drawer 98 is present in the system 50 or the only ID slot 112 if only one drawer 98 is present in the system 50 ) on the drawers' front face 108 to acquire an identification code from the user's personal identification assembly. To read an ID slot 112 , the remote controller 54 selects the ID slot 112 by generating appropriate signals on the INITIAL and SELIN lines 348 , 350 , which are communicated through the necessary data communication link(s) 72 , 74 and data communication interfaces 68 , 70 using a serial protocol to the respective local controller 214 , for supply to the positive data contact 204 of the electronic device 194 of the personal identification assembly via AFEED line 344 . In response, the electronic device 194 outputs its unique identification code through its positive data contact 204 and ACK line 336 for transmission to the remote controller 54 . Upon receiving the identification code contained in the personal identification assembly, the remote controller 54 , at step 610 , verifies that the personal identification assembly is being used by its owner by prompting the user for a password on video monitor 60 , receiving a password from the user at the remote controller 54 , and then determining, at step 612 , whether or not the user is authorized to access the system 50 by looking-up the identification code and password in a table including authorized code/password combinations. If the user is not authorized to access the system 50 , the method loops back to step 604 where the remote controller 54 prompts the user to insert his personal identification assembly. If the user is authorized to access the system 50 , the method continues at step 614 . After determining that the user is authorized, the remote controller 54 , at step 614 , prompts the user on video monitor 60 for the type of activity that the user wishes to perform on an object identification assembly 182 , 502 . The types of activities include for example, but not limitation, inserting (or re-inserting, or returning) an object identification assembly 182 , 502 into a drawer 98 for receipt by a slot 120 (or opening 524 ) and an associated connector 154 , 570 , and removing an object identification assembly 182 , 502 from a slot 120 (or opening 524 ) and an associated connector 154 , 570 of a drawer 98 . At step 616 , the remote controller 54 receives input from the user, in response to the prompt, which identifies the type of activity that the user wishes to perform. Then, at step 620 , the remote controller 54 evaluates the user's input to determine if the user wishes to remove an object identification assembly 182 , 502 and associated object from a respective assembly retaining structure 116 , 500 . If the remote controller 54 determines, at step 620 , that the user wishes to remove an object identification assembly 182 , 502 , tile remote controller 54 , according to the preferred method of the present invention, prompts the user on video monitor 60 to provide information related to the removal of an object identification assembly 182 , 502 at step 621 . The information, for example and not limitation, may include the purpose or reason for the removal of the object identification assembly 182 , 502 , a work order number with which the removal of the object identification assembly 182 , 502 is to be associated with (i.e., when the work order number is utilized in conjunction with the time of removal and time of re-insertion of an object identification assembly 182 , 502 , the remote controller 54 may compute the amount of time required to perform the task identified by the work order number), etc. After receiving the information from the user in response to the prompt and storing the received information on storage media present in a disk drive of the remote controller 54 at step 622 , the remote controller 54 prompts the user on video monitor 60 to identify an object identification assembly 182 , 502 for removal from a drawer 98 at step 623 . The remote controller 54 receives input from the user at step 624 , in response to the prompt, which identifies the object identification assembly 182 , 502 (and, hence, an object) for removal. Advancing to step 626 , the remote controller 54 determines the location (including the slot 120 or opening 524 , and the drawer 98 , if more than one drawer 98 is present in the system 50 ) of the object identification assembly 182 , 502 identified by the user in step 624 by retrieving the location information from a data file, containing the location information, which is stored, preferably, on the remote controller's hard disk drive. The remote controller 54 then outputs, at step 628 , the location of the identified object identification assembly 182 , 502 on video monitor 60 by displaying, preferably, a row and column matrix representative of the connectors 154 , 570 of the assembly retaining structure 116 , 500 in which the identified object identification assembly 182 , 502 resides and by indicating, on the display, the particular row and column of the matrix in which the identified object identification assembly 182 , 502 is present. The remote controller 54 also, preferably, displays an identifier which distinguishes the drawer 98 in which the identified object identification assembly 182 , 502 resides. After outputting the location of the object identification assembly 182 , 502 identified by the user, the method continues at step 640 as described below. If the remote controller 54 determines, at step 620 , that the user wishes to insert (or re-insert) an object identification assembly 182 , 502 into a drawer 98 , the remote controller 54 , according to the preferred method of the present invention, determines whether or not the system 50 tracks multiple types of objects (for example and not limitation, vehicle keys and vehicle license plates) by reading and evaluating data stored in a configuration file residing on the remote controller's hard disk at step 630 . If the system 50 determines, at step 630 , that it is configured to track only one type of object, the method advances to step 636 , described below. If the system 50 determines, at step 630 , that it is configured to track multiple types of objects, the remote controller 54 prompts the user, at step 632 , to prompt the user, on video monitor 60 , to identify the type of object to be inserted into a drawer 98 for receipt by a slot 120 or opening 524 (and respective connectors 154 , 570 ) of a respective assembly retaining structure 116 , 500 . The remote controller 54 , at step 634 , receives input from the user, in response to the prompt at step 632 , which identifies the type of object to be inserted into a drawer 98 . At step 636 , the remote controller 54 determines, based on the type of object to be received from the user by a drawer 98 , the location (including the slot 120 or opening 524 , and the drawer 98 , if more than one drawer 98 is present in the system 50 ) of a site which is available for receipt of the object identification assembly 182 , 502 by retrieving and comparing location and configuration information from data files stored, preferably, on the remote controller's hard disk drive. The location information includes the locations of each object identification assembly 182 , 502 which currently resides in an assembly retaining structure 116 , 500 of a drawer 98 and the configuration information includes the locations of the slots 120 , or openings 524 , which are available in a particular drawer 98 when the drawer 98 contains no object identification assemblies 182 , 502 . After determining the location of an available site for receipt of an object identification assembly 182 , 502 , the remote controller 54 then outputs, at step 638 , the location of the available site on video monitor 60 by displaying, preferably, a row and column matrix representative of the connectors 154 , 570 of the assembly retaining structure 116 , 500 in which the available site is present and by indicating, on the display, the particular row and column of the matrix in which the available site is present. The remote controller 54 also, preferably, displays an identifier which identifies the drawer 98 in which the available site resides. After outputting the location of the available site, the method advances to step 640 as described below. According to the preferred method of the present invention, the remote controller 54 , at step 640 activates the appropriate storage unit 52 , containing the object identification assembly 182 , 502 to be removed or containing an available site for receipt of an object identification assembly 182 , 502 , by establishing communications with the unit's addressable switch 394 through generation of appropriate signals on the INITIAL and SELIN lines 348 , 350 and communicating the unique address of the addressable switch 394 to the addressable switch 394 . Once the addressable switch 394 replies to the remote controller 54 , acknowledging receipt of its unique address, appropriate signals are sent to the addressable switch 394 over the AFEED line 344 to toggle the status of the switch's bidirectional port to an active state, thereby enabling the supply of electrical power (which was previously not supplied) to the remainder of the local controller 214 . Advancing to step 642 , the remote controller 54 unlocks the appropriate drawer 98 by actuating the drawer's lock mechanism 218 . In order to energize the lock solenoid 226 , the remote controller 54 generates the appropriate signals on the INITIAL and SELIN lines 348 , 350 and supplies an energize signal on data lines 334 . Then, at step 644 , the remote controller 54 checks to see if the drawer 98 is open by generating the appropriate signals on the INITIAL and SELIN lines 348 , 350 and by reading the signal present on the ERR line 346 . If the signal has a logical low level, the drawer 98 is not open and the method loops back to step 640 to maintain energization of the lock solenoid 226 . If the signal has a logical high level, the drawer 98 is open and the method continues at step 646 where the lock mechanism 218 is reset by removing the energize signal on data lines 334 to de-energize the lock solenoid 226 . At step 648 , the system 50 monitors, or scans, the object identification assemblies 182 , 502 to detect which, if any, assemblies 182 , 502 are present in the drawer 98 . Detection of the assemblies 182 , 502 is accomplished by the remote controller 54 selecting each connector 154 , 570 of a row and column matrix of connectors 154 , 570 (by transmitting the row and column addresses of the connector 154 , 570 to the local controller 214 ) and attempting to read output data from the data output contact of an electronic device 194 (by supplying appropriate data signals to the data output contact and waiting for a response from the electronic device 194 ) which may or may not be present in the selected connector 154 , 570 . If an object identification assembly 182 , 502 (and, hence, an electronic device 194 ) is present in the selected connector 154 , 570 , output data, including the unique identification code of the electronic device 194 , is communicated by the local controller 214 to the remote controller 54 on BUSY line 332 . The remote controller 54 stores the identification code and location of the object identification assembly 182 , 502 in a list for subsequent review. If no object identification assembly 182 , 502 is present in the selected connector 154 , 570 , no output data is detected by the remote controller 54 , within an appropriate period of time, and the remote controller 54 proceeds to attempt to read output data from the next connector 154 , 570 of the row and column matrix of connectors 154 , 570 being monitored until all connectors 154 , 570 have been selected for reading. In accordance with the preferred method, the remote controller 54 detects, at step 650 , whether or not any object identification assemblies 182 , 502 have been inserted or removed from the drawer 98 by comparing the identification codes of the assemblies 182 , 502 which discovered and stored in a list at step 648 with the identification codes of the assemblies 182 , 502 which were discovered and stored in a different list on the remote controller's hard disk drive at a previous point in time. If no object identification assembly 182 , 502 removals or insertions are detected at step 650 , the method advances to step 652 , as discussed below, where the remote controller 54 checks to see whether or not the drawer 98 is closed. If object identification assembly 182 , 502 removals or insertions are detected at step 650 , the remote controller 54 outputs the identification codes of the assemblies 182 , 502 which were removed or inserted on the video monitor 60 at step 654 . The removed or inserted object identification assemblies 182 , 502 are then stored, at step 656 , in a log file by the remote controller 54 to replace the previous list of assemblies 182 , 502 which are present in an assembly retaining structure 116 , 540 of the drawer 98 . The stored information includes the user's identification code, the object identification code, and the date and time of the activity. At step 652 , the remote controller 54 checks to see if the drawer 98 is closed by generating the appropriate signals on the INITIAL and SELIN lines 348 , 350 and reading the signal present on the ERR line 346 . If the signal has a logical low level, the drawer 98 is determined to be closed and the method advances to step 658 . If the signal has a logical high level, the drawer 98 is determined to be open and the method loops back to step 648 to scan the object identification assemblies 182 , 502 present in the drawer 98 . The remote controller 54 , at step 658 , reads the identification codes of the object identification assemblies 182 which are present in the drawer 98 . To read the identification codes, the remote controller 54 , as described above, scans the connectors 154 , 570 by selecting each connector 154 , 570 of each row and column matrix of connectors 154 , 570 and attempting to read output data, on BUSY line 332 , from an electronic device 194 which may or may not be present in the selected connector 154 , 570 . Then, at step 660 , the remote controller 54 processes the identification codes held by the connectors 154 , 570 and received from the object identification assemblies 182 , 502 at step 658 , as described above, to determine and log which assemblies 182 , 502 were removed and/or inserted, which user did so, and the date and time when the removal or insertion was made by the user. The remote controller 54 also determines, by comparing the identification codes of the assemblies 182 , 502 presently in the drawer 98 with those already removed from the drawer 98 and with an acceptable amount of time stored in a configuration file on the remote controller 54 , which assemblies 182 , 502 have been absent from the drawer 98 for an excessive amount of time and displays them on the video monitor 60 . Additionally, the remote controller 54 performs supplementary data processing related to, and in conjunction with, the information collected from the user at step 622 . For instance, the amount of time required to do a job may be computed from the time of removal and re-insertion of an object identification assembly 182 , 502 (i.e., connected to a door key) and associated with a work order number, the amount of time spent on vehicle test drives may be computed from the times of removals and re-insertions of object identification assemblies 182 , 502 (i.e., connected to vehicle keys) and associated with the salesperson who accessed the assemblies 182 , 502 , etc. Advancing to step 662 , control over the remote controller's parallel port 58 is released and the method loops back to step 604 where the user is prompted to insert his personal identification assembly. In accordance with an alternate preferred method of the present invention, the identification codes of the object identification assemblies 182 , 502 are loaded into the remote controller 54 for later use by receiving the assemblies 182 , 502 in the front face ID slot 112 of a drawer 98 and then by reading their identification codes. After reading, the identification codes are associated with descriptive information related to the object being controlled and tracked by the system 50 . Whereas this invention has been described in detail with particular reference to its most preferred embodiments, it is understood that variations and modifications can be effected within the spirit and scope of the invention, as described herein before and as defined in the appended claims. The corresponding structures, materials, acts, and equivalents of all means or step plus function elements in the claims below are intended to include any structure, material, or acts for performing the functions in combination with other claimed elements as specifically claimed.

An object tracking system for automatically tracking a plurality of objects such as keys includes a plurality of tags each associated with an object to be tracked, and each having a depending tongue with opposed side faces. A touch memory device storing a unique ID code is attached to the tongue of each tag protrudes from one side face of its tag a distance greater than from the other side face. A storage unit for receiving and storing the tags has a plurality of slots each asymmetrically profiled with a bulge along one side to allow the tongue and touch memory device of one of the tags to pass through in one orientation of the tag but to prevent them to pass through in other orientations. A sensor is associated with each clot for engaging the touch memory device of the tongue of a tag inserted through the slot and a computer controller is coupled to the sensors for reading the ID codes of the touch memory devices to determine the presence and absence of tags and their objects in the container.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The invention relates to an athletic shoe, especially a soccer shoe with a upper which surrounds the instep area, a sole joined to the upper, and tension bands for stiffening. 2. Description of Related Art This athletic shoe is known for example from DE 27 52 301 A1. The tension bands described there are designed to ensure more direct transfer of force between the foot and the shoe sole and thus to reduce fatigue phenomena on the upper itself. Moreover the traction of the foot in the shoe will be improved by the aforementioned tension bands. One problem in athletic shoes, especially soccer shoes, is that the sole must have high flexibility to prevent hindering the natural rolling process of the foot when running. The energies which must be expended during running to deform the sole can be minimized when a sole as flexible as possible is used, On the other hand, an overly light and flexible sole often entails an major injury risk. Bending of the sole against its natural arch downward can occur for example when running when the foot is placed on an uneven surface, for example, a stone. In soccer shoes it is especially disadvantageous if the sole is allowed to bend downward. Soccer shoes must be light and very flexible. They should have especially thin soles which do not hinder the rolling motion of the foot when running. The upper should also consist of very thin soft leather which conforms closely to the foot to ensure better feeling of the ball. When taking a shot, especially with the instep, in which the ball is hit with the extended foot, it holds that bending of the sole downward should be prevented as much as possible and the foot should accordingly be supported inflexibly. This is because the impact force and ball speed are reduced when the sole and accordingly the foot yield downward, by which a large amount of the impact force is lost. Satisfactory transfer of momentum cannot be achieved with a sole which yields downward. To solve this problem in a soccer shoe it is proposed in published German Patent Application DE 32 19 652 A1 that on the bottom of a sole formed from inherently soft base material there be material parts with greater hardness which are provided with stops and counterstops. Bending of the sole downward is prevented by the stops and counterstops of the material parts located on the bottom of the sole coming into contact. This known design results in a relatively complex sole structure. In addition it no longer takes effect to the desired degree in heavy, muddy ground. The gap between the stop and counterstop fills with soil or the like so that the sole arches accordingly upward with increasing duration of play. The interplay of the stop and counterstop is lost. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The object of the invention is to devise an athletic shoe, especially a soccer shoe, in which bending of the sole downward is for the most part prevented, but without limiting the flexibility of the sole necessary for the rolling process, regardless of the subsoil on which the shoe is being used. This object is achieved by an athletic shoe in accordance with the present invention as described below. The key idea of the invention is to provide tension bands which extend from the front and back end of the sole running obliquely upwards towards one another towards the instep area of the upper and which are connected especially there to one another into a support structure. This arrangement of tension bands stiffens the sole as easily as possible against bending downward. The stiffening action is increased by the foot itself which is in the shoe, since the front and the two back tension bands are supported at their connection point on the instep of the foot. This effectively counteracts the deflection of the sole downward and the corresponding deformation of the upper. Preferably the front and the two back tension bands are tensioned against one another by lacing located especially in the instep area of the upper or by a tensioning cable closure. When the laces are undone or the tensioning cable closure is opened it is easy to put the shoe on or take it off. The lacing or tensioning cable closure allows the tension bands to be prestressed such that the sole undergoes the desired stiffening effect. By means of the variable adjustment possibilities of the lacing or tensioning cable closure not only is matching to different foot shapes possible, but the desired prestress of the tension bands can also be adjusted. This applies especially when separate tension means are assigned to the tension bands in the instep area, i.e. tension means which are independent of conventional lacing, etc. Furthermore, it is advantageous if there is a support element which runs essentially transversely to the longitudinal extension of the shoe and which engages both its ends in the middle area of the sole and extends over the instep area of the upper. This support element causes further stiffening of the sole. It complements and expands the above described support by the front and back tension bands. The overall arrangement of front and back tension bands, the support element and sole yields a self-supporting support structure which prevents bending downward, without adversely affect flexibility upward. The foot itself is no longer necessary for stiffening. In this way the mobility of the foot is promoted in the normal rolling process. The foot can be held in the shoe under less stress. This applies especially when the support element is joined to the front and two back tension bands in the instep area in the manner of a knot. The upper then has essentially only the function of "clothing" the foot. Preferably the tension bands consist of aramid fibers, especially Kevlar or carbon fibers. These fibers have extremely limited extensibility and at the same time have extremely high tensile strength. The support element can be produced from relatively stiff PE, PA or similar plastic strip. In an especially soft embodiment the support element is produced from the same material and in the same way as the tension bands and is attached to the upper or integrated thereon. When the tension bands are interwoven with leather or similar upper materials, flat strips can be formed which conform especially well to the upper of the shoe. It is especially advantageous in this case to sew the tension bands onto or into the upper. This eliminates friction sites between the tension bands and the upper. Finally, tension bands sewn on the outside can impart a pleasing appearance to an athletic shoe, especially a soccer shoe. The invention is detailed below also with respect to other features and advantages using the description of one embodiment and with reference to the attached drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows a schematic of an athletic shoe according to one embodiment of the invention; FIG. 2 shows a side view of an athletic shoe according to the schematic as shown in FIG. 1; and FIG. 3 shows a three-dimensional sketch of the arrangement of the tension bands and the support element according to the embodiment shown in FIG. 2. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT FIG. 1 shows a sketch of a soccer shoe. The soccer shoe consists of upper 1 and sole 2. Upper 1 and sole 2 are joined to one another using one of the conventional techniques, for example, sewn and/or bonded or cemented. On the bottom of sole 2 there are conventionally nubs 14 which are used for better traction on soft ground such as turf, etc. From front sole end 6 there extends front tension band 3 running obliquely upward to instep region 8 of upper 1. Two back tension bands 4 and 5 extend from heel area 7 of the sole into instep area 8 and are joined there to front tension band 3 directly or indirectly, for example via eyelet strip 13 (see FIG. 2). Back tension band 4 runs on one side of upper 1 from the instep to the ankle. On the opposite side of the upper other tension band 5 is positioned accordingly (compare FIG. 3). To increase the stiffness and make available a self-supporting arrangement, there can furthermore be band-like support element 10 which runs essentially transversely to the longitudinal extension of the shoe and engages its two ends in middle area 11 of sole 2. In doing so it extends over instep area 8 of upper 1 so that the arc formed by support element 10 does not hinder the foot held in the shoe. The arrangement of tension bands and the support element shown in FIG. 1 effectively prevents bending of sole 2 downward. This applies especially when the shoe is put on, since then additional support of the tensions bands on the instep takes place, in the embodiment shown via eyelet strip 13. The force exerted in a soccer shoe in an instep shot on forward area 6 of sole 2 is absorbed via front tension band 3 by rear tension bands 4, 5 and support element 10. In this way bending of the sole downward is for the most part prevented. The foot is supported accordingly. In a hiking shoe with a support structure of the described type, pressing of middle area 11 of sole 2 inward for example when stepping on a rock, root or similar barrier is prevented by support element 10 being supported against tensioned front 3 and back tension bands 4, 5. The described shoe structure is of course also suited for track and field, bicycling, basketball or similar athletic shoes. Preferably the front and the two back tension bands are tensioned against one another by lacing located especially in the instep area of the upper or by a tensioning cable closure. When the laces are undone or the tensioning cable closure is opened it is easy to put the shoe on or take it off. The lacing or tensioning cable closure allows the tension bands to be prestressed such that the sole undergoes the desired stiffening effect. By means of the variable adjustment possibilities of the lacing or tensioning cable closure not only is matching to different foot shapes possible, but the desired prestress of the tension bands can also be adjusted. This applies especially when separate tension means are assigned to the tension bands in the instep area, i.e. tension means which are independent of conventional lacing, etc. It is noted that tensioning cable closures for athletic shoes are well known and relative to which reference can be made to U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,181,331; 5,197,882; 5,319,868; 5,325,615; 5,327,662; 5,341,583; 5,355,596; 5,381,609; 5,502,902; 5,600,874; and 5,737,854, for examples thereof. FIG. 2 shows a soccer shoe as shown in the sketch in FIG. 1 in a side view. Front tension band 3 and rear tension bands 4, 5 consist of aramid fibers, especially Kevlar or carbon fibers. In this way the tension bands have high tensile strength and in addition stretch very little. The strip-shaped configuration of the tension bands shown in FIG. 2 is formed by their being interwoven with leather or similar upper material. Furthermore, tension bands 3, 4, 5 are sewn onto upper 1; this imparts a pleasing appearance to the shoe overall. Tension bands 3, 4, 5 in the embodiment as shown in FIG. 2 are not connected directly to one another, but via two eyelet strips 13. Eyelet strips 13 are reinforced relative to the upper material such that they have high tensile strength and at the same time stretch very little. Two eyelet strips 13 border lace slot 12 formed in instep area 8 of upper 1. Front tension band 3 is attached to two eyelet strips 13 on their front, lower end. Two eyelet strips 13 could be equally well connected forward to one another and the front tension band could be attached in the area of this connection. Two rear tension bands 4, 5 are likewise attached to two eyelet strips 13. Support element 10 can run either without direct attachment to eyelet strips 13 under them and extend continuously over the instep area of upper 1; alternatively support element 10 is divided into a first and a second section. The first and second section then extend from middle area 11 of sole 2 to eyelet strip 13 assigned at the time and are attached thereto. Attachment of tension bands 3, 4, 5 and the described support element sections to eyelet strips 13 can be done using conventional technology, for example by cementing, sewing, riveting, bonding, etc. The same applies to the connection to sole 2. The sketch as in FIG. 3 schematically shows the basic structure consisting of tension bands 3, 4, 5 and support element 10 for stiffening of sole 2 downward. Of course the figure is purely schematic, since to fit the foot there is the knot on which the tension bands and support element run together divided lengthwise with formation of a lace slot. Thus the instep opening of the shoe defined on the one hand by support element 10 and by sole 2 on the other can be changed and matched individually to the foot of the user. In this way the support of sole 2 can also be adjusted upward. Of course, within the framework of the invention there can be other tension bands and support elements or their arrangement can be modified. The described basic structure should however be preserved in all cases. For example, an arrangement of two front tension bands which run in a roughly V-shape to the front or parallel to one another is conceivable. Likewise it is possible to replace one or more tension bands 3, 4, 5 entirely or partially by relatively low-stretch materials or upper sections which have the same action, which absorb tension, and which are preferably an integral part of upper 1. In the shoe shown in FIG. 2, over ankle region 7 of sole 2 ankle upper cap 15 is formed which is connected to ankle region 7 of sole 2. Tension bands 4, 5 can be attached equally well to ankle upper cap 15 instead of to sole 2 when ankle shank cap 15 is made appropriately strong or stiff. Accordingly a toe cap can also be formed to which the front end of the front tension band is then attached.

A sports shoe, in particular a soccer shoe, with an upper (1) comprising an instep region (8), with a sole (2) connected to the upper and with tension strips (3, 4, 5) for stiffening. The sole is stiffened by a front tension strip (3) connecting the front end (6) of the sole to the upper (1) and by two rear tension strips (4, 5) connecting the heel area (7) of the sole (2) to the upper (1) in such a manner that although it is still possible to bend the sole up completely, it is impossible to bend it down.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] The present application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/981,064 filed Jul. 22, 2013, which is a 371 of PCT/IB11/52997 filed Jul. 6, 2011, which claims priority from U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/361539 filed Jul. 6, 2010, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0002] The invention relates to the field of microarc oxidation (or simply “microarc”) in general and to manufacturing articles by microarc oxidation processes in particular. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0003] Microarc (or “plasma electrolytic oxidation”) is known in the art for processing valve metals (e.g. aluminum, magnesium, titanium, etc.), such as altering external surfaces of articles made of alloys of said metals (or otherwise containing said metals). As microarc processes consume relatively high amounts of energy, a major resource contributing to their costs is electricity, in direct relation to the measurements or dimensions or size of surfaces undergoing such process. Furthermore, the larger the surface that is subjected to microarc process at any given time—the larger the current density required for the process. Hence, a bigger power supply is necessary for larger surfaces, and so the cost of such a power supply is drastically higher. It is for these reasons that it is extremely difficult or demanding (such as in cost, operation complexity, etc.) to perform microarc processes on very large parts (or “articles”). For articles or parts that are larger than a certain size, it is commercially impossible or impractical to perform microarc processes on their entire surface, or on large sections thereof. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0004] The invention provides articles (or “parts”) which are the products of microarc processes, and methods which facilitate production or manufacturing of said articles. The invention otherwise provides methods of performing microarc processes, or of manufacturing articles by utilizing microarc processes. [0005] An object of the invention is to provide cost-efficient or commercially viable methods for producing or manufacturing articles by utilizing microarc processes. Specifically, said articles may be virtually unlimited in size (i.e. may essentially have any size). Accordingly, in some methods of the invention, only a certain section (or plurality thereof) of an article undergoes a microarc process at any given time. Similarly, some articles of the invention have undergone a microarc process (or plurality thereof), wherein only a certain section (or plurality thereof) of said articles was subjected to said process at any given time. In some methods, an article (or plurality thereof) gradually undergoes a microarc process (or plurality thereof), such that different sections of said articles are sequentially subjected to said process. Similarly, some articles of the invention have gradually undergone a microarc process (or plurality thereof), such that different sections of said articles were sequentially subjected to said process. [0006] Another object of the invention is to provide methods for performing microarc processes on articles which are larger than the largest articles on which it is known in the art that microarc processes are performed. Some articles of the invention can virtually have any size (e.g. tubes of any length), or specifically a dimension of any size. Otherwise, some articles of the invention may be unlimited in size. Similarly, in some methods of the invention, an article (or plurality thereof) which is not limited in size (e.g. size of a specific dimension, such as length) undergoes a microarc process (or plurality thereof). [0007] Another object of the invention is to provide articles which result in a transition between different microarc processes, or between multiple periods of a microarc process. Optionally, said transition may be characterized by change in a solution, or exchange between different solutions, utilized for a microarc process or plurality thereof. The invention further provides methods for producing or manufacturing such articles. [0008] Another object of the invention is to provide tubes (or “pipes”) of any length, which may have been subjected to a microarc process (or plurality thereof), for the purpose of being utilized for desalination systems. [0009] Another object of the invention is to provide pulleys which a section thereof (or plurality of sections thereof), such as the groove, may have been subjected to a microarc process (or plurality thereof), for the purpose of superior surface properties of said section. [0010] Another object of the invention is to provide a method to subject an article having any size of external surface (or in other words “surface area”), such as above 30 squared decimeters, or specifically above 60 squared decimeters, without utilizing current density which is above 10 ampere, or more specifically above 100 ampere. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWING [0011] The invention is herein described, by way of example only, with reference to the accompanying drawings, wherein: [0012] FIG. 1A shows a perspective view of a contraption of manufacturing of the invention; [0013] FIG. 1B shows a perspective view of the contraption of manufacturing from FIG. 1A at a different step; [0014] FIG. 2A shows a perspective view of a contraption of manufacturing of the invention; [0015] FIG. 2B shows a cross-section view of the contraption of manufacturing from FIG. 2A ; [0016] FIG. 3A shows a perspective view of a contraption of manufacturing of the invention; [0017] FIG. 3B shows a cross-section view of the contraption of manufacturing from FIG. 3A ; [0018] FIG. 3C shows a cross-section view of a contraption similar to the contraptions shown in FIGS. 3A & 3B ; [0019] FIG. 4A shows a solution modulator of the invention; [0020] FIG. 4B shows a cross section of an article of the invention; [0021] The drawings constitute a part of this specification and include exemplary embodiments to the invention, which may be embodied in various forms. It is to be understood that in some instances various aspects of the invention may be shown exaggerated or enlarged to facilitate an understanding of the invention DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0022] FIG. 1A shows a perspective view of a contraption 100 in which a tube 102 undergoes (or “is subjected to”) a microarc oxidation (or simply “microarc”) process. Contraption 100 may be a device or machine or apparatus or system of the invention, which includes a container 104 . Tube 102 may be a tube of any length, which may pass through container 104 . Specifically, tube 102 may be longer than the length of container 104 , whereas a section of the tube may be inside the container and a different section (or plurality thereof) may be outside the container during a microarc process. For example, container 104 may have a length of two meters, whereas tube 102 may have a length of six meters (yet tube 102 may similarly be of any length above six meters), such that a two meter section of the tube may be inside the container. In some methods of the invention, tube 102 may pass through container 104 during a microarc process. In accordance with the last example, a two meter section of tube 102 may be inside the container at a given time of a microarc process (similarly to the shown in FIG. 1A where a section of tube 102 is inside the container), while a different 2 meter section of the tube may be inside the container at a different time. [0023] In FIG. 1A , container 104 is shown containing a solution 106 in which the section of tube 102 which is inside the container is immersed. Solution 106 is the solution in which a microarc process (or plurality thereof) may take place (on the section of tube 102 that is immersed in it). For a microarc process, tube 102 is in contact with a connection 108 a which connects it to an electric current, essentially making tube 102 an anode. Additionally, a connection 108 b is in contact with a cathode 108 c which is dipped in solution 106 (otherwise immersed in it). Accordingly, a microarc process may occur (otherwise be performed) on the surface of the section of tube 102 which is immersed in solution 106 (i.e. the surface of the section is subjected to said microarc process). [0024] In accordance with the shown in FIG. 1A , during a microarc process (and/or before), a solution may be streamed into container 104 through a pipe 112 a, and drained from container 104 into a pipe 112 b. In some embodiments of contraption 100 , pipe 112 a and pipe 112 b are both part of a circulation system for a solution (e.g. solution 106 ), such as for cooling said solution outside container 104 and streaming it back into container 104 . Optionally, said circulation system (i.e. the circulation system including pipes 112 a,b ) further includes a solution modulator 114 . Solution modulator may be any part, section, unit or module of contraption 100 which facilitates changing (or “altering”) the solution in container 104 (see ref. a solution modulator 400 in FIG. 4A ), such that a microarc process (or plurality thereof) utilizes different solutions during different periods. For example, solution 106 may be utilized for a microarc process while passing through a circulation system of contraption 100 (e.g. from container 104 through pipe 112 b ) in which there is solution modulator 114 which may alter solution 106 (e.g. by adding or removing (also “subtracting”) a solvent or a solute), whereas the altered solution may then be utilized for a subsequent microarc process or otherwise for a different period of the same microarc process. [0025] For a method for performing a microarc process on tube 102 , contraption 100 may include an apparatus 110 (e.g. a robot mechanism) for moving tube 102 through container 104 , such as by pushing the tube or pulling the tube. Accordingly, apparatus 110 may facilitates motion of tube 102 such that a different section of the tube is inside container 104 at any given time. Optionally, the movement of tube 102 by apparatus 110 through container 104 is continuous, such that the tube passes through the container during a microarc process (inside solution 106 ) at a fixed (or “steady”) rate (or “pace”, or “speed”) of motion, or alternatively at a changing rate of motion. For example, apparatus 110 may push tube 102 through container 104 at a rate of half a meter per twenty minutes (i.e. twenty minutes is the period of time in which half a meter of length of tube 102 passes through container 104 ). [0026] Note that in FIG. 1A there is shown a surface 102 a of tube 102 (shown in the figure outside container 104 ) which is not being subjected to a microarc process, and a surface 102 b (shown in the figure inside container 104 , specifically inside solution 106 ) which is being subjected to a microarc process. [0027] Referring now to FIG. 1B , there is shown contraption 100 at a different step of a method for a microarc process (or plurality thereof) performed on tube 102 . In FIG. 1B , tube 102 is shown as pushed from its position in FIG. 1A to a position shown in FIG. 1B , optionally by apparatus 110 , as described above. Accordingly, a different surface 102 b ′ of tube 102 (as opposed to surface 102 b as shown in FIG. 1A ) is shown inside container 104 and may be undergoing (or “is subjected to”) a microarc process inside solution 104 . Further accordingly, a different surface 102 a ′ of tube 102 (as opposed to surface 102 a as shown in FIG. 1A ) is shown outside container 104 , not undergoing a microarc process. Further accordingly, a surface 102 c (which was inside container 104 when tube 102 was in the position shown in FIG. 1A ) is shown in FIG. 1B outside container 104 (e.g. as it has been pushed out of the container), after it has been subjected to a microarc process (when it was inside container 104 ). Accordingly, surface 102 may be coated by a ceramic coating (e.g. which was generated in the aforementioned microarc process inside container 104 ). [0028] Following the above, contraption 100 may facilitate subjecting a tube of any length (e.g. 5 meters or above) to a microarc process (or plurality thereof), whereas said tube may be passed (e.g. pushed or pulled by apparatus 110 ) through a container (e.g. container 104 with solution 106 ) which is preferably shorter than the length of said tube. Accordingly, any number of sections of said tube may be subjected to a microarc process (or plurality thereof) by gradually or sequentially or continuously passing through said container (inside which occurs a microarc process). [0029] Note that the surfaces of tube 102 shown in FIG. 1A and FIG. 1B and mentioned above are external surfaces of tube 102 , whereas the surfaces of a tube 202 (see ref. FIG. 2A and FIG. 2B ) shown in FIG. 2A and FIG. 2B and mentioned below refer to internal surfaces of tube 202 (i.e. surfaces inside the tube). [0030] FIG. 2A shows a perspective view of a contraption 200 in which a tube 202 undergoes (or “is subjected to”) a microarc process (or plurality thereof). Inside tube 202 are shown (the tube is illustrated such that a gap (referred numerically as gap 201 ) facilitates view of the inside of the tube, yet it is understood that said gap is merely for the purpose of depiction) panel 204 a and panel 204 b which may be any parts (e.g. membranes, walls, etc.) that fit inside the tube to create a closed space between them. Optionally, panels 204 a,b are connected by a connector 214 , such as a rod inside the aforementioned closed space between them. [0031] In the aforementioned closed space between panels 204 a,b may be a solution (not shown, yet may fill said closed space) for facilitating a microarc process inside said closed space, specifically subjecting a surface of tube 202 that surrounds said closed space (shown a surface 202 b in FIG. 2A ) to said microarc process. Surface 202 b is subjected to a microarc process (or plurality thereof) as the aforementioned solution inside the closed space between panels 204 a,b is held (or “enclosed”) by the panels and fills said closed space between them. Accordingly, only surface 202 b of tube 202 may undergo a microarc process while surface 202 b is of a section of the tube which is bordered (or “defined”) by panels 204 a,b (i.e. while the aforementioned solution filling said closed space is surrounded by surface 202 b by being held between panels 204 a,b ). Further accordingly, any other surface of the tube (e.g. a surface 202 a as shown in FIG. 2A ) is not subjected to a microarc process while panels 204 a,b create a closed space surrounded by surface 202 b (and in which may be a solution necessary for said microarc process). [0032] For a microarc process to occur inside the aforementioned closed space that is between panels 204 a,b and that is surrounded by surface 202 b, tube 202 is shown in contact with a connection 208 a which connects it to an electric current, essentially making tube 202 arm anode. Additionally, a cathode 208 c is located (or “positioned”, or “installed”) inside the closed space (i.e. between panels 204 a,b ), and accordingly inside a solution that may fill the closed space between panels 204 a,b. Cathode 208 c is shown in FIG. 2A attached to a connection 208 b which connects it to an electric current. [0033] In some embodiments, panel 204 a is connected to an apparatus 210 which can move panels 204 a,b inside tube 202 (joint movement may be facilitated by connector 214 connecting the panels) at a fixed or changing pace. For example, apparatus 210 may push panel 204 a (and optionally also panel 204 b with it) from one end of tube 202 towards an opposite end. By moving panels 204 a,b, the closed space between the panels may be surrounded by a surface of a different section of tube 202 (i.e. a different surface at any given time during the moving). Accordingly, a different section of a surface of tube 202 (otherwise a different surface of the tube) may be subjected to a microarc process between panels 204 a,b at any given time. Optionally, the movement of panels 204 a,b by apparatus 210 may be steady (i.e. at a fixed speed) so that each section in the path of the movement of the panels may be subjected to a microarc process by a similar duration (or “period of time”). Such movement may be similar to the movement of tube 102 through container 104 of contraption 100 as shown in FIG. 1A and FIG. 1B , and as described above. [0034] Following the above, a section of any length of a surface inside tube 202 may be gradually subjected to a microarc process (or plurality thereof), as panels 204 a,b move through the tube (i.e. along the inside of the tube), whereas between the panels 204 a,b may be a closed space in which there may be a solution facilitating said microarc process on a surface of tube 202 that surrounds said closed space (or otherwise that is bordered by the panels). [0035] In some embodiments, a pipe 212 a is leading (or “streaming”) a solution to the closed space between panels 204 a, b, whereas a pipe 212 b is draining a solution from said closed space, as shown in FIG. 2A (shown pipes 212 a,b attached to panel 204 b ). Optionally, pipes 212 a,b are parts of the same solution-circulating system. As known in the art for microarc processes, a solution-circulating system is sometimes required, such as for cooling a solution (which may be heated during a microarc process). Similarly to the described for contraption 100 , a solution modulator (e.g. solution modulator 114 as shown in FIG. 1A and FIG. 1B ) may be included in a solution-circulating system which may also includes pipes 212 a,b, such that a solution inside the aforementioned closed space between panels 204 a,b may be monitored and/or changed (or “altered”, or “modified”). [0036] While apparatus 210 is shown and described connected to panel 204 a, and pipes 212 a,b are shown connected to panel 204 b, it is made clear that the scope of the invention is not limited to which panel or how each of the above elements are connected. For example, pipes 212 a,b and apparatus 210 may be connected to the same panel (e.g. to panel 204 b ). [0037] Referring now to FIG. 2B , there is shown a cross-section view of contraption 200 , in accordance with the described above for FIG. 2A . In FIG. 2B there is numbered a space 220 which is a closed space between panel 204 a and panel 204 b, such as described above for a closed space between the panels, in which a microarc process (or plurality hereof) may occur, specifically performed on a surface of tube 202 that surrounds space 220 (i.e. that is bordered by panels 204 a,b; e.g. surface 202 b ). Said microarc process may be facilitated by a solution filling space 220 , such as held between panels 204 a,b and surrounded by surface 202 b. [0038] FIG. 3A shows a perspective view of a contraption 300 in which a pulley 302 undergoes (or “is subjected to”) a microarc process (or plurality thereof). More specifically, it may be desired that only the groove of pulley 302 (shown a groove 302 b in FIG. 3A ) will be subjected to a microarc process, whereas the process will be prevented from the rest of the pulley. This may be, for example, for the purpose of reducing cost of manufacturing, such as the cost of the microarc processes required for generating a ceramic coating on groove 302 b of pulley 302 , which may be lower than the cost of generating such a coating on the groove and on the rest of the pulley. [0039] In FIG. 3A , contraption 300 is shown to include a container 304 inside which is a solution 306 . Solution 306 fills container 304 up to a certain height, whereas pulley 302 is dipped in the solution to a certain extent. In FIG. 3A there is shown the bottom of pulley 302 dipped in solution 306 such that the bottom of groove 302 b is immersed in the solution. Additionally, the external surfaces of the bottom of the flanges between which is groove 302 b may also be immersed in solution 306 , yet the pulley is positioned such that its center is outside the solution (and accordingly is not subjected to any microarc process inside the solution). A section of pulley 302 which is not immersed in solution 306 and thus is not subjected to a microarc process is numbered in FIG. 3A as 302 a. In some embodiments, the external surfaces of the flanges which define groove 302 b (i.e. the groove is between them) may be covered by covers 322 (one cover 322 is shown in FIG. 3A covering the external surface of one flange, whereas another cover 322 ′ is shown in FIG. 3B in addition to said one cover 322 that is shown in FIG. 3A ). Covers 322 may isolate the aforementioned external surfaces of the flanges from any microarc process occurring inside solution 306 , so that said external surfaces are prevented from being subjected to said microarc process. [0040] For positioning pulley 302 as described above, it is shown in FIG. 3A pulley 302 hoisted (or “installed”) on a rod 314 which is conductive and attached to a connection 308 a which is a connection to an electric current, thus connecting pulley 302 to an electric current and essentially making it an anode. However, it is made clear that hoisting pulley 302 on a rod does not limit the scope of the invention to only such a construction or way for dipping pulley 302 in solution 306 to a certain extent (i.e. not fully immersing the pulley in the solution). [0041] Similarly to the described above for other contraption of the invention, contraption 300 may include a cathode 308 c which may be dipped in solution 306 and attached to a connector 308 b which connects it to an electric current, thus facilitating a microarc process inside the solution. Further similarly to the described above, contraption 300 may include a pipe 312 a which streams a solution into container 304 , and a pipe 312 b which drains a solution (optionally the same solution) from the container. [0042] In some embodiments, rod 314 may be connected to an apparatus 310 which rotates it, whereas pulley 302 , as hoisted on the rod, rotates respectively. For example, apparatus 310 may be a robot which rotates rod 314 and accordingly pulley 302 as it is hoisted on rod 314 . By rotating pulley 302 , a different section of the surface of groove 302 b is immersed by solution 306 at any given time, and so a different section of the surface of the groove may be subjected to a microarc process at any given time. Accordingly, the surface of groove 302 b may gradually undergo a microarc process (or plurality thereof), such as by rotating pulley 302 and thus having sections of the surface of the groove sequentially immersed in solution 306 (where a microarc process may occur). For example, apparatus 310 may rotate rod 314 and respectively pulley 302 at a steady or changing pace such that a different section of the surface of groove 302 b is immersed in solution 306 at any given moment, thus a different section of the surface of the groove is subjected to a microarc process in the solution at any given moment (or “at any given time”). [0043] In some embodiments and in some methods, an entire rotation (i.e. of 360 degrees) of pulley 302 (e.g. by apparatus 310 ) may repeat itself such that different sections of the surface of groove 302 b are repeatedly immersed in solution 306 , thus undergoing a microarc process (or plurality thereof) multiple times. Note that from our findings, in some cases, such a repetition does not have a substantial (or any) effect of the continuity of the coating on a groove of a pulley resulted from a microarc process as described herein. For example, it may be difficult to distinguish between a surface of a groove of a pulley which has been completely immersed in a solution during a microarc process and a surface of a groove of a pulley which was dipped in a solution and rotated in accordance with the described above. [0044] In FIG. 3A , similarly to the described for contraption 100 and contraption 200 regarding streaming of solution and draining of solution, contraption 300 may include a pipe 312 a which streams solution into container 304 , and a pipe 312 b which drains solution from container 304 . [0045] Referring now to FIG. 3B , there is shown a cross-section view of contraption 300 , in accordance with the described above for FIG. 3A . [0046] Referring now to FIG. 3C , there is shown a cross-section view of a contraption 330 , similar to the described above for contraption 300 (certain elements of contraption 300 are not shown in FIG. 3C yet it is made clear that they may be included in contraption 330 ). In contraption 330 , a pulley 332 , a pulley 334 and a pulley 336 are joined together (e.g. physically attached as they are installed on rod 314 ), and also dipped in solution 306 , such that only the surface of their grooves is exposed to the solution, whereas the external surface of the flanges of said grooves is not exposed to the solution (e.g. by being tightly attached to the external surface of flanges of another pulley's groove). However, the external surface of one of the flanges of the groove of pulley 332 and the external surface of one of the flanges of the groove of pulley 336 may be exposed to the solution, as shown in FIG. 3C . Alternatively, the external surface of one of the flanges of the groove of pulley 332 and the external surface of one of the flanges of the groove of pulley 336 may be covered by covers 322 (e.g. one by cover 322 and another by cover 322 ′), such as shown in FIG. 3B the external surface of the flanges of groove 302 b covered by covers 322 (i.e. the surface of one of the flanges by cover 322 , and the surface of the other flange by cover 322 ′). [0047] In FIG. 4A there is shown a solution modulator 400 , similar to solution modulator 114 in FIG. 1A . Accordingly, solution modulator 400 facilitates any change of a solution, or exchange between solutions. Optionally, solution modulator 400 includes a container 404 in which changes (or “alterations”, or “modifications”) in a solution occur, or in which one solution is exchanged by another solution. A solution which was or is utilized for (or “took part in”) a microarc process may be streamed to container 404 through a pipe 414 a, whereas a modified solution (or a different solution) may be streamed out of (or “drained from”) container 404 through a pipe 414 b. Pipes 414 a,b may be part of a solution-circulation system of a contraption of the invention or of any contraption for microarc oxidation processes. Optionally, solution modulator 400 may include a monitor 414 for obtaining information about a solution inside container 404 . For example, monitor 414 may check which temperature a solution is at, and/or which pH. Accordingly, for the same example, solution modulator 400 may change the temperature and pH of said solution, such as by utilizing a cooling system or unit or module, and/or by adding any amount of a certain substance to a solution (e.g. more of the solvent or more of the solute of the solution). [0048] In some embodiments, solution modulator 400 may facilitate changing a solution for a microarc process for plurality thereof), or a part (or “period”) thereof, such that a microarc process, or plurality thereof, may utilize different solutions, or otherwise be composed of periods at each of which a different solution is utilized (i.e. an article is immersed in different solutions in different periods of a microarc process). For example, a first solution may be utilized for subjecting an article to a microarc process (e.g. said article may be immersed in said solution, in a contraption that facilitates microarc processes), whereas said first solution may be streamed to solution modulator 400 (e.g. through pipe 412 a ), whereat it may undergo changes or replaced altogether by a second solution. Said second solution (or the changed first solution) may then be streamed from solution modulator 400 (e.g. through pipe 412 b ) to be utilized for a microarc process which the same aforementioned article may undergo subsequently. For a more specific example, a certain contraption (e.g. contraption 100 ) may include solution modulator 400 , whereas a tube (e.g. tube 102 ), or a section thereof, may undergoe a microarc process in a container (e.g. container 104 ) filled with a solution (e.g. solution 106 ) which includes a first pigment solute. After a certain period of time, said solution may be added a second pigment solute by solution modulator 400 , such as by said first solution passing through solution modulator 409 (e.g. in a circulation system) and being streamed back to said container (of the aforementioned contraption) in which a microarc process may be performed. Accordingly, said microarc process may be composed of two periods, in the first of which there is present said first pigment solute, whereas in the second of which there is present said second pigment solute (in addition to, or substituting, said first pigment solute). [0049] In some embodiments, changes in a solution or exchanges between solutions, may be facilitated by s faucet 416 a and/or by a filter 416 b, as shown in FIG. 4A , or by any means known in the art. [0050] Following the above, a solution modulator of the invention (e.g. solution modulator 400 ) may facilitate any change (or “modification”, or “alteration”) of a solution for a microarc process, or plurality thereof, and/or any replacing (or “switching”, or “swapping”, or “exchanging”) between two or more solutions for a microarc process, or plurality thereof. Otherwise, a solution modulator of the invention may be any part (or “unit”, or “module”) of a contraption or device or apparatus or system for subjecting articles to microarc processes, whereas said solution modulator may facilitate any change in a solution, or any exchanging of solutions, for microarc processes performed by said contraption or device or apparatus or system. It is made clear that a solution modulator of the invention may facilitate change in a solution, or exchanging of solutions, during a microarc process, or otherwise while a microarc process occurs, or at any period along the duration of a microarc process. Accordingly, any changing or exchanging as described above may be transitional or gradual. [0051] While solution modulator 400 may be shown in FIG. 4A and described by the above, it is made clear that a solution modulator of the invention may be any apparatus or device or system, or part or unit or module thereof, which may, by any means known in the art, change (or “alter”, or “modify”) a solution of a microarc process, or exchange solutions of a microarc process (i.e. replace one solution by another). Otherwise, it is made clear that a solution modulator of the invention may change a solution utilized for any microarc process, or plurality thereof, or switch between solutions utilized in different periods of any microarc process. More specifically, it is made clear that the scope of the invention includes any device, apparatus, contraption or system, or unit, part or section thereof, which may be utilized in a microarc process (or plurality thereof) to modify a solution in which said microarc process occurs (or “is performed”), or exchange solutions during said microarc process (by any means known in the art). For example, a microarc process may occur inside a container filled with a first solution, whereas a solution modulator of the invention may stream additional solutes into said first solution, optionally during said microarc process. Alternatively, a solution modulator of the invention may gradually drain said first solution while gradually stream a second solution into said container. [0052] Following the above, some methods of the invention may include steps in which different solutions may be utilized in (or “for”) the same microarc process, or may include steps of changing a solution (or switching between solutions) during a microarc process, or plurality thereof. Accordingly, some articles of the invention may include a coating which is a result of a microarc process for which (or “in which”) different solutions were utilized, or for which modifications were made in a solution that was utilized to subject an article (or plurality thereof) to said microarc process. [0053] In FIG. 4B there is shown a cross-section view of a surface of an article 440 (generally, the face of the article is shown at the bottom of the figure, whereas towards the top of the figure is the inside of the body of the article), whereas said article was subjected to a microarc process composed of two periods, the first of which was performed in a first solution, whereas the second of which was performed in a second solution. Article 440 may have originally been made of a material 442 (e.g. aluminum), whereas after the aforementioned microarc process—material 442 generally makes the internal volume of article 440 (i.e. the inside of the body of the article which was not subjected to any microarc process). As shown in FIG. 4B , a material 444 (e.g. alumina) may have been formed on (otherwise “out of”) material 442 during the first period of said microarc process which was performed in said first solution. Additionally, a material 446 (e.g. alumina containing a pigment) may have been formed on (otherwise “out of”) material 444 during the second period of said microarc process which was performed in said second solution. Optionally, material 446 was additionally formed from matter in said second solution, such as from a pigment solute (in addition to matter from material 444 ). As shown in FIG. 4B , materials 442 , 444 and 446 may not be exactly defined as layers, yet may exhibit a transition (e.g. a gradient pattern) in article 440 , in accordance with a gradual exchange between the aforementioned first solution and the aforementioned second solution in the aforementioned microarc process. [0054] Following the above, a surface of an article of the invention (up to a certain depth inside the volume of said article) may be made of several layers, or of a transition pattern of several materials (e.g. a gradient of compositions of materials), which were formed during different periods of a microarc process in which different solutions were utilized. Said different periods may have been phased into each other gradually (or by any transition sequence), such as in case said different solutions were switched from one into another gradually. [0055] Note that while the described herein refers to microarc oxidation (or “plasma electrolytic oxidation”), similarly within the scope of the invention are related processes, such as plasma electrolytic nitriding, plasma electrolytic carburizing, plasma electrolytic boriding, plasma electrolytic carbonitriding, etc. [0056] While the described herein is for certain embodiments of devices of the invention featuring certain elements, it will be appreciated that other embodiments may be included in the scope of the invention which feature different combinations of elements described herein, and their equivalences as known in the art. [0057] While the invention has been described with respect to a limited number of embodiments, it will be appreciated that many variations, modifications and other applications of the invention may be made.

Disclosed articles as results of a microarc oxidation process, or plurality thereof, which are not limited by size, specifically by certain dimensions of their size, such as their length. Different sections or surfaces of articles of the invention may be subjected to a microarc oxidation process at any given time, such as by gradually subjecting a surface of an article to a microarc oxidation process, or such as by sequentially subjecting different sections of an articles to a microarc oxidation process. Further-more, disclosed are methods for manufacturing of articles of the invention, or otherwise for subjecting articles of the invention to a microarc oxidation process, or plurality thereof. In some examples, tubes of above 6 meter in length may be coated according to methods of the invention. The coating of said tubes may be beneficial for desalination applications. In other examples, only grooves of pulleys are coated. Further disclosed are articles which underwent a microarc oxidation process, or plurality thereof, which included different solution, optionally by utilizing a solution modulator.

REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATION [0001] The present application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/928,507, filed Jan. 17, 2014, which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0002] The present invention relates generally to a drug delivery system, and more specifically to a lung cancer targeted drug delivery system. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0003] Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related mortality in both men and women. An estimated 159,480 deaths have occurred in the U.S. in 2013, accounting for about 27% of all cancer deaths. Lung cancer can be histopathologically classified as small cell (15%) or non-small cell (84%) for the purposes of treatment, with the latter consisting of large cell carcinoma (LCC), adenocarcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). Although surgery, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and even EGER targeted therapies such as cetuximab (Erbitux), erlotinib (Tarceva), and gefitinib (Iressa) have been used to treat different stages or types of lung cancer, the 5-year survival rates for small cell carcinoma (SCLC) and non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) remain low, at 6% and 18%, respectively. [0004] One major cause for this disappointing outcome is lack of selectivity for conventional chemotherapeutics in cancer treatment, which results in a narrow therapeutic window and severe damage to normal tissues. The other reason is high interstitial fluid pressure (IFP) of solid tumors which makes it difficult for anticancer agents or even small molecular tyrosine kinase inhibitors commonly used in targeted therapy to enter into the tumor site. It has been shown that the amount of drug accumulated in normal viscera is ˜10- to 20-fold higher than that in the same weight of tumor site, and that many anticancer drugs are not able to penetrate more than 40-50 on (equivalent to the combined diameter of 3-5 cells) from the vasculature. These deficiencies often lead to limited therapeutic function and multiple drug resistance, thereby compromising clinical prognosis. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0005] In one aspect, the invention relates to a conjugate comprising: [0006] (a) an isolated or a synthetic targeting peptide of less than 15 amino acid residues in length, comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 90% identity to a sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs: 1-8; and [0007] (b) a component conjugated to the targeting peptide, the component being selected from the group consisting of a drug delivery vehicle, an anti-cancer drug, a micelle, a nanoparticle, a liposome, a polymer, a lipid, an oligonucleotide, a peptide, a polypeptide, a protein, a cell, an imaging agent, and a labeling agent. [0008] The imaging agent may be iron oxide. The iron oxide may be encapsulated within a liposome. [0009] The targeting peptide may comprise at least one motif selected from the group consisting of MHLXW, NPWXE, and WXEMM motifs, where X is any amino acid residue. [0010] The conjugate as aforementioned may exhibit at least one of the following characteristics: (a) increased binding, to a lung cancer cell as compared to a control liposome; (b) enhanced endocytosis into a lung cancer cell as compared to a control liposome; and (c) decreasing the half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC 50 ) in cytotoxicity to a lung cancer cell; (d) enhancing efficacy of anticancer drugs in vivo; (e) decreasing a lung tumor size in vivo; and (f) prolonging an overall survival rate in a subject with a lung tumor. [0017] In another aspect, the invention relates to an isolated or a synthetic targeting peptide of less than 15 amino acid residues in length, comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 90% identity to a sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ. ID NOs: 1-8, wherein the isolated or the synthetic targeting peptide is active in, binding to a human lung cancer cell but not a normal cell. The lung cancer cell may be at least One selected from the group consisting of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and small cell lung cancer (SCLC). The lung cancer may be at least one selected from the group consisting of adenocarcinoma, papillary adenocarcinoma, bronchioloalveolar carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, large cell carcinoma, and small cell carcinoma. [0018] In one embodiment of the invention, the isolated or a synthetic targeting peptide contains at least one substitution modification relative to the sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO: 1-8. [0019] In another embodiment of the invention, the isolated or a synthetic targeting peptide as aforementioned is conjugated to a component selected from the group consisting of a drug delivery vehicle, a liposome, a polymer, a lipid, a cell, an imaging agent, and a labeling agent. [0020] The isolated or a synthetic targeting peptide may be conjugated to a PEG-phospholipid derivative, a liposome, or a PEGylated liposome. The PEG-phospholipid derivative may be selected from the group consisting of NHS-PEG-DSPE, PEG-DSPE. [0021] The isolated or a synthetic targeting peptide may further comprise an anti-cancer drug or a fluorescent dye encapsulated within the liposome, or the PEGylated liposome. [0022] Further in another aspect, the invention relates to a composition comprising: [0023] (a) liposomes or PEGylated liposomes; and [0024] (b) at least one isolated or one synthetic targeting peptide as aforementioned, conjugated to the surfaces of the liposomes or the PEGylated liposomes. [0025] In one embodiment of the invention, the composition may comprises at least two isolated or synthetic targeting peptides conjugated to the surfaces of the liposomes of PEGylated Liposomes. Each of the liposomes or PEGylated liposomes may have a different targeting peptide conjugated thereto. [0026] The composition may further comprises at least one anti-cancer drug encapsulated within the liposomes or PEGylated liposomes. The anticancer drug may be at least one selected from the group consisting of doxorubicin, and vinorelbine. [0027] The composition may comprise one or more isolated or synthetic peptides as aforementioned. [0028] In another embodiment of the invention, the composition comprises: (a) the isolated or synthetic peptide of SEQ ID NO: 3; (b) the isolated or synthetic peptide of SEQ ID NO: 1; or (c) the isolated or synthetic peptides of SEQ ID NO: 3 and SEQ. ID NO: 1. [0032] Further in another aspect, the invention relates to a method of treating lung cancer, comprising administering to a subject in need thereof the composition as aforementioned. [0033] Yet in another aspect, the invention relates to a method of detecting lung cancer cells, comprising: (1) exposing the lung cancer cells to a conjugate comprising: at least one isolated or synthetic targeting peptide of claim 2 ; and an imaging agent or a labeling agent, conjugated to the at least one isolated or synthetic targeting peptide; (2) removing the conjugate unbound to the lung cancer cells and detecting the imaging agent or the labeling agent conjugated to the isolated or a synthetic targeting peptide bound to the lung cancer cells; or (i) exposing the lung cancer cells to a conjugate comprising: at least one isolated or synthetic targeting peptide of claim 2 ; and at least one phage, displaying at least one peptide on the surface thereof, the at least one peptide displayed on the phage has the amino acid sequence identical to the isolated or a synthetic targeting peptide of claim 2 ; (ii) removing the conjugate unbound to the lung cancer cells and detecting the at least one phage bound to the lung cancer cells. [0042] The cancer cells may be present in a tissue specimen, e.g., a surgical tissue specimen. One or more isolated or synthetic peptides as aforementioned may react and bind to a lung cancer tissue specimen. [0043] These and other aspects will become apparent from the following description of the preferred embodiment taken in conjunction with the following drawings, although variations and modifications therein may be affected without departing from the spirit and scope of the novel concepts of the disclosure. [0044] The accompanying drawings illustrate one or more embodiments of the invention and, together with the written description, serve to explain the principles of the invention. Wherever possible, the same reference numbers are used throughout the drawings to refer to the same or like elements of an embodiment. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0045] FIG. 1A shows immunofluorescent staining of FITC-labeled HSP1, HSP2, and HSP4 peptides to H460 large cell carcinoma and H1993 adenocarcinoma cell lines. Nuclear were stained by DAPI. Scale bar, 50 μm. [0046] FIG. 1B is a table listing the percentage of IFA positive stained cells of HSP1, HSP2 and HSP4-FITC in H460 and H1993 cell lines. [0047] FIGS. 2A-C show verifying the tumor homing ability of H460-targeting phages in vivo. (A) SCID mice bearing H460 xenografts were injected i.v. with selected phage clones. After 8 minutes, the free phages were washed out by PBS perfusion, then xenograft tumor masses and organs were removed for determination of phage titer (n=3). HPC2, 3 and 4 showed better tumor homing ability among four phage clones of group 1 with similar sequences, while HPC1 was the best in group 2. (B) Whole body imaging of HILYTE™ Fluor 750 labeled. HPC1, 2, 4 and control phage. The tissue distribution of these HILYTE™ Fluor 750 labeled phage were determined at 24 hr post-injection, and signal intensity of tumor and organs were measured by IVIS200 software. *, P<0.05; ***, P<0.001 (n=3). (C) The fluorescence images of the dissected organs from HPC1-HL750 injected mice were acquired and compared with control phage. [0048] FIGS. 3A-B show HSP1, HSP2and HSP4 peptides enhanced liposomal SRB internalization and liposomal doxorubicin cytotoxicity in human lung cancer cell line H460. (A) Kinetics of HSP1-LSRB, HSP2-LSRB, HSP4-LSRB and LSRB uptake by H460 cells with incubation at 37° C. After acid glycine buffer washing, which removed surface-bound liposomal dye, the internalized SRB was quantified (n=4) (B) H460 cells were treated with increasing amounts of targeting or non-targeting liposomal doxorubicin (LD), then analyzed cell viability by MTT assay (n=6). The IC 50 of HSP1-LD, HSP2-LD, HSP4-LD and LD are 3.512 μM, 3.388 μM, 4.646 μM and 43.865 μM respectively. The suitable peptide numbers for HSP1, 2 and 4 inserted per liposome were tested. [0049] FIGS. 4A-F show therapeutic efficacy of HSP1-LD, HSP2-LD and HSP4-LD in human lung large cell carcinoma xenografts. (A) Mice bearing H460-derived lung cancer xenografts with average tumor size of ˜75 mm 3 were administered with FD, LD, HSP1-LD, HSP2-LD, HSP4-LD (1 mg/kg/injection once a week), or an equal volume of PBS intravenously. n=8 in each group. Points, mean tumor volumes. (B) Mice bearing size-matched H460-derived lung cancer with tumor size of ˜500 mm 3 were treated with FD, LD, HSP1-LD, HSP2-LD, HSP4-LD (2 mg/kg/injection, twice a week), or an equal volume of PBS by intravenous injection. n=7 in each group. The detailed statistic information of HSP1-LD HSP2-LD and HSP4-LD efficacy are separately shown in (C-E). Error bar, SE. *, P<0.05 **, P<0.01; ***, P<0.001. (F) A Kaplan-Meier survival plot showed longer lifespan of targeting drugs than non-targeting drugs in large tumor treatment. [0050] FIGS. 5A-F show therapeutic efficacy of HSP1-LD, HSP2-LD and HSP4-LD in human lung adenocarcinoma xenografts. (A) Mice bearing H1993-derived lung cancer xenografts with average tumor size of ˜300 mm 3 were administered with FD, LD, HSP1-LD, HSP2-LD, HSP4-LD (1 mg/kg/injection, twice a week), or an equal volume of PBS intravenously. n=7 in each group. Points, mean tumor volumes. The detailed statistic information of HSP1-LD, HSP2-LD and HSP4-LD efficacy are separately shown in (B-D) Error bar, SE. *, P<0.05; **, P<0.01 ; ***, P<0.001. (E) Both Weight change during the course of treatment. NS, no significance. (F) A Kaplan-Meier survival curve showed markedly longer lifespan of mice treated with HSP1 and HSP2-mediated liposomal drug than other groups in H1993 model. [0051] FIGS. 6A-D show combination therapy of HSP4-LD and HSP4-LV in human lung large cell carcinoma xenografts. (A) Mice bearing H460-derived lung cancer xenografts with average tumor size of ˜200 mm 3 were administered with FD/FV, LD/LV or HSP4-LD/HSP4-LV at combination doses of ½ mpk, respectively, twice a week for four weeks, or an equal volume of PBS intravenously. n=8 in each group. Points, mean tumor volumes. Error bar, SE, *, P<0.05; **, P<0.01 (B) Body weight change during the course of treatment NS, no significance. (C) A Kaplan-Meier survival curve showed markedly longer lifespan of mice treated with HSP4 mediated liposomal drugs than other groups in H460 model. (D) Median survival days were significantly prolonged by HSP4 targeting LD and LV. [0052] FIGS. 7A-E show HSP4-LD and HSP4-LV combination therapy to treat orthotopic model of H460 large cell carcinoma. (A) Imaging drug response of mice transplanted luciferase-expressing H460 cells to combination therapy with FD/FV, LD/LV, HSP4-LD/HSP4-LV at doses of ½ mpk or an equal volume of PBS intravenously. A total of 5×10 5 cells were transplanted with MATRIGEL®, and the treatment started 4 days after cancer cells transplantation (once every two days for 8 times). n=8 in each group. (B) Luminescence signal of tumor were quantified using IVIS200 software. *, P<0.05. (C) Body weight change during the course of treatment. (D) A Kaplan-Meier survival curve and (E) median survival time of drug recipient mice. [0053] FIGS. 8A-F show HSP4-LD and HSP4-LV combination therapy to treat orthotopic model of A549 adenocarcinoma. (A) Imaging drug response of mice transplanted luciferase-expressing A549 cells to combination therapy with FD/LV, LD/LV, HSP4-LD/HSP4-LV at doses of ½ mpk or an equal volume of PBS intravenously. A total of 5×10 5 cells were transplanted with MATRIGEL®, and the treatment started 5 days after cancer cells transplantation (once every two days for 8 times). n=7 in each group. (B) Luminescence signal of tumor were quantified using IVIS200 software. **, P<0.01; ***, P<0.001. (C) Body weight change during the course of treatment. The overall survival rate (D) and median survival days (E) were significantly prolonged by HSP4 targeting LD and LV. [0054] FIG. 9 shows IHC staining of HPC1, 2 and 4 to NSCLC and SCLC clinical specimens. Representative photomicrographs of paraffin sections from several types of human lung cancer surgical specimens were detected using HPC1. HPC2, and HPC4 phage clones (2˜5×10 8 pfu/μl). In comparison, normal bronchiole was not detected by these targeting phages. Helper phage was used as negative control. Scale bar, 100 μm. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0055] The present invention is more particularly described in the following examples that are intended as illustrative only since numerous modifications and variations therein will be apparent to those skilled in the art. Various embodiments of the invention are now described in detail. Referring to the drawings, like numbers indicate like components throughout the views. As used in the description herein and throughout the claims that follow, the meaning of “a”, “an”, and “the” includes plural reference unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Also, as used in the description herein and throughout the claims that follow, the meaning of “in” includes “in” and “on” unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Moreover, titles or subtitles may be used in the specification for the convenience of a reader, which shall have no influence on the scope of the present invention. Additionally, some terms used in this specification are more specifically defined below. DEFINITIONS [0056] The terms used in this specification generally have their ordinary meanings in the art, within the context of the invention, and in the specific context where each term is used. Certain terms that are used to describe the invention are discussed below, or elsewhere in the specification, to provide additional guidance to the practitioner regarding the description of the invention. For convenience, certain terms may be highlighted, for example using italics and/or quotation marks. The use of highlighting has no influence on the scope and meaning of a term; the scope and meaning of a term is the same, in the same context, whether or not it is highlighted. It will be appreciated that same thing can be said in more than one way. Consequently, alternative language and synonyms may be used for any one or more of the terms discussed herein, nor is any special significance to be placed upon whether or not a term is elaborated or discussed herein. Synonyms for certain terms are provided. A recital of one or more synonyms does not exclude the use of other synonyms. The use of examples anywhere in this specification including examples of any terms discussed herein is illustrative only, and in no way limits the scope and meaning of the invention or of any exemplified term. Likewise, the invention is not limited to various embodiments given in this specification. [0057] Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention pertains. In the case of conflict, the present document, including definitions will control. [0058] As used herein, “around”, “about” or “approximately” shall generally mean within 20 percent, preferably within 10 percent, and more preferably within 5 percent of a given value or range. Numerical quantities given herein are approximate, meaning that the term “around”, “about” or “approximately” can be inferred if not expressly stated. [0059] The term “drug delivery vehicles” refers to a vehicle that is capable of delivering medication to a patient in a manner that increases the concentration of the medication in some parts of the body relative to others. Drug delivery vehicles includes, but not limited to, polymeric micelles, liposomes, lipoprotein-based drug carriers, nano-particle drug carriers, dendrimers, cells, polypeptides, etc. An ideal drug delivery vehicle must be non-toxic, biocompatible non-immunogenic, biodegradable, and must avoid recognition by the host's defense mechanisms. The term “treating” or “treatment” refers to administration of an effective amount of the compound to a subject in need thereof, who has cancer, or a symptom or predisposition toward such a disease, with the purpose of cure, alleviate, relieve, remedy, ameliorate, or prevent the disease, the symptoms of it, or the predisposition towards it Such a subject can be identified by a health care professional based on results from any suitable diagnostic method (see U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/499,201, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety). [0060] The term “treating” or “treatment” refers to administration of an effective amount of the compound to a subject in need thereof, who has cancer, or a symptom or predisposition toward such a disease, with the purpose of cure, alleviate, relieve, remedy, ameliorate, or prevent the disease, the symptoms of it, or the predisposition towards it. Such a subject can be identified by a health care professional based on results from any suitable diagnostic method. [0061] The term “An effective amount” refers to the amount of an active compound that is required to confer a therapeutic effect on the treated subject. Effective doses will vary, as recognized by those skilled in the art, depending on rout of administration, excipient usage, and the possibility of co-usage with other therapeutic treatment. [0062] The “Guidance for Industry and Reviewers Estimating the Safe Starting Dose in Clinical Trials for Therapeutics in Adult Healthy Volunteers” published by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Food and Drug Administration discloses a “therapeutically effective amount” may be obtained by calculations from the following formula: [0000] HED=animal dose in mg/kg×(animal weight in kg/human weight in kg) 0.33 , [0063] In this study, we used a phage-displayed peptide library and biopanning technique to isolate lung cancer-specific peptides. We identified three novel peptides HSP1, HSP2 and HSP4 that were able to bind to several types of NSCLC (including LCC, adenocarcinoma, and SCC) and SCLC in both cell lines and clinical surgical specimens, but not normal pneumonic tissue. In vivo study further proved the enhanced therapeutic efficacy and bioavailability of these HSP1, 2, or 4 peptide-mediated drug delivery systems. These data demonstrated a promising potential for these three novel peptides in theranostics applications. [0064] Iron oxide-binding peptides have been disclosed in U.S. Patent publication Nos. 20100158837 and US20090208420. Superparamagnetic iron oxide (USPIO)-based liposomes have been disclosed by Frascione Det al. (Int J Nanomedicine. 2012; 7:2349-59). [0065] The term “a labeling agent” includes, but not limited to, “a fluorescent labeling agent”. [0066] Imaging agents are designed to provide more information about internal organs, cellular processes and tumors, as well as normal tissue They can be used to diagnose disease as well as monitor treatment effects. EXAMPLES [0067] Without intent to limit the scope of the invention, exemplary instruments, apparatus, methods and their related results according to the embodiments of the present invention are given below. Note that titles or subtitles may be used in the examples for convenience of a reader, which in no way should limit the scope of the invention. Moreover, certain theories are proposed and disclosed herein; however, in no way they, whether they are right or wrong, should limit the scope of the invention so long as the invention is practiced according to the invention without regard for any particular theory or scheme of action. Materials and Methods [0068] Cell lines and Cultures [0069] NCI-H460, NCI-H661, NCI-H1993, NCI-H441, NCI-H520, NCI-H1688, A549 human lung cancer cell lines and NL20 human bronchial epithelial cells were purchased from American Type Culture Collection (ATCC®) and were authenticated by ATCC based on DNA profile, cytogenetic analysis and isoenzymology. These cells were cultured by ATCC's protocols and had been passaged for fewer than 6 months after resuscitation, CL1-5 cells were established and were verified routinely by growth, morphology and mycoplasma-free. The human normal nasal mucosal epithelial (NNM) cells were a primary culture derived from a nasal polyp and were grown in DMEM. Phage Display Biopanning Procedures [0070] Human lung large cell carcinoma cell line H460 cells were incubated with UV-treated inactive control helper phage (insertless phage). The phage-displayed peptide library, which initially contained 5×10 10 plaque-forming units (pfu) was then added. After washing, the bound phages were eluted with a lysis buffer (150 mM NaCl, 50 mM Tris-HCl, 1 mM EDTA, 1% NP-40, 0.5% sodium deoxycholate, 0.1% SDS, pH 7.4 on ice. This eluted phage pool was amplified and titered in an Escherichia coli ER2738 culture. Recovered phages were used as input for the next round of panning. In the fourth and fifth round of biopanning the phage clones were randomly selected to culture for ELISA screening (Manuscript submitted for publication, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety). Identification of phage clones using cellular enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) [0071] Ninety-six-well ELISA plates were seeded with either cancer or control NNM cells. Individual phage clones were added to the cell-coated plates and were incubated with horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-conjugated mouse anti-M13 monoclonal antibody, followed by incubating with the peroxidase substrate o-phenylenediamine dihydrochloride. The reaction was stopped and absorbance was measured at 490 nm using an ELISA reader. The selected phage clones were further analyzed using DNA sequencing with the primer 5′-CCCTCATAGTTAGCGT AACG-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 12) corresponding to the pIII gene sequence. Peptide Synthesis and Labeling [0072] The synthetic targeting peptide HSP1 (GAMHLPWHMGTL; SEQ ID NO: 1), HSP2 (NPWEEQGYRYSM; SEQ ID NO: 2), HSP4 (NNPWREMMYIEI; SEQ ID NO: 3) and control peptide (12 amino acid sequence from BSA protein, KATEEQLKTVME; SEQ ID NO: 13) were prepared by Fmoc SPPS using a CEM Liberty automated microwave peptide synthesizer and purified using reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography to 95% purity. Conjugation of these peptides with fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) was performed through the addition of FITC to the peptide C-terminus. Peptide synthesis, conjugation, and purification were performed by Peptide Synthesis Core Facility of the Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica (Taipei, Taiwan). Flow Cytometry Analysis [0073] The lung cancer cell lines or control cells were collected using enzyme-free cell dissociation buffer, and then were incubated with 20 μg/mL FITC-conjugated HSP1, 2, 4 or control peptide at 4° C. for 1 hour. After washing, cells were analyzed by flow cytometer. Immunofluorescence Staining of Synthetic Peptides to Lung Cancer Cells [0074] H460 and H1993 cells were seeded and grown to about 50% confluence on cover slips. After the cells had been fixed with 2% paraformaldehyde, they were incubated with 10 μg/mL FITC-labeled HSP1, 2, 4 or control peptides. Then the slides were counterstained with 4′,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI), mounted and examined under a Leica universal fluorescent microscope. The images were merged using the MetaMorph Image Analysis Software. Immunohisochemistry Staining for Human Surgical Specimens [0075] Eleven cases of lung adenocarcinoma and ten cases of lung squamous cell carcinoma paraffin tissue section were obtained from tissue bank of National Taiwan University Hospital (NTUH) with approval from the Institutional Review Board in NTUH. To increase the case number and histopathological subtypes of lung cancer specimens, we also obtained commercial tissue microarray sections consisted of a total of 120 cases of lung adenocarcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, large cell carcinoma, small cell carcinoma, etc. with approval of the AS-IRB03-102103. For localization of phages binding to the lung cancer tissues, the tissues were incubated with HPC1, HPC2, HPC4 or control phages (2˜5×10 8 pfu/μl). After washing with PBS, sections were treated with anti-M13 mouse mAb (GE Healthcare) for 1 hour at room temperature. Following washing steps, a biotin-free super sensitive polymer-HRP detection system was used to detect immunoreactivity. The slides were lightly counterstained with hematoxylin, mounted with AQUATEX® (Merck) and examined by light microscopy. In Vivo Tumor Homing Assay and Imaging [0076] SCID mice were injected subcutaneously in the dorsolateral flank with 5×10 6 H460 cells. The mice bearing size-matched lung cancer xenografts (approximately 300 mm 3 ) were intravenously injected with 2×10 9 pfu of the targeting phage or control phage. After eight minutes of phage circulation, the mice were sacrificed and perfused with 50 ml PBS to wash out unbound phage. Subsequently, xenograft tumors and mouse organs were dissected and homogenized. The phages bound to each tissue sample were recovered through the addition of ER2738 bacteria and titered on IPTG/X-Gal agar plates. For the in vivo whole body imaging, HPC1, 2, 4 and control phages were labeled with the fluorescence dye, HILYTE™ Fluor 750 acid NHS ester (HL750), by NHS functional group. Same H460 xenograft model were intravenously injected with 5×10 9 pfu of the HL750-labeled targeting phages or control phages. Fluorescence imaging of mice and tissues was captured using Xenogen IVIS200 imaging system (Excitation 710/760 nm; Emission: 810/875 nm) at indicated time points. And the fluorescence intensity of tissues was calculated by subtracting background using Living Image software (Xenogen). Preparation of Synthetic Peptide-Conjugated Liposomal Doxorubicin, Vinorelbine and SRB [0077] The peptide was coupled to NHS-PEG-DSPE [N-hydroxysuccinimido-carboxyl-polyethyleneglycol (MW, 3400)-derived distearoylphosphatidyl ethanolamine] in a 1.1:1 molar ratio. The PEGylated peptide-PEG-DSPE conjugates were purified by SEPHADEX® G-15 (GE healthcare) gel filtration chromatography, and were then dried through lyophilization. The conjugates were also analyzed by HPLC quantitatively and by MALDI-TOF-MS (BRUKER MICROFLEX™) qualitatively. [0078] A lipid film hydration method was used to prepare PEGylated liposomes composed of distearoylphosphatidylcholine, cholesterol, and PEG-DSPE, which were then used to encapsulate doxoruhicin, vinorelbine or to incorporate sulforhodamine B-DSPE with the particle size ranging from 65 to 75 nm in diameter. HSP1, 2, or 4-PEG-DSPE was subsequently incorporated into pre-formed liposomes by co-incubation at 60° C., the transition temperature of the lipid bilayer, for 1 hour with gentle shaking. After incubation, the surface of each liposome displayed about 500 peptide molecules. SEPHADEX™ G-25 gel filtration chromatography was used to remove released free drug, unconjugated peptides, and unincorporated conjugates. Doxorubicin and vinorelbine concentrations m the fractions of eluent were determined by measuring Excitation/Emission wavelengths of fluorescence at 485/590 and 520/570 nm, respectively, using spectrofluorometer (Spectra Max M5, Molecular Devices). Uptake of Targeting Peptide-Conjugated LSRB or LD by Human Lung Cancer Cells [0079] H460 and H1993 cells were grown on a 24-well plate to 90% confluency, and 20, 10, 5, 2.5, 1.25, 0.625 μM HSP1, 2, 4-liposomal sulforhodamine B (LSRB) or LSRB in complete culture medium was added. The cells were incubated at 37° C., at the following time periods: 10, 30 min, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 and 24 hours. At the indicated time point, cells were washed with PBS, and non-internalized LSRB on the cell surface was removed by adding 0.1 M Glycine, pH 2.8 for 10 min. Cells were then lysed with 200 μl 1% Triton X-100. Uptake of LD at low concentration in H1993 cells was performed using same protocol. For extraction of SRB or doxorubicin, 300 μl IPA (0.75 N HCl in isopropanol) was added to the lysate and shaken for 30 min. After the lysate was centrifuged at 12,000 rpm for 5 min, the amount of uptakes were determined by measuring Excitation/Emission wavelengths of fluorescence at 520/570 nm for SRB and 485/590 nm for doxorubicin using, a spectrofluorometer (SPECTRAMAX® M5, Molecular Devices). The concentration of SRB and doxambicin were calculated by interpolation using a standard curve. Endocytosis Assay [0080] H460 cells were incubated with HSP1, HSP2, HSP4-LSRB or LSRB for 10 min at 4 ° C. and 37° C. After being washed with PBS, the cells were fixed by 4% paraformaldehyde, blocked by 1% BSA, and then stained with WGA-ALEXA FLUOR® 467 and DAPI for cell membrane and nucleus. All fluorescence images were obtained by confocal microscopy. In Vitro Cytotoxicity Assay of Targeting Peptide-Conjugated LD [0081] H460 cells were seeded in 96-well plates (5000 cells/well) in complete culture media and were incubated overnight. Next day, cells were treated with varying concentration (0-100 μM) of HSP1-LD, HSP2-LD, HSP4-LD or LD at 37° C. for 24 hours; After removal of the excess drug, the cells were washed once with PBS and continued to incubate with fresh culture medium for 48 h at 37° C. The cell viability was measured by adding 50 μl of MTT (Thiazolyl Blue Tetrazolium Bromide; Sigma-Aldrich) to each well of the plate. After 3.5 hours MTT incubation, 150 μl of Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO; Mallinckrodt Baker) was added to each well for 10 min, and the absorbance was determined with microplate reader (SPECTRAMAX® M5, Molecular Devices) at 540 nm. Animal Models for the Study of Ligand-Targeted Therapy [0082] Female SCID mice 4-6 weeks of age were injected subcutaneously in the dorsolateral flank with human NSCLC cells. Mice with size-matched tumors (approximately 75 mm 3 for small tumor; 300 or 500 mm 3 for large tumor) were then randomly assigned to different treatment groups, and were injected intravenously with liposomal doxorubicin (LD), liposomal vinorelbine (LV), targeting peptide (HSP1, HSP2 or HSP4)-conjugated LD or LV, free doxotubicin (FD), free vinorelbine (LV) or equivalent volumes of saline. The dosages of drugs and administration time courses were described in figure legends depend on different experiment design. Mouse body weights and tumor sizes were measured twice a week. Tumor volumes were calculated according to this formula: length×(width) 2 ×0.52. Animal care was carried out in accordance with guidelines of Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan. The protocol was approved by the Committee on the Ethics of Animal Experiments of Academia Sinica. Orthotopic Lung Cancer Models [0083] SCID mice (6-week-old) were anesthetized with isofloruance mixed with oxygen and placed in the right decubitus position. The skin overlying the left chest wall in the mid-axillary line was prepared with alcohol, and the underlying, chest wall and intercostal spaces were visualized. Luciferase-overexpressed H460 or A549 cells (5×10 5 cells) in 50 μl serum-free medium plus MATRIGEL® Matrix (2:1) were injected into the left lateral thorax, at the lateral dorsal axillary line. After tumor injection, the mice were turned to left decubitus position and observed for 45 to 60 min until fully recovered. [0084] Luciferase-expressing cancer cells were imaged and quantified using IVIS200 system (Xenogen Corporation, Alameda, Calif.) at 10 minutes after i.p. injection of LUCWERIN™ (Caliper Life Sciences) before drug administration each time. Pharmacokinetic and Biodistribution Studies [0085] SCID mice bearing H460 lung cancer xenografts (˜300 mm 3 ) were injected in the tail vein with either free drug doxorubicin (FD), liposomal doxorubicin (LD), or targeting (HSP1, HSP2 or HSP4) LD at a single dose of 2 mg/kg. At 1 hr and 24 hr post-injection, blood samples were collected through submaxillary punctures before mice were anaesthetized and sacrificed (three mice in each group). Then the mice were perfused with 50 ml PBS through heart, xenograft tumors and organs (brain, lung, heart, liver, and kidney) were dissected, weighted, and homogenized to calculate amount of doxorubicin in tissues. Total doxorubicin was quantified by measuring fluorescence at λ Ex/Em =485/590 nm using a spectrofluorometer (SPECTRAMAX® M5, Molecular Devices) Statistical Analysis [0086] Two-sided unpaired Student's t-test was used to calculate P values. P<0.05 was considered significant for all analyses. Results [0087] Identification of Three Novel Peptides that Bind to Several Types of Human Lung Cancer Cells [0088] In this study, we used a phage-displayed random peptide library to isolate phages that were able to bind to H460 non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) cells. After five rounds of affinity selection (biopanning), the titer of bound phage increased by up to 9-fold. Ninety-four phage clones were randomly selected from both the fourth and the fifth rounds of biopanning for cellular ELISA screening. Forty-seven clones of these selected phages possessed higher affinity to H460 cells. We then further tested the binding activity of these H460 bound clones to other cell lines, including human lung adenocarcinoma H1993, CL1-5, A549, murine Lewis lung carcinoma 3LL or human normal nasal mucosal epithelial NNM cells. By sequencing phage clones with the highest lung cancer binding but the faintest normal cell reactivity, we identified thirteen phage clones, which displayed two distinctive groups of consensus sequences (Table 1). Its interesting that HPC1, 5 and 13 displayed identical sequence “GAMHLPWHMGTL” (SEQ ID NO: 1). Table 1 shows alignment of phage-displayed peptide sequences selected by H460 cells. From 47 random selected phage clones in the fifth round of biopanning, 13 phage clones with higher H460 binding affinity were identified and the displayed-peptide sequences were aligned. *Phage-displayed consensus amino acids are shown in the box. [0000] TABLE 1 [0089] To investigate whether these similar peptide-displayed phages exhibited similar binding, patterns to different lung cancers, we compared the binding intensity of these two groups of phages to H460, H1993, CL1-5, A549 and 3LL by cellular ELSA (Manuscript submitted for publication, which is incorporated hereby by reference in its entirety). The data revealed that although HPC2, 3 and 4 displayed similar sequences containing NPW-E (SEQ ID NO: 14) motif, HPC 3, 4 and 6 exhibited more similar binding patterns in various lung cancers. This suggested that W-EMM (SEQ ID NO: 15) mimetic motifs may play more important role than NPW-E motif in binding to lung cancers, since HPC3 and 4 consist both of these two motifs but behaved as HPC6, which contains only W-EMM mimetic motif. The other group of phages all displayed MHL-W (SEQ ID NO: 16) consensus sequence with similar binding patterns to lung cancers. Based on these findings, we chose to focus on HPC1, HPC2 and HPC4 for further study since they typified MHL-W motif, NPW-E motif, and W-EMM motifs, respectively. [0090] To determine whether the peptide sequences displayed on HPC1, HPC2 and HPC4 have lung cancer binding function, we synthesized HSP1, HSP2, and HSP4 peptides, which have the amino acid sequences GAMHLPWHMGTL (SEQ ID NO: 1), NPWEEQGYRYSM (SEQ ID NO: 2) and NNPWREMMYIEI (SEQ ID NO: 3), respectively. The words “SP” in “HSP” represented the “Synthetic Peptide” displayed by HPC phage. HSP1, HSP2 or HSP4 synthetic peptides or their fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC )conjugates would be used in the following experiments. To verify whether HSP1, 2, and 4 peptides would bind to target molecules expressed on the surface of lung cancer cells, the surface binding activities of each FITC-conjugated peptides was analyzed by flow cytometry and immunofluorescent staining ( FIG. 1A ). In the FACS data, all of these three FITC-labeled peptides exhibited prominent binding to several pathological subtypes of human lung cancer cell lines, including large cell carcinoma (H460 and H661), adenocarcinoma (H1993, H441, CL1-5 and A549), squamous cell carcinoma (H520) and small cell carcinoma (H1688), but not to human normal bronchial epithelial cell (NL20). Furthermore, HSP1, 2, and 4 show different binding patterns of fluorescence intensity in various lung cancer cells, suggesting that these peptides might target different molecules on the cell surface. [0091] In cell IFA experiments ( FIG. 1A ), FITC-labeled HSP1, 2 or 4 can bind to a major group of H460 large cell carcinoma cells and H1993 adenocarcinoma cells while FITC-labeled control peptide cannot. The FITC-positive cells represent the peptide target molecules expressing cells. Thus, we calculated the percentages of positively stained H460 and H1993 cells by these three peptides ( FIG. 1B ). Based on the statistic table and fluorescence pictures, we found out the proportions of target-expressing cells relative to the entire populations and the receptor densities on cell surface. It is worth noting that HSP4 showed higher receptor density on the cell surface as indicated by its stronger fluorescent intensity despite having lower positive rate in H1993 cells. In addition, HSP4 peptides showed the best reactivity to H460 cells, both in terms of percentage of positive cells and receptor density. These results suggest that HSP1, 2, and 4 are able to bind to both NSCLC and SCLC cells in vitro with different binding patterns. In Vivo Tumor Homing and Imaging of HPC1, 2, and 4 [0092] To investigate the targeting ability of the selected phage clones in vivo, we intravenously injected each clone into mice bearing H460-derived tumor xenografts. After perfusion, we measured the phage titers in the tumor and normal organs. The tumor homing ability was estimated by the phage titer ratio of tumor to normal organs, comparing to control phage. In the first group of phages with consensus sequence (HPC2, 3, 4, 6), HPC2, 3 and 4 showed prominent tumor homing ability, whereas HPC6 exhibited only recessive tumor localization iii vivo ( FIG. 2A ). That was another reason why we chose HPC2 and HPC4, but not HPC6, to typify NPW motif and W-EMM motif for further study. In the other group of phages with consensus sequence of MHL-W, HPC1, but not HPC9, exhibited notable tumor homing ability ( FIG. 2A ). [0093] Further, we labeled phages with HILYTE™ Fluor 750 (HL750) fluorescence dye, which can be used for whole body imaging at specific ranges of excitation and emission wavelength (Excitation: 710/760 nm: Emission: 810/875 nm). SCID mice beating size-matched H460 xenografts were i.v. injected with HPC1-HL750, HPC2-HL750, HPC4-HL750 or control phage-HL750 and serially monitored by IVIS200. The HL750-labeled phages were visible under IVIS200 imaging system while systemic circulating through the mice. After 6 hr post-injection, the targeting phages, which accumulated in tumor tissue, became obvious and could be easily seen. At 24 hr post-injection, fluorescence imaging of mice and the dissected tissues were captured ( FIG. 2C ). The tumor fluorescent intensities in the targeting phage groups were about 3 to 4-fold higher than that in the control phage group ( FIG. 2B ). These results indicate that all of HPC1, HPC2 and HPC4 possess significant tumor-homing ability. HSP1, 2 and 4 Synthetic Peptides Improved Liposomal Drug Binding, Intracellular Delivery and Cytotoxicity [0094] Since “receptor-mediated endocytosis” is crucial for targeting drug delivery due to improved drug penetration, release and efficacy, we next examined whether HSP1, HSP2 or HSP4 could promote liposomal drug internalization to human lung cancer cells. For materials preparation HSP1, HIS2 and HSP4 were conjugated to NHS-PEG-DSPE before inserted to the external surface of liposomal nanoparticles by phospholipid DSPE. These nanoparticles contained sulforhodamine B (SRB: fluorescence reagent) or doxorubicin. Unlike chemotherapeutic drugs, fluorescence dye SRB wound not cause cell death even at high concentration, making it an ideal tool for measuring the uptake efficiency of living cells. In the time course experiment, we found targeting peptide (HSP1, 2 or 4)—conjugated liposomal SRB (LSRB) enhanced liposome internalization in H460 ( FIG. 3A ) and H1993 cells compared to non-targeting LSRB. Interestingly, we also observed that HSP2 exhibited prominent intracellular delivery at low LSRB concentrations, while no difference from non-targeting LSRB at high concentration in H460 cells was observed ( FIG. 3A ). On the contrary. HSP1 and HSP4 showed better uptake ability at higher doses. One possible explanation for this phenomenon is that the receptors of HSP2 on H460 cell surface were saturated at high concentration. This phenomenon suggests that HSP1, 2, or 4 may target different receptors on the cell surface due to the different receptor densities. [0095] For visual imaging, we also examined the targeting peptide-conjugated LSRB in lung cancer cells using confocal microscopy. We observed a large amount of LSRB in the cytoplasm of H460 cells incubated with HSP1-LSRB, HSP2-LSRB or HSP4-LSRB at 37° C., whereas little SRB fluorescence was detectable in cells incubated with non-targeting LSRB. At 4° C., all of the LSRB conjugated these three targeting peptides bound to the outer membrane of the H460 cells. It is worth noting that HSP1 peptide exhibited stronger ability at binding than internalization, compared to HSP2 and HSP4, as evident by its stronger binding intensity at 4° C. but weaker SRB fluorescence in cytosol at 37° C. [0096] Furthermore, we examined whether HSP1, 2, and 4-mediated liposomal drugs enhanced the therapeutic efficacy of drugs due to their proven targeting and endocytosis abilities. We performed in vitro cytotoxicity assays for HSP1, 2, or 4-conjugated liposomal doxorubicin (LD) in H460 cells ( FIG. 3B ). Compared to LD, all of these three targeting peptide-LD significantly enhanced the cytotoxicity of the drug to cancer cells. HSP1, HSP2 and HSP4, at its optimal peptide ratio, decreased the half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC 50 ) in H460 cells by 12.5-, 13- and 9.4-fold, respectively ( FIG. 3B ). [0097] In brief, HSP1, 2 and 4 targeting peptides not only bind to lung cancer cell with high specificity, but they also trigger liposomal drug internalization and enhance therapeutic efficacy in vitro. Therapeutic Efficacy of HSP1, HSP2 and HSP4-Mediated Drug Delivery Systems in Human Large Cell Carcinoma and Adenocarcinoma Xenograft Models [0098] Further, to determine whether HSP1, 2 and 4 could improve the chemotherapeutic efficacy of anticancer drugs in vivo, we formulated targeting drug delivery systems by coupling these peptides with PEGylated liposomal doxorubicin (LD). In the first experiment, SCID mice bearing H460 human lung large cell carcinoma xenografts were administered intravenously with HSP1-LD, HSP2-LD, HSP4-LD, non-targeting LD, free doxorubicin (FD) or equivalent volumes of PBS ( FIGS. 4A-F ). We examined the therapeutic efficacies of these targeted-LDs in both small tumor (average tumor size of ˜75 min 3 ) ( FIG. 4A ) and large tumor (average tumor size of 500 mm 3 ) ( FIGS. 4B-D ), respectively. Anticancer efficacy was evaluated by determining the average tumor volumes while the side-effects were estimated by measuring body weight changes throughout the period of treatment. The mice bearing small tumor were treated with 1 mg/kg of doxorubicin once a week for 4 times. The tumor volume decreased significantly in targeting-LD groups ( FIG. 4A ). In the mice beating large tumor treatment, the targeting peptides HSP1, 2, and 4 significantly improved therapeutic efficacy of LD in H460 large tumor, especially HSP2 and HSP4-LD, which showed a decrease in tumor volume by half compared to the LD group ( FIGS. 4B-E ). The result of in vivo biodistribution and pharmacodynamics study could support this finding that HSP2 and HSP4 exhibited better drug delivery efficacy of LD to H460 tumor tissues. The prolonged overall survival rates were observed ( FIG. 4F ) and body weight had not changed significantly during the course of treatment. [0099] We also examined the therapeutic effect of HSP1, 2, and 4-LD in H1993 human lung adenocarcinoma xenograft model ( FIGS. 5A-F ). Mice hearing size matching H1993 large tumor were injected intravenously with 1 mg/kg of HSP1-LD, HSP2-LD, HSP4-LD, LD, FD or equivalent volumes of PBS twice a week for three weeks. FIG. 5E showed that administration of HSP1, 2, and 4-LD did not cause an appreciable reduction in body weight as compared to the LD group, HSP4-LD showed the best therapeutic effect, as measured by tumor volume since the tumor size was significantly decreased as early as 10.5 days after treatment (after 3 injections) ( FIGS. 5B-D ). However, in terms of overall survival rate, mice treated with HSP1 and HSP2-LD lived 50-60 days longer than that treated with LD ( FIG. 5F ). These data indicate that decrease in tumor volumes does not translate into prolonger overall survival rates. One of the possible explanations for this was that although HSP4 had the highest receptor number on H1993 cell surface ( FIG. 1A ) compared to the other two peptides, there were only 55.93% of H1993 cells expressing the receptor of HSP4, which was less than that of HSP1 and 2 ( FIG. 1B ). This might provide more chances for those HSP4-negative cells, which would be selected to become drug-resistant cells during HSP4-LD treatment in H1993 model. HSP1, 2 and 4 Targeting Peptides Enhanced Minor Drug Delivery In Vivo by Biodistribution Assay [0100] To explore the mechanisms underlying the enhanced anticancer effects of HSP1, 2, or 4-conjugated liposomal drugs in vivo, we performed a pharmacodynamics and biodistribution study to measure the drug accumulation in tumor tissues. Mice bearing H460 xenograft tumor were intravenously injected with a single dose of 2 mg/kg FD, LD, HSP1-LD, HSP2-LD or HSP4-LD. After 1 hr and 24 hr systemic circulation, the doxorubicin concentration in serum, tumors and normal organs were estimated by measuring fluorescence signal of doxorubicin after purification steps. The mean intra-tumor doxorubicin concentrations in the HSP1, HSP2, and HSP4-LD groups were about 1.5-, 2- and 2-fold higher than that in the LD group, respectively. This data provided evidence and explanation for the superior tumor inhibitory effects exhibited by HSP2 and 4 in the previous experiment comparing H460 large tumor treatment using targeting-LD ( FIGS. 4B-F ). Since doxorubicin worked by intercalating DNA, the drugs accumulated in cancer nuclei were also measured. The results generally paralleled those in the tumor. Liposomal formulation drugs (LD, HSP1-LD, HSP2-LD, and HSP4-LD) displayed similar biodistribution profiles in plasma and normal organs, whereas free form of doxorubicin exhibited much shorter half-life in plasma. The results from this experiment demonstrated that HSP1, 2, and 4 elevated the penetration of anticancer drugs into tumor and resulted in higher accumulation of the drugs at their intracellular target sites, thereby enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of doxorubicin. In addition, these targeting peptides did not increase doxorubicin accumulated in normal organs such as brain, heart, lungs, liver and kidney in animal models. Targeting Liposome-Based Combination Therapy Further Improved Overall Survival [0101] Given the genomic instability and genetic heterogeneity of cancer biology, single-drug monotherapy often strengthens the redundant signaling pathways, accelerating chemoresistant mutations and recurrence. The use of multiple chemotherapeutics with different mechanisms of actions in combination has become the primary strategy to treat drug, resistant cancers. Therefore, we co-delivered HSP4-LD and HSP4-conjugated liposomal vinorelbine (LV), which acts as a microtubule inhibitor at a 1:2 combinatorial ratio, to treat H460 xenograft model ( FIGS. 6A-D ). The administration regimen of these two drugs had been tested and optimized by therapeutic synergism in vivo (data not shown). FIGS. 6C-D showed that HSP4-mediated combinatorial targeting liposome-treated group had a much longer overall survival than non-targeting liposome- or free drug-treated groups. The combinatorial targeting liposome-treated group prolonged median survival compared to non-targeting liposome-treated group by up to 11 days (74 vs. 63 days). [0102] We also investigated this 1:2 LD and LV combinatorial regimen in H460 large cell carcinoma FIGS. 7A-E ) and A549 adenocarcinoma ( FIGS. 8A-E ) orthotopic models, which successfully recapitulated tumor-microenvironment interactions. In H460 orthotopic model, luciferase-expressing tumor mass decreased significantly in HSP4-mediated combinatorial liposome-treated group ( FIGS. 7A-B ) compared to free drug-treated group, while non-targeting liposome-treated group showed no significant differences to free drugs group. Since H460 orthotopic model was highly aggressive, all mice underwent severe body weight loss due to cancer cachexia syndrome ( FIG. 7C ). However, the prolonged median survival time was observed by 6.5 days in targeting liposome group compared to nontargeting liposome group (77.5 vs. 71 days). In terms of A549 orthotopic model, HSP4-mediated combinatorial liposome-treated group significantly prolonged overall survival rate and increased median survival times by up to 47 days compared to non-targeting liposome-treated group (131 vs 84 days) ( FIGS. 8D-E ). We can demonstrate that HSP4 targeting peptide not, only improved the therapeutic efficacy of nanodrugs ( FIGS. 8A-B ), but also reduced adverse effect by decreasing body weight loss ( FIG. 8C ). Binding Activities of HPC1, 2, and 4 to Clinical Surgical Specimens of Human Lung Cancer [0103] The response rate of a targeting drug to biopsies or surgical specimens of cancer patients is one of the most difficult challenges facing clinical drug development. Here, we examined whether HSP1, 2 or 4 would react to several different types of human lung cancer specimens, including adenocarcinoma. papillary adenocarcinoma, bronchioloalveolar carcinoma (BAC), squamous cell carcinoma (SCC), large cell carcinoma, and small cell carcinoma. Since M13 phage particles consisted of many coat proteins, the signals were amplified under immunostaining steps and were more visible than using peptides themselves. For this reason, we used HPC1, 2, and 4 phages for human tissue staining. Table 2A lists the percentages of the positive rates of HPC1, 2, and 4 for cancer detections in several different types of lung cancers. In general, HPC4 displayed the best reactivity (>80%) in almost all types of lung cancers, which was followed by HPC1 (>50%). Moreover, HPC1, 2 and 4 also recognized metastatic adenocarcinoma or SCC from lung (Table 2B), but exhibited no reaction for normal lung tissue or cancer adjacent normal lung tissue (Table 2C). FIG. 9 shows examples of immunohistochemistry staining obtained on consecutive sections from individual tumors. These data demonstrate that HPC1, 2, and 4 can recognize not only NSCLC but also SCLC surgical specimens, but do not cross-react to normal pneumonic tissues Tables 2A-C show detection of human lung cancer surgical specimens by HPC1, 2 and 4 using immunohistochemistry. Several histopathological subtypes of clinical human lung cancer biopsies were immunostained by HPC1, 2 or 4 and compared to control phage (Table 2A). The positive response percentages were calculated and compiled IHC data of metastatic adenocarcinoma and SCC from lung (Table 2B). Normal pneumonic tissue and cancer adjacent normal pneumonic tissue were confirmed for HPC1, HPC2 and HPC4 tumor specificity (Table 2C). Reaction area: +++, >50%; ++, 50-20%; <20%; −, 0%. [0000] TABLE 2A Total case no. +++ ++ + − % Positive Adenocarcinoma HPC1 27 0 6 13 8 70.37 HPC2 1 2 9 15 44.44 HPC4 5 18 2 2 92.59 Con phage 0 0 0 27 0.00 Papillary adenocarcinoma HPC1 8 2 1 3 2 75.00 HPC2 0 1 3 4 50.00 HPC4 1 5 1 1 87.50 Con phage 0 0 0 8 0.00 Bronchioaveolar carcinoma HPC1 8 2 4 1 1 87.5 HPC2 0 0 1 7 12.5 HPC4 1 5 1 1 87.5 Con phage 0 0 0 8 0 Squamous cell carcinoma HPC1 27 5 7 12 3 88.89 HPC2 0 2 7 18 33.33 HPC4 9 16 1 1 96.30 Con phage 0 0 0 27 0.00 Large cell carcinoma HPC1 10 0 6 3 1 90.00 HPC2 0 0 4 6 40.00 HPC4 5 4 0 1 90.00 Con phage 0 0 0 10 0.00 Small cell carcinoma HPC1 8 2 5 1 0 100 HPC2 0 0 2 6 25.00 HPC4 5 3 0 0 100 Con phage 0 0 0 8 0.00 [0000] TABLE 2B Total case no. +++ ++ + − % Positive Metastatic adenocarcimoma from lung HPC1 8 0 1 6 1 87.50 HPC2 0 0 3 5 37.50 HPC4 2 4 2 0 100 Con phage 0 0 0 8 0.00 Metastatic squamous cell carcinoma from lung HPC1 4 0 2 0 2 50.00 HPC2 0 0 1 3 25.00 HPC4 2 2 0 0 100 Con phage 0 0 0 4 0.00 [0000] TABLE 2C Total case no. +++ ++ + − % Positive Metastatic adenocarcimoma from lung HPC1 6 0 0 0 6 0.00 HPC2 0 0 0 6 0.00 HPC4 0 0 0 6 0.00 Con phage 0 0 0 6 0.00 Metastatic squamous cell carcinoma from lung HPC1 6 0 0 0 6 0.00 HPC2 0 0 0 6 0.00 HPC4 0 0 0 6 0.00 Con phage 0 0 0 6 0.00 [0104] In contrast to monoclonal antibodies, which exhibit large size, poor tumor penetration, and high immunogenicity when used as targeting ligands (Cheng and Allen, 2010), peptide ligands are the better choice for payload delivery because of smaller size, less immunogenicity, higher tumor penetration, more cost-effective for synthesis and production. In this study, we identified three novel peptides HSP1, 2 and 4 that could selectively bind to several types of human lung cancer, but not normal pneumonic tissue in vitro, in vivo, and among clinical samples. Thirteen phage clones (HPC1-13) with higher lung cancer binding in vitro were divided into two major categories by distinct consensus sequences, in which the first group displayed “MHL-W” motif (HPC1) while the other displayed “NPW-E or W-EMM” motif (HPC2 and 4). Although HPC2 and 4 displayed more similar sequences, they showed different binding patterns and distinct functional behaviors in serial experiments, such as cellular ELISA binding assay, FACS analysis, cell IFA staining ( FIGS. 1A-B ), dose-dependent and time course LSRB uptake assay ( FIG. 3A ), and even human surgical specimens detection ( FIG. 9 ; Table 2). These findings imply that HSP1, 2, and 4 may target different protein molecules on the cell surface of lung cancers due to their different positive-stained rates, reactive intensities, or receptor densities. [0105] HSP1, 2, and 4-mediated DDS can specifically bind to lung cancer cells, which in turn trigger “receptor-mediated endocytosis” to discharge payloads to their intracellular target site (for example, DNA for doxorubicin), resulting in about 10-fold reduction in IC 50 in vitro ( FIGS. 3A-B ). Likewise, HSP1, 2, and 4-mediated liposomal drugs significantly improved drug bioavailability in vivo, leading to increased therapeutic index ( FIGS. 4-8 ). It should be noted that HSP2 and 4 performed better in LD delivery by increasing both tumor accumulation and therapeutic efficacy ( FIGS. 4B-C ) by up to 2-fold in H460 xenograft model. Unlike its consensus sequence-displayed member HSP2, HPC4, which positively stained nearly all types of NSCLC and SCLC surgical specimens, exhibited the best clinical reactivity (Table 2). In addition, preclinical data also highlight the advances of HSP4-mediated combinatorial liposomes in overall survival ( FIGS. 6-8 ), this strategy promises a novel and better tailored combinatorial regimen to overcome clinical chemoresistance and delay cancer relapse. [0106] IHC data ( FIG. 9 ; Table 2) also revealed that W-EMM motif of HSP4 might contribute more significantly to this effect than NPW-E motif, thus was vital for clinical application. More advanced studies are needed to investigate the detailed functions of each motif in order to choose the appropriate motifs for endocytosis and for other clinical detections. Hence, we can modify the peptide sequences into perfection and multi-functions. [0107] Further research would be necessary to elucidate the receptor proteins expressed on lung cancer cell surface targeted by HSP1, HSP2 and HSP4 and to investigate their respective downstream intracellular signals critical to the transport of the cargos released. Target protein identification will also provide information on safety and toxicity profiles, which are crucial for the development of targeting drugs for clinical use. Based on our research, HSP1, 2 and 4 lung cancer targeting peptides bear significant potential to be developed into “theranostics nanoparticles” with broad clinical applications including targeting therapy, companion diagnostics and non-invasive imaging. [0108] The foregoing description of the exemplary embodiments of the invention has been presented only for the purposes of illustration and description and is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the invention to the precise forms disclosed. Many modifications and variations are possible in light of the above teaching. [0109] The embodiments and examples were chosen and described in order to explain the principles of the invention and their practical application so as to enable others skilled in the art to utilize the invention and various embodiments and with various modifications as are suited to the particular use contemplated. Alternative embodiments will become apparent to those skilled in the art to which the present invention pertains without departing from its spirit and scope. Accordingly, the scope of the present invention is defined by the appended claims rather than the foregoing description and the exemplary embodiments described therein. [0110] Some references, which may include patents, patent applications and various publications, are cited and discussed in the description of this invention. The citation and/or discussion of such references is provided merely to clarify the description of the present invention and is not an admission that any such reference is “prior art” to the invention described herein. All references cited and discussed in this specification are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties and to the same extent as if each reference was individually incorporated by reference.

A conjugate is disclosed. The conjugate comprises (a) an isolated or a synthetic targeting peptide of less than 15 amino acid residues in length, comprising an amino acid sequence having at least 90% identity to a sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs: 1-8; and (b) a component conjugated to the targeting peptide, the component being selected from the group consisting of a drug delivery vehicle, an anti-cancer drug, a micelle, a nanoparticle, a liposome, a polymer, a lipid, an oligonucleotide, a peptide, a polypeptide, a protein, a cell, an imaging agent, and a labeling agent. Methods of treating lung cancer and detecting lung cancer cells are also disclosed.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application is a continuation-in-part of application Ser. No. 109,722 filed Jan. 4, 1980 which, in turn, is a continuation-in-part of application Ser. No. 843,414, filed Oct. 19, 1977, now abandoned. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to devices for sensing the relative position between the device and a surface, through the use of contacting probes which extend from the device to the surface. 2. Prior Art For some time, there has been a need for a device which can sense the relative perpendicularity of the device to a surface, and/or the relative angularity of the device to a surface, and which provides an immediate visual indication of the relationship of the device to the surface with sufficient information to permit an operator to manually adjust the orientation of the device, or the surface, to obtain the desired perpendicularity or angularity, as the case may be. Such a device is needed which is also easily portable and relatively inexpensive and easily adaptable to various uses without requiring major changes in its construction. In addition to the above described desirable features, it is also desirable in certain industries to have a device which can sense the distance from the device to the surface so that the device is not only positioned perpendicular or at a desired angle to the surface, but is also at the required distance from the surface. It is further desirable to provide means for locating the device at a precise point on the surface through lateral movement of the device or the surface. Such devices would have major uses in establishing exact drilling locations, for example, and for use in "teaching" industrial robots which are capable of remembering the location of a position in space once the robot has been removed to that location. Presently it is a common practice to teach such robots by bringing the robot arm into approximate alignment with the surface, through visual observations and utilizing the driving mechanism of the robot. Then, while the robot arm drive operator continues to move the arm into a more precise orientation relative to the surface, an assistant constantly measures and checks the progress and advises the robot operator of the direction and amount of movement which he feels is necessary in order to bring the robot into the desired exact location. This takes considerable labor and is extremely tedious and time consuming when a multitude of such locations are to be programmed into the robot before it performs its actual intended operation on the surface. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention overcomes the above described difficulties and disadvantages associated with the prior art devices by providing a position sensing device which indicates the relative perpendicularity or angularity between the device and a surface, and in addition, if desired, can also provide an indication of the distance from the device to the surface, and further, can provide an exact alignment with a point on the surface. These advantages are achieved through a position sensing device which includes a support member, a plurality of angular position sensing probes movably mounted within and extending from the support member for simultaneously engaging a surface when the support member is moved into proximity with the surface, a plurality of transducers mounted to the support member and engaging the probes for sensing movement thereof and providing electric signals indicative of the positions of each of the probes relative to the support member, and circuitry receiving the signals from the transducers and providing an indication of the relative angular position of the support member to the surface. At least one of the probes and its associated transducer can be calibrated to indicate the relative separation between the support member and the surface in order to provide an indication of the distance from the support member to the surface. In addition, a lateral position sensing probe can be utilized which can engage a discontinuity in the surface, such as a hole, and provide an indication of the alignment of the support member with the hole. In its preferred form, this latter feature is attained by use of a lateral position sensing probe which is mounted to the support member and extends therefrom for engaging the discontinuity in the surface so as to cause bending of the lateral position sensing probe upon lateral movement of the support member when the probe is engaged in the discontinuity. A transducer engages the lateral position sensing probe and senses the bending thereof and provides an electrical signal indicative of the degree of bending. A signal receiving device receives the signal from the transducer which engages the lateral position sensing probe and provides an indication of the degree of bending of the probe. Further, in its preferred form, two transducers, such as strain gages, are mounted to the lateral position sensing probe in orthogonal planes and provide an indication of the direction of bending which, through the signal receiving device, can provide a visual indication of the direction of movement necessary to properly align the support member with the discontinuity in the surface. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a cross sectional view of a preferred embodiment of the present invention, illustrating the position sensing device in engagement with a surface; FIG. 2 is a cross sectional view along line 2--2 of FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is a cross sectional view along the line 3--3 of FIG. 1; FIG. 4 is a cross sectional view along the line 4--4 of FIG. 1; FIG. 5 is a cross sectional view along the line 5--5 of FIG. 1; FIG. 6 is a cross sectional view along the line 6--6 of FIG. 1; FIG. 7 is a cross sectional view along the line 7--7 of FIG. 1; FIGS. 8a-14 illustrate the circuitry which utilizes the signals from the various transducers to provide a visual indication of the relative position between the support member and the surface being sensed; and FIG. 15 is a pictorial view of a control counsel housing the circuitry and the visual indicators for the preferred embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT The preferred embodiment of the position sensing device 10 of the present invention includes the basic features disclosed in the above referred to related applications (and those applications should be referred to for additional understanding of the present invention), but also includes improvements thereover and additional features as set out in detail below. The position sensing device 10 is illustrated in a form for use in "teaching" an industrial robot of conventional construction the proper location for drilling in reference to a surface 12 of some object such as a drilling fixture beneath which is positioned a piece (not shown) to be drilled. For this particular application a truncated cone-shaped member 14, adapted to fit into the industrial robot arm (not shown), is exactly positioned offset from the center line of the position sensing device 10 the same distance that a drill holder will eventually be positioned during the actual drilling operation. Member 14 is bolted with bolt 16 to a positioning arm 18 which, in turn, is bolted with bolts 20 to the upper cylindrical cap 22 of position sensing device 10. In addition to being properly offset from the position where the member 14 engages the robot arm, the distance from the member 14 to the surface 12 must also be exact since it must be the same as when the actual drill holding device and drill (not shown) are mounted to the robot arm. In addition, in this particular environment the actual drilling device must engage and rotate into locking position with a bayonet-type locking member 24 which has been previously mounted in a threaded bushing 26 already positioned in the body of the drilling fixture. It was therefore necessary in this particular embodiment to package the position sensing device 10 in an envelope which would fit within these dimensions. This, however, is not to be construed as a limitation on the actual size or shape of the present invention since these factors can vary significantly for a given requirement for its use. Also, since the position sensing device 10 is not actually being used in this environment to sense a particular surface, but rather a position in space relative to the locking member 24, a temporary adapter plate 28 has been provided which is secured to a support column 30 which has segmented lugs 32 that matingly engage the locking member 24 when the support column 30 is rotated. Thus, the upper surface 34 of adapter plate 28 provides the surface which the position sensing device will actually engage and sense for properly positioning the robot arm relative to the surface 12 of the workpiece to be drilled. Adapter plate 28 is cylindrical, although this is not necessary, and has a conical bore 36 concentrically aligned with the axis of the hole to be drilled in surface 12. Referring now to the details of the position sensing device 10 as illustrated in FIG. 1, a main cylindrical housing 38 is provided into which is threadedly received the upper cylindrical cap 22. Cap 22 supports the housing 38 from the support arm 18. Slidably engaged within cylindrical housing 38 is the main support member 40 which is also generally cylindrical in form. A vertically extending slot 42 is formed in the side of support member 40 in alignment with a screw 44 threadedly received in the housing 38 and extending into the slot 42 for holding the support member 40 within the housing 38 while permitting limited relative movement of the support member within the housing. The vertical extent of the slot is sufficient to permit the necessary sliding movement of the support member 40 within housing 38 during operation of the device as discussed below. Three compression springs 46 (see FIG. 6) engage the inner surface of upper cylindrical cap 22 and the upper surface of the cylindrical recess in support member 40 to bias the support member 40 outward of the housing against the screw 44. These springs are provided only to permit the support member 40 to telescope into the housing 38 to prevent damage to the robot arm and are therefore of sufficient strength to maintain the support member in the extended position during normal operation of the device. A generally disc-shaped plate 50 forms a bottom end closure for the support member 40 and is bolted thereto with a plurality of bolts 52. A series of four pins 54 are mounted in corresponding holes in plate 50 for sliding movement therein. Pins 54 have outer semi-spherical ends 56 which engage the surface 34. The upper ends of pins 54 have enlarged semi-spherically shaped heads 58 which prevent the pins from passing out through the holes in plate 50. The four pins 54 are positioned at equally angularly and radially spaced locations around the plate 50 from the central vertical axis of the plate and the device 10. Pins 54 constitute the angular position sensing probes of the preferred embodiment of the present invention which engage the surface 34 and move independently to indicate any angular offset in perpendicularity between the surface 34 and the central axis of plate 50 and thus the central axis of the position sensing device 10. Also bolted to plate 50 by a plurality of bolts 59 is a pin movement sensing plate 60. Plate 60 has a central cylindrical main body portion 62 and four thin cantilevered extensions 64, each of which corresponds to an associated pin 54 and engages the top semi-spherical end portion 58 of each. Sensing plate 60 is preferably made of steel which permits sufficient bending of the cantilevered extensions 64 for the desired degree of movement of pins 54 within the plate 50 while staying within the elastic region of the material of plate 60 so that an essentially linear deformation occurs in the extensions during bending thereof due to a pin or pins 54 being pushed upward so as to bend the extensions. The cantilevered extensions 64 can either be integrally formed with or made separately from and secured to the main body portion 62. Pairs of strain gages 66 and 68 are mounted perpendicular to one another on each of the cantilevered extensions 64 and provide an indication of the strain on each of the cantilevered extensions when they are bent due to upward movement of the associated pin 54. The strain gages 66 and 68 in conjunction with the cantilevered extensions 64 thus form the transducers of the present invention which give an extremely acurate indication of the relative movement of the pins 54 in plate 50. The extent of movement of the pins can thus be exactly correlated through the bending of extensions 64 and the corresponding change in resistance in the strain gages. Also mounted within the main support member 40 is a lateral position sensing probe 70. In the preferred embodiment the lateral position sensing probe 70 has a lower cylindrical portion which terminates in a semi-spherical end portion 74. At its upper end portion the cylindrical portion 72 joins a rectangular cross section portion 76 which, in turn, joins another, but larger diameter, generally cylindrical portion 78. Cylindrical portion 78 in turn joins a disc-shaped cap 80. Bolted to the top of cap 80 through the plurality of bolts 82 is a stepped shaft 84 with a central bore 86 extending therethrough. The cylindrical portion 78 is fitted in a cylindrical sleeve which is pinned to the cylindrical portion 78, such as by roll pin 90, extending through a common bore in the side of the sleeve and the cylindrical portion 78. The assembly of the lateral position sensing probe 70, stepped shaft 84 and sleeve 88 is then mounted in a linear motion ball bushing 92, such as is available from Thompson Industries, Inc., Manhasset, N.Y., which is fitted in an internal bore in support member 40 so that the probe can move vertically along its central axis. The ball bushing 92 is preferably used to reduce as much as possible the friction due to movement of the probe within the support member 40. Ball bushing 92 is held in place in the support member 40 with snap rings 94 and 96 at the top and bottom of the ball bushing, respectively. The probe 70 is biased downwardly as shown in FIG. 1, by cylindrical compression spring 98 which is housed within a sleeve 100. Compression spring 98 is held at a predetermined compressed height between the upper surface of the cap 80 of the probe 70, and a cap 102 which is threadably engaged in the upper end portion of sleeve 100. A screw 104 extends through the top 102 into a vertical slot 106 in the upper end portion of stepped shaft 84 to keep the probe aligned with the x and y axes of the device. The spring 98, prevents damage to probe 70 and permits the probe to retract into the support member if too great a side ways force is applied to the probe which might otherwise damage it. Also, springs 98 permit probe 70 to retract into support member 40 as pins 54 telescope into the support member when the device is moved toward the surface 34. The spring 98 also permits the probe to widen the sensing area beyond what it would be if the probe were fixed in the support member 40 and only permitted to bend, since the probe 70 can ride up the sides of the cone-shaped opening 36. Two strain gages 108, 110 are mounted to adjacent perpendicular sides of rectangular cross section portion 76 of probe 70, and their lead wires (not shown) extend through the vertical slot 112 in the side of cylindrical portion 78 and then through the hollow central bore 86 of shaft 84 and out through the upper portion of the device. None of the lead wires from any of the strain gages are illustrated for the sake of clarity, however, it is apparent that lead wires must extend from each of the strain gages, referred to above, out of the device and into the control panel illustrated in FIG. 15 where the circuitry of FIGS. 8 through 14 is contained. As mentioned above, in the particular environment where the preferred embodiment of the present invention was designed to function, i.e. as a robot teacher, it was also necessary to provide a means for indicating rotational alignment of the device 10 with the surface 34 in order to eventually permit the robot teacher to lock the drilling apparatus into the locking member 24. In order to provide an initial visual indication of the approach of this condition, a pointer 114 is mounted at the lower end portion of support member 40 and a corresponding pointer 116 is mounted to the side of disc 28 at a location which is in proper alignment for indicating the locked condition between the support column 30 and locking member 24. Thus, when the device 10 is rotated about its central axis the two pointers 114 and 116 will come into alignment to indicate the locked condition. In addition, to provide greater accuracy in rotational alignment for locking, an infrared LED source and a photo detector are fitted into a holder 118 which is precisely positioned around the periphery of plate 50 which will indicate the precise locked-up position with the actual drilling device in the locking member 24. The photo detector will sense a change in the signal received as a bounce-back from the surface 34 from the infrared LED, when the light strikes a change in the surface, such as a contrasting line, hole, slot etc., like spot 19 which is positioned in the plate 28 at the precise location to indicate the locked-up condition between the column 30 and locking member 24. The photo detector will indicate an increased voltage when the light source strikes the surface contrast which voltage change is used to activate a light and thus indicate exact alignment. Referring now to the circuitry of FIGS. 8 through 14, FIGS. 8a and 8b are simplified block diagrams which indicate the interconnection of the circuitry illustrated in greater detail in FIGS. 9 through 14. The circuit of FIG. 9 illustrates the amplifying circuit associated with a single set of strain gages 66 and 68 associated with a single cantilevered extension 64, and as indicated in FIG. 8a, there are actually four sets of circuitry identical to FIG. 9, with the exception of the voltage regulator V R1 , in order to operate the four sets of strain gages 66 and 68 associated with each of the four cantilevered extensions 64. The circuit of FIG. 9 provides regulated excitation voltages to the sets of strain gages 66 and 68, amplifies the low level bridge output from each set of strain gages and filters out any frequency above 10 Hz. V R1 is a four terminal, adjustable, precision voltage regulator. The resistor ratio R1/R2 sets the level of the regulated output Vo. The voltage regulator eliminates any significant change in bridge output as a function of variation in the supply voltage V+, bridge current or ambient temperature and reduces the ripple factor from the power supply by 60 db. Capacitors C1 and C2 stabilize the regulator and improve its transient response. Diode D1 protects the regulator from reverse voltage transients due to static discharges. Resistors R3 through R6 form a null circuit to balance out any unloaded or residual imbalance in the installed bridges. The use of the particular amplifier A1, as designated in the parts list set out below, is especially helpful in this circuit. This amplifier automatically corrects itself for any internal offset or long term drift eliminating the need for a trim pot and permitting functional operation (i.e., precision tracking) at the very low (0-10 MV) output levels that would ordinarily be precluded by the fact that amplifier drift would exceed this range. The amplifier A1 gain is established by resistor ratio R7/R8 at a level that will prevent saturation at full scale deflection of the instrumented cantilever extensions 64. Capacitors C3 through C6 are required by the commutating feature of the amplifier A1. Resistor R9 and capacitor C7 form a low pass (10 Hz) filter to remove the commutating/switching transients from the amplifier output. The bridge high level outputs from the circuit of FIG. 9 associated with each set of strain gages 66 and 68 and which correlate to the x and y axes are input into the circuitry of FIG. 10. The high level outputs of the strain gage bridges on the two instrumented cantilever extensions in the x axis (Bx and Bxo) and the two instrumented cantilever extensions in the y axis (By and Byo) of the pin movement sensing plate 60 are differentially summed by amplifiers A2 and A3. Pure axial (vertical) movement of the main support member 40 will result in equal and same direction deflections of the cantilever extensions 64 and the output of amplifiers A2 and A3 will not change. Any inclination of the vertical axis of the device relative to the target surface 34 will result in an unequal deflection of the cantilever extensions in one or both axes. The output of amplifiers A2 and/or A3 will increase and the polarity of the output will correspond to the extension with the highest stress, thus indicating direction of tilt in both of the two mutually orthogonal axes. The full scale output from amplifiers A2 and A3 is determined by the resistor voltage divider formed by resistors R13 through R15 and R20 through R22. Switch SW1 establishes the desired sensitivity for the device. Capacitors C12, C13 and C18, C19 form a 10 Hz, low pass filter with the voltage divider resistors. The outputs of A2 and A3 are coupled to digital voltmeter (DVM) integrated circuits (IC) IC1 and IC7, respectively. The DVM's normally drive the lamps, turning on lamp L1 at 10% of full scale input, lamp L2 at 20%, etc.--lamp L10 at 100% of full scale. For this application a biasing network consisting of the positive and negative voltage reference VR3 shifts the operating point of the DVM's to cause the lamp L5 to be lit with no input from amplifiers A2 or A3. Positive voltage swings from amplifiers A2 or A3 turn on outputs 6 through 10 of IC1 and IC7, respectively, in a linear step sequence and negative voltage swings turn on outputs 4 through 1 of IC1 and IC7, respectively, in a similar manner. The maximum number of indicator lamps driven by any one DVM is five. Outputs 3 through 7 of IC1 and IC7 are utilized in this design (5 being center). Outputs 8, 9 and 10 are "or" tied to output 7 and outputs 1 and 2 are "or" tied to output 3. Any voltage swing beyond the level normally indicated by outputs 3 or 7 will thus maintain an output at 3 or 7 until the input level falls back within the range of output 3 through 7. The DVM outputs 3 through 7 of IC1 and IC7 are connected to opto-couplers IC2 through IC6 and IC8 through IC11, respectively. The DVM output turns on a light emitting diode (LED) within the opto-coupler. The light is sensed by a photo transistor which turns on an associated driver transistor to light the miniature incadescent lamps L1 through L9. The DVM outputs 5 on IC1 and IC7 are effectively "ored" together such that a logical low output from either device will turn on lamp L3 through IC4. The output 5 on both devices is also coupled to the circuit of FIG. 12 where they are combined to develop a gate signal that controls the display format of the vertical position indicator. As shown in FIGS. 8a and 11, the high level outputs from the strain gages associated with each of the four instrumented cantilever extensions are buffered with unity gain amplifiers IC13A through D and coupled to QUAD comparators IC14A through D. The comparators change state whenever any one of the four inputs exceed the reference level which is set by trim pot R26 to be nearly equal to the full scale output of the respective bridges. The comparator outputs are "or" tied to opto-coupler IC15 which turns on over range indicator lamp L15 when any bridge output exceeds the reference level. The high level buffered bridge outputs A By , A Byo , A Bx and A Bxo from the circuit of FIG. 11 are summed, as shown in the circuit of FIG. 12, with fixed bias source through resistors R27 and R28 and adjustable bias source resistors R36, R37 and R38. The gain of amplifier A4 is set to the level that all four bridge outputs must reach, approximately 1/2 of full scale, to offset the negative bias sources and achieve zero output from amplifier A4. Digital voltmeter IC18 will then turn on indicator lamp L12 through opto-coupler IC21, indicating that the device is positioned a precise distance above the target surface. Any vertical movement above or below this level will swing the output of ICA4 through the calibrated range of DVM IC18, causing indicator lamps L10 through L14 to display the actual deviation in linear increments thus providing both direction and magnitude of deviation information to the operator to allow him to correctly position the device at the calibrated height above the target surface 34. The full scale output of ICA4 is reduced in two steps by voltage dividers R40 through R42. Switch SW1C selects the desired full scale output level to establish the sensitivity of the vertical position display. Vertical position can only be accurately defined when the vertical axis of the device is perpendicular to the target surface 34. Perpendicularity is indicated by logical low (0) levels at the inputs to IC16A and B (See FIG. 10). IC16A and B change the logical low signals to logical highs which then cause a logical high at AND gate IC17A. This output is inverted by IC16C. This logical low signal is coupled to AND gate IC17B resulting in a logical low at the input to solid state switch IC24. This signal turns on the solid state switch IC24, coupling amplifier A4 output to DVM IC18. The vertical display is now enabled and indicator lamps L10 through L14 operate in the normal manner as long as the perpendicularity of the device to the target surface 34 is maintained. Tilting the vertical axis of the device in any direction will cause an amber indicator light to come on in one or both axes of the perpendicularity display. One or both of the gating signals from IC12A, FIG. 10, will change to a logical high which will result in a high to AND gate IC17B, which then couples the 1 Hz square wave generated by IC25 to the input of the solid state switch IC24. Resistors R43 and R44 and capacitor C20 set the oscillation frequency of IC25. The switch will turn on and off at the 1 Hz rate, switching the DVM input between -VR3 and A4 to cause the vertical display indicator lamps L10 through L14 to flash at the same rate, indicating that the displayed position indicated by lamps L10 through L14 is not valid until the tilt in the vertical axis of the device is corrected, returning the display to the normal constant on condition. Switch SW2 provides a means to abort the flashing display feature for initial setup, testing or training. The horizontal direction indicator circuit is illustrated generally in FIG. 8b and partially in FIG. 13. The circuit is very similar to the perpendicularity indicator. The portion of the circuit within the box B1 of FIG. 8b is identical to the circuitry of FIG. 9 in which the strain gages 66 and 68 are replaced with the strain gages 108 and 110 mounted to the lateral position sensing probe 76, as described above. The two bridge high level outputs from this circuit are inputs B zx and B zy in FIG. 13. The circuit of FIG. 13 is identical to the circuit of FIG. 10 with the exception that the amplifiers A2 and A3 and the associated capacitors and resistors are deleted and the inputs B zx and B zy are connected directly to the DVM's IC1 and IC7, respectively, through the voltage divider circuits and sensitivity selector switches SW1. This circuit then operates the second set of indicator lamps L1 through L9 in the same manner that the circuitry of FIGS. 9 and 10 operate the first set of indicator lights L1 through L9, as described above, upon the bending of probe 70. The circumferential position indicator circuit which is associated with the photo detector described above for indicating the rotational alignment of the device with the locking member 24, is illustrated in FIG. 14. IC26 is a very sensitive reflective type line reader containing an infrared LED source and a photo detector in a precision molded plastic holder that aligns the axis of both devices such that the IR source is reflected from the target surface 34 to the photo detector when the device is positioned at the correct height and inclination to the target surface 34. When the device is aligned with the contrasting spot on the surface 34, there is an increase in current from the photo detector IC26. This current is converted to a voltage change by resistor R53 and amplified by transistor T1 to a TTL logic level which trips the Schmidt Trigger NAND gate IC27. The Schmidt Trigger gate has a built-in hysteresis which prevents oscillation of the output when the photo detector is near the switch point. The gate drives opto-coupler IC28 to turn on indicator lamp L16. It is to be understood that the above described circuitry is one means of providing the desired visual indication of movements of the sensing device 10 and that other circuit constructions can be utilized in conjunction with the device to provide either the same visual indications or other indications such as those described in the above referred to related applications. For the sake of clarity, a list of components used in the construction of the above described circuitry is set out below, but is not to be construed as a limitation on the construction of the circuitry portion of the present invention. ______________________________________ELECTRONICS PARTS LISTItem Description Type______________________________________A1 Intersil ICL 7606 CJN I.C.A2,3 Intersil ICL 7605 CJN I.C.A4 National LM747CN I.C.C1, 7, 13, 18, .1 mfd Capacitor20C2-6, 8-11,14-17 1.0 mfd CapacitorC12, 19 .20 mfd CapacitorD1 1N4148 DiodeG1-4 BLH FAET-06C-35-S9ES Strain GageIC1, 7, 18 National LM3914N I.C.IC2-6, 8-11,15, 19-23, 28 Texas Instrument T1L113 I.C.IC12, 17 Texas Instrument SN7408 I.C.IC13 National LM324N I.C.IC14 National LM339N I.C.IC16 Texas Instrument SN7404 I.C.IC24 Siliconix DG163AP I.C.IC25 Texas Instrument NE555 I.C.IC26 Texas Instrument T1L139 I.C.IC27 Texas Instrument SN74LS13N I.C.L1-16 Chicago Miniture CM7382 LampR1 240 ohm ResistorR2 2K Pot ResistorR3, 9, 11, 12,18, 19, 25, 50 100K ResistorR4, 6, 8, 29-32, 35, 51 10K ResistorR5 33K ResistorR7, 10, 17 1M ResistorR13, 20, 40 45.3K ResistorR14, 21, 41 4.02K ResistorR15, 22, 42,52 1K ResistorR16, 23, 39 1.2K ResistorR24, 25 2.2K ResistorR26 200K - 20 Turn Trimmer ResistorR28 8.2K ResistorR33 330K ResistorR34 4.7K ResistorR36, 38 120K ResistorR37 10K Pot ResistorR43, 44 4.7M ResistorR53 15K ResistorSW1A-C Stackpole 73-1097 SwitchSW2 C&K 7101 SwitchVR1 National LM317 Voltage Reg.+V 15V Supply Voltages-V -15V Supply Voltages+VR1 +10V Supply Voltages+VR2 +8V Supply Voltages-VR2 -8V Supply Voltages+VR3 +5V Supply Voltages-VR3 -5V Supply Voltages______________________________________ In operation, the device 10 is brought into a position in close proximity to the surface 34 and initially visually disposed as perpendicular as possible to the surface. The device 10 is then brought into engagement with the surface so that the probes 54 each touch the surface and so that the probe 70 is positioned in the conical depression 36 in the disc 28. As the pins 54 engage the surface and are thus telescoped into the support member 40, they will bend the cantilevered extensions 64 causing a variation in the voltage output from strain gages 66 and 68 in proportion to the amount of deflection of each of the extensions. This in turn, through the circuitry described above, will produce a lighting of the lights of both the perpendicularity indicator display 120 and the vertical position indicator display 122. During this initial phase of movement of the device 10 the sensitivity switch SW1 should be positioned for the minimum sensitivity so that the indicator lamps provide a more meaningful indication of the general relationship of the device to the target surface 34 and provide an initial indication of the direction which the device is to be moved to both position the device the correct distance from the surface and perpendicular to the surface. Likewise, on initial contact with the surface the probe 70 is positioned in the conical depression 34 in the disc 28 which results in some side ways deflection of the probe 70, producing a change in the voltage output of one or both of the strain gages 108 and 110 which, in turn, through the circuitry described above, lights the appropriate lamps in the horizontal direction indicator display 124. At this point, the operator moves the device 10 in the appropriate directions, as indicated by the lamps, in order to bring each of the indicator displays 120, 122 and 124 to the center green position. The operator then adjusts the sensitivity switch SW1 to a greater sensitivity which will produce a change in the light displays. The operator then again moves the device 10 relative to the surface 34 and the conical depression 36 until each of the light displays is again brought to the center green light. This procedure is continued to the maximum sensitivity as established by switch SW1 and until the operator has finally positioned the device so that each of the indicator displays a center green light which then indicates that the device 10 is positioned correctly on the center line of the locking member 24 and that the device is perpendicular to the surface 34 to the desired extent of sensitivity which is preprogrammed into the circuitry. The operator then rotates the device while observing the positions of the pointers 114 and 116 until they are brought into alignment. The operator continues to rotate the device until the photo detector senses the spot on the surface of 34 which indicates exact alignment for the locking member 24 which will produce lighting of the lamp L16. It is possible, during rotation of the device that the relative perpendicularity of the device to the surface 34 and its alignment with the access of the locking member 24 may change. This will be indicated through the displays 120, 122 and 124 and additional correction may be necessary by the operator to bring all of the indicator lights to green once the rotational movement of the device has been completed. Although the preferred embodiment of the present invention as described above was designed mainly to establish perpendicularity between the device and the target surface 34, it is to be understood that it is considered an additional feature of the device to be able to sense an angular relationship between the device and the target surface 34 in a manner as disclosed in the above referred to related applications. Likewise, it is considered that the ability to sense perpendicularlity or angularity of the device relative to the target surface is independent of the horizontal positioning indicator which is utilized in the preferred embodiment. These features combined, however, provide the desired sensitivity for the environment in which this device is described above. The term transducer means, as used herein, is intended to be utilized in its broadest sense to encompass all of the various types of transducers which are capable of providing the necessary indication of the relative position of the sensing device of the present invention to a surface. Such transducer means include many of the light sensing types, such as photo detectors and light emitting diodes. It further includes sonic detectors, magnetic and electric detectors, such as inductance, reluctance and capacitance type of detectors. For example, it is anticipated that the pins 54 and associated transducer means, which includes the cantilevered extensions 64 and strain gages 66 and 68, can be replaced by any of the various transducer means indicated above which could provide the necessary indication of the distance from the target surface to the support member and the necessary indication of angularity and/or perpendicularlity, as desired. While the form of apparatus herein described constitutes a preferred embodiment of this invention, it is to be understood that the invention is not limited thereto, and that changes may be made therein without departing from the scope of the claims.

A position sensing device having a plurality of angular position sensing probes movably mounted within a support member for simultaneously engaging a surface when the support member is moved into proximity with the surface. Transducers associated with each of the probes sense movement thereof and provide electrical output signals indicative of the positions of the probes relative to the support member. The relative separation between the support member and the surface is determined through the calibrated movement of at least one of the probes as indicated through the signals of the associated transducer. Lateral position sensing is provided through a central probe mounted in cantilevered fashion to the support member, with two transducers positioned in orthogonal planes on the lateral position sensing probe which provide an indication in which direction the sensing device must be moved in order to eliminate sideway forces acting on the lateral position sensing probe.

RELATED APPLICATIONS This is a Continuation-In-Part application of a continuation application filed on Apr. 2, 2002 from patent application Ser. No. 09/452,103 filed on Dec. 2, 1999, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,404,950. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a dispersion-compensating module which improves the transmission quality of large-capacity, high-speed optical transmission systems of WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing) type. 2. Related Background Art A WDM type optical transmission system is a system which transmits a plurality of signal light components within a 1.55-μm wavelength band (1.53 μm to 1.57 μm) by way of an optical fiber transmission line network, and enables large-capacity, high-speed optical communications. This optical transmission system comprises an optical amplifier for collectively optically amplifying a plurality of signal light components, and the like, in addition to an optical fiber line which is a transmission medium. In such WDM communications, various studies and developments are under way in order to enable communications with further larger capacity and higher speed. One of important subjects to be studied concerning the optical transmission line is reduction of dispersion in its signal wavelength band. Namely, each signal light component has a certain bandwidth even though it is monochromatic. As a result, when dispersion occurs in the wavelength band of the signal light in the optical transmission line, the signal light having reached a receiving station by way of the optical transmission line after being sent out from a transmitting station deforms its waveform, thereby deteriorating its reception. Therefore, in the signal light wavelength band, it is desirable that the dispersion of the optical transmission line be as small as possible. However, standard single-mode optical fibers (hereinafter referred to as SMF), having a zero-dispersion wavelength in a 1.3-μm wavelength band, already installed as an optical transmission line have a dispersion of about 16 ps/nm/km in a wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm which is used in WDM communications. Many of already installed optical transmission lines are constituted by such an SMF. Therefore, a dispersion-compensating module is disposed within a repeater in order to compensate for the dispersion of the optical transmission line, while making use of such an already installed optical transmission line. With respect to the dispersion over the whole length of the optical transmission line to be compensated for, the dispersion-compensating module generates a dispersion having an opposite polarity with substantially the same absolute value. Specifically, the dispersion-compensating module comprises a dispersion-compensating optical fiber having a dispersion with a polarity opposite to that of the dispersion of the optical transmission line (including SMF), and compensates for the dispersion of the optical transmission line (including SMF) by adjusting the dispersion-compensating optical fiber to an appropriate length. Also, for reducing the size of the dispersion-compensating module, it is a common practice to wind the dispersion-compensating optical fiber into a coil having a small diameter. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The inventors have studied conventional dispersion-compensating modules and, as a result, have found out the following problems. Recently, in optical amplifiers, the wavelength bandwidth of signal light which can collectively be optically amplified has been expanded, and gain deviations in optically amplifiable signal wavelength bands have been reduced in order to improve the versatility thereof. On the other hand, inter-wavelength loss deviations (fluctuations in loss among wavelengths) occurring in the optical transmission line in the signal light wavelength band are too large to neglect. Also, since inter-wavelength loss deviations in the signal light wavelength band occur to a certain extent in a dispersion-compensating optical fiber as well, it is necessary to improve loss deviations in the whole transmission line including the conventional dispersion-compensating modules. When a plurality of stages of conventional dispersion-compensating modules and optical amplifiers are disposed on such an optical transmission line; even if a plurality of signal light components sent out from a transmitting station exhibit no inter-wavelength optical power deviation at the time when sent out, they will generate an optical power deviation, due to inter-wavelength loss deviations, while they are propagating through the optical transmission line and conventional dispersion-compensating modules, and the optical power deviation is expanded by optical amplifiers having a small gain deviation. Since the plurality of signal light components reaching the receiving station constitute signal light in which inter-wavelength optical power deviations are accumulated, the signal light power may become weak depending on wavelength, thereby generating reception errors. In order to overcome the above-mentioned problems, it is an object of the present invention to provide a dispersion-compensating module having a structure which compensates for the dispersion of optical transmission lines in a 1.55-μm wavelength band (1.53 μm to 1.57 μm) and adjusts loss fluctuations among signal light components into an appropriate range. The dispersion-compensating module according to the present invention is generally installed between repeaters together with an optical amplifier, whereas the object to be compensated for thereby is an SMF which is laid between a transmitting station and a receiving station, between repeater stations, between the transmitting station and a repeater station, or between a repeater station and the receiving station. For being installed on an already installed optical fiber transmission line, the dispersion-compensating module comprises an input end for capturing signal light propagating through the optical fiber transmission line and an output end for sending out the signal light into the optical fiber transmission line, has a positive loss slope in a 1.55-μm wavelength band, and further comprises a structure for allowing the dispersion generated in a predetermined length of the optical fiber transmission line to be compensated for and loss deviations among individual wavelengths to be adjusted into an appropriate range. Specifically, the dispersion-compensating module according to the present invention comprises a dispersion-compensating device and a loss-equalizing device. The dispersion-compensating device compensates for the dispersion of the above-mentioned optical fiber transmission line in the 1.55-μm wavelength band. Also, for compensating for the wavelength dependence of loss in at least the above-mentioned optical fiber transmission line and dispersion-compensating device, the loss-equalizing device adjusts the total loss slope of the dispersion-compensating module such that the loss deviations among individual wavelengths in the 1.55-μm wavelength band caused by propagation in the optical fiber transmission line and dispersion-compensating device falls within the appropriate range. In this specification, “loss slope” refers to the gradient of a graph indicating the wavelength dependence of transmission loss. Also, the above-mentioned optical fiber transmission line is an SMF having a zero-dispersion wavelength in a 1.3-μm wavelength band; and, letting L be the length of the above-mentioned SMF, and α be the absolute value of a permissible manufacturing error, the loss slope (dB/nm) of the dispersion-compensating module in the 1.55-μm wavelength band is greater than 0 but not greater than 0.000175×L+α. In general, when an SMF having a zero-dispersion wavelength in a 1.3-μm wavelength band is employed as an optical fiber transmission line, the loss slope per unit length of the SMF is about −0.000175 (dB/nm/km =dB/(nm·km)). Therefore, the loss slope of the dispersion-compensating module is ideally +0.000175×L when an SMF having a length of L is concerned. In practice, however, since the manufacturing error α cannot be neglected, the loss slope (dB/nm) of the dispersion-compensating module in the 1.55-μm wavelength band is greater than 0 but not greater than 0.000175×L+α. The loss-equalizing device includes an optical fiber, comprising a core region doped with a transition metal element and a cladding region disposed at an outer periphery of the core region, in which a single mode is secured in the 1.55-μm wavelength band. Preferred examples of the transition metal element include Cr and Co, and the amount of compensation of loss in the loss-equalizing device can be adjusted when the kind of the transition metal element and the amount of addition thereof are appropriately regulated. The above-mentioned loss-equalizing device may include an optical fiber formed with a long-period grating in which a propagation mode and a radiation mode are coupled to each other. Alternatively, the above-mentioned dispersion-compensating device may be an optical device having, as the above-mentioned loss-equalizing device, a long-period grating in which a propagation mode and a radiation mode are coupled to each other. In each of these configurations, the long-period grating, which is the loss-equalizing device, enables loss deviations among individual wavelengths to be adjusted in the whole optical transmission line without increasing the transmission loss of the whole dispersion-compensating module. In particular, in the configuration in which the long-period grating, which is the loss-equalizing device, is formed in the optical fiber acting as the dispersion-compensating device, the dispersion-compensating device does not have a connecting portion which may yield loss. Consequently, it is not necessary to take account of influences of transmission loss in the connecting portion, whereby loss fluctuations among individual wavelengths can be adjusted more easily. Here, as explicitly shown in U.S. Pat. No. 5,703,978, the long-period grating is a grating which induces coupling (mode coupling) between a core mode and a cladding mode which propagate through an optical fiber, and is clearly distinguished from a short-period grating for reflecting light centered at a predetermined wavelength. Also, in the long-period grating, for yielding a strong power conversion from the core mode to the cladding mode, the grating period (pitch) is set such that the optical path difference between the core mode and the cladding mode becomes 2π. As a consequence, since the long-period grating acts so as to couple the core mode to the cladding mode, the core mode attenuates over a narrow band centered at a predetermined wavelength (hereinafter referred to as “loss wavelength”). The above-mentioned loss-equalizing device can also be realized by connecting respective end portions of a pair of optical fibers by fusion. In this case, the fused portion of the pair of optical fibers functions as the loss-equalizing device. Preferably, the pair of optical fibers are connected by fusion at the fused portion while their optical axes are shifted from each other. This fused portion may also be realized by connecting the pair of optical fibers by fusion while their core regions are bent. Also, when a pair of optical fibers each having a core region with an outside diameter expanding toward the opposed portion is connected to each other by fusion, the fused portion functions as the loss-equalizing device. The loss-equalizing device may include a fiber coupler, or an optical fiber bent at one or more parts thereof. A desirable loss wavelength characteristic can be obtained in each of these cases. Further, the loss-equalizing device may include any one of a slant type fiber grating, which comprises an optical fiber and a grating formed in the optical fiber and being inclined at a predetermined angle with respect to an optical axis of the optical fiber, and a dielectric multilayered filter. The loss-equalizing device preferably have a valiable wavelength chanracteristic, and includes, for example, a variable loss-equalizing device having a planar waveguide or a variable loss-equalizing device with MEMS (Micro Electro Mechanical Systems). The present invention will be more fully understood from the detailed description given hereinbelow and the accompanying drawings, which are given by way of illustration only and are not to be considered as limiting the present invention. Further scope of applicability of the present invention will become apparent from the detailed description given hereinafter. However, it should be understood that the detailed description and specific examples, while indicating preferred embodiments of the invention, are given by way of illustration only, since various changes and modifications within the spirit and scope of the invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art from this detailed description. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a view showing a schematic configuration of a first embodiment of the dispersion-compensating module according to the present invention; FIGS. 2A to 2 E are graphs showing relationships between loss and wavelength in respective parts in each of dispersion-compensating modules according to first, second, fourth, fifth, and sixth embodiments; FIG. 3A is a graph showing the loss wavelength characteristic of a standard single-mode optical fiber having a zero-dispersion wavelength in a 1.3-μm wavelength band, whereas FIG. 3B is a graph showing, to a larger scale, the loss wavelength characteristic of the single-mode optical fiber in the vicinity of a 1.5-μm wavelength band in the graph shown in FIG. 3A ; FIG. 4A is a graph showing an example of the loss wavelength characteristic of a loss-equalizing optical fiber whose core region is doped with Co element (transition metal element), whereas FIG. 4B is a graph showing, to a larger scale, the loss wavelength characteristic of the loss-equalizing optical fiber in the vicinity of the 1.5-μm wavelength band in the graph shown in FIG. 4A ; FIG. 5 is a view showing a schematic configuration of a second embodiment of the dispersion-compensating module according to the present invention; FIG. 6 is a graph showing an example of the loss wavelength characteristic of a long-period grating; FIG. 7 is a view showing a schematic configuration of a third embodiment of the dispersion-compensating module according to the present invention; FIGS. 8A to 8 D are graphs showing relationships between loss and wavelength in respective parts in the dispersion-compensating module according to the third embodiment shown in FIG. 7 ; FIG. 9 is a view showing a schematic configuration of a fourth embodiment of the dispersion-compensating module according to the present invention; FIGS. 10A to 10 C are views for explaining specific configurations of the fused portion as a loss-equalizing device in the dispersion-compensating module according to the fourth embodiment shown in FIG. 9 ; FIG. 11 is a graph showing an example of the loss wavelength characteristic of the fused portion shown in FIGS. 10A to 10 C; FIG. 12 is a view showing a schematic configuration of a fifth embodiment of the dispersion-compensating module according to the present invention; FIG. 13 is a view showing a schematic configuration of a sixth embodiment of the dispersion-compensating module according to the present invention; and FIG. 14 is a view showing a schematic common configuration of seventh to tenth embodiments of the dispersion-compensating module according to the present invention; and FIGS. 15A to 15 F are views for explaining specific configurations of loss-equalizing devices in the dispersion-compensating modules according to the seventh to tenth embodiments. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS In the following, embodiments of the dispersion-compensating module according to the present invention will be explained with reference to FIGS. 1 , 2 A to 4 B, 5 to 7 , 8 A to 8 D, 9 , 10 A to 10 C, 11 to 14 and 15 A to 15 F. In the explanation of the drawings, constituents identical to each other will be referred to with numerals or letters identical to each other without repeating their overlapping descriptions. First Embodiment To begin with, a first embodiment of the dispersion-compensating module according to the present invention will be explained. FIG. 1 is a view showing a schematic configuration of the dispersion-compensating module according to the first embodiment. This drawing shows, in addition to the dispersion-compensating module 10 according to this embodiment, a repeater 1 disposed upstream of the dispersion-compensating module 10 , and an optical transmission line 2 between the repeater 1 and the dispersion-compensating module 10 . The dispersion-compensating module 10 according to this embodiment has an input end 10 a and an output end 10 b, and is disposed while in a state where a dispersion-compensating device and a loss-equalizing device are optically connected to each other in the optical path between the input end 10 a and the output end 10 b . In particular, the dispersion-compensating module 10 is constituted by a dispersion-compensating optical fiber 11 , as the dispersion-compensating device, and an optical fiber 12 doped with a transition metal element, as the loss-equalizing device, which are connected to each other by fusion at a connecting portion 13 . The dispersion-compensating optical fiber 11 is an optical device which compensates for the chromatic dispersion in the WDM signal wavelength band of the optical transmission line 2 into which the dispersion-compensating module 10 is inserted. On the other hand, the transition-metal-element-doped optical fiber 12 is an optical fiber, basically comprising a core region and a cladding region disposed at the outer periphery of the core region, in which a transition metal element such as Cr element, Co element, or the like is added at least into the core region. When the kind and amount of the transition metal element added to the core region are appropriately selected, then the loss wavelength characteristic of the optical fiber 12 itself is adjusted so as to compensate for wavelength-dependent loss deviations of the optical transmission line 2 and dispersion-compensating optical fiber 11 . As a consequence, the total loss fluctuation in the signal wavelength band of the optical transmission line 2 provided with the dispersion-compensating module 10 decreases. FIGS. 2A to 2 E are graphs showing relationships between transmission loss and wavelength in respective parts in the dispersion-compensating module according to first embodiment. In particular, FIG. 2A is a graph showing the relationship between transmission loss and wavelength in a wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm in the optical transmission line 2 employing an SMF having a zero-dispersion wavelength in a 1.3-μm wavelength band. FIG. 2B is a graph showing the relationship between transmission loss and wavelength in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm in the dispersion-compensating optical fiber 11 acting as the dispersion-compensating device. FIG. 2C is a graph showing the relationship between transmission loss and wavelength in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm in the transition-metal-element-doped optical fiber 12 acting as the loss-equalizing device. FIG. 2D is a graph showing the relationship between transmission loss and wavelength in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm in the whole dispersion-compensating module 10 . FIG. 2E is a graph showing the relationship between transmission loss and wavelength in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm in the whole optical transmission line provided with the dispersion-compensating module 10 . As shown in FIGS. 2A and 2B , each of the optical transmission line 2 and dispersion-compensating optical fiber 11 has a transmission loss which becomes smaller as the wavelength is longer in general in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm, thus yielding a negative loss slope. By contrast, as shown in FIG. 2C , the transition-metal-element-doped optical fiber 12 is a single-mode optical fiber whose core region is doped with Co element at a concentration of about 10 ppm, which is designed such that its transmission loss becomes greater as the wavelength is longer, so as to be able to compensate for wavelength-dependent loss deviations in view of the loss slopes of the optical transmission line 2 and dispersion-compensating optical fiber 11 . Therefore, as shown in FIG. 2D , the total loss in the dispersion-compensating module 10 is the sum of respective losses in the dispersion-compensating optical fiber 11 and the transition-metal-element-doped optical fiber 12 , and becomes greater as the wavelength is longer in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm, thus yielding a positive loss slope. As shown in FIG. 2E , the total loss in the optical transmission line 2 and the dispersion-compensating module 10 is the sum of the irrespective losses, and yields a deviation of 0.1 dB or less in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm, whereby its wavelength dependence is weaker than that of the loss deviation of each constituent. FIGS. 3A and 3B are graphs showing the loss wavelength characteristic of a standard SMF having a zero-dispersion wavelength in a 1.3-μm wavelength band. The graph of FIG. 3A shows the loss characteristic within a wavelength range of 1200 μm to 1700 μm; whereas the graph of FIG. 3B enlarges a part of FIG. 3A , so as to show the loss characteristic within a wavelength range of 1480 μm to 1620 μm. This SMF has a stepped index type refractive index profile, whose core region is doped with Ge element while silica is used as a base. As shown in these graphs, the loss in this SMF per unit length (km) varies about 0.007 dB/km between wavelengths of 1530 nm and 1570 nm. In the wavelength band having a width of 40 nm (=1570−1530), the loss slope of the SMF per unit length is approximately −0.007/40=−0.000175 dB/nm/km (whereby the loss on the longer wavelength side tends to become smaller). FIGS. 4A and 4B are graphs showing an example of the loss wavelength characteristic of a loss-equalizing optical fiber whose core region is doped with Co element. The graph of FIG. 4A shows the loss characteristic within a wavelength range of 600 μm to 1800 μm; whereas the graph of FIG. 4B enlarges a part of FIG. 4A , so as to show the loss characteristic within a wavelength range of 1500 μm to 1600 μm. This loss-equalizing optical fiber has a stepped index type refractive index profile, whose core region is doped with Co element while silica is used as a base. As shown in these graphs, the loss slope of this loss-equalizing optical fiber is positive in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm. This loss slope can be adjusted by the amount of addition of Co element and the like. When the SMF is used as the optical transmission line 2 , the loss slope of the optical transmission line 2 in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm is negative as mentioned above. Therefore, if the loss slope of the whole dispersion-compensating module 10 is set positive, then the total loss in the optical transmission line 2 and dispersion-compensating module 10 can fall within an appropriate range. Specifically, since the SMF employed as the optical transmission line 2 has a loss slope per unit length of about −0.000175 (dB/nm/km=dB/(nm·km)) in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm, letting L (km) be the fiber length of the optical transmission line 2 , the loss slope (dB/nm) of the whole dispersion-compensating module 10 in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm is ideally a value which is greater than 0 but not greater than 0.000175×L. The loss slope of the loss-equalizing optical fiber (loss-equalizing device) is set to an appropriate value by adjusting the amount of addition of Co element or the like, such that, while the loss slope of the dispersion-compensating optical fiber (dispersion-compensating device) is taken into consideration, the loss slope of the whole dispersion-compensating module 10 falls within the range mentioned above. In practice, however, the manufacturing error of the loss-equalizing optical fiber must be taken into consideration, whereby the loss slope value S (dB/nm) of the whole dispersion-compensating module 10 becomes 0<S≦0.000175×L+α where α is the absolute value of manufacturing error of the loss-equalizing optical fiber, which is specifically about 000 dB/nm. When the loss slope of the loss-equalizing optical fiber is controlled as such, the loss deviations among individual wavelengths occurring in the optical transmission line 2 exceeding, for example, 80 km and the dispersion-compensating optical fiber can fall within an appropriate range in the dispersion-compensating module 10 as a whole. Second Embodiment A second embodiment of the dispersion-compensating module according to the present invention will now be explained. FIG. 5 is a view showing a schematic configuration of the dispersion-compensating module according to the second embodiment. This drawing shows, in addition to the dispersion-compensating module 20 according to this embodiment, a repeater 1 disposed upstream of the dispersion-compensating module 20 , and an optical transmission line 2 between the repeater 1 and the dispersion-compensating module 20 . The dispersion-compensating module 20 according to this embodiment has an input end 20 a and an output end 20 b, and is disposed while in a state where a dispersion-compensating device and a loss-equalizing device are optically connected to each other in the optical path between the input end 20 a and the output end 20 b . In particular, the dispersion-compensating module 20 is constituted by a dispersion-compensating optical fiber 21 , as the dispersion-compensating device, and an optical fiber 23 formed with a long-period fiber grating 22 , as the loss-equalizing device, which are connected to each other by fusion at a connecting portion 24 . The optical fiber 23 is preferably an SMF or dispersion-compensating optical fiber having a zero-dispersion wavelength in a 1.3-μm wavelength band. The dispersion-compensating optical fiber 21 is an optical device for compensating for the chromatic dispersion in the WDM signal wavelength band of the optical transmission line into which the dispersion-compensating module 20 is inserted. The long-period fiber grating 22 is obtained when a refractive index change having a predetermined period is generated in at least a core region of the optical fiber 23 , in which the period of refractive index change is a long period on the order of several hundreds of micrometers, whereby the core-mode light propagating through the core region and the cladding-mode light radiated to the cladding region are coupled together. By appropriately selecting the period of refractive index change and length, the long-period fiber grating 22 is designed such that, for example, the transmission loss at a wavelength of 1520 nm is minimized, while the transmission loss at a wavelength of 1570 nm is maximized, whereby wavelength-dependent loss deviations of the optical transmission line 2 and the dispersion-compensating optical fiber 21 are compensated for. Therefore, the wavelength dependence of the total loss in the optical transmission line 2 and dispersion-compensating module 20 is weaker than that of the loss deviation in each of the dispersion-compensating optical fiber 21 and long-period fiber grating 22 . When the long-period fiber grating 22 is thus used as the loss-equalizing device, loss deviations among individual signal light components can fall within an appropriate range without greatly decreasing the transmission loss in the whole dispersion-compensating module 20 . Also, desirable transmission characteristics can easily be obtained in a wide wavelength band. Here, the long-period fiber grating 22 is an optical component which is clearly distinguished from a short-period fiber grating which reflects only a signal light component having a predetermined wavelength (see U.S. Pat. No. 5,703,978). Since graphs showing the relationships between transmission loss and wavelength in the dispersion-compensating module 20 according to the second embodiment are similar to FIGS. 2A to 2 E, operations of the dispersion-compensating module 20 according to this embodiment will be explained with reference to these graphs. As shown in FIGS. 2A and 2B , each of the optical transmission line 2 and dispersion-compensating optical fiber 21 has a transmission loss which becomes smaller as the wavelength is longer in general in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm, thus yielding a negative loss slope. By contrast, as shown in FIG. 2C , the long-period fiber grating 22 , which is the loss-equalizing device, is designed such that its transmission loss becomes greater as the wavelength is longer, so as to be able to compensate for wavelength-dependent loss deviations in view of the loss slopes of the optical transmission line 2 and dispersion-compensating optical fiber 21 . Therefore, as shown in FIG. 2D , the total loss in the dispersion-compensating module 20 is the sum of respective losses in the dispersion-compensating optical fiber 21 and the long-period grating 22 , and becomes greater as the wavelength is longer in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm, thus yielding a positive loss slope. As shown in FIG. 2E , the total loss in the optical transmission line 2 and the dispersion-compensating module 20 is the sum of their respective losses, and yields a deviation of 0.1 dB or less in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm. FIG. 6 is a graph showing an example of the loss wavelength characteristic of a long-period fiber grating. For making this long-period fiber grating, a silica-based optical fiber having a stepped index type refractive index profile, whose core region is doped with Ge element, is irradiated with ultraviolet rays through an intensity-modulating mask, so as to generate a refractive index modulation in the core region. As shown in this graph, the loss slope of the long-period fiber grating is positive in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm. This loss slope can be adjusted by the period of refractive index change and the length. As mentioned in the foregoing, when the SMF is used as the optical transmission line 2 , the loss slope of the optical transmission line 2 in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm is negative in this embodiment as well. Therefore, if the loss slope of the whole dispersion-compensating module 20 is set positive, then the total loss in the optical transmission line 2 and dispersion-compensating module 20 can fall within an appropriate range. Also, since the SMF employed as the optical transmission line 2 has a loss slope per unit length (km) of about −0.000175 (dB/nm/km=dB/(nm km)) in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm, letting L (km) be the fiber length of the optical transmission line 2 , and α be the absolute value of a permissible manufacturing error, the loss slope (dB/nm) of the whole dispersion-compensating module 20 in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm is preferably a value which is greater than 0 but not greater than 0.000175×L+α. Here, the loss slope of the long-period grating 22 is adjusted by appropriately setting the grating period and length such that the loss slope of the whole dispersion-compensating module 20 falls within the range mentioned above in view of the loss slope of the dispersion-compensating optical fiber 21 . Third Embodiment A third embodiment of the dispersion-compensating module according to the present invention will now be explained. FIG. 7 is a view showing a schematic configuration of the dispersion-compensating module according to the third embodiment. This drawing shows, in addition to the dispersion-compensating module 30 according to this embodiment, a repeater 1 disposed upstream of the dispersion-compensating module 30 , and an optical transmission line 2 between the repeater 1 and the dispersion-compensating module 30 . The dispersion-compensating module 30 according to this embodiment has an input end 30 a and an output end 30 b, and is disposed while in a state where a dispersion-compensating device and a loss-equalizing device are optically connected to each other in the optical path between the input end 30 a and the output end 30 b . In particular, the dispersion-compensating module 30 is constituted by a dispersion-compensating optical fiber 31 , as the dispersion-compensating device, and a long-period fiber grating 32 , as the loss-equalizing device, directly formed in the dispersion-compensating optical fiber 31 . The dispersion-compensating optical fiber 31 is an optical device for compensating for the chromatic dispersion in the WDM signal wavelength band of the optical transmission line into which the dispersion-compensating module 30 is inserted. The long-period fiber grating 32 is obtained when a refractive index change having a predetermined period is generated in at least a core region of the dispersion-compensating optical fiber 31 , in which the period of refractive index change is a long period on the order of several hundreds of micrometers, whereby the core-mode light propagating through the core region and the cladding-mode light radiated to the cladding region are coupled together. By appropriately selecting the period of refractive index change and the length, the long-period fiber grating 32 is designed such that, for example, the transmission loss at a wavelength of 1520 nm is minimized, while the transmission loss at a wavelength of 1570 nm is maximized, whereby wavelength-dependent loss deviations of the optical transmission line 2 and dispersion-compensating optical fiber 31 are compensated for. Therefore, the total loss in the optical transmission line 2 and dispersion-compensating module 30 is the sum of the transmission loss in the optical transmission line 2 , the original transmission loss in the dispersion-compensating optical fiber 31 , and the transmission loss in the formed long-period fiber grating 32 , thereby weakening the wavelength dependence as a whole. When the long-period fiber grating 32 is thus used as the loss-equalizing device, loss deviations among individual signal light components can fall within an appropriate range without greatly decreasing the transmission loss in the whole dispersion-compensating module 30 . Also, desirable loss characteristics can easily be obtained in a wide wavelength band. Further, in the third embodiment, since the long-period fiber grating 32 , as the loss-equalizing device, is directly formed in the dispersion-compensating optical fiber 31 , there is no connecting portion which may yield a loss, whereby it is unnecessary to take account of the influence of the loss in the connecting portion. FIGS. 8A to 8 D are graphs showing relationships between transmission loss and wavelength in the dispersion-compensating module 30 according to the third embodiment. FIG. 8A is a graph showing the relationship between transmission loss and wavelength in a wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm in the optical transmission line 2 employing the SMF. FIG. 8B is a graph showing the relationship between transmission loss and wavelength in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm in the dispersion-compensating optical fiber 31 before the long-period fiber grating 32 is formed. FIG. 8C is a graph showing the relationship between transmission loss and wavelength in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm in the dispersion-compensating optical fiber 31 after the long-period fiber grating 32 is formed, i.e., the relationship between transmission loss and wavelength in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm in the dispersion-compensating module 30 . FIG. 8D is a graph showing the total relationship between transmission loss and wavelength in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm in the optical transmission line 2 and dispersion-compensating module 30 . As shown in FIG. 8A , the optical transmission line 2 has a transmission loss which becomes smaller as the wavelength is longer in general in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm, thus yielding a negative loss slope. Also, as shown in FIG. 8B , the dispersion-compensating optical fiber 31 before the formation of the long-period fiber grating 32 has a transmission loss which becomes smaller as the wavelength is longer in general in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm, thus yielding a negative loss slope. On the other hand, the long-period fiber grating 32 has a loss which becomes greater as the wavelength is longer, thereby compensating for the original loss deviations among individual wavelengths of the optical transmission line 2 and dispersion-compensating optical fiber 31 . As shown in FIG. 8C , the total loss in the dispersion-compensating optical fiber 31 formed with the long-period fiber grating 32 , i.e., the whole dispersion-compensating module 30 , is the sum of the original transmission loss in the dispersion-compensating optical fiber 31 and the transmission loss in the long-period fiber grating 32 , and has a positive loss slope in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm. As shown in FIG. 8D , the total loss in the optical transmission line 2 and the dispersion-compensating module 30 is the sum of their respective losses, and yields a deviation of 0.1 dB or less in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm. As mentioned in the foregoing, when the SMF is used as the optical transmission line 2 , the loss slope of the optical transmission line 2 in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm is negative in this embodiment as well. Therefore, if the loss slope of the whole dispersion-compensating module 30 is set positive, then the total loss in the optical transmission line 2 and dispersion-compensating module 30 can fall within an appropriate range. Also, since the SMF employed as the optical transmission line 2 has a loss slope per unit length (km) of about −0.000175 (dB/nm/km=dB/(nm·km)) in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm, letting L (km) be the fiber length of the optical transmission line 2 , and a be the absolute value of a permissible manufacturing error, the loss slope (dB/nm) of the whole dispersion-compensating module 30 in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm is preferably a value which is greater than 0 but not greater than 0.000175×L+α. Here, the loss slope of the whole dispersion-compensating module 30 is adjusted by appropriately setting the grating period and length of the long-period grating 32 . Fourth Embodiment A fourth embodiment of the dispersion-compensating module according to the present invention will now be explained. FIG. 9 is a view showing a schematic configuration of the dispersion-compensating module according to the fourth embodiment. This drawing shows, in addition to the dispersion-compensating module 40 according to this embodiment, a repeater 1 disposed upstream of the dispersion-compensating module 40 , and an optical transmission line 2 between the repeater 1 and the dispersion-compensating module 40 . The dispersion-compensating module 40 according to this embodiment is constituted by a dispersion-compensating optical fiber 41 , as a dispersion-compensating device, and a single-mode optical fiber 42 which are connected to each other by fusion at a fused portion 43 . In this configuration, the dispersion-compensating optical fiber 41 is an optical device which compensates for the chromatic dispersion in the signal light wavelength band of the optical transmission line into which the dispersion-compensating module 40 is inserted. Though the fused portion 43 generates a loss, its wavelength characteristic varies depending on fusion conditions such as the heating temperature upon connecting by fusion and the amount of intrusion of the fiber, whereby the wavelength dependence of transmission loss in the fused portion 43 can be adjusted by appropriately setting these fusion conditions. FIGS. 10A to 10 C are views showing specific examples of the dispersion-compensating module according to the fourth embodiment. A specific structure of the fused portion 43 can be realized when, as shown in FIG. 10A for example, the core region 41 a of the dispersion-compensating optical fiber 41 and the core region 42 a of the single-mode optical fiber 42 are fused together while their optical axes AX 1 , AX 2 are shifted from each other by a predetermined distance D. It can also be realized when, as shown in FIG. 10B , the dispersion-compensating optical fiber 41 and the single-mode optical fiber 42 are connected to each other by fusion while each of the core region 41 b of the dispersion-compensating optical fiber 41 and the core region 42 b of the single-mode optical fiber 42 is minutely bent. Further, as shown in FIG. 10C , the core region 41 c of the dispersion-compensating optical fiber 41 and the core region 42 c of the single-mode optical fiber 42 may be configured so as to expand their diameters toward the fused portion 43 . These specific examples can be combined. For example, in the fused portion 43 , the radius of bend of the core region may be expanded, or structures of bending the core region may be combined together. In each of these cases, the deviation of total loss in the optical transmission line 2 and dispersion-compensating module 40 can be kept at 0.1 dB or less in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm. Since graphs showing the relationships between transmission loss and wavelength in the dispersion-compensating module 40 according to the fourth embodiment are similar to FIGS. 2A to 2 E, operations of the dispersion-compensating module 40 will be explained with reference to these graphs. As shown in FIGS. 2A and 2B , each of the optical transmission line 2 and dispersion-compensating optical fiber 41 has a transmission loss which becomes smaller as the wavelength is longer in general in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm, thus yielding a negative loss slope. By contrast, as shown in FIG. 2C , one of the amount of shift of optical axes, amount of bending of optical axes, and expanded core diameter of the fused portion 43 , which is the loss-equalizing device, is designed such that its transmission loss becomes greater as the wavelength is longer, so as to be able to effectively compensate for wavelength-dependent loss deviations of the optical transmission line 2 and dispersion-compensating optical fiber 41 . Therefore, as shown in FIG. 2D , the total loss in the dispersion-compensating module 40 is the sum of respective losses in the dispersion-compensating optical fiber 41 and the fused portion 43 , and becomes greater as the wavelength is longer in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm, thus yielding a positive loss slope. As shown in FIG. 2E , the total loss in the optical transmission line 2 and the dispersion-compensating module 40 is the sum of their respective losses, and yields a deviation of 0.1 dB or less in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm. FIG. 11 is a graph showing an example of the loss wavelength characteristic of the fused portion. As shown in this graph, the loss slope of this fused portion is positive in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm. This loss slope can be adjusted by the amount of shift of optical axes, the amount of bending of optical axes, and the expanded core diameter. As mentioned in the foregoing, when the SMF is used as the optical transmission line 2 , the loss slope of the optical transmission line 2 in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm is negative in this embodiment as well. Therefore, if the loss slope of the whole dispersion-compensating module 40 is set positive, then the total loss in the optical transmission line 2 and the dispersion-compensating module 40 can fall within an appropriate range. Also, since the SMF employed as the optical transmission line 2 has a loss slope per unit length (km) of about −0.000175 dB/nm/km in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm, letting L (km) be the fiber length of the optical transmission line 2 , and α be the absolute value of a permissible manufacturing error, the loss slope (dB/nm) of the whole dispersion-compensating module 40 in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm is preferably a value which is greater than 0 but not greater than 0.000175×L+α. Though the fusion connection between the dispersion-compensating optical fiber 41 and the SMF 42 is explained in the fourth embodiment, the configuration of the fused portion 43 should not be restricted thereto. For example, an SMF may be used in place of the dispersion-compensating optical fiber 41 , and a dispersion-compensating optical fiber or other optical fibers may be used in place of the SMF 42 . In any case, if the wavelength dependence of transmission loss in the fused portion therebetween is adjusted, then the wavelength dependence of the total loss in the optical transmission line and dispersion-compensating module can be weakened. Fifth Embodiment A fifth embodiment of the dispersion-compensating module according to the present invention will now be explained. FIG. 12 is a view showing a schematic configuration of the dispersion-compensating module according to the fifth embodiment. This drawing shows, in addition to the dispersion-compensating module 50 according to this embodiment, a repeater 1 disposed upstream of the dispersion-compensating module 50 , and an optical transmission line 2 between the repeater 1 and the dispersion-compensating module 50 . The dispersion-compensating module 50 according to this embodiment is disposed in a state where a dispersion-compensating device and a loss-equalizing device are optically connected to each other in the optical path between an input end 50 a and an output end 50 b . Specifically, this embodiment comprises a dispersion-compensating optical fiber 51 as the dispersion-compensating device and a fiber fusion type coupler (WDM coupler) 52 as the loss-equalizing device. The WDM coupler 52 preferably has a polarization-dependent loss (PDL) of 0.2 dB or less. The dispersion-compensating optical fiber 51 is an optical device which compensates for the chromatic dispersion in the WDM signal wavelength band of the optical transmission line into which the dispersion-compensating module 50 is inserted. The WDM coupler 52 is obtained by fusing together two optical fibers disposed in parallel; and, its fusion conditions and coupling length are appropriately selected such that, for example, the transmission loss at a wavelength of 1520 nm is minimized, while the transmission loss at a wavelength of 1570 nm is maximized, whereby wavelength-dependent loss deviations of the optical transmission line 2 and dispersion-compensating optical fiber 51 are compensated for. As a consequence, the wavelength dependence of the total loss in the optical transmission line 2 and dispersion-compensating module 50 is weakened as a whole. Since graphs showing the relationships between transmission loss and wavelength in the dispersion-compensating module 50 according to the fifth embodiment are similar to FIGS. 2A to 2 E, operations of the dispersion-compensating module 50 will be explained with reference to these graphs. As shown in FIGS. 2A and 2B , each of the optical transmission line 2 and dispersion-compensating optical fiber 51 has a transmission loss which becomes smaller as the wavelength is longer in general in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm, thus yielding a negative loss slope. By contrast, as shown in FIG. 2C , the fusion conditions and coupling length of the WDM coupler 52 , which is the loss-equalizing device, are designed such that its transmission loss becomes greater as the wavelength is longer, so as to be able to effectively compensate for wavelength-dependent loss deviations of the optical transmission line 2 and dispersion-compensating optical fiber 51 . Therefore, as shown in FIG. 2D , the total loss in the dispersion-compensating module 50 is the sum of respective losses in the dispersion-compensating optical fiber 51 and the WDM coupler 52 , and becomes greater as the wavelength is longer in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm, thus yielding a positive loss slope. As shown in FIG. 2E , the total loss in the optical transmission line 2 and the dispersion-compensating module 50 is the sum of their respective losses, and yields a deviation of 0.1 dB or less in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm. As mentioned in the foregoing, when the SMF is used as the optical transmission line 2 , the loss slope of the optical transmission line 2 in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm is negative in this embodiment as well. Therefore, if the loss slope of the whole dispersion-compensating module 50 is set positive, then the total loss in the optical transmission line 2 and dispersion-compensating module 50 can fall within an appropriate range. Also, since the SMF employed as the optical transmission line 2 has a loss slope per unit length (km) of about −0.000175 (dB/nm/km=db/(nm·km)) in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm, letting L (km) be the fiber length of the optical transmission line 2 , and a be the absolute value of a permissible manufacturing error, the loss slope (dB/nm) of the whole dispersion-compensating module 50 in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm is preferably a value which is greater than 0 but not greater than 0.000175×L+α. Here, the loss slope of the WDM coupler 52 is adjusted by appropriately setting the fusion conditions and coupling length such that the loss slope of the whole dispersion-compensating module 50 falls within the range mentioned above in view of the loss slope of the dispersion-compensating optical fiber 51 . Sixth Embodiment A sixth embodiment of the dispersion-compensating module according to the present invention will now be explained. FIG. 13 is a view showing a schematic configuration of the dispersion-compensating module according to the sixth embodiment. This drawing shows, in addition to the dispersion-compensating module 60 according to this embodiment, a repeater 1 disposed upstream of the dispersion-compensating module 60 , and an optical transmission line 2 between the repeater 1 and the dispersion-compensating module 60 . The dispersion-compensating module 60 according to this embodiment has an input end 60 a and an output end 60 b, and is disposed while in a state where a dispersion-compensating device and a loss-equalizing device are optically connected to each other in the optical path between the input end 60 a and the output end 60 b . In particular, the dispersion-compensating module 60 is constituted by a dispersion-compensating optical fiber 61 , as the dispersion-compensating device, and an optical fiber 63 having a bent portion 62 , as the loss-equalizing device, which are connected to each other by fusion at a connecting portion 64 . The optical fiber 63 is preferably an SMF or dispersion-compensating optical fiber having a zero-dispersion wavelength in a 1.3-μm wavelength band. It is also preferable that the optical fiber 63 be common with the dispersion-compensating optical fiber 61 . The dispersion-compensating optical fiber 61 is an optical device for compensating for the chromatic dispersion in the WDM signal wavelength band of the optical transmission line into which the dispersion-compensating module 60 is inserted. In the bent portion 62 , a plurality of parts of the optical fiber 63 are bent at a predetermined curvature over a predetermined length. The bent portion 62 is designed by appropriately selecting the length and curvature such that, for example, the transmission loss at a wavelength of 1520 nm is minimized, while the transmission loss at a wavelength of 1570 nm is maximized, whereby wavelength-dependent loss deviations of the optical transmission line 2 and dispersion-compensating optical fiber 61 are compensated for. As a consequence, the wavelength dependence of the total loss in the optical transmission line 2 and dispersion-compensating module 60 is weaker than that of the respective loss deviations of the dispersion-compensating optical fiber 61 and the bent portion 62 . Since graphs showing the relationships between transmission loss and wavelength in the dispersion-compensating module 60 according to the sixth embodiment are similar to FIGS. 2A to 2 E, operations of the dispersion-compensating module 60 will be explained with reference to these graphs. As shown in FIGS. 2A and 2B , each of the optical transmission line 2 and dispersion-compensating optical fiber 61 has a transmission loss which becomes smaller as the wavelength is longer in general in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm, thus yielding a negative loss slope. By contrast, as shown in FIG. 2C , the bent portion 60 , which is the loss-equalizing device, is designed such that its transmission loss becomes greater as the wavelength is longer, so as to be able to effectively compensate for wavelength-dependent loss deviations of the optical transmission line 2 and dispersion-compensating optical fiber 61 . Therefore, as shown in FIG. 2D , the total loss in the dispersion-compensating module 60 is the sum of respective losses in the dispersion-compensating optical fiber 61 and the bent portion 62 , and becomes greater as the wavelength is longer in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm, thus yielding a positive loss slope. As shown in FIG. 2E , the total loss in the optical transmission line 2 and the dispersion-compensating module 60 is the sum of their respective losses, and yields a deviation of 0.1 dB or less in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm. As mentioned in the foregoing, when the SMF is used as the optical transmission line 2 , the loss slope of the optical transmission line 2 in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm is negative in this embodiment as well. Therefore, if the loss slope of the whole dispersion-compensating module 60 is set positive, then the total loss in the optical transmission line 2 and dispersion-compensating module 60 can fall within an appropriate range. Also, since the SMF employed as the optical transmission line 2 has a loss slope per unit length (km) of about −0.000175 (dB/nm/km=db/(nm·km)) in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm, letting L (km) be the fiber length of the optical transmission line 2 , and a be the absolute value of a permissible manufacturing error, the loss slope (dB/nm) of the whole dispersion-compensating module 60 in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm is preferably a value which is greater than 0 but not greater than 0.000175×L+α. Here, the loss slope of the whole dispersion-compensating module 60 is set by appropriately setting the length and curvature of the bent portion 62 so as to adjust the loss slope of the bent portion 62 . In each of the above-mentioned first to sixth embodiments, either the dispersion-compensating device or the loss-equalizing device may be disposed upstream of the other. In view of influences of nonlinear optical phenomena (four-wave mixing in particular), however, it is preferable that the loss-equalizing device be disposed upstream of the dispersion-compensating device. Namely, as a consequence, signal light enters the dispersion-compensating device after incurring a loss due to the loss-equalizing device, whereby nonlinear optical phenomena such as four-wave mixing and the like are effectively restrained from occurring. Seventh to Tenth Embodiments FIG. 14 is a view showing a schematic common configuration of seventh to tenth embodiments of the dispersion-compensating module according to the present invention. This drawing shows, in addition to the dispersion-compensating module 70 according to each of seventh to tenth embodiments, a repeater 1 disposed upstream of the dispersion-compensating module 70 , and an optical transmission line 2 between the repeater 1 and the dispersion-compensating module 70 . The dispersion-compensating module 70 has an input end 70 a and an output end 70 b , and comprises a dispersion-compensating device 71 and a loss-equalizing device 72 optically connected to each other at a connection portion 73 . These devices 71 and 72 are disposed in the optical path between the input end 70 a and the output end 70 b. The dispersion-compensating device 71 is preferably a dispersion-compensating optical fiber as an optical device which compensates for the chromatic dispersion in the WDM signal wavelength band of the optical transmission line 2 into which the dispersion-compensating module 70 is inserted. On the other hand, the loss-equalizing device 72 has a loss wavelength characteristic adjusted so as to compensate for wavelength-dependent loss deviations of the optical transmission line 2 and dispersion-compensating optical fiber as the dispersion-compensating device 71 . As a consequence, the total loss fluctuation in the signal wavelength band of the optical transmission line 2 provided with the dispersion-compensating module 70 decreases. In the dispersion-compensating module 70 according to the seventh embodiment, the loss-equalizing device 72 includes a slant type fiber grating. The slant type fiber grating 721 , as shown in FIG. 15A , comprises a optical fiber and a grating formed in the optical fiber while being inclined at a predetermined angle with respect to an optical axis OP of the optical fiber. It is known that a loss of the slant type fiber grating 721 as the loss-equalizing device 72 has a wavelength dependency as described in Isabelle Riant, et al. “36 NM AMPLIFIER GAIN EQUALIZER BASED ON SLANTED BRAGG GRATING TECHNOLOGY FOR MULTICHANNEL TRANSMISSION”, SubOptic 2001 International Convention, P.4.3.10. The Isabelle reference teaches the use of the slant type fiber grating for EDFAs as a gain equalizer, but a positive loss slope of the whole dispersion-compensating module 70 can be realized by combining the dispersion-compensating optical fiber as the dispersion-compensating device 71 and this slant type fiber grating 721 with desirably modified design. The slant type fiber grating 721 in the seventh embodiment includes a single slanted grating and a combination of a plurality of slanted gratings. Next, the loss-equalizing device 72 in the dispersion-compensating module according to the eighth embodiment includes a dielectric multilayered filter 722 shown in FIG. 15B. A loss wavelength dependency of the dielectric multilayered filter 722 can be adjusted by adjusting a thickness, a refractive index of layer, the number of layer thereof. Therefore, a positive loss slope of the dispersion-compensating module 70 can be realized by combining the dispersion-compensating optical fiber as the dispersion-compensating device 71 and this dielectric multilayered filter 722 . Furthermore, the loss-equalizing device 72 of FIG. 14 may has a structure with a variable loss wavelength characteristic. The loss-equalizing device 72 in the ninth embodiment, as sown in FIG. 15C , includes a variable loss-equalizing device having a planar waveduide (see Hitoshi Hatayama, et al., “Low loss variable attenuation slope compensator with high slope linearity based on planar lightwave circuit”, ECOC 2000, 26 th European Conference on Optical Communication, pp.287-288). The variable loss-equalizing device 723 of FIG. 15C comprises a substrate 723 a , a waveguide 723 b formed on the substrate 723 a , and a heater 723 c . As be understood from the Hitoshi reference, the loss-equalizing device 723 can modify it's loss slope. For example, the reference shows the loss wavelength characteristic from 1570 nm to 1605 nm. Therefore, a positive loss slope of the whole dispersion-compensating module 72 according to the ninth embodiment can be realized by desirably changing a design of this variable loss-equalizing device 723 and by combining the dispersion-compensating optical fiber as the dispersion-compensating device 71 and this variable loss-equalizing device 723 . Further, the loss-equalizing device 72 may includes a variable loss-equalizing device with MEMS (Micro Electro Mechanical Systems). FIGS. 15D to 15 F show a configuration of the variable loss-equalizing device in tenth embodiment. The loss-equalizing device is shown in James A. Walker, “Telecommunications Applications of MEMS”, mstnews 3/00, pp. 6-9 and J. E. Ford, et al., “PASSBAND-FREE DYNAMIC WDM EQUALIZATION”, ECOC'98, 20-24 Sep. 1998, pp. 317-318. In the loss-equalizing device of the tenth embodiment, input light is demultiplexed at the grating, and the reflected light from the grating is introduced to the device plane of the optical MEMS device through λ/4 plate and focus lens. On the device plane of the optical MEMS device, a plurality of mirror devices, as shown in FIGS. 15E and 15F , are provided. Each of these mirror devices can change it's reflectance on the based on an added voltage. The light from the device plate is multiplexed at the grating and outputted through the mirror and collimator. By adjusting voltages added to the plurality of mirror devices respectively, a loss wavelength characteristic of components in the demultiplexed wavelength range can be changed, and therefore the combination of the dispersion-compensating optical fiber as the dispersion-compensating device 71 and this variable loss-equalizing device of FIGS. 15D to 15 F can make a loss slope of the whole dispersion-compensating module 70 positive. According to the present invention, as explained in the foregoing, the dispersion of the optical transmission line in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm is compensated for by the dispersion-compensating device, whereas the loss deviations of the optical transmission line and dispersion-compensating device in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm are compensated for by the loss-equalizing device. Namely, not only the dispersion of the optical transmission line is compensated for, but also the wavelength dependence of the total loss in the optical transmission line and dispersion-compensating module is weaker. As a consequence, the intensity level deviations among individual wavelengths of the WDM signal reaching the receiving station are small, and each wavelength component of the WDM signal reaches the receiving station with a sufficient intensity level and SN ratio, whereby no reception error occurs in the receiving station. In particular, since the dispersion-compensating module as a whole has a positive loss slope in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm with respect to an optical transmission line made of an SMF having a zero-dispersion wavelength in the wavelength band of 1.3 μm (whereas the optical transmission line has a negative loss slope in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm), the total loss in the optical transmission line and dispersion-compensating module can fall within an appropriate range. Also, letting L (km) be the fiber length of the optical transmission line, and a be the absolute value of a permissible manufacturing error, the loss slope (dB/nm) of the dispersion-compensating module in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm is a value which is greater than 0 but not greater than 0.000175×L+α. Since the optical transmission line made of an SMF having a zero-dispersion wavelength in the wavelength band of 1.3 m is about −0.000175 dm/nm/km in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm; even if the loss slope of the optical transmission line in the wavelength band of 1.53 μm to 1.57 μm has a fluctuation, the total loss in the optical transmission line and dispersion-compensating module can fall within an appropriate range when the loss slope of the whole dispersion-compensating module is set to a value within the range mentioned above. From the invention thus described, it will be obvious that the invention may be varied in many ways. Such variations are not to be regarded as a departure from the spirit and scope of the invention, and all such modifications as would be obvious to one skilled in the art are intended for inclusion within the scope of the following claims.

The present invention relates to a dispersion-compensating module having a structure which compensates for the dispersion of an optical transmission line in a wavelength band of 1.55 μm and adjusts loss fluctuations among wavelengths in the wavelength band of 1.55 μm into an appropriate range. The module comprises a structure adapted to be installed in an already installed optical fiber transmission line, and has a loss slope with a polarity opposite to that of the optical fiber transmission line in the wavelength band of 1.55 μm. An example of the module comprises a dispersion-compensating optical fiber as a dispersion-compensating device, and an optical fiber doped with a transition metal element as a loss-equalizing device. Consequently, the loss fluctuations among individual wavelengths in the whole transmission line including the dispersion-compensating module are adjusted by the loss-equalizing device in the dispersion-compensating module so as to fall within an appropriate range.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] This application claims the benefit of the filing date of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/203,402, filed on Dec. 20, 2008, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference. STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT [0002] Not Applicable BACKGROUND OF THE DISCLOSURE [0003] 1. Field of Disclosure [0004] This invention relates to valves, and more particularly to shuttle valves. [0005] 2. Background [0006] Subsea wellheads are often relied upon during deep water exploration for oil and natural gas. Subsea drilling operations may experience a blow out, which is an uncontrolled flow of formation fluids into the drilling well. Blow outs are dangerous and costly. Blow outs can cause loss of life, pollution, damage to drilling equipment, and loss of well production. To prevent blowouts, blowout prevention (BOP) equipment is required. The subsea wellheads include a stack of BOPs. Annular BOPs are actuated on a routine basis to snub or otherwise control pressure during normal drilling operations. Other blow-out preventers, such as blind rams, pipe rams, kelly rams and shear rams will also be included in the stack on the subsea wellhead. When these types of rams are actuated, operations in the well cease in order to control pressure or some other anomaly. Blind rams, pipe rams, kelly rams and shear rams are periodically tested to make sure that they are operational. [0007] The well and BOP connect to the surface drilling vessel through a marine riser pipe, which connects to the BOP through a Lower Marine Riser Package (“LMRP”) that contains flow control devices to supply hydraulic fluids for the operation of the BOP. The LMRP and the BOP are commonly referred to collectively as simply the BOP. Many BOP functions are hydraulically controlled, with piping attached to the riser supplying hydraulic fluids and other well control fluids. Shuttle valves attached to each BOP, as in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,253,481 and 6,257,268 have been used for many years to control the flow of hydraulic fluid. [0008] It is important that underwater shuttle valves used in connection with operation of subsea blowout preventers (BOPS) act properly because of the importance of their function and their inaccessibility. In emergency situations or during testing, it may be necessary to close the subsea BOPs using an alternate low flow circuit, a test pump, or in extreme situations a remotely operated vehicle (ROV). The ROV is an unmanned submarine with an on-board television camera so the ROV can be maneuvered by topside personnel on board a ship or platform. The ROV is equipped with a plug that stabs into a receptacle on the ROV docking station on the BOP stack. Tubing runs from the receptacle on the ROV docketing station to a biased shuttle valve. [0009] The ROV is maneuvered to stab into the receptacle on the ROV docking station. The ROV uses a hydraulic pump to inject hydraulic fluid at relatively high pressures (greater than 1,000 psi) and relatively low flow rates into the hose to the biased shuttle valve to close the BOPs. [0010] The Gilmore Valve Company pressure biased ROV shuttle valve with metal to metal seal as described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,256,268 is a current solution to allow a low flow (such as an ROV) to control a BOP Ram. Unfortunately this valve is very sensitive to reverse flow (one way flow), and in combination with the requirement of the metal to metal seal to stay rigidly seated not to leak, the valve will fail to provide BOP ram control from a low flow supply source like an ROV. [0011] The high pressures and low flow rates required by a ROV mandate use of a low volume positive displacement pump. These are similar to a bicycle pump. Stroking forward pushes the fluid thru an outlet check valve. When the stroke ends the flow stops and the outlet check valve closes. At this point the pump plunger is reversed back to the start position for another stroke and refilling of fluid into the stroking chamber from the pump inlet check valve. During the return stroke of the bike pump if the outlet check valve leaks ever so slightly, the line pressure on the outlet of the pump will decay because a small amount of fluid flowed back into the bike pump stroking chamber. [0012] This is the scenario where the Gilmore valve will get into a situation of the shuttle lifting off of the inlet seat and dumping fluid. This creates a vicious cycle with the function port never obtaining pressure to actuate a function. This is a disadvantage of a “one way” communication at the ROV inlet port. This is also a disadvantage in the “blocked” situation, when the ROV disconnects by closing a valve to block in the pressure on the ROV inlet port of the valve, as a small leak will make the valve “dump” all of the function pressure/fluid back through the opposing inlet port. Another problem is that the flow volume from the ROV pump is not high enough to over come the leak rate of the metal-to-metal seat attempting to close the opposing inlet port. This type of seat in practice will leak until there is a substantial hydraulic force (via pressure acting on the area of the seat) pushing it firmly closed enough to make metal-to-metal contact completely around the perimeter of the seat. Until this force is exceeded, the valve will leak. [0013] The valve exemplary embodiments herein described do not rely on a check valve (one-way communication) or metal to metal seat to maintain positive sealing and remain in control of the function pressure even when there is a decay in pressure or when closed when pressure is supplied to the function port and the ROV valve is blocked off. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0014] FIG. 1 is a schematic side sectional view of a first exemplary embodiment of the invention, showing a first shuttle position, blocking fluid flow. [0015] FIG. 2 is a schematic side sectional view of the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 1 , showing a second shuttle position, providing flow [0016] FIG. 3 is a schematic side sectional view of a second exemplary embodiment of the invention, showing a first shuttle position, blocking fluid flow. [0017] FIG. 4 is a schematic side sectional view of the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 3 , showing a second shuttle position, providing flow. [0018] FIG. 5 is a schematic side sectional view of a third exemplary embodiment of the invention, showing a first shuttle position, blocking fluid flow. [0019] FIG. 6 is a schematic side sectional view of the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 5 , showing a second shuttle position, providing flow. [0020] FIG. 7 is a schematic side sectional view of the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 5 , showing a third shuttle position, providing flow. [0021] FIG. 8 is a schematic side sectional view of a fourth exemplary embodiment of the invention, showing a first shuttle position, blocking fluid flow. [0022] FIG. 9 is a schematic side sectional view of the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 8 , showing a second shuttle position, providing flow. [0023] FIG. 10 is a schematic side sectional view of the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 8 , showing a third shuttle position, providing flow. [0024] FIG. 11 is a schematic side sectional view of a fifth exemplary embodiment of the invention, showing a first shuttle position, blocking fluid flow. [0025] FIG. 12 is a schematic side sectional view of the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 11 , showing a second shuttle position, providing flow. [0026] FIG. 13 is a schematic side sectional view of the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 11 , showing a third shuttle position, providing flow. [0027] FIG. 14 is a schematic side sectional view of a sixth exemplary embodiment of the invention, showing a first shuttle position, blocking fluid flow. [0028] FIG. 15 is a schematic side sectional view of an exemplary embodiment of FIG. 14 , showing a second shuttle position, providing flow. [0029] FIG. 16 is a schematic side sectional view of a sixth exemplary embodiment of the invention, showing a first shuttle position, blocking fluid flow. [0030] FIG. 17 is a schematic side sectional view of the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 16 , showing a second shuttle position, providing flow. [0031] FIG. 18 is a schematic side sectional view of an ROV valve exemplary embodiment of the invention, showing a first shuttle position, blocking fluid flow. [0032] FIG. 19 is a schematic side sectional view of the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 18 , showing a second shuttle position, providing flow. [0033] FIG. 20 is a schematic side sectional view of the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 18 , showing a third shuttle position, providing flow. [0034] FIG. 21 is a schematic top view of a shuttle valve of a type useful in an exemplary embodiment of the invention. [0035] FIG. 22 is a schematic cross sectional view in the direction along the lines B-B of FIG. 21 . [0036] FIG. 23 is a schematic side sectional view of another ROV valve exemplary embodiment of the invention, showing a first shuttle position, blocking fluid flow. [0037] FIG. 24 is a schematic side sectional view of the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 23 , showing a second shuttle position, providing flow [0038] FIG. 25 is a schematic side sectional view of the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 23 , showing a third shuttle position, providing flow. [0039] FIG. 26 is a schematic side sectional view showing use of the ROV valve exemplary embodiment of FIG. 23 coupled to a shuttle valve of the type shown in FIG. 21 . [0040] FIG. 27 is a side sectional view showing the ROV exemplary embodiment of FIG. 18 coupled in a gang of shuttle valves of the type shown in FIG. 21 . DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS [0041] In the following detailed description of exemplary embodiments, reference is made to the accompanying drawings, which form a part hereof and in which are shown by way of illustration examples of exemplary embodiments in which the invention may be practiced. In the drawings and descriptions, like parts are marked throughout the specification and drawings with the same reference numerals, respectively. The drawings are not necessarily to scale. Certain features of the invention may be shown exaggerated in scale or in somewhat schematic form and some details of conventional elements may not be shown in the interest of clarity and conciseness. Specific details described herein, including what is stated in the Abstract, are in every case a non-limiting description and exemplification of embodiments representing concrete ways in which the concepts of the invention may be practiced. This serves to teach one skilled in the art to employ the present invention in virtually any appropriately detailed system, structure or manner consistent with those concepts. Reference throughout this specification to “an exemplary embodiment” means that a particular feature, structure, or characteristic described in connection with the embodiment is included in at least one exemplary embodiment of the present invention. Thus, the appearances of the phrase “in an exemplary embodiment” in various places throughout this specification are not necessarily all referring to the same embodiment. Furthermore, the particular features, structures, or characteristics may be combined in any suitable manner in one or more embodiments. It will be seen that various changes and alternatives to the specific described embodiments and the details of those embodiments may be made within the scope of the invention. It will be appreciated that one or more of the elements depicted in the drawings can also be implemented in a more separated or integrated manner, or even removed or rendered as inoperable in certain cases, as is useful in accordance with a particular application. Because many varying and different embodiments may be made within the scope of the inventive concepts herein described and in the exemplary embodiments herein detailed, it is to be understood that the details herein are to be interpreted as illustrative and not as limiting the invention to that which is illustrated and described herein. [0042] The various directions such as “upper,” “lower,” “back,” “front,” “transverse,” “perpendicular”, “vertical”, “horizontal,” “length,” “width,” “laterally” and so forth used in the detailed description of exemplary embodiments are made only for easier explanation in conjunction with the drawings. The components may be oriented differently while performing the same function and accomplishing the same result as the exemplary embodiments herein detailed embody the concepts of the invention, and such terminologies are not to be understood as limiting the concepts which the embodiments exemplify. [0043] As used herein, the use of the word “a” or “an” when used in conjunction with the term “comprising” (or the synonymous “having”) in the claims and/or the specification may mean “one,” but it is also consistent with the meaning of “one or more,” “at least one,” and “one or more than one.” In addition, as used herein, the phrase “connected to” means joined to or placed into communication with, either directly or through intermediate components. [0044] Referring to FIG. 1 , in an exemplary embodiment, a shuttle valve 10 includes a body generically indicated by reference number 12 . Body 12 has an axial bore 14 , a first fluid flow inlet port 16 to bore 14 , a second fluid inlet port 18 to bore 14 , and a fluid pressure function outlet 20 from bore 14 . Outlet 20 is between inlet ports 16 and 18 and transverse to bore 14 . Interiorly of inlet ports 16 and 18 in bore 14 are chambers 1 and 2 respectively. Inlet port chambers 1 and 2 , as portions of bore 14 , are normally coaxial to bore 14 . Source fluid enters chambers 1 and 2 through inlet ports 16 and 18 . The term “inlet” is used in the sense of a fluid source passageway leading to one of inlet ports 16 or 18 exteriorly of ports 16 or 18 . A passageway leading to one of inlet ports 16 or 18 from exteriorly of ports 16 or 18 may be coaxial to the port to which it leads or may originate from a source conduit transverse to the port 16 or 18 . The term “outlet” is herein used in the sense of an outlet for flow from either chamber 1 or chamber 2 when fluid flow through one of inlet ports 16 or 18 exceeds fluid pressure at outlet 20 , as is the purposed use of outlet 20 , namely, to supply pressure to a function requiring pressure for operation in a downstream apparatus. However, outlet 20 may flow fluid through it back through inlet port 16 or 18 if pressure in outlet 20 exceeds pressure in one of inlet port 16 or inlet port 18 whichever one created pressure in the outlet port 20 . [0045] Bore 14 widens proximate outlet 20 to form shoulders 22 and 24 flanking outlet 20 . A shuttle, generally indicated by reference numeral 26 , is coaxial with body bore 14 and has a first cylindrical end portion 28 and a second cylindrical end portion 30 . First end portion 28 extends in the direction of first inlet port 16 and second end portion 30 extends in the direction opposite first end portion 28 , in the exemplary embodiment, in the direction of second inlet port 18 . Each end portion 28 , 30 is coaxially slideably movable along the bore 14 under the force of fluid pressure from fluid entering either inlet port 16 or 18 . Shuttle 26 has a collar 32 between first and second end portions 28 , 30 . Collar 32 has outer cylindrical surface 34 of diameter receivable within widened body bore 36 and greater than end portions 28 , 30 and body bore 14 . Shuttle 26 slideably moves from one shoulder to the other shoulder under the pressure of fluid in one of the inlet ports 16 , 18 exceeding pressure in the other one of the inlet ports 16 , 18 . When collar 32 engages shoulder 22 on the side of first inlet port 16 of body bore 14 , collar 32 does not engage shoulder 24 on the side of second inlet port 18 of bore 14 , and when collar 32 engages shoulder 24 on the side of the second inlet port 18 of body bore 14 , collar 32 does not engage shoulder 22 on the side of first inlet port 16 of bore 14 . [0046] In the exemplary embodiment depicted in FIG. 1 , a first seal 38 , suitably a Teflon O-ring seal, is fixed in seal groove 40 on the outer periphery 42 of first end portion 28 of shuttle 26 , for sealing an annulus 44 between that outer periphery 42 and the inner periphery 46 of body bore 14 on the first inlet port side of bore 14 when collar 32 engages shoulder 22 on the side of first inlet port 16 of body bore 14 . A second seal 48 , suitably a Teflon O-ring seal or a Poly-seal, is fixed by seal groove 50 on outer periphery 52 of shuttle second end portion 30 and inner periphery 54 of bore 14 on the side of second inlet port 18 , for sealing an annulus 56 between outer periphery 52 of the shuttle second end portion 30 and inner periphery 54 when collar 32 engages shoulder 24 on the side of second inlet port 18 of bore 14 . First and second end portions 28 , 30 each extend a distance from collar 32 relative to the placement of seals 38 and 48 sufficient that (i) when collar 32 engages shoulder 22 on the side of first inlet port 16 of bore 14 , annulus 56 is not sealed, (ii) when collar 32 engages shoulder 24 on the side of second inlet port 18 of bore 14 , annulus 44 not sealed, and (iii) when collar 32 does not engage and is distally spaced from both shoulder 22 and 24 , both annulus 44 and annulus 56 are sealed. FIG. 1 depicts valve 10 in condition (iii) where collar 32 does not engage and is distally spaced from both shoulders 22 and 24 , and both annulus 44 and annulus 56 are sealed. This position of the shuttle in valve 10 herein is sometimes is called a mid-stroke position. [0047] In the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 1 , end portions 28 , 30 of shuttle 26 have a central bore 60 , 65 respectively, and in each central bore have at least one passage connecting the central bore to periphery 42 , 52 of shuttle 26 . In the exemplary embodiment, a plurality of fluid passages 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 (and suitably two others not seen in this view) radiate from bore 60 and a plurality of passages 66 , 67 , 68 and 69 (and suitably two others not seen in this view) radiate from central bore 65 . Seal 38 is fixed on end portion 28 between collar 32 and the passages 61 , 62 , 63 and 64 radiating from central bore 60 . Seal 48 is fixed on end portion 30 between collar 32 and the passages 66 , 67 , 68 and 69 radiating from central bore 65 . [0048] Referring to FIG. 2 , when collar 32 engages shoulder 22 on the side of first inlet port 16 of bore 14 , annulus 56 is not sealed and fluid flows through bore 65 thence through passages 66 , 67 , 68 , and 69 (and two others not seen) into widened bore 14 to and out outlet 20 . Or if pressure in fluid pressure function outlet 20 exceeds pressure in inlet port 18 , fluid flows from outlet 20 through passages 66 - 69 (and two others not seen) through bore 65 into inlet port 18 of bore 14 . [0049] Conversely to FIG. 2 , when collar 32 engages shoulder 24 on the side of second inlet port 18 of bore 14 , annulus 44 is not sealed, and fluid flows through bore 60 thence through passages 61 , 62 , 63 , and 64 (and two others not seen) into widened bore 14 to and out outlet 20 . Or if pressure in fluid pressure function outlet 20 exceeds pressure in inlet port 16 , fluid flows from outlet 20 through passages 61 - 64 (and two others not seen) through bore 60 into inlet port 16 of bore 14 . [0050] As shown in FIG. 1 , when collar 32 does not engage either shoulder 22 or 24 and both annulus 44 and annulus 56 are sealed, fluid cannot escape through either bore 60 or 65 into their respective passages to widened bore 14 to and out outlet 20 , and vice versa, fluid cannot escape from outlet 20 through the respective passages of bores 60 and 65 into either chamber 1 and inlet port 16 or chamber 2 and inlet port 18 of bore 14 . [0051] Referring now to FIG. 3 , another exemplary embodiment is depicted, in FIG. 3 also in mid-stroke position. As in the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 1 , a shuttle valve 10 includes a body generically indicated by reference number 12 . Body 12 has an axial bore 14 , a first fluid flow inlet port 16 to bore 14 , a second fluid inlet port 18 to bore 14 , and a fluid pressure function outlet 20 from bore 14 . Outlet 20 is between inlet ports 16 and 18 and transverse to bore 14 . In FIG. 1 , inlet ports 16 and 18 are segments of bore 14 . [0052] Bore 14 widens proximate outlet 20 to form shoulders 22 and 24 flanking outlet 20 . Cylindrical sectors 70 , 71 (as depicted), or alternatively an entirely circumferential groove or a plurality of grooves or other forms of fluid passage reliefs 70 , 71 is or are formed in shoulders 22 and 24 adjacent bore 14 . [0053] In the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 3 , as in the exemplary embodiment depicted in FIG. 1 , shuttle 26 , coaxial with body bore 14 , has a first cylindrical end portion 28 and a second cylindrical end portion 30 . First end portion 28 extends in the direction of first inlet port 16 and second end portion 30 extends in the direction opposite first end portion 28 , in the exemplary embodiment, in the direction of second inlet port 18 . Each end portion 28 , is coaxially slideably movable along the bore 14 under the force of fluid pressure from fluid entering either inlet port 16 or 18 . Shuttle 26 has a collar 32 between first and second end portions 28 , 30 . Collar 32 has outer cylindrical surface 34 of diameter receivable within widened body bore 36 and greater than end portions 28 , 30 and body bore 14 . Shuttle 26 slideably moves from one shoulder to the other shoulder under the pressure of fluid in one of the inlet ports 16 , 18 exceeding pressure in the other one of the inlet ports 16 , 18 . When collar 32 engages shoulder 22 on the side of first inlet port 16 of body bore 14 , collar 32 does not engage shoulder 24 on the side of second inlet port 18 of bore 14 , and when collar 32 engages shoulder 24 on the side of the second inlet port 18 of body bore 14 , collar 32 does not engage shoulder 22 on the side of first inlet port 16 of bore 14 . [0054] In the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 3 , a first seal 72 , suitably a Teflon O-ring seal, is fixed in seal groove 73 on the inner periphery 46 of first inlet port 16 , for sealing annulus 44 between that inner periphery 46 and the outer periphery 42 of end portion 28 of shuttle 26 when collar 32 engages shoulder 22 on the side of first inlet port 16 of body bore 14 . A second seal 74 , suitably a Teflon O-ring seal, is fixed by seal groove 75 on the inner periphery 54 of second inlet port 18 , for sealing annulus 56 between that inner periphery 54 and the outer periphery 52 of end portion 30 of shuttle 26 when collar 32 engages shoulder 24 on the side of second inlet port 18 of body bore 14 . First and second end portions 28 , 30 each extend a distance from collar 32 relative to the placement of seals 72 and 74 sufficient that (i) when collar 32 engages shoulder 22 on the side of first inlet port 16 of bore 14 , annulus 56 is not sealed and fluid flows through fluid passage 71 to outlet 20 , (ii) when collar 32 engages shoulder 24 on the side of second inlet port 18 of bore 14 , annulus 44 is not sealed, and fluid flows through fluid passage 70 to outlet 20 , and (iii) when collar 32 does not engage and is distally spaced from both shoulder 22 and 24 , both annulus 44 and annulus 56 are sealed, and fluid does not flow either from inlet port 16 through fluid passage 70 or from inlet port 18 through or passage 71 to outlet 20 , or vice versa, fluid cannot escape from outlet 20 through the respective passages of 70 or 71 into inlet port 16 or inlet port 18 of bore 14 . [0055] FIG. 4 depicts fluid flow when collar 32 engages shoulder 22 on the side of first inlet port 16 of bore 14 , so annulus 56 is not sealed, and fluid flows through fluid passageway 71 to outlet 20 . [0056] The exemplary embodiment of FIG. 1 places seals on both ends portion of shuttle 26 with fluid passages formed more distally from the shuttle collar than the seals, such that when an end portion containing the passages moves past the seal toward the opposite inlet port, fluid flows both through the annulus portion that is past the seals in the direction of the opposite inlet port and through the passages, flow through the passages exceeding flow through the annulus owing to the larger cross sectional flow area through the passages. The exemplary embodiment of FIG. 3 places seals on the bore and provides passages in the bore such that when an end portion moves past the seal toward the opposite inlet port, fluid flows both through the annulus portion that is past the seals in the direction of the opposite inlet port and through the passages in the wall of the bore, flow through the passages exceeding flow through the annulus owing to the larger cross sectional flow area through the passages. An alternative exemplary embodiment provides a combination of the flow solutions of exemplary embodiments of FIG. 1 and FIG. 3 . For example, not shown, a valve 10 could provide seal 38 and bore 60 and passages 61 - 64 (and two not seen) on end portion 28 of shuttle 26 , as in FIG. 1 , and could provide seal 74 on end portion 30 and passage 71 in bore 14 as in FIG. 3 . [0057] Referring to FIG. 5 , a variation of the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 1 is depicted, which body 12 is formed of plural pieces 11 , 13 sealingly fastened together. Body piece 11 with axial bore 14 matingly accepts male body piece flange 13 . The male piece flange 13 including male portion 15 has a central bore 17 that is concentric and coaxial with bore 14 of body piece 11 , reducing body bore 14 to a smaller diameter. So reduced, central bore 17 is considered a body bore. Central bore 17 provides the body bore surface on which the first end portion 28 of shuttle 26 axially slideably moves. Male portion 15 forms a terminal shoulder 23 providing the same function as shoulder 22 of the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 1 . Fasteners 19 - 1 , 19 - 2 , 19 - 3 , and 19 - 4 (fasteners 19 - 1 and 19 - 2 are not seen in the longitudinal section view of FIG. 5 ) fasten male piece flange 13 to body piece 11 . O-ring seal 21 , suitably a buna O-ring seal, provides a seal between female body piece 11 and male body piece flange 13 . The other parts of the valve of FIG. 2 are the same as and are corresponding numbered as described for FIG. 1 . As in FIG. 1 , shuttle 26 is shown in mid-stroke. The exemplary embodiment of FIG. 5 provides the shuttle valve functions as does the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 1 , and similarly seals both annulus 44 and annulus 56 and the passages through shuttle bores 60 and 65 when collar 32 does not engage either shoulder 24 or 23 . [0058] FIG. 6 is the same exemplary embodiment as depicted in FIG. 5 but in FIG. 6 shuttle 26 is shown in the position where collar 32 engages shoulder 23 on the first inlet port side 16 of bore 17 with seal 38 sealing annulus 44 while annulus 54 around shuttle end portion 30 and shuttle bore 65 and passages 66 - 69 (and two not seen) are not sealed, allowing fluid flow from inlet port 18 to outlet 20 . [0059] FIG. 7 is the same exemplary embodiment as depicted in FIG. 5 but in FIG. 7 shuttle 26 is shown in the position where collar 32 engages shoulder 24 on the second inlet port side 18 of bore 14 with seal 48 sealing annulus 56 while annulus 44 around shuttle end portion 28 and shuttle bore 60 and passages 61 - 64 (and two not seen) are not sealed, allowing fluid flow from inlet port 16 to outlet 20 . [0060] FIG. 8 depicts another exemplary embodiment using the same shuttle configuration as in the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 1 except the shuttle is carried in a valve body 80 that forms outlet 20 , first inlet port 16 is in a first adapter 82 that threadingly engages valve body 80 , as at 81 , 83 , in valve body bore 14 and second inlet port 18 is in a second adapter 84 that threadingly engages valve body 10 , as at 85 , 87 , in valve body bore 14 . Inlet ports 16 and 18 of respective adapters 82 , 84 are located on opposite sides of transverse outlet 20 of valve body 80 and form a spaced reduced bore 17 concentric and coaxial to body bore 14 . So reduced, central bore 17 is considered a body bore. O-ring seal 86 , suitably a buna O-ring seal, provides a seal between valve body piece 80 and adapter 82 . O-ring seal 88 , also suitably a buna O-ring seal, provides a seal between valve body piece 80 and adapter 84 . The other parts of the valve of FIG. 8 are the same as and are corresponding numbered as described for FIG. 1 . FIG. 8 depicts valve in mid-stroke, where collar 32 does not engage either shoulder 22 or 24 and both annulus 44 and annulus 56 are sealed. [0061] FIG. 9 is the same exemplary embodiment as depicted in FIG. 8 but in FIG. 9 shuttle 26 is shown in the position where collar 32 engages shoulder 22 on the first inlet port side 16 of bore 17 with seal 38 sealing annulus 44 while annulus 56 around shuttle end portion 30 and shuttle bore 65 and passages 66 - 69 (and two not seen) are not sealed, allowing fluid flow from inlet port 18 to outlet 20 . [0062] FIG. 10 is the same exemplary embodiment as depicted in FIG. 8 but in FIG. 10 shuttle 26 is shown in the position where collar 32 engages shoulder 24 on the second inlet port side 18 of bore 17 with seal 48 sealing annulus 56 while annulus 44 around shuttle end portion 28 and shuttle bore 60 and passages 61 - 64 (and two not seen) are not sealed, allowing fluid flow from inlet port 16 to outlet 20 . [0063] FIG. 11 depicts another exemplary embodiment generally indicated by reference number 100 . In the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 11 , the male portion 15 of body piece flange 13 in the exemplary embodiment of FIGS. 5-7 is replaced by an adapter 115 that has an axial bore 117 coaxial to bore 14 and inlet port 16 . Referring to FIG. 11 in detail, a shuttle valve 100 comprises a body piece 111 and a flange 113 . Body piece 111 has an axial bore 114 , second fluid flow inlet port 118 to bore 114 , and a fluid pressure function outlet 120 from bore 114 . Outlet 120 is between inlet ports 116 , 118 and is transverse to bore 114 . Body bore 114 widens proximate outlet 120 on the second inlet port 118 side of outlet 120 to form a shoulder 124 , and on the side of outlet port distal to the inlet port 118 widens as at 105 to receive adapter 115 . Body bore 114 further widens past 105 in the direction opposite inlet port 118 to form recess 103 . Adapter 115 is received in widened bore 114 . Adapter 115 has opposite first and second ends 101 , 122 . First end 101 has a flange 104 on its periphery engaging recess 103 . An axial bore 117 runs between ends 101 , 122 coaxially to bore 114 . Flange 113 has a bore 102 coaxial with adapter axial bore 117 . The margin between bore 102 and adapter bore 117 defines inlet port 116 in adapter first end 101 coaxial with body bore 114 . [0064] Flange 113 is sealingly fastened to body 111 by fasteners 119 - 1 , 119 - 2 , 119 - 3 and 119 - 4 (fasteners 119 - 1 and 119 - 2 are not seen in the longitudinal section view of FIG. 11 ). A seal 121 , suitably a buna O-ring seal, in recess 103 , engages and seals flange 104 of first end 101 of adapter 115 to body pieces 111 and 113 . Adapter second end 122 provides a shoulder on the first inlet port side 116 of outlet 120 . [0065] A shuttle 126 coaxial with body bore 114 and adapter bore 117 has first and second cylindrical end portions, respectively 128 , 130 . Shuttle first end portion 128 extends in the direction of the first inlet port 116 , and is coaxially slideably movable along adapter bore 117 . Shuttle second end portion 130 extends in the direction opposite first end portion 128 and is coaxially slideably moveable along body bore 114 . A collar 132 between first end portion 128 and second end portion 130 of shuttle 126 has an outer cylindrical surface 134 of diameter receivable within the widened body bore as at 105 and has a greater diameter than the end portions 128 , 130 of shuttle 126 , adapter bore 117 and body bore 114 in which end portions 128 , 130 respectively slideably move. Shuttle 126 may move from one shoulder to the other shoulder, such that when collar 132 engages first inlet port side shoulder 122 , collar 132 does not engage second inlet port side shoulder 124 , and when collar 132 engages second inlet port side shoulder 124 , collar 132 does not engage first inlet port side shoulder 122 . In the exemplary embodiment depicted in FIG. 11 , a first seal 138 , suitably a Teflon O-ring seal, is fixed located in seal groove 140 on the outer periphery 142 of first end portion 128 of shuttle 126 for sealing an annulus 144 between that outer periphery 142 and the inner periphery 146 of adapter bore 117 on first inlet port 116 side of bore 117 when collar 132 engages first inlet port side shoulder 122 . A second seal 148 , suitably a Teflon O-ring seal, is fixed by seal groove 150 on outer periphery 152 of shuttle second end portion 130 and inner periphery 154 of bore 117 on second inlet port 118 side, for sealing an annulus 156 between outer periphery 152 of the shuttle second end portion 130 and inner periphery 154 when collar 132 engages second inlet port side shoulder 124 . First and second end portions 128 , 130 each extend a sufficient distance from collar 132 relative to the placement of seals 138 and 148 that (i) when collar 132 engages first inlet port side shoulder 122 , annulus 156 is not sealed, (ii) when collar 132 engages second inlet port side shoulder 124 , annulus 144 is not sealed, and (iii) when collar 132 does not engage and is distally spaced from both shoulder 122 and 124 , both annulus 144 and annulus 156 are sealed. FIG. 11 depicts valve 100 in mid-stroke, where collar 132 does not engage either shoulder 122 or 124 and both annulus 144 and annulus 156 are sealed. [0066] In the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 11 , end portions 128 , 130 of shuttle 126 have a central bore 160 , 165 respectively, and in each central bore have at least one passage connecting the central bore to periphery 142 or 152 of shuttle 126 . In the exemplary embodiment, a plurality of fluid passages 161 , 162 , 163 , 164 (and suitably two others not seen in this view) radiate from bore 160 and a plurality of passages 166 , 167 , 168 and 169 (and suitably two others not seen in this view) radiate from central bore 165 . Seal 138 is fixed on end portion 128 between collar 132 and the passages 161 , 162 , 163 and 164 radiating from central bore 160 . Seal 148 is fixed on end portion 130 between collar 132 and the passages 166 , 167 , 168 and 169 radiating from central bore 165 . [0067] Referring to FIG. 12 , when collar 132 engages shoulder 122 on the side of first inlet port 116 of bore 117 , annulus 156 is not sealed and fluid flows through bore 165 thence through passages 166 , 167 , 168 , and 169 (and two others not seen) into widened bore 114 to and out outlet 120 . Or if pressure in fluid pressure function outlet 120 exceeds pressure in inlet port 118 , fluid flows from outlet 120 through passages 166 - 169 (and two others not seen) through bore 165 into inlet port 118 of bore 114 . [0068] In FIG. 13 , conversely to FIG. 12 , when collar 132 engages shoulder 124 on the side of second inlet port 118 of bore 114 , as depicted in FIG. 13 , annulus 144 is not sealed, and fluid flows through bore 160 thence through passages 161 , 162 , 163 , and 164 (and two others not seen) into widened bore 114 to and out outlet 120 . Or if pressure in fluid pressure function outlet 120 exceeds pressure in inlet port 116 , fluid flows from outlet 120 through passages 161 - 164 (and two others not seen) through bore 160 into inlet port 116 of bore 114 . [0069] FIGS. 14 and 15 depict another exemplary embodiment. FIG. 14 shows this exemplary embodiment in mid-stroke position of the shuttle and FIG. 15 shows the shuttle disposed against a shoulder. This exemplary embodiment uses two adapters 215 - 1 and 215 - 2 to support the shuttle 26 described for the exemplary embodiments of FIGS. 1 , 5 , 8 and 11 , rather than one adapter as in the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 11 . The two adapters 215 - 1 and 215 - 2 are identical so the description of one, referred to as 215 , will be understood as applying to both. Referring to FIG. 14 in detail, a shuttle valve 200 comprises a body piece 211 with an axial bore 214 to which two inlet flanges 213 - 1 and 213 - 2 and one outlet flange 213 - 3 are sealingly fastened by respectively by fasteners 219 - 1 , 219 - 2 , 219 - 3 and 219 - 4 (fasteners 219 - 1 and 219 - 2 are not seen in the longitudinal section view of FIG. 14 ), 219 - 5 , 219 - 6 , 219 - 7 , 219 - 8 (fasteners 219 - 5 and 219 - 6 are not seen in the longitudinal section view of FIG. 14 ) and 219 - 9 , 219 - 10 , 219 - 11 , and 219 - 12 (fasteners 219 - 9 and 219 - 10 are not seen in the longitudinal section view of FIG. 14 ). Flanges 213 - 1 and 213 - 2 have inlet bores, respectively 202 - 1 and 202 - 2 coaxial to body bore 214 . Bore 214 receives adapter 215 . Adapter 215 has opposite first and second ends 201 , 202 . An axial bore 217 runs between ends 201 , 202 coaxially to bore 214 and inlet bores 202 - 1 and 202 - 2 , respectively, of flanges 213 - 1 and 213 - 2 . The margin between adapter bore 217 at end 201 of adapter 215 - 1 and flange bore 202 - 1 defines first inlet port 216 . The margin between adapter bore 217 at end 201 of adapter 215 - 2 and bore 202 - 2 defines second inlet port 218 . First inlet port 216 is coaxial with bore 214 , as is second inlet port 218 . Body 211 has a fluid pressure function outlet bore 220 between inlet ports 216 , 218 transverse to bore 214 . Flange 213 - 3 has a bore 206 coaxially aligned with transverse bore 220 (alternatively, it could be aligned at an offset or could be a 90 degree flange). Adapter bore 217 widens at the end 202 distal from inlets 202 - 1 and 202 - 2 to form a shoulder. In adapter 215 - 1 , the shoulder is identified by reference numeral 222 . In adapter 215 - 2 , the shoulder is identified by reference numeral 224 . Bore 214 widens proximate inlets 202 and 206 to form recess 203 . Adapter 215 first end 201 has a flange 204 on its periphery engaging recess 203 . A seal 221 , suitably a buna O-ring seal, in recess 203 , engages and seals flange 204 of first end 201 of adapter 215 to body piece 211 and flanges 213 - 1 and 213 - 2 . [0070] A shuttle 226 coaxial with body bore 214 and adapter bore 217 has first and second cylindrical end portions, respectively 228 , 230 . Shuttle 226 first end portion 228 extends in the direction of the first inlet port 216 , and is coaxially slideably movable along adapter bore 217 . Shuttle second end portion 230 extends in the direction opposite first end portion 228 and is also coaxially slideably moveable along adapter bore 217 . A collar 232 between first end portion 228 and second end portion 230 of shuttle 226 has an outer cylindrical surface 234 of diameter receivable within the widened adapter bore as at 202 and has a greater diameter than the end portions 228 , 230 of shuttle 226 and adapter bore 217 in which end portions 228 , 230 respectively slideably move. Shuttle 226 may move from one shoulder to the other shoulder, such that when collar 232 engages first inlet port side shoulder 222 , collar 232 does not engage second inlet port side shoulder 224 , and when collar 232 engages second inlet port side shoulder 224 , collar 232 does not engage first inlet port side shoulder 222 . In the exemplary embodiment depicted in FIG. 14 a first seal 238 , suitably a Teflon O-ring seal, is fixed located in seal groove 240 on the outer periphery 242 of first end portion 228 of shuttle 26 for sealing an annulus 244 between that outer periphery 242 and the inner periphery 246 of adapter bore 217 on first inlet port 216 side of bore 217 when collar 132 engages first inlet port side shoulder 222 . A second seal 248 , suitably a Teflon O-ring seal, is fixed by seal groove 250 on outer periphery 252 of shuttle second end portion 230 and inner periphery 254 of adapter bore 117 on second inlet port 218 side, for sealing an annulus 256 between outer periphery 252 of the shuttle second end portion 230 and inner periphery 254 when collar 232 engages second inlet port side shoulder 224 . First and second end portions 228 , 230 each extend a sufficient distance from collar 232 relative to the placement of seals 238 and 248 that (i) when collar 232 engages first inlet port side shoulder 222 , annulus 256 is not sealed, (ii) when collar 232 engages second inlet port side shoulder 224 , annulus 244 is not sealed, and (iii) when collar 232 does not engage and is distally spaced from both shoulder 222 and 224 , both annulus 244 and annulus 256 are sealed. FIG. 14 depicts valve 200 in mid-stroke, where collar 232 does not engage either shoulder 222 or 224 and both annulus 244 and annulus 256 are sealed. [0071] In the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 14 , end portions 228 , 230 of shuttle 226 have a central bore 260 , 265 respectively, and in each central bore have at least one passage connecting the central bore to periphery 252 or 242 of shuttle 226 . In the exemplary embodiment, a plurality of fluid passages 261 , 262 , 263 , 264 (and suitably two others not seen in this view) radiate from bore 260 and a plurality of passages 266 , 267 , 268 and 269 (and suitably two others not seen in this view) radiate from central bore 265 . Seal 238 is fixed on end portion 228 between collar 232 and the passages 261 , 262 , 263 and 264 radiating from central bore 260 . Seal 248 is fixed on end portion 230 between collar 232 and the passages 266 , 267 , 268 and 269 radiating from central bore 265 . [0072] Referring to FIG. 15 , when collar 232 engages shoulder 224 on the side of second inlet port 218 of adapter bore 217 , annulus 244 is not sealed, and fluid flows through bore 260 thence through passages 261 , 262 , 263 , and 264 (and two others not seen) into widened bore 214 to and out outlet 220 . Or if pressure in fluid pressure function outlet 220 exceeds pressure in inlet port 216 , fluid flows from outlet 220 through passages 261 - 264 (and two others not seen) through bore 261 into inlet port 216 of bore 214 . [0073] Although not depicted, it will be appreciated from the preceding descriptions of other exemplary embodiments, that when collar 232 engages shoulder 222 on the side of first inlet port 216 of adapter bore 217 , annulus 256 is not sealed and fluid flows through bore 265 thence through passages 266 , 267 , 268 , and 269 (and two others not seen) into widened bore 214 to and out outlet 220 . Or if pressure in fluid pressure function outlet 220 exceeds pressure in inlet port 218 , fluid flows from outlet 220 through passages 266 - 269 (and two others not seen) through bore 265 into inlet port 218 of adapter bore 217 . [0074] FIGS. 16 and 17 depict another exemplary embodiment, valve 300 , using two adapters, FIG. 16 showing the shuttle in mid-stroke and FIG. 17 showing the shuttle at end-stroke. Like numbers as used in the dual adapter exemplary embodiment of FIGS. 14 and 15 will be used for constancy of description, the like numbered parts acting as they do in the exemplary embodiments of FIGS. 14 and 15 . Differing from the exemplary embodiment in FIGS. 14 and 15 are the shuttle and the adapters in this exemplary embodiment, carrying a 300 numbering series, which is carried forward into descriptions in following exemplary embodiments. FIGS. 16 and 17 do not depict structure that is present in adapters 315 and reference is made to FIGS. 18-22 for a description of the adapter flow passages hidden in FIGS. 16 and 17 . Shuttle 326 drilled, tapped and internally threaded as at 307 on end portions 328 and 330 is coaxially slidably moveable on adapter bore 317 of adapters 315 - 1 and 315 - 2 as in the exemplary embodiment of FIGS. 14 and 14 , but in this exemplary embodiment, seal 338 is fixed in seal recess 340 on the inner periphery of the adapter bore 317 . The two adapters 315 - 1 and 315 - 2 are identical so the description of one, referred to as 315 , will be understood as applying to both. Referring to FIG. 16 in detail, a shuttle valve 300 comprises a body piece 211 with an axial bore 214 to which to two inlet flanges 213 - 1 and 213 - 2 and one outlet flange 213 - 3 are sealingly fastened respectively by fasteners 219 - 1 , 219 - 2 , 219 - 3 and 219 - 4 (fasteners 219 - 1 and 219 - 2 are not seen in the longitudinal section view of FIG. 14 ), 219 - 5 , 219 - 6 , 219 - 7 , 219 - 8 (fasteners 219 - 5 and 219 - 6 are not seen in the longitudinal section view of FIG. 14 ) and 219 - 9 , 219 - 10 , 219 - 11 , and 219 - 12 (fasteners 219 - 9 and 219 - 10 are not seen in the longitudinal section view of FIG. 14 ). Flanges 213 - 1 and 213 - 2 have inlet bores, respectively 202 - 1 and 202 - 2 coaxial to body bore 214 . Body bore 214 receives adapter 315 . Adapter 315 has opposite first and second ends 301 , 302 . An axial bore 317 runs between ends 301 , 302 coaxially to bore 214 and inlet bores 202 - 1 and 202 - 2 , respectively, of flanges 213 - 1 and 213 - 2 . The margin between adapter bore 317 at end 301 of adapter 215 - 1 and flange bore 202 - 1 defines first inlet port 316 . The margin between adapter bore 317 at end 301 of adapter 315 - 2 and bore 202 - 2 defines second inlet port 318 . First inlet port 316 is coaxial with bore 214 , as is second inlet port 318 . Body 211 has a fluid pressure function outlet bore 220 between inlet ports 316 , 318 transverse to bore 214 . Flange 213 - 3 has a bore 206 coaxially aligned with transverse bore 220 . Adapter bore 317 widens at the end 302 distal from inlets 202 - 1 and 202 - 2 to form a shoulder. In adapter 315 - 1 , the shoulder is identified by reference numeral 322 . In adapter 315 - 2 , the shoulder is identified by reference numeral 324 . Bore 214 widens proximate inlets 202 - 1 and 202 - 2 to form recess 203 . Adapter first end 301 has a flange 304 on its periphery engaging recess 203 . A seal 221 , suitably a buna O-ring seal, in recess 203 , engages and seals flange 304 of first end 301 of adapter 315 to body piece 211 and flanges 213 - 1 and 213 - 2 . [0075] A shuttle 326 coaxial with body bore 214 and adapter bore 317 has first and second cylindrical end portions, respectively 328 , 330 . Shuttle 326 first end portion 328 extends in the direction of the first inlet port 316 , and is coaxially slideably movable along adapter bore 317 . Shuttle second end portion 330 extends in the direction opposite first end portion 328 and is also coaxially slideably moveable along adapter bore 317 . A collar 332 between first end portion 328 and second end portion 330 of shuttle 326 has an outer cylindrical surface 334 of diameter receivable within the widened adapter bore as at 302 and has a greater diameter than the end portions 328 , 330 of shuttle 326 and adapter bore 317 in which end portions 328 , 330 respectively slideably move. Shuttle 326 may move from one shoulder to the other shoulder, such that when collar 332 engages first inlet port side shoulder 322 , collar 332 does not engage second inlet port side shoulder 324 , and when collar 332 engages second inlet port side shoulder 324 , collar 332 does not engage first inlet port side shoulder 322 . In the exemplary embodiment depicted in FIGS. 16 and 17 , a first seal 338 , suitably a Teflon O-ring seal, is fixed located in seal groove 340 on the inner periphery 346 of adapter bore 317 retained by retainer ring 309 for sealing an annulus 344 between outer periphery 342 of end portion 328 of shuttle 326 and the inner periphery 346 of adapter bore 317 on first inlet port 316 side of bore 317 when collar 332 engages first inlet port side shoulder 322 . A second seal 348 , suitably a Teflon O-ring seal, is fixed by seal groove 350 on inner periphery 352 of adapter bore 317 retained by retainer ring 308 for sealing an annulus 356 between outer periphery 354 of end portion 330 of shuttle 326 and the inner periphery 354 of adapter bore 317 on second inlet port 318 side of bore 317 when collar 332 engages second inlet port side shoulder 324 . First and second end portions 328 , 330 each extend a sufficient distance from collar 332 relative to the placement of seals 338 and 348 that (i) when collar 332 engages first inlet port side shoulder 322 , annulus 356 is not sealed, (ii) when collar 332 engages second inlet port side shoulder 224 , annulus 344 is not sealed, and (iii) when collar 332 does not engage and is distally spaced from both shoulder 322 and 324 , both annulus 344 and annulus 356 are sealed. FIG. 16 depicts valve 300 in mid-stroke, where collar 332 does not engage either shoulder 322 or 324 and both annulus 344 and annulus 356 are sealed. [0076] FIGS. 18-20 schematically depict an exemplary embodiment of an ROV valve 400 . The exemplary embodiment of FIGS. 18-20 employs the two adapter shuttle valve exemplary embodiment of FIGS. 16-17 , and that description is incorporated hereat by reference for brevity. In the exemplary embodiment of FIGS. 18-20 , end portions 330 and 328 of shuttle 320 are sealed by a seal on the inner periphery of the body bore and the body has at least one passage in fluid communication with the body bore between said seal and the shoulder proximate the seal as described in connection with FIGS. 16-17 . [0077] Shuttle valve 400 further comprises an elongate tubular housing 410 having first and second end portions 412 and 414 , a central bore 416 , a spring seat 418 formed in central bore 416 distal from first end portion 412 of housing 410 . Second end portion 414 of the housing 410 is sealingly fastened respectively by fasteners 219 - 1 , 219 - 2 , 219 - 3 and 219 - 4 (fasteners 219 - 1 and 219 - 2 are not seen in the longitudinal section view of FIG. 18 ) to valve body 211 adjacent first inlet port 316 of valve body 211 with the housing central bore 416 coaxial with body bore 214 and adapter bore 317 and in fluid communication with adapter bore 317 . Housing 410 includes an inlet 420 in first end portion 412 of housing 410 in fluid communication with central bore 416 . An elongate stem 422 passes through housing 410 and connects on one end 424 to the first end portion 328 of shuttle 326 at threaded tap 307 . The other end of stem 422 comprises a spring retainer 428 of diameter allowing stem 422 to coaxially moveably slide in central bore 416 of housing 410 and to allow fluid to flow from housing inlet 420 into central bore 416 . An aperture 432 , 433 may be provided in stem 422 to aid passage of fluid from inlet 420 into central bore 416 , A spring 430 surrounds a portion of stem 422 and is positioned in elongate tubular housing 410 on spring seat 418 and in contact with spring retainer 428 . Spring 430 urges the stem toward housing inlet 420 in response to reduction of fluid pressure in housing inlet 420 or in response to fluid pressure in a portion of the adapter bore 317 and relatedly in body bore 214 in fluid communication with function outlet 220 higher than fluid pressure in housing inlet 420 . [0078] In operation, fluid flow from an ROV will start moving shuttle 326 from a position as depicted in FIG. 19 when shuttle collar is against shoulder 322 as filling pressure from fluid passing from inlet 420 through center bore presses against the inlet end 328 of shuttle 326 and passes through adapter 315 - 1 inlet port 316 and thence through internal grooves within adapter 315 - 1 (see the description in reference to FIGS. 20-21 for further information on this internal structure of adapter 315 - 1 ). At mid-stroke, as depicted in FIG. 18 , both inlet ports 316 and 318 are closed. Both ends of the shuttle are sealed with soft seals. Then, as pressure within adapter 315 - 1 exceeds pressure from inlet 315 - 2 , shuttle 326 , as depicted in FIG. 20 , will be pressed against shoulder 324 on adapter 315 - 2 closing off inlet port 318 . ROV fluid will fill function outlet and increase pressure until full operating pressure is obtained at the function. At this point the ROV can be blocked out and pressure will be maintained on the function. If there is any slight leakage from the function or the ROV block valve, shuttle 326 will remain seated and inlet port 318 will remain closed. When venting the function, the ROV has complete control of the function pressure as long as the pressure is maintained above the set pressure of the ROV spring (150-300 psi, for example). [0079] Referring to FIGS. 21 and 22 , depicted is a shuttle valve of the type disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,253,481, the content of which is incorporated by reference as if set forth herein verbatim. A shuttle valve 500 includes a tubular body 502 having two coaxial inlet ports 504 , 506 at its ends and a transverse outlet port 508 at its side. Internally threaded connector rings 509 , 510 , 511 are secured over each port by cap screws 512 , 513 , 514 , 515 , 516 and 517 . Two adapter cages 518 , 519 having an external radial flange 520 , 521 are telescopically disposed within each inlet port 504 , 506 , with its flange clamped between the adjacent connector ring 510 , 511 and an outwardly facing shoulder 522 , 523 (not seen) in body 500 . O-rings 524 , 525 , 526 seal the three connector rings 509 , 510 , 511 and the two cages 518 , 519 to the body. Each cage is axially grooved, providing flow passages 530 , 531 , 532 , 533 . The ribs left between the grooves provide guide bearings 534 , 535 , 536 , 537 . The inner ends of the ribs form stop shoulders 548 . A shuttle in the form of a cylindrical plug 540 tapered at each end 542 , 544 is axially slideably disposed inside body 500 within cages 518 , 519 supported and guided by the rib bearings alternately to engage the stops of one or the other of the cages 518 , 519 according to whether the pressure on one end of the shuttle or the other is higher. A collar 546 around the middle of the shuttle provides a piston. [0080] Referring now to FIGS. 23-25 , an exemplary embodiment of an ROV valve 600 is depicted assembled with the components of the shuttle valve 200 described in connection with the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 14 and the elongate tubular housing 510 structure described for valve 500 . The descriptions of FIG. 14 , FIG. 18 and FIGS. 21 , 22 are incorporated using the reference numerals for identifications of the components. In valve 600 at least one of end portions 328 and 330 of shuttle 326 has a central bore and at least one fluid passage connecting said bore to the periphery of the shuttle, and the seals are fixed on the end portion 328 and 330 between collar 332 and the passage. [0081] Referring now to FIGS. 26 and 27 , an exemplary embodiment of an ROV valve 400 of FIG. 18 is coupled to shuttle valves of the type shown in FIG. 21 to provide three or more supply ports for redundancy. [0082] The above disclosed subject matter is to be considered illustrative, and not restrictive, and the appended claims are intended to cover all modifications, enhancements, and other embodiments that fall within the true scope of the present invention, which to the maximum extent allowed by law, is to be determined by the broadest permissible interpretation of the following claims and their equivalents, unrestricted or limited by the foregoing detailed descriptions of exemplary embodiments of the invention.

A shuttle valve useful in connection with operation of underwater blowout preventers employs soft seals sealing an annulus between an inlet bore and the outer periphery of the shuttle to provide hydraulic function control from a high pressure low flow supply source such as a low volume positive displacement pump on a remotely operated vehicle without losing opposing inlet sealing and hydraulic fluid dump the opposing inlet during a return stroke of the pump.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION The present patent application is Divisional application of patent application Ser. No. 08/928,410 pending filed on Sep. 12, 1997, which is a Continuation-in Part (CIP) of application Ser. No. 08/866,357 now U.S. Pat. No. 5,940,696, which is a CIP of application Ser. No. 08/802,661 now U.S. Pat. No. 5,946,387, which is a CIP of application Ser. No. 797,418 pending. The prior applications are incorporated herein in their entirety by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention is in the area of telephone call processing and switching, and pertains more particularly to intelligent call-routing systems. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Telephone call processing and switching systems are, at the time of the present patent application, relatively sophisticated, computerized systems, and development and introduction of new systems continues, including Internet-based telephony systems, which are known in the art as Internet Protocol Telephony (IPT) systems. It is also true that the older telephony call-switching networks, and the more recent Internet telephony systems are beginning to merge, and many believe will one day be completely merged. Much information on the nature of such hardware and software is available in a number of publications accessible to the present inventors and to those with skill in the art in general. For this reason, much minute detail of known systems is not reproduced here, as to do so would obscure the facts of the invention. One document which provides considerable information on intelligent networks is "ITU-T Recommendation Q.1219, Intelligent Network User's Guide for Capability Set 1", dated April, 1994. This document is incorporated herein by reference. There are similarly many documents and other sources of information describing and explaining IPT systems, and such information is generally available to those with skill in the art. At the time of filing the present patent application there continues to be remarkable growth in telephone-based information systems, including IPT systems, wherein conventional telephone functions are provided by computer hardware and software. Recently emerging examples are telemarketing operations and technical support operations, among many others, which have grown apace with development and marketing of, for example, sophisticated computer equipment. More traditional are systems for serving customers of large insurance companies and the like. In some cases organizations develop and maintain their own telephony operations with purchased or leased equipment, and in many other cases, companies are outsourcing such operations to firms that specialize in such services. A large technical support operation serves as a good example in this specification of the kind of applications of telephone equipment and functions to which the present inventions pertain and apply, and a technical support organization may be used from time to time in the current specification for example purposes. Such a technical support system, as well as other such systems, typically has a country-wide or even world-wide matrix of call centers for serving customer's needs. Such call center operations are more and more a common practice to provide redundancy and decentralization. In a call center, a relatively large number of agents typically handle telephone communication with callers. Each agent is typically assigned to a telephone connected to a central switch, which is in turn connected to a public-switched telephone network (PSTN), well-known in the art. The central switch may be one of several types, such as Automatic Call Distributor (ACD), Private Branch Exchange (PBX), or PSTN. Each agent also typically has access to a computer platform having a video display unit (PC/VDU) which may be adapted, with suitable connectivity hardware, to process Internet protocol telephony calls. At the time of the present patent application intelligent telephony networks and IP networks share infrastructure to some extent, and computer equipment added to telephony systems for computer-telephony integration (CTI) are also capable of Internet connection and interaction. There is therefore often no clear distinction as to what part of a network is conventional telephony, and what part is IPT. In conventional telephony systems, such as publicly-switched telephony networks (PSTNs), there are computerized service control points (SCPs) that provide central routing intelligence (hence intelligent network). IPNs do not have a central router intelligence, such as a SCP. IPNs, however, have multiple Domain Name Servers (DNS), whose purpose is basically the same as the routers in intelligent networks, which is controlling the routing of traffic. Instead of telephony switches (PBXs), IP switches or IP routers are used. An organization having one or more call centers for serving customers typically provides one or more telephone numbers to the public or to their customer base, or both, that may be used to reach the service. In the case of an IP network, a similar organization may provide an IP address for client access to services, and there are a number of ways the IP address may be provided. Such numbers or addresses may be published on product packaging, in advertisements, in user manuals, in computerized help files, and the like. Routing of calls in intelligent networks, then, may be on several levels. Pre-routing may be done at SCPs and further routing may be accomplished at individual call centers. As described above a call center in an intelligent telephony system typically involves a central switch The central switch is typically connected to a publicly-switched telephone network (PSTN), well-known in the art. Agents, trained (hopefully) to handle customer service, man telephones connected to the central switch. This arrangement is known in the art as Customer Premises Equipment (CPE). If the call center consists of just a central switch and connected telephone stations, the routing that can be done is very limited. Switches, although increasingly computerized, are limited in the range of computer processes that may be performed. For this reason additional computer capability in the art has been added for such central switches by connecting computer processors adapted to run control routines and to access databases. The processes of incorporating computer enhancement to telephone switches is known in the art as Computer Telephony Integration (CTI), and the hardware used is referred to as CTI equipment. In a CTI system telephone stations connected to the central switch may be equipped also with computer terminals, as described above, so agents manning such stations may have access to stored data as well as being linked to incoming callers by a telephone connection. Such stations may be interconnected in a network by any one of several known network protocols, with one or more servers also connected to the network one or more of which may also be connected to a processor providing CTI enhancement, also connected to the central switch of the call center. It is this processor that provides the CTI enhancement for the call center. Agents having access to a PC/VDU connected on a LAN to a CTI processor in turn connected to a telephony switch, may also have multi-media capability, including Internet connectivity, if the CTI processor or another server connected to the LAN provides control for Internet connectivity for stations on the LAN. When a telephone call arrives at a call center, whether or not the call has been pre-processed at a SCP, typically at least the telephone number of the calling line is made available to the receiving switch at the call center by a telephone carrier. This service is available by most PSTNs as caller-ID information in one of several formats. If the call center is computer-enhanced (CTI) the phone number of the calling party may be used to access additional information from a database at a server on the network that connects the agent workstations. In this manner information pertinent to a call may be provided to an agent. Referring now to the example proposed of a technical-service organization, a system of the sort described herein will handle a large volume of calls from people seeking technical information on installation of certain computer-oriented equipment, and the calls are handled by a finite number of trained agents, which may be distributed over a decentralized matrix of call centers, or at a single call center. In examples used herein illustrating various aspects of the present invention, the case of a decentralized system of multiple call centers will most often be used, although, in various embodiments the invention will also be applicable to individual call centers. Even with present levels of CTI there are still problems in operating such call centers, or a system of such call centers. There are waiting queues with which to contend, for example, and long waits may be experienced by some callers, while other agents may be available who could handle callers stuck in queues. Other difficulties accrue, for example, when there are hardware or software degradations or failures or overloads in one or more parts of a system. Still other problems accrue due to known latency in conventional equipment. There are many other problems, and it is well recognized in the art, and by the general public who have accessed such call centers, that there is much room for improvement in the entire concept and operation of such call center systems. It is to these problems, pertaining to efficient, effective, timely, and cost-effective service to customers (users) of call center systems that aspects and embodiments of the present invention detailed below are directed. Further to the above, IPNT systems at the time of the present patent application are much less sophisticated in provision of intelligent routing, parallel data transfer, supplemental data provision to agents, and the like. The advantages that embodiments of the invention described below bring to conventional telephony systems may also in most cases be provided to ITP systems and systems in which the form of the network between conventional telephony and IP protocol is blurred. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, in an Internet Protocol Network Telephony (IPNT) system incorporating intelligent call routing to selected computer stations and having a plurality of routing protocols, a method for selecting a routing protocol is provided, comprising steps of (a) while executing a first routing protocol, monitoring one or both of system condition and performance; and (b) selecting a second routing protocol based on detection in step (a) of a change in system condition or performance. In this embodiment, in step (a), system degradation and cause of degradation may be objects of the monitoring, and in step (b) routing protocols may be selected on a basis of relative insusceptibility to the causes of system degradation. In addition, specific routing protocols may be associated with specific levels of one or more system characteristics, and as system characteristics change to different levels, the appropriate routing protocols are selected and executed. In an alternative embodiment an Internet Protocol Internet Telephony (IPNT) call center is provided, comprising a managing processor coupled to a wide area network for receiving IPNT calls; agent stations each having computer connected to the managing processor; a router associated with the managing processor, the router having alternative selectable routing protocols; and a system monitor adapted for determining one or more of system condition and performance. The router selects a routing protocol based on system condition or performance as determined by the system monitor. Again, system degradation and cause of degradation may be objects of the monitoring, and routing protocols may be selected on a basis of relative insusceptibility to the causes of system degradation. Further, specific routing protocols may be associated with specific levels of one or more system characteristics, and as system characteristics change to different levels, the appropriate routing protocols are selected and executed. In yet another embodiment an Internet Protocol Network Telephony call-routing system is provided comprising a routing-processor adapted for receiving and forwarding calls; a router associated with the routing processor and having alternative selectable routing protocols; and a system monitor adapted for periodically determining system condition and performance. In this embodiment a routing protocol is selected depending on one or both of system condition and performance determined. The router may be a network router, or a router at a customer premises call-center site. In this system as well, system degradation and cause of degradation are objects of monitoring by the system monitor, and routing protocols are selected on a basis of relative insusceptibility to the causes of system degradation. Further, specific routing protocols are associated with specific levels of one or more system characteristics, and as system characteristics change to different levels, the appropriate routing protocols are selected and executed. In this escalatory system, intelligent routing of IPNT calls is provided in a manner that efficient routing may be sustained, even in the face of system changes and degradation, an advantage not heretofore available in the art. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING FIGURES FIG. 1 is a system diagram of a call-routing system according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2A is a block diagram representing communication functionality between equipment groups in embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 2B is a block diagram illustrating a unique call center-level routing system in an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 3 is a process flow diagram depicting steps in a process according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 4 is another process flow diagram depicting steps in a process according to another preferred embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 5 is yet another process flow diagram depicting steps in yet another preferred embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 6 is a system diagram of a call-rerouting system according to an embodiment of the present invention. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS General Description FIG. 1 is a system diagram of a call-routing system according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention, comprising two call centers 121 and 122. In this embodiment there may be many more than the two call centers shown, but two is considered by the inventors to be sufficient to illustrate embodiments of the invention. Each of call centers 121 and 122 includes a telephony switch (switch 123 for center 121 and switch 124 for center 122) providing routing to individual agent stations. Call centers 121 and 122 in FIG. 1 are CTI-enhanced by virtue of a processor connected by a high-speed data link to the associate call center switch. At call center 121, processor 223 is connected by link 212 to switch 123, and at call center 122, processor 224 is connected to switch 124 by link 213. Each processor 223 and 224 includes an instance of a CTI application 207 known to the inventors as T-Server (T-S) 207. Further, each processor 223 and 224 at each call center is in turn connected to a local area network (LAN). For example LAN 301 is shown connected to processor 223 in FIG. 1. No equivalent network is shown at call center 122 for the sake of simplicity, although the architecture described herein for call center 121 may be presumed to be extant at call center 122 and other call centers as well. Each call-in center 121 and 122 included in this example also includes at least two telephone-equipped agent workstations, which also each have a user interface (IF) to the associated LAN. Workstation 131 at center 121 for example has a telephone 136 connected to central switch 123, and a proximate user interface 331 to network 301. Interface 331 may be a PC, a network terminal, or other system, and typically provides a video display unit (VDU) and input apparatus (keyboard/pointer for example) allowing an agent to view data and make appropriate inputs. For descriptive purposes the computer workstation at each agent station will be termed a PC/VDU. In like manner workstation 132 illustrated has a telephone 138 connected to central switch 123 and a proximate PC/VDU 332 providing an agent with display and input capability. For call enter 122 workstations 133 and 134 are shown having respectively telephones 140 and 142 connected to central switch 124, in turn connected to processor 224 by link 213. A local area network (LAN) equivalent to LAN 301 at call center 121 is not shown for call center 122 for the sake of simplicity in illustration, and PC/VDUs for the agents are similarly not shown for call center 122. As is true with LANs in general, servers of various sorts may be connected to LAN 301 at call center 121. In FIG. 1 a data server 303, in this instance including a customer database is shown connected to LAN 301. A similar database server may also be connected to a LAN at call center 122. The customer database will typically comprise such as the names, addresses, and other information relating to customers for whom the call center is established, and also in many instances resource information for agents to access in helping callers with their problems. In some embodiments of the present invention to be described in enabling detail below, agents at agent stations interact verbally with clients via the telephones at the workstations, and the PC/VDUs are utilized for such as screen pops with information about clients, scripts for agents to follow in aiding clients, and technical information and other data needed in interacting with clients. In other embodiments the PC/VDU equipment may be used more comprehensively, such as for video-conferencing with clients, receiving, storing and responding to electronic documents such as e-mail, and for Internet protocol telephony (IPT). In the case of Internet-based and related services, the CTI processor, or any other processor connected to the LAN at a call center may be Internet-connected, and provided with the necessary hardware and software known in the art for providing Internet access to agent's PC/VDUs also connected on the LAN at the call center. Because of differences in conventional telephony service (CTS) and Internet telephony, and because the overt mechanism in both systems is modeled on the perceived, traditional model of telephone calls, a convention is necessary to distinguish. In the descriptions that follow, for this reason, CTS is referred to as intelligent network telephony (INT) and Internet telephony is referred to as Internet protocol network telephony (IPNT). This is not intended to imply that all CTS systems described herein are prior art, or that all IPNT systems described are inventive and unique. These distinctions will be made below as much as possible in every case described. The main difference between CTS and IPNT is in the residence of network intelligence. In INT the firmware generating intelligence is mainly residing in network processors, where in IPNT, the firmware for the intelligence mostly resides in the end-equipment, whereas the network is often referred to as dumb network. Since most of the features of present inventions reside in the CTI server, known to the inventors as T-Server, and from there control certain network functions in certain ways, it is mostly irrelevant to their application, where the actual intelligence resides. One of the variables in routing incoming calls, whether in INT or IPNT, is the skill set of each agent assigned to a workstation. This skill set may include a unique set of skills, resources and knowledge, such as, but not limited to, language capability, access to technical information, and specific training. In routing calls in a conventional system both at the network and at the call center level, the system and/or network needs to know such things as the status of any or all call centers, the availability of each agent, the skill set of each agent, the number of incoming calls, the number of calls waiting to be answered, and so forth. In a system using Internet protocol telephony for access to agents at call centers the same kinds of information needs to be available, and there needs to be also a way to route IPNT calls based on the information. Referring again to FIG. 1, and specifically to call center 121, there are a number of ways that PC/VDUs 331 and 332 may have access to the Internet, and thereby to IPNT calls as well as to data services and the like provided at the call center. For example, any one of PC/VDUs at the call center, or other call center such as center 122, may have a modem connected to a phone line and software to connect to an Internet service provider. More likely, considering only call center 121. Processor 223 or another processor or IP router connected to LAN 301 may have Internet access and provide access to stations on the LAN. In specific aspects of the invention described below, Internet access and IPNT telephony relative to the inventive concepts are discussed in more detail. In this example, control routines executable on processor 223 for call center 123 may access algorithms providing call routing at the call center level, and may also access data from data server 303 for use in routing decisions and the like. Similar routines run on processor 224 serving call center 122. In specific aspects of the invention described below, routing of IPNT calls will be discussed as well. Telephone calls are routed to call centers 121 and 122 over conventional telephony lines 105 and 106 respectively from remote origination points (a customer seeking technical aid has placed a call, for example, to an advertised or otherwise provided 1-800 number). Cloud 100 represents the intelligent telephone network system, and is referred to herein as a network cloud. This may be, for example purposes, a regional portion of the world-wide network, or may represent the entire world-wide network of connected telephone equipment. All conventional telephone calls routed to call-in centers 121 and 122 originate somewhere in network cloud 100. In addition to conventional telephone calls, there may be IPNT calls originating from computer platforms represented here by platform 127, placed to the call centers through the Internet, an Intranet, or other data network, represented by cloud 125, over a link such as link 126 shown connecting to processor 223. It will be apparent to the skilled artisan that there are a number of alternative ways Internet and other data network access may be provided to stations at call centers. For descriptive purposes following descriptions will refer to cloud 125 as the Internet cloud, although it should be understood that this is exemplary, and there may be other data networks involved. In this example an incoming conventional telephone call to be routed to a call center is represented by vector 107 into a Service Control Point (SCP) 101. In some embodiments of the invention calls may go directly to one of the call centers illustrated, but in most embodiments an SCP is accessed first, and network-level routing may be done, wherein incoming calls may be routed based on information available to the SCP. SCP 101 typically comprises a telephony switch somewhat more local to the calling party than the switches at call centers 121 and 122 illustrated. SCP 101 is coupled in this example to an adjunct processor 103 associated with a call-distribution processor 104. Call distribution processor 104 has call statistics describing call distribution between call-in centers 121 and 122 (typically over a larger number of call-in centers than two). An Intelligent Peripheral 102 is provided in this example coupled to SCP 101, and its function is to provide initial processing of incoming calls. This initial processing may be done by voice recognition, eliciting information from a caller such as type of product and model number, language preference for communication with an agent, and much more, depending on the nature of the service provided by the organization providing the call centers. A processor 208 including an instance of telephony server T-S 207, also including an instance of a statistical server (Stat Server) 209 is coupled by two-way data link 214 to the other parts of the system at the initial call processing and routing system associated with SCP 101. It will be apparent to those with skill in the art that the functions of CD Processor 104, Adjunct Processor 103, IP 102, T-S 207 and Stat Server 209 may be accomplished in a variety of ways in hardware and software mix. There may be, for example, a single hardware computer coupled to central switch 101, and the various servers may be software implementations running on the one hardware system. There may be as well, more than one hardware system, or more than one CPU providing the various servers. In this embodiment, as described above, conventional calls incoming to SCP 101 are routed to call centers 121 and 122 via PSTN lines 105 and 106. The convergence of lines 105 and 106 to SCP 101 and divergence to call centers 121 and 122 is simply to illustrate that there may be considerable switching activity between these points. Processor 208 connects to processor 223 and to processor 224 by digital data links 210 and 211. Again the convergence is just to illustrate the network nature of these links, which may connect to many SCPs and to many call centers as well. In a preferred embodiment the network protocol is TCP/IP, which is a collection of data protocols which are not discussed in detail here, as these protocols are in use and very well-known in the art. There are other protocols that might be used, new protocols may be developed to provide better and faster communication, and other methods may be used to speed up communication. For example, Urgent Dispatch Protocol (UDP) may be used in some instances, which, for example, allows data packets to bypass routing queues. Although not explicitly shown in FIG. 1, processors at the SCP shown may have Internet access into cloud 125, so IPNT calls may be directed to computer equipment at the SCP, and, as will be described further below, processes at the SCP may apply to IPNT calls as well as to conventional calls. Processor 208 running an instance of T-S 207 as described above may control routing of calls, both conventional and IPNT at the network level, that is, calls received at SCP 101, in the same manner that processor 223 may control routing at central switch 123. In the case of routing of IPNT calls by the processes of an intelligent network router, the inventors are not aware of such intelligent routing in the art for IPNT calls, and this functionality is considered by the inventors unique. It is emphasized again that not all embodiments of the present invention require all of the elements and connectivity shown in FIG. 1, although some embodiments will use all of the elements and connectivity shown. Also, functionality in various embodiments of the invention described in enabling detail below will differ not in hardware and connectivity in all cases, but in application and execution of unique control routines in many cases. Uniform Control of Mixed Platforms in Telephony (3208) In a preferred embodiment of the present invention unique control routines are provided for execution on such as processor 223, processor 224 and processor 208, providing communication ability thereby between call centers such as centers 121 and 122, and between call centers and initial call processing centers such as that represented by SCP 101. FIG. 2A is a block diagram representing a unique communication capability provided in a preferred embodiment of the present invention. There are, as described above in the Background section and known in the art, several different kinds and manufactures of call switching equipment. Each central switch uses a proprietary communication protocol for CTI applications. In CTI enhancement as known in the art, individual manufacturers provide processors connecting to their own switches and using the communication protocols proprietary to those switches. The computer enhancements, then, can serve a single manufacturer's switches, and provide communication between those switches. If a user, however, has multiple call center sites, for example, having equipment from different manufacturers, a difficult situation arises. If that user decides on a computer enhancement, depending on which manufacturer provides the enhancement, the equipment at the other site may quickly become obsolete. To communicate with the other site, it may be necessary to purchase all new equipment for the other site to be compatible with the computer-enhanced site. Processors 223, 224, and 208 are shown in FIG. 2A connected by links 210 and 211 as in FIG. 1, with additional detail of both software and hardware illustrated in a particular exemplary embodiment. In each processor there is an instance of T-S 207 executable. To communicate with other devices each processor must have one or more ports configured to accomplish the communication. The implementation of such ports is represented in FIG. 2A by the representation PND 215. PND 215 in each instance is a physical network adapter for the network to which it is intended to connect, such as microwave, optical, coaxial, ring-network, and the like, as well as the software drivers required to control those adapters. Layered to each instance of T-Server 207 in each processor is a control routine for handling data communication with either an instance of telephony equipment (switch 123 for example) or another T-server. Hence, in FIG. 2A, each instance of T-server 207 is layered with a Telephony Equipment Driver (TED) on one side, and an Inter T-Server Driver (ITD) on the other side. Connectivity of an ITD or a TED to a PND is based on the external connection intended at the PND. For example processor 223 is connected on one side to switch 123 by link 212, so TED 216 in the instance of processor 223 will be configured to drive communication with switch 223 (according to the make and manufacture of that switch). On the other side processor 223 is connected via link 210 to processors running other instances of T-server 207. Therefore ITD 217 connects to PND 215 at link 210. Although not shown explicitly in FIG. 2A, which follows the architecture of FIG. 1, it will be apparent to those with skill that a processor may also be configured with an instance of TED on each side of a instance of T-Server 207, providing thereby a processor capable of interconnecting two central switches of different type, make, or manufacture directly. In this manner processors may be adapted to interconnect central switches of various manufacturers and processors running instances of T-Server 207, and, by providing the correct PNDs, the processors thus configured may be adapted to communicate over any known type of data network connection. In the matter of Internet protocol telephony, in the general description provided above with reference to FIG. 1, it was described that Internet access may be made by processors at either call centers or SCPs in the conventional network, and that functions provided for conventional telephony may also be applied to IPNT calls. With regard to FIG. 2A, IPNT calls received at any processor associated with SCP 101 may be routed through processor 208 and via links 210 and 211 to processors 223 and 224, where such IPNT data may be provided to agent's stations at associated call centers. In this process, IP addresses may be altered and substituted, as a way of routing the IPNT data. For example, an IPNT call may be directed to processor 208 by one IP address, and the IPNT call may be found to be from a particular client of the organization to which the call centers are dedicated. A routing decision may be made at the SCP such as in processor 208 as to the call center best adapted to deal with the client, and the IP address for a processor at the call center may be substituted. In this manner, according to embodiments of the present invention, a system is provided for the first time that allows radically different telephony systems to be joined in high-functionality integrated intelligent networks. Escalatory Reactive Call Routing (3207) FIG. 2B is a block diagram depicting a unique escalatory reactive routing system 330 according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention, which may be implemented on a call center or at the network level, such as in call center 121 or such as in network cloud 100 of FIG. 1. In this routing system, as implemented at the call center level, processor 223 (FIG. 1) is notified when a call is received, and sends information about the call to a routing server 342. Routing server 342 is typically implemented as a part of T-server 207, which routes a call to an agent best qualified to answer the call based on predetermined criteria. The T-server having the routing server need not necessarily be implemented on processor 207 as shown in FIG. 1, but could be resident elsewhere in the networked system. Routing server 342 typically directs switch 123 to route the incoming call to the designated agent. Database 344 in FIG. 2B is a customer database typically maintained on such as data file server 303 (FIG. 1). Routing server 342 comprises control routines which may be executed on processor 223 (FIG. 1) or there may be a separate processor on network 301 executing the router. A stat server 140 is adapted to track and provide statistical data concerning calls made, completed and the like, and to maintain data on agents skill profiles and agent's activities, and to generate reports. Again, stat server 140 may execute on processor 223, or on another processor connected to network 301. Finally, a network manager 352 is also connected on the network, and is adapted to the task of managing aspects of LAN 301. Routing in this embodiment is typically based on (i) the skills set of the agent (ii) information relating to the calling party, (iii) activities of the call center, and (iiii) legal or other authorization held by an agent. Examples of the skills set of the agent are language, product knowledge, and the like. Examples of calling party information are products purchased, geographical location and the like. Examples of call center activities are number of available agents, calls previously handles by an agent, and the like. At the same time an incoming call is directed to a particular agent, data retrieved from database 344 is directed on LAN 301 to the proximate video display unit (VDU) at the workstation assigned to that agent. The agent is then enabled to deal with the call in the best possible manner. It is apparent to the present inventors that the expeditious functioning of routing system 330 is highly dependent on the expeditious functioning of the various elements of the overall system, including, but not limited to software and hardware elements. These elements include the functions of all of the elements shown in FIG. 1, specifically including all of the communication links, both telephony and digital. If for example, stat server 340 or database 344 experiences a sudden degradation in service, the routing server is going to be delayed as well. As another example, there may be an unexpectedly large number of accesses to database 344 in a short time, overloading a search engine associated with the database, and this circumstance could degrade overall performance in routing. As a further example a partial or total loss of a communication link, such as digital network link 210, will severely degrade overall system performance. By virtue of network connection and interconnection, network manager 352 is enabled to track and monitor performance and function of all system elements, and to report to database 344 and to routing server 342, and the routing server also has access to other data and statistics via stat server 340 and database 344. Routing server 342 also has access in this embodiment to multiple routing algorithms which may be stored at any one of several places in the overall system. An object of the invention in the instant embodiment is to provide for executing different routing algorithms based on system performance as reported by network manager 352 and in accordance with data available from database 344, stat server 340, and received via digital network link 210 as described in further detail below. Database 340, routing server 342, and stat server 340 communicate through layered protocol as known in the art, including but not limited to layers for network-dependent protocol, Internet protocol (IP), User Datagram Protocol (UDP), Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP), and manager process. In a preferred embodiment, routing server 342 selects a routing algorithm to be executed based on degradation in performance of part of the call center or components, either hardware or software, in an escalatory manner. The more the system degrades, the more the router reverts to emergency measures. The selected algorithm preferably reduces or eliminates access to or use of the component or resource adduced to be degrading in performance. It will be apparent to those with skill in the art that the invention described with reference to FIGS. 2A and 2B is not limited to monitoring only system and component faults. It has broader application. For example, algorithms may be stored for operating according to load level. Other algorithms may be selected according to specific times-of-day, and such algorithms may be selected based on the time window in a 24-hour period. As another example, algorithms may be stored and selectable based on days of the week. Still other algorithms might be prepared to be accessed with introduction of new products and the like. Statistics may be tracked relative to the percentage of agents free, for example, and a routing algorithm may be accessed for the situation wherein 90% of agents are busy, routing calls only to the next free agent rather than following a skill-based routing algorithm. The invention in this embodiment allows routing algorithms to be selected and executed based upon a very broad congruence of circumstances, so that a call center may be operated at best efficiency even as circumstances alter rapidly, including circumstances of hardware and software functionality, as described in specific embodiments above. In other embodiments of the instant invention escalatory reactive call routing may be implemented at the network level, with a router implemented as a portion of T-S 207 running on processor 208. In this case stored routing algorithms may be selected and implemented in conjunction with functionality of network level components, both hardware and software, and in accordance with call loading into SCP 101. In the matter of Internet protocal telephony, IPNT calls received anywhere in the system can be redirected (routed) by the intelligence provided and described relative to conventional telephony, and such calls, once received and redirected, may be conducted to final agent destinations either through the connectivity of the calls centers and the intelligent network, or redirected by new IP address back into the Internet (or Intranet) and thence to agents equipment by direct connection. Agent Level Call Routing in Telephony Systems (3200) Referring now back to FIG. 1, associated with SCP 101 in embodiments of the present invention, there is a processor 208 comprising an instance of a Stats-server 209 and an instance of T-Server 207, which processor communicates with other components via two-way data link 214. Communication in this embodiment is as illustrated in FIG. 2A and described in disclosure above relative to FIG. 2A. In description above reference was made to TCP/IP communication on links 210 and 211, and that this protocol is merely exemplary. There are other protocols that might be used, new protocols may be developed to provide better and faster communication, and other methods may be used to speed up communication. For example, User Datagram Protocol (UDP) may be used in some instances, which, for example, allows data packets to bypass routing queues. In conventional systems known to the present inventors, routing at the network level, that is, in the network cloud 100 associated with switching equipment receiving incoming calls and routing these calls to call centers, is typically done with reference to statistical history of call center activity, and routing to call centers is to queues at the call centers. In this conventional method, activity at each call center in a network is tracked and provided to service control points, and incoming calls are routed to the calls centers based on the latest available history. As an example of such a history algorithm, if there are two call centers in the system, and the latest statistical history indicates that call center 1 has received twice as many calls as call center 2, calls will be preferentially routed to call center 2 at a ratio to balance the activity. In this conventional system calls are routed from the network level to queues at the call center level. Once a call is received in a queue at a call center, the caller waits until his call is answered in order. Referring now to FIG. 1, in a unique embodiment of the present invention, termed by the inventors Agent Level Routing, actual transactions at the call center level, rather than historical summaries, are reported from call centers to service control points, and calls are routed to agents rather than to queues or groups. Referring to call center 121 as an example, transactions of central switch 123 are monitored by T-Server 207 executing on processor 223, and shared on a continuing basis with T-Server 207 running on processor 208 associated with SCP 101. This activity data is stored and accessible with reference to stat server 209 on processor 208. Activity of central switch 124 at call center 122 is reported via link 211 also to T-Server 207 in cloud 100 (which represents one instance of possible multiple SCPs and T-Servers in the network. Each T-Server may serve more than one SCP). Actual activity at all call centers is reported to all SCPs in this manner. In addition to this actual call center activity data, data relative to agent skills and the like is also provided and stored at the network level. For example, when an agent logs in at a call center, the availability of this agent is reported to the network level, and the stat-servers at the network level have agent profiles for reference in making routing decisions. In the instant embodiment an incoming call 107 at SCP 101 is processed, for example, with the aid of IP 102. With information about the needs of the caller, T-S 207 makes reference to the stat-server data of actual agent status at call centers, which is continuously updated via digital network links 210 and 211, for example, from call centers, and to the available data on agent profiles and the like, which is updated as well, but at perhaps longer time increments. T-Server 207 makes a routing decision to an agent based on the best fit with the latest available data. Once the routing decision has been made at the network level, the destination decision for the call is transferred by T-Server 207 running on processor 208, for example, at the network level, to T-Server 207 at the call center where the agent to which the call is to go is resident. For exemplary purposes assume the destination is an agent at call center 121 (FIG. 1), and the destination information is sent to T-S 207 running on processor 223. The call is received on line 105 at the call center and matched with the destination data received by T-S 207 on link 210. T-S 207 on processor 223 now routes the call to the agent. Call-center-level routing in embodiments of the present invention was described above, and may be done in the instant embodiment as well. For example, T-S 207 running on processor 223 has received a call on line 105 and matched that call with data received on link 210, which data includes an agent destination for the call based on the best fit available to T-S 207 running on processor 208 at the network level. In the time since the original routing occurred and the call and data have been received at call center 105, the situation may have changed. The agent to which the call was routed may have, for example, logged off, and is no longer available. T-S 207 at processor 223, executing a routing algorithm, may now reroute the call to the agent who is a next best fit and available at call center 121. As a further example of agent level call routing, consider a call received at SCP 101 from a customer who speaks Spanish, and indicates a preference for a Spanish-speaking agent. In FIG. 1 the pool of Spanish-speaking agents is represented by inclusion area 241, encompassing workstations 132 at call-in center 121 and workstation 134 at call-in center 122. An agent profile provided to stat-server 209 at the network level for each of these agents indicates the Spanish skill. The continuously updated transaction information from call centers 121 and 122 indicates the agent at telephone 138 is available, while the agent at telephone 142 is not available. Given this information, the call will be routed to call center 121 on line 105, and the data as to agent destination will be sent to T-S 207 at call center 121 via digital link 210. In summary, in the instant embodiment, agent level routing is accomplished by providing actual call center agent status on a continuing basis to Service Control Points along with agent skill profiles and the like. Incoming calls are then routed to agents, rather than to queues at call centers. At the call center to which a call is routed with destination data for an agent, a further opportunity for routing allows such calls to be rerouted at the call center level. In the matter of IPNT calls which may be directed first to a processor associated with a SCP in an intelligent network, given the origin of the call, just as is available form an ANI field, for example, in a conventional telephony call, decisions may be made as to agent level routing in a manner similar to the decisions made for conventional calls. It is only the mechanism for directing the IPNT calls that differs. Moreover, IPNT calls directed to a processor associated with a SCP may be processed by an IP in an automatic manner, even including voice response, eliciting further information from the caller, which may then be factored into the routing of the calls. It should also be understood that reception of and routing of IPNT calls need not be done at the same equipment and using the same software as is used for conventional telephony. Entirely separate centers may well be provided in various embodiments of the invention for handling IPNT calls. Internet servers may be provided for example, wherein adjunct processors, IP functionality, and the like is provided for IPNT in a manner parallel to that described herein for conventional telephony. In the matter of call center operation and management the idea of a dumb IP network may be just that. Intelligence is needed and preferred for managing large call volume to a wide range of possible destinations for best customer service. Parallel Data Transfer and Synchronization (3201) In another aspect of the present invention enhanced functionality is provided in routing and processing telephone calls from Service Control Points (SCPs) and other origination points at the network level or at other call centers established for servicing callers seeking service. This enhanced functionality enables agents at such call-in centers to have immediate access to information derived both from callers and from stored data. In descriptions below of the instant embodiment, assumption of SCP 101 in the network cloud and call center 121 is made for principle purposes of illustration. In descriptions above, referring now to FIG. 1, an intelligent peripheral (IP) 102 was described, serving to aid in initial processing of calls from persons seeking services from an organization providing such services from one or more call-in centers. In the above descriptions also, such callers were referred to as customers, following a continuing example utilizing an organizational structure having a technical service call-in operation for such as a computer equipment manufacturer. Following the example of persons calling in to seek technical services in installing and/or configuring computer-related products, when such a caller first connects (FIG. 1, vector 107, SCP 101), initial processing will typically include eliciting information from the caller relative to such as caller preferences and relationship of the caller to the service provider's customer database. For example, the caller may have just purchased a model of one of the provider's products, meant to be installed in or connected to a particular make and model computer, and is experiencing difficulty in installing the product and making it function properly with the computer. In another instance such a caller may have had the provider's product for some time, and is only recently experiencing difficulty. Most manufacturers provide a service whereby a customer may register a product, and in the process of registration a range of information from the customer is solicited, which will typically include the exact nature of the product in question, including model number, and also the characteristics of the computer (in this example) to which the customer has installed or is attempting to install the product. If a customer has registered his/her purchase, that information will typically be recorded in the customer database, which, referring to FIG. 1, may be stored on Data File Server 303 connected to LAN 301, to which processor 223 running an instance of T-S 207 is also connected. In other instances there may be other information stored in the customer database. For example, in the case of an insurance company, the customer's name and address, policy number, and the like will be in the database. If there is information about a call in a customer database at a call center, it will be advantageous to both the customer and the service provider to access that information and provide same to the agent who handles the customer's call. Such information cannot be retrieved, however, until and unless some correlation is made between the incoming call and the database. In the instant embodiment of the invention, which is exemplary only, initial processing is used incorporating IP 102 to elicit information from a customer. This may be done preferably by recorded query and voice recognition. In such a system a call is answered, and a menu system is used to categorize the caller and to elicit and record sufficient information to enable routing (as described above) and hopefully to correlate a customer with an existing database. By recording is meant enrolling the nature of the responses in some form, not necessarily by voice recording. For example, a typical initial processing transaction involves a recorded query to the caller such as "Do you prefer Spanish or English". In some locales the query might be phrased in a language other than English. The caller is requested to respond typically by selecting a key on the touch-tone pad of his/her telephone. In many instances now as well, voice recognition is built into the initial processing machine intelligence, and the customer is instructed in verbal response, such as: "Say Yes or No". The IP in this case recognizes the response and codes data accordingly. Information derived from a caller in such initial processing in conventional systems, as has been described herein above, is coded and sent with the routed call, to be dealt with at the call center to which the call is routed after the call is received. In instant embodiments of the present invention, such data, and in some cases other data, is routed to a call center in parallel with the routed call, over a digital network link, allowing the data to precede the call in most cases. The data is re-associated with the call at the call center in a unique fashion described below. This parallel data transfer also makes the transfer switch-independent. Referring again to FIG. 1, an instance of T-Server 207 is running on processor 223 connected to central switch 123 of call center 121. Processor 223 is connected to digital data link 210, and switch 123 is connected to the PSTN line 105. In the exemplary embodiment there is an instance of T-Server 207 also running on processor 208 associated with SCP 101. In the instant embodiment T-S 207 at processor 208 requests a semaphore from T-S 207 at processor 223 at the call center level. The semaphore is a virtual routing point in the call center, that is associated with the destination of the call, but is not the same as the destination of the call. Also, the semaphore is freed as soon as the call is completed. Once the semaphore is returned, the routed call is forwarded to switch 123 in this example over line 105 to the destination associated with the semaphore. Data associated with the call, which may be data elicited from a caller with the aid of IP 102, is not coded and sent with the call, however, as in the prior art, but rather transferred to T-S 207 at processor 223 over digital network line 210. As digital network link 210 is generally a faster link than telephone line 105, the data associated with a forwarded call will typically arrive before the call. This is not, however, a requirement of the invention. The data sent over link 210 to T-Server 207 on processor 223 includes not only data associated with the call, but the semaphore as described above. The call received on line 105 is not transferred directly to a final destination but to a semaphore routing point. When the call and the data are available, the call center T-Server 207 associates the call with the data by the knowledge of the semaphore to which the call has been associated. From the semaphore routing point the call is routed on to the final destination. The semaphore can be accomplished in a number of ways. For example, the call can be directed to a virtual number and the data may have the virtual number in one field of the data protocol. The semaphore could also be an agent's extension number, but the call is still routed to a semaphore control point to be associated with the data before being routed on to the agent. Those with skill in the art will recognize that the semaphore association may be made in other ways as well. The data typically in this embodiment is sent via network 301 to a VDU of the network interface at the operator's workstation to which the call is finally routed. This may be, for example, IF 331 or 332 in FIG. 1. Moreover, data associated with the call and transferred to T-S 207 at the call center may be used to associate the caller with the customer database in Data File Server 303, and to retrieve further data which may also be forwarded to the VDU at the agent's workstation. As described above, it will most usually be the case that the data will arrive before the call, and correlation with a customer database may therefore be done before the call arrives. The re-association (synchronization) of the call and the data at a rerouting point also affords an opportunity for further re-routing. There will be, as described above in the section on agent-based routing, some calls wherein the agent to which a call is originally has become unavailable in the time wherein a call is transferred. In this case T-Server 207 may re-route the call from the semaphore point to another agent, and send the data to the new destination. It is not strictly necessary in the instant embodiment that the data be transferred by another instance of T-Server as described in the preferred embodiment immediately above. The call forwarded and the data transferred may in fact be sent by an originating entity such as another call center (i.e. PBX), an SCP or IP (network IVR), or some other IVR which may or may not be in the network. In the matter of IPNT calls received at processors associated with SCPs, whether the SCPs are adapted to handle both conventional and IPNT calls, or just IPNT, data elicited from the caller may be prepared and provided by a separate link to a call center, and re-associated with the IP call redirected to an agent at the call center, or to a lower-level routing point at the call center, where both the call and the data may be rerouted. In this fashion all of the advantages of the invention described for conventional telephony may also be provided for IPNT. Statistically-Predictive and Agent-Predictive Call Routing (3202) In still another embodiment of the present invention predictive routing is incorporated into machine intelligence to expedite routing in a most cost-effective manner. Predictive routing according to embodiments of the present invention is based on knowledge of latency experienced in equipment while implementing certain operations, together with reasonable, but non-obvious assumptions that may be made to expedite operations. It is in implementing the assumptions that the inventions lie in the instant aspects and embodiments of the invention. Referring again to FIG. 1, in the general case T-Server 207 running on processor 208 does call routing for calls incoming at SCP 101. This routing is done with the aid of data stored at stat-server 209, which may be data obtained from call centers on some regular basis. In the instant embodiment related to group-predictive routing, incoming calls are routed to groups at call centers (call center 121 for example). In routing calls to groups, the goal is to route an incoming call to the group which has the lowest projected handling time for the call. The algorithm, for example, for handling time may be the present number of calls in the group queue times the historical average call length. In this embodiment the projected handling time is extrapolated on past history and the last action which occurred, and is re-computed each time feedback from the group is received. The predictive nature is derived from the fact that each time a call is routed, an assumption is made that the new call is added to the queue at the group to which it routed, without waiting for the call center to return the information, which involves latency. For example, when a call is received at SCP 101 (FIG. 1), there is a finite time involved before a routing decision may be made. Once the call is routed, there is a delay (latency) before the call is received at the call center and added to the group queue (in this example). There is a further delay for T-Server 207 to be cognizant of the arrival of the call. Then there is a delay until the time that T-Server 207 at processor 207 sends updated group queue data to T-Server 207 at processor 208, which updates the historical data at stat-server 209. The overall latency and delay until historical data may be updated at the network level may vary, but an exemplary assumption may be made for purposes of illustration. Assume the overall delay between actual updates is twenty seconds. If calls are being received at the SCP at the rate of ten calls per second, two hundred calls will be received to be routed in the time between updates of historical information upon which routing decisions are made. In the group-predictive embodiment described, each time a call is routed at the network level, an assumption is made that the call is actually received at the call enter group queue, and the data (stat server 209) is recalculated based on that assumption. The next call received is then immediately routed based on the recalculated data based on the assumption. The update that eventually arrives is used to readjust the database to reality, and call routing continues between updates based on the assumptions made. In the case of routing calls to logical destinations wherein further routing is done at the call center level, as described above for agent-based call routing, wherein agent status is reported to the network level, predictive routing according to an embodiment of the present invention may be done similarly to the predictive group routing described above. In the agent routing case incoming calls are immediately routed with an assumption that the agent to which the call is routed is then busy, and the status is corrected when actual agent state is returned. FIG. 3 is a process flow diagram depicting the decision and action flow for a predictive routing process according to the instant embodiment of the invention. At step 401 action is precipitated on a next call to be routed. Action is typically controlled in this embodiment by an instance of T-Server 207 running on a processor at the network level. At step 403 current statistics are consulted, which, in the case of group level routing comprises an indication of projected handling time for each group in the decision set to which calls may be routed. At step 405 the call is routed based on the statistics available. At step 407 it is determined whether or not a real update to the statistics has been received. If Yes, at step 409 the statistical data is updated to reflect the real information, correcting all assumptions since the last real update, if any correction is necessary. Then control passes to step 411, where statistics are updated based on the routed call as well. If a real update is not yet received, at step 411 the statistical data is updated based on an assumption that the call just routed was completed, and the call is added to the statistics, which are recalculated based on the assumption. Then a next call is taken to be routed at step 401. In the case of agent level routing the process flow is much the same as that shown in FIG. 3, except calls are routed at step 405 based on agent status, and updates are based on agent status. That is, when a call is routed, the assumption is that the agent is then busy. Agent status is updated to real data as real data is reported back to network level from call centers. If no real data comes back, an assumption based on statistical call length is used to `best-guess` re-availability of that agent. Group level predictive call routing may be done for conventional call centers that are capable of reporting only historical data to the network level. Predictive call routing based on agent status is only possible in the unique case wherein actual status of call center switches may be reported to network level. It will be apparent to those with skill in the art that predictive call routing may be applied to directing and redirecting of IPNT calls as well as to routing conventional telephony calls as described above. The differences are only in the details of the connectivity and data protocols, all of which is well-known in the art. The inventive subject matter in predictive routing is in the decisions made based on predictive assumptions, not in the nature of the call or the organization of data packets and the like. Dynamic Re-Routing (3203) In yet another aspect of the present invention, dual routing is performed. Reference is made again to FIG. 1, wherein a network level system shown in cloud 100 is enabled to perform original routing by virtue of an instance of T-Server 207 running on processor 208. In the instant embodiment routing is done at the network level by any of the methods discussed above. That is to group level, agent level, logical application, and so on. Original routing, however, is not done to the actual destination. Rather calls are routed to a call-center-level routing point, and data is sent to the call center via the digital data link, such as link 210 to processor 223 running an instance of T-Server 207 and connected to switch 123. The data sent comprises an indication or instruction of how the call should be treated. Whenever a call is routed to a call center, it is never certain that by the time the actual call arrives, the destination will still be available, or the best fit for the call. There are many reasons for this. For example, because of latency in transmission and so forth, other calls may be routed to the same destination in the interim. Also, in many systems switches at the call center level are also accepting local calls as well as calls routed from the network level. In other instances some equipment malfunction of fault may misroute one or more calls. The uncertainty of availability when the call arrives is the reason for the instant embodiment of the invention. At the call center routing point the call is synchronized with whatever data is sent, and a second routing request is generated. This second request is referred to by the inventors as "double-dipping". The second routing request is made to a local router running typically as a function of the instance of T-Server 207 executing on such as processor 223 (FIG. 1). Because the local router is closer to the requested destination, and because it arbitrates all incoming calls, it can confirm the original routing assuming the original destination is still free, or it can re-route the call if the destination is no longer available, or queue the call, etc. FIG. 4 is a process flow diagram depicting a process flow in the "double-dip" embodiment of the present invention described herein. At step 413 a call is received at the network level. At step 415 initial processing is accomplished, which may include eliciting information from the caller. At step 417 the network-level router is called, and a best fit destination is determined for the call based on the information available at the network level. At step 419 the call is forwarded, but not to the best-fit destination determined. The call is forwarded rather to a routing point at the call center local to the best-fit destination. Data associated with the call, including the best-fit destination determined in step 417 is forwarded to the call center via a digital data link such as link 210 in FIG. 1. At step 421 the call is received at the call center routing point. At step 423 it is determined whether the originally routed destination is still the best destination according to information at the call center level. If so the call is forwarded to the original destination at step 427. If not, the call is re-routed based on local information by the local router. It will be apparent to the skilled artisan that dynamic rerouting, like other aspects of the present invention, may apply to IPNT calls as well as to conventional telephony as described above. IPNT calls may be directed to selected destinations, synchronized with data perhaps provided by a different route, and the redirected, even several times if necessary. External Positivistic Forward Transfer in Call Routing Systems (3204) In yet another embodiment of the present invention calls are routed to call centers and data passed in a switch-independent manner, similar to that described above in the section entitled Parallel Data Transfer and Synchronization. In the previous description, however, the instance of T-Server running at the network level requests a semaphore from the call center. When the semaphore is returned, the call is routed and data is transferred on the digital network link, the data including the semaphore, which allows the data to be synchronized with the call at the semaphore point at the call center level. In the instant embodiment, time to route and transfer is improved by having the instance of T-Server running at the network level (on processor 208 in FIG. 1, for example) co-opt a semaphore, based on the best available information then at the network level. This presumption by the router in the T-Server at the network level eliminates the time required for negotiation with the T-Server at the call center. The semaphore assumed by the network level T-Server is freed later when CTI information is returned that the call was correctly processed. As in the previous description, when the routed call arrives at the call center semaphore point, the data, by virtue of having an indication of the semaphore included, is synchronized with the call and the call is forwarded to the destination. Data may be provided to a VDU at the agent's workstation at the destination via LAN connection as shown in FIG. 1. FIG. 5 is a process flow diagram indicating steps in practicing this embodiment of the invention. At step 501 a call is received. At step 503 initial processing is performed. At step 505 the router at the network level consults a stat-server (see element 209, FIG. 1) for a best-fit destination. At step 507 the router selects a semaphore destination based on the information in step 507. At step 509 the call is routed to the call center semaphore point and associated call data is routed via a separate data link (see link 210, FIG. 1) to the call center. At step 511 the data and the call are synchronized at the routing point. Further step are as indicated above in the section titled Parallel Data Transfer and Synchronization. It will be apparent to the skilled artisan as well that positivistic forward transfer may apply to intelligent routing of IPNT calls, just as it applies to conventional telephony calls as described in this section. Agent-Initiated Dynamic Requeuing (3206) In yet another aspect of the present invention a method is provided for rerouting calls from agent level, wherein the agent discovers, having received a call and interacted with the caller, that the call was misrouted, or needs attention by another qualified agent. By misrouted in this context is meant that for whatever reason the agent that received the call is unable to provide the service the caller wants or needs. The call may have been physically misrouted due to some error in hardware or software, so it is handled by a different agent than to whom it was originally routed, or, the call may have gone to the right agent, but the caller gave the wrong information, or insufficient information, for the system to get the call to an agent able and ready to provide the needed service, or, during the call, need arises for an agent with specific skills or knowledge. In this embodiment a first agent has received the call and has discerned from the caller that another agent is required to handle the call. Potentially the agent also has a VDU with the caller's data displayed and input apparatus (keyboard, pointer) with which to communicate with the local T-Server. In the conventional case the agent would be limited in options. The agent would transfer to or conference a physical phone number on the local or a remote central switch. The Automatic Call Distributor (ACD) on that switch would requeue the call. If the ACD were configured as a network ACD the call could potentially be distributed to other sites, but network ACD products typically work only between switches of the same manufacture. Also, the caller may have to wait again the full queue time. In the instant embodiment of the present invention, by virtue of the presence and interconnectivity of the local instance of T-Server running on a processor (223, FIG. 1) connected to the local switch (123, FIG. 1), also connected to the agent's equipment by LAN 301, and using unique control routines provided in T-Server 207, the agent hands the call back to a local or a network routing point, potentially with added data elicited from the caller to better aid in further routing. This operation is essentially agent-initiated double-dipping ala the description above in the section entitled Dynamic Rerouting. At the rerouting point rerouting of the call is requested of the local instance of T-Server 207, and the call is redistributed. The agent does not know who is available where for this transfer, and ACD is not involved. The agent, however, in this embodiment of the invention may have a choice of selecting a cold, warm, or conference transfer, which the agent may do by any convenient input which has been programmed into the control routines in the preferred embodiment. In a cold transfer, the agent simply sends the call back to the re-routing point with whatever new data can be added, and the call is then transferred to a new agent directly without any participation by the first agent. In a warm transfer, the first agent is connected to the next agent to whom the call is re-routed before the caller is connected, allowing the first agent to confer with the next agent before the caller. In a conferenced transfer the first agent and the caller are connected to the next agent at the same time. It will be apparent to the skilled artisan that agent-initiated re-routing may apply to intelligent routing of IPNT calls, just as it applies to conventional telephony as described herein. For example, an agent may ultimately receive an IPNT call at his/her PC/VDU, either with or without a screen pop of data pertaining to the client placing the call and/or to scripting for the agent to follow in handling the call. It may become apparent to the agent that the call has been mis-routed, or would, for whatever reason, be better handled by another agent. By virtue of adaptive software executing at the agent's station or at a connected processor, or both, such a call may be handed back to a routing point with whatever additional data the agent may have ascertained, and then be rerouted to a (hopefully) better destination based on the original and\or new data. Number Pool Data and Call Synchronization In yet another aspect of the present invention, a unique routing method is provided for rerouting calls between call centers while minimizing the number of destination numbers required for the purpose. It is well-known in the art that the overall cost of operating a call center is strongly influenced by the number of destination numbers that have to be maintained to provide for peak traffic. In this aspect of the invention two or more call centers are assigned unique number pools of destination numbers that are used by a router in a sequential order to reroute calls between call centers. Referring now to FIG. 6, three call centers 501, 502, and 503 are illustrated having each an incoming telephone line over which calls out of network cloud 100 are originally routed. Line 521 carries calls to call center 501, line 522 to call center 502, and line 523 to call center 503. A service control point (SCP) 101 is shown in network cloud 101 with a vector 107 representing incoming calls that are initially processed, then routed to one of the three call centers. It will be apparent to those with skill in the art that there may be more than one SCP sending calls to each call center, as there may be multiple 800 numbers used, the network may take any of several forms, and there may be more than the three call centers shown. The simplified representation of FIG. 6 is for purpose of illustration. There may also be other equipment in the SCP and a variety of protocols utilized in call processing and original routing. It is unfortunate but true that not all calls routed to a call center are correctly routed, and may be handed over to agents at the call center where originally routed. A certain percentage of calls will be discovered to have been incorrectly routed, and to require rerouting to another call center. There may be any number of reasons for incorrect routing, and the reasons are not pertinent to the present aspect of the invention. What is important in this regard is that some calls will have to be rerouted. In a conventional system, calls originally routed are sent to a destination number at a call center by a semaphore system, as has been described above, and sufficient destination numbers must be assigned and maintained at each call center to account for peak traffic. At the call center, calls are typically rerouted to agents at extensions at the call center, based on origination information and preprocessing information elicited at the SCP. The process of matching calls arriving at a call center with call data, and further routing calls to agents, and then clearing the semaphore so the destination number is free to be used again typically takes about twenty seconds. The time of twenty seconds to handle an incoming call strongly influences the number of destination numbers that must be maintained. For example, if twenty incoming original calls per second are to be handled, a call center will need 400 destination numbers to allow twenty seconds to handle each call. I like manner, in a conventional system, calls that have to be rerouted will each take the twenty second processing time, and additional destination numbers will have to be maintained for the rerouting traffic. In the embodiment of the present invention illustrated by FIG. 6 a main re-router 510 is provided connected by a digital network link 511 to call center 501, by digital network link 512 to call center 502, and by digital network link 513 to call center 503. In practice, actual routing is accomplished, as known in the art, by control routines executed on a computer platform, known typically in telecommunications art as a processor. In the description herein the term router is meant to encompass all of hardware/software characteristic of routing, thus reference is made to router 510. In this embodiment the connection from router 510 to each of the call centers is through dedicated processors (514, 515, and 516 respectively) further connected to the respective call centers by CTI links 504, 505, and 506, and each running an instance of T-server 207 described previously. This is a preferred embodiment, but in some embodiments the connection may be directly to the switch at the call center, assuming that the call center switch is adapted to execute the necessary control routines in conjunction with router 510 as described more fully below. Further, in this embodiment call centers 501, 502, and 503 are interconnected by telephone lines 525 and 527. These lines are preferred, but not strictly required in practicing the invention, as calls may also be rerouted between call centers back through network cloud 100. It will be apparent to one with skill in the art that there may be many more than three call centers such as 501 connected to the network. In this instant embodiment there are only three call centers shown, however, this number is deemed sufficient for the purposes of illustrating an embodiment of the present invention. In conventional network routing systems, as described above, destination numbers are assigned to a typical call center, and it to these destination numbers that incoming calls are routed. These destination numbers are phone numbers paid for by the company that operates the particular network. A typical call center may have many hundreds of destination numbers assigned to it. In a typical embodiment, each destination number costs about one dollar per month to maintain. In the case of a large network there may be many call centers, each having many hundreds of destination numbers that are generating costs to the company. In the present embodiment of the invention unique number pool assignments are made to each call center interconnected by router 510, and used sequentially for rerouting of calls between call centers. In the instant embodiment incoming calls are routed to various call centers, such as call center 501, via Telephony lines 521, 522, and 523, as described above. The call center destination to which a call will be sent is based on information obtained from the caller at SCP 101. Call center 501 having received a call, then sends a Call Arrival Message (CAM) to main router 510. Main router 510 uses the information provided in the CAM to make a routing decision. Main router 510 may also, in some embodiments, request additional information by sending a Route Request Message. A RRM would typically access additional information related to the caller that may be stored on a database or file server somewhere on the network. After a RRM is received, a Route Request Response (RRR) is sent back to main router 510. If main router 510 determines that the call has been routed properly, then the call is forwarded on to it's final destination such as an agents extension, etc. In this case conventional destination numbers would apply, and a semaphore would be sent back to the origination point when that particular call has been forwarded freeing it's destination number for the next call. This process takes approximately 20 seconds over conventional network lines. However, if it is determined that a more appropriate call center such as call center 503 would best handle the call that arrived at call center 501, the call is rerouted to call center 503. Router 510 maintains a data set (pool) of unique destination numbers assigned to each connected call center for the purpose of handling the rerouted traffic. These are not the same destination numbers used by origination points in the network for sending original calls to call centers. It is not required that there be any sequential association in the actual destination numbers. What is required and maintained by router 510 is that the destination numbers at each call center be identified in a sequential order. For example, there is a first number for center 501 a second number for center 501, and so on, up to a last number for center 501. The same is true for numbers assigned in a unique pool to call center 502 and call center 503. Consider as a very simple example that the unique pool of rerouting destination numbers for call center 502 has three numbers designated for our purpose as A, B, and C. A call arrived at call center 501, and it is determined that the call must be rerouted to call center 502. This call is sent to destination number A. A second call arrives at call center 501 for which it determined that rerouting to call center 502 is proper. This call will be sent to destination number B at call center 502. Similarly a call then arrives at call center 503 for which it is determined that rerouting to center 502 is needed. This call is rerouted to destination number C at call center 502. Now, the next call at either call center 501 or 503 for which rerouting to call center 502 is needed is sent to destination number A at center 502. As operation continues, calls rerouted to call center A are sent sequentially to the identified numbers in the unique number pool associated with call center 502, always returning to the first after the last is used, then proceeding again through the pattern. At the same time, calls arriving at either center 501 or 502, to be rerouted to call center 503, are sent sequentially to identified numbers at center 503, and calls rerouted from 503 and 502 to 501 are sent sequentially to identified unique numbers at 501. As previously described, there may be many more than the three call centers shown, and there may be many more than three destination numbers assigned to each call center in the unique rerouting destination number pool. The sequencing may be quite complex, but, at each call center, the unique numbers are used in a sequential pattern so that after one number is used, it is not reused again until all of the other numbers assigned to that call center for the purpose of rerouting are used once more. There is another difference between the rerouting and the original routing. That is that the origination and the final destination of a call are both known in the rerouting, and a rerouted call sent to one of the numbers in the unique rerouting pool may be therefor almost immediately handed off to an agent, or to a queue for an agent. The processing time is about one second. The quantity of destination numbers necessary for each call center in the unique pool is thus one number greater than the number of calls that can be routed by main router 510 in one second. Typically router 510 will be sized based on empirical data and statistics. If, in a hypothetical situation router 510 is capable of rerouting 100 calls per second, then the quantity of destination numbers for each call center is theoretically 101, to be sure that each number used has a full second to clear before it is used again. In practice, a margin for safety may be employed by providing a quantity of destination numbers equaling, for example, 1.5 times the number of calls that can be routed in one second. In FIG. 6 and the accompanying descriptions above relative to FIG. 6, a single router was described, referred to as router 510. In alternative embodiments of the present invention there may be more than a single router instance. There could, for example, be a router operable at each of the switches 501, 502, and 503 shown operating either on processors 514, 515, and 516, or, if the switches permit, on the switches. In another alternative router 510 could be connected to other routers in other locations not shown, and these further routers may be connected to other switches at other call centers, and so on. In these alternative embodiments, incorporating multiple routers, individual routers may negotiate with other connected routers, delivering messages, unique destination numbers for routing, unique call ID, any data attached to the original call or retrieved based on data attached to the original call, so the other routers may perform continued or additional routing. THE SPIRIT AND SCOPE OF THE INVENTION It will be apparent to those with skill in the art that there are many alterations that may be made in the embodiments of the invention herein described without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. Many individual hardware elements in the invention as described in embodiments above are well-known processors and data links. The connectivity, however, of many of these elements is unique to embodiments of the present invention. Moreover, many of the functional units of the system in embodiments of the invention may be implemented as code routines in more-or-less conventional computerized telephony equipment and computer servers. It is well-known that programmers are highly individualistic, and may implement similar functionality by considerably different routines, so there will be a broad variety of ways in code that unique elements of the invention may be implemented. Also, the invention may be applied to widely varying hardware and software systems, and to both conventional telephony calls, or to Internet protocol calls, or to calls made by data mechanisms in any data environment, be it Internet, Intranet, or other. Further, the links between processors running T-Servers at the call center level and processors running T-Servers at the network level may be done in a variety of ways as well. to the associated equipment may be done in a number of ways, and there is a broad variety of equipment that might be adapted to provide the servers 223 and 224, and other such servers associated with call centers. There are similarly many other alterations inn the embodiments described herein which will fall within the spirit and scope of the present invention in it's several aspects described. The invention is limited only by the breadth of the claims below.

An Internet Protocol Network Telephony (IPNT) system having a router for IPNT calls has a plurality of selectable routing protocols and a system monitoring facility adapted for periodically determining the condition and performance of the system, where the system may be any collection of connected computers on the same wide area network. Routing protocols are selected according to one or both of system condition and performance. In a system subject to degradation of performance under certain conditions, routing protocols may be selected that are relatively immune to causes of degradation in performance. As performance degrades, escalatory selection of more simple routing protocols may be provided.

This is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/717,322, filed Nov. 21, 2000 by Steven D. Pieper for ANATOMICAL, VISUALIZATION SYSTEM, which application is in turn a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/084,637, filed May 26, 1998 now U.S. Pat. No. 6,151,404, by Steven D. Pieper for ANATOMICAL VISUALIZATION SYSTEM, which application is in turn a continuation of U.S. patent application now abandoned Ser. No. 08/489,061, filed Jun. 09, 1995 by Steven D. Pieper for ANATOMICAL VISUALIZATION SYSTEM, which application is in turn a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/457,692, filed Jun. 01, 1995 now U.S. Pat. No. 5,737,506 by Michael A. McKenna, David T. Chen and Steven D. Pieper for ANATOMICAL VISUALIZATION SYSTEM. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to medical apparatus in general, and more particularly to anatomical visualization systems. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Many medical procedures must be carried out at an interior anatomical site which is normally hidden from the view of the physician. In these situations, the physician typically uses some sort of scanning device to examine the patient's anatomy at the interior site prior to, and in preparation for, conducting the actual medical procedure. Such scanning devices typically include CT scanners, MRI devices, X-ray machines, ultrasound devices and the like, and essentially serve to provide the physician with some sort of visualization of the patient's interior anatomical structure prior to commencing the actual medical procedure. The physician can then use this information to plan the medical procedure in advance, taking into account patient-specific anatomical structure. In addition, the physician can also use the information obtained from such preliminary scanning to more precisely identify the location of selected structures (e.g., tumors and the like) which may themselves be located within the interior of internal organs or other internal body structures. As a result, the physician can more easily “zero in” on such selected structures during the subsequent medical procedure. Furthermore, in many cases, the anatomical structures of interest to the physician may be quite small and/or difficult to identify with the naked eye. In these situations, preliminary scanning of the patient's interior anatomical structure using high resolution scanning devices can help the physician locate the structures of interest during the subsequent medical procedure. In addition to the foregoing, scanning devices of the sort described above are frequently also used in purely diagnostic procedures. In general, scanning devices of the sort described above tend to generate two-dimensional (i.e., “2-D”) images of the patient's anatomical structure. In many cases, the scanning devices are adapted to provide a set of 2-D images, with each 2-D image in the set being related to every other 2-D image in the set according to some pre-determined relationship. For example, CT scanners typically generate a series of 2-D images, with each 2-D image corresponding to a specific plane or “slice” taken through the patient's anatomical structure. Furthermore, with many scanning devices, the angle and spacing between adjacent image planes or slices is very well defined, e.g., each image plane or slice may be set parallel to every other image plane or slice, and adjacent image planes or slices may be spaced a pre-determined distance apart. By way of example, the parallel image planes might be set 1 mm apart. In a system of the sort just described, the physician can view each 2-D image individually and, by viewing a series of 2-D images in proper sequence, can mentally generate a three-dimensional (i.e., “3-D”) impression of the patient's interior anatomical structure. Some scanning devices include, as part of their basic system, associated computer hardware and software for building a 3-D database of the patient's scanned anatomical structure using a plurality of the aforementioned 2-D images. For example, some CT and MRI scanners include such associated computer hardware and software as part of their basic system. Alternatively, such associated computer hardware and software may be provided independently of the scanning devices, as a sort of “add-on” to the system; in this case, the data from the scanned 2-D images is fed from the scanning device to the associated computer hardware and software in a separate step. In either case, a trained operator using the scanning device can create a set of scanned 2-D images, assemble the data from these scanned 2-D images into a 3-D database of the scanned anatomical structure, and then generate various additional images of the scanned anatomical structure using the 3-D database. This feature is a very powerful tool, since it essentially permits a physician to view the patient's scanned anatomical structure from a wide variety of different viewing positions. As a result, the physician's understanding of the patient's scanned anatomical structure is generally greatly enhanced. In addition, these systems often include software and/or hardware tools to allow measurements to be made, e.g., the length of lines drawn on the image may be calculated. While the 2-D slice images generated by the aforementioned scanning devices, and/or the 3-D database images generated by the aforementioned associated computer hardware and software, are generally of great benefit to physicians, certain significant limitations still exist. For one thing, with current systems, each scanned 2-D slice image is displayed as a separate and distinct image, and each image generated from the 3-D database is displayed as a separate and distinct image. Unfortunately, physicians can sometimes have difficulty correlating what they see on a particular scanned 2-D slice image with what they see on a particular image generated from the 3-D database. For another thing, in many situations a physician may be viewing images of a patient's scanned anatomical structure in preparation for conducting a subsequent medical procedure in which a prosthetic device must be fitted in the patient. In these situations it can be relatively difficult and/or time-consuming for the physician to accurately measure and record all of the anatomical dimensions needed for proper sizing of the prosthetic device to the patient. By way of example, in certain situations a patient may develop an abdominal aortic aneurysm (“AAA”) in the vicinity of the aorta's iliac branching, and replacement of the affected vascular structure may be indicated. In this case it is extremely important for the physician to determine, for each affected portion of blood vessel, accurate length and cross-sectional dimensions to ensure proper sizing of the replacement prosthesis to the patient. Such anatomical measurement and recordation can be difficult and/or time-consuming with existing visualization systems. This has proven to be particulary true when dealing with anatomical structures which have a tortuous path or branching structure, e.g., blood vessels. OBJECTS OF THE PRESENT INVENTION Accordingly, one object of the present invention is to provide an improved anatomical visualization system wherein a scanned 2-D slice image can be appropriately combined with an image generated from a 3-D database so as to create a single composite image. Another object of the present invention is to provide an improved anatomical visualization system wherein a marker can be placed onto a 2-D slice image displayed on a screen, and this marker will be automatically incorporated, as appropriate, into a 3-D computer model maintained by the system, as well as into any other 2-D slice image data maintained by the system. Still another object of the present invention is to provide an improved anatomical visualization system wherein a margin of pre-determined size can be associated with a marker of the sort described above, and further wherein the margin will be automatically incorporated into the 3-D computer model, and into any other 2-D slice image data, in association with that marker. Yet another object of the present invention is to provide an improved anatomical visualization system wherein the periphery of objects contained in a 3-D computer model maintained by the system can be automatically identified in any 2-D slice image data maintained by the system, wherein the periphery of such objects can be highlighted as appropriate in 2-D slice images displayed by the system. And another object of the present invention is to provide an improved method for visualizing anatomical structure. Another object of the present invention is to provide an improved anatomical visualization system wherein patient-specific anatomical dimensions may be easily and quickly determined. And another object of the present invention is to provide an improved anatomical visualization system wherein an appropriate set of scanned 2-D images can be assembled into a 3-D database, computer models of patient-specific anatomical structures can be extracted from the information contained in this 3-D database, and these computer models can then be used to calculate desired patient-specific anatomical dimensions. Still another object of the present invention is to provide an improved anatomical visualization system which is particularly well adapted to determine patient-specific anatomical dimensions for structures which have a branching configuration, e.g., blood vessels. Yet another object of the present invention is to provide an improved method for calculating patient-specific anatomical dimensions using appropriate scanned 2-D image data. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION These and other objects are addressed by the present invention, which comprises a visualization system comprising a first database that comprises a plurality of 2-D slice images generated by scanning a structure. The 2-D slice images are stored in a first data format. A second database is also provided that comprises a 3-D computer model of the scanned structure. The 3-D computer model comprises a first software object that is defined by a 3-D geometry database. Means are provided for inserting a second software object into the 3-D computer model so as to augment the 3-D computer model. The second software object is also defined by a 3-D geometry database, and includes a planar surface. Means for determining the specific 2-D slice image associated with the position of the planar surface of the second software object within the augmented 3-D computer model are provided in a preferred embodiment of the invention. Means are also provided for texture mapping the specific 2-D slice image onto the planar surface of the second software object. Display means are provided for displaying an image of the augmented 3-D computer model so as to simultaneously provide a view of the first software object and the specific 2-D slice image texture mapped onto the planar surface of the second software object. In one alternative embodiment of the present invention, a visualization system is provided comprising a first database comprising a plurality of 2-D slice images generated by scanning a structure. The 2-D slice images are again stored in a first data format. A second database comprising a 3-D computer model of the scanned structure is also provided in which the 3-D computer model comprises a first software object that is defined by a 3-D geometry database. Means are provided for selecting a particular 2-D slice image the first database. Means are also provided for inserting a second software object into the 3-D computer model so as to augment the 3-D computer model. The second software object is defined by a 3-D geometry database, and also includes a planar surface. In this alternative embodiment however, the second software object is inserted into the 3-D computer model at the position corresponding to the position of the selected 2-D slice image relative to the scanned structure. Means for texture mapping the specific 2-D slice image onto the planar surface of the second software object are also provides. Means are provided for displaying an image of the augmented 3-D computer model so as to simultaneously provide a view of the first software object and the specific 2-D slice image texture mapped onto the planar surface of the second software object. In each of the foregoing embodiments of the present invention, the 3-D geometry database may comprise a surface model. Likewise, the system may further comprise means for inserting a marker into the first database, whereby the marker will be automatically incorporated into the second database, and further wherein the marker will be automatically displayed where appropriate in any image displayed by the system. Also, the system may further comprise a margin of pre-determined size associated with the marker. Additionally, the system may further comprise means for automatically determining the periphery of any objects contained in the second database and for identifying the corresponding data points in the first database, whereby the periphery of such objects can be highlighted as appropriate in any image displayed by the system. Often, the scanned structure will comprise an anatomical structure. The present invention also comprises a method for visualizing an anatomical structure. In yet another form of the present invention, the visualization system may incorporate means for determining patient-specific anatomical dimensions using appropriate scanned 2-D image data. More particularly, the visualization system may include means for assembling an appropriate set of scanned 2-D images into a 3-D database, means for extracting computer models of patient-specific anatomical structures from the information contained in the 3-D database, and means for calculating desired patient-specific anatomical dimensions from the aforementioned computer models. The present invention also comprises a method for calculating patient-specific anatomical dimensions using appropriate scanned 2-D image data. In one form of the present invention, the method comprises the steps of (1) assembling an appropriate set of scanned 2-D images into a 3-D database; (2)extracting computer models of patient-specific anatomical structures from the information contained in the 3-D database, and (3)calculating desired patient-specific anatomical dimensions from the aforementioned computer models. In a more particular form of the present invention, the visualization system is particularly well adapted to determine patient-specific anatomical dimensions for structures which have a branching configuration, e.g., blood vessels. In this form of the invention, the visualization system is adapted to facilitate (1)assembling an appropriate set of scanned 2-D images into a 3-D database; (2)segmenting the volumetric data contained in the 3-D database into a set of 3-D locations corresponding to the specific anatomical structure to be measured; (3) specifying, for each branching structure contained within the specific anatomical structure of interest, a branch line in the volumetric data set that uniquely indicates that branch structure, with the branch line being specified by selecting appropriate start and end locations on two of the set of scanned 2-D images; (4)calculating, for each branching structure contained within the specific anatomical structure of interest, a centroid path in the volumetric data set for that branching structure, with the centroid path being determined by calculating, for each scanned 2-D image corresponding to the branch line, the centroid for the branch structure contained in that particular scanned 2-D image; (5)applying a curve-fitting algorithm to the centroid paths determined above so as to supply data for any portions of the anatomical structure which may lie between the aforementioned branch lines, and for “smoothing out” any noise that may occur in the system; and (6) applying known techniques to the resulting space curves so as to determine the desired anatomical dimensions. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS These and other objects and features of the present invention will be more fully disclosed or rendered obvious by the following detailed description of the preferred embodiment of the invention, which is to be considered together with the accompanying drawings wherein like numbers refer to like parts, and further wherein: FIG. 1 is a schematic view showing a scanning device generating a set of 2-D images of the anatomy of a patient; FIG. 2 is a 2-D slice image corresponding to an axial slice taken through the abdomen of an individual; FIG. 3 shows a series of data frames corresponding to 2-D slice images arranged in a parallel array; FIG. 4 is a schematic view showing the scanning data contained within an exemplary data frame; FIG. 5 shows scanning data stored in a first storage device or medium being retrieved, processed and then stored again in a second data storage device or medium; FIG. 6 is a schematic view of a system for retrieving and viewing scanning data; FIG. 7 is a schematic view of a unit cube for use in defining polygonal surface models; FIG. 8 illustrates the data file format of the polygonal surface model for the simple unit cube shown in FIG. 7; FIGS. 9A-9F illustrate a variety of menu choices which may be utilized in connection with the present invention; FIG. 10 illustrates an image drawn to a window using the data contained in the 3-D computer model associated with the present invention; FIG. 11 illustrates a 2-D slice image drawn to a window in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 12 illustrates a composite image formed from information contained in both the 3-D computer model and the 2-D image slice data structure; FIG. 13 is a schematic illustration showing the relationship between axial slices, sagittal slices and coronal slices; FIG. 14 illustrates three different 2-D slice images being displayed on a computer screen at the same time, with a marker being incorporated into each of the images; FIG. 15 illustrates a marker shown in an image generated from the 3-D computer model, with the marker being surrounded by a margin of pre-determined size; FIG. 16 illustrates a 2-D slice image, wherein the periphery of an object has been automatically highlighted by the system; FIG. 17 is a schematic illustration showing various anatomical structures on a 2-D slice image, where that 2-D slice image has been taken axially through the abdomen of a patient, at a location above the aortic/iliac branching; FIG. 18 is a schematic illustration showing various anatomical structures on another 2-D slice image, where that 2-D slice image has been taken through the abdomen of the same patient, at a location below the aortic/iliac branching; FIGS. 17A and 18A are schematic illustrations like FIGS. 17 and 18, respectively, except that segmentation has been performed in the 3-D database so as to highlight the patient's vascular structure; FIG. 19 is a schematic illustration showing that same patient's vascular structure in the region about the aortic/iliac branching, with branch lines having been specified for the patient's aorta and iliac branches; FIG. 20 is a schematic illustration showing how the centroid is calculated for the branch structure contained in a particular scanned 2-D image; FIG. 21 is a schematic illustration showing the tortuous centroid path calculated for each of the respective branch lines shown in FIG. 19; FIG. 22 is a schematic illustration showing the space curve determined by applying a curve-fitting algorithm to two of the centroid paths shown in FIG. 21, whereby the structure between the branch lines is filled out and the centroid data “smoothed” through a best fit interpolation technique; and FIG. 23 is a flow chart illustrating how patient-specific anatomical dimensions can be determined from scanned 2-D image data in accordance with the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Looking first at FIG. 1, a scanning device 5 is shown as it scans the interior anatomical structure of a patient 10 , as that patient 10 lies on a scanning platform 15 . Scanning device 5 is of the sort adapted to generate scanning data corresponding to a series of 2-D images, where each 2-D image corresponds to a specific viewing plane or “slice” taken through the patient's body. Furthermore, scanning device 5 is adapted so that the angle and spacing between adjacent image planes or slices can be very well defined, e.g., each image plane or slice may be set parallel to every other image plane or slice, and adjacent image planes or slices may be spaced a pre-determined distance apart. By way of example, the parallel image planes might be set 1 mm apart. The scanning data obtained by scanning device 5 can be displayed as a 2-D slice image on a display 20 , and/or it can be stored in its 2-D slice image data form in a first section 23 of a data storage device or medium 25 . Furthermore, additional information associated with the scanning data (e.g. patient name, age, etc.) can be stored in a second section 27 of data storage device or medium 25 . By way of example, scanning device 5 might comprise a CT scanner of the sort manufactured by GE Medical Systems of Milwaukee, Wis. By way of further example, a 2-D slice image of the sort generated by scanning device 5 and displayed on display 20 might comprise the 2-D slice image shown in FIG. 2 . In the particular example shown in FIG. 2, the 2-D slice image shown corresponds to an axial slice taken through an individual's abdomen and showing, among other things, that individual's liver. Scanning device 5 may format its scanning data in any one of a number of different data structures. By way of example, scanning device 5 might format its scanning data in the particular data format used by a CT scanner of the sort manufactured by GE Medical Systems of Milwaukee, Wis. More specifically, with such a scanning device, the scanning data is generally held as a series of data “frames”, where each data frame corresponds to a particular 2-D slice image taken through the patient's body. Furthermore, within each data frame, the scanning data is generally organized so as to represent the scanned anatomical structure at a particular location within that 2-D slice image. Such a data structure is fairly common for scanning devices of the sort associated with the present invention. However, it should be appreciated that the present invention is not dependent on the particular data format utilized by scanning device 5 . For the purposes of the present invention, the scanning data provided by scanning device 5 can be formatted in almost any desired data structure, so long as that data structure is well defined, whereby the scanning data can be retrieved and utilized as will hereinafter be disclosed in further detail. For purposes of illustrating the present invention, it can be convenient to think of the scanning data generated by scanning device 5 as being organized in the data structures schematically illustrated in FIGS. 3 and 4. More particularly, in FIG. 3, a series of data frames 30 A, 30 B, 30 C, etc. are shown arranged in a parallel array. Each of these data frames 30 A, 30 B, 30 C, etc. corresponds to a particular 2-D slice image taken through the patient's body by scanning device 5 , where the 2-D slice images are taken parallel to one another. In addition, adjacent image planes or slices are spaced apart by a constant, pre-determined distance, e.g., 1 mm. Furthermore, in FIG. 4, the scanning data contained within an exemplary data frame 30 A is shown represented in an X-Y coordinate scheme so as to quickly and easily identify the scanned anatomical structure disposed at a particular location within that 2-D slice image. Typically, the scanning data relating to a particular X-Y coordinate represents an image intensity value. This image intensity value generally reflects some attribute of the specific anatomical structure being scanned, e.g., the tissue density. As noted above, the scanning data generated by scanning device 5 is stored in its 2-D slice image data form in first section 23 of data storage device or medium 25 , with the scanning data being stored in a particular data format as determined by the manufacturer of scanning device 5 . In accordance with the present invention, and looking now at FIG. 5, the scanning data stored in first section 23 of data storage device or medium 25 is retrieved, processed and then stored again in a data storage device or medium 30 . More particularly, the scanning data stored in first section 23 of data storage device or medium 25 is retrieved and processed so as to convert the scanning data generated by scanning device 5 from its 2-D slice image data form into a 3-D computer model of the patient's anatomical structure. This 3-D computer model is then stored in a first section 35 of data storage device or medium 30 . In addition, the scanning data stored in first section 23 of data storage device or medium 25 is retrieved and processed as necessary so as to convert the scanning data into a preferred data format for the 2-D slice image data. The 2-D slice image data is then stored in this preferred data format in second section 40 of data storage device or medium 30 . Furthermore, the additional information associated with the scanning data (e.g. patient name, age, etc.) which was previously stored in second section 27 of data storage device or medium 25 can be stored in a third section 42 of data storage device or medium 30 . In accordance with the present invention, once the 3-D computer model has been stored in first section 35 of data storage device or medium 30 , and the 2-D slice image data has been stored in a preferred data format in second section 40 of data storage device or medium 30 , a physician can then use an appropriately programmed computer to access the 3-D computer model stored in first section 35 of data storage device or medium 30 , and/or the 2-D slice image data stored in second section 40 of data storage device or medium 30 , to generate desired patient-specific images. More particularly, and looking now at FIG. 6, once the 3-D computer model has been stored in first section 35 of data storage device or medium 30 , and the 2-D slice image data has been stored in a preferred data format in second section 40 of data storage device or medium 30 , a physician can use an appropriately programmed computer 50 , operated by input devices 55 , to access the 3-D computer model stored in first section 35 of data storage device or medium 30 , and/or the 2-D slice image data stored in second section 40 of data storage device or medium 30 , so as to generate the desired patient-specific images and display those images on a display 60 . To this end, it will be appreciated that the specific data structure used to store the 3-D computer model in first section 35 of data storage device or medium 30 , and the specific data structure used to store the 2-D slice image data in second section 40 of data storage device or medium 30 , will depend on the specific nature of computer 50 and on the particular operating system and application software being run on computer 50 . In general, however, the 3-D computer model contained in first section 35 of data storage device or medium 30 is preferably structured as a collection of software objects, with each software object being defined by a polygonal surface model of the sort well known in the art. By way of example, a scanned anatomical structure such as a human liver might be modeled as three distinct software objects, with the outer surface of the general mass of the liver being one software object, the outer surface of the vascular structure of the liver being a second software object, and the outer surface of a tumor located in the liver being a third software object. By way of further example, FIGS. 7 and 8 illustrate a typical manner of defining a software object by a polygonal surface model. In particular, FIG. 7 illustrates the vertices of a unit cube set in an X-Y-Z coordinate system, and FIG. 8 illustrates the data file format of the polygonal surface model for this simple unit cube. As is well known in the art, more complex shapes such as human anatomical structure can be expressed in corresponding terms. Furthermore, the 3-D computer model contained in first section 35 of data storage device or medium 30 is created by analyzing the 2-D slice image data stored in first section 23 of data storage device or medium 25 using techniques well known in the art. For example, the 2-D slice image data stored in first section 23 of data storage device or medium 25 might be processed using the well known “Marching Cubes” algorithm, which is a so-called “brute force” surface construction algorithm that extracts isodensity surfaces from volume data, producing from one to five triangles within voxels that contain the surface. Alternatively, the 2-D slice image data stored in first section 23 of data storage device or medium 25 might be processed into the 3-D computer model stored in first section 35 of data storage device or medium 30 by some other appropriate modelling algorithm so as to yield the desired 3-D computer model. As noted above, the specific data structure used to store the 2-D slice image data in second section 40 of data storage device or medium 30 will also depend on the specific nature of computer 50 and on the particular operating system and application software being run on computer 50 . In general, however, the 2-D slice image data contained in second section 40 of data storage device or medium 30 is preferably structured as a series of data “frames”, where each data frame corresponds to a particular 2-D slice image taken through the patient's body, and where the scanning data within each data frame is organized so as to represent the scanned anatomical structure at a particular location within that 2-D slice image. In the present invention, it is preferred that computer 50 comprise a Power PC-based, Macintosh operating system (“Mac OS”) type of computer, e.g. a Power PC Macintosh 8100/80 of the sort manufactured by Apple Computer, Inc. of Cupertino, Calif. In addition, it is preferred that computer 50 be running Macintosh operating system software, e.g. Mac OS Ver. 7.5.1, such that computer 50 can readily access a 3-D computer model formatted in Apple's well-known QuickDraw 3D data format and display images generated from that 3D computer model, and such that computer 50 can readily access and display 2-D images formatted in Apple's well-known QuickTime image data format. Input devices 55 preferably comprise the usual computer input devices associated with a Power PC-based, Macintosh operating system computer, e.g., input devices 55 preferably comprise a keyboard, a mouse, etc. In view of the foregoing, in the present invention it is also preferred that the 3-D computer model contained in first section 35 of data storage device or medium 30 be formatted in Apple's QuickDraw 3D data format, whereby the Mac OS computer 50 can quickly and easily access the 3-D computer model contained in first section 35 of data storage device or medium 30 and display images generated from that 3-D computer model on display 60 . In view of the foregoing, in the present invention it is also preferred that the 2-D slice image data contained in second section 40 of data storage device or medium 30 be formatted in Apple's QuickTime image data format. In this way computer 50 can quickly and easily display the scanned 2-D slice images obtained by scanning device 5 . It will be appreciated that, to the extent that scanning device 5 happens to format its scanning data in the preferred QuickTime image data format, no reformatting of the 2-D. slice image data will be necessary prior to storing the 2-D slice image data in second section 40 of data storage device or medium 30 . However, to the extent that scanning device 5 happens to format its scanning data in a different data structure, reformatting of the 2-D slice image data will be necessary so as to put it into the preferred QuickTime image data format. Such image data reformatting is of the sort well known in the art. As a result of the foregoing, it will be seen that a physician operating computer 50 through input devices 55 can generate a desired image from the 3-D computer model contained within first section 35 of data storage device or medium 30 . In particular, the physician can use input devices 55 to (1) open a window on display 60 , (2) instruct the computer as to the desired angle of view, (3) generate the corresponding image of the scanned anatomical structure from the desired angle of view, using the 3-D computer model contained within first section 35 of data storage device or medium 30 , and (4) display that image in the open window on display 60 . In addition, a physician operating computer 50 through input devices 55 can display a desired 2-D slice image from the 2-D slice image data contained within second section 40 of data storage device or medium 30 . In particular, the physician can use input devices 55 to (1) open a window on display 60 , (2) select a particular 2-D slice image contained within second section 40 of data storage device or medium 30 , and (3) display that slice image in the open window on display 60 . More particularly, and looking now at FIGS. 9A-9F, computer 50 is preferably programmed so as to provide a variety of pre-determined menu choices which may be selected by the physician operating computer 50 via input devices 55 . Thus, for example, if the physician wishes to produce a desired image from the 3-D computer model contained within first section 35 of data storage device or medium 30 , the physician uses input devices 55 to invoke the command to display the 3-D computer model; the software then creates a window to display the image, it renders an image from the 3-D computer model contained within first section 35 of data storage device or medium 30 , and then displays that image in the open window on display 60 . By way of example, FIG. 10 illustrates an image drawn to a window using the data contained in the 3-D computer model stored in first section 35 of data storage device or medium 30 . The physician can use input devices 55 to instruct the image rendering software as to the particular angle of view desired. In particular, the physician can depress a mouse key and then drag on the object so as to rotate the object into the desired angle of view. Additionally, one can also use the keyboard and mouse to move the view closer in or further out, or to translate the object side to side or up and down relative to the image plane. Programming to effect such computer operation is of the sort well known in the art. In a similar manner, the physician can use menu choices such as those shown in FIGS. 9A-9F to open a window on the display 60 to display a desired 2-D image slice from second section 40 of data storage device or medium 30 in that window. The physician can select between different image slices utilizing input devices 55 . By way of example, FIG. 11 illustrates a 2-D image slice drawn to a window by the operating system using the data contained in second section 40 of data storage device or medium 30 . By dragging icon 70 back and forth along slider 75 , the physician can “leaf”back and forth through the collection of axial slices, i.e., in the example of FIG. 11 in which axial slice #21 is displayed, dragging icon 70 to the left might cause axial slice #20 to be displayed, and dragging icon 70 to the right might cause axial slice #22 to be displayed. Additionally, one can also step the image from the current slice number to a previous or following slice number, using menu commands or by clicking the mouse cursor on the single step icons set at the right side of slider 75 . Menu commands can also be provided to change the slice window display directly to the first or last slice image in the 2-D slice image set, or to change the slice window display to a user-specified slice number. Programming to effect such computer operation is of the sort well known in the art. As a consequence of using the aforementioned image rendering software, i.e., the Mac OS, the Apple QuickDraw 3D data format and software, and the Apple QuickTime image data format and software, or some equivalent hardware and software, it is possible to insert an additional software object into the 3-D computer model contained within first section 35 of data storage device or medium 30 . In particular, it is possible to insert an additional software object having a “blank” planar surface into the 3-D computer model. Furthermore, using the computer's image rendering software, it is possible to texture map a 2-D slice image from second section 40 of data storage device or medium 30 onto the blank planar surface of the software object. Most significantly, since the 3-D computer model is created out of the same scanning data as the 2-D slice images, it is possible to determine the specific 2-D slice image associated with a given position of the blank planar surface. Accordingly, when an image is generated from the 3-D computer model, both 3-D model structure and 2-D image slice structure can be simultaneously displayed in proper registration with one another, thereby providing a single composite image of the two separate images. See, for example, FIG. 12, which shows such-a composite image. Again, the physician can use input devices 55 to instruct the operating system's image rendering software as to where the aforementioned “additional” software object is to be inserted into the model and as to the particular angle of view desired. Programming to effect such computer operation is of the sort well known in the art. In the foregoing description of the present invention, the 2-D slice image data generated by scanning device 5 has generally been discussed in the context of the standard “axial” slice images normally generated by scanning devices of the type associated with this invention. However, it is to be appreciated that it is also possible to practice the present invention in connection with sagittal or coronal 2-D slice images. More particularly, and looking next at FIG. 13, the relative orientation of axial, sagittal and coronal slice images are shown in the context of a schematic view of a human body 80 . Scanning device 5 will normally generate axial slice image data when scanning a patent. In addition, in many cases scanning device 5 will also assemble the axial slice data into a 3-D database of the scanned anatomical structure, and then use this 3-D database to generate a corresponding set of sagittal and/or coronal 2-D slice images. In the event that scanning device 5 does not have the capability of generating the aforementioned sagittal and/or coronal 2-D slice images, these 2-D slice images may be generated from a set of the axial 2-D images in a subsequent operation, using computer hardware and software of the sort well known in the art. Alternatively, computer 50 could be programmed to render such sagittal and/or coronal 2-D slices “on the fly” from the 2-D slice image data contained in second section 40 of data storage device or medium 30 . In connection with the present invention, the sagittal and coronal 2-D slice image data may be stored with the axial slice image data in second section 40 of data storage device or medium 30 . Preferably these sagittal and coronal slice images are stored in exactly the same data format as the 2-D axial slice images, whereby they may be easily accessed by computer 50 and displayed on display 60 in the same manner as has been previously discussed in connection with axial 2-D slice images. As a result, axial, sagittal and coronal 2-D slice images can be displayed on display 60 , either individually or simultaneously in separate windows, in the manner shown in FIG. 14 . Furthermore, when generating a composite image of the sort shown in FIG. 12 (i.e., an image generated from both the 3-D computer model contained in first section 35 of data storage device or medium 30 and a 2-D slice image contained in second section 40 of data storage device or medium 30 ), the composite image can be created using axial, sagittal or coronal 2-D slice images, as preferred. It is also to be appreciated that the system of the present invention could be configured to generate and utilize oblique 2-D slice image date in place of the axial, sagittal and coronal slice image data described above. In a further aspect of the present invention, it is possible to display a specific 2-D slice image in a window opened on display 60 , place a marker into that specific 2-D slice image using a mouse or other input device 55 , and then have that marker automatically incorporated into both (i) the 3-D computer model contained in first section 35 of data storage device or medium 30 , and (ii) any appropriate 2-D slice image data contained in second section 40 of data storage device or medium 30 . As a result, when images are thereafter generated from the 3-D computer model contained in first section 35 of data storage device or medium 30 and/or from the 2-D slice image data contained in second section 40 of data storage device or medium 30 , these subsequent images will automatically display the marker where appropriate. See, for example, FIG. 14, which shows one such marker 85 displayed in its appropriate location in each of the three displayed 2-D slice images, i.e., in axial slice image 90 , sagittal slice image 95 , and coronal slice image 100 . It is to be appreciated that it is also possible for a marker 85 to be displayed in an image generated from the 3-D computer model contained in first section 35 of data storage device or medium 30 ; see, for example, FIG. 15, which shows such a marker 85 . In yet another aspect of the present invention, it is possible to generate a “margin” of some predetermined size around such a marker. Thus, for example, in FIG. 15, a margin 105 has been placed around marker 85 . In this respect it is to be appreciated that margin 105 will appear as a 3-dimensional spherical shape around marker 85 , just as marker 85 appears as a 3-dimensional shape, since the view of FIG. 15 is generated from the 3-D computer model contained in first section 35 of data storage device or medium 30 . Alternatively, where marker 85 and margin 105 are displayed in the context of 2-D slice images, the marker and margin will appear as simple circles. Margin 105 can be used by a surgeon to determine certain spatial relationships in the context of the anatomical structure being displayed on the computer. It is also to be appreciated that, inasmuch as the 3-D computer model contained in first section 35 of data storage device or medium 30 constitutes a plurality of software objects defined by polygonal surface models, it is possible to identify the periphery of any such objects in any corresponding 2-D slice image data contained in second section 40 of data storage device or medium 30 . As a result, it is possible to highlight the periphery of any such object in any 2-D slice images displayed on display 60 . Thus, for example, in FIG. 16, a boundary 110 is shown outlining the periphery of an object 115 displayed in a 2-D slice image. Furthermore, while in the foregoing description the present invention has been described in the context of an anatomical visualization system, it is also to be appreciated that the system could be used in conjunction with inanimate objects, e.g., the system could be used to visualize substantially any object for which a 3-D computer model and a collection of 2-D slice image data can be assembled. It is also anticipated that one might replace the polygonal surface model discussed above with some other type of surface model. Thus, as used herein, the term “surface model” is intended to include polygonal surface models, parametric surface models, such as B-spline surface models, quadralateral meshes, etc. In yet another form of the present invention, the visualization system may incorporate means for determining patient-specific anatomical dimensions using appropriate scanned 2-D image data. For purposes of illustration but not limitation, this aspect of the present invention will be discussed in the context of measuring a patient's vascular structure in the region of the aortic/iliac branching. By way of further example, such measurement might be conducted in the course of repairing an aortic aneurysm through installation of a vascular prosthesis. More particularly, using the aforementioned scanning device 5 , a set of 2-D slice images is first generated, where each 2-D slice image corresponds to a specific viewing plane or “slice” taken through the patient's body. As noted above, on these 2-D slice images, different types of tissue are represented by different image intensities. By way of example, FIG. 17 illustrates a 2-D slice image 200 taken through the abdomen of a patient, at a location above the aortic/iliac branching; FIG. 18 illustrates a 2-D slice image 202 taken through the abdomen of the same patient, at a location below the aortic/iliac branching. In these images, vascular tissue might be shown at 205 , bone at 207 , other tissue at 210 , etc. An appropriate set of these 2-D slice images is assembled into a 3-D database so as to provide a volumetric data set corresponding to the anatomical structure of the patient. Referring back to the system illustrated in FIG. 6, the set of 2-D slice images making up this 3-D database might be stored in second section 40 of data storage device or medium 30 . Next, using the appropriately programmed computer 50 , the patient-specific volumetric data set (formed out of the collective 2-D slice images contained in the 3-D database) is segmented so as to highlight the anatomical structure of interest. This is preferably effected as follows. On the computer's display 60 , the user is presented with 2-D slice images from the 3-D database, which images are preferably stored in second section 40 of data storage device or medium 30 . As noted above, each of these 2-D images corresponds to a specific viewing plane or “slice” taken through the patient's body; or, stated slightly differently, each of these 2-D images essentially represents a plane cutting through the patient-specific volumetric data set contained in the 3-D database. As also discussed above, with each of these 2-D slice images, the different types of tissue will in general be represented by different image intensities. Using one or more of the input devices 55 , e.g., a mouse, the user selects a particular 2-D slice image for viewing on display 60 , e.g., “slice image #155”. The user then uses one or more of the input devices 55 to select one or more points located within the anatomical structure of interest. For convenience, such user-selected points can be referred to as “seeds”. See, for example, FIG. 17, where a seed point 215 has been selected within the interior of vascular tissue 205 so as to identify blood. The user also uses one or more of the input devices 55 to specify a range of image intensities that appear to correspond to the anatomical structure of interest in the volumetric data set, e.g., blood within the interior of a blood vessel. In accordance with the present invention, the appropriately programmed computer 50 then applies a segmentation algorithm of the sort well known in the art to segment out related structure within the patient-specific 3-D database. Preferably computer 50 is programmed to apply a 3-D connected component search through the volumetric data set contained in second section 40 of data storage device or medium 30 so as to determine the set of volumetric samples that are (i) within the range specified for blood, and which (ii) can be connected along a connected path back to one of the seeds where each of the locations along the path is also within the range specified for blood. The result of this 3-D connected component search is a set of 3-D locations in the volumetric data set which correspond to blood flowing through the blood vessel. For the purposes of the present illustration, this set of 3-D locations can be characterized as the “blood region”. The segmented anatomical structure (i.e., the blood in the blood region) can then be highlighted on each of the 2-D slice images. See, for example, FIGS. 17A and 18A, where the segmented blood region in vascular tissue 205 has been cross-hatched to represent such highlighting. Next, the branches in the segmented anatomical structure are identified. For example, and looking now at FIG. 19, in the present illustration dealing with vascular structure in the region of the aortic/iliac branching, the aortic and two iliac branches would be separately identified. This is done in the following manner. For each of the vessel segments that are part of the branching structure of interest, the user specifies a branch line in the volumetric data set that uniquely indicates that vessel segment. This is accomplished by using one or more of the input devices 55 to select, for each branch line, an appropriate “start” location on one of the 2-D slice images contained within second section 40 of data storage device or medium 30 , and an appropriate “end” location on another one of the 2-D slice images contained within second section 40 of data storage device or medium 30 . It should be appreciated that these branch lines do not need to cover the entire length of interest of the vessel and, in practice, will tend to stop somewhat short of the junction where various branches converge with one another. At the same time, however, for improved accuracy of modeling the branching structure, the branch lines should extend close to the branching point. For each of the vessel branches, the start and end locations are used to subdivide the blood region as follows: the region for that vessel branch is the set of locations within the blood region that are between the start plane and the end plane, where the start plane for each vessel branch is the 2-D image plane passing through the start location for the corresponding branch line, and the end plane for each vessel branch is the 2-D image plane passing through the end location for each vessel branch. Although the invention could be used for a more complex branching structure through obvious extensions, it is useful to consider a vessel branch structure consisting of just three vessel segments coming together at a branch point, e.g., a vessel branch structure such as the aortic/iliac branching shown in FIG. 19 . In this case, the user would designate one vessel region as the root region (e.g., the aortic region 220 defined by a branch line 225 having a start location 230 contained in a start plane 235 , and an end location 240 contained in an end plane 245 ) and the other vessel regions as branch region A (e.g., the iliac region 250 defined by a branch line 255 having a start location 260 contained in a start plane 265 , and an end location 270 contained in an end plane 275 ), and branch region B (e.g., the iliac region 280 defined by a branch line 285 having a start location 290 contained in a start plane 295 , and an end location 300 contained in an end plane 305 ), respectively. For each of the vessel regions determined in the previous step, a centroid path is then calculated. This is accomplished in the following manner. First, at intervals along the vessel line corresponding to the volumetric location of each of the original 2-D slice images contained in second section 40 of data storage device or medium 30 , the centroid of the vessel region in that particular 2-D slice image is calculated. This is done by averaging the image coordinates of all locations in that 2-D slice image that are within the vessel region so as to yield a centroid point. See, for example, FIG. 20, which schematically illustrates the manner of calculation of the centroid 310 for a representative vessel region 312 in a representative 2-D image slice 315 . The centroid path for each vessel region is then established by the collective set of centroid points located along that vessel segment in three-dimensional space. The tortuous path corresponding to the root region is called the root centroid path and the tortuous paths corresponding to branch regions A and B are called branch centroid path A and branch centroid path B, respectively. See, for example, FIG. 21, which shows a plurality of centroids 320 , a root centroid path generally indicated at 325 , a branch centroid path A generally indicated at 330 , and a branch centroid path B generally indicated at 335 , all shown in the context of a vessel branch structure such as the aortic/iliac branching example discussed above. It is to be appreciated that no centroids will be defined in the “unknown” region 336 bounded by the end plane 245 and the start plane 265 , and the “unknown” region 337 bounded by the end plane 245 and the start plane 295 . The system then applies a curve-fitting algorithm to the tortuous centroid paths determined above so as to supply estimated data for any portions of the anatomical structure which may lie between the aforementioned branch lines, and for “smoothing out” any noise that may occur in the system. This is preferably done through a spline fitting algorithm effected in the following manner. First, two new paths are created, by concatenating the points in the root centroid path 325 with the points in each of the two branch centroid paths 330 and 335 , so as to create a path root A and path root B. These two new paths are then used as the input to a B-spline fitting routine which selects the coefficients for a piecewise polynomial space curve that best approximates the points along the path in a least-squares sense. The number of pieces of the approximation and the order of polynomial may be varied by the user. The resulting curves may be called spline root A and spline root B. See, for example, FIG. 22, which illustrates the spline root B, generally indicated at 340 . Through numerical integration, the distance along the two splines (i.e., spline root A and spline root B) can then be calculated using standard, well-known techniques and the result can be presented to the user. These calculations can be used for a variety of purposes, e.g., to help determine the appropriate size of a vascular prosthesis to be used in repairing an aneurysm at the aortic/iliac junction. In addition, using well established mathematical techniques, at any point along the spline paths, a tangent vector and a perpendicular plane can be readily determined either by direct calculation or by definition in those cases where direct calculation would be undefined. By calculating the distance from the spline path to the points in the vessel branch region that are within an epsilon distance of the perpendicular plane, the shape of the vessel at that point can be determined, and the radius of a circle that best fits the cross-sectional area of the vessel at that point can also be readily calculated. Again, this result can be used to help determine that desired graft shape. FIG. 23 is a flow chart illustrating how patient-specific anatomical dimensions can be determined from scanned 2-D data in accordance with the present invention. It is also to be understood that the present invention is by no means limited to the particular construction herein disclosed and/or shown in the drawings, but also comprises any modifications or equivalents within the scope of the claims.

The present invention provides an anatomical visualization system comprising a first database that comprises a plurality of 2-D slice images generated by scanning a structure. The 2-D slice images are stored in a first data format. A second database is also provided that comprises a 3-D computer model of the scanned structure. The 3-D computer model comprises a first software object that is defined by a 3-D geometry database. Apparatus are provided for inserting a second software object into the 3-D computer model so as to augment the 3-D computer model. The second software object is also defined by a 3-D geometry database, and includes a planar surface. Apparatus for determining the specific 2-D slice image associated with the position of the planar surface of the second software object within the augmented 3-D computer model are provided in a preferred embodiment of the invention. Also provided are apparatus for texture mapping the specific 2-D slice image onto the planar surface of the second software object. Display apparatus are provided for displaying an image of the augmented 3-D computer model so as to simultaneously provide a view of the first software object and the specific 2-D slice image texture mapped onto the planar surface of the second software object. In another form of the present invention, apparatus and method are provided for determining patient-specific anatomical dimensions using appropriate scanned 2-D slice image information. The apparatus and method are particularly well suited for determining patient-specific anatomical dimensions with respect to branching anatomical structures, e.g., vascular structures.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to a process for the dry distillation of rubber blocks, obtained from used tires, rubber scrap and the like which are industrial waste materials, in a heating oven such as a fluidized bed-forming oven. More particularly it relates to a process for dry distilling such rubber blocks by heating the blocks for the pulverization thereof and then heating the pulverized blocks for the pyrolysis thereof in such a heating oven or by heating the blocks for the substantially simultaneous pulverization and pyrolysis thereof in the heating oven. With the recent remarkable progress of industry and economy, the amount of rubber articles demanded has rapidly increased with the result that large quantities of used rubber articles and rubber scrap accompanied with the preparation of rubber articles have been produced as industrial waste or refuse. Thus, various studies have been made in an attempt to find new uses of such large quantities of rubber waste in addition to conventional uses thereof. The primary object of this invention is to provide a new process for dry distilling the rubber waste to convert the same to oily materials and residues which are both useful materials, in contrast to conventional processes for disposing of such rubber waste by burning. This object is achieved by mixing a powdery or granular thermal medium with the rubber waste in block form such as used tires, rubber scrap, synthetic rubber rejects from synthetic rubber processing steps, and the like which should be rejected; heating the resulting mixture to 250°-400° C. under agitation to make the rubber blocks brittle and to pulverize them and further heating the thus-obtained rubber powder to 400°-500° C. while floating and flowing the powder in a stream of air or any other oxygen-containing gas, that is, forming a fluidized bed of the powder, to thermally decompose the powder into oily and solid components which are then separately recovered with a high yield. The aforementioned object is also achieved by heating the rubber blocks to 350°-800° C. under agitation while producing carbon powder as a dry distillation residue that serves as a powdery thermal medium to pulverize the rubber blocks into rubber powder and substantially simultaneously pyrolyze the powder while floating and fluidizing the powder in an oxygen-containing gas stream and burning part of the powder to supply the necessary heat to the system, thereby obtaining oily materials and solid residues (carbonized materials). In pulverizing blocks of used rubber, a mechanical pulverizing method has heretofore been employed. To practice the method, however, requires a very secure apparatus, and the apparatus needs the removal of metallic scrap, such as iron scraps, possibly present in the rubber blocks before the apparatus is used. Such apparatuses are very noisy during their operation and they are also disadvantageous in that they cannot pulverize all of the rubber varying from hard vulcanized rubber such as tires to very soft unvulcanized ones. In contrast, according to this invention, the rubber blocks are pulverized by chemical and physical actions caused therein by heating, and the blocks so pulverized is pyrolyzed subsequent to, or substantially simultaneously with, the pulverization under approximately the same operational conditions as the pulverization, thereby allowing said two treatments to be effected substantially one after another or substantially simultaneously with each other in the same apparatus. When the rubber blocks are heated to high temperatures, (1) the molecules in the outer layer of the rubber blocks are cross-linked with each other through the double bonds present in the blocks or radicals produced by the severance of the molecules, the liberation of the side chain groups, or the like. When such crosslinking proceeds, the outer layer of the rubber blocks will be in a suitably hardened state as in thermoset plastics and will, in certain cases, come to crack while the inner layer thereof will be in a molten state. The rubber blocks in such state tend to cause chipping at the partial portions of the outer layer thereof and further cause peeling of the outer layer from the inner layer by applying a relatively small stress to the blocks. Thus, when the rubber blocks are in said state under agitation, they will cause gradual peeling of their outer layer therefrom by the force of collision and friction between the rubber blocks themselves, between the blocks and the agitator, and between the blocks and said solid particles. The agitator may stop its rotation for several seconds due to a heavy load just after the charge of the rubber blocks, after which it restarts its rotation. In addition to such phenomena as mentioned above, (2) the rubber blocks in said state not only melt but also cause decomposition and polymerization of the molecules in the melted inner layer thereof to produce therein gaseous low-molecular compounds (hereinafter sometimes referred to simply as "volatile components") having a gas pressure by which the blocks are ruptured and disintegrated, the rupture and disintegration starting at the inner layer. At this time the outer layer is finely divided or separated from the inner layer in such a manner that it flies off in pieces. The rubber blocks are thus pulverized. In the outer layer of the rubber blocks when initially exposed to high temperatures and the inner layer exposed after the peeling-off of the outer layer as in the case (1) mentioned above and in the inner layer exposed after the disintegration of the blocks or the peeling-off of the outer layer as shown in the case (2), the rubber portions of the blocks are melted and viscous and they therefore adhere to each other or to the apparatus in which the blocks are treated. Such adhesion of the rubber portions when heated, can be prevented by mixing them with, for example, gravel, glass baloons, i.e., hollow glass globules, rubble, powdered carbon, powdered iron, carbonized rubber or carbonized synthetic resins, coke, magnetite, terra alba or any other solid particles capable of preventing the melt adhesion of rubber when heated (these solid particles being hereinafter sometimes referred to simply as "melt adhesion-preventing solid particles"). It is a matter of course that these particles may also serve as thermal media. As is clear from the above description of the pulverization of the rubber blocks, the expression used herein that "the rubber blocks are made brittle according to this invention" is intended to mean that the rubber blocks are made brittle by heat treatment to the extent that they can be pulverized as indicated in the cases (1) and (2). According to this invention, as previously mentioned, in obtaining the powdered rubber easily from the rubber blocks, advantage is taken not only of the chemical actions such as the inter-molecular crosslinking reaction of the rubber blocks as well as the decomposition and polymerization thereof but also of the physical actions such as the friction and shock produced by the relatively small stress as well as the gas pressure exerted by the volatile components produced by the decomposition and polymerization of the rubber blocks. The ovens which may be used in the pulverization of the rubber blocks according to this invention include fixed bed-forming ovens, fluidized bed-forming ovens and any other suitable ovens, and the agitating devices which may be used herein include vane-type stirrers, gas stream-agitating devices and any other suitable devices. For this agitation purpose, rotary ovens may also be used. It would be possible for those skilled in the art to select a suitable one of said ovens or devices depending on the purpose for which it is used. The powdered rubber obtained may be recovered by filtration, separation based on difference in specific gravity, or the like. In the step of pulverizing the rubber blocks according to this invention, they are usually heated to temperature in the range of 300°-390° C. These temperatures vary depending on such factors as the kind and properties of rubber blocks used and the desired particle size of powdered rubber to be obtained; however, a suitable temperature to be used may easily be selected from those in said range by making preliminary tests for determining the suitable temperature. For example, a temperature of 250° C. is a satisfactory one at which the powdered rubber can be obtained in cases where an oxygen-rich gas is used in the system. However, there should be avoided the use of high temperatures at which the powdered rubber is violently pyrolyzed. The particle size of powdered rubber to be obtained may be controlled or adjusted by the selection of pulverizing conditions such as heating temperature, heating time, agitation stress, the kind, size and amount of melt adhesion-preventing solid particles and the amount of gas introduced to a fluidized bed-forming oven which is the most preferable one for pulverization of the rubber blocks. In addition, the volatile components produced by heating the rubber blocks as previously mentioned are combustible and they can be used as an effective heat source by burning them. The combustion gas produced by said burning may be employed as gaseous streams in the dry distillation, that is, pulverization and pyrolysis in the fluidized bed-forming oven according to this invention. The rubber powder so produced is subjected to main dry distillation while causing it to be floated and fluidized in the oven. There have heretofore been proposed several methods for pyrolyzing rubber material such as used tires, and these methods are each a pyrolyzing method using a closed, fixed bed-forming oven. The practice of these methods will raise such problems that rubber material is difficult to feed continuously, the temperature of the rubber material is difficult to adjust because of a temperature gradient being produced between the inner and outer portions of the rubber material, and the time for the decomposition reaction is long. On the other hand, the employment of a method for oxidation fluidized bed dry distillation (that is, fluidized bed dry distillation in the stream of an oxygen-containing gas) according to this invention, will be advantageous in that rubber material is allowed to be continuously fed, a fluidized bed is formed of rubber powder having a particle size of not larger than 5 mm, a temperature control is very easy since the rubber powder is mixed with a thermal medium, and a decomposition reaction is completed in a very short time since the fluidized bed formed by the oxygen-containing gas is partially burnt thereby to give heat to the system. In the fluidized bed pyrolysis according to this invention, the temperature control is important since it has an effect on the yield of oily components and carbonized components which are products obtained by the pyrolysis. The rubber material when heated, will decompose with some exothermic heat evolved therefrom, and the temperature control of the system can be made easy by controlling the amount of the exothermic heat evolved. More particularly, the temperature in the oven may be controlled or adjusted very precisely, for instance, by controlling the amount of rubber material fed while selectively using air only or an inert gas-diluted air, that is, adjusting the content of oxygen thereof introduced to form the fluidized bed. The process of this invention is economically advantageous in that it needs enough externally supplied heat to commence the decomposing reaction, after which it can maintain the decomposing reaction without such externally supplied heat since the heat necessary for said reaction is obtained by the combustion of part of the rubber material fed. The inside of the oven for fluidized bed pyrolysis is kept at temperatures of, preferably, 400°-500° C. In the practice of the process of this invention, it is important to adjust the temperature for dry distilling the pulverized rubber to a certain fixed temperature within the range of from 400° to 500° C. in order to recover oily materials, particularly dipentenes, in a high yield. The fluidized bed pyrolyzing oven which may be used in the practice of this invention is preferably provided with an agitator depending upon the shape of rubber material used. Such an agitator-provided oven is preferably used particularly when rubber powder produced is relatively large in particle size or is partially not uniform in particle size. In practicing fluidized bed pyrolysis, the thermal media are not necessarily needed in cases where the rubber particles produced are in the finely divided form or are uniform in shape or particle size. Particularly when tire scrap is used as the starting material in the process of this invention, the carbon black incorporated in the scrap will be liberated therefrom and thereby function as a very suitable thermal medium for the fluidized bed. Carbon particles produced by the carbonization of the rubber material also function as a thermal medium. If thermal media are needed in the pyrolyzing step, they may be the same as used in the step of pulverizing the rubber blocks. When the rubber material is continuously fed to the fluidized bed-forming oven which is continuously operated, solid carbonized materials from the rubber materials will be accumulated as the pyrolysis and carbonization thereof proceed in the oven. Thus the carbonized materials so produced are allowed to overflow through an overflow pipe leading from the middle part of the oven, for their separation from the system. Even in cases where the thermal medium is used as mentioned above, a small amount of the thermal medium for the fluidized bed needs to be supplied from an external source of the thermal medium only at the beginning of operation of the oven, after which the system is self-supplied with such thermal medium produced as a by-product by the pyrolysis of the rubber material fed. From the view-point of effective use of solid carbonized materials produced by pyrolyzing rubber material, it is desirable that residual carbonized materials, carbon black and/or the like previously obtained pyrolysis be employed as such thermal medium being initially used as mentioned above. The oxygen-containing gases which may be used in the fluidized bed-forming oven are not particularly limited, and include air and the mixtures thereof with an inert gas such as nitrogen, steam or carbonic acid gas or with a combustion gas. These gases may also be utilized as a heat source. The rubber materials which may be used herein are not particularly limited, and examples thereof are the vulcanizates and unvulcanizates of natural rubber and various synthetic rubbers. In one aspect of this invention, in a single fluidized bed type heating oven, the rubber blocks are mixed with the melt adhesion-preventing solid particles, subjected to pulverization at 250°-400° C. to produce therefrom rubber powder sufficiently fine to form a fluidized bed thereof and then raised in temperature at 400°-500° C. while being kept in the form of fluidized bed, thereby to effect the thermal oxidation and pyrolysis of the rubber powder in the bed. In this case, the process of this invention comprises two steps of pulverization and pyrolysis, which steps are alternately repeated in the single oven. If there is used a two-oven system comprising an oven for the pulverization and an oven for the pyrolysis connected to each other in series, the two steps may be effected continuously. In this two-oven system, rubber powder approximately uniform in particle size produced in the pulverizing oven may be passed or supplied to the pyrolyzing oven either at the bottom thereof through a screw conveyor or at the top thereof through a hopper or the like. The method of supply in this case is determined depending on the kind and shape of rubber supplied. It is to be understood that in the step of pulverization the pulverization of rubber blocks is principally effected while the pyrolysis thereof is simultaneously accessorily effected, and that in the step of pyrolysis the pyrolysis, of the rubber blocks so pulverized is principally effected while slightly additional pulverization is simultaneously accessorily affected. Thus it is to be also understood that the dry distillation of the rubber material is effected slightly in the step of pulverization and vigorously in the step of pyrolysis. The oily materials obtained by the dry distillation of the rubber blocks are passed from the oven at the top thereof to a cooler through a cyclone. Since the oven according to this invention is capable of forming a fluidized bed therein and adjusting the temperature of the bed precisely by controllably varying the amount of rubber powder burnt, it is possible according to the process of this invention to produce oily materials in a substantially constant composition in an increased yield. Since the oily materials greatly depend for their yield on the cooling efficiency of a cooling device used, the device should be such that the oily materials are recovered in a high yield. For example, the oily materials are passed through an oil layer to effect a heat exchange therebetween thereby increasing the yield of the former. More particularly, the oily materials in a gaseous state is firstly cooled by the air into a condensate which is further cooled by water and then passed through the oil layer thereby completing the cooling thereof. In the above-mentioned manner, the oily materials and the solid carbonized materials can be recovered in a total yield of about 95% based on the weight of the powdered rubber used. The remaining approximately 5%, which comprises mainly lower hydrocarbons such as methane and ethane, is dissipated or lost; if collected, however, it can be used as a gaseous fuel. The oily materials and the carbonized materials are recovered in a total yield of about 90% based on the weight of the rubber blocks used. In another aspect of this invention, in a single fluidized bed-forming oven provided with an agitator, used rubber materials such as used tires, are heated to 350°-800° C., preferably 400°-600° C., under agitation while producing carbon particles as a dry distillation residue by dry distilling said rubber materials, the carbon particles serving as a powdery thermal medium, to pulverize the rubber material and substantially simultaneously pyrolyze the thus-obtained rubber powder while forming a fluidized bed thereof in the stream of an oxygen-containing gas and burning part of the rubber materials. If the used rubber materials are exposed to temperatures such as 350°-450° C., they will be pulverized by collision and friction caused between the rubber materials and the vanes of the agitator, between the rubber materials themselves and between the rubber materials and the carbon particles as the dry distillation residue, thereby enabling the rubber materials to be dry distilled while being fluidized irrespective of their initial shape. This can be confirmed by a hammer test as follows. A glass cylinder is charged with some amount of sand and heated air is introduced thereinto at the lower end thereof in order to form a fluidized bed of the sand. In the thus-formed fluidized bed kept at 350°-450° C., wire-supported tire scraps are inserted for 10-60 minutes, after which the scraps are withdrawn from the cylinder and subjected to the hammer test with the result that the scraps are pulverized extremely easily by hammering slightly. In this aspect of this invention, the carbon produced as a by-product by dry distilling and decomposing the rubber materials as the feed in the system is used as the melt adhesion-preventing agent and, therefore, no such agent is required to be added to the system from outside the system. The preventing agent, however, may of course be incorporated with a thermal medium such as sand for use as such. When the process is continued for a long time such carbon will be accumulated in the oven; however, an excess thereof may overflow outside the system through an overflow pipe as previously mentioned. In view of the fact that the slices of unvulcanized rubber when dry distilled, will not form a fluidized bed thereof even under agitation without the use of melt adhesion-preventing agent such as sand, the above embodiment of this invention will be understood to be useful even in the treatment of such unvulcanized rubber. Also in this embodiment, the burning of the part of the fluidized bed serves to allow the decomposing or pyrolyzing reaction to proceed very rapidly, facilitates the control of temperature of the bed and enhances the yield of the oily decomposition products. For example, when dry distilling used rubber tires at 450° C. they will give oily products in a yield of not less than about 50% by weight thereof. The decomposition products vary in composition with the decomposing temperature used. The decomposition products obtained by the dry distillation at 450° C., when fractionally distilled, will be found to contain fractions of 150°-190° C. and 360°-479° C. in large amounts, that is, 70-80% by weight of the total of the oily products obtained. It is to be also noted that the oily products obtained are relatively uniform in composition. In contrast, the use of heated nitrogen or other inert gases supplied from outside the system as a heat source will make it difficult to secure a uniform temperature distribution in the fluidized bed and will result in a decreased yield and non-uniform composition of the oily products. The amount of heat obtained by burning part of the bed can be controlled and the temperature within the oven can therefore be precisely controlled by adjusting the amount of the used rubber tires fed while adjusting the amount of oxygen supplied by using air or an inert gas-diluted air as the gas for the formation of the fluidized bed. It is very advantageous from an economical point of view that the process requires the necessary heat from outside the system only at the initial stage of operation thereof and, after the start of decomposing reaction, it is self-supplied with the necessary heat by burning a portion of the rubber tire feed sufficient to supply said necessary heat to the system. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a diagrammatic view illustrating the pulverization of used rubber material in the presence of externally supplied solid particles in a fluidized bed-forming oven according to this invention, FIG. 2 is a diagrammatic view illustrating the main dry distillation (pyrolysis) of the used rubber material in a fluidized bed-forming oven connected in series to the oven of FIG. 1, and FIG. 3 is a diagrammatic view illustrating a dry distillation including substantially simultaneous pulverization and pyrolysis of used rubber material in the presence of carbon particles produced therefrom in a fluidized bed-forming oven according to this invention. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Referring now to FIG. 1, a fluidized bed-forming oven 1 for pulverization, provided with a perforated tray 3 at the lower part thereof, an agitator 16 and a suitable heating means, is charged with used rubber 6 in block form and melt adhesion-preventing solid particles 7. A fluidizing gas 5 heated by a preheating oven 4 is introduced thereinto at the lower part thereof thereby agitating a mixture of said rubber blocks 6 and solid particles 7 to pulverize the rubber blocks 6. The rubber particles 8 so obtained are allowed to form a fluidized bed 10 thereof above a layer 9 of non-pulverized rubber blocks by adjusting the amount of the gas 5 introduced and then are withdrawn into a rubber particle receptacle 11 through an overflow conduit 12 connecting the fluidized bed 10 to the receptacle 11. The numeral 13 indicates the inlet opening of the conduit 12. Even if, in this case, the system comprising the receptacle 11 and conduit 12 is a closed one, the floating rubber particles in the bed 10 are fluidized in the longitudinal, lateral and any other directions with respect to the longitudinal axis of the oven 1, whereby they move through the inlet opening 13 and fall into the receptacle 11. The receptacle 11 may be provided with an outlet opening 14 for discharging gas at a moderate flow rate to facilitate the movement of the rubber particles 8 from the fluidized bed 10 to the receptacle 11 thereby accelerating the recovery of the particles 8. The rubber particles 8 collected in the receptacle 11 are filtered with a suitable sieve 15 to separate therefrom the melt adhesion-preventing solid particles 7 entrained thereby. On the other hand, the whole or the greater part of the fluidizing gas 5 passes through the outlet opening 17 at the top of the oven 1 to a cyclone 18 wherein are collected fine rubber particles entrained by the gas 5. With particular reference to FIG. 2, the rubber particles collected in the receptacle 11 are transferred to a hopper 20 from which they are conveyed to a fluidized bed-forming oven 21 for pyrolysis at a fixed feed rate by a screw feeder 22. Carbonized materials produced simultaneously with the production of gaseous and oily products by the pyrolysis in oven 21 are partially passed, by being entrained by the latter, to a cyclone 23 wherein they are separated. The greater part of the carbonized materials are withdrawn through an overflow conduit 24 communicating with the oven 21, into a receptacle 25 for dry distillation residues. The cyclone 23 is maintained at the same temperature as the oven 21 to prevent the gaseous products obtained by the pyrolysis from condensing therein. The gaseous and oily products are then passed to a cooler 28 where they are cooled by heat exchange to obtain an effective amount of heat therefrom, and the oily products so obtained are then withdrawn through a valve 29. Referring to FIG. 3, the blocks of used rubber tire are fed by a screw feeder 33, from a hopper 32 provided at the lower or upper part of the oven 31 to a fluidized bed-forming oven 31 provided with an agitator 36, a perforated tray 34 at the lower part thereof and a suitable heating device, while air is introduced through a gas inlet opening 35 into the oven 31, thereby to dry distill (pulverize and pyrolyze) the rubber tire blocks while forming a fluidized bed thereof. Carbonized materials produced simultaneously with gaseous and oily products by the dry distillation, are partly entrained by these products and the air introduced as the fluidizing gas passes from an upper outlet opening 39 to a cyclone 40 where the carbonized materials so entrained are separated. The remaining greater part of the carbonized materials is withdrawn via an overflow conduit 37 fitted to the middle part of the oven 31 at its upper open end, into a receptacle 38 for dry distillation residues. The cyclone 40 is maintained at the same temperature as the oven 31 to prevent the gaseous decomposed components from condensing therein. The effluent from the oven 31 is then passed through a cooler 41 and a heat exchanger 42 to recover the effective heat therefrom, and the oily products so obtained are withdrawn from a receptacle at the bottom 43. The numeral 44 indicates an inlet opening for a coolant such as air or water. This invention will be better understood by the following Examples. EXAMPLE 1 There was used an apparatus including fluidized bed-forming heating oven as generally indicated in FIG. 1. This apparatus was constructed and operated as follows. A fluidized bed-forming oven 1 (inner diameter, 15 cm; height, 110 cm) was provided with a perforated tray 3 at the lower part thereof, an overflow conduit 12 fitted to the oven 1 at its upper open end 13 located above the perforated tray by 30 cm and a discharge conduit fitted to the oven 1 at its open end (outlet opening 17). A fluidizing gas 5 was introduced to the oven 1 at the lower part thereof to form a fluidized bed of rubber feed for the pulverization and carbonization thereof. The pulverized and carbonized portions of the rubber feed overflowed through the overflow pipe 12. The oily materials produced by the pulverization and carbonization were passed through a cyclone 18 where the carbonized materials entrained by the oily materials were separated therefrom, to a cooler 26 where they were condensed and recovered. The conduit connecting the oven 1 to the cooler 26 was kept warm to prevent the condensable products from condensing. From a manually rotatable hopper 2 provided at the top of the oven, the rubber material was manually fed to the oven so adjustably that the temperature in the oven was kept constant. Thus, a continuous operation of the apparatus was tried while keeping the temperature within the oven constant by adjusting the feed rate of the rubber material. The perforated tray used has perforations of 2 mm in diameter and a perforation ratio of 1.3%. The fluidizing gas used was air. The oven was provided with an agitator, and the agitator was operated at 20 r.p.m. to effect agitation. The experimental conditions were as indicated below. ______________________________________Gas velocity in oven(Feed rate of fluidizing gas) 10 cm/secThermal medium Sand, 600 g Tire cuts, Natural rubber Size and weight of eachRubber material cut; 70 × 61 × 18 mm, 90.8 g______________________________________ The fluidized bed-forming oven 1 was externally heated to 420° C. and then charged with about 200 g of the rubber material (a first charge). At this time the temperature within the oven was lowered to 360° C. and, after a while, it started to rise and returned back to 420° C. When another 200 g of the rubber material was fed to the oven from the hopper 2 (a second charge) the temperature within the oven was again lowered to 360° C., after which it again started to rise and reached 420° C. Subsequently, such feeding of the rubber material and variation in the temperature within the oven were repeated thereby allowing the pulverization of rubber material and the pyrolysis thereof to proceed alternately in the oven. This is particularized in Table 1. Table 1______________________________________No. ofrepetition Amount ofof pulve- rubber Pulveri-rization material Initial zation Final Pyrolysisand fed temp. time temp. timepyrolysis (g) (° C.) (min.) (° C.) (min.)______________________________________1 200 360 2 420 22 200 360 3 420 23 300 350 3 420 34 200 360 3 420 3______________________________________ The agitator was stopped for a short time whenever the rubber material had been fed and, several seconds later, it was restarted in each case. In such manner as above the feeding of rubber material was repeated 25 times and the pulverization and pyrolysis were likewise repeated accordingly, during which a total of 6 kg of the rubber material were subjected to the treatment as mentioned above. The time required for said treatment was 120 minutes. The carbonized materials so obtained were about 2,100 g and the oily materials thus obtained were approximately 3 kg. The carbonized materials, oily materials and gaseous materials so obtained were respectively in amounts of 35%, 50% and 15% by weight of the rubber material fed. EXAMPLE 2 In this Example, experiments were made using the same apparatus that had been used in Example 1 and using the same fluidizing gas and thermal medium as used in Example 1. Rubber blocks to be fed were prepared by cutting natural rubber-made automobile rubber tires into cubes having a size of 3 cm× 3 cm× 2 cm and an average weight of approximately 18 g. Twelve of the rubber blocks so prepared were fed into the oven from the upper hopper every time feeding was effected. The oven was externally heated to 360° C., a first charge (216 g) of the rubber blocks thereinto was completed and the temperature in the oven reached 420° C. (at this time, the pulverization was completed and the pyrolysis started), soon after which the operation of the apparatus was stopped, the rubber particles present in the oven were withdrawn therefrom and these particles were tested for weight and particle size (mesh). In addition, the oily materials recovered from the cooler 26 and the carbonized materials recovered from the pulverized rubber receptacle 11 were tested for weight, respectively. The results (of Experiment 1) were as indicated below. ______________________________________Mesh -4 4 - 8 8 - 10 10 - 30 30 -Weight % 26 13.8 15.5 56.0 12.1Oily materials recovered: 0 gCarbonized materials recovered: 3 g______________________________________ In another Experiment, when a first charge (210 g) of the rubber blocks fed into the oven was completed, the temperature within the oven was raised from 360° C. to 420° C. and kept at this level for about 2 minutes, and the temperature within the oven began to drop (at this time, the pulverization and pyrolysis of the first charge of the rubber blocks were completed), the operation of the apparatus was stopped, and the pulverized rubber blocks, oily materials and carbonized materials were recovered and tested for their weight in the same manner as above (Experiment 2). The results are indicated in Table 2. In Experiment 3, the same procedure as in Experiment 1 was followed except that the oven was charged twice with the rubber blocks and the temperature within the oven was raised to 420° C. and, at this point, the operation of the apparatus was stopped; in Experiment 4, the procedure of Experiment 3 was followed except that the operation of the apparatus was stopped after the temperature within the oven had been kept at 420° C. for 2 minutes. In Experiment 5, the procedure of Experiment 1 was followed except that the oven was charged four times with the rubber blocks, the temperature within the oven was raised to 420° C. and, at this point, the operation of the apparatus was stopped; in Experiment 6, the procedure of Experiment 5 was followed except that the operation of the apparatus was stopped after the temperature within the oven had been maintained at 420° C. for 2 minutes. In each of Experiments 3 to 6, the pulverized rubber blocks, oily products and carbonized products were recovered and then tested for their weight with the results being shown in Table 2 wherein the results of Experiment 1 are also shown. In these Experiments, the gaseous and volatile materials produced by the dry distillation of the rubber blocks fed, were not tested for their weight. Table 2__________________________________________________________________________ Pulverized rubber and decomposition products Recovery ratio ofExperiment No. Amount of rubber Pulverized Oily Carbonized decomposition(Frequency of blocks charged rubber products products products charge) (g) (g) (g) (g) (%)__________________________________________________________________________1 216 202 0 3 1.4 (1)2 210 0 112 75 90.0 (1)3 432 204 121 80 46.5 (2) (213+219)4 434 3 230 140 85.4 (2) (220+214)5 864 200 360 200 65.0 (4) (209+214+216+215)6 860 10 450 305 87.8 (4) (205+217+215+223)__________________________________________________________________________ The pulverized rubber blocks, that is, rubber particles withdrawn from the oven in Experiment 5 were tested for particle size with the result being shown below. From the result it was found that the rubber blocks charged were pulverized as in Experiment 1. ______________________________________Particle size of the pulverized rubber (Experiment 5)______________________________________Mesh - 4 4 - 18 8 - 10 10 - 30 30 -Wt. % 1.4 7.5 10.3 61.1 18.7______________________________________ EXAMPLE 3 The same fluidized bed-forming oven 1 that had been used in Example 1 was connected via an overflow pipe 12 thereof to a fluidized bed-forming oven 21 having the same construction as the oven 1. The same rubber blocks as used in Example 1 were heated and pulverized in the oven 1, and the rubber particles so obtained were subjected to pyrolysis while forming a fluidized bed thereof. The oily materials produced in the ovens 1 and 21 were cooled in coolers 26 and 28 and withdrawn therefrom, respectively. As in Example 1, feeding of about 200 g of the rubber blocks (prepared by cutting a used, natural rubber-made tire) into the oven was repeated 25 times at an interval of about 2-3 minutes, the total of the feeds amounting to about 5 Kg. The operation of the oven 1 was the same as in Example 1 except that the oven 1 was externally heated to 360° C. ± 3° C. at the initial stage of operation and nitrogen gas was used as the fluidizing gas. The oven 21 was externally heated to 420° C.± 4° C. at the initial stage of operation, after which the temperature of the oven 21 was adjusted by adjusting the amount of air used as the fluidizing gas. One minute after the oven 21 had begun to decrease in temperature after the last feeding of the rubber blocks into the oven 1, the operation of these ovens was stopped. The pulverized rubber, oily and carbonized materials collected or recovered from the predetermined locations as indicated in the following Table 3 were tested for their weight with the results being shown in said Table. Table 3______________________________________ Amount RecoveryPulverized rubber, and Products recovered ratioby dry distillation (g) (%)______________________________________Pulverized rubber (Rubber 0 0particles) left in oven 1Pulverized rubber 0 0left in oven 21Oily materials produced in 250 5oven 1(Recovered from cooler 26)Oily materials produced in 2,240 45oven 21(Recovered from cooler 28)Carbonized materials 1,640 33obtained in oven 21(Recovered from receptacle 25)______________________________________ EXAMPLE 4 In this Example, there was used a dry distilling apparatus comprising a fluidized bed-forming oven 31 wherein pulverization and pyrolysis of runbber material fed were substantially simultaneously effected while producing carbon powder by dry distilling said rubber material, the apparatus being such as shown in FIG. 3. The oven 31 which was 300 mm in inner diameter and 1500 mm in length, was provided with a perforated tray 34 at the lower part thereof, a fluidizing gas inlet opening 35 at the further lower part thereof and an overflow conduit 37 at a part thereof 300 mm above the perforated tray 34, the conduit 37 serving to allow carbonized material produced by dry distillation to overflow therethrough. The oven 31 was provided further with a conduit 39 at the upper part thereof, which conduit served to allow oily materials produced by pyrolysis to pass therethrough together with a fluidizing gas and gases produced by the pyrolysis. The oily materials were passed through a cyclone 40 where carbonized materials entrained thereby were collected, to coolers 41 and 42 wherein they were condensed and recovered. A conduit connecting the oven 31 to the cooler 41 was maintained warm. The oven 31 was provided with an agitator 36. The rubber material to be fed was prepared by cutting large-sized rubber tires into blocks having a size of (30-60) mm× (30-60) mm× (20-30) mm with a crusher having rotary cutting blades. The greater part of the bead wire contained in the rubber tires was separated by magnetic dressing in this crushing step. The rubber blocks were fed through a hopper 32 and screw feeder 33, and the agitator was operated at 10 r.p.m. to facilitate the fluidization of the rubber blocks so fed. The rubber blocks were fed at a feed rate of 40 Kg/hr, totalling 120 Kg. The operational temperature used was 450° C. and this temperature was maintained by adjusting the feed rate of the rubber blocks. The air which was the fluidizing gas in this case, was introduced at a flow rate of 6 cm/sec (at room temperature). The perforated tray used was that which had a perforation size of 2 mm and a perforation ratio of 1.3%. During the operation of the oven, the agitator was stopped for 2-3 seconds at the initial stage of feeding the rubber blocks, after which a fluidized bed of the blocks was formed and the subsequent operation was performed smoothly and stably until the operation was stopped. The oily materials and carbonized materials obtained by the dry distillation of the rubber blocks fed were 62 Kg and 42 Kg, respectively. EXAMPLE 5 Experiments were made to determine the effects of agitation, thermal media (sand), and the properties and shape of rubber material to be subjected to fluidized bed dry distillation, on the formation of a fluidized bed comprising the rubber material and sand. In these experiments, as the rubber feed, there were employed used tires in an amorphous serrate divided form, used tires in a finely divided form or talc-covered unvulcanized rubber materials in a splinter form under the same dry distilling conditions as in Example 4 while setting the agitator in or out of operation and using or dispensing with sand as the thermal medium, in order to observe the thus-formed fluidized beds. Said rubber feeds were prepared as follows. Used tires were crushed by a rotary crusher housing both rotary and fixed cutting blades to obtain amorphous serrate pieces thereof having a size of (200-20) mm× (200-20) mm× (100-30) mm. At this time, the greater part of the bead wire obtained was removed. The rubber pieces so produced were freed of those having a size greater than 70 mm× 70 mm× 4 mm to obtain desired rubber pieces to be fed (these pieces being hereinafter referred to as "roughly divided tire sample"). Separately, used tires were crushed and sieved to obtain rubber particles having a size smaller than 2 mm× 2 mm× 2 mm (these particles being hereinafter referred as "finely divided tire sample"). In addition, unvulcanized SBR rubber was cut into approximately uniform-sized pieces having an average size of 20 mm× 20 mm× 20 mm, which pieces were then covered with talc powder to prevent them from adhering to each other (these pieces being hereinafter referred to as "unvulcanized rubber sample"). The Experiments were respectively made using the three kinds of rubber samples by effecting the dry distillation thereof in the same manner as in Example 4 while starting or stopping the operation of the agitator and using sand as the the thermal medium as indicated in Table 4 in order to visually investigate the state in which a fluidized bed was formed. The operational conditions used were as follows. ______________________________________Temperature in oven 450° C.Fluidizing gas velocity in oven 8 cm/secFluidizing gas AirAgitation 20 r.p.m.Thermal medium Sand, 1 Kg______________________________________ The results obtained from the Experiments are shown in Table 4. Table 4__________________________________________________________________________Experiment No. Rubber feed Agitator Sand State of fluidization__________________________________________________________________________1 Roughly divided Operated Not used Stable fluidized bed was formed, tire sample and continuous operation was possible.2 Finely divided Operated Not used " tire sample3 (Control) Roughly divided Stopped Used Fluidized bed was not formed tire sample even 3 minutes after charge of about 2 Kg of rubber feed. Rubber blocks melt adhered to perforated tray.4 (Control) Finely divided Stopped Not used Fluidized bed was not formed. tire sample Rubber particles were melt adhered to each other to form blocks having non-uniform size.5 (Control) Unvulcanized Operated Not used Rubber feed melt adhered to rubber sample perforated tray thereby forming no fluidized bed.__________________________________________________________________________ From the results mentioned above it is seen that agitation of crushed tire is necessary for a satisfactory pyrolysis of the crushed tire while forming a fluidized bed thereof in a fluidized bed-forming oven, that a fluidized bed of roughly divided rubber material is not formed without agitation even by the use of sand as the melt adhesion-preventing agent when the roughly divided rubber material is used as the rubber feed and that, unlike unvulcanized rubber feed, the use of used tire as the rubber feed permits formation of a fluidized bed of the used tire and a stable continuous operation of the oven. EXAMPLE 6 Following the procedure of Example 4, but using 550° C. as the pyrolyzing temperature and air at flow rate of 6 cm/sec as the fluidizing gas, the apparatus was continuously operated. The temperature in the fluidized bed-forming oven was maintained constant by adjusting the amount of rubber material fed during operation of the agitator at 10 r.p.m., after which the operation of the agitator was stopped. The temperature within the oven was unstable and gradually caused clogging of the perforated tray whereby the continuous operation of the oven could no longer be performed. The variation in temperature during the operation of the oven is indicated in Table 5. Table 5______________________________________Duration of operation Temperature within oven(min.) (° C.)______________________________________Initial 55020 55040 55060 550At this point, the agitator was stopped.65 53070 57575 57080 55090 580100 500110 450The operation of the oven was stopped because ofincrease in pressure at the perforated tray clogged.______________________________________ EXAMPLE 7 The procedure of Example 4 was repeated using varied temperatures, that is, 400° C., 450° C., 500° C. and 550° C. as the pyrolyzing temperature. In each case, air was introduced at a flow rate of 6 cm/sec in the oven at room temperature. The oily materials so obtained in each case were subjected to fractionation, and the results are shown in Table 6. Table 6__________________________________________________________________________Pyrolyzing Fraction (%)temp. Range of boiling point(° C.) D.sub.4.sup.20 - 150° C. 150 - 200° C. 200 - 250° C. 250 -300° C. 300 - 350° C. 350 - 400° C. 400° C.__________________________________________________________________________ -400 0.918 20.1 14.5 9.7 8.4 6.2 10.3 30.3450 0.934 23.5 17.0 10.4 8.6 7.5 10.0 23.1500 0.926 22.8 17.0 10.8 9.1 8.5 11.4 20.6550 0.927 23.3 17.0 12.3 10.0 9.1 9.2 19.0__________________________________________________________________________

A process for the dry distillation of used rubber in a fluidized bed-forming oven comprises heating used rubber under agitation in the presence of solid particles to temperatures sufficient to make the rubber pulverized and further heating the thus-obtained rubber particles to temperatures sufficient to pyrolyze the rubber particles while forming a fluidized bed thereof and burning a part thereof in the stream of an oxygen-containing fluidizing gas.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to filters used in radio communication circuits. More particularly it relates to filters that convert mechanical vibrations into an output signal at frequencies of MHz band or GHz band, where resonators having a size of μm order are used. This micro-mechanical resonator is excited by an input signal having a frequency around the resonance frequency of the resonator, thereby producing the fine mechanical vibrations to be converted by this filter to the output signal. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION A conventional filter is disclosed in IEEE Journal of solid-state circuits, Vol. 35 No. 4, April 2000, issue. FIG. 11 shows a structure of a conventional filter that is formed on substrate 90 . This filter comprises input line 94 , output line 95 , two resonators 91 , 92 of which both ends are fixed to substrate 90 slightly spaced from lines 94 and 95 , having an identical resonance frequency, and coupling beam 93 that couples the two resonators. A signal fed into input line 94 generates electric field responsive to the frequency of the signal and applies electrostatic force to resonator 91 . At this time, when the frequency of the input signal generally agrees with the resonance frequency of resonator 91 , resonator 91 is excited to vibrate, and resonator 92 coupled to resonator 91 with beam 93 also vibrates. As such, only a signal having a frequency generally agreeing with the resonance frequency of resonators 91 , 92 is selectively converted from an electric signal to mechanical vibrations. Then the mechanical signal is converted again to an electric signal between resonator 92 and output line 95 . This is an inverse conversion to the conversion from the electric signal to the mechanical signal done between input line 94 and resonator 92 . The foregoing structure can work as a filter such that among signals fed into the input line, only the signals having a frequency generally agreeing with the resonance frequency of resonator 91 , 92 are allowed to pass through output line 95 . Resonance frequency “f 0 ” of resonator 91 is expressed with the equation below: f 0 = 1 2     π  k m where resonance frequency f 0 is a function of mass “m” of resonator 91 and spring constant “k”. A similar equation is applicable to resonator 92 . Another conventional filter is disclosed in Japanese Patent Application Non-examined Publication No. H05-327393. This filter receives an unprocessed signal at an excitation coil, and oscillatory-wave components, of which frequency generally agrees with the resonance frequency of the resonators, are extracted out of the oscillatory waves of the unprocessed signal. This extraction is carried out by launching light from a fixed scale to a variable scale disposed at an oscillator, and changes of the power of the reflected light is extracted. As a result, this filter allows only the frequency resonant with the oscillator to pass through. In order to work the conventional filters discussed above at frequencies of MHz band or GHz band, the mass of the resonators should be micro-miniaturized, which naturally requires the filter per se to be downsized to a micro-body. For instance, FIG. 12 shows relations between resonance frequencies and lengths of resonators in the case of scaling down resonators 91 , 92 of the conventional filter shown in FIG. 11 . Resonators 91 , 92 are actually 40 μm long and 3 μm wide, and those dimensions are scaled down with the same ratio. In order to use this conventional filter as a device in the mobile communication field where a frequency band ranging of 1 GHz-5 GHz holds great promise to use this kind of filters, the length should be shortened to 0.04 μm from 0.2 μm. The relative distance between input line 94 and output line 95 placed via resonators 91 , 92 is naturally required to be shorter. As a result, in the conventional filter, input line 94 is placed closer to output line 95 , and they make a direct coupling between them, so that the isolation lowers and the filter does not work properly. FIG. 13A shows isolation characteristics of a filter having no direct coupling between an input line and an output line. FIG. 13B shows isolation characteristics of a filter where a coupling of 0.1 μm space between an input signal and an output line is produced. In the case where the frequency is so low that a width between input line 94 and the output line 95 can be prepared wide enough to neglect a coupling between the two lines, the filter can work properly as shown in FIG. 13 A. However, as the available frequency becomes higher, the resonator becomes smaller, and when input line 94 is directly coupled to output line 95 , isolation in the frequencies higher than the resonance frequency greatly lowers as shown in FIG. 13 B. As a result, the filter cannot work properly. On the other hand, in the frequencies lower than the resonance frequency, a capacitance generated between input line 94 and output line 95 resonates with an inductance component of the resonator, thereby sometimes producing unnecessary notches. The filter in which input line 94 is placed close to output line 95 can be downsized to a micro-body process-wise; in fact, a direct coupling between the two lines degrades the filter characteristics, and the filter thus cannot be used in high frequencies such as MHz band or GHz band. A filter used in high frequencies such as MHz band or GHz band includes resonators of micro-body of μm order, so that its oscillators (resonators) are hard to oscillate properly due to the viscosity of air. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention addresses the problems discussed above and aims to provide a filter free from characteristics degradation due to a direct coupling between an input line and an output line in high frequencies such as MHz band or GHz band. Further the filter of the present invention includes a resonator not influenced by the viscosity of air. The filter of the present invention comprises the following elements: a line through which an electric signal is input; a resonator, disposed closely to the line and in vacuum, for resonating by applying electrostatic force of electric field generated responsive to a frequency of the electric signal; and detecting means for detecting mechanical vibrations of the resonator. The detecting means detects mechanical vibrations as a signal in another form than the electric signal. Since the input electric signal is output in another form, this structure does not permit an input electric signal to be directly coupled to an output side. Even if an input side is placed immediately close to an output side because the resonator is downsized to a micro-body in high frequencies such as MHz band or GHz band. Further the resonator works in the vacuum, the resonator of a micro-body is not influenced by the viscosity of air, and micro-mechanical vibrations of the resonator can be converted into an appropriate signal before being detected. The vacuum referred in the present invention includes a true vacuum condition and a substantially vacuum condition not more than 100 pascal. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows a structure of a filter in accordance with a first exemplary embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2A shows a sectional view illustrating what is done in step 1 of processes forming a resonator in accordance with the first exemplary embodiment. FIG. 2B shows a sectional view illustrating what is done in step 2 of processes forming the resonator in accordance with the first exemplary embodiment. FIG. 2C shows a sectional view illustrating what is done in step 3 of processes forming the resonator in accordance with the first exemplary embodiment. FIG. 2D shows a sectional view illustrating what is done in step 4 of processes forming the resonator in accordance with the first exemplary embodiment. FIG. 2E shows a sectional view illustrating what is done in step 5 of processes forming the resonator in accordance with the first exemplary embodiment. FIG. 2J shows a front view illustrating what is done in step 1 of processes forming the resonator in accordance with the first exemplary embodiment. FIG. 2K shows a front view illustrating what is done in step 2 of processes forming the resonator in accordance with the first exemplary embodiment. FIG. 2L shows a front view illustrating what is done in step 3 of processes forming the resonator in accordance with the first exemplary embodiment. FIG. 2M shows a front view illustrating what is done in step 4 of processes forming the resonator in accordance with the first exemplary embodiment. FIG. 2N shows a front view illustrating what is done in step 5 of processes forming the resonator in accordance with the first exemplary embodiment. FIG. 3 shows a sectional view illustrating the resonator in accordance with the first exemplary embodiment housed in an airtight package. FIG. 4 shows a schematic structure of a filter in accordance with a second exemplary embodiment. FIG. 5 shows a schematic structure illustrating a multi-beam is used in a laser source of the filter in accordance with the second embodiment. FIG. 6A shows a top view illustrating a schematic structure of a filter in accordance with a third exemplary embodiment. FIG. 6B shows a sectional view illustrating a schematic structure of the filter in accordance with the third embodiment. FIG. 7A shows a top view illustrating another schematic structure of a filter in accordance with the third embodiment. FIG. 7B shows a sectional view illustrating another schematic structure of a filter in accordance with the third embodiment. FIG. 8A shows a top view illustrating a placement of resonators in accordance with a fourth exemplary embodiment. FIG. 8B shows a sectional view illustrating the placement of the resonators in accordance with the fourth embodiment. FIG. 9A shows a random placement of resonators in accordance with the fourth embodiment. FIG. 9B shows resonators placed like a diffraction grating in accordance with the fourth embodiment. FIG. 10A shows a sectional view illustrating a case where no input signal is available in accordance with a fifth exemplary embodiment. FIG. 10B shows a top view illustrating the case where no input signal is available in accordance with the fifth exemplary embodiment. FIG. 10C shows a sectional view illustrating a case where an input signal is available in accordance with the fifth embodiment. FIG. 10D shows a top view illustrating the case where an input signal is available in accordance with the fifth embodiment. FIG. 11 shows a structure of a conventional filter. FIG. 12 shows relations between sizes of conventional filters and resonance frequencies. FIG. 13A shows isolation characteristics of a conventional filter where a coupling between input and output is negligible. FIG. 13B shows isolation characteristics of a conventional filter where a coupling between input and output is available. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Exemplary embodiments of the present invention are demonstrated hereinafter with reference to the accompanying drawings. The vacuum referred in the embodiments includes true vacuum and a substantially vacuum condition not more than 100 pascal. Exemplary Embodiment 1 FIG. 1 shows a schematic structure of a filter in accordance with the first exemplary embodiment of the present invention. The filter of the present invention includes input line 2 , disposed on substrate 1 , for receiving an electric signal, and resonator 3 equipped with dielectric layer 7 closely above input line 2 . The atmospheric pressure is kept at vacuum or substantially vacuum condition not more than 100 pascal using a decompression package which is omitted in FIG. 1 . The structure including a decompression package will be described later. Laser source 4 launches a beam of light onto the surface of resonator 3 via half mirror 10 , and photo detector 5 receives detected light 14 from the surface of resonator 3 via half-mirror 12 . Half mirror 10 splits the light beam from laser source 4 and permits some of the light beam as reference light 13 to travel to light detector 5 via mirror 11 and half mirror 12 . DC control unit 15 controls a direct potential between resonator 3 and input line 2 via inductor 17 , thereby changing the resonance frequency of resonator 3 . Mechanical vibration detector 19 is formed of laser source 4 , half mirrors 10 , 12 , mirror 11 and photo detector 5 . An electric signal fed into input line 2 includes a desirable signal and other unnecessary signals. When the electric signal fed into input line 2 substantially agrees with the resonance frequency of resonator 3 , resonator 3 is excited to vibrate. The vibration of resonator 3 is detected by, e.g., an interference measuring method based on a laser heterodyne system using laser beam. To be more specific, a laser beam launched from laser source 4 is split into two, and one beam strikes resonator 3 , and the other strikes half mirror 12 via mirror 11 as reference light 13 . Detected light 14 reflected from resonator 3 interferes with reference light 13 at half mirror 12 , and the interfered light is received at light detector 5 . A vibration of resonator 3 changes an optical path length of detected light 14 , so that an optical path difference between detected light 14 and reference light 14 changes. When respective optical path lengths are equal to each other or the optical path difference is an integral multiple of the wavelength, the amplitude of the interfered light becomes the maximum. When the optical path length equals to an odd multiple of the half wavelength, both the lights cancel with each other, so that the amplitude of the interfered light becomes the minimum. Then measurement of intensity of the signal received at photo detector 5 allows measuring a change of the optical path difference, namely, the vibrations of resonator 3 . DC control unit 15 applies a direct potential between resonator 3 and input line 2 , then electrostatic force works between resonator 3 and line 2 , thereby bowing resonator 3 , and this bowing changes spring constant k of resonator 3 . Thus the resonance frequency f 0 changes as per the equation shown in the prior art. Therefore, control unit 15 regulates the direct potential applied, so that a center frequency of a pass-band is regulated. A filter (not shown) formed by arranging plural resonators in parallel, having identical resonance frequency f 0 , can increase a coupling area between an input line and a resonator, thereby reinforcing the coupling strength, and on top of that, changing an input impedance of the input line. Next, steps of manufacturing resonator 3 are demonstrated with reference to FIGS. 2A-2E (sectional views) and 2 J- 2 N (top views). Step 1: Deposit nitride layer 22 on high-resistive Si substrate 21 with a thickness of 200 nm by a decompression chemical vapor deposition (CVD) method. Step 2: Deposit aluminum on the entire face of silicon nitride layer 22 with a thickness of 1 μm by sputtering. Carry out patterning with photo resist such that the resist remains in the area where input line 2 is formed. Carry out aluminum dry etching with the photo resist as a mask, thereby forming input line 2 . Step 3: Deposit silicon oxide layer 24 as a sacrificial layer by a decompression CVD method. The thickness of the sacrificial layer formed on input line 2 is later to be a gap between input line 2 and resonator 3 , thus deposit the silicon oxide layer 24 up to a desirable thickness on input line 2 . For instance, deposit the silicon oxide layer 24 by 100 nm, then mask a given area with the photo resist, and carry out etching on unnecessary area using a reactive ion etching method (RIE) for forming silicon oxide layer 24 only on the given area. Step 4: Deposit poly-silicon by the decompression CVD method, and carry out etching on unnecessary area for leaving a given area, where resonator 3 is to be formed, using a reactive ion etching method (RIE). Step 5: Finally, carry out wet-etching for removing silicon oxide layer 24 , so that resonator 3 becomes hollow. In this first embodiment high-resistive Si substrate 21 is used; however, this does not limit the present invention, and an ordinary Si substrate, a compound semiconductor substrate, or a substrate made of insulating material can be used. In this embodiment input line 2 made from aluminum is used; however, the input line can be made from other metals such as Mo, Ti, Au, Cu, or semiconductor materials such as amorphous silicon that includes impurity at a high density, or conductive high-polymer materials. In this embodiment a sputtering method is used for forming a layer; however, a CVD method, or a plating method can be used instead. A surface of resonator 3 can coated with Au or Al having a high reflectance in order to increase reflection efficiency of light. In this embodiment, interfered light is used for measuring a position of resonator 3 ; however, any method that can measure the vibration of the resonator can be used. For instance, place an electrode close to a resonator, and apply a voltage between the electrode and the resonator, then a tunnel current runs responsive to a gap therebetween. A method of measuring this tunnel current can be used. An interatomic microscope, which observes peaks and valleys on a surface, uses interatomic force. This interatomic force or intermolecular force can be used for measuring the vibration of the resonator. Resonator 3 in accordance with the first embodiment works properly in high frequencies such as MHz band or GHz band. For this purpose, resonator 3 is downsized to a micro-body. In order to avoid degradation of factor Q due to viscosity of air, resonator 3 is used in vacuum or a substantially vacuum condition not more than 100 pascal. A decompression package of highly air-tight is thus necessary for resonator 3 to work properly. However, since the vibration of resonator 3 is detected using interfered light, the decompression package should be made of the material that transmits the light irradiating resonator 3 or the light reflected from resonator 3 . The whole package is not necessarily made of light transmissible material, but windows that transmit the light can be prepared at only necessary parts of the package. FIG. 3 shows a sectional view illustrating the resonator in accordance with this embodiment, and the resonator is accommodated in the decompression package of highly airtight. Resonator 3 is placed on silicon nitride layer 22 deposited on high-resistive Si substrate 21 . Resonator 3 is then housed in decompression package 26 that has windows 18 transmitting laser beam and maintains vacuum or substantially vacuum condition therein. Windows 18 can be made of, e.g., quartz. From another view of point, the filter used in this embodiment works as an optical modulator which modulates the laser beam with an electric signal fed into the input line via the mechanical vibration of the resonator. Therefore, the filter in accordance with the first embodiment can be used as an optical modulator. Exemplary Embodiment 2 FIG. 4 shows a schematic structure of a filter in accordance with the second exemplary embodiment. In FIG. 4, elements similar to those in FIG. 1 have the same reference marks, and the descriptions thereof are omitted here. A decompression package is omitted in FIG. 4; however, the filter can work in a similar way to that described in FIG. 3 . This second embodiment describes the filter having selectable three different resonance frequencies. In the filter, resonator 35 having resonance frequency f 1 , resonator 36 having resonance frequency f 2 , and resonator 37 having resonance frequency f 3 are placed in parallel with respect to input line 2 . Respective resonators 35 , 36 and 37 are formed of two sub-resonators by a coupling means. First DC control unit 31 controls resonator 35 , second DC control unit 32 controls resonator 36 , and third DC control unit 33 controls resonator 37 . Laser source 4 irradiates resonators 35 , 36 and 37 with laser beam via half mirror 10 , and the irradiating area is defined as single beam spot 39 . An electric signal fed into input line 2 is supplied to three resonators 35 , 36 , 37 evenly, and when the input electric signal generally agrees with any one of the resonance frequencies f 1 , f 2 and f 3 , the resonator having the agreeing resonance frequency is excited to vibrate, thereby converting the electric signal to mechanical vibrations. For detecting the mechanical vibrations, the same method as used in the first embodiment can be adopted. However, a use of material, which can directly detect an optical phase, as photo detector 35 allows irradiating directly resonators 35 , 36 and 37 with laser beam, and photo detector 35 can receive the reflected light from the resonators. For instance, vibration of resonator 35 changes an optical path length, so that a phase of the signal of the received light changes. Laser source 4 , having frequency f 4 and wavelength λ, launches signal Sin(f 4 ×t), and the light reflected from resonator 35 that includes signal Sin(f 4 ×t+Δφ) is received at photo detector 5 . Phase difference Δφ changes due to an occurrence of optical path difference Δy, i.e., displacement of resonance amplitude of resonator 35 , so that Δφ=Δy/λ is held. The foregoing mechanism allows extracting only the signals that have passed through a desirable band, namely, frequency f 1 of resonator 35 . Resonators 36 and 37 work in a similar way. In this second embodiment, since photo detector 5 simultaneously receives vibrations generated by the respective resonance frequencies of the resonators, it is necessary not to vibrate resonators other than a desirable resonator, or not to detect vibrations other than desirable one. In this embodiment, resonators 35 - 37 are irradiated evenly with laser beam, and photo detector 5 receives the reflected light. In this case, resonators 36 and 37 , other than resonator 35 having a desirable resonance frequency f 1 , are forced to stop vibrating. The forcible stop can be done by applying direct potential from DC control units 32 , 33 so that electrostatic force is applied to resonators 36 , 37 . As a result, resonators 36 , 37 are brought into contact with input line 2 , and resonators 36 , 37 do not vibrate. At this time, a dielectric layer (not shown) between resonators 36 , 37 and line 2 prevents a dc from running. Since desirable resonator 35 only vibrates, the signal received by photo detector 5 contains only the vibration information of resonator 35 . As shown in FIG. 5, multi-beam is used in laser source 41 so that source 41 can be switched, and for instance, laser source 41 irradiates only desirable resonator 35 as multi-beam spot 43 with laser beam. Source 41 can also irradiate resonator 36 , 37 by switching multi-beam spot 44 , 45 with laser beam. A decompression package is omitted in FIG. 5; however, this embodiment can be carried out in the same structure as that used in FIG. 3 . As discussed above, laser source 41 is switched to irradiate a desirable resonator with laser beam, so that the photo detector receives the signal only from the desirable filter. As a result, the signal of high SIN ratio is obtainable. In stead of laser source 41 using the multi-beam, a laser source using a single-beam (not shown) can be linked to a movable mirror, thereby irradiating resonators 35 - 37 with a switchable single beam. In this second embodiment, half mirrors 10 , 12 are not necessarily formed of plural mirrors respectively, and half mirrors 10 , 12 may be movable so that the numbers of mirrors are reduced. Three resonators are used in this embodiment; however, the present invention is not limited to this number and any quantity of mirrors can be used. Exemplary Embodiment 3 FIG. 6A is a top view illustrating a schematic structure of a filter in accordance with the third exemplary embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 6B shows a sectional view of the same item shown in FIG. 6 A. The sectional view is taken along alternate long and short dash line a 1 -a 2 in FIG. 6 A. In FIGS. 6A and 6B, elements similar to those in FIG. 1 have the same reference marks and the descriptions thereof are omitted here. A decompression package is omitted in FIGS. 6A and 6B; however, this embodiment can be carried out in the same structure as that used in FIG. 3 . In this embodiment, resonator 3 and input line 2 , both similar to those in the first embodiment, are formed on silicon nitride layer 22 deposited on high-resistive Si substrate 21 . In high-resistive Si substrate 21 , input wave-guide 47 and output wave-guide 48 are formed for guiding laser beam that is used for measuring the vibration of resonator 3 . Just under resonator 3 , input wave-guide 47 and output wave-guide 48 are obliquely cut off, so that the laser beam traveling through input wave-guide 47 is refracted vertically with respect to substrate 21 and launched from substrate 21 . Then the laser beam strikes resonator 3 via half mirror 10 . The laser beam incident onto resonator 3 is reflected as detected light, and strikes half mirror 11 together with reference light arrived on mirror 11 . The laser beam is thus interfered is returned to substrate 21 at a place, where output wave-guide 48 is placed. When resonator 3 resonates and vibrates, a phase of a signal received in the output wave-guide is changed, so that the vibration information of resonator 3 , namely, the information of the input high frequency signal can be obtained. The wave-guide is not necessarily formed on substrate 21 under resonator 3 , and as shown in FIGS. 7A, 7 B, input wave-guide 51 , output wave-guide 52 can be prepared above resonator 3 at the place where the laser beam is irradiated. The sectional view is taken along alternate long and short dash line b 1 -b 2 of the top view. A decompression package is omitted in FIGS. 7A, 7 B; however, the filter can work in the same way as described in FIG. 3 . Exemplary Embodiment 4 FIGS. 8A, 8 B, 9 A and 9 B show placements of resonators in accordance with the fourth exemplary embodiment. In those drawings, elements similar to those in FIG. 1 have the same reference marks and the descriptions thereof are omitted here. The sectional view is taken along long and short dash line c 1 -c 2 in the top view. A decompression package is omitted in FIGS. 8A, 8 B, 9 A and 9 B; however, the filter can work in a similar way to that described in FIG. 3 . In this fourth embodiment, resonators 3 used in the first embodiment are basically arranged in an array on silicon nitride layer 22 deposited on high-resistive substrate 21 . Input lines 2 are not placed just under individual resonators 3 , but resonators 3 are placed on, e.g., micro-strip line 54 . In a similar structure to the optical system employed in the second embodiment, the laser source (not shown) launches laser beam, and the reflected laser beam from vibrating resonator 3 is received by a photo detector (not shown), so that changes of the reflected laser beam can be detected. The foregoing placement can work in higher frequencies, and downsized resonator 3 can be advantageously used in this placement over other resonators. As shown in FIG. 9A, the resonators can be placed random, or as shown in FIG. 9B, the resonators can be placed in an optically significant shape. If positioning of the resonators cannot be controlled, the random placement as shown in FIG. 9A is used. The individual resonators of micro-body are placed in stripes as shown in FIG. 9B, so that a diffraction grating can be formed, which allows diffracted light to radiate in a specific direction. In this case, the diffracted light can be radiated in a specific direction, thereby increasing an efficiency of collecting lights. Exemplary Embodiment 5 FIGS. 10A-10D show sectional views and top views of filters in accordance with the fifth exemplary embodiment of the present invention. The sectional view is taken along long and short dash line d 1 -d 2 in the top view. At least two resonators are necessary for this embodiment, and four resonators are used for the description purpose. A decompression package is omitted in FIGS. 10A, 10 B, 10 C and 10 D; however, the filter can work in a similar way to that described in FIG. 3 . Four resonators 61 , 62 , 63 , and 64 are equidistantly placed from each other like bridges on fixed stands 66 , 67 with their both ends rigidly mounted on stands 66 , 67 . As shown in FIG. 10A, two input lines 56 , 57 are placed between resonators 61 and 62 as well as between resonators 63 and 64 in parallel with respect to respective resonators 61 - 64 , which vibrate in horizontal direction. When a signal is fed into input line 56 , electrostatic force of the signal running through input line 56 excites resonators 61 , 62 horizontally. Since resonators 61 , 62 are equidistant from input line 56 symmetrically, they vibrate in an identical amplitude; however, they vibrate in reversal phase to each other. Therefore, a relative displacement amount between resonators 61 , 62 is twice as much as a vibration amount of a single resonator with the same input high-frequency signal. Resonators 63 , 64 vibrate with respect to input line 57 in the same way. A use of resonators 61 - 64 as a diffraction grating produces a displacement two times as much as the case where the same signal is used, so that the higher sensitive mechanical vibration can be detected. As discussed above, the filter of the present invention can prevent a coupling between an input line and an output line in high frequencies such as MHz band or GHz band, and also can prevent the characteristics of the filter from being degraded by viscosity of air.

An electric signal fed into a line generates electric field in response to its frequency, and a resonator placed closely to the line and in a substantially vacuum condition not higher than 100 pascal is excited by electrostatic force of the electric field and vibrates. Detecting means converts mechanical vibrations of the resonator into a signal in another form than the electric signal, then it detects the vibrations. The foregoing structure allows the resonator to be a micro-body and to process properly a high-frequency input signal of MHz or GHz band. A tight space between an input side and an output side does not permit an electric signal fed into the line to couple directly to the output side, and the resonator downsized to a micro-body is not subject to viscosity of air.

TECHNICAL FIELD [0001] The present invention relates to a display device that displays a halftone by changing the luminance of pixels over time. BACKGROUND ART [0002] A technology that displays a halftone by changing the luminance of pixels over time and thus improves the viewing angle characteristics of the liquid crystal display has been proposed. Patent Document 1, for example, discloses a display technology of a liquid crystal display device where display units, each composed of an R pixel, a G pixel, and a B pixel arranged in a row direction, are disposed in a matrix. In this technology, four frames constitute one cycle, and the pixel belonging to a display unit located at the jth position in the ith row or at the (j+1)th position in the (i+1)th row display bright during the first frame F 1 displays bright during the second frame F 2 , displays dark during the third frame F 3 , and displays dark during the fourth frame F 4 . On the other hand, the pixel belonging to a display unit located at the (j+1)th position in the ith row or located at the jth position in the (i+1)th row displays dark during the first frame F 1 , displays dark during the second frame F 2 , displays bright during the third frame F 3 , and displays bright during the fourth frame F 4 . RELATED ART DOCUMENTS Patent Documents [0000] Patent Document 1: Japanese Patent Application Laid-Open Publication No. H7-121144 (published on May 12, 1995) Patent Document 2: Japanese Patent Application Laid-Open Publication No. 2006-184516 (published on Jul. 13, 2006) Patent Document 3: Japanese Patent Application Laid-Open Publication No. 2004-302270 (published on Oct. 28, 2004) SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Problems to be Solved by the Invention [0006] However, according to the configuration disclosed in Patent Document 1, the fluctuation in luminance as shown in FIG. 24( a ) occurs at the pixel belonging to the display unit located at the jth position in the ith row, and the fluctuation in luminance as shown in FIG. 24( b ) occurs at the pixel belonging to the display unit located at the (j+1)th position in the ith row, the fluctuation in luminance as shown in FIG. 24( c ) occurs at the pixel belonging to the display unit located at the jth position in the (i+1)th row, and the fluctuation in luminance as shown in FIG. 24( d ) occurs at the pixel belonging to the display unit located at the (j+1)th position in the (i+1)th row. The fluctuation in luminance falls in two patterns (phases). As a result, as shown in FIG. 24( e ), the display flickering occurs at every two frames. That is, even if the frame frequency is 120 Hz (so-called double-speed driving), the flicker frequency is 60 Hz, which is within the human recognition range (lower than 75 Hz, in general). [0007] The present invention aims at improving the viewing angle characteristics of the liquid crystal display device and reducing the flickering at the same time. Means for Solving the Problems [0008] The present liquid crystal display device performs a halftone display by changing pixel luminance throughout a cycle composed of first to fourth terms, and includes: a type 1 pixel that rises during a first term, rises or stays on hold during a second term, decays during a third term, and decays or stays on hold during a fourth term to continuously display one halftone; a type 2 pixel that decays during the first term, decays or stays on hold during the second term, rises during the third term, and rises or stays on hold during the fourth term to continuously display one halftone; a type 3 pixel that rises or stays on hold during the first term, decays during the second term, decays or stays on hold during the third term, and rises during the fourth term to continuously display one halftone; and a type 4 pixel that decays or stays on hold during the first term, rises during the second term, rises or stays on hold during the third term, and decays during the fourth term to continuously display one halftone, where “rises” means that the luminance increases during the term, “decays” means that the luminance decreases during the term, and “stays on hold” means that the same luminance is maintained during the term. [0009] As described above, by having four types of pixels (type 1 to type 4) whose luminance variation patterns during a cycle are different from each other when displaying the same halftone continuously, the total luminance of type 1 to type 4 pixels becomes uniform temporally, and the total luminance change cycle becomes shorter. That is, the present display device displays each halftone by changing the luminance of pixels, which improves the viewing angle characteristics, increases the frequency of the display flickering, and decreases the magnitude of the flickering (amplitude of the flickering). Here, one frame period of a pixel is defined as the time elapsed after the pixel is charged (written) and before the same pixel is charged (written) the next time, and a term is defined as at least a one-frame period (such as a one-frame period or a two-frame period). [0010] The present liquid crystal display device may have a configuration in which a cycle is a four-frame period and each term is a one-frame period, or a cycle is an eight-frame period and each term is a two-frame period. [0011] The present liquid crystal display device may also be configured such that: on the type 1 pixel, an effective voltage that is at least as high as a first voltage is applied during the first and second terms, while an effective voltage lower than the first voltage is applied during the third and fourth terms; on the type 2 pixel; an effective voltage lower than a second voltage is applied during the first and second terms, while an effective voltage that is at least as high as the second voltage is applied during the third and fourth terms; on the type 3 pixel, an effective voltage lower than a third voltage is applied during the second and third terms, while an effective voltage that is at least as high as the third voltage is applied during at least either the first term or the fourth term; on the type 4 pixel; and an effective voltage that is at least as high as a fourth voltage is applied during each of the second and third frame periods, while an effective voltage lower than the fourth voltage is applied during at least either the first term or the fourth term. [0012] The present liquid crystal display device may also be configured such that display units, each of which is composed of a plurality of pixels of different colors, are arranged in the row and column directions, and the plurality of pixels included in each display unit are of the same type. [0013] The present liquid crystal display device may be configured such that two pixels disposed adjacent to each other in the scan direction are of different types. [0014] The present liquid crystal display device may also be configured such that two pixels arranged in the scan direction with another pixel disposed in between are of the same type. [0015] The present liquid crystal display device may also be configured such that, when the scan direction is the column direction, a display unit composed of type 1 pixels and a display unit composed of type 3 pixels are disposed adjacent to each other in the row direction; a display unit composed of type 3 pixels and a display unit composed of type 2 pixels are disposed adjacent to each other in the row direction; a display unit composed of type 2 pixels and a display unit composed of type 4 pixels are disposed adjacent to each other in the row direction; and a display unit composed of type 4 pixels and a display unit composed of type 1 pixels are disposed adjacent to each other in the row direction. [0016] The present liquid crystal display device may also be configured such that a display unit composed of type 1 pixels and a display unit composed of type 2 pixels are disposed adjacent to each other in the column direction; and a display unit composed of type 3 pixels and a display unit composed of type 4 pixels are disposed adjacent to each other in the column direction. [0017] The present liquid crystal display device may also be configured such that each display unit is composed of a red pixel, a green pixel, and a blue pixel. [0018] The present liquid crystal display device may also be configured such that a total number of display units composed of type 1 pixels, a total number of display units composed of type 2 pixels, and a total number of display units composed of type 3 pixels, and a total number of display units composed of type 4 pixels are substantially equal. [0019] The present liquid crystal display device may also be configured such that the frame frequency is at least 75 Hz. [0020] The present liquid crystal display may also be configured such that, when the scan direction is the column direction, two data signal lines are provided for each column of pixels, two pixels disposed adjacent to each other in the column direction are connected to respective data signal lines through transistors, and two scan signal lines are selected at a time. [0021] The present liquid crystal display device may also be configured such that two data lines provided for each column of pixels receive respective signal potentials, which are of opposite polarities. [0022] The present liquid crystal display device may also be configured such that writing to each of the n pixels (n is an integer of at least 3) is conducted one frame period after any previous writing to the same pixel, and that, with one term composed of a single frame or a plurality of frames and one cycle composed of a first to nth terms, luminance levels of the individual n pixels change differently from one another during each of the first to the nth terms when data that corresponds to a halftone and sets the average luminance in a cycle of each of the n pixels to an equal level is continuously displayed. [0023] The present television receiver includes the above-mentioned liquid crystal display device and a tuner unit receiving the television broadcasting. [0024] The present liquid crystal display device displays a halftone by changing the luminance of pixels during a cycle composed of the first to fourth terms, wherein the type 1 pixel rises during the first term, rises or stays on hold during the second term, decays during the third term, and decays or stay on hold during the fourth term to continuously display one halftone; the type 2 pixel decays during the first time, decays or stays on hold during the second term, rises during the third term, and rises or stays on hold during the fourth term to continuously display one halftone; the type 3 pixel rises or stays on hold during the first term, decays during the second term, decays or stays on hold during the third term, and rises during the fourth term to continuously display one halftone; and the type 4 pixel decays or stays on hold during the first term, rises during the second term, rises or stays on hold during the third term, and decays during the fourth term to continuously display one halftone, where “rises” means that the luminance of the pixel increases during the term, “decays” means that the luminance of the pixel decreases during the term, and “stays on hold” means that a same luminance of the pixel is maintained during the term. Effects of the Invention [0025] The present liquid crystal display device can increase the display flicker frequency and reduce the magnitude of the flicker (amplitude of the flicker) while improving the viewing angle characteristics. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0026] FIG. 1 is a block diagram showing a configuration of the present liquid crystal display device. [0027] FIG. 2 schematically shows the arrangement of 24 pixels belonging to eight display units (A to D and a to d) of a liquid crystal panel. [0028] FIG. 3 is a block diagram showing a configuration of the present television receiver. [0029] FIG. 4 is a table showing an example of LUT 1 and LUT 2 used in the present liquid crystal display device (gradations 0 to 172). [0030] FIG. 5 is a table showing an example of LUT 1 and LUT 2 used in the present liquid crystal display device (gradations 173 to 255). [0031] FIG. 6 schematically shows an example of the sequence of the effective electrical potentials applied on pixels belonging to respective display units A to D. [0032] FIG. 7 schematically shows an example of the sequence of the effective electrical potentials applied on pixels belonging to respective display units a to d. [0033] FIG. 8 schematically shows the luminance variation patterns and flicker occurrences at pixels belonging to respective display units A to D when driving as shown in FIG. 6 is conducted. [0034] FIG. 9 schematically shows the luminance variation patterns and the flicker occurrences at pixels belonging to display units a to d when driving as shown in FIG. 7 is conducted. [0035] FIG. 10 schematically shows an example of displays at display units A to D and a to d during each of the frames (F 1 to F 4 ) and the total of these displays when driving as shown in FIG. 6 and FIG. 7 is conducted. [0036] FIG. 11 schematically shows another example of the effective potential sequences that realize the luminance variation patterns as shown in FIG. 8 . [0037] FIG. 12 schematically shows another example of the effective potential sequences that realize the luminance variation patterns as shown in FIG. 9 . [0038] FIG. 13 schematically shows another example of sequences of the effective potentials applied on pixels belonging to respective display units A to D. [0039] FIG. 14 schematically shows another example of sequences of the effective potentials applied on pixels belonging to respective display units a to d. [0040] FIG. 15 schematically shows the luminance variation patterns and flickering occurrences at pixels belonging to respective display units A to D when driving as shown in FIG. 13 is conducted. [0041] FIG. 16 schematically shows the luminance variation patterns and flickering occurrences at pixels belonging to respective display units a to d when driving as shown in FIG. 14 is conducted. [0042] FIG. 17 schematically shows an example of the displays at display units A to D and a to d during each of frames (F 1 to F 4 ) and the total of these displays when driving as shown in FIG. 11 and FIG. 12 is conducted. [0043] FIG. 18 schematically shows another example of the effective potential sequences providing the luminance variation patterns shown in FIG. 15 . [0044] FIG. 19 schematically shows another example of the effective potential sequences providing the luminance variation patterns shown in FIG. 16 . [0045] FIG. 20 schematically shows a configuration and a driving method of a liquid crystal panel used in the present liquid crystal display device. [0046] FIG. 21 schematically shows another example of luminance variations at pixels belonging to respective display units A to D. [0047] FIG. 22 schematically shows yet another example of luminance variations at pixels belonging to respective display units A to D. [0048] FIG. 23 schematically shows yet another example of luminance variations at pixels belonging to display units A to D. [0049] FIG. 24 schematically shows the luminance variation pattern and flicker occurrences at pixels belonging to respective four display units when a conventional driving is conducted. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS [0050] Embodiments of the present invention are described with reference to FIGS. 1 to 23 as follows. FIG. 1 is a block diagram showing a configuration of the present liquid crystal display device. As shown in the figure, the liquid crystal display device displays a halftone by changing the luminance of pixels during a cycle composed of the first to the fourth terms. The liquid crystal display device includes a liquid crystal panel, a panel driver circuit, and a display control circuit. The liquid crystal panel includes a plurality of scan signal lines, a plurality of data signal lines, and a plurality of display units arranged in the row direction (the direction perpendicular to the scan direction) and the column direction (scan direction). As shown in FIG. 2 , each display unit is composed of an R pixel, a G pixel, and a B pixel disposed in the row direction. In the following description, the display unit at the jth position in the ith row is display unit A, the display unit at the (j+1)th position in the ith row is display unit B, the display unit at the jth position in the (i+1)th row is display unit C, the display unit at the (j+1)th position in the (i+1)th row is display unit D, the display unit at the (j+2)th position in the ith row is display unit a, the display unit at the (j+3)th position in the ith row is display unit b, the display unit at the (j+2)th position in the (i+1)th row is display unit c, and the display unit at the (j+3)th position in the (i+1)th row is display unit d. The panel driver circuit includes a source driver that drives the data signal lines, and a gate driver that drives the scan signal lines. The display control circuit includes a timing signal generation circuit, a frame gradation generation circuit, a LUT (Look-Up Table) 1, and a LUT (Look-Up Table) 2. [0051] The timing signal generation circuit generates a horizontal synchronization signal, a vertical synchronization signal, and a polarity reversal signal based on the image signal inputted, and inputs them to the panel driver circuit. [0052] The frame gradation generation circuit generates the frame gradation data corresponding to the gradation data indicated by the inputted image signal (hereinafter abbreviated as “frame gradation”) using LUT 1 and LUT 2 . [0053] For example, when a cycle is composed of four frames (one gradation is displayed by changing the luminance of the pixels during a cycle composed of the first to the fourth frame periods), four frame gradations are generated for each inputted gradation. That is, if the inputted gradation is a halftone, the first to fourth frame gradations of type 1 that satisfy the relation of the first frame gradation=second frame gradation>inputted gradation>third frame gradation=fourth frame gradation; the first to fourth frame gradations of type 2 that satisfy the relation of the first frame gradation=second frame gradation<inputted gradation<third frame gradation=fourth frame gradation; the first to fourth frame gradations of type 3 that satisfy the relation of the first frame gradation=fourth frame gradation>inputted gradation>second frame gradation=third frame gradation; or the first to fourth frame gradations of type 4 that satisfy the relation of the second frame gradation=third frame gradation>inputted gradation>first frame gradation=fourth frame gradation are generated. [0054] Specifically, the frame gradation generation circuit generates: the first to fourth frame gradations of type 1 if the inputted gradation corresponds to the type 1 pixels; the first to fourth frame gradations of type 2 if the inputted gradation corresponds to the type 2 pixels; the first to fourth frame gradations of type 3 if the inputted gradation corresponds to the type 3 pixels; and the first to fourth gradations of type 4 if the inputted gradation corresponds to type 4 pixels. [0055] Regarding the display units shown in FIG. 2 , for example, pixels belonging to display unit A (red, green, and blue) are type 1, pixels belonging to display unit B (red, green, and blue) are type 3, pixels belonging to display unit C (red, green, and blue) are type 2, pixels belonging to display unit D (red, green, and blue) are type 4, pixels belonging to display unit a (red, green, and blue) are type 2, pixels belonging to display unit b (red, green, and blue) are type 4, pixels belonging to display unit c (red, green, and blue) are type 1, and pixels belonging to display unit d (red, green, and blue) are type 3. [0056] The panel driver circuit drives the data signal lines and scan signal lines based on the horizontal synchronization signal, vertical synchronization signal, and the polarity reversal signal generated by the timing signal generation circuit, and applies effective electrical potentials corresponding to the first to fourth frame gradations generated by the frame gradation generation circuit on respective pixels. In this application, a potential obtained by subtracting the lead-in voltage when the transistor is OFF from the signal potential supplied to the pixels from the data signal line is defined as an effective potential (with polarity), and the potential difference between the effective potential and the reference potential (Vcom) (i.e., a voltage actually applied on the pixels) is defined as effective voltage (this is a value representing the magnitude only, without polarity, i.e., absolute value). The drive frequency (frame frequency=rewriting frequency) is preferably 120 Hz, which is the double speed, to 240 Hz, which is the quadruple speed, but not limited to such. [0057] When the present liquid crystal display device is used to display images of television broadcasting, as shown in FIG. 3 , a tuner 90 is connected to the present liquid crystal display device to constitute a television receiver 601 . The tuner 90 retrieves an image signal Scv (composite color image signal) from the radiowave received by an antenna (not shown), and inputs the image signal Scv to the present liquid crystal display device. [0058] FIG. 4 and FIG. 5 show an example of LUT 1 and LUT 2 where the image signal is 8-bit, representing 256 gradations. For example, if four frames constitute a cycle for the frame display (each frame is displayed in four frames), when gradation 100 (halftone data) is inputted to type 1 pixels, first frame gradation 195, second frame gradation 195, third frame gradation 0, and fourth frame gradation 0 are generated. When gradation 20 (halftone data) is inputted to type 2 pixels, first frame gradation 0, second frame gradation 0, third frame gradation 91, and fourth frame gradation 91 are generated. When gradation 200 (halftone data) is inputted to type 3 pixels, first frame gradation 255, second frame gradation 38, third frame gradation 38, and fourth frame gradation 255 are generated. When gradation 250 (halftone data) is inputted to type 4 pixels, first frame gradation 244, second frame gradation 255, third frame gradation 255, and fourth frame gradation 244 are generated. Embodiment 1 [0059] FIG. 6( a ) to FIG. 6( d ) are timing charts showing sequences of effective potentials applied on each of the pixels belonging to display units A to D of FIG. 2 when gradation 150 (halftone) is displayed at these display units. FIG. 7( a ) to FIG. 7( d ) are timing charts showing sequences of effective potentials applied on pixels belonging to display units a to d of FIG. 2 when gradation 150 (halftone) is displayed at these display units. Here, four frames constitute a cycle, and the drive frequency (frame frequency) is 120 Hz. Voltages A to D of FIG. 6 and voltages a to d of FIG. 7 are the potential differences between the effective potential corresponding to gradation 150 and the reference potential, and the reference potential is the midpoint of the effective potential amplitude (Vcom, for example). [0060] In this case, on pixels belonging to display unit A (type 1), as shown in FIG. 6( a ), a positive effective potential +V(234) corresponding to gradation 234 is applied during the first frame F 1 ; a positive effective potential +V(234) corresponding to gradation 234 is applied during the second frame F 2 ; a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during the third frame F 3 ; and a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during the fourth frame F 4 . Here, a relation of the potential difference between +V (0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)<voltage A<the potential difference between +V (234) and the reference potential (effective voltage) is satisfied. [0061] Also, on pixels belonging to display unit B (type 3), as shown in FIG. 6( b ), a positive +V(234) corresponding to gradation 234 is applied during the first frame F 1 ; a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during the second frame F 2 ; a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during the third frame F 3 ; and a positive effective potential +V(234) corresponding to gradation 234 is applied during the fourth frame F 4 . Here, a relation of the potential difference between +V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)<voltage B<the potential difference between +V(234) and the reference potential (effective voltage) is satisfied. [0062] Also, on pixels belonging to display unit C (type 2), as shown in FIG. 6( c ), a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during the first frame F 1 ; a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during the second frame F 2 ; a positive effective potential +V(234) corresponding to gradation 234 is applied during the third frame F 3 ; and a positive effective potential +V(234) corresponding to gradation 234 is applied during the fourth frame F 4 . Here, a relation of the potential difference between +V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)<voltage C<the potential difference between +V(234) and the reference potential (effective voltage) is satisfied. [0063] Also, on pixels belonging to display unit D (type 4), as shown in FIG. 6( d ), a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during the first frame F 1 ; a positive effective potential +V(234) corresponding to gradation 234 is applied during the second frame F 2 ; a positive effective potential +V(234) corresponding to gradation 234 is applied during the third frame F 3 ; and a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during the fourth frame F 4 . Here, a relation of the potential difference between +V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)<voltage D<the potential difference between +V(234) and the reference potential (effective voltage) is satisfied. [0064] Further, on pixels belonging to display unit a (type 2), as shown in FIG. 7( a ), a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during the first frame F 1 ; a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during the second frame F 2 ; a positive effective potential +V(234) corresponding to gradation 234 is applied during the third frame F 3 ; and a positive effective potential +V(234) corresponding to gradation 234 is applied during the fourth frame F 4 . Here, a relation of the potential difference between +V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)<voltage a<the potential difference between +V(234) and the reference potential (effective voltage) is satisfied. [0065] Also, on pixels belonging to display unit b (type 4), as shown in FIG. 7( b ), a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during the first frame F 1 ; a positive effective potential +V(234) corresponding to gradation 234 is applied during the second frame F 2 ; a positive effective potential +V(234) corresponding to gradation 234 is applied during the third frame F 3 ; and a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during the fourth frame F 4 . Here, a relation of the potential difference between +V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)<voltage b<the potential difference between +V(234) and the reference potential (effective voltage) is satisfied. [0066] Also, on pixels belonging to display unit c (type 1), as shown in FIG. 7( c ), a positive effective potential +V(234) corresponding to gradation 234 is applied during the first frame F 1 ; a positive effective potential +V(234) corresponding to gradation 234 is applied during the second frame F 2 ; a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during the third frame F 3 ; and a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during the fourth frame F 4 . Here, a relation of the potential difference between +V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)<voltage c<the potential difference between +V(234) and the reference potential (effective voltage) is satisfied. [0067] Also, on pixels belonging to display unit d (type 3), as shown in FIG. 7( d ), a positive effective potential +V(234) corresponding to gradation 234 is applied during the first frame F 1 ; a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during the second frame F 2 ; a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during the third frame F 3 ; and a positive effective potential +V(234) corresponding to gradation 234 is applied during the fourth frame F 4 . Here, a relation of the potential difference between +V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)<voltage d<the potential difference between +V(234) and the reference potential (effective voltage) is satisfied. [0068] As a result of the driving as shown in FIG. 6( a ) to FIG. 6( d ), the luminance (transmission) of pixels belonging to display unit A (type 1) changes following the pattern shown in FIG. 8( a ) during the first frame F 1 to the fourth frame F 4 ; the luminance (transmission) of pixels belonging to display unit B (type 3) changes following the pattern shown in FIG. 8( b ) during the first frame F 1 to the fourth frame F 4 ; the luminance (transmission) of pixels belonging to display unit C (type 2) changes following the pattern shown in FIG. 8( c ) during the first frame F 1 to the fourth frame F 4 ; and the luminance (transmission) of pixels belonging to display unit D (type 4) changes following the pattern shown in FIG. 8( d ) during the first frame F 1 to the fourth frame F 4 . FIG. 10( a ) to FIG. 10( d ) schematically show the average luminance of pixels belonging to respective display units A to D during each of the frames (first frame F 1 -fourth frame F 4 ), and FIG. 10( e ) schematically shows the total display of the pixels belonging to the respective display units A to D during the first frame F 1 to the fourth frame F 4 . [0069] As a result of the driving as shown in FIG. 7( a ) to FIG. 7( d ), the luminance (transmission) of pixels belonging to display unit a (type 2) changes following the pattern shown in FIG. 9( a ) during the first frame F 1 to the fourth frame F 4 ; the luminance (transmission) of pixels belonging to display unit b (type 4) changes following the pattern shown in FIG. 9( b ) during the first frame F 1 to the fourth frame F 4 ; the luminance (transmission) of pixels belonging to display unit c (type 1) changes following the pattern shown in FIG. 9( c ) during the first frame F 1 to the fourth frame F 4 ; and the luminance (transmission) of pixels belonging to display unit d (type 3) changes following the pattern shown in FIG. 9( d ) during the first frame F 1 to the fourth frame F 4 . FIG. 10( a ) to FIG. 10( d ) schematically show the average luminance of pixels belonging to respective display units a to d during each of the frames (first frame F 1 -fourth frame F 4 ), and FIG. 10( e ) schematically shows the total display of the pixels belonging to respective display units a to d during the first frame F 1 to the fourth frame F 4 . [0070] As shown in FIG. 8 to FIG. 10 , in Embodiment 1, a cycle is a four-frame period, and a term is a one-frame period. Pixels included in A or c rise during the first term (F 1 ), rise during the second term (F 2 ), decay during the third term (F 3 ), and stay on hold during the fourth term (F 4 ); pixels included in C or a decay during the first term (F 1 ), stay on hold during the second term (F 2 ), rise during the third term (F 3 ), and rise during the fourth term (F 4 ); pixels included in B or d rise during the first term (F 1 ), decay during the second term (F 2 ), stay on hold during the third term (F 3 ), and rise during the fourth term (F 4 ); pixels included in D or b stay on hold during the first term (F 1 ), rise during the second term (F 2 ), rise during the third term (F 3 ), and decay during the fourth term (F 4 ), where “rise” means that the luminance increases during the term, “decay” means that the luminance decreases during the term, and “stay on hold” means that the same luminance is maintained during the term. Here, pixels of different types have luminance peaks at different times in a cycle. That is, within a cycle, the intervals at which luminance peaks of any two different types of pixels appear are whole-number multiples of one (4/4=1) frame period. More specifically, within a cycle, the type 1 pixels have their luminance peaks one-frame period after the type 3 pixels, the type 4 pixels have their luminance peaks one frame period after the type 1 pixels, and the type 2 pixels have their luminance peaks one frame period after the type 4 pixels. Further, type 1, 2, and 4 pixels have two consecutive frame periods at the end of which the luminance becomes higher than the average luminance of the cycle. The luminance values of the type 3 pixels at the end of the first frame period F 1 and at the end of the fourth frame period F 4 are both higher than the average luminance of the cycle (F 1 to F 4 ). [0071] Thus, the present liquid crystal display device displays each gradation by changing the luminance of pixels. As a result, the viewing angle characteristics can be improved. Also, by providing four luminance variation patterns (bright/dark patterns) at individual pixels in a cycle when a halftone is displayed (in particular, when a same halftone is displayed at pixels of the same color), as illustrated in FIG. 8( e ) in which luminance variations of pixels belonging to display units A to D are superimposed together, and as illustrated in FIG. 9( e ) in which luminance variations of pixels belonging to display units a to d are superimposed together, the frequency of the display flickering becomes 120 Hz, which is beyond the human recognition range, and also the magnitude of the flickering (flicker amplitude) is reduced. Further, the present liquid crystal display device has two consecutive frame periods, at the end of each of which the luminance is higher than the average luminance of the cycle (bright frame periods). As a result, the amount of the change in the pixel luminance can be increased and therefore favorable viewing angle characteristics can be realized. [0072] In the present liquid crystal display device, the total number of the type 1 display units, the total number of the type 2 display units, the total number of the type 3 display units, and the total number of the type 4 display units are about the same. That is, the number of the largest group of display units of one type is preferably up to 1.1 times more than the number of the smallest group of display units of another type. However, the number of the largest group of display units of one type may be up to 3 times more than the smallest group of display units of another type. [0073] FIG. 6 and FIG. 7 show the case where effective potentials of the same polarity are applied on pixels during a cycle, and the effective potentials applied on two adjacent pixels are of the same polarity. However, the present invention is not limited to this. For example, as shown in FIG. 11 and FIG. 12 , the polarity of the effective potential applied on pixels during a cycle (F 1 -F 4 ) may be reversed for every frame, and the effective potentials of two adjacent pixels may have opposite polarities. Here, voltage A to voltage D of FIG. 11 and voltage a to voltage d of FIG. 12 each represents the potential difference between the effective potential corresponding to gradation 150 and the reference potential, and the reference potential represents the midpoint of the effective potential amplitude (Vcom, for example). [0074] In this case, on pixels belonging to display unit A (type 1), as shown in FIG. 11( a ), a positive effective potential +V(234) corresponding to gradation 234 is applied during the first frame F 1 ; a negative effective potential −V(234) corresponding to gradation 234 is applied during the second frame F 2 ; a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during the third frame F 3 ; and a negative effective potential −V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during the fourth frame F 4 . [0075] Here, a relation of the potential difference between +V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)=the potential difference between −V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)<voltage A<the potential difference between +V(234) and the reference potential (effective voltage)=the potential difference between −V(234) and the reference potential (effective voltage) is satisfied. [0076] Also, on pixels belonging to display unit B (type 3), as shown in FIG. 11( b ), a negative effective potential −V(234) corresponding to gradation 234 is applied during the first frame F 1 ; a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during the second frame F 2 ; a negative effective potential −V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during the third frame F 3 ; and a positive effective potential +V(234) corresponding to gradation 234 is applied during the fourth frame F 4 . [0077] Here, a relation of the potential difference between +V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)=the potential difference between −V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)<voltage B<the potential difference between +V(234) and the reference potential (effective voltage)=the potential difference between −V(234) and the reference potential (effective voltage) is satisfied. [0078] Also, on pixels belonging to display unit C (type 2), as shown in FIG. 11( c ), a negative effective potential −V(0) corresponding gradation 0 is applied during the first frame F 1 ; a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding gradation 0 is applied during the second frame F 2 ; a negative effective potential −V(234) corresponding to gradation 234 is applied during the third frame F 3 ; and a positive effective potential +V(234) corresponding to gradation 234 is applied during the fourth frame F 4 . [0079] Here, a relation of the potential difference between +V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)=the potential difference between −V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)<voltage C<the potential difference between +V(234) and the reference potential (effective voltage)=the potential difference between −V(234) and the reference potential (effective voltage) is satisfied. Also, on pixels belonging to display unit D (type 4), as shown in FIG. 11( d ), a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during the first frame F 1 ; a negative effective potential −V(234) corresponding to gradation 234 is applied during the second frame F 2 ; a positive effective potential +V(234) corresponding to gradation 234 is applied during the third frame F 3 ; and a negative effective potential −V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during the fourth frame F 4 . [0080] Here, a relation of the potential difference between +V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)=the potential difference between −V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)<voltage D<the potential difference between +V(234) and the reference potential (effective voltage)=the potential difference between −V(234) and the reference potential (effective voltage) is satisfied. [0081] Further, on pixels belonging to display unit a (type 2), as shown in FIG. 12( a ), a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during the first frame F 1 ; a negative effective potential −V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during the second frame F 2 ; a positive effective potential +V(234) corresponding to gradation 234 is applied during the third frame F 3 ; and a negative effective potential −V(234) corresponding to gradation 234 is applied during the fourth frame F 4 . [0082] Here, a relation of the potential difference between +V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)=the potential difference between −V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)<voltage a<the potential difference between +V(234) and the reference potential (effective voltage)=the potential difference between −V(234) and the reference potential (effective voltage) is satisfied. [0083] Also, on pixels belonging to display unit b (type 4), as shown in FIG. 12( b ), a negative effective potential −V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during the first frame F 1 ; a positive effective potential +V(234) corresponding to gradation 234 is applied during the second frame F 2 ; a negative effective potential −V(234) corresponding to gradation 234 is applied during the third frame F 3 ; and a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during the fourth frame F 4 . [0084] Here, a relation of the potential difference between +V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)=the potential difference between −V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)<voltage b<the potential difference between +V(234) and the reference potential (effective voltage)=the potential difference between −V(234) and the reference potential (effective voltage) is satisfied. [0085] Also, on pixels belonging to display unit c (type 1), as shown in FIG. 12( c ), a negative effective potential −V(234) corresponding to gradation 234 is applied during the first frame F 1 ; a positive effective potential +V(234) corresponding to gradation 234 is applied during the second frame F 2 ; a negative effective potential −V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during the third frame F 3 ; and a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during the fourth frame F 4 . [0086] Here, a relation of the potential difference between +V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)=the potential difference between −V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)<voltage c<the potential difference between +V(234) and the reference potential (effective voltage)=the potential difference between −V(234) and the reference potential (effective voltage) is satisfied. [0087] Also, on pixels belonging to display unit d (type 3), as shown in FIG. 12( d ), a positive effective potential +V(234) corresponding to gradation 234 is applied during the first frame F 1 ; a negative effective potential −V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during the second frame F 2 ; a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during the third frame F 3 , and a negative effective potential −V(234) corresponding to gradation 234 is applied during the fourth frame F 4 . [0088] Here, a relation of the potential difference between +V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)=the potential difference between −V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)<voltage d<the potential difference between +V(234) and the reference potential (effective voltage)=the potential difference between −V(234) and the reference potential (effective voltage) is satisfied. [0089] Here, as a result of the driving shown in FIG. 11( a ) to FIG. 11( d ), the luminance (transmission) of pixels belonging to display unit A (type 1) changes following the pattern shown in FIG. 8( a ) during the first frame F 1 to the fourth frame F 4 ; the luminance (transmission) of pixels belonging to display unit B (type 3) changes following the pattern shown in FIG. 8( b ) during the first frame F 1 to the fourth frame F 4 ; the luminance (transmission) of pixels belonging to display unit C (type 2) changes following the pattern shown in FIG. 8( c ) during the first frame F 1 to the fourth frame F 4 ; and the luminance (transmission) of pixels belonging to display unit D (type 4) changes following the pattern shown in FIG. 8( d ) during the first frame F 1 to the fourth frame F 4 . [0090] Also, as a result of the driving shown in FIG. 12( a ) to FIG. 12( d ), the luminance (transmission) of pixels belonging to display unit a (type 2) changes following the pattern shown in FIG. 9( a ) during the first frame F 1 to the fourth frame F 4 ; the luminance (transmission) of pixels belonging to display unit b (type 4) changes following the pattern shown in FIG. 9( b ) during the first frame F 1 to the fourth frame F 4 ; the luminance (transmission) of pixels belonging to display unit c (type 1) changes following the pattern shown in FIG. 9( c ) during the first frame F 1 to the fourth frame F 4 ; and the luminance (transmission) of pixels belonging to display unit d (type 3) changes following the pattern shown in FIG. 9( d ) during the first frame F 1 to the fourth frame F 4 . Embodiment 2 [0091] In FIG. 6 to FIG. 12 , four frames constitute a cycle, and the drive frequency (frame frequency) is 120 Hz. However, the present invention is not limited to this. Alternatively, a cycle may be constituted of eight frames, and the drive frequency (frame frequency) may be 240 Hz. [0092] FIG. 13( a ) to FIG. 13( d ) are timing charts showing sequences of effective potentials applied on pixels belonging to display units A to D of FIG. 2 when gradation 120 (halftone) is displayed at these display units (1 cycle=8 frames, drive frequency=240 Hz). FIG. 14( a ) to FIG. 14( d ) are timing charts showing sequences of effective potentials applied on pixels belonging to display units a to d of FIG. 2 when gradation 120 (halftone) is displayed at these display units (1 cycle=8 frames, drive frequency=240 Hz). Here, voltage A to voltage D of FIG. 13 and voltage a to voltage d of FIG. 14 each represents the potential between the effective potential corresponding to gradation 120 and the reference potential, and the reference potential represents the midpoint of the effective potential amplitude (Vcom, for example). [0093] In this case, on pixels belonging to display unit A (type 1), as shown in FIG. 13( a ), a positive effective potential +V(213) corresponding to gradation 213 is applied during each of the first frame F 1 to the fourth frame F 4 ; and a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during each of the fifth frame F 5 to the eighth frame F 8 . Also, a relation of the potential difference between +V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)<voltage A<the potential difference between +V(213) and the reference potential (effective voltage) is satisfied. [0094] Also, on pixels belonging to display unit B (type 3), as shown in FIG. 13( b ), a positive effective potential +V(213) corresponding to gradation 213 is applied during each of the first frame F 1 and the second frame F 2 ; a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during each of the third frame F 3 to the sixth frame F 6 ; and a positive effective potential +V(213) corresponding to gradation 213 is applied during each of the seventh frame F 7 and the eighth frame F 8 . Here, a relation of the potential difference between +V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)<voltage B<the potential difference between +V(213) and the reference potential (effective voltage) is satisfied. [0095] Also, on pixels belonging to display unit C (type 2), as shown in FIG. 13( c ), a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during each of the first frame F 1 to the fourth frame F 4 ; and a positive effective potential +V(213) corresponding to gradation 213 is applied during each of the fifth frame F 5 to the eighth frame F 8 . Here, a relation of the potential difference between +V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)<voltage C<the difference between +V(213) and the reference potential (effective voltage) is satisfied. [0096] Also, on pixels belonging to display unit D (type 4), as shown in FIG. 13( d ), a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during each of the first frame F 1 and the second frame F 2 ; a positive effective potential +V(213) corresponding to gradation 213 is applied during each of the third frame F 3 to the sixth frame F 6 ; and a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during each of the seventh frame F 7 and the eighth frame F 8 . Here, a relation of the potential difference between +V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)<voltage D<the potential difference between +V(213) and the reference potential (effective voltage) is satisfied. [0097] Further, on pixels belonging to display unit a (type 2), as shown in FIG. 14( a ), a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during each of the first frame F 1 to the fourth frame F 4 ; and a positive effective potential +V(213) corresponding to gradation 213 is applied during each of the fifth frame F 5 to the eighth frame F 8 . Also, a relation of the potential difference between +V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)<voltage a<the potential difference between +V(213) and the reference potential (effective voltage) is satisfied. [0098] Also, on pixels belonging to display unit b (type 4), as shown in FIG. 14( b ), a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during each of the first frame F 1 and the second frame F 2 ; a positive effective potential +V(213) corresponding to gradation 213 is applied during each of the third frame F 3 to the sixth frame F 6 ; and a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during each of the seventh frame F 7 and the eighth frame F 8 . Here, a relation of the potential difference between +V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)<voltage b<the potential difference between +V(213) and the reference potential (effective voltage) is satisfied. [0099] Also, on pixels belonging to display unit c (type 1), as shown in FIG. 14( c ), a positive effective potential +V(213) corresponding to gradation 213 is applied during each of the first frame F 1 to the fourth frame F 4 ; a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during each of the fifth frame F 5 to the eighth frame F 8 . Here, a relation of the potential difference between +V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)<voltage c<the potential difference between +V(213) and the reference potential (effective voltage) is satisfied. [0100] Also, on pixels belonging to display unit d (type 3), as shown in FIG. 14( d ), a positive effective potential +V(213) corresponding to gradation 213 is applied during each of the first frame F 1 and the second frame F 2 ; a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during each of the third frame F 3 to the sixth frame F 6 ; and a positive effective potential +V(213) corresponding to gradation 213 is applied during each of the seventh frame F 7 to the eighth frame F 8 . Here, a relation of the potential difference between +V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)<voltage d<the potential difference between +V(213) and the reference potential (effective voltage) is satisfied. [0101] As a result of the driving shown in FIG. 13( a ) to FIG. 13( d ), the luminance (transmission) of pixels belonging to display unit A (type 1) changes following the pattern shown in FIG. 15( a ) during the first frame F 1 to the eighth frame F 8 ; the luminance (transmission) of pixels belonging to display unit B (type 3) changes following the pattern shown in FIG. 15( b ) during the first frame F 1 to the eighth frame F 8 ; the luminance (transmission) of pixels belonging to display unit C (type 2) changes following the pattern shown in FIG. 15( c ) during the first frame F 1 to the eighth frame F 8 ; and the luminance (transmission) of pixels belonging to display unit D (type 4) changes following the pattern shown in FIG. 15( d ) during the first frame F 1 to the eighth frame F 8 . Here, FIG. 17( a ) to FIG. 17( h ) schematically show the average luminance of pixels belonging to respective display units A to D during each of the frames (first frame F 1 -eighth frame F 8 ), and FIG. 17( i ) schematically shows the total display of the pixels belonging to the respective display units A to D during the first frame F 1 to the eighth frame F 8 . [0102] Also, as a result of the driving shown in FIG. 14( a ) to FIG. 14( d ), the luminance (transmission) of pixels belonging to display unit a (type 2) changes following the pattern shown in FIG. 16( a ) during the first frame F 1 to the eighth frame F 8 ; the luminance (transmission) of pixels belonging to display unit b (type 4) changes following the pattern shown in FIG. 16( b ) during the first frame F 1 to the eighth frame F 8 ; the luminance (transmission) of pixels belonging to display unit c (type 1) changes following the pattern shown in FIG. 16( c ) during the first frame F 1 to the eighth frame F 8 ; and the luminance (transmission) of pixels belonging to display unit d (type 3) changes following the pattern shown in FIG. 16( d ) during the first frame F 1 to the eighth frame F 8 . Here, FIG. 17( a ) to FIG. 18( h ) schematically show the average luminance of pixels belonging to respective display units a to d during each of the frames (first frame F 1 -eighth frame F 8 ), and FIG. 17( i ) schematically shows the total display of the pixels belonging to the respective display units a to d during the first frame F 1 to the eighth frame F 8 . [0103] As shown in FIG. 15 to FIG. 17 , in Embodiment 2, a cycle is an eight-frame period, and a term is a two-frame period. Pixels included in A or c rise during the first term (F 1 -F 2 ), rise during the second term (F 3 -F 4 ), decay during the third term (F 5 -F 6 ), and stay on hold during the fourth term (F 7 -F 8 ); pixels included in C or a decay during the first term (F 1 -F 2 ), stay on hold during the second term (F 3 -F 4 ), rise during the third term (F 5 -F 6 ), and rise during the fourth term (F 7 -F 8 ); pixels included in B or d rise during the first term (F 1 -F 2 ), decay during the second term (F 3 -F 4 ), stay on hold during the third term (F 5 -F 6 ), and rise during the fourth term (F 7 -F 8 ); pixels included in D or b stay on hold during the first term (F 1 -F 2 ), rise during the second term (F 3 -F 4 ), rise during the third term (F 5 -F 6 ), and decay during the fourth term (F 7 -F 8 ), where “rise” means that the luminance increases during the term, “decay” means that the luminance decreases during the term, and “stay on hold” means that the same luminance is maintained during the term. Here, pixels of different types have luminance peaks at different times in a cycle. That is, within a cycle, the intervals at which luminance peaks of any two different types of pixels appear are whole-number multiples of two (8/4=2) frame period. More specifically, within a cycle, the type 1 pixels have their luminance peaks a two-frame period after the type 3 pixels, the type 4 pixels have their luminance peaks a two-frame period after the type 1 pixels, and the type 2 pixels have their luminance peaks a two-frame period after the type 4 pixels. Further, each of type 1 to 4 pixels has at least two consecutive frame periods at the end of which the luminance becomes higher than the average luminance of the cycle. [0104] Thus, the present liquid crystal display device displays each gradation by changing the luminance of pixels. As a result, the viewing angle characteristics can be improved. Also, by providing four luminance variation patterns (bright/dark patterns) at individual pixels in a cycle when a halftone is displayed (in particular, when a same halftone is displayed at pixels of the same color), as illustrated in FIG. 15( e ) in which luminance variations of pixels belonging to display units A to D are superimposed together, and as illustrated in FIG. 16( e ) in which luminance variations of pixels belonging to display units a to d are superimposed together, the frequency of the display flickering becomes 120 Hz, which is beyond the human recognition range, and also the magnitude of the flickering (flicker amplitude) is reduced. Further, the present liquid crystal display device has at least two consecutive frame periods, at the end of each of which the luminance is higher than the average luminance of the cycle (bright frame period). As a result, the amount of the change in the pixel luminance can be increased and therefore favorable viewing angle characteristics can be realized. [0105] In FIG. 13 and FIG. 14 show the case where effective potentials of the same polarity are applied on pixels during a cycle, and the effective potentials applied on two adjacent pixels are of the same polarity. However, the present invention is not limited to this. For example, as shown in FIG. 18 and FIG. 19 , the polarity of the effective potential applied on pixels during a cycle (F 1 -F 4 ) may be reversed for every frame, and the effective potentials for two adjacent pixels may have opposite polarities. Here, voltage A to voltage D of FIG. 18 and voltage a to voltage d of FIG. 19 each represents the potential difference between the effective potential corresponding to gradation 120 and the reference potential, and the reference potential represents the midpoint of the effective potential amplitude (Vcom, for example). [0106] In this case, on pixels belonging to display unit A (type 1), as shown in FIG. 18( a ), a positive effective potential +V(213) corresponding to gradation 213 is applied during each of the first frame F 1 and the second frame F 2 ; a negative effective potential −V(213) corresponding to gradation 213 is applied during each of the third frame F 3 and the fourth frame F 4 ; a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during each of the fifth frame F 5 and the sixth frame F 6 ; and a negative effective potential −V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during each of the seventh frame F 7 and the eighth frame F 8 . [0107] Here, a relation of the potential difference between +V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)=the potential difference between −V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)<voltage A<the potential difference between +V(213) and the reference potential (effective voltage)=the potential difference between −V(213) and the reference potential (effective voltage) is satisfied. [0108] Also, on pixels belonging to display unit B (type 3), as shown in FIG. 18( b ), a negative effective potential −V(213) corresponding to gradation 213 is applied during each of the first frame F 1 and the second frame F 2 ; a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during each of the third frame F 3 and the fourth frame F 4 ; a negative effective potential −V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during each of the fifth frame F 5 and the sixth frame F 6 ; and a positive effective potential +V(213) corresponding to gradation 213 is applied during each of the seventh frame F 7 and the eighth frame F 8 . [0109] Here, a relation of the potential difference between +V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)=the potential difference between −V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)<voltage B<the potential difference between +V(213) and the reference potential (effective voltage)=the potential difference between −V(213) and the reference potential (effective voltage) is satisfied. [0110] Also, on pixels belonging to display unit C (type 2), as shown in FIG. 18( c ), a negative effective potential −V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during each of the first frame F 1 and the second frame F 2 ; a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during each of the third frame F 3 and the fourth frame F 4 ; a negative effective potential −V(213) corresponding to gradation 213 is applied during each of the fifth frame F 5 and the sixth frame F 6 ; a positive effective potential +V(213) corresponding to gradation 213 is applied during each of the seventh frame F 7 and the eighth frame F 8 . [0111] Here, a relation of the potential difference between +V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)=the potential difference between −V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)<voltage C<the potential difference between +V(213) and the reference potential (effective voltage)=the potential difference between −V(213) and the reference potential (effective voltage) is satisfied. [0112] Also, on pixels belonging to display unit D (type 4), as shown in FIG. 18( d ), a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during each of the first frame F 1 and the second frame F 2 ; a negative effective potential −V(213) corresponding to gradation 213 is applied during each of the third frame F 3 and the fourth frame F 4 ; a positive effective potential +V(213) corresponding to gradation 213 is applied during each of the fifth frame F 5 and the sixth frame F 6 ; a negative effective potential −V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during each of the seventh frame F 7 and the eighth frame F 8 . [0113] Here, a relation of the potential difference between +V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)=the potential difference between −V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)<voltage D<the potential difference between +V(213) and the reference potential (effective voltage)=the potential difference between −V(213) and the reference potential (effective voltage) is satisfied. [0114] Further, on pixels belonging to display unit a (type 2), as shown in FIG. 19( a ), a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during each of the first frame F 1 and the second frame F 2 ; a negative effective potential −V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during each of the third frame F 3 and the fourth frame F 4 ; a positive effective potential +V(213) corresponding to gradation 213 is applied during each of the fifth frame F 5 and the sixth frame F 6 ; a negative effective potential −V(213) corresponding to gradation 213 is applied during each of the seventh frame F 7 and the eighth frame F 8 . [0115] Here, a relation of the potential difference between +V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)=the potential difference between −V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)<voltage a<the potential difference between +V(213) and the reference potential (effective voltage)=the potential difference between −V(213) and the reference potential (effective voltage) is satisfied. [0116] Also, on pixels belonging to display unit b (type 4), as shown in FIG. 19( b ), a negative effective potential −V(0) corresponding gradation 0 is applied during each of the first frame F 1 and the second frame F 2 ; a positive effective potential +V(213) corresponding to gradation 213 is applied during each of the third frame F 3 and the fourth frame F 4 ; a negative effective potential −V(213) corresponding to gradation 213 is applied during each of the fifth frame F 5 and the sixth frame F 6 ; and a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during each of the seventh frame F 7 and the eighth frame F 8 . [0117] Here, a relation of the potential difference between +V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)=the potential difference between −V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)<voltage b<the potential difference between +V(213) and the reference potential (effective voltage)=the potential difference between −V(213) and the reference potential (effective voltage) is satisfied. [0118] Also, on pixels belonging to display unit c (type 1), as shown in FIG. 19( c ), a negative effective potential −V(213) corresponding to gradation 213 is applied during each of the first frame F 1 and the second frame F 2 ; a positive effective potential +V(213) corresponding to gradation 213 is applied during each of the third frame F 3 and the fourth frame F 4 ; a negative effective potential −V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during each of the fifth frame F 5 and the sixth frame F 6 ; and a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during each of the seventh frame F 7 and the eighth frame F 8 . [0119] Here, a relation of the potential difference between +V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)=the potential difference between −V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)<voltage c<the potential difference between +V(213) and the reference potential (effective voltage)=the potential difference between −V(213) and the reference potential (effective voltage) is satisfied. [0120] Also, on pixels belonging to display unit d (type 3), as shown in FIG. 19( d ), a positive effective potential +V(213) corresponding to gradation 213 is applied during each of the first frame F 1 and the second frame F 2 ; a negative effective potential −V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during each of the third frame F 3 and the fourth frame F 4 ; a positive effective potential +V(0) corresponding to gradation 0 is applied during each of the fifth frame F 5 and the sixth frame F 6 ; and a negative effective potential −V(213) corresponding to gradation 213 is applied during each of the seventh frame F 7 and the eighth frame F 8 . [0121] Here, a relation of the potential difference between +V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)=the potential difference between −V(0) and the reference potential (effective voltage)<voltage d<the potential difference between +V(213) and the reference potential (effective voltage)=the potential difference between −V(213) and the reference potential (effective voltage) is satisfied. [0122] Here, as a result of the driving as shown in FIG. 18( a ) to FIG. 18( d ), the luminance (transmission) of pixels belonging to display unit A (type 1) changes following the pattern shown in FIG. 15( a ) during the first frame F 1 to the eighth frame F 8 ; the luminance (transmission) of pixels belonging to display unit B (type 3) changes following the pattern shown in FIG. 15( b ) during the first frame F 1 to the eighth frame F 8 ; the luminance (transmission) of pixels belonging to display unit C (type 2) changes following the pattern shown in FIG. 15( c ) during the first frame F 1 to the eighth frame F 8 ; and the luminance (transmission) of pixels belonging to display unit D (type 4) changes following the pattern shown in FIG. 15( d ) during the first frame F 1 to the eighth frame F 8 . [0123] Also, as a result of the driving as shown in FIG. 19( a ) to FIG. 19( d ), the luminance (transmission) of pixels belonging to display unit a (type 2) changes following the pattern shown in FIG. 16( a ) during the first frame F 1 to the eighth frame F 8 ; the luminance (transmission) of display unit b (type 4) changes following the pattern shown in FIG. 16( b ) during the first frame F 1 to the eighth frame F 8 ; the luminance (transmission) of pixels belonging to display unit c (type 1) changes following the pattern shown in FIG. 16( c ) during the first frame F 1 to the eighth frame F 8 ; and the luminance (transmission) of pixels belonging to display unit d (type 3) changes following the pattern shown in FIG. 16( d ) during the first frame F 1 to the eighth frame F 8 . [0124] In the present liquid crystal display device, as shown in FIG. 2 and FIGS. 6 to 19 , preferably a display unit composed of type 1 pixels and a display unit imposed of type 3 pixels are disposed adjacent to each other in the row direction; a display unit composed of type 3 pixels and a display unit composed of type 2 pixels are disposed adjacent to each other in the row direction; a display unit composed of type 2 pixels and a display unit composed of type 4 pixels are disposed adjacent to each other in the row direction; and a display unit composed of type 4 and a display unit composed of type 1 pixels are disposed adjacent to each other in the row direction. Further, preferably, a display unit composed of type 1 pixels and a display unit composed of type 2 pixels are disposed adjacent to each other in the column direction; and a display unit composed of type 3 pixels and a display unit composed of type 4 pixels are disposed adjacent to each other. This way, the motion picture display quality can be improved. [0125] FIG. 20 schematically shows the configuration of a liquid crystal panel in the present liquid crystal display device and an example of driving the liquid crystal panel. In the present liquid crystal panel, two data signal lines S 1 and S 21 are provided for each column of pixels, and the pixel electrode included in one of the two pixels disposed adjacent to each other in the same column of pixels and the pixel electrode included in the other of the pixels are connected to different data signal lines through transistors. Two scan signal lines are selected at a time, and effective potentials having opposite polarities are applied on the respective two data signal lines S 1 and S 2 for each column of pixels. For example, in FIG. 20( a ) (corresponding to the first frame F 1 of FIG. 10) , scan signal lines G 1 and G 2 are selected, and on each of the pixel electrodes PE connected to the scan signal line G 1 and the data signal line S 1 through transistors, a positive effective potential (the potential difference between this effective potential and the reference potential is called effective voltage) is written, and on each of the pixel electrodes PE connected to the scan signal line G 2 and the data signal line S 2 through transistors, a negative effective potential (the potential difference between this effective potential and the reference potential is called effective voltage) is written. Also, in FIG. 20( b ) (this corresponds to the first frame F 1 of FIG. 10) , which illustrates a view 1 H (horizontal scan period) after the FIG. 20( a ), scan signal lines G 3 and G 4 are selected, and on each of the pixel electrodes PE connected to the scan signal line G 3 and the data signal line S 1 through transistors, a positive effective potential (the potential difference between this effective potential and the reference potential is called effective voltage) is written, and on each of the pixel electrodes PE connected to the scan signal line G 4 and the data signal line S 2 through transistors, a negative effective potential (the potential difference between this effective potential and the reference potential is called effective voltage) is written. [0126] In order to display a same halftone continuously, the present liquid crystal display device only needs to have: a type 1 pixel that rises during the first term, rises or stays on hold during the second term, decays during the third term, and decays or stays on hold during the fourth term; a type 2 pixel that decays during the first term, decays or stays on hold during the second term, rises during the third term, and rises or stays on hold during the fourth term; a type 3 pixel that rises or stays on hold during the first term, decays during the second term, decays or stays on hold during the third term; and rises during the fourth term; and a type 4 pixel that decays or stays on hold during the first term, rises during the second term, rises or stays on hold during the third term, and decays during the fourth term. The waveform of the luminance variations of pixels of respective types is not limited to trapezoidal as the case with Embodiments 1 and 2. [0127] For example, as shown in FIG. 21 , the luminance variation waveform of each pixel may be rectangular. In this case, pixels included in A rise during the first term (F 1 ), stay on hold during the second term (F 2 ), decay during the third term (F 3 ), and stay on hold during the fourth term (F 4 ); pixels included in C decay during the first term (F 1 ), stay on hold during the second term (F 2 ), rise during the third term (F 3 ), and stay on hold during the fourth term (F 4 ); pixels included in B stay on hold during the first term (F 1 ), decay during the second term (F 2 ), stay on hold during the third term (F 3 ), and rise during the fourth term (F 4 ); and pixels included in D stay on hold during the first term (F 1 ), rise during the second term (F 2 ), stay on hold during the third term (F 3 ), and decay during the fourth term (F 4 ). In FIG. 21 , a cycle is composed of four frames. However, a cycle may be an eight-frame period, and a term may be a two-frame period. In the case of the rectangular waveform as shown in FIG. 21 , the effective voltage to be applied on pixels (i.e., signal potential supplied to the pixels) during each frame may be set in consideration of the number of frame periods in a term, the frame frequency, display gradation, liquid crystal characteristics, and the like, so that the amount of the luminance change in a cycle is increased (to improve the viewing angle characteristics). In FIG. 21 , the frame frequency is 240 Hz (quadruple speed). [0128] Also, as shown in FIG. 22 , the luminance variation waveform of each pixel may be triangular. In this case, pixels included in A rise during the first term (F 1 ), rise during the second term (F 2 ), decay during the third term (F 3 ), and decay during the fourth term (F 4 ); pixels included in C decay during the first term (F 1 ), decay during the second term (F 2 ), rise during the third term (F 3 ), and rise during the fourth term (F 4 ); pixels included in B rise during the first term (F 1 ), decay during the second term (F 2 ), decay during the third term (F 3 ), and rise during the fourth term (F 4 ); and pixels included in D decay during the first term (F 1 ), rise during the second term (F 2 ), rise during the third term (F 3 ), and decay during the fourth term (F 4 ). In FIG. 22 , a cycle is composed of four frames, but a cycle may be an eight-frame period and a term may be a two-frame period. In the case of the triangular waveform as shown in FIG. 22 , the effective voltage to be applied on pixels (i.e., signal potential supplied to the pixels) during each frame may be set in consideration of the number of frame periods in a term, frame frequency, display gradation, liquid crystal characteristics, and the like, so that the amount of the luminance change is increased (to improve the viewing angle characteristics). In FIG. 22 , the frame frequency is also 240 Hz (quadruple speed). [0129] The present liquid crystal display device may also be configured such that writing to each of the n pixels (n is an integer of at least 3) is conducted one frame period after any previous writing to the same pixel, and that, with one term composed of a single frame or a plurality of frames and one cycle composed of a first to nth terms, the luminance levels of the individual n pixels change differently from one another during each of the first to the nth terms when data that corresponds to a halftone and sets the average luminance in a cycle of each of the n pixels to an equal level is continuously displayed. As a result of this configuration, the flicker frequency can be increased (to the level unrecognizable to human eyes). [0130] For example, FIG. 8( a ) to FIG. 8( d ) show changes in luminance of four pixels (a pixel belonging to A, a pixel belonging to B, a pixel belonging to C, and a pixel belonging to D) when data that corresponds to a halftone and sets the average luminance in a cycle of each of the pixels to an equal level is continuously displayed, where a term is composed of one frame and a cycle is composed of the first term to the fourth term. In FIG. 8( a ) to FIG. 8( d ), the luminance levels of the four pixels change differently during the first term (F 1 ) (the luminance rises at the pixel belonging to A, rises and then stays on hold at the pixel belonging to B, decays at the pixel C, and stays on hold at the pixel belonging to D); the luminance levels of the four pixels change differently also during the second term (F 2 ) (the luminance at the pixel belonging to A rises and then stays on hold, decays at the pixel belonging to B, stays on hold at pixel belonging to C, and rises at pixels belonging to D); the luminance levels of the four pixels change differently also during the third term (F 3 ) (the luminance decays at the pixel belonging to A, stays on hold at the pixel belonging to B, rises at the pixel belonging to C, and rises and then stays on hold at the pixel belonging to D); and the luminance levels of the four pixels change differently also during the fourth term (F 4 ) (the luminance stays on hold at the pixel belonging to A, rises at the pixel belonging to B, rises and then stays on hold at the pixel belonging to C, and decays at the pixel belonging to D). [0131] Also, for example, FIG. 23( a ) to FIG. 23( d ) show changes in luminance of four pixels (a pixel belonging to A, a pixel belonging to B, a pixel belonging to C, and a pixel belonging to D) when data that corresponds to a halftone and sets the average luminance in a cycle of each of the pixels to an equal level is displayed continuously, where a term is composed of two frames and the first to the fourth terms constitute a cycle. In FIG. 23( a ) to FIG. 23( d ), the luminance levels of the four pixels change differently during the first term (F 1 and F 2 ) (the luminance rises from low to middle (average luminance) at the pixel belonging to A, rises from middle (average luminance) to high at the pixel belonging to B, decays from high to middle (average luminance) at the pixel belonging to C, and decays from middle (average luminance) to low at the pixel belonging to D); the luminance levels of the four pixels change differently also during the second term (F 3 and F 4 ) (the luminance rises from the middle (average luminance) to high at the pixel belonging to A, decays from high to middle (average luminance) at the pixel belonging to B, decays from middle (average luminance) to low at the pixel belonging to C, and rises from low to middle (average luminance) at the pixel belonging to D); the luminance levels of the four pixels change differently also during the third term (F 5 and F 6 ) (the luminance decays from high to middle (average luminance) at the pixel belonging to A, decays from middle (average luminance) to low at the pixel belonging to B, rises from low to middle (average luminance) at the pixel belonging to C, and rises from middle (average luminance) to high at the pixel belonging to D); the luminance levels of the four pixels change differently also during the fourth term (F 7 and F 8 ) (the luminance decays from middle (average luminance) to low at the pixel belonging to A, rises from low to middle (average luminance) at the pixel belonging to B, rises from middle (average luminance) to high at the pixel belonging to C, and decays from high to middle (average luminance) at the pixel belonging to D). [0132] The present invention is not limited to the embodiments described above. Any appropriate modifications of the embodiments described above based on the common technical knowledge, and any combinations of them are also included in embodiments of the present invention. INDUSTRIAL APPLICABILITY [0133] The present liquid crystal display device is suitable for liquid crystal television, for example. DESCRIPTION OF REFERENCE CHARACTERS [0000] F 1 -F 8 first frame-eighth frame [0135] A-D, a-d display unit LUT 1 look-up table LUT 2 look-up table G 1 -G 4 scan signal line S 1 , S 2 data signal line

A liquid crystal display device includes a liquid crystal panel having a plurality of pixels grouped into four types of type 1, type 2, type 3, and type 4; a panel driver circuit connected to the liquid crystal panel to drive the liquid crystal panel; and a display control circuit connected to the panel driver circuit, wherein said display control circuit divides each refresh cycle of the image signal into consecutive first to fourth terms and causes the panel driver circuit to drive the liquid crystal panel to perform a halftone display by changing pixel luminance during each refresh cycle composed of the first to fourth terms, and wherein said display control circuit provides timing signals and gradation data to the panel driver circuit so that, for a given halftone to be displayed in a refresh cycle, pixels belonging to respective types in the liquid crystal panel are driven such that the halftone is generated as averaged over the first to fourth terms.

This is a division of application Ser. No. 07/173,207, filed on Mar. 24, 1988, now U.S. Pat. No. 4,849,518, which is a division of application Ser. No. 07/067,766, on filed June 22, 1987, now U.S. Pat. No. 4,762,838 with priority claimed under 35 USC 120 to PCT application PCT/US85/01685, filed on Aug. 30, 1985. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention is concerned with certain trans-3-[3-(3-hydroxy-2-piperidyl)-2-oxopropyl]quinazolin-4-(3H)-one derivatives, a method of using same as anticoccidial agents, intermediates therefor, and a process for certain intermediates therefor. Coccidiosis, a poultry disease, is caused by several species of protozoan parasites of the genus Eimeria, such as E. acervulina and E. tenella. In particular, E. tenella is the causative agent of a severe and often fatal infection of the ceca of chickens which is manifested by extensive hemorrhage, accumulation of blood in the cecum (a pouch between the large and small intestines) and the passage of blood in the droppings. Essentially, coccidiosis is an intestinal disease which is disseminated by birds picking up the infectious organism in droppings on contaminated litter or ground. By damaging the intestinal wall, the host animal is unable to utilize its food, goes off its feed, and in untreated cases the disease terminates in either the death of the animal or the survival of unthrifty birds known commonly as "culls." Several classes of compounds have been reported to be useful as anticoccidial agents. Among these are various 6-azauracil derivatives (Miller, U.S. Pat. No. 4,239,888; summarizing several additional classes); trans-3-[3-(3-hydroxy-2-piperidyl)-2-oxopropyl]-4(3H)-quinazolinone (febrifugine; The Merck Index, Tenth Edition, monograph No. 3881); and trans-7-bromo-6-chloro-3-[3-(3-hydroxy-2-piperidyl)-2-oxopropyl]-4-(3H)-quinazolinone (halofuginone; The Merck Index, Tenth Edition, monograph No. 4479). Such anticoccidial compounds are more broadly defined by Waletzky et al., U.S. Pat. No. 3,320,124 (Re. 26,833); and Jolly et al., U.S. Pat. No. 4,252,947. European patent application 98589 broadly discloses structurally related hydrazine derivatives of trans-3-[3-(3-hydroxy-2-piperidyl)-2-oxopropyl]quinazolin-4(3H)-ones as anticoccidial agents. Structurally related compounds are also reported to be useful in combatting theileriosis in cattle (Schein, U.S. Pat. No. 4,340,596). Although not in any manner specifically disclosed, the broad genus of Schein can be selectively chosen so as to define instant 6-trifluoromethyl-3-[3-(3-hydroxypiperid-2-yl)-2-oxopropyl]quinazolin-4(3H)-one. The present anticoccidial activity of the novel species is most surprising in view of the fact that the isomeric 7-trifluoromethyl analog (also defined by Schein's broad genus) is lacking in instant anticoccidial activity. Structurally related compounds, including broad generic disclosure of 3-[3-(3-hydroxy-2-piperidyl)-2-oxopropyl]quinazolin-4(3H)-ones substituted on the aromatic ring with halogen, trifluoromethyl, lower alkylthio, methoxy, phenoxy, and benzyloxy groups, have also been disclosed as antimalarial agents by Baker et al., U.S. Pat. No. 2,694,711; see also Baker et al., U.S. Pat. Nos. 2,651,632 and 2,796,417 for compounds related to present intermediates. Although not in any manner specifically disclosed, a number of the instantly claimed compounds can be defined by said genera, once having knowledge of the present invention. While Baker et al. ('711) specifically disclose the 5-trifluoromethyl analog (isomeric with the present 6-trifluoromethyl analog), it is noteworthy that that compound is lacking in present anticoccidial activity. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Although above febrifugine and halofuginone are useful as anticoccidial agents, we have determined that a number of related compounds (for example, trans-3-[3-(3-hydroxy-2-piperidyl)-2-oxopropyl]quinazolin-4-(3H)-ones substituted on the aromatic ring as follows: 6-phenoxy-7-chloro, 6-(4-hydroxphenoxy)-7-chloro, 7-(4-bromophenoxy), 7-(4-bromophenoxy)-6-chloro, 5-methylthio, 6-(4-fluorobenzylthio)-7-chloro, 7-cyano, 5-trifluoromethyl, 7-trifluoromethyl, or 8-trifluoromethyl) are lacking in useful anticoccidial activity in poultry. In spite of such lack of activity, we have surprisingly discovered a number of compounds, very closely related in structure, which are highly active as anticoccidial agents, as determined by their activity against E. tenella. Thus the present invention is directed to anticoccidial compounds having the formula ##STR1## wherein X is fluoro, chloro, bromo or iodo substituted at the 6- or 7-position; R is (C 1 -C 4 )alkylthio; X 1 is hydrogen or fluoro, chloro, bromo, iodo or methoxy substituted either at the 7- or at the 8-position; and R 1 is cyano, trifluoromethyl, (C 1 -C 4 )alkylthio, 4-picolythio, 3,5-dichlorophenoxy, ##STR2## where Y 1 is hydrogen, fluoro, chloro, bromo or phenoxy; and Y 2 is chloro or bromo; with the proviso that Y 1 is other than hydrogen when X 1 is other than hydrogen, or a pharmaceutically-acceptable acid addition salt thereof. The compounds of the present invention are racemic (not optically active). The heavy and dotted bonds in the various formulae therefore indicate relative, not absolute, stereochemistry. Pharmaceutically-acceptable acid addition salts include, but are not restricted to, those with HCl, HBr, H 2 SO 4 , CH 3 SO 3 H, p--CH 3 C 6 H 4 SO 3 H, lactic acid, fumaric acid, citric acid and the like. Most preferred compounds, because of their ease of preparation and high activity, are of the formula (I), particularly those compounds wherein R 1 is methylthio and X 1 is hydrogen, 7-fluoro, 7-chloro or 7bromo. The present invention also encompasses a method of controlling or preventing coccidiosis in poultry which comprises administering to said poultry an anticoccidially effective amount of a compound of the formula (I) in drinking water or in nutritionally-balanced feed. Also claimed are valuable intermediates of the formula: ##STR3## wherein X, R, X 1 and R 1 are as defined above; R 2 is hydrogen, acetyl or (C 1 -C 4 )alkyl; and R 3 is hydrogen or COOR 4 ; where R is allyl or (C 1 -C 4 )alkyl; with the provisos that at least one of R 2 and R 3 is other than hydrogen, and that R 3 is hydrogen when R 2 is acetyl; and ##STR4## wherein X, R, X 1 and R 1 are as defined above. In addition, we claim a process for preparing a compound of the formula ##STR5## wherein R is (C 1 -C 4 )alkylthio; R 5 and R 6 are each independently (C 1 -C 4 )alkyl; X is fluoro, chloro, bromo or iodo; R 7 is (C 1 -C 4 )alkyl, 4-picolyl or ##STR6## Y 2 is chloro or bromo; and X 3 is fluoro, chloro, bromo or iodo substituted at the 3- or 4-position; which comprises: (a) reaction of a compound of the formula ##STR7## with at least 2 molar equivalents of NH 4 SCN in the presence of substantially 1 molar equivalent of Br 2 in a reaction inert solvent comprising a (C 1 -C 4 )alkanoic acid; (b) solvolyzing the resulting compound having the formula ##STR8## with a least one equivalent of a nucleophile in a reaction inert solvent comprising water or a (C 1 -C 4 )-alkanol; and (c) reacting the resulting thiophenoxide, having the formula ##STR9## with a compound of the formula R.sup.6 X.sup.4 or R.sup.7 X.sup.4 wherein X 4 is a nucleophilically displaceable group, in the same or another reaction inert solvent to form a compound of the formula (VII) or (VIII). The preferred nucleophile is an alkali metal alkoxide, particularly methoxide. The preferred solvent comprises methanol. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The compounds of the present invention are readily prepared by nucleophilic displacement: ##STR10## where in (III), (IV) and (IX), R 2 and R 4 are both defined as above but R 2 is other than hydrogen, and Y 3 is a nuycleophilically displaceable group such as chloro, bromo, iodo or mesylate; followed by solvolytic or hydrolytic removal of the groups R 2 and COOR 4 . Because of their ready availability, preferred compounds of the formula (IX) have Y 3 as bromo, R 2 as methyl and R 4 as methyl or allyl. The nucleophilic displacement reaction between compounds of the formulae (V) or (VI) and (IX) in all cases involves replacement of the leaving group, Y 3 , with a relatively non-nucleophilic nitrogen. For this reason it is essential to employ a base of sufficient strength to form the anion of the compound (V) or (VI) in an amount at least sufficient to neutralize all of the acid (HY 3 ) coproduced in the reaction. Alkali metal (C 1 -C 4 )alkoxides are well suited for this purpose. The reaction is generally carried out in a reaction inert solvent such as a lower alkanol, acetonitrile or dimethylformamide. The solvent should be less acidic than the compound (V) or (VI), so as to facilitate formation of the required anion. Sodium methoxide as base in methanol as solvent represent conditions particularly well suited for the present reaction. The temperature employed for this reaction is best kept below 40° C. (e.g., temperatures in the range of 0°-30° C. are fully satisfactory). It should be high enough to provide a reasonable rate, but not so high as to lead to undue decomposition. As is well known in the art, rate will vary with the nature of the leaving group (e.g. rate: I>Br>Cl), the specific structure of the compound (V) or (VI), the concentration of reagents and the solvent. The reaction time should be such that the reaction is nearly complete [e.g. >95% conversion when equivalent amounts of the compounds (V) or (VI) and (IX) are employed] to maximize yields [e.g. reaction times 1 hour to several hours at ambient temperature are well suited when Y 3 is bromo, the base is sodium methoxide, the solvent is methanol, and the concentration of compound (IX) is in the range 3-10% (w/v)]. Of course, complete reaction can be facilitated by use of an excess of one of the reagents, e.g. an excess of the compound (V) or (VI) when it is the more readily available of the two reagents. The present nucleophilic displacement reactions produce compounds of the above formula (III) or (IV) wherein R 2 is (C 1 -C 4 )alkyl and R 3 is COOR 4 (where R 4 is defined above). The groups R 2 and COOR 4 are readily removed, stepwise or in a single step, to produce the desired compounds of the formula (I) or (II). Thus the (C 1 -C 4 )alkyl ether group is conveniently and selectively removed by the action of BBr 3 in a reaction inert solvent at a temperature ranging from -70° to 0° C. Methylene chloride as solvent is particularly well suited for this purpose, since solutions of BBr 3 therein are commercially available. This method produces intermediate compounds of the formula (III) or (IV) wherein R 2 is hydrogen. The COOR 4 group is then conveniently removed from the latter intermediates by briefly heating with concentrated aqueous HBr, e.g. heating in 48% HBr for 2 to 10 minutes at 80°-150° C.; heating in 6N HCl at or near reflux temperature; or concentrated HBr in glacial acetic acid at 0°-30° C. The latter process generally produces the compound (III) or (IV) wherein R 3 is hydrogen and R 2 is generally acetyl. The latter is removed by mild hydrolysis, e.g., 6N HCl at 10°-30° C. Alternatively, the groups R 2 and R 3 are removed in reverse order, using 33% HBr in acetic acid at 10°-30° C. to remove the group R 3 , followed by heating at or near reflux in 48% aqueous HBr to remove the group R 2 ; or both groups R 2 and R 3 are concurrently removed by use of the latter 48% HBr conditions. The acid addition salts of the compounds of the present invention, if not directly isolated, for example, as the hydrobromide salt directly from the reaction mixture, are obtained by contacting the free base with at least one equivalent of the appropriate acid in a reaction inert solvent. Those salts which do not precipitate directly are isolated by concentration and/or the addition of a non-solvent. Conversely, the free base form is conveniently formed from an acid addition salt by neutralization of the latter in water with recovery of the free base by filtration or extraction into a water immiscible organic solvent. The required starting compounds of the formula (V) or (VI) are generally prepared by methods known in the chemical art. Some of the required starting 2-aminobenzoic acids or esters required in the synthesis of the compounds (V) and (VI) are known, or accessible by known methods. Others, in particular those of the above formula (VII) or (VIII) are now more practically accessible via the presently discovered, improved process for their preparation, as summarized above and as detailed in specific preparations below. The cocciodiostatic activity of the compounds of the present invention is demonstrated as follows. Groups of chicks (e.g. groups of five ten-day old SPF white Leghorn cockerels) are fed a nutritionally complete basal ration into which the test compound is incorporated at various concentrations. The basal ration is generally a commercial chick starter (e.g. Agway Commercial Chick Starter, available from the Agway Feed Co., Franklin, Connecticut), and is presented ad libitum to the chicks 24 hours before infection and continuously thereafter throughout the course of the tests. Twenty-four hours after initiation of the medication the chicks are inoculated orally with 100,000 sporulated oocysts (Eimeria tenella) and the average weight per bird per group determined. In addition, a group of six chicks is fed the basal ration which contains none of the test compound (infected, untreated controls). A further group of six chicks serves as uninfected, untreated controls. The chicks are examined on the fifth and sixth day post-infection for signs of hemorrhage. On the sixth day post-infection, the average body weight per bird per group is determined, the birds necropsied, the cecum examined macroscopically, and a pathology index (average degree of infection [A.D.I.]) determined. Chicks which die prior to the fifth day post-infection are considered as toxic deaths. Those which die five days post-infection or later are considered as deaths due to disease. The degree of pathologic involvement at necropsy is expressed as the average degree based on the following scheme: 0=no cecal lesions; 1=slight lesions; 2=moderate lesions; 3=severe lesions; 4=death. The efficacy of the test compound, at a given level in feed, is judged by comparison of the pathologic index with that of the unmedicated infected controls, expressed as the ratio: ##EQU1## Against E. tenella, the compounds of the present invention generally show a value of said ratio no higher than 0.6 at a feed concentration no higher than 25 p.p.m. The typical range of results obtained with the compounds of the present invention are illustrated as follows: ______________________________________ Ratios at FeedCompound Concentration (ppm)(I)/(II) X/X.sup.1 R/R.sup.1 25 12.5 6.25 3.12______________________________________(II) 7-Cl 6-(4-FC.sub.6 H.sub.5 O) 0.0 0.0 0.33 0.67(I) 6-Cl 8-SCH.sub.3 0.0 0.32 0.73 0.95(II) 7-Br 6-SC.sub.2 H.sub.5 0.10 0.33 1.0 1.0(II) H 6-(3,5-Cl.sub.2 C.sub.6 H.sub.3 O) 0.10 0.95 1.27 1.05______________________________________ It will be noted that a ratio of 0.0 indicates 100% control of pathology due to the infection at the indicated feed concentration. The compounds of this invention are orally administered to poultry in a suitable carrier. Conveniently, the medication is simply carried in the drinking water or in the poultry feed, so that a therapeutic dosage of the agent is ingested with the daily water or poultry ration. The agent can be directly metered into drinking water, preferably in the form of a liquid, water-soluble concentrate (such as aqueous solution of a water soluble salt) or added directly to the feed, as such, or in the form of a premix or concentrate. A premix or concentrate of therapeutic agent in a carrier is commonly employed for the inclusion of the agent in the feed. Suitable carriers are liquid or solid, as desired, such as water, various meals (for example, soybean oil meal, linseed oil meal, corncob meal), and mineral mixes such as are commonly employed in poultry feeds. A particularly effective carrier is the poultry feed itself; that is, a small portion of poultry feed. The carrier facilitates uniform distribution of the active materials in the finished feed with which the premix is blended. This is important because only small proportions of the present potent agents are required. It is important that the compound be thoroughly blended into the premix and, subsequently, the feed. In this respect, the agent may be dispersed or dissolved in a suitable oily vehicle such as soybean oil, corn oil, cottonseed oil, and the like, or in a volatile organic solvent and then blended with the carrier. It will be appreciated that the proportions of active material in the concentrate are capable of wide variation since the amount of agent in the finished feed may be adjusted by blending the appropriate proportion of premix with the feed to obtain a desired level of therapeutic agent. High potency concentrates may be blended by the feed manufacturer with proteinaceous carrier such as soybean oil meal and other meals, as described above, to produce concentrated supplements which are suitable for direct feeding to poultry. In such instances, the poultry are permitted to consume the usual diet. Alternatively, such concentrated supplements may be added directly to the poultry feed to produce a nutritionally balanced, finished feed containing a therapeutically effective level of one or more of the compounds of this invention. The mixtures are thoroughly blended by standard procedures, such as in a twin shell blender, to ensure homogeneity. It will, of course, be obvious to those skilled in the art that the use levels of the compounds described herein will vary under different circumstances. Continuous low-level medication, during the growing period; that is, during the first 6 to 12 weeks for chickens, is an effective prophylatic measure. In the treatment of established infections, higher levels may be necessary to overcome the infection. The use level in feed will generally be in the range of 3 to 100 ppm. When administered in drinking water, the level which will be that which will provide the same daily dose of medication, i.e. 3 to 100 ppm, factored by the weight ratio of the average daily consumption of feed to the average daily consumption of water. The present invention is illustrated by the following examples. However, it should be understood that the invention is not limited to the specific details of these examples. EXAMPLE 1 Allyl trans-2-[3-(7-chloro-6-(4-chlorophenoxy)-quinazolin-4(3H)-on-3-yl)-2-oxopropyl]-3-methoxypiperidine-1-carboxylate [Formula (IV) with X 1 =7-chloro, R 1 =4-chlorophenoxy, R 2 =methyl and R 4 =allyloxycarbonyl] Under a nitrogen atmosphere in a flame-dried flask at room temperature and with magnetic stirring, 0.921 g (0.003 mol) of 7-chloro-6-(4-chlorophenoxy)quinazolin-4(3H)-one was slurried in 3.0 ml of 1.1N sodium methoxide. After 15 minutes, 1.00 g (0.003 mol) of allyl trans-2-(3-bromo-2-oxopropyl)-3-methoxy-1-piperidinecarboxylate in 10 ml of methanol was added dropwise. After 2 hours, the reaction mixture was evaporated under reduced pressure, and the residue treated with water. The aqueous solution was extracted three times with 75 ml of dichloromethane. The combined extracts were dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate, filtered, and evaporated to afford the title compound: yield 1.28 g (76%); m.p. 138°-141° C. H-NMR(CDCl 3 ); 1.3 to 1.9 (m, 4H), 2.6-3.4 (m, 6H), 3.3 (s, 3H), 4.9 (s, 2H), 4.5-6.2 (m, 5H), 7.1 (q, 4H), 7.6 (s, 1H), 7.8 (d, 2H) ppm. By the same method, other suitably substituted 6-phenoxyquinazolin-4(3H)-ones were converted to allyl trans-2-[3-(7-X 1 substituted)-6-(Y 1 substituted phenoxy)-quinazolin-4(3H)-on-3-yl]-2-oxopropyl]-3-methoxypiperidine-1-carboxylates as follows: ______________________________________Y.sup.1 X.sup.1 m.p.(°C.) yield(%)______________________________________H H 122-125 434-Br H 88-170 574-Cl H foam.sup.(a) 763-Cl H oil.sup.(b) 832-Cl H foam.sup.(b) 893,5-di-Cl H foam.sup.(b) 474-OPh H 110-152 664-Br Cl 142-144 824-Cl Cl 138-141 764-F Cl (b) 544-Cl Br 145-148 673-Cl Cl foam.sup.(b) 623-Br Cl (b) 67______________________________________ .spsp.(a).sup.1 HNMR(CDCl.sub.3)delta: 1.4-2.0 (m, 4 H), 2.6-3.6 (m, 6 H) 3.3 (s, 3 H), 5.2 (s, 2 H), 4.5-6.2 (m, 5 H), 6.9-7.9 (m, 8 H) ppm; .spsp.(b).sup.1 HNMR(CDCl.sub.3), like that of the 4chlorophenoxy analog, is consistent with the assigned structure. EXAMPLE 2 trans-7-Chloro-6-(4-chlorophenoxy)-3-[3-(3-methoxypiperid-2-yl)-2-oxopropyl]-quinazolin-4(3H)-one Dihydrobromide [Compound (IV) with X 1 =chloro, R 1 =4-chlorophenoxy, R 2 =methyl and R 3 =hydrogen] A solution of 1.15 g (0.002 mol) of the title product of the preceding Example in 50 ml of 33% hydrobromic acid in acetic acid was stirred at room temperature for 45 minutes. The solvent was evaporated under reduced pressure and the residue triturated with ethanol. The resulting suspension was filtered to afford the present title compound as a white solid: m.p. 229°-231° C.; yield 0.897 g (68%). By the same method, the other compounds of the preceding Example were converted to the corresponding dihydrobromide salts of trans-7-(X 1 substituted)-6-(Y 1 -substituted phenoxy)-3-[3-(3-methoxypiperidin-2-yl)-2-oxopropyl]quinazolin-4(3H)-ones as follows: ______________________________________Y.sup.1 X.sup.1 m.p.(°C.) yield(%)______________________________________H H 215-218 624-Br H 218-220 354-Cl H --* 263-Cl H 212-219 422-Cl H 233-235 573,5-di-Cl H 240-243 594-OPh H 225-227 824-Br Cl 224-227 654-Cl Cl 229-231 684-F Cl 247-248 684-Cl Br 230-232 503-Cl Cl 235-238 463-Br Cl 221-222 53______________________________________ .spsp.*.sup.1 HNMR(DMSO-d.sub.6)delta: 1.3-2.1 (m, 4 H), 2.9-3.6 (m, 6 H) 3.4 (s, 3 H), 5.2 (s, 2 H), 7.0-7.8 (m, 7 H), 8.4 (s, 1 H). EXAMPLE 3 trans-7-Chloro-6-(4-chlorophenoxy)-3-[3-(3-hydroxypiperid-2-yl)-2-oxopropyl]-quinazolin-4(3H)-one Dihydrobromide [Formula (II) with X 1 =7-chloro and R 1 =4-chlorophenoxy] A solution of 0.80 g (0.0012 mol) of the title product from the preceding Example in 40 ml of 48% hydrobromic acid was heated at reflux for 15 minutes. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature and evaporated to an oil under reduced pressure. The residue was treated with several ml of ethanol and the resulting solution was evaporated. This operation was repeated several times. Finally, the residue was taken up in hot ethanol and the product crystallized upon cooling to room temperature. Filtration gave the title compound: m.p. 185°-188° C.; yield 0.674 g (86%). Analysis calculated for C 22 H 21 Cl 2 N 3 O 4 ·2HBr·1/2H 2 O: C, 41.73; H, 3.82; N, 6.64%. Found: C, 41.74; H, 3.80; N, 6.75%. By the same method the other products of the preceding Example were converted to corresponding dihydrobromide salts of trans-7-(X 1 substituted)-6-(Y 1 substituted phenoxy-3-[3-(3-hydroxypiperid-2-yl)-2-oxopropylquinazolin-4(3H)-ones as follows: ______________________________________Y.sup.1 X.sup.1 m.p.(°C.) yield(%)______________________________________H H 223-224 584-Br H 226-227 534-Cl H foam.sup.(a) 353-Cl H 224-226 792-Cl H 238-239 853,5-di-Cl H foam.sup.(b) 434-OPh H 237-239 694-Br Cl 186-187 944-Cl Cl 185-188 864-F Cl 239-240 524-Cl Br 238-239 883-Cl Cl 247-248 823-Br Cl 250-251 82______________________________________ .spsp.(a).sup.13 CNMR(DMSO-d.sub.6): 20.307, 30.817, 43.155, 54.537, 56.379, 66.768, 112.46, 121.185, 122.213, 126.232, 128.227, 129.336, 130.123, 143.252, 147.019, 154.575, 155.508, 159.215, 200.448. .spsp.(b).sup.1 HNMR(DMSO-d.sub.6): 1.5-2.1 (m, 4 H), 2.9-3.8 (m, 6 H), 5.2 (s, 2 H), 7.2-7.9 (m, 6 H), 8.4 (s, 1 H). EXAMPLE 4 Allyl trans-2-[3-(7-Bromo-6-methylthioquinazolin-4(3H)-on-3-yl)-2-oxopropyl]-3-methoxy-1-piperidinecarboxylate Under a nitrogen atmosphere in a flame dried flask at room temperature and with magnetic stirring, a suspension of 0.43 g (0.00136 mol) of 7-bromo-6-methylthioquinazolin-4(3H)-one formic acid salt in 5 ml of methanol was treated with two equivalents of sodium methoxide in methanol (approximately 1N). After 15 minutes 0.53 g (0.0016 mol) of allyl trans-2-(3-bromo-2-oxopropyl)-3-methoxy-1-piperidinecarboxylate was added in one portion. After being stirred for an hour, the reaction mixture was evaporated under reduced pressure, and the residue was taken up in about 15 ml of water. The aqueous solution was extracted three times with 15 ml portions of dichloromethane. The combined extracts were dried over anhydrous sodium sulfate, filtered, and evaporated to afford the title compound: yield 0.61 g (86%). 1 H-NMR(CDCl 3 ): 1.3-2.0 ppm (multiplet, 4H, CH 3 OCHCH 2 CH 2 CH 2 N), 2.6 (singlet, 3H, CH 3 S), 2.8-3.0 (multiplet, 4H, COCH 2 CH and NCH 2 ), 3.3 (broad singlet, 1H, CH 2 CHNCO), 3.4 (singlet, 3H, CH 3 O), 4.0 (broad doublet, 1H, CHOCH 3 ), 4.6 (broad doublet, 2H, CH 2 CH═CH 2 ), 4.8-5.1 (multiple peaks, 2H, NCH 2 CO), 5.2-5.4 (multiplet, 2H, CH 2 ═CH), 5.9 (octet, 1H, CH═CH 2 ), 7.3 (singlet, 1H, aromatic H), 7.9 (singlet, 1H, aromatic H), 7.95 (singlet, 1H, N═CH--N). EXAMPLE 5 trans-7-Bromo-3-[3-(3-methoxypiperid-2-yl)-2-oxopropyl]-6-methylthioquinazolin-4(3H)-one Dihydrobromide A solution of 0.61 g (0.00116 mol) of the title product of the preceding Example and 30 ml of 33% hydrobromic acid in acetic acid was stirred at room temperature for 30 minutes. The solution was evaporated under reduced pressure and treated with a few ml of ethanol. The ethanolic solution was evaporated, and the residue was treated again with ethanol. Again the solution was evaporated. Ethanol was added a final time. After standing overnight at room temperature the solution afforded the present title compound as a cyrstalline material: m.p. 250°-253° C.; yield 0.11 g (16%); mass spectrum m/e 440 (molecular ion +1), 407 (-32, --CH 3 OH), 137 (parent peak) amongst others. EXAMPLE 6 trans-7-Bromo-3-[3-(3-hydroxypiperid-2-yl)-2-oxopropyl]-6-methylthio quinazolin-4(3H)-one Dihydrobromide In a 25 ml round bottom flask, a solution of 0.175 g (0.00029 mol) of the title product of the preceding Example and 10 ml of aqueous 48% hydrobromic acid was immersed in oil bath preheated to 150° C. Heating was continued for 15 minutes. After cooling to nearly room temperature, the reaction mixture was evaporated under reduced pressure. The residue was treated with a few ml of ethanol, and the resulting solution was evaporated. This operation was repeated. Finally the residue was taken up in 50 ml of hot ethanol, and filtered to remove some insoluble matter. The filtrate was concentrated to about 2 ml. Crystals formed and were filtered to give the instant title compound: yield 0.107 g (63%); high resolution mass spectrum m/e 425.0397 (molecular ion with isotope at 427.0416, theory 425.0408). 1 H--NMR(DMSO-d 6 ) 1.4-2.0 ppm (multiplet, 4H, HOCHCH 2 CH 2 CH 2 N), 2.6 (singlet, 3H, SCH 3 ), 2.8-3.0 (multiplet, 2H, NCH 2 ), 3.1-3.6 (multiplet, 4H, CH 2 N, CHOH, CH 2 CHN), 5.1 (singlet, 2H, NCH 2 CO), 5.6 (doublet, 1H, OH), 7.8 (singlet, 1H, aromatic H), 8.0 (singlet, 1H, aromatic H), 8.2 (singlet, 1H, N═CH--N). EXAMPLE 7 Allyl trans-2-[3-(7-Bromo-6-ethylthioquinazolin-4(3H)-on-3-yl)-2-oxopropyl]-3-methoxy-1-piperidinecarboxylate In the manner of Example 4, 0.743 g (0.00224 mol) of 7-bromo-6-ethylthioquinazolin-4(3H)-one formic acid salt and 0.750 g (0.00224 mol) of allyl trans-2-(3-bromo-2-oxopropyl)-3-methoxy-1-piperidinecarboxylate were converted into the title compound. After flash chromatography on silica gel (eluant 3% methanol in chloroform) there was obtained the pure product: yield 0.61 g (51%) mass spectrum m/e 537 (molecular ion with expected isotope pattern), 41 (parent peak, CH 2 ═CH--CH 2 +) among others. 1 H--NMR(CDCl 3 ) 1.4 ppm (triplet, 3H, SCH 2 CH 3 ), 1.4-2.1 (multiplet, 4H, OCHCH 2 CH 2 CH 2 N), 2.8-3.4 (multiplet, 6H, NCH 2 , SCH 2 CH 3 , COCH 2 CH), 3.4 (singlet, 3H, OCH 3 ), 4.0 (broad singlet, 1H, CHNCO), 4.6 (doublet, 2H, CH 2 CH═CH 2 ), 5.0 (singlet, 2H, NCH 2 CO), 5.0-5.5 (multiplet, 2H, CH═CH 2 ), 5.6-6.1 (octet, 1H, CH 2 ═CH), 7.3 (singlet, 1H, aromatic H), 7.9 (singlet, 2H, aromatic H, N═CH--N). EXAMPLE 8 trans-7-Bromo-3-[3-(3-methoxypiperid-2-yl)-2-oxopropyl]-6-ethylthioquinzolin-4(3H)-one Dihydrobromide In the manner of Example 5, 0.61 g (0.00113 mol) of the title product of the preceding Example was transformed into present title compound: yield 0.316 g (45%); m.p. 225°-228° C.; mass spectrum m/e 454 (molecular ion+H with expected isotope pattern), 421 (-32, --CH 3 OH), 137 (parent peak) among others. 1 H--NMR(DMSO-d 6 ) 1.35 ppm (triplet, 3H, SCH 2 CH 3 ), 1.4-2.2 (multiplet, 4H, OCHCH 2 CH 2 CH 2 N), 2.9-3.1 (multiplet, 2H, CH 2 N), 3.1-3.3 (multiplet, 5H, SCH 2 CH 3 , COCH 2 CH) 3.3 (singlet, 3H, OCH 3 ), 3.6 (broad singlet, 1H, CH 3 OCH), 5.1 (singlet, 2H, NCH 2 CO), 7.9 (singlet, 1H, aromatic H), 8.0 (singlet, 1H, aromatic H), 8.2 (singlet, 1H, N═CH--N). EXAMPLE 9 trans-7-Bromo-3-[3-(3-hydroxypiperid-2-yl)-2-oxopropyl]-6-ethylthioquinazolin-4(3H)-one Dihydrobromide In the manner of Example 6, 0.31 g (0.00058 mol) of title product of the preceding Example was converted to present title compound: yield 0.263 g (87%); mass spectrum m/e 439 (molecular ion with expected isotope pattern), 421 (-18, --H 2 O), 137, 96, 82 (parent peak) among others. 1 H--NMR(DMSO-d 6 ) 1.35 ppm (triplet, 3H, SCH 2 CH 3 ), 1.4-2.0 (multiplet, 4H, OCHCH 2 CH 2 CH 2 N), 2.8-3.0 (multiplet, 2H, NCH 2 ), 3.1-3.6 (multiplet, 6H, SCH 2 CH 3 , COCH 2 CHCHO), 5.1 (singlet, 2H, NCH 2 CO), 7.9 (singlet, 1H, aromatic H), 8.0 (singlet, 1H, aromatic H), 8.2 (singlet, 1H, N═CH--N). EXAMPLE 10 Allyl trans-2-[3-(7-Fluoro-6-methylthioquinazolin-4(3H)-on-3-yl)-2-oxopropyl]-3-methoxy-1-piperidinecarboxylate In the manner of Example 4, 0.462 g (0.0018 mol) of 7-fluoro-6-methylthioquinazolin-4(3H)-one formic acid salt and 0.750 g (0.00224 mol) of allyl trans-2-(3-bromo-2-oxopropyl)-3-methoxy-1-piperidinecarboxylate were converted into the title compound: yield 0.50 g (60%). 1 H--NMR(CDCl 3 ) 1.4-2.1 ppm (multiplet, 4H, OCHCH 2 CH 2 CH 2 N), 2.6 (singlet, 3H, SCH 3 ), 2.8-3.4 (multiplet, 4H, NCH 2 , COCH 2 CH), 3.4 (singlet, 3H, OCH 3 ), 4.0 (broad singlet, 1H, CHNCO), 4.6 (doublet, 2H, CH 2 CH═CH 2 ), 5.0 (singlet, 2H, NCH 2 CO), 5.0-5.5 (multiplet, 2H, CH═CH 2 ), 5.6-6.1 (octet, 1H, CH 2 ═CH), 7.3 (doublet, 1H, aromatic H), 7.9 (singlet, 1H, N═CH--N), 8.0 (doublet, 1H, aromatic H). EXAMPLE 11 trans-7Fluoro-3-[3-(3-methoxypiperid-2-yl)-2-oxopropyl]-6-methylthioquinazolin-4(3H)-one Dihydrobromide In the manner of Example 5, 0.48 g (0.001 mol) of the title product of the preceding Example was transformed into the instant title compound: yield 0.324 g (58%); m.p. 214°-216° C. EXAMPLE 12 trans-7-Fluoro-3-[3-(3-hydroxypiperid-2-yl)-2-oxopropyl]-6-methylthioquinazolin-4(3H)-one Dihydrobromide In the manner of Example 6, 0.32 g (0.00059 mol) of the title product of the preceding Example was converted to present title compound: yield 0.188 g (60%); mass spectrum m/e 366 (molecular ion+H), 347 (-18, --H 2 O), 137 (parent peak) among others. 1 H--NMR(DMSO-d 6 ) 1.4-2.1 ppm (multiplet, 4H, OCHCH 2 CH 2 CH 2 N), 2.6 (singlet, 3H, SCH 3 ), 2.8-3.0 (multiplet, 2H, NCH 2 ), 3.1-3.7 (multiplet, 4H, COCH 2 CHCHO), 5.1 (singlet, 2H, NCH 2 CO), 7.5 (doublet, 1H, aromatic H), 7.9 (doublet, 1H, aromatic H), 8.3 (singlet, 1H, N═CH--N), 8.9 (broad singlet, 2H, NH 2 ). EXAMPLE 13 Allyl trans-2-[3-(7-Iodo-6-methylthioquinazolin-4(3H)-on-3-yl)-2-oxopropyl]-3-methoxy-1-piperidinecarboxylate In the manner of Example 4, 1.09 g (0.003 mol) of 7-iodo-6-methylthioquinazolin-4(3H)-one formic acid salt and 1.0 g (0.003 mol) of allyl trans-2-(3-bromo-2-oxopropyl)-3-methoxy-1-piperidinecarboxylate were converted into the title compound: yield 0.53 g (31%); mass spectrum m/e 571 (molecular ion), 539 (-32, --CH 3 OH), 221 (parent peak). 1 H--NMR(CDCl 3 ) 1.4-2.1 ppm (multiplet, 4H, OCHCH 2 CH 2 CH 2 N), 2.6 (singlet, 3H, SCH 3 ), 2.8-3.4 (multiplet, 4H, NCH 2 , COCH 2 CH), 3.4 (singlet, 3H, OCH 3 ), 4.0 (broad singlet, 1H, CHNCO), 4.6 (doublet, 2H, CH 2 CH═CH 2 ), 5.0 (singlet, 2H, NCH 2 CO), 5.0-5.5 (multiplet, 2H, CH═CH 2 ), 5.6-6.1 (octet, 1H, CH 2 ═ CH), 7.7 (singlet, 1H, aromatic H), 7.8 (singlet, 1H, N═CH--N), 8.2 (singlet, 1H, aromatic H). EXAMPLE 14 trans-7-Iodo-3-[3-(3-methoxypiperid-2-yl)-2-oxopropyl]-6-methylthioquinazolin-4(3H)-one Dihydrobromide In the manner of Example 5, 0.53 g (0.00093 mol) of the title product of the preceding Example was transformed into instant title compound: yield 0.264 g (44%); m.p. 210°-230° C.; mass spectrum m/e 488 (molecular ion+H+), 469 (-18, --H 2 O?), 455 (-32, --CH 3 OH), 137 (parent peak among others. 1 H--NMR(DMSO-d 6 ) 1.2-2.0 ppm (multiplet, 4H, OCHCH 2 CH 2 CH 2 N), 2.6 (singlet, 3H, SCH 3 ), 2.8-3.0 (multiplet, 2H, NCH 2 ), 3.1-3.7 (multiplet, 4H, COCH 2 CHCHO), 3.3 (singlet, 3H, OCH 3 ), 5.1 (singlet, 2H, NCH 2 CO), 7.7 (singlet, 1H, aromatic H), 8.2 (singlet, 1H, aromatic H), 8.25 (singlet, 1H, N═CH--N), 8.7 (broad singlet, 2H, NH 2 ). EXAMPLE 15 trans-7-Iodo-3-[3-(3-hydroxypiperid-2-yl)-2-oxopropyl]-6-methylthioquinazolin-4(3H)-one Dihydrobromide In the manner of Example 6, 0.262 g (0.0004 mol) of title product of the preceding Example was converted to the title compound: yield 0.234 g (91%); mass spectrum m/e 473 (molecular ion), 455 (-18, --H 2 O), 318 (parent peak) among others. 1 H--NMR(DMSO-d 6 ) 1.2-2.0 ppm (multiplet, 4H, OCHCH 2 CH 2 CH 2 N), 2.6 (singlet, 3H, SCH 3 ), 2.8-3.0 (multiplet, 2H, NCH 2 ), 3.1-3.6 (multiplet, 4H, COCH 2 CHCHO), 5.1 (singlet, 2H, NCH 2 CO), 7.7 (singlet, 1H, aromatic H), 8.2 (singlet, 1H, aromatic H), 8.25 (singlet, 1H, N═CH--N), 8.7 (broad singlet, 2H, NH 2 ). EXAMPLE 16 Allyl trans-2-[3-(6-Chloro-7-methylthioquinazolin-4(3H)-on-3-yl)-2-oxopropyl]-3-methoxy-1-piperidinecarboxylate In the manner of Example 4, 0.679 g (0.003 mol) of 6-chloro-7-methylthioquinazolin-4(3H)-one and 1.0 g (0.003 mol) of allyl trans-2-(3-bromo-2-oxopropyl)-3-methoxy-1-piperidinecarboxylate were converted into the title compound: yield 0.56 g (39%). 1 H--NMR(CDCl 3 ) 1.4-2.2 ppm (multiplet, 4H, OCHCH 2 CH 2 CH 2 N), 2.6 (singlet, 3H, SCH 3 ), 2.8-3.4 (multiplet, 4H, NCH 2 , COCH 2 CH), 3.4 (singlet, 3H, OCH 3 ), 4.0 (broad singlet, 1H, CHNCO), 4.6 (doublet, 2H, CH 2 CH═CH 2 ), 5.0 (singlet, 2H, NCH 2 CO), 5.0-5.5 (multiplet, 2H, CH═CH 2 ), 5.6-6.1 (octet, 1H, CH 2 ═CH), 7.4 (singlet, 1H, aromatic H), 7.9 (singlet, 1H, N═CH--N), 8.2 (singlet, 1H, aromatic H). EXAMPLE 17 trans-6-Chloro-3-[3-(3-methoxypiperid-2-yl)-2-oxopropyl]-7-methylthioquinazolin-4(3H)-one Dihydrobromide In the manner of Example 5, 0.56 g (0.00118 mol) of title product of the preceding Example was transformed into the present title compound: yield 0.27 g (41%); m.p. 225°-255° C.; mass spectrum m/e 396 (molecular ion+H+), 363 (-32, --CH 3 OH), 137 (parent peak) among others; 1 H--NMR(DMSO-d 6 ) 1.4-1.9 ppm (multiplet, 4H, OCHCH 2 CH 2 CH 2 N), 2.6 (singlet, 3H, SCH 3 ), 2.8-3.0 (multiplet, 2H, NCH 2 ), 3.1-3.7 (multiplet, 4H, COCH 2 CHCHO), 3.3 (singlet, 3H, OCH 3 ), 5.1 (singlet, 2H, NCH 2 CO), 7.5 (singlet, 1H, aromatic H), 8.1 (singlet, 1H, aromatic H), 8.25 (singlet, 1H, N═CH--N), 8.7 (broad singlet, 2H, NH 2 ). EXAMPLE 18 trans-6-Chloro-3-[ 3-(3-hydroxypiperid-2-yl)-2-oxopropyl]-7-methylthioquinazolin-4(3H)-one Dihydrobromide In the manner of Example 6, 0.26 g (0.000546 mol) of title product of the preceding Example was converted to the instant title compound: yield 0.104 g (35%); high resolution mass spectrum m/e 363.0835 (molecular ion -18, --H 2 O); 1 H--NMR(DMSO-d 6 ) 1.4-2.0 ppm (multiplet, 4H, OCHCH 2 CH 2 CH 2 N), 2.6 (singlet, 3H, SCH 3 ), 2.8-3.0 (multiplet, 2H, NCH 2 ), 3.1-3.6 (multiplet, 4H, COCH 2 CHCHO), 5.1 (singlet, 2H, NCH 2 CO), 7.5 (singlet, 1H, aromatic H), 8.1 (singlet, 1H, aromatic H), 8.25 (singlet, 1H, N═CH--N), 8.7 (broad singlet, 2H, NH 2 ). EXAMPLE 19 Allyl trans-2-[3-(6-Substituted- 7- or 8-substituted-quinazolin-4(3H)-on-3-yl)-3-methoxypiperidine-1-carboxylates By the method of Example 4, equivalent amounts of the appropriately substituted quinazolin-4(3H)-one and allyl trans-2-(3-bromo-2-oxopropyl)-3-methoxy-1-piperidine-1-carboxylate were converted to the following title products substituted as follows: ______________________________________6-Substituent 7- or 8-Substituent Yield m.p.(°C.)______________________________________methylthio none 79 foam.sup.(a)ethylthio none 81 oil.sup.(b)propylthio none 87 oil.sup.(b)4-bromobenzylthio none 68 119-1214-chlorobenzylthio 7-chloro 49 85-924-bromobenzylthio 7-chloro 44 foam.sup.(b)4-picolylthio 7-chloro 42 oil.sup.(b)methylthio 7-methoxy 53 (c)methylthio 7-chloro 81 oil.sup.(b)ethylthio 7-chloro 78 oil.sup.(b)propylthio 7-chloro 54 (b)methylthio 7-bromo 86 (b)methylthio 7-fluoro 60 (b)methylthio 7-iodo 31 (b)ethylthio 7-bromo 51 (b)methylthio 8-chloro 64 oil.sup.(b)methylthio 8-bromo 48 (b)ethylthio 8-chloro 81 (b)ethylthio 8-bromo 86 (b)chloro 8-methylthio 55 128-133chloro 7-methylthio 39 oil.sup.(b)______________________________________ .spsp.(a).sup.1 HNMR(CDCl.sub.3): 1.4-2.1 (m, 4 H), 2.6 (s, 3 H), 2.8-3.6 (m, 6 H), 3.5 (s, 3 H), 4.6-6.3 (m, 5 H), 5.0 (s, 2 H), 7.6-8.1 (m, 4 H). .spsp.(b).sup.1 HNMR consistent with assigned structure, having key features as in footnote (a). .sup.(c) tlc Rf 0.82 (9:1 CHCl.sub.3 :CH.sub.3 OH). EXAMPLE 20 Allyl trans-2-[3-(7-Chloro-6-[4-bromobenzylthio]quinazolin-4(3H)-on-3-yl)-2-oxopropyl]-3-hydroxypiperidine-1-carboxylate A solution of 0.55 g (0.87 mmol) of the 6-(4-bromobenzylthio)-7-chloro product of the preceding Example in 20 ml of dichloromethane was cooled to -15° C. under argon. While stirring, 4.4 ml of 1.0M boron tribromide in dichloromethane was added dropwise by syringe. The reaction was stirred 30 minutes at -15° C., allowed to warm to 20° C., and stirred an additional 30 minutes. The solution was then poured into 50 ml of saturated aqueous sodium bicarbonate. The aqueous phase was extracted five times with 50 ml portions of dichloromethane. The extracts were combined with the organic layer, dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate, and evaporated to yield the title compound as an oil: yield 0.511 g (95%). This material was used without further purification in the procedure of the next Example. EXAMPLE 21 trans-7-Chloro-3-[3-(3-hydroxypiperid-2-yl)-2-oxopropyl]-6-(4-bromobenzylthio)-quinazolin-4(3H)-one Dihydrochloride A suspension of 0.50 g (0.8 mmol) of the product from the preceding Example in 25 ml of 6N hydrochloric acid was heated at reflux for 30 minutes. The solvent was evaporated and the residue recrystallized from ethanol to afford the title compound as a solid: m.p. 190°-193° C.; yield 137 ml (28%). EXAMPLE 22 Other Allyl trans-2-[3-(6-Substituted-7-Substituted-quinazolin-4(3H)-on-3-yl)-2-oxopropyl]-3-hydroxypiperidine-1-carboxylates By the method of Example 20, the appropriately substituted products of Example 19 were converted to title products substituted as follows: ______________________________________6-Substituent 7-Substituent Yield tlc Rf.sup.(a)______________________________________4-chlorobenzylthio chloro 67 0.714-picolylthio chloro 78 0.47methylthio methoxy 69 0.60______________________________________ .sup.(a) eluant: 9:1 CHCl.sub.3 :CH.sub.3 OH EXAMPLE 23 trans-7-Chloro-3-[3-(3-hydroxypiperid-2-yl)-2-oxopropyl]-6-(4-picolythio)-quinazolin-4(3H)-one Dihydrochloride By the method of Example 21, the 6-(4-picolythio)-7-chloro intermediate of the preceding Example was converted to instant title product as a foam in 61% yield; tlc Rf 0.48 (10:2:1 CHCl 3 :ethanol:conc. NH 4 OH). EXAMPLE 24 trans-7-Chloro-3-[3-(3-hydroxypiperid-2-yl)-2-oxopropyl]-6-(4-chlorobenzylthio)-quinazolin-4(3H)-one Dihydrobromide Using the conditions of Example 3 (refluxing 48% HBr) the 6-(4-chlorobenzylthio)-7-chloro product of Example 22 was converted to the instant title product, m.p. 260°-263° C., in 47% yield. EXAMPLE 25 trans-7-Methoxy-3-[3-(3-hydroxypiperid-2-yl)-2-oxopropyl]-6-methylthioquinazolin-4(3H)-one Dihydrobromide By heating in 48% HBr at 100° C. for 12 minutes, the 6-methylthio-7-methoxy product of Example 22 was converted to the instant title product, isolated in 69% yield as a foam having 1 H--NMR(DMSO-d 6 ) 1.4-2.3 (m, 4H), 2.5 (s, 3H), 2.9-3.8 (m, 6H), 4.0 (s, 3H), 5.2 (s, 2H), 7.2 (s, 1H, 7.7 (s, 1H), 8.5 (s, 1H). EXAMPLE 26 Other trans-6-Substituted-7- or 8-substituted-3-[3-(3-methoxypiperid-2-yl)-2-oxopropyl]-quinazolin-4(3H)-one Dihydrobromides By the method of Example 5, other products of Example 19 were converted to the instant title products substituted as follows: ______________________________________6-Substituent 7- or 8-Substituent Yield m.p.(°C.)______________________________________methylthio none 43 223-225ethylthio none 39 203-205propylthio none 40 (a)4-bromobenzylthio none 38 194-196methylthio 7-chloro 43 234-236ethylthio 7-chloro 34 219-222propylthio 7-chloro 59 212-214methylthio 8-bromo 60 210-214ethylthio 8-chloro 29 211-213ethylthio 8-bromo 48 188-192chloro 7-methylthio 41 225-255chloro 8-methylthio 64 250-253______________________________________ .spsp.(a).sup.1 HNMR(CF.sub.3 CO.sub.2 H) 1.2 (t, 3 H), 1.4-2.4 (m, 6 H), 3.2 (t, 2 H), 3.6 (s, 3 H), 5.6 (s, 2 H), 7.8-8.4 (m, 4 H). EXAMPLE 27 Other trans-6-Substituted-7- or 8-substituted-3-[3-(3-hydroxypiperid-2-yl)-2-oxopropyl]-quinazolin-4(3H)-one Dihydrobromides By the method of Example 6, the products of the preceeding Example are converted to title products substituted as follows: ______________________________________6-Substituent 7- or 8-Substituent Yield m.p.(°C.)______________________________________methylthio none 90 foam.sup.(a)ethylthio none 69 193-195propylthio none 49 203-2054-bromobenzylthio none 45 158-160methylthio 7-chloro 78 233-234ethylthio 7-chloro 45 233-234propylthio 7-chloro 70 220-221methylthio 8-bromo 82 224-226ethylthio 8-chloro 84 228-229ethylthio 8-bromo 59 212-214chloro 7-methylthio 35 250-256chloro 8-methylthio 76 228-230______________________________________ .spsp.(a).sup.13 CNMR(DMSO-d.sub.6) 14.885, 20.226, 30.766, 39.600, 43.160, 54.657, 56.410, 66.718, 121.074, 121.365,126.453, 132.807, 138.681, 147.513, 158.840, 200.193. EXAMPLE 28 Methyl trans-2-[3-(6-Trifluoromethylquinazolin-4(3H)-on-3-yl)-2-oxopropyl]-3-methoxypiperidine-1-carboxylate By the method of Example 4, 6-trifluoromethylquinazolin-4(3H)-one and methyl trans-2-(3-bromo-2-oxopropyl)-3-methoxypiperidine-1-carboxylate were converted into the title compound in 24% yield; m.p. 137°-140° C. 1 H--NMR(CDCl 3 ) 1.4-1.9 (m, 4H), 2.9 (d, 2H), 3.3 (s, 3H), 3.5-3.9 (m, 4H), 3.7 (s, 3H), 5.2 (s, 2H), 7.7-8.7 (m, 4H). EXAMPLE 29 Methyl trans-2-[3-(6-Trifluoromethylquinazolin-4(3H)-on-3-yl)-2-oxopropyl]-3-hydroxypiperidine-1-carboxylate A 35 ml single neck round bottom flask equipped with a magnetic stirring bar was flame dried and then stoppered with a serum cap. Through a syringe needle the flask was evacuated and filled with dry nitrogen four times. A solution of 0.35 g (0.0008 mol) of title product of the preceding Example and 10 ml of dichloromethane was injected into the reaction flask, and with stirring the temperature was lowered to -70° C. Again with a syringe 3.0 ml of 1.0M boron tribromide in dichloromethane was introduced into the reaction vessel. After 10 minutes the reaction temperature was allowed to rise to -10° C. and was held there for 150 minutes. The reaction mixture was then combined with 11 ml of saturated sodium bicarbonate. The aqueous phase was separated and extracted three times with 5 ml portions of dichloromethane. The extracts were combined with the original organic layer, dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate, and evaporated under reduced pressure to furnish the present title compound: yield 0.34 g, 100%; 1 H--NMR(CDCl 3 ) 1.4-1.9 (m, 4H), 2.9 (d, 2H), 3.5-3.9 (m, 4H), 3.7 (s, 3H), 5.2 (s, 2H), 7.7-8.7 (m, 4H). EXAMPLE 30 trans-6-Trifluoromethyl-3-[3-(3-hydroxypiperid-2-yl)-2-oxopropyl]quinazolin-4(3H)-one Dihydrobromide In a 15 ml single-neck round bottom flask equipped with a reflux condenser, a solution of 0.27 g (0.0006 mol) of title product of the preceding Example and 7 ml of 48% aqueous hydrobromic acid was immersed in an oil bath pre-heated to 150° C. Heating was continued for three minutes. The solution was allowed to cool to room temperature, and the volatile components were evaporated under reduced pressure. Ethanol (5 ml) was added to the residue, and again the mixture was evaporated to dryness. This operation was repeated once more to afford a dark residue which was then taken up in 3 ml of ethanol, heated at reflux briefly, and cooled to precipitate title product, 0.13 g (39%), m.p. 185°-190° C. EXAMPLE 31 Allyl trans-2-[3-(6-Cyanoquinazolin-4(3H)-on-3-yl)-2-oxopropyl]-3-methoxypiperidine-1-carboxylate By the method of Example 4, 6-cyanoquinazolin-4(3H)-one and allyl trans-2-(3-bromo-2-oxopropyl)-3-methoxypiperidine-1-carboxylate were converted to title compound in 49% yield; 1 H--NMR(CDCl 3 ) 1.2-1.9 (m, 4H), 2.9 (d, 2H), 2.9-3.5 (m, 4H), 4.6-6.2 (m, 5H), 5.2 (s, 2H), 7.8-8.6 (m, 4H). EXAMPLE 32 Allyl trans-2-[3-(6-Cyanoquinazolin-4(3H)-on-3-yl)-2-oxopropyl]-3-hydroxypiperidine-1-carboxylate By the method of Example 20, title product of the preceding Example was converted to instant title product in 94% yield; 1 H--NMR(DMSO-d 6 ) 1.2-1.9 (m, 4H), 2.9-3.8 (m, 6H), 4.5-6.2 (m, 5H), 5.1 (s, 2H), 7.8-8.6 (m, 4H). EXAMPLE 33 trans-6-Cyano-3-[3-(3-acetoxypiperid-2-yl)-2-oxopropyl]quinazolin-4(3H)-one Dihydrobromide 1.34 g (0.0032 mol) of title product of the preceding Example was dissolved in 50 ml of 33% hydrobromic acid in glacial acetic acid at 0° C. and stirred for 30 minutes. The reaction mixture was poured into 750 ml of ether, and the resulting precipitate triturated several additional times with ether, and once with cold acetonitrile to give 880 mg of crude product, m.p. 226°-228°. This was recrystallized from ethanol to afford 535 mg (32%) of the title compound, m.p. 227°-229° C. EXAMPLE 34 trans-6-Cyano-3-[3-(3-hydroxypiperid-2-yl)-2-oxopropyl]quinazolin-4(3H)-one Dihydrochloride Title product of the preceding Example, 0.25 g (0.00047 mol) was dissolved in 10.0 ml of 6N hydrochloric acid and allowed to stir at room temperature for 5 hours or until starting material is no longer detected by thin layer chromatography. The solvent was then removed at 26°-28° C. under vacuum and the resulting crude solid triturated with acetone to give 179 mg (96%) of the title compound, m.p. 229°-230° C. Analysis calculated for C 17 H 18 N 4 O 3 ·2HCl·1.5H 2 O: C, 47.90; H, 5.44; N, 13.14%. Found: C, 48.00; H, 5.15; N, 12.87%. PREPARATION 1 4-Chloro-5-(4-chlorophenoxy)-2-nitrobenzoic Acid To 30 ml of dry diglyme under a nitrogen atmosphere was added 0.960 g (0.02 mol) of sodium hydride dispersion in mineral oil (50%). The solution was cooled to 10° C. and 1.28 g (0.01M) 4-chlorophenol in 15 ml of dry diglyme was added dropwise while maintaining the temperature at 10° C. This was followed by the dropwise addition of 2.36 g (0.01 mol) of 4,5-dichloro-2-nitrobenzoic acid in 15 ml of dry diglyme. The reaction mixture was then heated to 153° C. (oil bath) for 1 hour and 45 minutes. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature and poured into an ice/water mixture. The pH was then adjusted to 1.5 with 6N hydrochloric acid. The solution was extracted with ethyl acetate, and the organic layer dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate. The solvent was removed and the crude solid triturated with hexane, followed by recrystallization from carbon tetrachloride to give the title compound: yield 1.65 g (50%) m.p. 160°-162° C. By the same method, the following other 2-nitrobenzoic acids were prepared from the appropriate Y 1 substituted phenol and 5-X 1 substituted 2-nitrobenzoic ______________________________________Y.sup.1 X.sup.1 m.p.(°C.) Yield(%)______________________________________H H 149-152 584-Br H 153-156 404-Cl H 140-148 403-Cl H 160-161 312-Cl H 105-115 503,5-diCl H 195-197 374-OPh H 132-134 574-Br Cl 208-210 764-Cl Cl 160-162 504-F F 178-181 504-Cl Br 147-150 383-Cl Cl 167-169 503-Br Cl 168-170 44______________________________________ PREPARATION 2 2-Amino-4-chloro-5-(4-chlorophenoxy)benzoic Acid A solution of title product of the preceding Preparation (4.14 g, 0.013 mol) in 100 ml of ethanol was hydrogenated at 50 psig over Raney nickel (4.14 g, water moist). After one hour, the reaction mixture was filtered and the mother liquor evaporated under reduced pressure to give 3.37 g (90%) of the title compound, m.p. 160°-170° C. This material was used in subsequent reactions without further purification. By the same method, the other 2-nitrobenzoic acid derivatives of the preceding Preparation were converted to 2-amino-4-(X 1 substituted)-5-(Y 1 substituted phenoxy)-benzoic acids as follows: ______________________________________Y.sup.1 X.sup.1 m.p.(°C.) Yield(%)______________________________________H H 142-144 834-Br H 159-160 444-Cl H 138-148 853-Cl H 146-150 802-Cl H foam* 863,5-diCl H 180-187 734-OPh H 132-134 814-Br Cl 208-210 764-F Cl 192-193 794-Cl Br 194-196 933-Cl Cl 174-176 563-Br Cl 177-180 81______________________________________ .spsp.*.sup.1 HNMR(DMSO-d.sub.6) shows multiplet at 6.7-7.8 ppm. PREPARATION 3 7-Chloro-6-(4-chlorophenoxy)quinazolin-4-(3H)-one [Formula (VI) with X 1 =7-chloro and R 1 =4-chlorophenoxy] A suspension of 3.3 g (0.011 mol) of title product of the preceding Preparation and 3.04 g (0.068 mol) of formamide was heated at 155° C. (oil bath). Within ten minutes the solid went into solution. After a total reaction time of 2 hours and 30 minutes, the solution was cooled and poured into water. The crude product was filtered and recrystallized from isopropyl alcohol. Yield 1.91 g (56%); m.p. 250°-252° C. By the same method other products of the preceding Preparation were converted to 7-(X 1 substituted)-6-(Y 1 substituted phenoxy)quinazolin-4(3H)-ones [of the formula (VI)] as follows: ______________________________________Y.sup.1 X.sup.1 m.p.(°C.) Yield(%)______________________________________H H 196-199 834-Br H 219-222 624-Cl H 207-211 833-Cl H 206-207 852-Cl H 190-193 663,5-diCl H 237-238 864-OPh H 196-197 364-Br 7-Cl 278-279 434-F 7-Cl 213-214 354-Cl 7-Br 267-269 623-Cl 7-Cl 266-267 433-Br 7-Cl 258-260 51______________________________________ PREPARATION 4 5-Bromo-2-methylaniline A suspension of 300 g (1.39 mol) of 4-bromo-2-nitrotoluene 370 g (9.25 mol) of sodium hydroxide, and 4 liters of water was treated with 400 g (3.7 mol) of formamidine sulfinic acid. The mixture was heated under reflux overnight, and then steam distilled. When 16 liters of distillate had been collected, the distillation was stopped. The distillate was separated into aqueous and organic layers. The aqueous layer was extracted with ethyl acetate three times. The extracts were combined with the organic layer, dried over anhydrous sodium sulfate, filtered, and evaporated under reduced pressure to furnish the product as an oil: b.p. 84° C. at 0.075 mmHg; yield 231.1 g (90%). This material has been prepared previously by reducing the nitro compound with iron [J. Frejka and F. Vymetal, Coll. Czech. Chem. Commun., 7, 436-443 (1935); C. A. 30, 1370 (1936)]. PREPARATION 5 N-(4-Bromo-2-methylphenyl)acetamide With mechanical stirring and ice-bath cooling, a solution of 231 g (1.24 mol) of 5-bromo-2-methylaniline and 250 ml of diethyl ether was treated dropwise with 152.2 g (1.49 mol, 140 ml) of acetic anhydride at such a rate as to maintain the reaction temperature below 5° C. The product precipitated from the reaction mixture and was filtered to give colorless crystals: yield 215.2 g (76%); m.p. 160°-161° C. [lit. m.p. 165° C., Frejka and Vymetal, loc, cit.]. PREPARATION 6 2-Acetylamino-4-bromobenzoic Acid With mechanical stirring, a suspension of 215 g (0.942 mol) of N-(4-bromo-2-methyl)acetamide in a solution of 310 g (1.257 mol) of magnesium sulfate heptahydrate, 447 g (2.83 mol) of potassium permanganate and 10 liters of water was heated under reflux for six hours during which time the mixture's color changed from clear purple to brownish-black. Heating was stopped and 50 ml of methanol was added. When at room temperature, the reaction mixture was treated with 250 g of diatomaceous earth and 100 g of activated carbon, and was filtered to give a clear colorless solution. The solution was adjusted to pH 4.4 by the addition of concentrated hydrochloric acid, and the product precipitated. After filtering and drying the crystals, there was obtained 171.3 g (70%) of 2-acetylamino-4-bromobenzoic acid: m.p. 224°-225° C. [lit. m.p. 220° C., Frejka and Vymetal, loc. cit.]. PREPARATION 7 Ethyl 2-Amino-4-bromobenzoate A solution of 119 g (0.461 mol) of 2-acetylamino-4-bromobenzoic acid and 3 liters of absolute ethanol was cooled to 0° C. and was then saturated with a stream of dry hydrogen chloride gas. The solution was then heated under reflux for 24 hours. Upon cooling to room temperature, the solution was evaporated to about 750 ml and then poured into 2 liters of aqueous saturated sodium bicarbonate. The aqueous phase was extracted three times with 300 ml portions of chloroform. The combined extracts were dried over anhydrous sodium sulfate, filtered, and evaporated to afford 23.8 g (21%) of ethyl 2-amino-4-bromobenzoate as an oil: ir(CHCl 3 ) 3504 cm, 3390, 1685, 1610, 1580 among others; 1 H--NMR(CDCl 3 ) 1.3 ppm triplet, 3H, CH 2 CH 3 ), 4.3 (quartet, 2H, CH 2 CH 3 ), 5.8 (broad singlet, 2H, NH 2 ), 6.6 [doublet (part of AB pattern), 1H, aromatic H], 6.8 (singlet, 1H, aromatic H), 7.7 [doublet (part of AB pattern), 1H, aromatic H]. PREPARATION 8 Ethyl 2-Amino-4-bromobenzoate Hydrochloride At room temperature, a solution of 3.09 g (0.0127 mol) of ethyl 2-amino-4-bromobenzoate and 30 ml absolute ethanol was saturated with dry hydrogen chloride gas. A colorless precipitate formed in the warm solution. When it was again at room temperature, the solution was diluted with 30 ml of diethyl ether; the resulting crystalline product was filtered and washed with diethyl ether. Thus there was obtained 2.72 g (77%) of the title compound: m.p. 147°-150° C. Analysis calculated for C 9 H 11 BrClNO 2 : C, 38.53; H, 3.95; N, 4.99%. Found: C, 38.48; H, 4.02; N, 4.99%. PREPARATION 9 Ethyl 2-Amino-4-bromo-5-thiocyanatobenzoate In a 100 ml three-neck round bottom flask equipped with an internal thermometer and magnetic stirrer, a solution of 3.26 g (0.0116 mol) of ethyl 2-amino-4-bromobenzoate hydrochloride, 2.12 g (0.0279 mol) of ammonium thiocyanate and 30 ml of acetic acid was cooled to 15° C. Bromine (1.86 g, 0.0116 mol) was then added dropwise with stirring. A precipitate formed. When the addition was complete, the solution was allowed to warm to room temperature, and to stir for an hour. The product was filtered, dried under nitrogen, and recrystallized from hexane and ethyl acetate to furnish crystalline ethyl 2-amino-4-bromo-5-thiocyanatobenzoate: yield 2.05 g (59%); m.p. 149°-150° C.; ir(KBr) 3487 cm, 3453, 3375, 3346, 2980, 2146, 1697, 1614 among others; 1 H--NMR(CDCl 3 ) 1.4 ppm (triplet, 3H, CH 2 CH 3 ), 4.3 (quartet, 2H, CH 2 CH 3 ), 6.0 (broad singlet), 6.9 (singlet, 1H, aromatic H), 8.1 (singlet, 1H aromatic H). PREPARATION 10 Ethyl 2-Amino-4-bromo-5-methylthiobenzoate Under a nitrogen atmosphere, with ice-bath cooling, and with magnetic stirring, 0.134 g (0.00585 mol) of sodium was dissolved in 20 ml of absolute ethanol. Ethyl 2-amino-4-bromo-5-thiocyanatobenzoate (0.88 g, 0.00292 mol) was added, and when solution was almost complete, the mixture was treated with 0.498 g (0.22 ml, 0.0035 mol) of methyl iodide. The solution was allowed to warm to room temperature, and to stir overnight. After pouring the reaction mixture into 200 ml of ice water, the resulting aqueous solution was adjusted to pH 6.5 by the addition of 2N hydrochloric acid. The aqueous solution was then extracted three times with 30 ml portions of ethyl acetate. The combined extracts were dried over anhydrous sodium sulfate, filtered, and evaporated to furnish the crude product: yield 0.88 g. This material was chromatographed under moderate pressure on a column of silica gel (i.d. 3.5 cm×height 17.5 cm); the eluant was 10% ethyl acetate/90% hexanes. Fractions of 20 ml each were collected. Fractions 27-38 gave crystals of the title compound: yield 0.66 g (78%); m.p. 48°-50° C.; ir(KBr) 3461 cm, 3354, 2976, 2914, 1680, 1603 among others; mass spectrum 289 (parent peak and molecular ion with expected isotope pattern), 274 (-15, --CH 3 ), 261 (-28, --CH 2 CH 2 ), 243 (-46, --CH 3 CH 2 OH) among others; 1 H--NMR(CDCl 3 ) 1.3 ppm (triplet, 3H, CH 2 CH 3 ), 2.4 (singlet, 3H, SCH 3 ), 4.3 (quartet, 2H, CH 2 CH 3 ), 5.8 (broad singlet, 2H, NH 2 ), 6.9 (singlet, 1H, aromatic H), 7.9 (singlet, 1H, aromatic H). Analysis calculated for C 10 H 12 BrNO 2 S: C, 41.39; H, 4.17; N, 4.83%. Found: C, 41.44; H, 4.14; N, 4.54%. PREPARATION 11 7-Bromo-6-methylthioquinazolin-4(3H)-one Formic Acid Salt In a flame dried 50 ml round bottom flask equipped with a magnetic stirrer and under a nitrogen atmosphere, a solution of 1.01 g (0.62 ml, 0.00659 mol) of phosphorous oxychloride and 5 ml of dry dimethylformamide was cooled to 0° C. In another 5 ml of dimethylformamide, 1.6 g (0.00552 mol) of ethyl 2-amino-4-bromo-5-methylthiobenzoate was added to the reaction flask. The solution was stirred for an hour at 0° C., and then 11 ml of concentrated ammonium hydroxide was added. The reaction mixture was allowed to come to room temperature, and was stirred overnight. After being poured into 30 ml of water, the reaction mixture was filtered, and the product was dried under nitrogen. It was then recrystallized from hot formic acid to furnish colorless crystals of the title compound: yield 1.33 g (76%); m.p. 272°-274° C.; mass spectrum 270 (parent peak and molecular ion with expected isotope pattern), 255 (-15, --CH 3 ) among others. Analysis calculated for C 10 H 9 BrN 2 O 3 S: C, 37.87; H, 2.86; N, 8.83%. Found: C, 38.06; H, 2.97; N, 8.79%. PREPARATION 12 Ethyl 2-Amino-4-bromo-5-ethylthiobenzoate In the manner of Preparation 10, 2.5 g (0.0083 mol) of ethyl 2-amino-4-bromo-5-thiocyanatogbenzoate and 1.55 g (0.010 mol) of ethyl iodide were converted into the title compound: yield 1.78 g (70%); ir (neat) 3472 cm -1 , 3360, 2971, 2921, 2863, 1691, 1604, 1569, 1542 among others; mass spectrum peaks m/e 305 (parent peak, higher isotope), 303 (molecular ion) among others; 1 H--NMR(CDCl 3 ) 1.4 ppm, ["quartet" (overlapping triplets, 6H, SCH 2 CH 3 , OCH 2 CH 3 ], 2.3 (quartet, 2H, SCH 2 CH 3 ), 4.4 (quartet, 2H, OCH 2 CH 3 ), 5.9 (broad singlet, 2H, NH 2 ), 7.0 (singlet, 1H, aromatic H), 8.0 (singlet, 1H, aromatic H). PREPARATION 13 7-Bromo-6-ethylthioquinazolin-4(3H)-one Formic Acid Salt In the manner of Preparation 11, 1.78 g (0.00585 mol) of ethyl 2-amino-4-bromo-5-ethylthiobenzoate was transformed into the title compound: yield 1.22 g (63%); m.p. 272°-273° C.; mass spectrum m/e 286 (parent peak), 284 (molecular ion), 269 (-15, --CH 3 ), 256 (-28, --CO), 177 (-28, -79, --CO, --Br) among others. Analysis calculated for C 11 H 11 BrN 2 O 3 S: C, 39.89; H, 3.35; Br, 24.13; N, 8.46; S, 9.68%. Found: C, 39.60; H, 3.20; Br, 25.40; N, 8.61; S, 9.94%. PREPARATION 14 N-(4-Fluoro-2-methylphenyl)acetamide In the manner of Preparation 5, 20 g (0.160 mol) of 5-fluoro-2-methylaniline was converted into the title compound: yield 25.0 g (94%); m.p. 131°-132° C., [lit. m.p. 133.5°-134° C.: E. A. Steck, L. T. Fletcher, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 70, 439-440 (1948)]. PREPARATION 15 2-Acetylamino-4-fluorobenzoic Acid In the manner of Preparation 6, 12.5 g (0.075 mol) of N-(4-fluoro-2-methylphenyl)acetamide was transformed into the title compound: yield 11.88 g (81%); m.p. 212.5°-214.5° C., [lit. m.p. 209°-209.5° C.: Steck and Fletcher loc. cit.]. PREPARATION 16 Ethyl 2-Amino-4-fluorobenzoate In the manner of Preparation 7, 30.79 g (0.156 mol) of 2-acetylamino-4-fluorobenzoic acid was converted into the title compound: yield 20.43 g (71%); ir (neat) 3482 cm, 3367, 2933, 2903, 2871, 1692, 1627, 1593, 1573, 1500; 1 H--NMR(CDCl 3 ) 1.3 ppm (triplet, 3H, OCH 2 CH 3 ), 4.3 (quartet, 2H, OCH 2 CH 3 ), 5.8 (broad singlet, 2H, NH 2 ), 6.2-6.6 (multiplet, 2H, aromatic H), 7.2-8.0 (multiplet, 1H, aromatic H). PREPARATION 17 Ethyl 2-Amino-4-fluorobenzoate Hydrochloride In the manner of Preparation 8, 20.43 g (0.112 mol) of ethyl 2-amino-4-fluorobenzoate was transformed into its hydrochloride salt: yield 19.35 g (79%); licorice odor; m.p. 153°-156° C.; mass spectrum m/e 183 (molecular ion; 155 (-28, --CO), 138 (-45, --CH 3 CH 2 O), 137 (parent peak, -46, --CH 3 CH 2 OH), 110 (-73, --CO 2 CH 2 CH 3 ) among others; 1 H--NMR(DMSO-d 6 ) 1.3 ppm (triplet, 3H, OCH 2 CH 3 ), 4.2 (quartet, 2H, OCH 2 CH 3 ), 6.3 (doublet of triplets, 1H, aromatic H), 6.6 (doublet of doublets, 1H, aromatic H), 7.8 (doublet of doublets, 1H, aromatic H), 8.2 (broad singlet, 2H, NH 2 ). Analysis calculated for C 9 H 11 ClFNO 2 : C, 49.21; H, 5.05; Cl, 16.14; F, 8.65; N, 6.38%. Found: C, 49.45; H, 4.89; Cl, 15.77; F, 8.63; N, 6.39%. PREPARATION 18 Ethyl 2-Amino-4-fluoro-5-thiocyanatobenzoate In the manner of Preparation 9, 15.22 g (0.0695 mol) of ethyl 2-amino-4-fluorobenzoate hydrochloride was used to prepare the title compound. The yield after "flash" chromatography (on silica gel; eluant hexanes:chloroform 6:4) was 2.36 g (14%): m.p. 144°-145° C.; ir(KBr) cm -1 3453, 3341, 2979, 2932, 2899, 2141, 1698, 1625, 1591, 1552 among others; mass spectrum m/e 240 (molecular ion), 212 (-28, --CO), 194 (parent peak, -46, --CH 3 CH 2 OH) among others. Analysis calculated for C 10 H 9 FN 2 O 2 S: C, 50.00; H, 3.75; N, 11.67; S, 13.33%. Found: C, 49.79; H, 3.78; N, 11.25; S, 13.09%. PREPARATION 19 Ethyl 2-Amino-4-fluoro-5-methylthiobenzoate In the manner of Preparation 10, 2.34 g (0.0097 mol) of ethyl 2-amino-4-fluoro-5-thiocyanatobenzoate was transformed into the title compound: yield 2.46 g (100%, some solvent included); ir(KBr) 3481 cm, 3367, 2980, 2917, 1688, 1620, 1582, 1556 among others; mass spectrum m/e 229 (molecular ion), 214 (-15, --CH 3 ), 201 (-28, --CO), 183 (parent peak, -46, --CH 3 CH 2 OH) among others; 1 H--NMR(CDCl 3 ) 1.3 ppm (triplet, 3H, OCH 2 CH 3 ), 2.3 (singlet, 3H, SCH 3 ), 4.2 (quartet, 2H, OCH 2 CH 3 ), 6.0 (broad singlet, 2H, NH 2 ), 6.3 (doublet, 1H, aromatic H), 7.9 (doublet, 1H, aromatic H). PREPARATION 20 7-Fluoro-6-methylthioquinazolin-4(3H)-one Formic Acid Salt In the manner of Preparation 11, 2.46 g (0.0107 mol) of ethyl 2-amino-4-fluoro-5-methylthiobenzoate was converted into the title compound: yield 0.83 g (30%); mass spectrum m/e 210 (molecular ion and parent peak), 195 (-15, --CH 3 ) among others; 1 H--NMR(DMSO-d 6 ) 2.6 ppm (singlet, 3H, SCH 3 ), 7.4 (doublet, 1H, aromatic H), 7.9 (doublet, 1H, aromatic H), 8.0 (singlet, 1H, N═CH--N), 8.1 (singlet, 1H, HCO 2 H). Analysis calculated for C 10 H 9 FN 2 O 3 S: C, 46.87; H, 3.54; N, 10.93; S, 12.51%. Found: C, 47.58; H, 3.38; N, 11.45; S, 13.67%. PREPARATION 21 N-(4-Iodo-2-methylphenyl)acetamide In the manner of Preparation 5, 10 g (0.043 mol) of 5-iodo-2-methylaniline was converted into the title compound: yield 11.1 g (94%); m.p. 182°-183° C. Analysis calculated for C 9 H 10 INO: C, 39.29; H, 3.66; N, 5.09%. Found: C, 39.61; H, 3.77; N, 4.96%. PREPARATION 22 2-Acetylamino-4-iodobenzoic Acid In the manner of Preparation 6, 10 g (0.036 mol) of N-(4iodo-2-methylphenyl)acetamide was transformed into the title compound: yield 4.66 g (42%); m.p. 229°-232° C. Analysis calculated for C 9 H 8 INO 3 : C, 35.43; H, 2.64; I, 41.60, N; 4.59%. Found: C, 35.28; H, 2.66; I, 41.19; N, 4.51%. PREPARATION 23 Ethyl 2-Amino-4-iodobenzoate In the manner of Preparation 7, 31.22 g (0.102 mol) of 2-acetylamino-4-iodobenzoic acid was converted into the title compound: yield 17.65 g (59%); m.p. 51°-53° C.; ir (neat) 3475 cm, 3363, 2974, 2927, 2896, 1689, 1603, 1578, 1543; mass spectrum m/e 291 (molecular ion and parent peak), 245 (-46, --CH 3 CH 2 OH) among others; 1 H--NMR(CDCl 3 ) 1.3 ppm (triplet, 3H, OCH 2 CH 3 ), 4.3 (quartet, 2H, OCH 2 CH 3 ), 5.7 (broad singlet, 2H, NH 2 ), 6.9 (doublet, 1H, aromatic H), 7.0 (singlet, 1H, aromatic H), 7.5 (doublet, 1H, aromatic H). Analysis calculated for C 9 H 10 INO 2 : C, 37.13; H, 3.46; I, 43.60; N, 4.81%. Found: C, 36.83; H, 3.35; I, 43.12; N, 5.52%. PREPARATION 24 Ethyl 2-Amino-4-iodobenzoate Hydrochloride In the manner of Preparation 8, 18.75 g (0.0644 mol) of ethyl 2-amino-4-iodobenzoate was transformed into its hydrochloride salt: yield 19.20 g (91%); m.p. 147°-149° C.; mass spectrum m/e 291 (molecular ion and parent peak), 245 (-46, --CH 3 CH 2 OH) among others; 1 N--NMR(DMSO-d 6 ) 1.3 ppm (triplet, 3H, OCH 2 CH 3 ), 4.2 (quartet, 2H, OCH 2 CH 3 ), 6.9 (doublet of doublets, 1H, aromatic H), 7.3 (doublet, 1H, aromatic H), 7.4 (doublet, 1H, aromatic H), 7.8 (broad singlet, 2H, NH 2 ). Analysis calculated for C 9 H 11 ClINO 2 : C, 33.00; H, 3.39; I, 38.74; N, 4.28%. Found: C, 33.01; H, 3.36; I, 37.36; N, 4.24%. PREPARATION 25 Ethyl 2-Amino-4-iodo-5-thiocyanatobenzoate In the manner of Preparation 9, 17.05 g (0.052 mol) of ethyl 2-amino-4-iodobenzoate hydrochloride was used to prepare the title compound. The yield after flash chromatography (on silica gel; eluant hexanes: chloroform 6:4) was 10.3 g (57%): m.p. 164°-165.5° C.; ir(KBr) cm -1 3449, 3345, 2966, 2920, 2142, 1693, 1613, 1566, 1534 among others; mass spectrum m/e 348 (molecular ion and parent peak), 320 (-28, --CO), 302 (-46, --CH 3 CH 2 OH) among others; 1 H--NMR(CDCl 3 ) 1.3 ppm (triplet, 3H, OCH 2 CH 3 ), 4.2 (quartet, 2H, OCH 2 CH 3 ), 5.8 (broad singlet, 2H, NH 2 ), 7.2 (singlet, 1H, aromatic H), 8.2 (singlet, 1H, aromatic H). Analysis calculated for C 10 H 9 IN 2 O 2 S: C, 34.50; H, 2.61; I, 36.45; N, 8.05; S, 9.21%. Found: C, 33.94; H, 2.54; I, 35.20; N, 7.74; S, 10.54%. PREPARATION 26 Ethyl 2-Amino-4-iodo-5-(methylthio)benzoate In the manner of Preparation 10, 3.0 g (0.0086 mol) of ethyl 2-amino-4-iodo-5-thiocyanatobenzoate was transformed into the title compound: yield 1.79 g (62%); m.p. 59°-60° C.; ir(KBr) 3414 cm, 3311, 2980, 2906, 1690, 1607, 1568, 1549 among others; mass spectrum m/e 337 (molecular ion and parent peak), 322 (-15, --CH 3 ), 309 (-28, --CO), 291 (-46, --CH 3 CH 2 OH) among others; 1 H--NMR (CDCl 3 ) 1.4 ppm (triplet, 3H, OCH 2 CH 3 ), 2.4 (singlet, 3H, SCH 3 ), 4.3 (quartet, 2H, OCH 2 CH 3 ), 5.7 (broad singlet, 2H, NH 2 ), 7.2 (singlet, 1H, aromatic H), 7.8 (singlet, 1H, aromatic H). Analysis calculated for C 10 H 12 INO 2 S: C, 35.61; H, 3.56; N, 4.15%. Found: C, 35.80; H, 3.63; N, 4.08%. PREPARATION 27 7-Iodo-6-methylthioquinazolin-4(3H)-one Formic Acid Salt In the manner of Preparation 11, 2.5 g (0.0074 mol) of ethyl 2-amino-4-iodo-5-methylthiobenzoate was converted into the title compound: yield 1.23 g (46%); m.p. 268°-270° C.; mass spectrum m/e 318 (molecular ion and parent peak) among others; 1 H--NMR(DMSO-d 6 ) 2.6 ppm (singlet, 3H, SCH 3 ), 7.6 (singlet, 1H, aromatic H), 8.0 (singlet, 1H, aromatic H), 8.05 (singlet, 1H, N═CH--N), 8.1 (singlet, 1H, HCO 2 H). Analysis calculated for C 10 H 9 IN 2 O 3 S: C, 32.97; H, 2.47; N, 7.69%. Found: C, 33.14; H, 2.68; N, 7.81%. PREPARATION 28 6-Chloro-7-methylthioquinazolin-4(3H)-one Under a nitrogen atmosphere in a flame dried flask equipped with a magnetic stirrer and a reflux condenser, a mixture of 1.00 g (0.00465 mol) of 6,7-dichloroquinazolin-4(3H)-one and 18 ml of dimethylformamide was treated at room temperature with 0.56 g (0.012 mol) of 50% sodium hydride in mineral oil. Foaming began immediately and most of the solids dissolved. When the foaming had subsided, 1.8 ml (0.0176 mol) of 47% methyl mercaptan in dimethyl formamide was added to the stirred mixture. The mixture was heated at 120° C. for six hours. When the reaction mixture was again at room temperature, a small amount of insoluble matter was filtered, and was rinsed with a few ml of dimethylformamide. The filtrate was washed three times with 10 ml portions of hexane. The filtrate was then poured into 300 ml of ice and water. By the addition of 2N hydrochloric acid, the aqueous solution was adjusted to pH 2. There formed a fine colorless precipitate which was filtered, washed with water, air dried and pressed on a clay plate to furnish the title compound: yield 0.97 g (92%); m.p. 292°-295° C. (dec.); mass spectrum m/e 226 (parent peak and molecular ion with expected isotope pattern), 193 (-33) among others; 1 H--NMR(DMSO-d 6 ) 2.6 ppm (singlet, 3H, SCH 3 ), 7.45 (singlet, 1H, aromatic H), 8.0 (singlet, 1H, aromatic H), 8.15 (singlet, 1H, N═CH--N). PREPARATION 29 2-Amino-5-(ethylthio)benzoic Acid To a 500 ml flask fitted with a magnetic stirrer, dropping funnel and thermometer, and containing a solution of 12.7 g (0.192 mol) of 85% potassium hydroxide in 300 ml of methanol was added in portions 10.0 g (0.0481 mol) of methyl 2-amino-5-thiocyanatobenzoate. The solution was cooled to 10° C. and a solution of 6.29 g (0.058 mol) ethylbromide in 50 ml of methanol was added over 10 minutes. This was followed by the addition of 8.0 g (0.048 mol) potassium iodide. After 2.5 hours, the reaction mixture was evaporated to a semi-solid under reduced pressure and treated with 300 ml of water. The aqueous solution was extracted with chloroform, and the organic layer dried over magnesium sulfate. The solution was filtered and evaporated to give 7.5 g (79%) of crude product. This material was recrystallized from hexane to give 3.01 g (32%) of the title compound, m.p. 97°-100° C. PREPARATION 30 2-Amino-5-(propylthio)benzoic Acid To a solution containing 50 ml of water, 25 ml of methanol and 6 ml of 1N sodium hydroxide was added 0.88 g (0.0037 mol) of ethyl 2-amino-5-propylthiobenzoate. The reaction was heated at reflux for 1 hour, cooled to room temperature, concentrated to a white solid and treated with 200 ml of water. The solution was then acidified with 6N hydrochloric acid and the resulting white precipitate filtered and dried to afford 0.54 g (70%) of the title compound, m.p. 91°-93° C. PREPARATION 31 2-Amino-5-(methylthio)benzoic Acid By the method of Preparation 2, 2-nitro-5-(methylthio)benzoic acid [Tilley et al., Org. Prep. Proced. 13, pp 189-196 (1984)] was converted to instant title product in 70% yield, m.p. 148°-150° C. PREPARATION 32 Other Thiocyanato-2-aminobenzoate Esters By the method of Preparations 9, 18 and 25, ethyl 2-aminobenzoate and appropriately 3- or 4-substituted ethyl 2-aminobenzoates were converted to the following ethyl 2-amino-5-thiocyanatobenzoates: ______________________________________Further Substituents Yield m.p.(°C.)______________________________________None 44 104-1064-chloro 45 151-1533-chloro 69 76-783-bromo 63 63-65.54-methoxy 63 106-108______________________________________ By the same method, methyl 2-aminobenzoate was converted to methyl 2-amino-5-thiocyanatobenzoate (m.p. 110°-112° C.) in 69% yield. By the same method, ethyl 2-amino-5-chlorobenzoate was converted to ethyl 2-amino-5-chloro-3-thiocyanatobenzoate (m.p. 128°-130° C.) in 8% yield. PREPARATION 33 Other Alkylthio-2-aminobenzoate Esters and Related Compounds By the method of Preparations 10, 19 and 26, substituting an equivalent amount of the appropriate alkyl, benzyl or picolyl halide for methyl iodide, the following ethyl 5-substituted-3- or 4-substituted-2-aminobenzoates were prepared from the products of the preceding Example: ______________________________________Substituents Yield m.p.(°C.)______________________________________5-methylthio 82 34-365-ethylthio 84 51-535-propylthio 83 oil.sup.(a)5-(4-bromobenzylthio) 68 oil.sup.(b)5-(4-chlorobenzylthio)-4-chloro 52 82-855-(4-bromobenzylthio)-4-chloro 100 72-815-(4-picolylthio)-4-chloro 93 102-1075-methylthio-4-methoxy 61 92-945-methylthio-4-chloro 82 50.5-53.55-ethylthio-4-chloro 100 oil.sup.(c)5-propylthio-4-chloro 99 oil.sup.(d)5-ethylthio-4-bromo 70 oil.sup.(e)5-methylthio-3-chloro 100 oil.sup.(f)5-methylthio-3-bromo 77 oil.sup.(g)5-ethylthio-3-chloro (h) --5-ethylthio-3-bromo 91 oil.sup.(i)3-methylthio-5-chloro 20 oil.sup.(j)______________________________________ .sup.(a) m/e 239.0980 (molecular ion). .spsp.(b).sup.1 HNMR(CDCl.sub.3) 1.3 (t, 3 H), 3.8 (s, 2 H), 4.2 (q, 2 H) 6.4 (d, 1 H), 7.1 (m, 5 H), 7.7 (d, 1 H). .sup.(c) m/e 259/261 (chlorine isotope). .spsp.(d).sup.1 HNMR(CDCl.sub.3) 1.4 (m, 8 H), 2.8 (t, 2 H), 4.2 (q, 2 H) 6.8 (s, 1 H), 8.0 (s, 1 H). .sup.(e) m/e 303/305 (molecular ion, chlorine isotope). .sup.(f) m/e 245/247 (molecular ion, chlorine isotope). .sup.(g) m/e 289/291 (molecular ion, bromine isotope). .sup.(h) hydrolyzed in next step without characterization; overall yield 35%. .sup.(i) correctly analyses for C.sub. 11 H.sub.14 O.sub.2 NSBr. .sup.(j) m/e 245.0366 (molecular ion). PREPARATION 34 Other Alkylthio-2-aminobenzoic Acids By the method of Preparation 30, appropriate products of the preceding Example were hydrolyzed to yield the following 3-substituted-5-substituted-2-amino-benzoic acids: ______________________________________3-Substituent 5-Substituent Yield m.p.(°C.)______________________________________chloro methylthio 57 157-162bromo methylthio 75 159-162chloro ethylthio 35.sup.(a) 133-135bromo ethylthio 77 121.5-123.5methylthio chloro 80 156-159______________________________________ .sup.(a) yield over 2steps PREPARATION 35 Other Alkylthioquinazolin-4(3H)-ones By the method of Preparation 3, 2-aminobenzoic acids of preceding Preparations 30, 31 and 35 were converted to the following substituted quinazolin-4(3H)-ones: ______________________________________Substituents Yield m.p.(°C.)______________________________________6-methylthio 72 200-2026-ethylthio 66 166-1696-propylthio 62 151-1546-methylthio-8-chloro 63 257-2636-methylthio-8-bromo 65 275-2806-ethylthio-8-chloro 77 267-2706-chloro-8-methylthio 59 324-327______________________________________ PREPARATION 36 Other Substituted Quinazolin-4(3H)-ones Formic Acid Salts By the method of Preparations 11, 13, 20 and 27, appropriately substituted ethyl 2-aminobenzoates of Preparation 34 were converted to the following substituted quinazolin-4(3H)-ones: ______________________________________Substituents Yield m.p.(°C.)______________________________________6-(4-bromobenzylthio) 74 209-2126-(4-chlorobenzylthio)-7-chloro 69 245-2486-(4-bromobenzylthio)-7-bromo 51 265-2686-(4-picolylthio)-7-chloro 45 196-2076-methylthio-7-methoxy 50 292-2946-methylthio-7-chloro 58 270-2746-ethylthio-7-chloro 54 238-2416-propylthio-7-chloro 48 202-205______________________________________ PREPARATION 37 4-Trifluoromethyl-N-pivaloylaniline To a solution of 6.87 g (0.043 mol) of 4-trifluoromethylaniline in 110 ml of dichloromethane was added 5.25 ml (0.043 mol) of pivaloylchloride. After stirring for 1.5 hours, 190 ml of a saturated solution of aqueous sodium bicarbonate was added. The reaction proceeded an additional 2 hours and the organic layer was separated and dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate. The solution was filtered and the solvent removed to give the title compound, yield 9.16 g (88%), m.p. 154°-158° C. PREPARATION 38 2-(N-Pivaloyl)-5-trifluoromethylbenzoic Acid A solution of 25.0 g (0.102 mol) of 4-trifluoromethyl-N-pivaloylaniline in 140 ml of dry tetrahydrofuran was cooled to 5° C. under a nitrogen atmosphere. This was followed by the dropwise addition of 110 ml (0.22 mol) of 2.0M n-butyllithium in hexane. The addition was carried out over 2 hours while maintaining the temperature below 15° C. When the addition was complete, the temperature was raised to 20° C. and the reaction stirred for 7 hours. The solution was then cooled to -60° C. and dry carbon dioxide gas was bubbled through the reaction at a rapid rate for 15 minutes, during which time the thick suspension was diluted with an additional 150 ml of dry tetrahydrofuran. After stirring for 16 hours, the reaction mixture was treated with 100 ml of saturated aqueous ammonium chloride. The reaction mixture was then concentrated to 150 ml and diluted with 1.0 liter of water. The pH was adjusted to 1.0 with hydrochloric acid, and the resulting solution extracted with ethyl acetate. The organic layer was dried over magnesium sulfate, filtered and evaporated under reduced pressure to afford the crude product. This was recrystallized from toluene to give 7.8 g (26%) of the title compound, m.p. 196°-198° C. PREPARATION 39 Methyl 2-Amino-5-trifluoromethylbenzoate A solution of 7.46 g (0.026 mol) of 2-(N-pivaloyl)-5-trifluoromethylbenzoic acid in 300 ml of methanol was cooled to 5° C. and saturated with gaseous hydrochloric acid. The reaction mixture was then heated at reflux for 20 hours, and evaporated to a solid. The crude solid was dissolved in chloroform and washed with saturated aqueous sodium bicarbonate. The organic layer was dried and evaporated to a viscous oil, which was purified by silica gel chromatography (9:1 hexane:ethylacetate). The title compound was isolated as a white solid, m.p. 51°-52° C.; yield 4.0 g (71%). PREPARATION 40 6-Trifluoromethylquinazolin-4(3H)-one By the method of Preparation 11, title product of the preceding Preparation was converted to instant title product in 71% yield, m.p. 209°-211° C. Analysis calculated for C 9 H 5 N 2 OF 3 : C, 50.47; H, 2.34; N, 13.08%. Found: C, 49.81; H, 2.28; N, 12.98%. PREPARATION 41 6-Cyanoquinazolin-4(3H)-one 6-Aminoquinazolin-4(3H)-one was slurried in 300 ml of 5% hydrochloric acid and the reaction mixture was cooled to 5° C. A solution of 6.72 g (0.097 mol) of sodium nitrite in 30 ml of water was added dropwise over 2.5 hours while maintaining the reaction temperature below 10° C. The resulting diazonium salt was then added portionwise to a hot (86° C.) solution of 7.84 g (0.0876 mol) of copper cyanide and 11.0 g (0.224 mol) sodium cyanide in 60 ml of water. Evolution of nitrogen was evident throughout the addition. After stirring for 30 minutes, the reaction mixture was filtered, washed with water, and air-dried. The crude product (9.1 g) was purified by silica gel chromatography to afford 3.89 g (26%) of the title compound; m.p. 294°-300° C.

Variously substituted trans-3-[3-(3-hydroxypiperid-2-yl)-2-oxopropyl]quinazolin-4(3H)-ones, a method of controlling or preventing coccidiosis in poultry therewith, intermediates therefor, and a process for the preparation of certain intermediates therefor.

CROSS-REFERENCE This is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 06/849,039, filed Apr. 7, 1986, now abandoned. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION This invention pertains to a new method for killing and controlling worms (Helminths), and new formulations for killing and controlling worms in animals and new chemical compounds The invention is more particularly directed to a new method for killing and controlling parasitic worms in animals with certain quaternaryalkyl acylhydrazones to new anthelmintic formulations comprising the same, and to new quaternaryalkyl acylhydrazones. The anthelmintic quaternaryalkyl acylhydrazones have the general structural formula I. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The diseases or groups of diseases described generally as helminthiasis are due to infection of the animal with parasitic worms known as helminths. Helminthiasis and helminthosis are prevalent and may lead to serious economic problems in valuable warm-blooded domestic animals such as sheep, swine, cattle, goats, dogs, cats, horses poultry and man. Among the helminths, the groups of worms known as nematodes trematodes and cestodes cause widespread and often-times serious infections in various species of animals including man. The most common genera of nematodes, trematodes and cestodes infecting the animals referred to above are Dityocaulus, Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Ostertagia, Nematodirus, Cooperia, Bunostomum, Oesouhagostomum, Chabertia, Strongyloides, Trichuris, Fasciola, Dicrocoelium, Enterobius, Ascaris, Toxascaris, Toxocara, Ascaridia, Capillaria, Heterakis, Ancylostoma, Uncinaria, Dirofilaria, Onchocerca, Taenia, Moniezia, Dipylidium, Metastrongylus, Triodontophorus, Macracanthorhynchus, Hyostroncylus, and Strongylus. Some of these genera attack primarily the intestinal tract while others, inhabit the stomach, lungs, liver and subcutaneous tissues. The parasitic infections causing helminthiasis and helminthosis lead to anemia, malnutrition, weakness, weight loss, unthriftiness, severe damage to the gastrointestinal tract wall and, if left to run their course, may result in death of the infected animals. The anthelmintic activity of quaternaryalkyl acylhydrazones has not been previously reported. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The quaternaryalkyl acylhydrazones of the invention, including hydrates thereof or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, are represented by Formula I wherein W is selected from the group consisting of (1) pyridinyl or pyridinyl N-oxide (A); (2) quinolinyl or quinolinyl N-oxide (B); (3) thienyl (D 1 ); (4) furanyl (D 2 ); (5) pyrrolyl (D 3 ); (6) 1-methylpyrrolyl (D 4 ); (7) 1-phenylpyrrolyl (D 5 ); (8) 1-benzylpyrrolyl (D 6 ); (9) benzofuranyl (E 1 ); (10) benzothienyl (E 2 ); (11) indolyl (E 3 ); (12) 1-methylindolyl (E 4 ); (13) 1-phenylindolyl (E 5 ); or (14) 1-benzylindolyl (E 6 ); (15) thiazolyl (F); (16) pyrazolyl (G): (17) pyrazinyl (H); (18) 1,2,3-triazolyl (I); wherein the variable substituents (1)-(18) are optionally substituted with one or two C 1 -C 4 alkyl, preferably C 1 -C 3 alkyl; C 1 -C 3 alkoxy; C 1 -C 3 alkylthio; halo; trifluoromethyl; or hydroxy; with the proviso that only one substituent is hydroxy; wherein R 1 is hydrogen; C 1 -C 4 alkyl; cyclo(C 3 -C 6 )alkyl optionally substituted with one, 2 or 3 C 1 -C 3 alkyl, preferably cyclo(C 3 -C 5 )alkyl optionally substituted; phenyl optionally substituted with one, 2 or 3 C 1 -C 4 alkyl, halo, trifluoromethyl, or C 1 -C 3 alkoxy; phenyl(C 1 -C 3 )alkyl optionally substituted with one, 2 or 3 C 1 -C 4 alkyl, halo, trifluoromethyl, or C 1 -C 3 alkoxy; or 1,3-dioxacyclohexan-5-yl; wherein n is 1-4; wherein: (a) R 2 , R 3 , R 4 , being the same or different, are hydrogen., C 1 -C 4 alkyl; phenyl optionally substituted with one, 2 or 3 C 1 -C 4 alkyl or C 1 -C 3 alkoxy; phenyl(C 1 -C 3 )alkyl; or (b) two of R 2 , R 3 and R 4 are taken together with the nitrogen to form a four to seven-member saturated or partially unsaturated nitrogen-containing ring optionally substituted with phenyl and/or one or two C 1 -C 4 alkyl or C 1 -C 4 alkoxy, said ring optionally containing an oxygen or sulfur atom as a ring member, and the third of R 2 , R 3 and R 4 is hydrogen; C 1 -C 4 alkyl; phenyl optionally substituted with one, 2 or 3 C 1 -C 4 alkyl or C 1 -C 3 alkoxy; or phenyl(C 1 -C 3 )alkyl; or (c) R 2 , R 3 , and R 4 are taken together with the nitrogen to form a 6 or 7 member nitrogen-containing aromatic ring optionally substituted with phenyl and/or one or 2 C 1 -C 4 alkyl or C 1 -C 3 alkoxy; or (d) two of R 2 , R 3 and R 4 are taken together with the nitrogen to form an eight to ten-member saturated or partially unsaturated nitrogen-containing bicylic ring optionally substituted with phenyl and/or one or two C 1 -C 4 alkyl or C 1 -C 4 alkoxy, said ring optionally containing an oxygen or sulfur atom as a ring member, and the third of R 2 , R 3 and R 4 is hydrogen; C 1 -C 4 alkyl; phenyl optionally substituted with one, 2 or 3 C 1 -C 4 alkyl or C 1 -C 3 alkoxy; or phenyl(C 1 -C 3 )alkyl; or (e) R 2 , R 3 , and R 4 are taken together with the nitrogen to form an eight to ten member nitrogen-containing aromatic bicyclic ring optionally substituted with phenyl and/or one or 2 C 1 -C 4 alkyl or C 1 -C 3 alkoxy; and X is an anion. Examples of anions are halides, preferably chloride or bromide, acetate, or benzenesulfonate. Examples of the moiety (-N + -R 2 ,R 3 ,R 4 ) include ammonium, methylammonium, diethylammonium, methyldiphenylammonium, bisphenylmethylammonium, methyl(phenylmethyl)ammonium, methyl(2-phenylethyl)ammonium, 1-methylpiperidinium, 1-ethylmorpholinium, 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1H,2,5,6-tetrahydropyridinium, 2-methoxypyridinium, 4-methylpyridinium, quinolinium, isoquinolinium, 4-methoxy-1-methylindolium, 1-azabicyclo[2,2,2]octanium, 1-methyl-1-azacycloheptatrienium, 2,5-dihydro-1-methylpyrrolidinum, and 1-ethylazetidinium. C -- -C -- means the carbon content of various hydrocarbon-containing moieties is indicated by a prefix designating the minimum and maximum number of carbon atoms in the moiety. Thus (C 1 -C 3 ) alkyl refers to alkyl of one to 3 carbon atoms, inclusive or methyl, ethyl, propyl, and isopropyl. Halogen atom (halo) refers to a bromo, chloro, iodo or fluoro atom. Pharmaceutically acceptable refers to those properties and/or substances which are acceptable to the patient from a pharmacologically-toxicological point of view and to the manufacturing pharmaceutical chemist from a physical-chemical point of view regarding composition, formulation, stability, patient acceptance and bioavailability. Examples of C 1 -C 4 alkyl are methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl and isomeric forms thereof. Examples of C 1 -C 3 alkoxy are methoxy, ethoxy, propoxy and isomeric forms thereof. Examples of phenyl(C 1 -C 3 )alkyl are benzyl, phenylethyl and phenylpropyl. Examples of phenyl(C 1 -C 3 )alkyl substituted with one, 2 or 3 C 1 -C 4 alkoxy, halo or trifluoromethyl include 4-chlorobenzyl, 2-chlorophenylethyl, p-tolylethyl, 2-methylbenzyl, 4-methoxybenzyl. Examples of C 1 -C 3 alkylthio include methylthio, ethylthio, and n-propylthio. Preferred quaternaryalkyl acylhydrazones of Formula I are where W is pyridinyl, i.e. a pyridinyl quaternaryalkyl acylhydrazones (IA). Preferred R 1 include hydrogen, methyl or benzyl; Preferred n is one; Preferred R 2 , R 3 and R 4 include methyl or the case when R 2 , R 3 and R 4 are taken together with the nitrogen to form pyridine; Preferred X is chloride. One embodiment of this invention includes, of course, the anthelmintic use and anthelmintic compositions of compounds of Formula I, hydrates thereof or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. One embodiment of this invention includes, of course, the anti-filaria use and anti-filaria compositions of compounds of Formula I, hydrates thereof or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. Still another embodiment of this invention are the novel compounds, hydrates thereof or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof according to Formula I, IA, IB, ID (including ID 1 , ID 2 , ID 3 , ID 4 , ID 5 , ID 6 ), IE (including IE 1 , IE 2 , IE 3 , IE 4 , IE 5 , IE 6 , IF, IG, IH and II). wherein W, R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , R 4 , X are described above; wherein Y and Z, being the same or different, are hydrogen, hydroxy, C 1 -C 4 alkyl, C 1 -C 3 alkoxy, C 1 -C 3 alkylthio, halo, or trifluoromethyl; G is an oxygen atom, a sulfur atom or a N-V group; V is hydrogen; C 1 -C 3 alkyl, preferably methyl, phenyl, phenyl-(C 1 -C 3 )alkyl, preferably benzyl; and m is 0 or 1. A is pyridinyl (or pyridinyl N-oxide) optionally substituted with one or two C 1 -C 4 alkyl, C 1 -C 3 alkoxy, C 1 -C 3 alkylthio, halo, trifluoromethyl, or hydroxy; B is quinolinyl (or quinolinyl N-oxide) optionally substituted with one or two C 1 -C 4 alkyl, C 1 -C 3 alkoxy, C 1 -C 3 alkylthio, halo, trifluoromethyl, or hydroxy; D 1 is thienyl optionally substituted with one or two C 1 -C 3 alkyl, C 1 -C 3 alkoxy, C 1 -C 3 alkylthio, halo, trifluoromethyl, or hydroxy; when G is a sulfur atom; D 2 is furanyl optionally substituted with one or two C 1 -C 4 alkyl, C 1 -C 3 alkoxy, C 1 -C 3 alkylthio, halo, trifluoromethyl, or hydroxy; when G is an oxygen atom; D 3 is pyrrolyl optionally substituted with one or two C 1 -C 4 alkyl, C 1 -C 3 alkoxy, C 1 -C 3 alkylthio, halo, trifluoromethyl, or hydroxy; when G is N-V and V is hydrogen; D 4 is 1-methylpyrrolyl optionally substituted with one or two C 1 -C 4 alkyl, C 1 -C 3 alkoxy, C 1 -C 3 alkylthio, halo, trifluoromethyl, or hydroxy; when G is N-V and V is methyl; D 5 is 1-phenylpyrrolyl optionally substituted with one or two C 1 -C 4 alkyl, C 1 -C 3 alkoxy, C 1 -C 3 alkylthio, halo, trifluoromethyl, or hydroxy; when G is N-V and V is phenyl; D 6 is 1-benzylpyrrolyl optionally substituted with one or two C 1 -C 4 alkyl, C 1 -C 3 alkoxy, C 1 -C 3 alkylthio, halo, trifluoromethyl, or hydroxy; when G is N-V and V is benzyl; E 1 is benzofuranyl optionally substituted with one or two C 1 -C 4 alkyl, C 1 -C 3 alkoxy, C 1 -C 3 alkylthio, halo, trifluoromethyl, or hydroxy; when G is an oxygen atom; E 2 is benzothienyl optionally substituted with one or two C 1 -C 4 alkyl, C 1 -C 3 alkoxy, C 1 -C 3 alkylthio, halo, trifluoromethyl, or hydroxy; when G is a sulfur atom; E 3 is indolyl optionally substituted with one or two C 1 -C 4 alkyl, C 1 -C 3 alkoxy, C 1 -C 3 alkylthio, halo, trifluoromethyl, or hydroxy; when G is N-V and V is hydrogen; E 4 is 1-methylindolyl optionally substituted with one or two C 1 -C 4 alkyl, C 1 -C 3 alkoxy, C 1 -C 3 alkylthio, halo, trifluoromethyl, or hydroxy; when G is N-V and V is methyl; E 5 is 1-phenylindolyl optionally substituted with one or two C 1 -C 4 alkyl, C 1 -C 3 alkoxy, C 1 -C 3 alkylthio, halo, trifluoromethyl, or hydroxy; when G is N-V and V is phenyl; or E 6 is 1-benzylinodyl optionally substituted with one or two C 1 -C 4 alkyl, C 1 -C 3 alkoxy, C 1 -C 3 alkylthio, halo, trifluoromethyl, or hydroxy; when G is N-V and V is benzyl; F is thiazolyl optionally substituted with one or two C 1 -C 4 alkyl, C 1 -C 3 alkoxy, C 1 -C 3 alkylthio, halo, trifluoromethyl, or hydroxy; G is pyrazolyl optionally substituted with one or two C 1 -C 4 alkyl, C 1 -C 3 alkoxy, C 1 -C 3 alkylthio, halo, trifluoromethyl, or hydroxy; H is pyrazinyl optionally substituted with one or two C 1 -C 4 alkyl, C 1 -C 3 alkoxy, C 1 -C 3 alkylthio, halo, trifluoromethyl, or hydroxy; I is triazolyl optionally substituted with one or two C 1 -C 4 alkyl, C 1 -C 3 alkoxy, C 1 -C 3 alkylthio, halo, trifluoromethyl, or hydroxy; with the overall proviso that only one substituent is hydroxy. Among the quaternaryalkyl acylhydrazones of Formula I: 1-[[[1-(3-pyridinyl)ethylidene]hydrazino]carbonyl]methyl]-pyridinium chloride (Cpd #2); 1-[[[1-(3-pyridinyl)ethylidene]hydrazino]carbonyl]propyl]-pyridinium chloride; Trimethyl [[3-(4-pyridinylmethylene)carbazoyl]methyl]ammonium chloride (Cpd #6, CA RN 6958-26-5); (carboxymethyl)trimethylammonium chloride, furfurylidenehydrazide (CA RN 6958-15-2); (carboxymethyl)trimethylammonium chloride, 2-thienylidenehydrazide (CA RN 6958-28-7); (Carboxymethyl)trimethylammonium chloride, 2-(pyrrol-2-yl-methylene)hydrazide (Cpd #61, CA 93786-81-3) are known. See T. Kirchenmayer and F. Kuffner, Monatsh. Chem. 93, 1237-41 (1962); Chem. Abstr. 58:9613C; CAS ON LINE Search (1967 to date); H. Tanaka and O. Yamuchi, Chem. Pharm. Bull (Tokyo) 10, 435-9 (1962); Chem. Abstr. 58, 4498d. Other known quaternaryalkyl acylhydrazones include (carboxymethyl)trimethylammonium chloride, 5-cyanobenzofurfurylidenehydrazide (CA RN 84223-53-0) and (carboxymethyl)trimethylammonium chloride, 2-[2-[[3-(2-ethoxy-2-oxoethyl)-4-(3-ethoxy-3-oxo-propyl)-1H-pyrrol-2-yl-hydrazide (CA RN 38256-20-1). The quaternaryalkyl acylhydrazones of the invention (Formula I) are readily prepared by reacting the appropriate heteroaromatic carbonyl compound (ketone or aldehyde) II with the acylhydrazone (known as a Girard Reagent) III (Chart A, Scheme A) or by heating the heteroaromatic carbonyl compound II with hydrazine IV to form the hydrazone intermediate (V) which is then acylated with the halide or anhydride (VI) to form the acylhydrazone (I) (Chart A, Scheme B). A third route the quaternaryalkyl acylhydrazone (I) is to react the heteroaromatic carbonyl compound II with the acylhydrazide VII to form an intermediate acylhydrazone VIII which is in the final stage reacted with the amine IX to yield I (Chart A, Scheme C). The condensation reactions of Schemes A, C, and B are carried out in the presence of a suitable solvent; for example, alcohols, ethers, halogenated hydrocarbons, hydrocarbons and include methanol, ethanol, isopropanol, propanol, hexane, tetrahydrofuran, dioxane, and preferably ethanol. The acylation reaction of Scheme B is carried out in the presence of a nonprotolytic solvent such as ether, halogenated hydrocarbons, hydrocarbons and includes hexane, tetrahydrofuran, dioxane, methylene chloride and preferably methylene chloride. The starting heteroaromatic ketone and aldehyde intermediates are commercially available or prepared by known methods such as R. C. Frank and C. Weatherbee, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 70, 3482-3 (1948); D. Milstein and J. K. Stille, J. Org. Chem., 44, 1613-1618 (1979); J. E. Parko, B. E. Wagner and R. H. Holm, J. Organometallic Chem., 56, 53 (1963); E. B. Sanders, H. V. Secor and J. I. Seeman, J. Org. Chem., 43, 324-330 (1978). The hydrazides III and VII are commercially available or readily synthesized by known procedures such as N B. Maheshi et al., J. Indian Chem. Soc., 42, 67-74 (1965). The following detailed examples procedures describe how to prepare various quaternaryalkyl acylhydrazones of the invention and are to be construed as merely illustrative and not limitations of the preceding disclosure in any way whatsoever. Those skilled in the art will promptly recognize appropriate variations from the procedures both as to reactants as well as to reaction conditions and techniques. EXAMPLE 1 1-[2-oxo-2-[[2-phenyl-1-(2-pyridinyl)ethylidene]-hydrazino]ethyl]pyridinium chloride. Compound 1 To 5.3 gm (0.03 mole) of Girard Reagent P in 50 ml of methanol is added 5.92 gm (0.03 mole) of benzyl 2-pyridinyl ketone. The mixture is refluxed 2.5 hr. The solvent is evaporated giving a black residue. The residue is slurried in anhydrous ether and the solids collected. The crude solid is crystallized (decolorized with carbon) and then recrystallized twice from ethanol to give 3.55 gm (32%) of the title compound; mp 240.5° (decomp). Calcd: C, 65.48; H, 5.18; N, 15.28. Found: C, 64.78; H, 5.26; N, 15.14. EXAMPLE 2 1-[[[[1-(3-pyridinyl)ethylidene]hydrazino]carbonyl]-methyl]pyridinium chloride. Compound 2 To 5.63 gm (0.03 mole) of Girard's Reagent P in 50 ml of anhydrous methanol is added 3.63 gm (0.03 mole) of 3-acetylpyridine. The solution is refluxed 3 hr and cooled. The solvent is evaporated The residue is slurried in 100 ml of anhydrous ether and filtered. The crude product is recrystallized from absolute ethanol to afford 6.18 gm (71%) of the title compound; mp 237.2° (decomp). Calcd: C, 57.83; H, 5.16; N, 19.28. Found: C, 57.64; H, 5.13; N, 19.36. EXAMPLE 3 1-[[[[1-(2-pyridinyl)ethylidene]hydrazino]carbonyl]methyl]pyridinium chloride. Compound 3 Following the general method of Example 2 and making non-critical variations, 5.63 gm (0.03 mole) of Girard's Reagent P and 3.63 gm (0.03 mole) of 2-acetylpyridine yield 5.70 gm (65%) of the title compound; mp 183.7° (decomp). Calcd: C, 57.83; H, 5.16; N, 19.28; Cl, 12.20. Found: C, 58.27; H, 5.44; N, 19.08. 1-[[[[1-(2-pyridinyl)ethylidene]hydrazinocarbonyl]methyl]-pyridinium chloride is remade, with a scape-up of 7.5x, using the above procedure to give 17.5 gm (26%) in three crops. Found: C, 54.61; H, 4.99; N, 18.29; Cl, 12.09; mp 143°-144°. Found: C, 53.99; H, 5.22; N, 17.32; Cl, 10.71; mp 142°-143°. C, 55 27; H, 5.09; N, 19.18; Cl, 11.33; mp 141°-143°. EXAMPLE 4 Trimethyl [[3-[1-(3-pyridinyl)ethylidene]carbazoyl]-ammonium chloride monohydrate. Compound 4 To 5.3 gm (0.03 mole) of Girard's Reagent T in 100 ml methanol is added 3.63 gm (0.03 mole) of 3-acetylpyridine. The reaction mixture is refluxed 6 hr and cooled to give crystals. The product is collected and recrystallized from methanol to afford 6.08 gm (70%) of the title compound; mp 199.4° (decomp) Calcd: C, 49.91; H, 7.28; N, 19.41. Found: C, 50.24; H, 7.23; N, 19.63. EXAMPLE 5 Trimethyl [[3-[1-(4-pyridinyl)ethylidene]carbazoyl]methyl]ammonium chloride. Compound 5 Following the general method of Example 4 and making non-critical variations, 5.03 gm (0.03 mole) of Girard's Reagent T and 3.63 gm (0.03 mole) of 4-acetylpyridine yield 3.76 gm (45%) of the title compound; mp 213° (decomp). Calcd: C, 51.19; H, 7.18; N, 19.91. Found: C, 50.92; H, 7.05; N, 19.73. EXAMPLE 6 Trimethyl [[3-(4-pyridinylmethylene)carbazoyl]methyl]-ammonium chloride. Compound 6 Following the general method of Example 4 and making non-critical variations, 5 03 gm (0.03 mole) of Girard's Reagent T and gm (0.03 mole) of 4-pyridinecarboxaldehyde yield 4.35 gm (56%) of the title compound; mp 220° (decomp). Calcd: C, 51.46; H, 6.63; N, 21.83. Found: C, 51.85; H, 6.90; N, 21.94. EXAMPLE 7 Trimethyl [[3-[1-(2 pyridinyl)ethylidene]carbazoyl]-methyl]ammonium chloride. Compound 7. Following the general method of Example 4 and making non-critical variations, 5.03 gm (0.03 mole) of Girard's Reagent T and 3.63 gm (0.03 mole) of 2-acetylpyridine yield 2.05 gm (24%) of the title compound; mp 208.2° (decomp). Calcd: C, 49.91; H, 7.28; N, 19.41. Found: C, 50.34; H, 7.49; N, 19.54. Employing the above procedure, using a 5.2x scale-up gives 25.74 gm (58%) of the title compound, mp 190.0°. EXAMPLE 8 Dimethyl[[3-(2-thienylmethylene)carbazoyl]methyl]-ammonium chloride. (Compound 18) A mixture of 7.68 gm (0.05 mole) Girard Reagent D, 5.61 gm (0.05 mole) 2-thiophenecarboxyaldehyde, 3 drops of concentrated hydrochloric acid and 250 ml of absolute ethanol is refluxed 12 hr. The solvent is evaporated. The residue is dissolved in absolute ethanol, treated with Darco decolorizing carbon and filtered. The filtrate is chilled. The solid which deposits is collected, washed with ether and dried to give 8.1 gm (65%) of the title compound having a melting point of 207.9° C. with decomposition. Calcd: C, 43.63; lf, 5.70; N, 16.96. Found: C, 51.85; lf, 5.72; N, 17.08. The compounds prepared according to Examples 1-8 are tabulated in Table A along with other illustrative compounds of the invention prepared following the general procedure/example indicated (1-8) and making non-critical variations, except starting with the appropriate ketone (II) and aryl hydrazide/carbazate (III). The quaternaryalkyl acylhydrazones of this invention are effective against worms, particularly parasitic worms of valuable domestic warm-blooded animals including helminth parasites in ovines (sheep) and bovines (cattle) but more particularly the filarial parasites of warm-blooded animals including dogs and man. Although non of the pyridinyl quarternaryalkyl acylhydrazones of this invention tested have demonstrated significant activity against Nematospiroides dubius in mice, observations in sheep experimentally infected with Haemonchus contortus in accordance with Procedure I, generally confirm anthelmintic activity upon oral administration as set forth in Table I. Quaternaryalkyl acylhydrazones which are toxic are expected to exhibit anthelmintic activity at a lower non-toxic dose. Further observations in male Mongolian jirds infected with Brugia pahangi and Dipetalonema viteae (Procedure II) confirm macro- and microfilaricidal activity of an quaternaryalkyl acylhydrazone of this invention (Table II). PROCEDURE NO. I In individual experiments all sheep are treated identically, however non-critical variations occur between experiments All of the sheep used in this procedure are treated twice with levamisole hydrochloride orally at 8 mg/kg or once each with ivermectin parenterally at 200 μg/kg and levamisole hydrochloride orally at 8 mg/kg. The second treatment in each case is administered 4-7 days after the first treatment. Two weeks after the second treatment all sheep are inoculated per os with ˜3,500 to ˜7,500 infective larvae of H. contortus. Rectal fecal samples are taken from each sheep 26-41 days post-inoculation (PI). and these samples are examined for eggs of H. contortus using the McMaster counting chamber technique. All sheep harboring good infections of H. contortus are randomly allocated to a treatment group; those which do not exhibit suitable infections are dropped from the study. One-three days later on days 27-42 PI each sheep remaining in the study (excluding the nontreated controls) is treated with a test compound (orally at 100 mg/kg unless indicated otherwise) or a standard (levamisole hydrochloride orally at 8 mg/kg) or is used as an untreated control. All sheep received food and water ad lib throughout the experiment. Prior to administration, all solid compounds are finely ground using a mortar and pestle. Oral compounds are suspended in 20.30 ml of sterile vehicle #98 (each ml contains: carboxymethylcellulose--10 mg, polysorbate 80-84 mg, propylparaben--0.42 mg) using a sonicator and administered along with a tap water wash via a stomach tube. All test compounds are given to a single sheep. Two or more sheep are treated with levamisole hydrochloride and five are used as nontreated controls. All animals are monitored for signs of toxicity following treatment. The sheep are sacrificed 7-12 days after treatment (days 35-49 PI), and the abomasum is ligated and removed from each sheep. Each abomasum is longitudinally sectioned and rinsed into an 80 mesh sieve. Sieve contents are collected in individual containers and fixed in formol-alcohol. Later each sample is transferred to a 1000 or 2000 ml beaker and the volume brought to 400-1000 ml with tap water. The total number of worms in a 40-100 ml aliquot (10%) is determined. When no worms are found in the 10% aliquot, the entire sample is examined. Total worm number/sheep and percentage clearance for each treatment are calculated. Percentage clearance for a particular test compound in a given trial is determined according to the following formula: ##EQU1## Sheep which die within 24 hr following treatment are not examined for worms, while any that die between 24 hr post-treatment and necropsy are examined in an identical manner as that described above. The results of various trials are combined and reported in Table I as percentage clearance. PROCEDURE NO. II Antifilarial Evaluation Test compound is evaluated for macro- and microfilaricidal activity against Brugia pahangi and Dipetalonema viteae in male jirds (Merioner unguiculatus) weighing 50-60 gm. Brugia pahangi is maintained by alternating passage through beagles and Aedes aegypti (selected Liverpool strain), while D.viteae is cyclically maintained in jirds and the soft tick, Ornithodoros tartakovsky as described by McCall (C. J. Entomol. 16:283-293, 1981). Prior to the start of the experiment each jird receives 5 male and 5 female, adult D. viteae by subcutaneous transplantation. One to 2 weeks later, 10 male and 10 female B. pahangi are transplanted into the peritoneal cavity of each animal (Suswillo and Denham, J. Parasitol. 63:591, 1977). One week later jirds are randomly allocated to treatment groups (3 animals/treated group and 6 animals/nontreated control group). On the following Monday (day 0). pretreatment microfilaremia levels (D. viteae) are determined by spreading a 20 cmm sample of ocular blood over a 20× 15 mm area of a slide in a drop of water. The slide is dried overnight and then stained with Giemsa. Microfilariae are counted to a total of at least 200 per slide and the number of fields noted (a minimum of 5 fields must be counted). Since there are 1.43 cmm per 10 fields on the calibrated scope, the number of microfilariae per cmm can be calculated. On day 0, dosing is also initiated. The compound, suspended in hydroxyethylcellulose (0 5%) and Tween 80 (0.1%). is administered at 100 mg/kg/day for 5 days by subcutaneous injection. Microfilaremia levels are determined on days 4 and 56 posttreatment as described above On˜day 60 posttreatment all jirds are sacrificed to determine the effects of the drug on adults of D. viteae and B. pahangi in the skin and peritoneal cavity, respectively. Live worms are identified to species, noted as to sex, and counted. The number of dead and/or encapsulated worms also is recorded. A reduction of ≧80% in microfilaremia or ≧50% in adult worm burden compared to pretreatment microfilaremia or nontreated control worm burden, respectively, is considered to be significant activity. The results for an acylhydrazone of Formula I is set forth in Table II. DETAILED DESCRIPTION (cont'd) The quaternaryalkyl acylhydrazones of Formula I can be used as the pure compounds or as mixtures of pure compounds but for practical reasons the compounds are preferably formulated as anthelmintic compositions and administered as a single or multiple dose, alone or in combination with other anthelmintics (e.g. avermectins, benzimidazoles, levamisole, praziquantel, etc.). For example, aqueous or oil suspensions can be administered orally, or the compounds can be formulated with a solid carrier for feeding. Furthermore, an oil suspension can be converted into an aqueous emulsion by mixing with water and injecting the emulsion intra muscularly, subcutaneously or into the peritoneal cavity. In addition, the active compound(s) can be administered topically to the animal in a conventional pour-on formula. Pure compounds, mixtures of the active compounds, or combinations thereof with a solid carrier can be administered in the animal's food, or administered in the form of tablets, pills, boluses, wafers, pastes, and other conventional unit dosage forms, as well as sustained/controlled release dosage forms which deliver the active compound over an extended period of days, weeks or months. All of these various forms of the active compounds of this invention can be prepared using physiologically acceptable carriers and known methods of formulation and manufacture. Representative solid carriers conveniently available and satisfactory for physiologically acceptable, unit dosage formulations include corn starch, powdered lactose, powdered sucrose, talc, stearic acid, magnesium stearate, finely divided bentonite, and the like. The active agent can be mixed with a carrier in varying proportions from, for example, about 0.001 percent by weight in animal feed to about 90 or 95 percent or more in a pill or capsule In the latter form, one might use no more carrier than sufficient to bind the particles of active compound. In general, the compounds can be formulated in stable powders or granules for mixing in an amount of feed for a single feeding or enough feed for one day and thus obtain therapeutic efficacy without complication. It is the prepared and stored feeds or feed premixes that require care. A recommended practice is to coat a granular formulation to protect and preserve the active ingredient. A prepared hog-feed containing about 0.2 percent of the active compound will provide a dosage of about 100 mg per kg body weight for each 100 lb pig in its daily ration. A solid diluent carrier need not be a homogeneous entity, but mixtures of different diluent carriers can include small proportions of adjuvants such as water; alcohols; protein solutions and suspensions like skimmed milk; edible oils; solutions, e.g., syrups; and organic adjuvants such as propylene glycols, sorbitol, glycerol, diethylcarbonate, and the like. The solid carrier formulations of the inventions are conveniently prepared in unit dosage forms, to facilitate administration to animals. Accordingly, several large boluses (about 20 g weight) amounting to about 54 g of active compound would be required for a single dosage to a 900 lb horse at a dosage rate of 50 mg/kg of body weight. Similarly, a 60 lb lamb at a dosage rate of 100 mg/kg of body weight would require a pill, capsule, or bolus containing about 2.7 g of active compound. A small dog, on the other hand, weighing about 20 lbs. would require a total dosage of about 225 mg st a dosage rate of 25 mg/kg of body weight. The solid, unit dosage forms can be conveniently prepared in various sizes and concentrations of active ingredient, to accommodate treatment of the various sizes of animals that are parasitized by worms. Liquid formulations can also be used. Representative liquid formulations include aqueous (including isotonic saline) suspensions, oil solutions and suspensions, and oil in water emulsions. Aqueous suspensions are obtained by dispersing the active compound in water preferably including a suitable surface-active dispersing agent such as cationic anionic, or non-ionic surface-active agents. Representative suitable ones are polyoxyalkylene derivatives of fatty alcohols and of sorbitan esters, and glycerol and sorbitan esters of fatty acids. Various dispersing or suspending agents can be included and representative ones are synthetic and natural gums, tragacanth, acacia, alginate, dextran, gelatin, sodium carboxymethylcellulose methylcellulose, sodium polyvinylpyrrolidone, and the like. The proportion of the active compound in the aqueous suspensions of the invention can vary from about 1 percent to about 20 percent or more. Oil solutions are prepared by mixing the active compound and an oil, e.g. an edible oil such as cottonseed oil, peanut oil, coconut oil, modified soybean oil, and sesame oil. Usually, solubility in oil will be limited and oil suspensions can be prepared by mixing additional finely divided compound in the oil. Oil in water emulsions are prepared by mixing and dispersing an oil solution or suspension of the active compound in water preferably aided by surface-active agents and dispersing or suspending agents as indicated above. In general, the formulations of this invention are administered to animals so as to achieve therapeutic or prophylactic levels of the active compound. In other animals, and for other kinds of parasitic worms, definitive dosages can be proposed. Contemplated are dosage rates of about 1 mg to about 800 mg/kg of body weight. A preferred, contemplated range of dosage rates is from about 5 mg to about 400 mg/kg of body weight. In this regard, it should be noted that the concentration of active compound in the formulation selected for administration is in many situations not critical. One can administer a larger quantity of a formulation having a relatively low concentration and achieve the same therapeutic or prophylactic dosage as a relatively small quantity of a relatively more concentrated formulation. More frequent small dosages will likewise give results comparable to one large dose. One can also administer a sustained release dosage system (protracted delivery formulation) so as to provide therapeutic and/or prophylactic dosage amounts over an extended period Unit dosage forms in accordance with this invention can have anywhere from less than 1 mg to 500 g of active compound per unit. Although the anthelmintic agents of this invention will find their primary use in the treatment and/or prevention of helminth parasitisas in domesticated animals such as sheep, cattle, horses, dogs, swine goats and poultry, they are also effective in treatment that occurs in other warm blooded animals including man. The optimum amount to be employed for best results will, of course, depend upon the particular quaternaryalkyl acylhydrazone compound employed, species of animal to be treated, the regimen treatment and the type and severity of helminth infection. Generally good results are obtained with compounds of Formula I by the oral or parenteral route of administration of about 1 to 200 mg/kg of animal body weight (such total dose being given at one time, in a protracted manner or in divided doses over a short period of time such as 1-4 days). The technique for administering these materials to animals are known to those skilled in the veterinary and medical fields. It is contemplated that the quaternaryalkyl acylhydrazones of Formula I can be used in the treatment and/or prevention of Dirofilaria in dogs at a dose of from 1 mg/kg to 100 mg/kg of body weight upon oral and/or parenteral daily/weekly or bimonthly administration depending upon the particular compound employed and the type and severity of infection. It is also contemplated that the quaternaryalkyl acylhydrazones of Formula I can be used to treat various helminth diseases in humans, including those caused by Ascaris, Enterobius, Ancylostoma, Trichuris, Stronzvloides, Fasciola, Taenia, and/or Onchocerca or other filaria at a dose of from 1 mg/kg to 300 mg/kg of body weight upon oral and/or parenteral administration. DEFINITIONS The definitions and explanations below are for the terms as used throughout the entire patent application including both the specification and claims. All temperatures are in degrees Celsius. TLC refers to thin-layer chromatography. Brine refers to an aqueous saturated sodium chloride solution. When solvent pairs are used, the ratio of solvents used are volume/volume (v/v). TABLE A__________________________________________________________________________ ##STR2## IC W R.sub.1 n R.sub.2 R.sub.3 R.sub.4 X.sup.- MP, °C. P H__________________________________________________________________________ 1 2-pyridinyl PhCH.sub.2 1 1-pyridinyl Cl 240.5d 1 - 2 3-pyridinyl CH.sub.3 1 1-pyridinyl Cl 237.2d 2 - 3 2-pyridinyl CH.sub.3 1 1-pyridinyl Cl 183.7d 2 - 4 3-pyridinyl CH.sub.3 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 Cl 199.4d 4 - 5 4-pyridinyl CH.sub.3 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 Cl 213d 4 - 6 4-pyridinyl H 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 Cl 220d 4 - 7 2-pyridinyl CH.sub.3 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 Cl 208.2d 4 - 8 3-thienyl H 1 1-pyridinyl Cl 244.2d 1 - 9 3-thienyl H 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 Cl 214.6 1 -10 3-thienyl H 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 H Cl 182.1d 1 -11 3-methyl-2-thienyl CH.sub.3 1 1-pyridinyl Cl 247.8d 1 -12 3-methyl-2-thienyl CH.sub.3 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 Cl 209.4d 1 -13 2-pyridinyl CH.sub.3 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 H Cl 219.6d 1 -14 3-pyridinyl CH.sub.3 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 H Cl 216.1d 1 -15 4-pyridinyl CH.sub.3 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 H Cl 180.1 1 -16 4-pyridinyl CH.sub.3 1 1-pyridinyl Cl 272.1d 1 -17 2-thienyl H 1 1-pyridinyl Cl 236.1d 1 -18 2-thienyl H 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 H Cl 207.9d 8 -19 5-chloro-2-thienyl CH.sub.3 1 1-pyridinyl Cl 197.6d 8 -20 5-chloro-2-thienyl CH.sub.3 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 Cl 192.2d 8 -21 5-chloro-2-thienyl CH.sub.3 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 H Cl 183.8 8 -22 5-bromo-2-thienyl CH.sub.3 1 1-pyridinyl Cl 231.5d 8 -23 2,5-dichloro-3-thienyl CH.sub.3 1 1-pyridinyl Cl 241.4 8 -24 2,5-dichloro-3-thienyl CH.sub.3 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 Cl 220.8 8 -25 2,5-dimethyl-3-thienyl CH.sub.3 1 1-pyridinyl Cl 248.8d 8 -26 2,5-dimethyl-3-thienyl CH.sub.3 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 Cl 206.7d 8 -27 5-methyl-2-thienyl CH.sub.3 1 1-pyridinyl Cl 225.7d 8 -28 5-methyl-2-thienyl CH.sub.3 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 Cl 196.7 8 -29 5-methyl-2-thienyl CH.sub.3 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 H Cl 218.5d 8 -30 2-thienyl CH.sub.3 1 1-pyridinyl Cl 216.3d 8 -31 2-thienyl CH.sub.3 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 Cl 187.8d 8 -32 2-thienyl CH.sub.3 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 H Cl 198.2 8 -33 3-thienyl CH.sub.3 1 1-pyridinyl Cl 233.4d 8 -34 3-thienyl CH.sub.3 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 Cl 205.8 8 -35 3-thienyl CH.sub.3 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 H Cl 261.2d 8 -36 4-methyl-2-thienyl CH.sub.3 1 1-pyridinyl Cl 225.2 8 -37 4-methyl-2-thienyl CH.sub.3 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 Cl 190.0 8 -38 4-methyl-2-thienyl CH.sub.3 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 H Cl 231.2d 8 -39 3-methyl-2-thienyl H 1 1-pyridinyl Cl 236.8d 8 -40 3-methyl-2-thienyl H 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 Cl 231.2d 8 -41 5-methyl-2-furanyl CH.sub.3 1 1-pyridinyl Cl 214.2d 8 +42 5-methyl-2-furanyl CH.sub.3 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 Cl 190.7d 8 +43 2,5-dimethyl-3-furanyl CH.sub.3 1 1-pyridinyl Cl 190.0d 8 +44 2,5-methyl-3-furanyl CH.sub.3 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 Cl 197.4d 8 +45 4-methyl-2-thienyl CH.sub.3 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 H Cl 233.0d 8 -46 3-methyl-2-thienyl H 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 H Cl 235.7 8 +47 2-thienyl c-C.sub.3 H.sub.5 1 1-pyridinyl Cl 207.0d 8 -48 2,4-dimethyl-5-thiazolyl CH.sub.3 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 Cl 189.2d 1 +49 2,4-dimethyl-5-thiazolyl CH.sub.3 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 H Cl 175.8d 1 +50 5-methyl-1-phenyl-4-pyrazolyl CH.sub.3 1 1-pyridinyl Cl 214.5d 1 +51 5-methyl-2-thienyl H 1 1-pyridinyl Cl 228.8d 8 -52 5-methyl-2-thienyl H 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 Cl 221.5d 8 +53 5-methyl-2-thienyl H 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 H Cl 225.2d 8 -54 5-methyl-2-furanyl H 1 1-pyridinyl Cl 226.2d 8 +55 5-methyl-2-furanyl H 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 Cl 239.1d 8 -56 5-methyl-2-furanyl H 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 H Cl 225.2d 8 -57 3-benzothienyl CH.sub.3 1 1-pyridinyl Cl 246.2d 8 +58 3-benzothienyl CH.sub.3 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 Cl 236.0d 8 +59 3-benzothienyl CH.sub.3 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 H Cl 244.2d 8 -60 2-pyrrolyl H 1 1-pyridinyl Cl 215-218d 1 +61 2-pyrrolyl H 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 Cl 224-226d 1 -62 2-pyrrolyl H 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 H Cl 230-231d 1 -63 1-methyl-2-pyrrolyl H 1 1-pyridinyl Cl 228-229d 1 -64 1-methyl-2-pyrrolyl H 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 Cl 239-241d 1 -65 5-bromo-2-thienyl CH.sub.3 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 Cl 203.8d 8 -66 5-bromo-2-thienyl CH.sub.3 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 H Cl 198.6d 8 +67 4-quinolinyl H 1 1-pyridinyl Cl 249.8d 1 -68 4-quinolinyl H 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 Cl 216.3d 1 +69 1-methylindol-3-yl H 1 1-pyridinyl Cl 196.0d 1 +70 1-methylindol-3-yl H 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 H Cl 253.0d 1 -71 1-methylindol-3-yl H 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 H Cl 253.0d 1 -72 2-pyrazinyl CH.sub.3 1 1-pyridinyl Cl 248.1d 2 +73 2-pyrazinyl CH.sub.3 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 Cl 249.5d 1 -74 2-pyrazinyl CH.sub.3 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 H Cl 220.6d 1 -75 2-thienyl C.sub.2 H.sub.5 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 H Cl 189.8 8 -76 2-thienyl C.sub.3 H.sub.7 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 H Cl 166.4 8 +77 5-methyl-1-phenyl-4-pyrazolyl CH.sub.3 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 Cl 150.7 1 +78 3-methyl-2-pyrazinyl CH.sub.3 1 1-pyridinyl Cl 230.5d 1 +79 3-methyl-2-pyrazinyl CH.sub.3 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 Cl 217.6d 1 -80 3-methyl-2-pyrazinyl CH.sub.3 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 H Cl 221.5d 1 -81 2-(4-chlorophenyl)-4- CH.sub.3 1 1-pyridinyl Cl 238.5d 2 - methyl-(2H)-1,2,3-triazolyl82 2-(4-chlorophenyl)-4- CH.sub.3 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 Cl 230.0d 2 - methyl-(2H)-1,2,3-triazolyl83 2-(4-chlorophenyl)-4- CH.sub.3 1 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 H Cl 257.9d 2 - methyl-(2H)-1,2,3-triazolyl__________________________________________________________________________ TABLE I______________________________________H. Contortus % ClearanceCompound No. P.O I.P______________________________________1 N.T. N.T2 40.3 N.T3 27.0 N.T.4 0 N.T.5 0 N.T.6 N.T. N.T.7 N.T. N.T.______________________________________ TABLE II______________________________________Chemotherapeutic activity of Compound 1 in jirds( M. unguiculatus) Against D. viteae and B. pahangi.Dose % Filarial Reduction of:mg/kg/day Admin. Macrofil. Microfil.Cmpd.# x5 Route BpL5 DvL5 4 days 56 days______________________________________1 100 SC 100 0 40 100______________________________________ ##STR3## X is a halogen atom or other active group, for example, an anhydride.

This invention concerns a process for killing internal parasites, especially nematodes, trematodes and cestodes affecting warm blooded animals such as sheep, cattle, swine, goats, dogs, cats, horses and humans as well as poultry by administering an effective amount of a compound of the Formula I. ##STR1## The compounds are readily prepared by conventional chemical reactions.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a new back saddle. A "back saddle" as used herein is a device which is attached to the waist of a person and which contains a back bag, a container at the rear of the back saddle in which a hiker, skier or other user may conveniently transport small items. The back saddle is secured to the waistline of a user through belt means attached to the sides of the back bag and which themselves are closed together through locking means positioned at one end of each of the belt sections. The back saddle is preferably made of a flexible material such as a plastic which is weather resistant. The back bag is a curved pouch following the countour of the wearer's backside, and is generally opened through a zipper which runs the entire width of the back bag. Such "back saddles" have been extremely popular in the Alps and in Bavaria are well known as the Wimmerl, a standard item for hiking enthusiasts and skiers. Another traditional item of the hiker and skier is the knapsack. In the past, a hiker or skier has chosen a rucksack when he wishes to transport a change of clothes. Where he does not need the large capacity of a rucksack, but only needs a small volume to transport items such as gloves, small change for refreshments at the mountaintop, and other minor items, a Wimmerl, or back saddle, has been preferred. Because of the extreme bulkiness of a knapsack, one who chooses a Wimmerl will not take along an empty rucksack, and is faced with not having adequate storage for sweaters or coats when the weather suddenly turns warm or for gathering items collected in the forest, such as mushrooms, plant specimens and the like. Thus, one of the drawbacks of the Wimmerl is that the small amount of space precludes the possibility of conveniently storing clothes shed due to weather conditions or gathering items from the forest. The rucksack of course is one alternative to the Wimmerl. However, when it is unlikely that the large volume of the rucksack will be needed for an afternoon's skiing or hiking, the Wimmerl has generally been chosen due to the greater freedom of movement which the Wimmerl gives the wearer. Thus, the likelihood of needing a larger volume provided by the rucksack is forsaken for the convenience of the Wimmerl. Thus it is often the case that skiers making long trips who would like the larger capacity of the knapsack choose the Wimmerl because of its greater freedom of movement. This particularly creates a problem for family outings because children often wish to shed outer clothing or wish to collect items from the forest, but are unwilling to carry them. Here, the user of the Wimmerl is unable to fit such bulky items into his small carrying back bag and the parent is faced with carrying the child's objects. It is therefore an object of the invention to provide the user of the Wimmmerl with knapsack opportunities without adding to the inconvenience of the user of the Wimmerl when the knapsack capability is not needed. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION A back saddle is provided having a back bag member worn at the rear of the waist of a person and a knapsack attached to said back saddle. The knapsack is fixed to the body of the person through shoulder belts. THE DRAWINGS The invention is illustrated by the drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a back saddle including a knapsack folded into the top of the back saddle and enclosed in a closed member; FIG. 2 is a perspective view of the saddle according to FIG. 1 with the knapsack in its opened form; FIG. 3 is a sectional view along line III--III in FIG. 2; and FIG. 4 is a sectional view along line IV--IV in FIG. 1. DETAILED DESCRIPTION It is proposed according to the invention with respect to a back saddle of the known type that a knapsack is attached to the back bag and provided with carrying straps that can be put over each shoulder of the person and that can be fitted detachable to the back saddle or the belt with adjusting means provided at its ends. Thus, the employer of such a saddle always has a knapsack available in addition to the back bag, if needed, the knapsack having a much larger volume of capacity than the saddle. It is advantageous to connect the knapsack fixedly to the back saddle, foldable and fixed onto the saddle in its folded condition. The knapsack can thereby be folded when it is no longer needed and placed on the back saddle. In particular, when thin but long-wearing materials are used for the knapsack, this knapsack is very light and thus increases the weight of the saddle only immaterially. It is an especially material-saving embodiment when the top side of the saddle forms simultaneously the bottom portion of the knapsack and when the container for receiving the folded portion of the knapsack is formed of two top flaps and the top side of the bag forming simultaneously the bottom of the portion of the knapsack, the top flaps being foldable over the folded portion of the knapsack and can be connected with each other by suitable locking means. The back saddle 1 consists essentially of a back bag 3 of preferably flexible material, that can be put around the waist of a person by means of belt sections 2 attached to said back saddle, and comprising a pouch closable with a zipper 15. This back bag 3 serves for receiving small objects, provisions or other utensils taken along by a person typically on a mountain hike and is put against the back of the person while the belt sections 2 adjusted to the back bag fasten the waist so that the saddle 1 can be put tightly around the waist of the person. The one end of the belt section 2 comprises additionally as locking means a buckle 13 for taking up the end of the other belt section. A knapsack portion 4 is adjusted to the back bag 3 of the saddle 1, which knapsack portion can be put over the shoulders of the person with shoulder straps 5 and can be fastened with the ends of the straps to the bag 3 in eyelets 14 by means of clippers 6. This knapsack portion 4 is preferably formed of a material such as a light nylon to provide a light weight. The knapsack portion 4 is formed to be foldable together and connected with the back bag 3 preferably in a cooperative manner. In the illustrative embodiment shown the knapsack portion 4 is enclosed on the top side 7 of the bag 3 and simultaneously enclosed in its folded condition 4a in a lockable container at the top side 7 of the back bag 3. It is suitable when the top 7 of the bag forms simultaneously the bottom of the knapsack portion 4 (cf. FIG. 3), while the container for receiving the folded knapsack portion 4a is formed of two flaps 8, 9 attached to the top side 7 of the bag 3, foldable over the folded knapsack portion 4a and connectable with each other with a zipper 10. In the embodiment of the saddle 1 as shown the zipper 10 is adjustable at its two ends with press buttons 11, 12 to the bag 3. It is thereby achieved that the folded knapsack portion 4a can be stored away in a particularly compact manner at the back saddle 1. A particular advantage of the back saddle according to the invention is that in view of the embodiment of the top 7 of the bag as a bottom for the knapsack portion 4, the back bag 3 may always be used independent of the folded or unfolded condition of the knapsack portion 4. When needed, the folded knapsack portion 4 stored away in the container of the back bag 3 is unfolded in a facile manner and put over the shoulders by means of the carrying straps 5 and hooked to the back bag 3 with the carrying strap ends 6. When the saddle 1 according to the invention is used in such a manner there is the possibility in view of the great capacity of the knapsack portion 4 relative to the actual back bag 3, e.g., to store away clothing that has become superflous during wandering or to carrying objects that have been found unexpectedly during a trip. When the belt 2 is fastened tightly, the saddle 1 comprising the unfolded knapsack portion 4 is especially well adjusted, for example, also when the person using it is skiing downhill. For closing the knapsack portion there is applied a zipper in a manner known per se, a cording that can be knotted and/or the top flap of a knapsack. These parts are well known and are not described in detail. It is also possible to adjust the shoulder straps 5 of the knapsack portion in their length in a known manner. Within the scope of the invention it is also possible to shape the knapsack portion 4 additionally or by itself as a back carrying seat for children. In this case there is provided a seat bottom optionally adjustable in the knapsack portion 4 in a manner well known. Moreover, openings are provided in the side parts of the knapsack for putting through the children's legs. The arrangement of these openings depend on the direction in which the child to be carried is sitting. This possible embodiment of the saddle according to the invention is not shown in the drawings.

A back saddle is provided having a back bag member worn at the rear of the waist of a person. A knapsack is attached to said back saddle preferably at the top side of said back bag. Said back bag serves the knapsack as a bottom and as an attachment to the person. The knapsack is additionally fixed to the body of the person through shoulder belts.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a method and apparatus for forming a composite image. 2. Description of the Prior Art It is possible to form an image from a number of smaller images. Typically, these smaller images are stitched together to form the larger image. In order to do this, each smaller image must have an area of overlap with adjacent smaller images so that the larger image is continuous. In order to align the smaller images, it is known to select a large number of so-called “correspondence points” in each image. A correspondence point is a point in two adjacent smaller images which represent the same point in the scene. This assists in making the larger image appear continuous. However, this method has two problems. Firstly, in order to ensure that the smaller images are as closely aligned as possible, a large number of correspondence points are required. Specifically, it is typical that these points are spread over a large area. This means that a large area of overlap is required between adjacent smaller images and so the resolution of the larger image is reduced. Secondly, because the cameras capturing the smaller images can never be exactly co-located, straight lines that traverse the boundaries of the smaller images when stitched to form the larger image are distorted. Typically, this is exhibited as a kink in the line. It is an aim of the present invention to alleviate these problems. SUMMARY OF THE PRESENT INVENTION According to one aspect of the invention, there is provided a method of forming a composite image of a scene from a plurality of overlapping elemental images, the method comprising the steps of: selecting one point in one of the plurality of images and another point in a second one of the plurality of images, the first point and the other point being overlaid in the composite image and being of substantially the same point in the scene; whereby, when the first point and the other point are overlaid, determining the gradient across the overlap between the first and second elementary image; and adjusting one of the first and second elementary image to reduce the gradient across the overlap. This is advantageous because the alignment of the elementary images in the composite image can take place with less overlap. This improves the overall resolution of the composite image. The method may comprise selecting a second point in the first image and a second point in the second image, the second point in the first image and the second point in the second image also being overlaid in the composite image and being substantially of the same point in the scene. This improves the alignment of the elementary images in the composite images. The method may additionally comprise selecting a different point on the first elemental image, the different point being located along a straight line from the point in the scene defined by the first point; and determining the gradient across the boundary in accordance with the gradient of a line connecting the first point and the different point on the first image. This assists in determining the gradient across the overlap. In this case, the method may comprise selecting a different point on the second elemental image, the different point being located along a straight line from the point in the scene defined by the first point in the second elemental image; and determining the gradient across the boundary in accordance with the gradient of a line connecting the first point and the different point on the second elemental image Before the gradient across the boundary is determined, the orientation or focal length of the first elemental image or the second elemental image may be adjusted so that the gradient of the line between the first point and the different point in the first or second image is reduced. The first image may be captured using a first camera element having a first focal length and the second image is captured by a second camera element using a second focal length, whereby the first or second focal length may be adjusted such that the distance between the first point and the other point is reduced when overlaid. The distance and/or gradient may be minimised. The degree to which the distance and/or gradient is minimised depends on the degree of accuracy required during the alignment process. The first image or the second elemental image may be adjusted such that the distance between the first point and the other point is reduced when overlaid. The gradient across the overlap may be determined by using a binary search algorithm. This reduces the time taken to determine the required parameters. According to another aspect, there is provided an apparatus for forming a composite image of a scene from a plurality of overlapping elemental images, the apparatus comprising: a selector for selecting one point in one of the plurality of images and another point in a second one of the plurality of images, the first point and the other point being overlaid in the composite image and being of substantially the same point in the scene; a determiner for determining, when the first point and the other point are overlaid, the gradient across the overlap between the first and other elementary image; and an adjuster for adjusting the orientation of one of the first and second elementary images to reduce the gradient across the overlap. The selector may be operable to select a second point in the first image and a second point in the second image, the second point in the first image and the second point in the second image also being overlaid in the composite image and being substantially of the same point in the scene. The selector may be operable to select a different point on the first elemental image, the different point being located along a straight line from the point in the scene defined by the first point; and the determiner is operable to determine the gradient across the boundary in accordance with the gradient of a line connecting the first point and the different point on the first image. The selector may be operable to select a different point on the second elemental image, the different point being located along a straight line from the point in the scene defined by the first point in the second elemental image; and the determiner is operable to determine the gradient across the boundary in accordance with the gradient of a line connecting the first point and the different point on the second elemental image Before the gradient across the boundary is determined, the orientation or focal length of the first elemental image or the second elemental image may be adjusted so that the gradient of the line between the first point and the different point in the first image or the second image is reduced. The first image may be captured using a first camera element having a first focal length and the second image is captured using a second camera element having a second focal length, whereby the first or second focal length is adjusted to reduce the distance between the first point and the other point when overlaid. The orientation of the first image or the second elemental image may be adjusted such that the distance between the first point and the other point is reduced when overlaid. The gradient across the overlap may be determined by using a binary search algorithm. According to another aspect, there is provided a computer program containing computer readable instructions which, when loaded onto a computer configure the computer to perform a method according to embodiments of the invention. A computer readable storage medium configured to store the computer program therein or thereon is also provided in embodiments. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The above and other objects features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following detailed description of illustrative embodiments which is to be read in connection with the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram showing a system for capturing elementary images which form a composite image and are aligned according to one embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 2A and 2B are diagrams showing two alternative camera configurations used in the system of FIG. 1 ; FIG. 2C is a diagram showing the field of vision of the camera cluster shown in FIG. 2B ; FIG. 3 is a diagram describing the stitching process aligned according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 4 is a diagram describing the stitching process shown in FIG. 3 ; FIG. 5 shows a schematic diagram illustrating the correction for lens distortion; FIG. 6 shows a schematic diagram of outputs from three cameras which are used in the system of FIG. 1 to capture the composite images; FIG. 7 shows a flow diagram explaining the alignment process according to embodiments of the present invention; FIG. 8 shows a flow diagram explaining the calibration of the centre of the three cameras of FIG. 6 ; and FIG. 9 shows a flow diagram explaining the calibration of the left and right of the three cameras in FIG. 6 . DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Referring to FIG. 1 , the live event 101 , which in this example is a soccer match is held in a venue, which in this example is a stadium. A camera cluster 102 , which in this Figure consists of six individual cameras 104 arranged in a certain configuration (but in FIG. 6 consists of three individual cameras 104 ), is positioned at an appropriate vantage point in the stadium. The configuration of the camera cluster 102 will be explained in more detail with reference to FIGS. 2A , 2 B and 2 C. However, in summary, the camera cluster 102 is configured so that the field of view of each camera 104 within the camera cluster 102 overlaps to a small degree with the field of view of an adjacent camera 104 in the camera cluster 102 . Thus, the entire live event is covered by panoramic view generated by the totality of the field of view of the camera cluster 102 . The vantage point may be at an elevated position in the stadium. In this embodiment, each camera 104 is a High Definition (HD) camera whose horizontal orientation is transformed by 90° so to produce a portrait image output having a resolution of 1080×1920 rather than 1920×1080 as in the case of a traditional landscape orientation. Additionally, each camera 104 operates in progressive mode rather than interlaced mode. This makes processing of the images generated by the cameras 104 easier. However, the skilled person will appreciate that each camera 104 may, alternatively, operate in interlaced mode. Using a number of these cameras 104 in a camera cluster 102 arranged in the portrait mode allows an output from the camera cluster 102 to have a higher vertical picture resolution. The camera cluster 102 is used to produce a video stream of the soccer match. As the skilled person would appreciate, although the camera cluster 102 is described as being composed of a number of individual cameras 104 , the present invention is not so limited. Indeed, the camera cluster need not be made up of a concatenation of complete cameras 104 , merely camera elements that each produce an image output. The camera cluster 102 may therefore be a single unit. In addition to the camera cluster 102 , one or more microphones (not shown) may also be provided proximate the camera cluster 102 or disparate to the camera cluster 102 to provide audio coverage of the soccer match. The output of each camera 104 in the camera cluster 102 is fed to a chromatic aberration corrector 105 . In this example, each camera 104 within the camera cluster 102 , produces an individual video output and so the camera cluster 102 has, in this case, six outputs. However, in other embodiments only one output of the camera cluster 102 may instead be used which is the multiplexed output of each of the six cameras 104 . The output of the chromatic aberration corrector 105 is fed to an image stitching means 108 and a scalable content preparation means 110 which both form part of an image processing device 106 which is an embodiment of the present invention. The image processing device 106 consists of the image stitching means 108 and the scalable content preparation means 110 and in this embodiment, will be realised on a computer. The output of the image stitching means 108 is connected to the scalable content preparation means 110 . The image stitching means 108 takes each high definition image (or elementary image) captured by the respective camera 104 in the camera cluster 102 and combines them so as to produce a panoramic view of the venue. It is important to note that in this embodiment, the output of the image stitching means 108 is not simply the same view as taken using a wide angle lens. The output of image stitching means 108 is a tapestry, or conjoined, version of the output of each individual camera 104 in the camera cluster 102 . This means that the output of the image stitching means 108 has a resolution of approximately 8000×2000 pixels rather than a resolution of 1080×1920 pixels as would be the case if one HD camera was fitted with a wide angle lens. The conjoined image (or composite image) is therefore an ultra high resolution image. The advantages of the high definition arrangement are numerous including the ability to highlight particular features of a player without having to optically zoom and therefore affecting the overall image of the stadium. Further, the automatic tracking of an object is facilitated because the background of the event is static and there is a higher screen resolution of the object to be tracked. The image stitching means 108 is described in more detail with reference to FIG. 3 . The output of the image stitching means 108 is fed to either the scalable content preparation means 110 and/or one or more Super High Definition cinemas 128 . In this embodiment, the or each super high definition cinema 128 is in a different location to the venue. This allows many spectators who are unable to attend the stadium due to shortage of capacity, or the location of the stadium, to view the live event. Additionally or alternatively, other locations around a stadium may be used to situate the super high definition cinema 128 . For example, a bar in the stadium serving refreshments may be used. The scalable content preparation means 110 is used to generate an image from the ultra high resolution output of the image stitching means 108 so that it may be used by one or more High Definition televisions 120 , personal display device 122 having a screen size smaller than a traditional television and/or the super high definition cinemas 124 . The scalable content preparation means 110 may generate either a scaled down version of the ultra high resolution image or may generate a segment of the ultra high resolution image using the mapping technique explained hereinafter. In one embodiment, the personal display device 122 is a PlayStation® Portable (PSP®). However, it is envisaged that the personal display device 122 may also be a cell phone, laptop, Personal Digital Assistant or the like or any combination thereof. Additionally, the scalable content preparation means 110 also implements an automatic tracking algorithm to select parts of the ultra-high resolution image to produce video streams for display on the personal display device 122 . For example, the scalable content preparation means 110 may automatically track the ball or a particular player or even produce fixed shots of a particular special event, such as scoring a goal in a soccer match or a touch-down in a US Football game. The output of the scalable content preparation means 110 is fed to a distribution means 112 . The distribution means 112 consists of a content database 114 that stores content which may be also distributed, for example replays of special events, or further information relating to a particular player etc. Also within the distribution means 112 is a data streaming means 116 which converts the content to be distributed, either from the scalable content preparation means 110 or from the content database 114 into a format that has an appropriate bandwidth for the network over which the streamed data is to be fed or broadcast. For example, the data streaming means 116 may compress the stream such that it can be fed over an IEEE 802.11b WiFi network or over a cellular telephone network or any appropriate network, such as a Bluetooth network or a Wireless Network. In this embodiment, the network is a WiFi network which is appropriate for the personal display device 122 so the output of the data streaming means 110 is fed to a Wireless Router 118 . Although the foregoing describes the data being fed over a WiFi network or a cellular telephone phone network, the invention is not so limited. The data streaming means 116 may compress the stream for broadcast over any network which supports streaming video data such as a 3 rd or 4 th generation cellular network, Digital Video Broadcast-Handheld (DVB-H) network, DAB network, T-DMB network, MediaFLO™ network or the like. The super high definition cinema 124 includes a large screen projector 126 and a screen 124 . The output of the image stitching means 108 is fed to the large screen projector 126 . In order to provide adequate resolution, the large screen projector 126 may have a display resolution of 8000×2000 pixels or may consist of two conjoined projectors each having a resolution of 4000×2000 pixels. Additionally, the large screen projector 126 may include watermarking technology which embeds a watermark into the displayed image to prevent a user viewing the live event in the super high definition cinema 124 from making an illegal copy of the event using a video camera. Watermarking technology is known and will not be explained in any further detail. Referring to FIG. 2A , in one embodiment, the lenses of the cameras 104 in the camera cluster 102 are arranged in a horizontally convex manner. In the alternative embodiment in FIG. 2B , the camera lenses of cameras 104 in the camera cluster 102 are arranged in a horizontally concave manner. In either of the two alternative configurations, the cameras 104 in the camera cluster 102 are arranged to produce the minimum parallax effect between adjacent cameras 104 in the camera cluster 102 . In other words, the cameras 104 in the camera cluster 102 are arranged such that the focal point of a pair of adjacent cameras are the closest together. The cameras 104 in the arrangement of FIG. 2B have been found to produce a slightly lower parallax error between adjacent cameras 104 than those of FIG. 2A . In FIG. 2C , the field of view of the camera cluster 102 formed of four cameras arranged in a horizontally concave manner is shown. This is for ease of understanding and the skilled person would appreciate that any number of cameras can be used, including six as is the case with FIG. 1 or three as is the case with FIG. 6 . As noted above, in order to ensure that the entire event is captured by the camera cluster 102 , in embodiments of the present invention, the field of view of one camera 104 in the camera cluster 102 slightly overlaps the field of view of another camera 104 in the camera cluster 102 . This overlap is shown by the hashed area in FIG. 2C . As is explained hereinafter, the effect of the overlap in the conjoined image is reduced in the image stitching means 108 . In the camera cluster 102 arranged in the horizontally concave manner, the amount of overlap between the field of view of different, adjacent, cameras 104 is substantially constant regardless of distance from the camera cluster 102 . As the amount of overlap is substantially constant, the processing required to reduce the effect of the overlap is reduced. Although the above is described with reference to arranging the cameras in a horizontal manner, the skilled person will appreciate that the cameras may be arranged in a vertical manner. As described in relation to FIG. 1 , the output from the camera cluster 102 is fed into the chromatic aberration corrector 105 . The chromatic aberration corrector 105 is known, but will be briefly described for completeness. The chromatic aberration error is corrected for each camera 104 . The chromatic aberration manifests itself particularly at the edge of images generated by each camera 104 . As already noted, the image output from each camera is 104 is stitched together. Therefore, in embodiments, the chromatic aberration is reduced by the chromatic aberration corrector 105 to improve the output ultra high resolution image. The chromatic aberration corrector 105 separates the red, green and blue components of the image from each camera 104 for individual processing. The red and green and blue and green components are compared to generate red and blue correction coefficients. Once the red and blue correction coefficients are generated, the red and blue corrected image components are generated in a known manner. The corrected red and blue image components are then combined with the original green image. This forms a corrected output for each camera 104 which is subsequently fed to the image stitching means 108 . The image stitching means 108 then aligns the elementary images according to embodiments of the present invention to improve the appearance of the stitched image and then combines the aberration corrected individual outputs from each camera 104 into the single ultra high definition image. The aligning process is described with reference to FIG. 7 and the combining process is described with reference to FIG. 3 . The output from the chromatic aberration corrector 105 is fed into an image alignment means 301 according to embodiments of the invention and a virtual image projection means 304 . The output of the image alignment means 301 is fed a camera parameter calculation means 302 . The output of the camera parameter calculation means 302 generates camera parameters which minimise the error in the overlap region between two adjacent cameras 104 and improves the overall alignment of the elementary images in the composite image. In this embodiment, the error is the average mean squared error per pixel, although the invention is not so limited. Also, in this embodiment only the roll, pitch, yaw, barrel and focal length of each camera 104 are calculated. As the cameras 104 have similar focal lengths (the values of which are calculated) to reduce the parallax effect noted above and focal points, the relative position between the cameras is not considered. It is envisaged that other parameters are also found, and correction of lens distortion is performed before the alignment process according to embodiments of the present invention takes place. Other errors such as spherical aberration, and the like may also be corrected. Additionally, it is noted that chromatic aberration correction may again be performed after the alignment phase or after generation of the ultra high definition image. The camera parameters are fed into the virtual image projection means 304 . The output of the virtual image projection means 304 is fed into a colour correction means 306 . The output of the colour correction means 306 is fed into an exposure correction means 308 . The output of the exposure correction means 308 is fed into a parallax error correction means 310 . The output of the parallax error correction means 310 is the single ultra high definition image. As noted earlier, it is possible to use an image generated by one camera. In this case, the virtual image projection means 304 would not be required. The image alignment means 301 is described with reference to FIG. 4 . It is to be noted that the following only describes finding the camera parameters for two adjacent cameras. The skilled person will appreciate that using this method, the camera parameters for any number of cameras can be found. Live images A and B are generated by two respective adjacent cameras 104 in the camera cluster 102 . Before the elementary images can be stitched together, they are aligned according to embodiments of the present invention. This alignment process is discussed with reference to FIGS. 5-9 . After the elementary images have been aligned, in order to minimise the error in the overlap region, a hierarchical search technique is used by the image alignment means 301 . Using this method, it is assumed that the camera producing image A is fixed. Both live images are fed into a low pass filter 402 . This removes the fine details of the image. By removing the fine detail of the image, the likelihood of the search finding a local minimum is reduced. The amount of filtering applied to each image may be varied during the search. For example, at the start of the search, a greater amount of filtering may be applied compared to at the end of a search. This means that an approximate value of the parameters may be generated and may be refined towards the end of the search allowing a greater amount of detail to be considered and to improve the results. The low pass filtered images are then fed into the virtual image projection means 304 shown in FIG. 3 . The virtual image projection means 304 is used to compensate for the fact that each camera 104 in the camera cluster 102 is facing in a different direction but the ultra high resolution image to be generated should appear to come from one camera pointing in one direction. The virtual image projection means 304 therefore maps one pixel of light received by one camera 104 onto a virtual focal plane. The virtual focal plane corresponds to the focal plane which would have been produced by a virtual camera capable of capturing the panoramic view with ultra high resolution. In other words, the output of the virtual camera would be the stitched ultra high resolution image. The manner in which the virtual image projection means 304 operates is known and is discussed in GB2444533 A and so will not be discussed any further here. Returning to FIG. 4 , after the image has been mapped by the virtual image projection means 304 (resulting in a shot similar to that shown in 406 ), the mapped image is fed into an exposure corrector 408 . The exposure corrector 408 is configured to analyse the exposure and/or colourimetry of the overlap images produced by each camera 104 in the camera cluster 102 . With this information, the exposure corrector 408 adjusts the exposure and/or colourimetry parameters of one camera to match those of the other camera. Alternatively, the exposure and/or colourimetry settings of one camera are adjusted such that any sudden changes in exposure and/or colourimetry are removed. However, it is possible that a combination of the above alternatives is utilised. It is advantageous to correct the exposure and/or colourimetry during the alignment process as this results in improved camera parameters. However, it is envisaged that such parameters need not be corrected during the alignment process. If such parameters are not considered during alignment of the cameras, then such correction can be carried out on the images output from the cameras. In this case, it is to be noted that adjusting the image output from one camera to match the exposure and/or colourimetry of the other image may increase the overall dynamic range of the image which would require additional storage and/or processing. The image output from the exposure corrector 408 is the composite image. It is noted that although the alignment process has been described with reference to live images, it is possible to use a calibration target which is held in front of the camera. However, using this technique has one distinct disadvantage. For a live event, the calibration target may need to be very large (in excess of 10 meters). Additionally, using live images means that if the camera(s) within the cluster move slightly, for example, due to wind, small adjustments can be made in real-time without affecting the live stream. For example, one of the previously stored minima could be used and the alignment process re-calibrated. Accordingly, the camera parameters may be determined “off-line” i.e. not live on air, or “on-line” i.e. live on air if the re-calibration of cameras is required. Returning now to FIG. 3 , the image stitching means 108 will be further described. After the camera parameters have been established according to embodiments of the present invention, the image output from each camera is fed into a second image projection means 304 . The output from the second image projection means 304 is fed into a colour corrector 306 . The output from the colour corrector 306 is fed into an exposure corrector 308 . It is noted here that the functionality of the second image projection means 304 , the colour corrector 306 and the exposure corrector 308 is the same as the image projector 404 and exposure and/or colourimetry corrector 408 described with reference to FIG. 4 . This means that the ultra high definition image is subjected to the same corrections as the individual images output from the cameras 104 . The output of the exposure corrector 308 is fed into a parallax error corrector 310 . The parallax error corrector 310 prevents “ghosting” which is caused when an object located in the overlap region of two camera images appears twice when the images are stitched together. In order to address this, in the stitched image, a mask is generated for each of the overlap regions. It is then assumed that any significant errors within the mask are caused by the parallax phenomenon. These errors are quantified using the mean squared average error between pixels in the overlap region. This is a valid assumption as the alignment process minimised any errors due to camera parameters. All individual objects within the masks are labelled using known morphological and object segmentation algorithms. If the significant error between pixels in the overlap region is below a threshold then the two images are blended together. Alternatively, in areas where the error is high, ghosting is deemed to have taken place and only one image from one camera is used. In order to reduce the parallax phenomenon, it is desirable to have the focal points of each camera close together. The alignment process according to embodiments of the present invention will now be described. Referring to FIG. 5 , a lens 500 of one of the camera elements 104 is shown. As is understood by the skilled person, a lens 500 has barrel distortion and/or pin-cushion distortion. Collectively, these are referred to as “lens distortion”. These distortions are particularly noticeable if the captured image is a large distance from the lens 500 and typically results in straight lines appearing to droop as the line extends away from the optical axis 501 of the lens 500 . In other words, as a straight line extends towards the edge of a field of view (in this case a 16:9 image shown by box 505 ), the straight line will drop as it approaches the edge. In order to improve the quality of the stitched image, and to particularly improve the appearance of straight lines across the image, the lens distortion is corrected before the alignment process of embodiments of the invention takes place. In order to correct for these distortions, the position of each pixel in the image is converted into an offset from the centre of the image normalised by half the width of the image. In the case of the image being a 16:9 ratio image, the x (or horizontal) value of the offset will be between −1 and +1. In other words, the x-coordinate of the pixel will be an offset from −1 to +1. The y (or vertical) value of the offset will be between −9/16 and +9/16. This is calculated by using the following relationships: x =(image_col−image_width/2)/(image_width/2) y =(image_height/2−image_row)/(image−width/2) Whereby image_col is the value of the position of the x co-ordinate; image_width is the total image width; and image_row is the value of the position of the y co-ordinate. The radial length between the centre of the image (the optical axis 501 ) and each pixel is then calculated. This is calculated using Pythagoras' theorem such that the calculated radial length is normalised to give a value of 1 at the edge of the lens using the equation radial_length 2 =( x 2 +y 2 )/(1.0 2 +0.5625 2 ) The new position value of each pixel (x′,y′) is then calculated such that x′=x−x *correction_factor*CCD_factor*(1−radial_length_squared) y′=y−y *correction_factor*CCD_factor*(1−radial_length_squared) where correction_factor>0.0 for correcting barrel distortion; correction_factor<0.0 for correcting pin cushion distortion; and correction_factor=0.0 for no lens distortion correction. The term CCD_factor is a constant which is dependent upon the CCD size of the camera element 104 . In one embodiment, the value of CCD_factor in 1.702 and correction_factor is −0.022 which corrects for typical amounts of pin cushion distortion on a wide angle lens. In embodiments, the user of the system manually identifies the distortion on the image and applies a correction. Typically, this is done by identifying a straight line in the scene (for instance, a line on the soccer pitch) and choosing a value for correction_factor that makes the line appear straight on the image. This may be done manually, or by clicking on the line in the image and dragging the line so that it corresponds with the straight line on the pitch. It is possible to perform this lens distortion correction for each camera element 104 in the camera array. Alternatively, it is possible to assume that the lenses in each camera element 104 within the array are well matched and to apply the correction_factor to each camera element 104 . After lens distortion has been corrected, the alignment of the elementary images captured by the camera elements 104 according to embodiments of the present invention takes place so that these images may be stitched together to form the composite image. Firstly, the user of the system of FIG. 1 selects the central camera feed (i.e. camera feed B in FIG. 6 ). The user then selects four image points on the image ( 705 B, 706 B, 707 B and 708 B). It is noted here that the four points are located towards the edge of the image. These points are called “corresponding points” and will be explained later. The user then selects a second of the camera feeds. In this case, the user selects the camera element pointing to the left hand side of the pitch (i.e. camera A in FIG. 6 ). The user then selects four image points on the image ( 705 A, 706 A, 707 A, 708 A). It should be noted here that image point 706 A and 708 A are also “corresponding points”. A “corresponding point” means a point in the image that refers to a specific point in the scene. In other words, image point 706 A and 705 B refer to the same point in the scene and similarly image point 707 B and 708 A also refer to the same point in the scene. Consequently, point 705 B and 707 B and 706 A and 708 A are in an area of overlap between the image feed from camera A and B and image point 705 B will overlap with image point 706 A and image point 707 B will overlap with image point 708 A. Image points 705 A and 707 A are located near the respective corner flags of the soccer pitch. This is because, as will be explained later, in embodiments image point 705 A is located on the same straight line in the scene as image point 706 A and image point 707 A is located on the same straight line in the scene as image point 708 A. As will be explained later, in embodiments of the invention, the gradient of the straight lines within the scene will be measured. Therefore, by separating image point 708 A and 707 A and 706 A and 705 A as far as possible, the resolution of any gradient measure will be increased and will thus increase the accuracy of the gradient measure. The user then selects a third of the camera feeds. In this case, the user selects the camera element pointing to the right hand side of the pitch (i.e. camera C in FIG. 6 ). The user then selects four other image points on the image ( 705 C, 706 C, 707 C, 708 C). It should be noted that 705 C and 707 C are also “corresponding points” and specifically overlap with image points 706 B and 708 B respectively. Image points 708 C and 706 C are located near the respective corner flags of the soccer pitch. This is because, as will be explained later, in embodiments image point 708 C is located on the same straight line in the scene as image point 707 C and image point 706 C is located on the same straight line in the scene as image point 705 C. Similarly, as the gradient of the straight lines will be measured, image points 707 C and 708 C should be separated as far as possible and image points 705 C and 706 C should be separated as far as possible to increase the resolution of any gradient measure and thus accuracy of the gradient measure. The selection of the image points is step S 800 in FIG. 7 . After the image points have been selected, a focal length for camera feed B or in other words, the central camera element 104 is selected (Step S 805 of FIG. 7 ). This is effectively the amount of zoom that is applied at the camera element 104 . By knowing the actual focal length of the camera element 104 , it is possible to manipulate the image provided by camera feed B to replicate different focal lengths of the camera element 104 . In other words, knowing the focal length of camera element 104 providing camera feed B, it is possible to electronically replicate different focal lengths without constantly changing the actual focal length of camera element 104 . During the alignment process of embodiments of the present invention, the image points that have been selected by the user will be transformed to replicate the effect of adjusting the camera parameters. This transformation process will now be described. As the skilled person will appreciate, a camera can be moved in three ways; pitch (or upward and downward vertical inclination of the camera), yaw (or sideward motion about the vertical axis); and roll (or rotation around the optical axis of the camera). These effects are replicated on the image points selected by the user by the transformation process described below. Firstly, the image points are converted into an offset from the optical axis, normalised by half the width of the image. This is performed in a similar manner to that described in relation to the correction of lens distortion. In embodiments, the image points are then corrected for lens distortion as explained above, although this correction is not essential. The pitch of the centre camera is fixed to zero (step S 810 of FIG. 7 ). The calibration of the centre camera then begins (step S 815 of FIG. 7 ). This is discussed in relation to FIG. 8 . In step S 900 , an initial value of yaw is provided. This may be +5°, although any value can be used. In step S 905 , an initial value of roll is selected. This can be any value for example −5°. In order to calculate the gradient of the line connecting image points 705 B and 706 B and between lines 707 B and 708 B, so that such gradient can be minimised, it is necessary to apply a rotational transform to each of the image points to replicate the adjustment process. The transformation process for the image points is applied as a three-dimensional matrix of the form RotationMatrix=rotation(yaw)*rotation(pitch)*rotation(roll) This has the effect of applying a roll rotation, followed by a pitch rotation and finally a yaw rotation. In particular, each matrix is of the form Rotation ⁡ ( yaw ) = [ cos ⁡ ( α ) 0 - sin ⁡ ( α ) 0 1 0 sin ⁡ ( α ) 0 cos ⁡ ( α ) ] Rotation ⁡ ( pitch ) = [ 1 0 0 0 cos ⁡ ( β ) - sin ⁡ ( β ) 0 sin ⁡ ( β ) cos ⁡ ( β ) ] Rotation ⁡ ( roll ) = [ cos ⁡ ( γ ) - sin ⁡ ( γ ) 0 sin ⁡ ( γ ) cos ⁡ ( γ ) 0 0 0 1 ] Where α, β and γ are angles of yaw, pitch and roll respectively. The input vector which represents the image points selected by the user is of the form V = [ x ′ y ′ focal_length ] Where x′ is the image co-ordinate in the x-direction corrected for lens distortion; y′ is the image co-ordinate in the y-direction corrected for lens distortion and focal-length represents the focal length applied to the lens. The transformation is then performed such that V ′=RotationMatrix* V In order for the transformed image points to be normalised for depth (as the points are projected onto the same z-plane i.e. displayed on a screen), the co-ordinates have to be divided by the z-co-ordinate (i.e. the co-ordinate looking into the image along the optical axis). Therefore, the x and y co-ordinates of the user selected image points (x″ and y″) are given by x″=V ′(1)/ V ′(3) y″=V ′(2)/ V ′(3) As noted above, the gradient between the transformed image points is calculated. The gradient is measured by dividing the difference in the y″ co-ordinates by the difference in the x″ co-ordinates. In other words, to calculate the gradient between lines 705 B and 706 B, the following equation is used Gradient 705Bto706B =( y″ 705B −y″ 706B )/( x″ 705B −x″ 706B ) A similar calculation is performed to calculate the gradient between lines 707 B and 708 B. As the gradient for both lines should be minimised, and the transform affects both lines, the sum of the absolute values of the gradients is calculated. In other words, Gradient_sum=abs(gradient 705Bto706B )+abs(gradient 707Bto708B ) is calculated. As noted above, as the pitch is fixed at zero, the yaw, and roll should be established for the parameters of the central camera element 104 which minimises the Gradient_sum. In order to achieve this, the yaw is adjusted by an increment such as 0.5°. For each value of yaw, the roll value across a range of values (say initially 20° increments) is adjusted and the Gradient_sum for each adjusted roll value is calculated by applying the transform and calculating the Gradient_sum described above. In order to determine the most suitable yaw and roll values, a binary search technique is used. This technique is described in FIG. 8 and is particularly suitable because the intention of the optimal value is to quickly minimise a metric (the Gradient_sum in this case). In order to perform the binary search, an initial value of yaw is chosen (step S 900 in FIG. 8 ) (for example)+0.2° and for this initial value of yaw, an initial roll value (say)+0.4° is chosen Step S 905 . The gradient of the lines is measured for these values Step S 910 . In other words, the equation for Gradient_sum is solved. As the gradient will not be a minimum at this stage Step S 920 , new roll values will be used. The next roll values will be above and below this initial roll value (keeping the yaw value the same). For example, with the yaw value the same, the next roll value will be +20.4° (i.e. initial_value+range) and the subsequent roll value will be −19.6° (i.e. initial_value−range). This is shown in step S 915 . The value of Gradient_Sum is solved for each of the roll values. The roll value giving the lowest value of Gradient_sum will be used as the next initial_value. The process is then repeated. However, in order to converge on a minimum value quickly, the value of range is halved for each subsequent iteration. This binary search algorithm will terminate for this particular value of yaw when the range reaches a certain threshold value, and thus the gradient for the roll value is deemed a minimum value. After a roll value giving the minimum value of Gradient_sum is calculated (the “yes” path at step S 920 ), the next iteration of yaw value is selected. The yaw value is also found using a binary search technique. The next values of yaw will be above and below this initial value of yaw in a similar manner to that described above in respect of roll values. In other words, the next value of yaw will be determined by (initial_value yaw +range yaw ) and (initial_value yaw −range yaw ) step S 930 . For each one of these values of yaw, the value of roll giving the lowest Gradient_sum value is determined using the binary search technique. After the minimum value of Gradient_sum for each value of yaw is calculated, the value of yaw providing the minimum value of Gradient_sum will be selected as the new initial_value yaw and the range will be halved to provide convergence to the value of yaw providing the lowest value of Gradient_sum. The binary search algorithm to find the value of yaw is stopped when the value of the range yaw is below a certain threshold value (step S 935 ). After the binary search algorithm to find the value of yaw is performed, the yaw value and the roll value giving the lowest value of Gradient_sum is determined. In other words, the value of yaw and roll is established which provides the lowest gradient for the horizontal lines on the pitch. After the camera parameters for the centre camera element 104 have been established, the left camera feed (i.e. camera feed A) is selected. In order to properly align the image from camera feed A with the image from camera feed B, the image points 706 A and 708 A need to be aligned with image points 705 B and 707 B respectively. For this, the parameters of camera feed A need to be found (step S 820 of FIG. 7 ). In order to achieve this, a set of nested binary search algorithms are used which determine the minimum distance between the respective image points. In order to calculate this value, the minimum horizontal distance and vertical distance between the corresponding image points needs to be calculated. The horizontal positions of image points 708 A and 706 A are compared with the horizontal positions of image points 707 B and 705 B. The yaw value that minimises this horizontal distance is selected to be the appropriate yaw value. In other words, a binary search algorithm is used which minimises the equation Horizontal_distance_sum=( x 706A −x 705B ) 2 +( x 708A −x 707B ) 2 Additionally, in order to calculate the minimum vertical distance between image points 708 A and 707 B and image points 706 A and 705 B, the pitch value providing the minimum value for the following equation needs to be found Vertical_distance_sum=( y 706A −y 705B ) 2 +( y 708A −y 707B ) 2 In order to find the minimum overall distance between the image points, the sum of the horizontal_distance_sum and the vertical_distance_sum is calculated. In other words, the equation combined_distance_sum=horizontal_distance_sum+vertical_distance_sum should be minimised to determine the optimal focal length for camera feed A. Additionally, to improve the continuity of the upper and lower pitch lines, the gradient of the upper and lower pitch lines need to be minimised. In other words, the roll of the camera needs to be established that minimises the gradient of a line between 705 A and 706 A and 707 A and 708 A respectively. To achieve this, the equation Gradient_sum left =abs(gradient 705Ato706A )+abs(gradient 707Ato708A ) needs to be minimised. So, turning to FIG. 9 , a starting value for the focal length of the camera providing camera feed A is chosen (step S 1000 ). Due to the proximity of the camera element providing camera feed A to the camera element providing camera feed B, the same focal length as that provided on the central camera is chosen as an initial value for focal length. For this focal length, the pitch value of the camera element 104 providing feed A is adjusted. As in the binary search algorithm mentioned above, an initial value for the pitch is chosen (step S 1050 ). For this initial value of the pitch, an initial value of yaw is selected (step S 1100 ). For this initial value of the yaw, an initial value of the roll is selected (step S 1150 ). The value of Gradient_sum left is calculated for the initial value of roll (step S 1200 ). The value of the roll is then varied in a manner similar to the binary search algorithm explained hereinbefore. In other words, the next value of the roll is set above and below the initial value by a range (step S 1300 ). The value of the Gradient_sum left is calculated for the next values of roll (step S 1200 ). The value of roll giving the lowest Gradient_sum left value is chosen as the next initial value of roll. The range is halved and the binary search is continued until a minimum value of Gradient_sum left is established (step S 1250 ). This is deemed to have occurred when the range falls below a certain threshold value (such as 0.05 degrees). The value of horizontal_distance_sum is then measured using the initial value of yaw (step S 1350 ). The value of the yaw is then varied in a manner similar to the binary search algorithm explained hereinbefore. In other words, the next value of the yaw is set above and below the initial value by a range (step S 1450 ). The value of the horizontal_distance_sum is calculated for the next value of yaw. However, for each value of yaw, the value of roll giving the lowest value of Gradient_sum left is calculated. In other words, the binary search algorithm used to calculate the Gradient_sum left is nested in the binary search algorithm used to calculate every value of the horizontal_distance_sum. The value of yaw giving the lowest horizontal_distance_sum value is chosen as the next initial value of yaw. The range is halved and the binary search is continued until a minimum value of horizontal_distance_sum is established (step S 1400 ). This is deemed to have occurred when the range falls below a certain threshold value (such as 0.05 degrees). The value of vertical_distance_sum is then measured using the initial value of pitch (step S 1500 ). The value of the pitch is then varied in a manner similar to the binary search algorithm explained hereinbefore. In other words, the next value of the pitch is set above and below the initial value by a range (step S 1600 ). The value of the vertical_distance_sum is calculated for the next value of pitch. However, for each value of pitch, the value of yaw giving the lowest value of horizontal_distance_sum is calculated. In other words, the binary search algorithm used to calculate the horizontal_distance_sum is nested in the binary search algorithm used to calculate every value of the vertical_distance_sum. The value of pitch giving the lowest vertical_distance_sum value is chosen as the next initial value of pitch. The range is halved and the binary search is continued until a minimum value of vertical_distance_sum is established (step S 1550 ). This is deemed to have occurred when the range falls below a certain threshold value (such as 0.05 degrees). The value of combined_distance_sum is then measured using the initial value of focal length (step S 1650 ). The value of the focal length is then varied in a manner similar to the binary search algorithm explained hereinbefore. In other words, the next value of the focal length is set above and below the initial value by a range (step S 1750 ). The value of the combined_distance_sum is calculated for the next value of focal length. However, for each value of focal length, the value of pitch giving the lowest value of vertical_distance_sum is calculated. In other words, the binary search algorithm used to calculate the vertical_distance_sum is nested in the binary search algorithm used to calculate every value of the combined_distance_sum. The value of focal length giving the lowest combined_distance_sum value is chosen as the next initial value of focal length. The range is halved and the binary search is continued until a minimum value of combined_distance_sum is established (step S 1700 ). This is deemed to have occurred when the range falls below a certain threshold value (such as 0.01 millimeters). After the parameters for focal length, pitch, yaw and roll for the camera element 104 giving camera feed A are found a similar procedure takes place for camera feed C (step S 820 in FIG. 7 ). The result of these nested algorithms is that the minimum distance between corresponding image points for a given focal length of the centre camera 104 is established. It should be noted here that the distance between the points can be changed by altering the pitch, yaw and roll as described. Additionally, the distance between the points can be altered by altering the focal length of one or more cameras. This may be done instead of, or in combination with the changing of the pitch, roll and yaw of the cameras. This also applies to determining the gradient of the line overlapping the boundary between each elementary image. In order to provide a stitched image having an improved alignment, the gradient of the upper and lower lines of feed A and C needs to be minimised (step S 825 in FIG. 7 ). To do this, the value of the focal length is varied to minimise the gradient of the line between image points 707 A and 708 C and the gradient of the line between image points 705 A and 706 C. In other words, a binary search is carried out which establishes the focal length of the centre camera element 104 that minimises the equation Overall_gradient_sum=Gradient_sum left +gradient_sum right By minimising the overall gradient between the most extreme image points which are located along a straight line in the scene, the stitched image looks more realistic. In the binary search, the next value of the focal length of the centre camera 104 is then varied in a manner similar to the binary search algorithm explained hereinbefore. In other words, the next value of the focal length is set above and below the initial value by a range (step S 835 ). The value of the overall_gradient_sum is calculated for the next value of focal length. However, for each value of focal length, the parameters of yaw and roll of the centre camera is found as well as the values of focal length, pitch, roll and yaw for each of the left and right hand camera feeds. In other words, the binary search algorithm used to calculate all the camera parameters is nested in the binary search algorithm used to calculate every value of the overall_gradient_sum. The value of focal length of the centre camera giving the lowest overall_gradient_sum value is chosen as the next initial value of focal length. The range is halved and the binary search is continued until a minimum value of overall_gradient_sum is established (step S 830 in FIG. 7 ). This is deemed to have occurred when the range falls below a certain threshold value (such as 0.001 millimeters). Optionally, the user manually adjusts some of the calculated parameters to achieve the most accurately stitched image (step S 840 ). The manual adjustments have a much finer range of change than those used in the binary search algorithm. For example, the range of change of the manual adjustment may be 1/10 th the value of the minimum range used as a threshold in the binary search algorithm. In order to further improve the stitched image, a luminance correction is applied. This corrects for differences in exposure. Multiplication factors are applied to the luminance values in order to better match the exposures of adjacent camera elements 104 . These can be performed manually, or automatically. If automatically performed, the luminance multiplication factors are found which make the average pixel values in the overlap region on each camera element the same. Finally, Alpha blending is applied to the edges of the overlapping regions (step S 845 ). A start point and percentage of image is defined for the left and right hand side of each camera element. In embodiments of the invention, where there are three camera feeds, the central camera image is displayed over the left and right hand camera images. This means that blending only needs to be applied to the left and right hand edges of the centre image. After the edges have been blended, the composite image is formed. It is envisaged that embodiments of the present invention may be performed on a computer and/or microprocessor. In this case, the invention may be embodied as a computer program that contains computer readable instructions that configure the computer and/or microprocessor to perform a method embodying the invention. It is envisaged that such a program may be stored on a computer readable medium such as an optical disk, hard drive or even signals transmitted over the Internet or any type of network. In this case, the invention may be embodied in such a form. Although illustrative embodiments of the invention have been described in detail herein with reference to the accompanying drawings, it is to be understood that the invention is not limited to those precise embodiments, and that various changes and modifications can be effected therein by one skilled in the art without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention as defined in the appended claims.

Disclosed is an apparatus for forming a composite image of a scene from a plurality of overlapping elemental images, the apparatus comprising: a selector for selecting one point in one of the plurality of images and another point in a second one of the plurality of images, the first point and the other point being overlaid in the composite image and being of substantially the same point in the scene; a determiner for determining, when the first point and the other point are overlaid, the gradient across the overlap between the first and other elementary image; and an adjuster for adjusting one of the first and second elementary image to minimize the gradient across the overlap. A corresponding method is also disclosed.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention This invention relates generally to synchronizing signal detecting circuits, and more particularly is directed to a synchronizing signal detecting circuit for digital data reproduced from a magnetic disc. 2. Description of the Prior Art A standardized small-sized floppy disc having a 2-inch diameter, and which was developed for use in recording video signals in association with an electronic still camera, has also been proposed as a recording medium for digital data. Such standardized video floppy disc 1 is shown in FIG. 1 to include a magnetic disc. This magnetic disc 2 is 47 mm in diameter, 40 μm in thickness and is provided at its center with a core 3 engageable with a spindle of a disc drive apparatus (not shown). The center core 3 is provided with a magnetic insert 4 which is detectable to present a reference signal indicating the angular position of the magnetic disc 2 when it is rotated. A receptacle or jacket 5, which is 60×54×3.6 mm in size, rotatably contains the magnetic disc 2. The jacket 5 includes a central opening 5A to expose therethrough the center core 3 and the magnetic insert 4 to the outside. The, jacket 5 is further provided with an access opening on window 5B, through which a magnetic head (not shown) can contact the magnetic disc 2 during recording and/or reproducing. When the video floppy disc 1 is not in use, access opening or window 5B is closed by a slidable dust-proof shutter 6. A nail member or tab 7 is provided on the jacket 5 for avoiding inadvertent or erroneous recording. This nail member 7 is removed from the jacket 5 when recording is to be inhibited. In the recording mode, 50 concentric magnetic tracks can be formed on the magnetic disc 2 in which case, the outermost track is represented as the 1st track and the innermost track is represented as the 50th track. The width of each track is 60 μm and the width of each guard band between the tracks is 40 μm. When taking a picture by means of the electronic still camera, the magnetic disc 2 is rotated at 3600 rpm (field frequency) and a video signal of one field is recorded in one circular track as a still picture. The color video signal to be thus recorded has the frequency distribution shown in FIG. 2. More particularly, a luminance signal Sy is shown to be frequency-modulated to an FM signal Sf, with the sync tip level of the FM signal Sf being 6 MHz and the white peak level thereof being 7.5 MHz. Further, a line sequential color signal Sc is formed of a frequency-modulated signal Sr having a carrier with a central frequency of 1.2 MHz modulated by a color difference signal R-Y and of a frequency-modulated signal Sb having a carrier with central frequency of 1.3 MHz modulated by a color difference signal B-Y. A composite signal Sa resulting from adding the frequency-modulated color signal Sc and the frequency-modulated luminance signal Sf is recorded on the magnetic disc 2. The video floppy disc 1 shown in FIG. 1 has a proper size and characteristics to act as a recording medium for the color video signal Sa of FIG. 2. It has also been proposed that the video floppy disc 1 may be used as a recording medium for recording digital data, and FIGS. 3A to 3D illustrate previously proposed physical formats to be used when, digital data are recorded on and/or reproduced from the video floppy disc 1. In FIGS. 3A and 3B, reference TRCK designates one of the tracks formed on the magnetic disc 2 in the digital data recording format. This track TRCK comprises a gap area or interval GAP2 of 2° angular extent, an index area or interval INDX of 2° angular extent following GAP2 in the longitudinal direction of the track TRCK and four equally-divided intervals of 89° based on the position of the magnetic insert 4 as a reference. Each of the four 89° intervals is referred to as a sector SECT. The sector SECT immediately after the magnetic insert 4 is referred to as zero-th sector (#0) and other succeeding sectors SECT are sequentially referred to as the first (#1), second (#2) and third (#3) sectors, respectively. When data are interchanged between the video floppy disc 1 and a host computer (not shown), that data are interchanged with one sector SECT as the unit. Further, the index interval INDX corresponds to about three of the frame intervals of data indicated at FRAM and which will be described later. In the example being described, a signal "1000", indicative of Tmax (maximum length between transitions) of a digital signal, is repeatedly recorded all over the index interval INDX. As shown in FIG. 3C, the interval of 2° from the start end of each sector SECT is provided as a gap interval GAP1 that is used as a margin portion during read and write operations. The remaining portion of each sector SECT is divided equally into 131 intervals in each of which 44 channel bytes are recorded and/or reproduced. Each such channel byte is the unit of a signal formed by an eight-to-ten conversion and corresponds to one byte of source data, while it corresponds to 10 bits in the eight-to-ten conversion. The first two of the 131 equal intervals are provided as preamble sections PRAM. In the preamble sections PRAM, there is repeatedly provided a signal of "0101010101" which corresponds to, for example, 00H (H is a hexadecimal notation) of a source data and which is used for locking-in operation of a PLL (phase locked loop) circuit in the playback mode. The 128 equal intervals following the preamble sections PRAM are referred to as frame intervals FRAM in which digital data are recorded and/or reproduced. The last one of the 131 equal intervals is used as a post-amble section PSAM which is equivalent to the preamble section PRAM. As shown in FIG. 3D, one frame interval FRAM sequentially comprises, from its beginning, a synchronizing signal SYNC ("0100010001" or "1100010001") of one channel byte, a frame address signal FADR of one channel byte, a non-defined signal NRSV of one channel byte, a check signal FPTY of one channel byte, data DATA of 32 channel bytes and first and second redundant data PRT1 and PRT2 each of which is formed of 4 channel bytes, in the order stated. In such case, the check signal FPTY acts as parity data for the frame address signal FADR and the non-defined signal NRSV. While the data DATA are original data which are accessed by the host computer, this data DATA are interleaved within the digital data of one sector SECT. The redundant data PRT1 and PRT2 are parity data that are generated by coding digital data of one sector (32 bytes×128 frames) by the minimum distance 5 according to the Reed Solomon coding method. Accordingly, the capacities for digital data in one sector SECT, one track TRCK and one video floppy disc 1 are as follows: One sector : 4096 bytes (=16 bytes ×2×128 frames) One track : 16K bytes (=4096 bytes ×4 sectors) One floppy disc : 800K bytes (=16K bytes ×50 tracks) When digital data are accessed on the video floppy disc 1, such accessing is carried out with one sector SECT as the unit so that the accessing of digital data on the video floppy disc 1 is effected on the basis of a unit of 4K bytes. Further, the bit numbers of one frame FRAM and one sector SECT are as follows: One frame : =(4+32+4+4) bytes ×8 source bits =352 source bits One sector (except gap interval GAP1) =352 bits × (128+3 frames)=46112 source bits In practice, when the digital data are recorded on and/or reproduced from video floppy disc 1, the value DSV (digital sum value) must be made small, the value of Tmin/Tmax must be made small and the value of Tw (window margin) must be made large. In order to satisfy the foregoing requirements, all the digital signals are first subjected to the above mentioned eight-to-ten conversion using Tmax=4T and then recorded on the video floppy disc 1. Upon reproducing the digital signals, they are subjected to the reverse conversion (eight-to-ten conversion) and then subjected to the original signal processing. Accordingly, for the data densities given above, the practical bit number on the video floppy disc 1 is multiplied by 10/8 and amounts to the following: One frame : 440 channel bits One sector (except gap interval GAP1) : 57640 channel bits Thus, the whole interval of one sector SECT is equivalent to 58965 channel bits (≅57640 channel bits×89°/87°). In practice, since the length of each interval is assigned from this channel bit number, as described above, the total length of each sector SECT comprised of frame intervals FRAM is slightly shorter than 87°. Accordingly, the bit rate used when digital data (signal converted according to the eight-to-ten conversion) are accessed on the video floppy disc 1 is 14.31M bits/second (≅58965 bits×4 blocks×field frequency×360°/356°) and one bit is equivalent to 69.9 nano-seconds (≅1/14.31 M bits). A video signal and digital data can be recorded on the same video floppy disc 1 if they are recorded thereon with the track as a unit, that is, each track is recorded either with a video signal or digital data. With the above described format, digital data of 800K bytes can be recorded on and/or reproduced from one side of the 2-inch size video floppy disc 1. This capacity is more than twice the normal capacity of the known 5-inch size floppy disc. Therefore, this 2-inch video floppy disc has a large capacity even though it is small in size. Further, since the rotational speed of the magnetic disc 2 is the same as that used in the case of the video signal, the video signal and the digital data can be recorded and reproduced on the same disc. In that case, the frequency spectra of both types of signals recorded and/or reproduced from the magnetic disc 2 become similar so that they can be recorded and reproduced under similar suitable conditions, such as, the electromagnetic transducer characteristics, head contact with the tape and the like. Furthermore, when the two types signals are recorded and/or reproduced in a mixed state, the rotational speed of the magnetic disc 2 does not have to be changed so that it is not necessary to consider the time necessary for switching the servo circuit. Hence, the two types of signals can be immediately used separately. In addition, the facts that only one rotational speed is used and that it is sufficient that the electromagnetic transducer system and the like have only one characteristic or function, are also advantageous from the standpoint of cost. Thus, the described video floppy disc 1 has novel effects as a medium for recording and reproducing a video signal or for storing digital data, or as a medium for recording and reproducing a video signal and digital data on the same disc. In the above mentioned example, when the source data are derived from the video floppy disc 1, taking the position of the synchronizing signal SYNC as a reference, the channel data are divided into channel data of 10 bits each and the divided channel data are decoded to the original source data according to the ten-to-eight conversion. Accordingly, if the synchronizing signal SYNC is detected erroneously at an improper position, the succeeding channel data are divided at the wrong positions, that is, a bit slip occurs so that an error occurs in the source data until the correct synchronizing signal is again detected. If the distance of the synchronizing signal SYNC relative to the source data is large, the probability that such error will occur is small. If, on the other hand, the transmission band is compressed as mentioned above, such distance is as short as one bit so that there is a large probability that error will occur. If the described error occurs frequently, the resulting errors can no longer be corrected by the first and second parity data PRT1 and PRT2. Further, in the above mentioned eight-to-ten conversion, 84H assumes "1010001001" and 80H assumes "1010010101" in, for example, the source data and it is assumed that they are successive. If the last bit "1" of 84H is mistaken as "0", a bit slip of "X100010001" occurs and this bit slip coincides with the synchronizing pattern so that a synchronizing error occurs. Here, the probability Pse of the synchronizing error is presented as Pse=Pbe*Pr14*Pr13 where Pbe is the bare bit error rate, PR14 is the probability of 4-bit run length error in the eight-to-ten conversion and PR13 is the probability of 3-bit run length error in the eight-to-ten conversion. By way of example, if Pbe=10 -4 , PR14=0.062 and Pr13=0.213, and the probability Pse becomes: Pse ≈1.3×10.sup.-6 Accordingly, if the error correction ability of the above mentioned respective redundant bits provides a system in which 10 -12 can be handled by Pbe=10 -4 , the Pse becomes considerably lower than the above value and hence this is disadvantageous. In other words, if the probability that the synchronizing error will occur is considerably higher than the data error correction ability, the ability of the system to correct errors is overwhelmed. OBJECTS AND SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Accordingly, it is an object of this invention to provide an improved synchronizing system for digital data. Another object of this invention is to provide a synchronizing signal detecting circuit for positively recovering digital data reproduced from a floppy disc. A further object of this invention is to provide a digital synchronizing system in which a plurality of the same synchronizing patterns are successively formed on a recording format. A still further object of this invention is to provide a digital data synchronizing system in which, when a synchronizing signal is detected from channel data, the same synchronizing pattern is successively formed on a preamble section of a recording format. According to an aspect of the present invention, in a digital data synchronizing system, a synchronizing pattern is formed on a preamble section of a recording format and the synchronizing pattern is selected to be different from that of the digital data. This synchronizing pattern is formed at least two times at each synchronizing timing, and a synchronizing detected signal is obtained only when the plurality of synchronizing patterns are all correct or coincide. A counter corresponding to the run length is reset by this synchronizing detected signal and the above mentioned synchronization is established by the output of this counter. The above, and other objects, features and advantages of the present invention, will become apparent from the following detailed description of a preferred embodiment taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, throughout which the same reference numerals designate like elements and parts. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a top plan view of an example of a previously proposed video floppy disc; FIG. 2 is a waveform diagram showing a frequency distribution of a color video signal recorded on and/or reproduced from a magnetic disc of the video floppy disc shown in FIG. 1; FIGS. 3A to 3D are diagrams showing physical data formats recorded in tracks, sectors and frame intervals of the floppy disc of FIG. 1; FIGS. 4A to 4E are diagrams showing novel physical data formats used in accordance with this invention; and FIG. 5 is a circuit block diagram showing an embodiment of a synchronizing signal detecting circuit according to the present invention. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Before describing in detail a synchronizing signal detecting circuit according to the present invention, a new data format conforming to the invention will be described with reference to FIGS. 4A-4E. The format of each track TRCK according to this new format is similar to that in the prior art, as is apparent from a comparison of FIGS. 4A and 4B with FIGS. 3A and 3B, respectively. As shown in FIG. 4C, in each sector SECT, the interval of 2° from the start end is assigned as the gap interval GAP1 and the remainder of each sector is divided equally by 131. The first of these 131 divided intervals is assigned as the preamble section PRAM. In this preamble section PRAM, a signal of "1111111111" corresponding to the EBH of, for example, the source data is repeatedly formed and is used for the lock-in operation of the PLL circuit upon reproducing. Further, an interval following this preamble section PRAM is assigned as a sector synchronizing signal interval S-SYNC. As shown in FIG. 4D, the sector, synchronizing signal interval S-SYNC is divided into 11 equal divisions or parts and 4 channel bytes are recorded on and reproduced from each of the 11 divisions or parts of sector synchronizing signal interval S-SYNC which thus contains 44 bytes. A synchronizing signal SYNC is formed repeatedly in the first two channel bytes of each of the 11 divisions. Further, in the next channel byte, there is provided a frame start position predicting signal FRNT which is incremented one by one from F5H to FFH of the source data. In the last one channel byte of each of the 11 divisions of the sector synchronizing signal interval S-SYNC, a parity signal PRTY thereof is provided. Returning to FIG. 4C, it will be seen that 128 frames FRAM are provided in the interval following the sector synchronizing interval S-SYNC. Furthermore, the last interval of the sector is used as a post-amble section PSAM in which a signal of "1111111111" corresponding to the EBH of the source data is repeatedly provided similarly to the preamble sectional PRAM. As shown in FIG. 4E, each frame FRAM sequentially comprises, from its start, 2-channel bytes representing the repetition of the synchronizing signals SYNC, the frame address signal FADR of one channel byte, the check signal FPTY of one channel byte, data DATA of 32 bytes, and first and second redundant data PRT1 and PRT2 of 4 bytes each. In this case, the frame address signal FADR is one channel byte and one byte on the source data. Since the number of frames FRAM within one sector SECT is 128, it is sufficient that the frame address is formed of 7 bits, while other remaining bits, for example, the MSB (most significant bit), is used to record other information. Further, the check signal FPTY is the parity data used for the frame address signal FADR, while the data DATA and the first and second redundant data PRT1 and PRT2 are similar to the corresponding data in the prior art format described with reference to FIGS. 3A-3D. Accordingly, in the new format of FIGS. 4A-4E, the signal can be recorded and reproduced with a storage capacity exactly the same as that of the previously described prior art format. The circuit arrangement of one embodiment of a synchronizing signal detecting circuit according to the present invention will now be described with reference to FIG. 5, in which a video floppy disc 1 has magnetic disc 2 (FIG. 1) to be rotated by a motor (not shown) at the rotational speed of 60 times per second and a magnetic head 11 is made to contact a target or selected track TRCK on the magnetic disc 2 reproducing channel data CHND recorded in such target track TRCK. This data CHND are supplied through a playback amplifier 12 to a first synchronizing pattern detecting circuit 13. Detecting circuit 13 may be formed of a shift register which has a 10-bit serial-input and serial and/or parallel outputs and a coincidence detecting circuit which compares the parallel output from this shift register with a pattern of a normal synchronizing signal SYNC and which generates an output of "1" when both of them coincide with each other. Accordingly, when the synchronizing signal SYNC is reproduced correctly, an output of detecting circuit 13 becomes "1". Such detected output from detecting circuit 13 is supplied to one input of an AND circuit 15 and also the serial output from the shift register of detecting circuit 13 is supplied to a second synchronizing pattern detecting circuit 14 and the resulting detected output from the latter is supplied to another input of AND circuit 15. Accordingly, when the two synchronizing signals SYNC at the start of a frame interval FRAM are correctly reproduced in succession, an output P15 of AND circuit 15 becomes "1". Further, data CHND from amplifier 12 are supplied to a PLL (phase locked loop) circuit 16 which generates a channel clock φ that is bit-synchronized with data CHND. This channel clock φ is supplied to a 10-bit counter 17 as a count input and AND output P15 from AND counter 15 is supplied to counter 17 as a reset signal therefor. Then, the carry output of counter 17 and AND output P15 are delivered to respective inputs of an OR circuit 18. The carry output of counter 17 is generated at every 10 bits of channel clock φ and at that time, counter 17 is reset by AND output P15 each time when the two synchronizing signals SYNC are correctly reproduced in succession. Further, upon its reset, counter 17 is started to count from the time of the reset that the OR circuit 18 generate its OR output P18 at every 10 bits of the channel clock counted from the synchronizing signal SYNC. In other words, OR output P18 is a synchronizing signal indicative of divisions between 10 bit sections of the channel data CHND. In this case, the 10 bits of the channel data CHND correspond to 8 bits of the source data, so that the OR output P18 is also indicative of divisions between 8 sections of the source data. Thus, OR output P18 is, and will hereinafter be referred to as, a byte synchronizing signal. The channel data CHND are serially derived from a predetermined stage of a shift register in detecting circuit 14. This data CHND is supplied from detecting circuit 14 to a 10-bit serial-input and parallel-output shift register 21 and the clock is supplied to shift register 21 so that 10 bits each of the data CHND are parallely generated from the shift register 21. This data CHND from shift register 21 are supplied to a latch circuit 22 which is enabled by the byte synchronizing signal P18 from OR circuit 18. Thus, when the data CHND are correctly divided into 10 bits each, the data CHND are latched in latch circuit 22, and the data CHND thus latched are supplied to a decoder 23 in which they are decoded (eight-to-ten conversion) to source data SRCD of 8 bits. This converted source data SRCD are once latched in a latch circuit 24 by the byte synchronizing signal P18 and then derived therefrom as a read output. Further, the pulse P15 from AND circuit 15 is supplied to a 4-bit serial-input and parallel-output shift register 31 and the byte synchronizing signal P18 is supplied to shift register 31 as a clock so that outputs are generated from first and second bits or stages of shift register 31 at times of signals FRNT and PRTY, respectively. These outputs from the first and second bits of shift register 31 are supplied to 8-bit latch circuits 32 and 33 as latch enable inputs therefor, and the source data SRCD from latch circuit 24 are supplied to latch circuits 32 and 33 so that signals FRNT and PRTY (and any signals generated at the times of these signals FRNT and PRTY) are latched in latch circuits 32 and 33, respectively. These latched signals FRNT and PRTY are supplied from latch circuits 32 and 33, respectively, to a parity check circuit 34 in which the signal FRNT is checked by the parity signal PRTY. When the signal FRNT is correct, the checked output from parity check circuit 34 is supplied to an 8-bit counter 41 as a load signal. Further, the signal FRNT from latch circuit 32 is supplied to counter 41 as a preset input which is loaded into counter 41 in response to the load signal from parity check circuit 34. The byte synchronizing signal P18 is also supplied to a quaternary counter 42 as a count input and the signal P15 is supplied to counter 42 as a reset input so that a carry output is generated by counter 42 at every 4 cycles of the byte synchronizing signal P18. In other words, counter 42 produces a signal having the cycle of signal FRNT, and such signal from counter 42 is supplied to counter 41 as the count input for the latter. Accordingly, when any one of the signals FRNT is correct, counter 41 is preset to the value (F5H to FFH) at that time. Thereafter, counter 41 is incremented at every 4 cycles of byte synchronizing signal P18. Therefore, at the first frame FRAM following the signal S-SYNC, the carry output is generated from the counter 41, from which it follows that this carry output is a frame start signal which indicates the first frame FRAM in a particular sector SECT. This frame start signal is supplied to a 44-scale counter 43 as a reset input and the byte synchronizing signal P18 is supplied to counter 43 as a count input so that a carry output is generated from counter 43 at every frame FRAM. Such carry output from counter 43 and the carry output from counter 41 are delivered through an OR circuit 44. Accordingly, an output is provided from OR circuit 44 in each sector SECT at every frame FRAM and become the frame synchronizing signal which indicates each frame FRAM. Further, there is provided a 128-scale counter 45 to which there are supplied signal FRNT from latch circuit 32 as a preset input, the output of check circuit 34 as a loading signal for causing counter 45 to be loaded with its preset input, the frame synchronizing signal from OR circuit 44 as a count input and the frame start signal from counter 41 as a reset input. Accordingly, the counted value of counter 45 is made "0" by the signal FRNT or the frame start signal at the first frame FRAM of each sector SECT and, thereafter, it is incremented by "1" at each of the frames FRAM by the frame synchronizing signal so that the carry output of counter 45 is generated at the completion of 128 frames FRAM in each sector SECT. Therefore, a carry output is provided from counter 45 as the frame end signal. The frame start signal and the frame end signal are supplied, as set and reset signals, respectively, to an RS-flip-flop circuit 46 which generates a frame gate signal indicative of the period of 128 frames FRAM in each sector SECT, and during which the source data SRCD is read out. In the described embodiment of this invention, when the frame start position announcing signal FRNT is generated at the preamble section PRAM at the beginning of each sector SECT, the frame synchronizing signal is generated on the basis of this signal FRNT so that even if the first synchronizing signal SYNC of the frame FRAM is not generated, it is possible to correctly derive this synchronizing signal from the first frame FRAM. Further, since 11 frame start position predicting signals FRNT are successively provided at the beginning of each sector SECT, even if an error exists in a part of the frame start position predicting signals FRNT, it is possible to correctly derive the frame synchronizing signal. Moreover, even if all the frame start position predicting signals FRNT can not be obtained, it is possible to correctly obtain the frame synchronizing signal by the first synchronizing signal SYNC of the frame FRAM. Further, when the synchronizing signal SYNC is generated at the first preamble section PRAM of a sector SECT, the byte synchronizing signal P18 is generated in synchronism with this synchronizing signal SYNC at every 10 bits of the channel data CHND, so that, even if the first synchronizing signal SYNC of the frame FRAM is not generated, it is possible to prevent erroneous generation of byte synchronizing signal P18. Furthermore, since the two synchronizing signals SYNC are repeatedly provided 11 times in succession at the beginning of each sector SECT, even if an error occurs in a part of the synchronizing signals SYNC, the byte synchronizing signal P18 can be generated. Even if an error occurs in all of the 11 synchronizing signals SYNC, it is possible to obtain the byte synchronizing signal P18 from the first synchronizing signal SYNC of the frame FRAM. In addition, since the synchronizing signal SYNC in the preamble section PRAM is utilized, it is possible to carry out the original data processing rapidly from the start position of the effective data. In the above-described example, the source data SRCD is subjected to the eight-to-ten conversion and then recorded on the video floppy disc 1. However, if the run length of data is limited, that data is subjected to an m-n conversion (m<n) and a bit synchronizing signal and an n-bit synchronizing signal are sequentially provided in the first preamble section of a packet of that data, the present invention can be similarly applied thereto. Further, instead of incrementing the frame start position predicting signal FRNT from F5H to FFH, that signal FRNT may be decremented from 0AH to 00H, and in that case, it is sufficient that the counter 431 carries out the down counting to thereby generate a borrow output. Alternatively, it may be possible to detect a specific counter value and to use that detected value as the frame start signal. Although a single preferred embodiment of the invention has been described in detail with reference to the accompanying drawings, it will be apparent that the invention is not limited to that precise embodiment, and that many modifications and variations could be effected therein by one skilled in the art without departing from the spirit or scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims.

A synchronizing signal detecting circuit for a digital data reproducing apparatus has a reproducing device connected to a magnetic head which scans a recording medium for deriving digital signals, a phase locked loop circuit connected to the reproducing device for generating a clock signal based on the derived digital signals, a synchronizing counter for generating synchronizing timings by counting the clock signal, a plurality of synchronizing pattern detecting circuits connected to the reproducing device for detecting synchronizing patterns included in the digital signals, and a logic circuit connected to the plurality of synchronizing pattern detecting circuits for supplying an initialize pulse to the synchronizing counter upon detecting successive synchronizing patterns in the digital signals by the plurality of synchronizing pattern detecting circuits.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to silver halide photographic light-sensitive materials and, particularly, to a process for preventing bad influences created by ultraviolet rays which comprises incorporating an ultraviolet ray absorbing polymer latex in a silver halide photographic light-sensitive material and to silver halide photographic light-sensitive materials wherein such an influence is prevented. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION It is well known that ultraviolet rays have a bad influence upon photographic light-sensitive materials. In the photographic light-sensitive materials, light-sensitive photographic emulsions containing silver halide as a chief component are applied to a base having a relatively high electrical insulating property such as a film composed of triacetyl cellulose, polyethylene terephthalate, polystyrene or polycarbonate, or a laminated paper covered with said film. Further, the surface of the photographic light-sensitive materials has a fairly high electrical insulating property. Therefore, when the surface of the photographic light-sensitive material comes in contact with the same or different kind of material during production or treatment of the photographic light-sensitive material, electric charges are generated by friction or separation. This phenomenon is called charging. When accumulation of static electricity by charging reaches a certain limiting value, atmospheric discharge occurs at a particular moment and a discharge spark flys at the same time. When the photographic light-sensitive material is exposed to light by discharging, branched, feathered, spotted or radial images appear after development. Images formed by such a phenomenon are called static marks in the photograhic field. It has been known that distribution of spectral energy of this kind of discharge luminecsence which causes static marks is in a range of 200 nm to 550 nm and particularly the intensity thereof is high in a range of 300 nm to 400 nm, and light energy in this range causes occurrence of static marks. Accordingly, attempts have been made to prevent the occurrence of static marks by shielding ultraviolet rays in a range of 300 and 400 nm by means of ultraviolet ray absorbing agents, as described in, for example, Japanese Patent Publication 10726/75 (corresponding to British Pat. No. 1,378,000 and German Patent No. 2,163,904), Japanese Patent Application (OPI) 26021/76 (corresponding to Belgian Pat. No. 832,793) and French Pat. No. 2,036,679, etc. Further, excepting light-sensitive materials such as printing sensitive materials which are exposed to a specific light source or roentgen sensitive materials, etc., the conventional photographic light-sensitive materials are sometimes subject to an undesirable influence by ultraviolet rays included in light to be used for exposure. For example, in a black-and-white light-sensitive material, objects to be photographed which have a remarkably large quantity of spectral energy in an ultraviolet region, such as a snow scene, a seashore or the sky, etc. easily form soft tone images. In color light-sensitive materials, since it is desired to record only visible light, the influence of ultraviolet rays is very apparent. For example, when photographing the object which have a comparatively large quantity of spectral energy in the ultraviolet region, such as a distant view, a snow scene or an asphalted load, etc., the resulting color images are rich in cyan color. Further, color reproduction in color images is notably different according to light sources to be used for exposure, such as the sun, a tungsten lamp or a fluorescent lamp, etc. The cause of the difference is a difference of spectral energy in the ultraviolet region of light from these light sources. Namely, color images obtained by exposing to light emitted from a tungsten lamp become more reddish and those obtained by exposing to light emitted from a fluorescent lamp become more bluish than those obtained by exposing to sunlight. Accordingly, in order to obtain color photographic images which have correct color reproduction, it is desirable to prevent ultraviolet rays from reaching the silver halide light-sensitive layer of the color light-sensitive material when photographing. Examples of attempts at such have been described in, for example, Japanese Patent Applications (OPI) No. 56620/76 (corresponding to U.S. Pat. No. 4,045,229) and No. 49029/77 (corresponding to U.S. Pat. No. 4,200,464). Furthermore, color photographs and, particularly, dye images formed on the light-sensitive emulsion layers by color development easily cause fading or discoloration of color images due to the action of ultraviolet rays. Couplers remaining in the emulsion layers after formation of color images are subject to the action of ultraviolet rays to form undesirable color stains on the finished photographs. This kind of action of ultraviolet rays on color photographs finished by photographic treatment is particularly remarkable with positive prints taken under sunlight containing a large quantity of ultraviolet rays. The fading and the discoloration of color images are easily caused by ultraviolet rays having wavelengths near the visible resion, namely, those having spectral energy in the area of 300 to 400 nm. Examples of useful ultraviolet ray absorbing agents which act in reducing bad influences caused by these types of ultraviolet rays are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,215,530, 3,707,375, 3,705,805, 3,352,681, 3,278,448, 3,253,921, 3,738,837, Japanese Patent Publications 26138/74 and 25337/75, British Patent No. 1,338,265 and Japanese patent application (OPI) 56,620/76, etc. Hitherto, a number of ultraviolet ray absorbing agents have been proposed for various uses such as the use described above. However, ultraviolet ray absorbing agents used hitherto for silver halide photographic light-sensitive materials are not sufficiently suitable for the above described uses, because they color and form stains due to insufficient stability to ultraviolet rays, heat and humidity. Further, they have inferior compatibility with binders, they diffuse into other layers causing bad influences due to substantial interlayer migration, or the emulsion may be unstable causing separation of crystals. Further, these ultraviolet ray absorbing agents have been frequently used in a surface protective layer of silver halide photographic light-sensitive materials, and when high boiling point organic solvents are used for emulsification, the high boiling point organic solvents soften the layer and substantially deteriorate interlayer adhesion or antiadhesive property. In order to prevent such problems, it is necessary to use a large amount of gelatine or to provide a gelatine protective layer on the layer. This results in thickening the layer containing the ultraviolet ray absorbing agent. An example of a type of ultraviolet ray absorbing agent which does not have such disadvantages is a polymer ultraviolet ray absorbing agent. However, such agents are insufficient for solving these problems. As a result of earnest studies, the present inventors have found that these problems can be completely solved by using a polymer latex obtained by polymerization of certain kinds of ultraviolet ray absorbing monomers. There is a process for adding polymer ultraviolet ray absorbing agents in a form of latex to a hydrophilic colloid composition. One such process comprises adding a latex prepared by emulsion polymerization directly to a hydrophilic colloid. Another process comprises dispersing an oleophilic polymer ultraviolet ray absorbing agent obtained by polymerization of ultraviolet ray absorbing monomers in an aqueous solution of gelatine in a form of latex. Such ultraviolet ray absorbing polymer latexes have been described in, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 3,761,272 and 3,745,010, Japanese patent application (OPI) No. 107835/78 and European Pat. No. 27242, etc. The processes for adding the polymer ultraviolet ray absorbing agents in a form of latex to a hydrophilic colloid composition have many advantages as compared with other processes. First (1) it is not necessary to use high boiling point organic solvents used hitherto, because hydrophobic materials are in the form of a latex, (2) strength of the film formed from the latex is not deteriorated, (3) it is possible to easily incorporate the ultraviolet ray absorbing agent in a high concentration in the hydrophilic colloid layer, because the latex can contain ultraviolet ray absorbing monomers in a high concentration, and (4) an increase of viscosity is small. Further, (5) other layers are not affected because of complete nonmigration, and (6) separation of the ultraviolet ray absorbing agents in the hydrophilic colloid layer is small and the hydrophilic colloid layer is capable of thinning. Particularly, when the ultraviolet ray absorbing polymer latex is produced by emulsion polymerization a specific method for dispersing is not required and the step of adding the ultraviolet ray absorbing agent to the coating solution can be simplified. However, though the ultraviolet ray absorbing polymer latexes known hitherto have some of the fundamental above described excellent advantages, they have the following problems. Therefore, they can not be practically used if such problems can not be improved. 1. Since the absorption peak of the ultraviolet ray absorbing agent becomes broad, stains are formed or sensitivity of the silver halide emulsion is unnecessary reduced. 2. The absorption characteristic in the 300 to 400 nm range is poor, and the effect of preventing static marks and color reproduction are inferior. 3. Since the ultraviolet ray absorbing agent itself is not sufficiently stable to ultraviolet rays, heat and humidity, it colors and causes stains. 4. Ultraviolet ray absorbing monomers are not suitable for mass production, because they have very low solubility and poor polymerization ability, 3. It is necessary to add a large amount in order to obtain a desired density, because the ultraviolet ray absorbing monomers have a low absorbance. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION A primary object of the present invention is to provide silver halide photographic light-sensitive materials containing a novel ultraviolet ray absorbing polymer latex having an excellent absorption characteristic in the 300 to 400 nm range which does not cause static marks caused by ultraviolet rays, deterioration of color reproduction, and fading or discoloration of color images caused by light. Another object of the present invention is to provide silver halide photographic light-sensitive materials containing a novel ultraviolet ray absorbing polymer latex which does not have a bad influence by diffusion into other layers due to very small interlayer migration. The fact that diffusion does not occur during development processing is an important matter not only for preventing pollution of treating baths but also for color printing papers and light-sensitive materials for a diffusion transfer process. Yet another object of the present invention is to provide silver halide photographic light-sensitive materials containing a novel ultraviolet ray absorbing polymer latex which is sufficiently stable to ultraviolet rays, heat and humidity. Still another object of the present invention is to provide silver halide photographic light-sensitive materials containing a novel ultraviolet ray absorbing polymer latex having high film strength which does not influence properties of the film such as adhesion. Another object of the present inventisn is to provide silver halide photographic light-sensitive materials containing a novel ultraviolet ray absorbing polymer latex, wherein the membrane is thin and the resulting images have improved sharpness. Another object of the present invention is to provide silver halide photographic light-sensitive materials containing a novel ultraviolet ray absorbing polymer latex which does not have a bad influence upon photographic properties such as sensitivity or fog. As a result of earnest studies, the present inventors have found that these objects of the present invention are attained by using an ultraviolet ray absorbing polymer latex composed of a polymer or a copolymer having a repeating unit derived from monomers represented by the following general formula (I). Namely, it has be found that they can be attained by silver halide photographic light-sensitive materials comprising at least one light-sensitive silver halide emulsion layer and at least one light-insensitive layer provided on a base, which are characterized by containing an ultraviolet ray absorbing polymer latex composed of a homopolymer or a copolymer having a repeating unit derived from monomers represented by the following general formula (I). General formula (I) ##STR3## wherein R represents a hydrogen atom, a lower alkyl group having 1 to 4 carbon atoms (for example, a methyl group, an ethyl group, a n-propyl group, an isopropyl group or n-butyl group, etc.) or a chlorine atom; X represents --CONH--, --COO-- or a phenylene group; A represents a linking group selected from alkylene groups having 1 to 20 carbon atoms (for example, methylene group, ethylene group, trimethylene group, 2-hydroxytrimethylene group, pentamethylene group, hexamethylene group, ethylethylene group, propylene group and decamethylene group, etc.) and arylene groups having 6 to 20 carbon atoms, (for example, phenylene groups, etc.); Y represents --COO--, --OCO--, --CONH--, --NHCO--, --SO 2 NH--, --NHSO 2 --, --SO 2 -- or --O--, and m and n each represents 0 or an integer of 1. Q represents an ultraviolet ray absorbing group represented by the following general formula (II). General formula (II) ##STR4## wherein R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , R 4 and R 5 each represents a hydrogen atom, a halogen atom (for example, a chlorine atom or a bromine atom), an alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms (for example, a methyl group, an ethyl group, a n-propyl group, an isopropyl group, a n-butyl group, a t-butyl group, a n-amyl group, a t-amyl group, a n-octyl group, a t-octyl group, a methoxyethyl group, an ethoxypropyl group, a hydroxyethyl group, a chloropropyl group, a benzyl group or a cyanoethyl group, etc.), an aryl group having 6 to 20 carbon atoms (for example, a phenyl group, a tolyl group, a mesityl group, a chlorophenyl group, etc.), an alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms (for example, a methoxy group, an ethoxy group, a propoxy group, a butoxy group, an octyloxy group, a 2-ethylhexyloxy group, a methoxymethoxy group, a methoxyethoxy group or an ethoxyethoxy group, etc.), an aryloxy group having 6 to 20 carbon atoms (for example, a phenoxy group or a 4-methylphenoxy group, etc.), an alkylthio group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms (for example, a methylthio group, an ethylthio group, a propylthio group or a n-octylthio group, etc.), an arylthio group having 6 to 20 carbon atoms (for example, a phenylthio group, etc.), an amino group, an alkylamino group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms (for example, a methylamino group, an ethylamino group, a benzylamino group, a dimethylamino group or a diethylamino group, etc.), an arylamino group having 6 to 20 carbon atoms (for example, an anilino group, a diphenyl amino group, an anisidino group or a toluidino group, etc.), a hydroxy group, a cyano group, a nitro group, an acylamino group (for example, an acetylamino group, etc.), a carbamoyl group (for example, a methylcarbamoyl group or a dimethylcarbamoyl group, etc.), a sulfonyl group (for example, a methylsulfonyl group or a phenylsulfonyl group, etc.), a sulfamoyl group (for example, an ethylsulfamoyl group or a dimethylsulfamoyl group, etc.), a sulfonamide group (for example, a methanesulfonamide group, etc.), an acyloxy group (for example, an acetoxy group or a benzoyloxy group, etc.) or an oxycarbonyl group (for example, a methoxycarbonyl group, an ethoxycarbonyl group or a phenoxycarbonyl group, etc.), and R 1 and R 2 , R 2 and R 3 , R 3 and R 4 or R 4 and R 5 may form a 5- or 6 member ring by ring closure (for example, a methylenedioxy group, etc.). R 6 represents a hydrogen atom, or an alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms (for example, a methyl group, an ethyl group, a n-propyl group, an isopropyl group, a n-butyl group, a n-amyl group or a n-octyl group, etc.), R 7 represents a cyano group, --COOR 9 , --CONHR 9 , --COR 9 or --SO.sub. 2 R 9 , and R 8 represents a cyano group, --COOR 10 , --CONHR 10 , --COR 10 or --SO 2 R 10 , wherein R 9 and R 10 each represents the same alkyl group or aryl group as described above. Further, at least one of R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , R 4 , R 5 , R 6 , R 7 and R 8 bonds to the vinyl group through the above described linking group. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIGS. 1 (a), (b), (c), (d) and (e) and FIGS. (a), (b), (c) and (d) each indicates a spectral absorption curve, wherein the abscissa means absorption wavelength (unit: nm) and the ordinate means absorbance (%). DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION In compounds represented by the above described general formula (I), it is preferred that R represents a hydrogen atom, a lower alkyl group having 1 to 4 carbon atoms or a chlorine atom, X represents --CONH--, --COO-- or a phenylene group, A represents a linking group represented by an alkylene group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms or an arylene group having 6 to 20 carbon atoms, Y represents --COO--, --OCO--, --CONH--, --NHCO-- or --O--, and m and n each represents 0 or an integer of 1. Q represents an ultraviolet ray absorbing group represented by the formula (II). In the formula (II), R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , R 4 and R 5 each represents a hydrogen atom, a halogen atom, an alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, an aryl group having 6 to 20 carbon atoms, an alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, an aryloxy group having 6 to 20 carbon atoms, an alkylamino group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, an arylamino group having 6 to 20 carbon atoms, a hydroxy group, an acylamino group, a carbamoyl group, an acyloxy group or an oxycarbonyl group, and R 1 and R 2 , R 2 and R 3 , R 3 and R 4 or R 4 and R 5 may form a ring. R 6 represents a hydrogen atom, or an alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atom, R 7 represents a cyano group, --COOR 9 --, --CONHR 9 --, --COR 9 or --SO 2 R 9 , and R 8 represents a cyano group, --COOR 10 , --CONHR 10 , --COR 10 or --SO 2 R 10 , wherein R 9 and R 10 each represents an alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms or an aryl group having 6 to 20 carbon atoms. Further, at least one of R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , R 4 , R 5 , R 6 , R 7 and R 8 bonds to the vinyl group through the above described linking group. In compounds represented by the above described general formula (I), it is particularly preferred that R represents a hydrogen atom, a lower alkyl group having 1 to 4 carbon atoms or a chlorine atom, X represents --COO--, and m and n represent 0. Q represents an ultraviolet ray absorbing group represented by the general formula (II). In the general formula (II), R 1 , R 2 , R 4 and R 5 each represents a hydrogen atom, R 3 represents a hydrogen atom or an alkyl group having 1 to 5 carbon atoms, R 6 represents a hydrogen atom, R 7 represents a cyano group, and R 8 represents --COOR 10 wherein R 10 represents an alkylene group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms which bonds to the vinyl group. Examples of monomers (comonomers) used for copolymerizing with the ultraviolet ray absorbing monomers, include ethylenically unsaturated monomers such as acrylic acids, α-chloroacrylic acids, α-alacrylic acids (for example, esters and, preferably, lower alkyl esters and amides derived from acrylic acids such as methacrylic acid, etc., for example, acrylamide, methacrylamide, t-butylacrylamide, methyl acrylate, methyl methacrylate, ethyl acrylate, ethyl methacrylate, n-propyl acrylate, n-butyl acrylate, 2-ethylhexyl acrylate, n-hexyl acrylate, octyl methacrylate, lauryl methacrylate and methylenebisacrylamide, etc.), vinyl esters (for example, vinyl acetate, vinyl propionate and vinyl laurate, etc.), acrylonitrile, methacrylonitrile, aromatic vinyl compounds (for example, styrene and derivatives thereof such as vinyl toluene, divinylbenzene, vinylacetophenone, sulfostyrene and styrenesulfinic acid, etc.), itaconic acid, citraconic acid, crotonic acid, vinylidene chloride, vinyl alkyl ethers (for example, vinyl ethyl ether, etc.), maleic acid esters, N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone, N-vinylpyridine and 2- and 4-vinylpyridine, etc. Among them, acrylic acid esters, methacrylic acid esters and aromatic vinyl compounds are particularly preferred to use. Two or more of the above described comonomer compounds may be used together. For example, it is possible to use n-butyl acrylate and divinylbenzene, styrene and methyl methacrylate, or methyl acrylate and methacrylic acid. Ethylenically unsaturated monomers for copolymerizing with ultraviolet ray absorbing monomers corresponding to the above described general formula (I) can be selected so as to have a good influence upon physical properties and/or chemical properties of the produced copolymer, for example, solubility, compatibility with binders such as gelatine in the photographic colloid compositions or other photographic additives, for example, known photographic ultraviolet ray absorbing agents, known photographic antioxidants and known color image forming agents, plasticity and thermal stability thereof, etc. For example, in case of hardening a latex itself in order to harden the hydrophilic colloid layer, it is preferred to use comonomers having a high glass transition point (Tg) (for example, styrene or methyl methacrylate). The ultraviolet ray absorbing polymer latex used in the present invention may be produced by an emulsion polymerization process as described above or may be produced by adding a solution prepared by dissolving an oleophilic polymer obtained by polymerization of ultraviolet ray absorbing monomer in an organic solvent (for example, ethyl acetate) to an aqueous solution of gelatine together with a surface active agent and stirring to disperse in a form of latex. These processes can be applied to formation of homopolymers and formation of copolymers. In the latter case, it is preferred that comonomers are liquid, because they function as a solvent for ultraviolet ray absorbing monomers which are solid in a normal state when carrying out emulsion polymerization. Free radical polymerization of ethylenically unsaturated solid monomers is started by addition of a free radical formed by thermal decomposition of a chemical initiator, a function of a reducing agent in an oxidizing compound (redox initiator) or a physical function such as ultraviolet rays or other high energy radiation or high frequency, etc. Examples of principal chemical initiators include persulfates (for example, ammonium persulfate or potassium persulfate, etc.), hydrogen peroxide, peroxides (for example, benzoyl peroxide or chlorobenzoyl peroxide, etc.) and azonitrile compounds (for example, 4,4'-azobis-(4-cyanovaleric acid) and azobisisobutyronitrile, etc.), etc. Examples of conventional redox initiator include hydrogen-ion (II) salt, potassium persulfate-potassium bisulfate and cerium salt-alcohol, etc. Examples of the initiators and the action thereof have been described in F. A. Bovey, Emulsion Polymerization isused by Interscience Publishes Inc. New York, 1955, pages 59-93. As emulsifiers used when carrying out emulsion polymerization, compounds having interfacial activity are used, and preferable examples of them include sulfonates and sulfates, cationic compounds, amphoteric compounds and high molecular protective colloids. Examples of them and the action thereof have been described in Belgische Chemissche Industrie, vol. 28, pages 16-20 (1963). On the other hand, when dispersing the oleophilic polymer ultraviolet ray absorbing agent in an aqueous solution of gelatine in a form of latex, the organic solvent used for dissolving the oleophilic polymer ultraviolet ray absorbing agent is removed prior to application of the dispersion or by volatilization during drying of the dispersion coated (though not suitable). As the solvents, there are those which have a certain degree of water solubility so as to be capable of being removed by a water wash in a gelatine noodle state and those which can be removed by spray drying, vacuum or steam purging. Further, examples of organic solvents capable of being removed include esters (for example, lower alkyl esters), lower alkyl ethers, ketones, halogenated hydrocarbons (for example, methylene chloride or trichloroethylene, etc.), fluorinated hydrocarbons, alcohols (for example, n-butyl alcohol to octyl alcohol) and combinations of them. As dispersing agents for dispersing the oleophilic polymer ultraviolet ray absorbing agents, any type of abstance may be used, but ionic surface active agents and particularly anionic surface active agents are suitable. Further, it is possible to use ampholytic agents such as C-cetylbetaine, N-alkylaminopropionic acid salts or N-alkyliminodipropionic acid salts. In order to increase dispersion stability and to improve the flexibility of emulsions coated, a small amount (less than 50% by weight of the ultraviolet ray absorbing polymer) of permanent solvents, namely, water immiscible organic solvents having a high boiling point (higher than 200° C.) may be added. It is necessary for the concentration of the permanent solvents to be sufficiently low in order to plasticize the polymer while it is kept in a state of a solid particle. Furthermore, when using the permanent solvents, it is preferred that the amount thereof is as small as possible so as to thin the thickness of the final emulsion layer or the hydrophilic colloid layer in order to maintain high sharpness. It is preferred that the amount of the ultraviolet ray absorbing agent part (monomer represented by the general formula (I)) in the ultraviolet ray absorbing polymer latex of the present invention is generally 5 to 100% by weight, but an amount of 50 to 100% by weight is particularly preferred from the viewpoint of the thickness of the layer and stability. In the following, typical examples of ultraviolet ray absorbing monomers corresponding to the general formula (I) of the present invention are described, but the compounds in the present invention are not limited to them. ##STR5## Examples of preferred compositions of the homopolymer or copolymer ultraviolet ray absorbing agents used in the present invention are described. P-1 to P-26: Homopolymers of the above Compounds (1) to (26) P-27: Copolymer of Compound (5): methyl methacrylate=7:3 (ratio by weight) P-28: Copolymer of Compound (5): methyl methacrylate=5:5 P-29: Copolymer of Compound (5): methyl acrylate=7:3 P-30: Copolymer of Compound (8): styrene=5:5 P-31: Copolymer of Compound (8): butyl acrylate=7.5:2.5 P-32: Copolymer of Compound (1): methyl methacrylate=7:3 P-33: Copolymer of Compound (1): methyl methacrylate=5:5 P-34: Copolymer of Compound (8): methyl acrylate=7:3 P-35: Copolymer of Compound (2): methyl methacrylate=5:5 P-36: Copolymer of Compound (16): methyl methacrylate=7:3 P-37: Copolymer of Compound (16): methyl acrylate=5:5 The ultraviolet ray absorbing monomers corresponding to the general formula (I) can be synthesized by reacting a compound synthesized by the process described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,200,464 or Beilsteins Handbuch der Organischen Chemie (4th eddition) vol. 10, page 521 (1942), etc. with acid halide of acrylic acid or α-substituted acrylic acid such as acryloyl chloride or methacrloyl chloride, and can be synthesized by a reaction of 2-cyano-3-phenylacrylic acid with hydroxyethyl acrylate, hydroxyethyl methacrylate or glycidyl acrylate, etc. as described in Japanese Patent Application (OPI) No. 11102/73 (corresponding to U.S. Pat. No. 3,804,628). Typical examples of synthesizing the compounds used in the present invention are described in the following. (A) Monomer compound Synthesis 1 (Compound (5)) Tolualdehyde (400 g), cyanoacetic acid (311 g), acetic acid (60 ml) and ammonium acetate (25.6 g) were refluxed in ethyl alcohol (1.6 l) for 4 hours with heating. After the reaction, the mixture was concentrated to 600 ml by removing ethyl alcohol under a reduced pressure, followed by pouring into 1 liter of ice-cold water to separate crystals. The separated crystals were filtered out by suction and recrystallized from 2 liters of ethyl alcohol to obtain 2-cyano-3-(4-methylphenyl)acrylic acid which melted at 210°-215° C. in a yield of 560 g. The resulting compound (320 g) and thionyl chloride (252 g) were dissolved in acetonitrile (200 ml) with heating for 1 hour. After the reaction, acetonitrile and thionyl chloride were distilled off under a reduced pressure, and the resulting solid was added to a solution consisting of hydroxyethyl methacrylate (244.8 g), pyridine (149 g) and acetonitrile (2 l). The reaction was carried out for 2 hours while keeping the reaction temperature below 40° C. After the reaction, the reacting solution was poured into ice-cold water to separate crystals, and the resulting crystals were recrystallized from ethyl alcohol (3 l) to obtain 360 g of the desired product which melted at 74°-75° C. The resulting product was confirmed by the results of IR, NMR and elementary analysis. Elementary analysis value (C 17 H 17 NO 4 ) Theoretical value H: 5.72% C: 68.22% N: 4.68% Found value H: 5.75% C: 68.16% N: 4.76% λ max CH 3 OH=311 nm Synthesis 2 (Compound (8)) Benzaldehyde (200 g), cyanoacetic acid (176 g), acetic acid (30 ml) and ammonium acetate (14.5 g) were refluxed for 4 hours in ethyl alcohol (800 ml) with heating. After the reaction, the mixture was concentrated to 400 ml by removing ethyl alcohol under a reduced pressure, followed by pouring into 1 liter of ice-cold water to separate crystals. The resulting crystals were recrystallized from 250 ml of acetonitrile to obtain 2-cyano-3-phenylacrylic acid which melted at 184°-188° C. in a yield of 265 g. The resulting compound (150 g) and thionyl chloride (176 g) were dissolved in acetonitrile (100 ml) with heating for 1 hour. After the reaction, acetonitrile and thionyl chloride were distilled off under a reduced pressure, and the resulting solid was added to a solution consisting of hydroxyethyl methacrylate (124 g), pyridine (75 g) and acetonitrile (1 l). The reaction was carried out for 2 hours while keeping the reaction temperature below 40° C. After the reaction, the reacting solution was poured into ice-cold water to separate crystals, and the resulting crystals were recrystallized form ethyl alcohol (1 l) to obtain 205 g of the desired product which melting at 68°-70° C. The resulting product was confirmed by the results of IR, NMR and elementary analysis. Elementary analysis value (C 16 H 14 NO 4 ) Theoretical value H: 4.96% C: 67.60% N: 4.93% Found value H: 4.87% C: 67.65% N: 4.99% λ max CH 3 OH=298 nm Synthesis 3 (Compound (1)) 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde (30 g), ethyl cyanoacetate (31.7 g), acetic acid (4.5 ml) and ammonium acetate (1.9 g) were refluxed in ethyl alcohol (100 ml) for 4 hours with heating. After the reaction, the reacting solution was poured into 500 ml of ice-cold water to separate crystals. The resulting crystals were recrystallized from methyl alcohol (400 ml) to obtain 65 g of ethyl-2-cyano-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)acrylate which melted at 89°-91° C. The resulting compound (10.9 g) and pyridine (4.3 g) were dissolved in tetrahydrofuran (100 ml), and acryloyl chloride (4.5 g) was added dropwise thereto. The reaction was carried out for 2 hours while keeping the reaction temperature below 40° C. After the reaction, the reacting solution was poured into ice-cold water to separate crystals, and the resulting crystals were recrystallized from methyl alcohol (100 ml) to obtain 11 g of the desired product which melted at 82°-85° C. The resulting compound was confirmed by the results of IR, NMR and elementary analysis. Elementary analysis value (C 15 H 13 NO 4 ) Theoretical value H: 4.83% C: 66.41% N: 5.16% Found value H: 4.91% C: 66.42% N: 5.08% λ max CH 3 OH=323 nm Synthesis 4 (Compound (21)) 2-cyano-3-(4-methylphenyl)acrylic acid (9.4 g) obtained by the process described in Synthesis 1, glycidyl methacrylate (7.1 g) and triethylamine (2.5 g) were refluxed for 5 hours in methyl ethyl ketone (120 ml) with heating. After the reaction, methyl ethyl ketone was distilled off under a reduced pressure, and the residue was subjected to column chromatography (Kieselgel 60, produced by Merk Co.) to collect ethyl acetate/hexane effluent. When recrystallization was carried out from methyl alcohol 7 g of the desired product which melted at 52°-53° C. was obtained. The resulting product was confirmed by the results of IR, NMR and elementary analysis. Elementary analysis value (C 18 H 19 NO 5 ) Theoretical value H: 5.81% C: 65.64% N: 4.25% Found value H: 5.90% C: 65.52% N 4.30% λ max CH 3 OH=311 nm (B) Polymer compound Synthesis 5 Homopolymer latex of Compound (5) 600 ml of an aqueous solution containing 10 g of a sodium salt of oleylmethyltauride was heated to 90° C. by passing a nitrogen stream slowly therethrough under stirring. To the resulting mixture, 20 ml of an aqueous solution containing 350 mg of potassium persulfate was added. Then, a solution prepared by dissolving 50 g of ultraviolet ray absorbing monomer (5) in 200 ml of ethanol by heating was added thereto. After addition, the mixture was stirred for 1 hour while heating to 85°-90° C., and 10 ml of an aqueous solution containing 150 mg of potassium persulfate was added thereto. After the reaction was carried out for further 1 hour, ethanol was distilled off as an azeotropic mixture with water. The produced latex was cooled. After the pH was adjusted to 6.0 by 1 N sodium hydroxide, the latex was filtered. The concentration of the polymer in the latex was 7.81%. Further, the latex had an absorption maximum in 330 nm in the aqueous system. Synthesis 6. Copolymer latex of Compound (8) and n-butyl acrylate 800 ml of an aqueous solution containing 15 g of sodium salt of oleylmethyltauride was heated to 90° C. by slowly passed a nitrogen stream therethrough under stirring. To the resulting mixture, 20 ml of an aqueous solution containing 525 mg of potassium persulfate was added. Then, 50 g of the ultraviolet ray absorbing monomer (8) and 25 g of n-butyl acrylate were dissolved in 200 ml of ethanol with heating, and the resulting solution was added to the above mixture. After addition, the mixture was stirred for 1 hour with heating to 85°-90° C., and 10 ml of an aqueous solution containing 225 mg of potassium persulfate was added thereto. After the reaction was carried out for an additional 1 hour, ethanol and unreacting n-butyl acrylate were distilled off as an azeotropic mixture with water. The produced latex was cooled. After the pH was adjusted to 6.0 by 1 N sodium hydroxide, the latex was filtered. The concentration of the copolymer in the latex was 10.23%. The nitrogen analysis value indicated that the produced copolymer contained 65.8% of the ultraviolet ray absorbing monomer unit. Further, the latex had an absorption maximum in 316 nm in the aqueous system. Synthesis 7 Copolymer latex of Compound (5) and methyl methacrylate 4 l of an aqueous solution containing 75 g of sodium salt of oleylmethyltauride was heated to 90° C. while slowly passing a nitrogen stream therethrough under stirring. To the resulting mixture, 50 ml of an aqueous solution containing 2.6 g of potassium persulfate was added. Then, 300 g of the ultraviolet ray absorbing monomer (5) and 60 g of methyl methacrylate were dissolved in 1 l of ethanol, and the resulting solution was added to the above mixture. After addition, the mixture was stirred for 1 hour while heating to 85°-90° C., and 20 ml of an aqueous solution containing 1.1 g of potassium persulfate was added thereto. After the reaction was carried out for an additional 1 hour, ethanol and unreacting methyl methacrylate was distilled off as an azeotropic mixture with water. The produced latex was cooled. After the pH was adjusted to 6.0 by 1 N sodium hydroxide, the latex was filtered. The concentration of the copolymer in the latex was 9.42%. The nitrogen analysis value indicated that the produced copolymer contained 78.9% of the ultraviolet ray absorbing monomer unit. Further, the latex had an absorption maximum in 327 nm in the aqueous system. Synthesis 8 Copolymer latex of Compound (1) and methyl methacrylate 1 l of an aqueous solution containing 15 g of sodium salt of oleylmethyltauride was heated to 90° C. while slowly passing a nitrogen stream therethrough under stirring. To the resulting mixture, 20 ml of an aqueous solution containing 225 mg of potassium persulfate was added. Then, 10 g of methyl methacrylate was added thereto, and the mixture was stirred for 1 hour while heating to 85°-90° C. to synthesize a latex (a). Then, to the resulting latex (a), a solution prepared by dissolving 50 g of the ultraviolet ray absorbing monomer (1) and 10 g of methyl methacrylate in 200 ml of ethanol was added and thereafter 20 ml of an aqueous solution containing 300 mg of potassium persulfate was added. After the reaction was carried out for 1 hour, 20 ml of an aqueous solution containing 225 mg of potassium sulfate was added. After subsequently carrying out the reaction for 1 hour, ethanol and unreacting methyl methacrylate were distilled off as an azeotropic mixture with water. The produced latex was cooled. After the pH was adjusted to 6.0 by 1 N sodium hydroxide, the latex was filtered. The concentration of the copolymer in the latex was 8.38%. The nitrogen analysis value indicated that the produced copolymer contained 62.3% of the ultraviolet ray absorbing monomer unit. Synthesis 9 Synthesis 1 of oleophilic polymer ultraviolet ray absorbing agent: 21 g of the ultraviolet ray absorbing monomer (8) and 9 g of methyl acrylate were dissolved in 150 ml of dioxane. While stirring the resulting solution at 70° C. under a nitrogen stream, a solution prepared by dissolving 270 mg of 2,2'-azobis-(2,4-dimethylvaleronitrile) in 5 ml of dioxane was added, and the reaction was carried out for 5 hours. Then, the resulting product was poured into 2 l of iso-cold water, and the separated solid was filtered out, followed by sufficient washing with water. The product was dried to obtain 25.3 g of the oleophilic polymer ultraviolet ray absorbing agent. As a result of nitrogen analysis of the oleophilic polymer ultraviolet ray absorbing agent, it was indicated that the produced copolymer contained 64.5% of the ultraviolet ray absorbing monomer unit. λ max CH 3 COOC 2 H 5 =300 nm Process for producing an ultraviolet ray absorbing polymer latex (A) First, two solutions (a) and (b) were prepared as follows. (a) 70 g of a 10 weight % aqueous solution of bone gelatine (pH: 5.6 at 35° C.) was heated to 32° C. to dissolve. (b) 5 g of the above described oleophilic polymer was dissolved in 20 g of ethyl acetate at 38° C., and a 70 weight % solution of sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate in methanol was added thereto. Then the solutions (a) and (b) were put in an explosion protective mixer. After stirring for 1 minute at a high rate, operation of the mixer was stopped and ethyl acetate was distilled off under a reduced pressure. Thus, polymer latex (A) wherein the oleophilic polymer ultraviolet ray absorbing agent was dispersed in a diluted aqueous solution of gelatine was produced. Synthesis 10 Synthesis 2 of oleophilic polymer ultraviolet ray absorbing agent: 63 g of the ultraviolet ray absorbing monomer (5) and 27 g of methyl methacrylate were dissolved in 450 ml of dioxane. While stirring the resulting solution at 70° C. under a nitrogen stream, a solution prepared by dissolving 810 mg of 2,2'-azobis-(2,4-dimethylvaleronitrile) in 15 ml of dioxane was added, and the reaction was carried out for 5 hours. Then, the resulting product was poured into 5 l of ice-cold water, and the separated solid was filtered out, followed by sufficient washing with water and methanol. The product was dried to obtain 78 g of an oleophilic polymer ultraviolet ray absorbing agent. As a result of nitrogen analysis of the oleophilic polymer ultraviolet ray absorbing agent, it was indicated that the produced copolymer contained 66.3% of the ultraviolet ray absorbing monomer unit. λ max CH 3 COOC 2 H 5 =315 nm Process for producing an ultraviolet ray absorbing polymer latex (B): A polymer latex (B) was produced by the same procedure as that for the above described polymer latex (A). The ultraviolet ray absorbing polymer latex of the present invention is used by adding it to the hydrophilic colloid layers of silver halide photographic light-sensitive materials, such as a surface protective layer, an intermediate layer or a silver halide emulsion layer, etc. It is preferred to use it in the surface protective layer or the hydrophilic colloid layer adjacent to the surface protective layer. Particularly, it is preferable to add it to the lower layer in the surface protective layer consisting of two layers. The amount used of the ultraviolet ray absorbing polymer latex in the present invention is not restricted, but it is preferred to be in a range of 10 to 2000 mg and preferably, 50 to 1000 mg per square meter. Examples of silver halide photographic light-sensitive materials which can make use of the present invention include color negative films, color reversal filsm, color papers and color diffusion transfer light-sensitive materials, etc. In the following, components other than the ultraviolet ray absorbing polymer latex in the silver halide photographic light-sensitive materials of the present invention and processes for development, etc. are described briefly. As protective colloids for the hydrophilic colloid layers of the present invention, gelatine is advantageously used, but other hydrophilic colloids may be used. For example, it is possible to use proteins such as gelatine derivatives, graft polymers of gelatine with other high polymers, albumin or casein, etc.; saccharose derivatives such as cellulose derivatives such as hydroxyethyl cellulose, carboxymethyl cellulose or cellulose sulfate, etc., sodium alginate or starch derivatives, etc.; and various synthetic hydrophilic high molecular substances such as homo polymers or copolymers, for example, polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinyl alcohol partial acetal, poly-N-vinylpyrrolidone, polyacrylic acid, polymethacrylic acid, polyacrylamide, polyvinylimidazole or polyvinylpyrazole, etc. Useful gelatines, include lime-treated gelatine as well as acid-treated gelatine and enzyme treated gelatine as described in Bull. Soc. Sci. Phot. Japan, No. 16, page 30 (1966). Further, hydrolyzed products and enzymatic decomposition products of gelatine can be used. Examples of useful silver halides for the silver halide emulsion layers of the present invention include silver bromide, silver iodobromide, silver iodochlorobromide, silver chlorobromide and silver chloride. The silver halide emulsions used in the present invention can be prepared by processes described in P. Glafkides, Chimie et Physique Photographique (issued by Paul Montel Co., 1967), G. F. Duffin, Photographic Emulsion Chemistry, (issued by The Focal Press, 1966) and V. L. Zelikman et al, Making and Coating Photographic Emulsion (issued by The Focal Press, 1966), etc. Namely, any of an acid process, a neutral process and an ammonia process may be used. Further, as a type of reacting soluble silver salts with soluble halogen salts, it is possible to use any of a one-side mixing process, a simultaneous mixing process and combination thereof. A process for forming silver halide particles in an excess amount of silver ions (the so-called reversal mixing process) can be used, too. As a type of the simultaneous mixing process, it is possible to use a process wherein a liquid phase for forming silver halide is kept at a constant pAg, namely, the so-called controlled double jet process. According to this process, silver halide emulsions having a regular crystal form and a nearly uniform particle size are obtained. Cadmium salts, zinc salts, lead salts, thallium salts, iridium salts or complex salts thereof, rhodium salts or complex salts thereof, and iron salts or complex salts thereof may be coexistent in the step of forming silver halide particles or the step of physical ageing. The silver halide emulsions of the present invention can be chemically sensitized by conventional methods. Namely, it is possible to use a sulfur sensitization process using sulfur containing compounds capable of reacting with active gelatine or silver (for example, thiosulfates, thioureas, mercapto compounds and rhodanines), a reduction sensitization process using reducing substances (for example, stannous salts, amines, hydrazine derivatives, formamidine sulfinic acid and silane compounds) and a noble metal sensitization process using noble metal compounds (for example, gold complex salts and complex salts of metals belonging to Group VIII in the periodic table, such as Pt, Ir or Pd, etc.), which may be used alone or as a combination. In order to prevent fogging in the step of producing the light-sensitive materials, during preservation or during photographic treatment or to stabilize photographic properties, various compounds can be incorporated in the silver halide emulsions of the present invention. Namely, it is possible to add various compounds known as antifogging agents or stabilizers, such as azoles, for example, benzothiazolium salts, nitroindazoles, triazoles, benzotriazoles and benzimidazoles (particularly, nitro- or halogen substituted derivatives); heterocyclic mercapto compounds, for example, mercaptothiazoles, mercaptobenzothiazoles, mercaptobenzimidazoles, mercaptothiadiazoles, mercaptotetrazoles (particularly, 1-phenyl-5-mercaptotetrazole) and mercaptopyrimidines; the above described heterocyclic mercapto compounds which have water soluble groups such as a carboxyl group or a sulfo group, etc.; thioketo compounds, for example, oxazolinethione; azaindenes, for example, tetraazaindenes (particularly, 4-hydroxy substituted-(1,3,3a,7)tetrazaindenes); benzenethiosulfonic acids; and benzenesulfinic acid; etc. The hydrophilic colloid layers in the light-sensitive materials of the present invention may contain various surface active agents for various purposes such as coating assistants, prevention of electrically charging, improvement of slipping property, emulsifying and dispersing, prevention of adhesion and improvement of photographic properties (for example, acceleration of development, hard tone, and sensitization), etc. For example, it is possible to use nonionic surface active agents such as saponin (steroid type), alkylene oxides (for example, polyethylene glycol, polyethylene glycol/polypropylene glycol condensation products, polyethylene glycol alkyl ethers, polyethylene glycol alkylaryl ethers, polyethylene glycol esters, polyethylene glycol sorbitan esters, polyalkylene glycol alkylamines or amides, and polyethylene oxide addition products of silicone), glycidol derivatives (for example, alkenylsuccinic acid polyglycerides and alkylphenol polyglycerides), aliphatic acid esters of polyhydric alcohols, or alkyl esters of saccharose, etc.; anionic surface active agents having acid groups such as a carboxyl group, a sulfo group, a phospho group, a sulfuric acid ester group or a phosphoric acid ester group, etc., such as alkylcarboxylic acid salts, alkylsulfonic acid salts, alkylbenzenesulfonic acid salts, alkylnaphthalenesulfonic acid salts, alkylsulfuric acid esters, alkylphosphoric acid esters, N-acyl-N-alkyltaurines, sulfosuccinic acid esters, sulfoalkyl polyoxyethylene alkyl phenyl eters or polyoxyethylene alkylphosphoric acid esters, etc.; ampholytic surface active agents such as amino acids, aminoalkylsulfonic acids, aminoalkylsulfuric or phosphoric acid esters, alkylbetaines or amineoxides, etc.; and cationic surface active agents such as alkylamine salts, aliphatic or aromatic quaternary ammonium salts, heterocyclic quaternary ammonium salts such as pyridinium salts or imidazolium salts, etc., or aliphatic or heterocyclic phosphonium or sulfonium salts, etc. The silver halide emulsions of the present invention may be spectrally sensitized by methine dyes or others. These sensitizing dyes can be used alone, but combinations of them may be used. Combinations of sensitizing dyes are frequently used for the purpose of supersensitization. The emulsion may contain dyes which do not have a spectral sensitization function themselves or substances which do not substantially absorb visible light but have a function of supersensitization, together with the sensitizing dyes. Useful sensitizing dyes, combinations of dyes having a function of supersensitization and substances having a function of supersensitization have been described in Research Disclosure, Vol. 176, 17643 (Dec. 1978) page 23, paragraph IV-J. The hydrophilic colloid layers such as a silver halide emulsion layer or a surface protective layer in the present invention may contain inorganic or organic hardening agents. For example, it is possible to use chromium salts (chromium alum or chromium acetate, etc.), aldehydes (formaldehyde, glyoxal or glutaraldehyde, etc.), N-methylol compounds (dimethylolurea, or methyloldimethyl hydantoin, etc.), dioxane derivatives (2,3-dihydroxydioxane, etc.), active vinyl compounds (1,3,5-triacryloxyl-hexahydro-s-triazine or 1,3-vinylsulfonyl-2-propanol, etc.), active halogen compounds (2,4-dichloro-6-hydroxy-s-triazine, etc.) and mucohalogenic acids (mucochloric acid or mucophenoxychloric acid, etc.), which may be used alone or as a combination. The photographic light-sensitive materials of the present invention may contain color forming couplers, namely, compounds capable of coloring by oxidative coupling with an aromatic primary amine developing agent (for example, phenylenediamine derivatives or aminophenol derivatives, etc.) by color development. Examples of them include 5-pyrazolone couplers, pyrazolobenzimidazole couplers, cyanoacetylocumarone couplers and ring-opened acylacetonitrile couplers, etc. as magenta couplers; acylacetamide couplers (for example, benzoylacetanilides and pivaloyl acetanilides), etc. as yellow couplers; and naphthol couplers and phenol couplers, etc. as cyan couplers. These couplers are preferred to have hydrophobic groups called ballast groups in the molecule so as to be nondiffusible. The couplers may be any of 4-equivalence and 2-equivalence to silver ion. Further, they may be colored couplers having an effect of color correction or couplers which release a development inhibitor by development (the so-called DIR couplers). Further, noncoloring DIR coupling compounds which produce a colorless product by coupling reaction and release a developing inhibitor may be contained in addition to DIR couplers. The light-sensitive materials of the present invention may contain hydroquinone derivatives, aminophenol derivatives, gallic acid derivatives and ascorbic acid derivatives, etc. as anti-color-fogging agents. When practicing the present invention, the following known antifading agents can be used together. Further, color image stabilizers used in the present invention may be alone or a combination of two or more thereof. Examples of known antifading agents include hydroquinone derivatives, gallic acid derivatives, p-alkoxyphenols, p-oxyphenol derivatives and bisphenols. The hydrophilic colloid layers of the photographic light-sensitive materials of the present invention can contain a water insoluble or nearly insoluble synthetic polymer dispersion for the purpose of improvement of dimensional stability. For example, it is possible to use polymers composed of one or more of alkyl acrylate (or methacrylate), alkoxyalkyl acrylate (or methacrylate), glycidyl acrylate (or methacrylate), acrylamide (or methacrylamide), vinyl ester (for example, vinyl acetate), acrylonitrile, olefine and styrene, etc. and polymers composed of a combination of the above described monomer components and acrylic acid, methacrylic acid, α,β-unsaturated dicarboxylic acid, hydroxyalkyl acrylate (or methacrylate), sulfoalkyl acrylate (or methacrylate) or styrenesulfonic acid, etc. The present invention is suitably applied to multilayer color photographic materials comprising at least two layers having each a different spectral sensitivity on a base. The multilayer color photographic materials generally have at least each a red-sensitive emulsion layer, a green-sensitive emulsion layer and a blue-sensitive emulsion layer on the base. The order of these layers can be suitably selected as occasion demands. Generally, the red-sensitive emulsion layer contains cyan forming couplers, the green-sensitive emulsion layer contains magenta forming couplers and the blue-sensitive emulsion layer contains yellow forming couplers, but other combinations may be adopted, if necessary. Exposure to light for obtaining photographic images may be carried out by the conventional method. Namely, it is possible to use various known light sources such as natural light (sunlight), a tungsten light, a fluorescent light, a mercury lamp, a xenon arc lamp, a carbon arc lamp, a xenon flash light, or a cathode ray tube flying spot, etc. As exposure time, not only exposure for 1/1000 seconds to 1 second which is used for conventional cameras, but also exposure shorter than 1/1000 seconds, for example, 1/10 4 -1/10 6 seconds in case of the xenon flash light or the cathode ray tube, and exposure longer than 1 second can be used. If necessary, the spectral composition of light used for exposure can be controlled by a color filter. Photographic processings of the light-sensitive materials of the present invention can be carried out by any known methods. Known processing solutions can be used. The processing temperature is generally selected from a range of 18° C. to 50° C., but a temperature lower than 18° C. or a temperature higher than 50° C. may be used, too. Any of a development processing for forming silver images (black-and-white photographic processing) and a color photographic processing comprising a development processing for forming dye images can be adopted as occasion demands. The developing solution used in case of black-and-white photographic processing may contain known developing agents. Examples of developing agents include dihydroxybenzenes (for example, hydroquinone), 3-pyrazolidones (for example, 1-phenyl-3-pyrazolidone), aminophenols (for example, N-methyl-p-aminophenol), 1-phenyl-3-pyrazolines, ascorbic acid, and heterocyclic compounds such as those wherein a 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroquinone ring and an indoline ring are condensed as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,067,872, which can be used alone or as a combination of them. The developing solution generally contain known preservatives, alkali agents, pH buffer agents and antifogging agents, etc. If necessary, it may contain dissolving assistants, toning agents, development accelerators, surface active agents, defoaming agents, water softeners, hardening agents and viscosity increasing agents, etc. In one special type of development processing, the developing agent may be contained in the light-sensitive material, for example, in an emulsion layer, and the light-sensitive material is developed by processing in an aqueous alkali solution. Among the developing agents, hydrophobic agents can be incorporated in the emulsion layer as a latex dispersion as disclosed in Research Disclosure, No. 169 as RD-16928. Such a development processing may be combined with a silver salt stabilization processing using thiocyanates. Conventional fixing solutions can be used. Examples of useful fixing agents include thiosulfates, thiocyanates, and known organic sulfur compounds having an effect as a fixing agent. The fixing solution may contain water soluble alminium salts as a hardening agent. When forming color images, known processes can be utilized. It is possible to use a negative-positive process (for example, described in "Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers", Vol. 61 (1953) pages 667-701) and a color reversal process for forming color positive images which comprises forming negative silver images by developing with a developer containing a black-and-white developing agent, subjecting to at least one uniform exposure to light or another suitable fogging treatment, and subsequently carrying out color development, etc. The color developing solution generally comprises an aqueous alkaline solution containing a color developing agent. As the color developing agent, it is possible to use known primary aromatic amine developing agents, for example, phenylenediamines (for example, 4-amino-N,N-diethylaniline, 3-methyl-4-amino-N,N-diethylaniline, 4-amino-N-ethyl-N-β-hydroxyethylaniline, 3-methyl-4-amino-N-ethyl-N-β-hydroxyethylaniline, 3-methyl-4-amino-N-ethyl-N-β-methanesulfonamidoethylaniline and 4-amino-3-methyl-N-ethyl-N-β-methoxyethylaniline, etc.). In addition, it is possible to use substances described in L. F. A. Mason, Photographic Processing Chemistry (issued by Focal Press, 1966) pages 226-229, U.S. Pat. Nos. 2,193,015 and 2,592,364 and Japanese Patent Application No. (OPI) 64933/73, etc. The color developing solution may contain pH buffer agents such as sulfites, carbonates, borates and phosphates of alkali metals, and development restrainers or antifogging agents such as bromides, iodides or organic antifoggants, etc. Further, it may contain, if desired, water softeners, preservatives such as hydroxylamine, organic solvents such as benzyl alcohol or diethylene glycol, development accelerators such as polyethylene glycol, quaternary ammonium salts or amines, dye forming couplers, competing couplers, fogging agents such as sodium borohydride, auxiliary developing agents such as 1-phenyl-3-pyrazolidone, viscosity imparting agents, polycarboxylic acid type chelating agents described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,083,723 and antioxidants described in German Patent Application No. (OLS) 2,622,950, etc. The photographic emulsion layers after color development are generally subjected to bleaching processing. The bleaching processing may be carried out simultaneously with fixation processing or may be carried out respectively. As bleaching agents, compounds of polyvalence metals such as iron (III), cobalt (III), chromium (VI) or copper (II), peracids, quinones and nitroso compounds, etc. are used. For example, it is possible to use ferricyanides, bichromates, organic complex salts of iron (III) or cobalt (III), for example, complex salts of aminopolycarboxylic acids such as ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, nitrilotriacetic acid or 1,3-diamino-2-propanol tetraacetic acid, etc. and organic acids such as citric acid, tartaric acid or malic, acid, etc.; persulfates, permanganates; and nitrosophenols, etc. Among them, potassium derricyanide, sodium ethylenediaminetetraacetato iron (III) complex and ammonium ethylenediaminetetraacetato iron (III complex are particularly useful. Ethylenediaminetetraacetato iron (III) complexes are useful for both of the bleaching solution and the mono bath bleach-fixing solution. In the following, the present invention is illustrated in greater detail with reference to examples. EXAMPLE 1 In order to compare the polymer latexes (A) and (B) prepared in Syntheses 9 and 10 with monomers (8) and (5) and a monomer of ultraviolet ray absorbing agent having the following structure (27), emulsified dispersions (C), (D) and (E) of the monomers (8), (5) and (27), respectively, were prepared as follows. ##STR6## First, two kinds of solution of (a) and (b) were prepared as follows. (a) 1000 g of a 10 weight % aqueous solution of bone gelatine (pH: 5.6 at 35° C.) was heated to 40° C. to dissolve. (b) 27.4 g of the above described monomer (8) was dissolved in a mixed solvent composed of 40 g of dibutyl phthalate and 135 g of ethyl acetate as an auxiliary solvent at 38° C., and 23 g of a 72 weight % solution of sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate in methanol was added to the resulting solution. Then, the solutions (a) and (b) were put in an explosion preventive mixer. After being stirred for 1 minute at a high rate, the operation of the mixer was stopped and ethyl acetate was distilled off under a reduced pressure. Thus, an emulsified dispersion (C) of the monomer (8) was prepared. An emulsified dispersion (D) and an emulsified dispersion (E) were prepared with using 28.7 g of the monomer (5) and 46.4 g of the monomer (27), respectively, by the same procedure as in the emulsified dispersion (C). When carrying out emulsification of the monomers (5), (8) and (27), if dibutyl phthalate was not used, coarse crystals were separated within a very short time after emulsification, by which not only the ultraviolet ray absorbing property varied but also the coating property remarkably deteriorated. Spectral absorption characteristics of samples which were prepared by applying the above described emulsified dispersions to triacetyl cellulose bases in an amount of 4.3 g/m 2 , respectively, were measured by means of a Hitachi 323 type self-recording spectrometer, and results shown in FIGS. 1 (a, b, c, d and e) were obtained. FIGS. 1 (a, b, c, d and e) clearly show that the absorption peaks of (A) and (B) are kept at surprising sharpness as compared with (C), (D) and (E), in spite of polymer latexes. The results shown in FIG. 1 are surprising matters, because it has been believed generally that the spectral absorption peak of polymers obtained by polymerization of monomers is broader than that of the monomers and such polymers can not be practically used as a photographic ultraviolet ray absorbing agent. EXAMPLE 2 A multilayer color light-sensitive material comprising layers having the following compositions on a cellulose triacetate film base was produced. The 1st layer: Antihalation layer (AHL) A gelatine layer containing black colloidal silver. The 2nd layer: Intermediate layer (ML) A gelatine layer containing an emulsified dispersion of 2,5-di-t-octylhydroquinone. The 3rd layer: The first red-sensitive emulsion layer (RL 1 ) Silver iodobromide emulsion (silver iodide: 5% by mol) . . . Amount of silver coated: 1.79 g/m 2 ______________________________________Sensitizing dye I 6 × 10.sup.-5 mols per mol of silverSensitizing dye II 1.5 × 10.sup.-5 mols per mol of silverCoupler A 0.04 mols per mol of silverCoupler C-1 0.0015 mols per mol of silverCoupler C-2 0.0015 mols per mol of silverCoupler D 0.0006 mols per mol of silver______________________________________ The 4th layer: The second red-sensitive emulsion layer (RL 2 ) Silver iodobromide emulsion (silver iodide: 4% by mol) . . . Amount of silver coated: 1.4 g/m 2 ______________________________________Sensitizing dye I 3 × 10.sup.-5 mols per mol of silverSensitizing dye II 1.2 × 10.sup.-5 mols per mol of silverCoupler A 0.02 mols per mol of silverCoupler C-1 0.0008 mols per mol of silverCoupler C-2 0.0008 mols per mol of silver______________________________________ The 5th layer: Intermediate layer (ML) The same as the 2nd layer. The 6th layer: The first green-sensitive emulsion layer (GL 1 ) Silver iodobromide emulsion (silver iodide: 4% by mol) . . . Amount of silver coated: 1.5 g/m 2 ______________________________________Sensitizing dye III 3 × 10.sup.-5 mols per mol of silverSensitizing dye IV 1 × 10.sup.-5 mols per mol of silverCoupler B 0.05 mols per mol of silverCoupler M-1 0.008 mols per mol of silverCoupler D 0.0015 mols per mol of silver______________________________________ The 7th layer: The second green-sensitive emulsion layer (GL 2 ) Silver iodobromide emulsion (silver iodide: 5% by mol) . . . Amount of silver coated: 1.6 g/m 2 ______________________________________Sensitizing dye III 2.5 × 10.sup.-5 mols per mol of silverSensitizing dye IV 0.8 × 10.sup.-5 mols per mol of silverCoupler B 0.02 mols per mol of silverCoupler M-1 0.003 mols per mol of silverCoupler D 0.0003 mols per mol of silver______________________________________ The 8th layer: Yellow filter layer (YFL) A gelatine layer containing emulsified dispersion of yellow colloidal silver and 2,5-di-t-octylhydroquinone in an aqueous solution of gelatine. The 9th layer: The first blue-sensitive emulsion layer (BL 1 ) Silver iodobromide emulsion (silver iodide: 6% by mol) . . . Amount of silver coated: 1.5 g/m 2 ______________________________________Coupler Y-1 0.25 mols per mol of silverThe above described Compound (8) 0.005 mols per mol of silver______________________________________ The compound (8) was added as an emulsified dispersion together with Coupler Y-1. The 10th layer: The second blue-sensitive emulsion layer (BL 2 ) ______________________________________Silver iodobromide Amount of silver coated: 1.1 g/m.sup.2(silver iodide: 6% by mol)Coupler Y-1 0.06 mols per mol of silver______________________________________ The 11th layer: Protective layer (PL) Application of a gelatine layer containing polymethyl methacrylate particles (particle size: about 1.5μ) In addition to the above described compositions, gelatine hardeners and surface active agents were added to each layer. Compounds used for producing samples: Sensitizing dye I: Anhydro-5,5'-dichloro-3,3'-di-(γ-sulfopropyl)-9-ethyl-thiacarbocyanine hydroxide pyridinium salt. Sensitizing dye II: Anhydro-9-ethyl-3,3'-di-(γ-sulfopropyl)-4,5,4',5'-dibenzothiacarbocyanine hydroxide triethylamine salt. Sensitizing dye III: Anhydro-9-ethyl-5,5'-dichloro-3,3'-di-(γ-sulfopropyl)oxacarbocyanine sodium salt. Sensitizing dye VI: Anhydro-5,6,5',6'-tetrachloro-1,1'-diethyl-3,3'-di-{β-[β-(.gamma.-sulfopropoxy)ethoxy]ethyl}-imidazolocarbocyanine hydroxide sodium salt. ##STR7## The above described sample was named Sample I. To the protective layer of the Sample I, emulsified dispersions (A), (B), (C), (D) and (E) used in Example 1 were added in a coating amount of 4.3 g/m 2 , respectively, to produce Samples II, III, IV, V and VI. Using these samples, a film property, an antiadhesive property and image sharpness were measured by the following methods, and results shown in Table 2 were obtained. (a) Film property After a strip of the sample was immersed in a color developing solution for processing CN-16 (produced by Fuji Photo Film Co.) at 25° C. for 5 minutes, it was scratched by means of a scratch strength tester equipped with a sapphire pin having a diameter of 0.1 mm to which a weight of 0 to 200 g was continuously applied, and film strength was examined by measuring the weight by which a scratch began to be made. (b) Antiadhesion test A sample was cut in a size of 35 square mm. After the strips were conditioned for 1 day under a condition of 25° C. and 90% RH in such a state that each of them did not contact one another, they were preserved in such a state that the emulsion face was in contact with the back face under a condition of 40° C. and 90% RH for 2 days while applying a weight of 500 g. The films taken out were separated and the % area of the adhesion part was measured. Valuations A-D are as follows. ______________________________________A On the basis of adhesion area 0-40%B " 40-60%C " 60-80%______________________________________ (c) Image sharpness Image sharpness was determined by obtaining a response function (Modulation transfer function; which is referred to as MTF, hereinafter) and comparing MTF values in a certain frequency. Measurement of MTF was carried out according to the method described in Masao Takano and Kunio Fujimura, Hihakaikensa, vol. 6, pages 472-482, (1967). Exposure was carried out by white light, and measurements in R, G, and B layers were carried out through red, green and blue filters, respectively. Development was carried out by the following processings. ______________________________________1. Color development 3 minutes and 15 seconds2. Bleaching 6 minutes and 30 seconds3. Water wash 3 minutes and 15 seconds4. Fixation 6 minutes and 30 seconds5. Water wash 3 minutes and 15 seconds6. Stabilization 3 minutes and 15 seconds______________________________________ Compositions of processing solutions used in each step were as follows. ______________________________________Color developing solution:Sodium nitrilotriacetate 1.0 gSodium sulfite 4.0 gSodium carbonate 30.0 gPotassium bromide 1.4 gHydroxylamine sulfate 2.4 g4-(N--ethyl-N--β-hydroxyethylamino)- 4.5 g2-methylaniline sulfateWater to make 1 literBleaching solution:Ammonium bromide 160.0 gAqueous ammonia solution (28%) 25.0 mlSodium ethylenediaminetetraacetato 130.0 giron complexGlacial acetic acid 14.0 mlWater to make 1 literFixing solution:Sodium tetrapolyphosphate 2.0 gSodium sulfite 4.0 gAmmonium thiosulfate (70%) 175.0 mlSodium bisulfite 4.6 gWater to make 1 literStabilizing solution:Formalin 8.0 mlWater to make 1 liter______________________________________ In Table 1, MTF values in a frequency of 20 per mm as shown. The value being larger means that reproduction of fine parts of images is more excellent, namely image sharpness is higher. TABLE 1______________________________________Samples II III IV V VI (This (This (Com- (Com- (Com-Examined I Inven- Inven- pari- pari- pari-Item (Blank) tion) tion) son) son) son)______________________________________Film 180 g 176 g 175 g 51 g 48 g 45 gstrengthAnti- A A A C C CadhesionMTFvalue (%)R 75 74 73 71 70 69G 83 81 80 78 77 76B 90 87 85 82 81 80______________________________________ The above described facts clearly show that the sensitive materials using the polymer ultraviolet ray absorbing agents of the present invention are greatly improved in film strength and antiadhesive strength as compared with monomers (5), (8) and (27), and they show excellent sharpness. Of course, since Sample I does not contain the ultraviolet ray absorbing agent, it can not be practically used because it has very inferior antistatic properties as compared with Samples II and III. EXAMPLE 3 In Examples 1 and 2, the ultraviolet ray absorbing polymers were emulsified to produce latexes. However, it is possible to add the ultraviolet ray absorbing agent directly to the protective layer as a latex prepared as described in Synthesis 5 and 6. Sample a was prepared by adding a compound of Synthesis 5 (referred to as compound (28)) into the same composition of the protective layer of Sample I in Example 2 and coating the resulting composition on a triacetyl cellulose base in a coating amount of compound (28) of 1.4 cc/m 2 . Sample b was prepared in the same manner as Sample a except that a compound of Synthesis 6 (referred to as compound (29)) was used in place of compound (28) in a coating amount of compound (29) of 1.6 cc/m 2 . Copolymer (31) of the following compound (30) and butyl acrylate (compound 30)/butyl acrylate=3/1, solid content: 7.32%) was prepared in the same manner as in Synthesis 5. Sample c was prepared in the same manner as Sample a except that the copolymer (31) was used in place of the compound (28) in a coating amount of copolymer (31) of 2.1 cc/m 2 . ##STR8## Compound (30) (monomer) was emulsified in the same manner as the emulsified dispersion (C) of Example 1 except that 29.7 g of the compound (30) (monomer) was used in place of 27.4 g of the monomer (8). The resulting emulsified dispersion was coated on a triacetyl cellulose base in a coating amount of 4.3 g/m 2 to produce Sample d. FIG. 2 indicates spectral absorption characteristics of Samples a, b, c and d. FIG. 2 clearly shows that the Samples a and b each have a sharp absorption characteristic in spite of being the polymer. On the contrary, in Sample c, the absorbance is low and has a broad absorption extending over a visible region. Further, the Sample I of the multicolor light-sensitive material in Example 2 and Samples VII, VIII, IX and X in which protective layers of a to d in this example were used instead of the protective layer in Sample I were compared. Exposure was carried out using white light in which UV rays of less than about 400 nm were cut by an ultraviolet ray absorbing filter. Relative sensitivities of each blue-sensitive layer are shown in Table 2. The results clearly show that the compounds (28) and (29) do not have reduced sensitivity in the visible region similarly to compound (30), but the compound (31) remarkably reduces the sensitivity of the blue-sensitive layer in the visible region. Further, the Samples X is inferior in film strength, antiadhesion and MTF value as compared with Samples VII and VIII, which is similar to Example 2. TABLE 2______________________________________ Sample VII VIII (This (This IX X I Inven- Inven- (Compar- (Compar-Examined Item (Blank) tion) tion) ison) ison)______________________________________Relative sensi- 100 100 100 74 100tivity of blue-sensitive layerFilm strength 180 g 178 g 177 g 178 g 43 gAntiadhesion A A A A CMTF value (%)R 75 75 75 75 70G 83 83 83 83 77B 90 89 89 89 80______________________________________ While the invention has been described in detail and with reference to specific embodiment thereof, it will be apparent to one skilled in the art that various changes and modifications can be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope thereof.

A silver halide photographic light-sensitive material is disclosed. The material is comprised of one or more light-sensitive silver emulsion layers and one or more light-insensitive layers. The silver halide layers or light-insensitive layers contain an ultraviolet ray absorbing polymer latex. The polymer latex is comprised of a homopolymer or copolymer having a repeating unit derived from monomers represented by the following general formula (I): ##STR1## wherein the substituents within a general formula (I) are defined within the specification. The polymer latex (I) contains a substituents Q which represents an ultraviolet ray absorbing group represented by the general formula (II): ##STR2## wherein R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , R 4 and R 5 each represents a hydrogen atom, a halogen atom, an alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, an aryl group having 6 to 20 carbon atoms, an alkoxy group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, an aryloxy group having 6 to 20 carbon atoms, an alkylthio group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, an arylthio group having 6 to 20 carbon atoms, an amino group, an alkylamino group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms, an arylamino group having 6 to 20 carbon atoms, a hydroxyl group, a cyano group, a nitro group, an acylamino group, a carbamoyl group, a sulfonyl group, a sulfamoyl group, a sulfonamide group, an acyloxy group or an oxycarbonyl group, and R 1 and R 2 , R 2 and R 3 , R 3 and R 4 or R 4 and R 5 may form a 5 to 6 member ring by ring closure; R 6 represents a hydrogen atom or an alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms; R 7 represents a cyano group, --COOR 9 , --CONHR 9 , --COR 9 or --SO 2 R 9 ; and R 8 represents a cyano group, --COOR 10 , --CONHR 10 , --COR 10 or --SO 2 R 10 ; wherein R 9 and R 10 each represents an alkyl group having 1 to 20 carbon atoms or an aryl group having 6 to 20 carbon atoms; wherein one of R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , R 4 , R 5 , R 6 , R 7 and R 8 bonds to the vinyl group through the linking group. The photographic material which includes the polymer latex of the invention has excellent absorption characteristics in the 300 to 400 nm range and does not cause static marks caused by ultraviolet rays. Furthermore, the material does not undergo deterioration of color reproduction and fading or discoloration of color images caused by light.

RELATED APPLICATIONS This is a U.S. national stage of application No. PCT/DE2009/000727, filed on May 27, 2009. This application claims the priority of German application no. 10 2008 025 260.3 filed May 27, 2008, the entire content of which is hereby incorporated by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a halogenated polysilane as a pure compound or mixture of compounds each having at least one direct Si—Si bond, whose substituents consist exclusively of halogen or of halogen and hydrogen and in whose composition the atomic ratio substituent:silicon is greater than 1:1. Such chlorinated polysilanes (PCS) are known, for example, from: DE 10 2005 024 041 A1; DE 10 2006 034 061 A1; WO 2008/031427 A2; WO 81/03168; US 2005/0142046 A1; M. Schmeisser, P. Voss “Über das Siliciumdichlorid [SiCl 2 ] x ” [Concerning silicon dichloride [SiCl 2 ] x ], Z. anorg. allg. Chem. (1964) 334, 50-56; US2007/0078252A1; DE 31 26 240 C2; GB 702,349; R. Schwarz and H. Meckbach “Über ein Siliciumchlorid der Formel Si 10 Cl 22 ” [Concerning a silicon chloride of the formula Si 10 Cl 22 ], Z. anorg. allg. Chem. (1937) 232, 241-248. They can be prepared, on the one hand, by means of a purely thermal reaction, such as described, for example, in M. Schmeisser, P. Voss “Über das Siliciumdichlorid [SiCl 2 ] x ”, Z. anorg. allg. Chem. (1964) 334, 50-56 (Schmeisser 1964), by heating vaporous halosilanes with a reducing agent (Si, H 2 ) to relatively high temperatures (>700° C.). The halogenated polysilanes obtained are slightly greenish yellow-colored, glassy and highly polymeric. Furthermore, the literature mixture is strongly contaminated with AlCl 3 due to the preparation. In R. Schwarz and H. Meckbach “Über ein Siliciumchlorid der Formel Si 10 Cl 22 ”, Z. anorg. allg. Chem. (1937) 232, 241-248, a silicon chloride having the composition Si 10 Cl 22 is further presented, which was obtained by reaction of SiCl 4 with silicon carbide at 1050° C. The authors describe it as a highly viscous oil with a molar mass of 1060 g/mol. Similar results are described by P. W. Schenk and Helmuth Eloching “Darstellung und Eigenschaften des Siliciumdichlorids (SiCl 2 ) x [Preparation and properties of silicon dichloride (SiCl 2 ) x ]”, Z. anorg. allg. Chem. (1964) 334, 57-65, who obtain products with molar masses of 1250 (Si 12 Cl 24 ) to 1580 (Si 16 Cl 32 ) g/mol as colorless to yellow, viscous to resin-like, cyclic substances. In R. Schwarz and U. Gregor “Über ein Siliciumchlorid der Formel SiCl” [Concerning a silicon chloride of the formula SiCl], Z. anorg. allg. Chem. (1939) 241, 395-415 a PCS of the composition SiCl is reported. This is completely insoluble. In J. R. Koe, D. R. Powell, J. J. Buffy, S. Hayase, R. West, Angew. Chem. 1998, 110, 1514-1515, a PCS (cream-white solid) is described, which is formed by ring-opening polymerization of Si 4 Cl 8 and is insoluble in all customary solvents. In Harald Schafer and Julius Nickl “Über das Reaktions-gleichgewicht Si+SiCl 4 =2SiCl 2 und die thermo-chemischen Eigenschaften des gasformigen Silicium(II)-chlorids” [Concerning the reaction equilibrium Si+SiCl 4 =2SiCl 2 and the thermochemical properties of gaseous silicon (II) chloride], Z. anorg. allg. Chem. (1953) 274, 250-264 and in R. Teichmann and E. Wolf “Experimentelle Untersuchung des Reaktions-gleichgewichtes SiCl 4 (g)+Si(f)=2SiCl 2 (g) nach der Strömungsmethode”, [Experimental investigation of the reaction equilibrium SiCl 4 (g)+Si(f)=2SiCl 2 (g) according to the flow method], Z. anorg. allg. Chem. (1966) 347, 145-155, thermodynamic investigations on the reaction of SiCl 4 with Si are carried out. PCS is not isolated or described here. In GB 702,349, the reaction of chlorine gas with calcium silicide in a fluidized bed at most 250° C. to give lower perchlorooligosilanes is described. The mixtures formed here are unbranched on account of the low temperature, contain no cyclic PCS and consist of about 80% Si 2 Cl 6 and Si 3 Cl 8 in addition to 11% Si 4 Cl 10 and small amounts of Si 5 Cl 12 and Si 6 Cl 14 . The mixtures of these compounds are colorless liquids, contain no cycles and are contaminated by CaCl 2 due to the process. DE 31 26 240 C2 describes the wet-chemical preparation of PCS from Si 2 Cl 6 by reaction with a catalyst. The mixtures obtained still contain the catalyst and are therefore washed with organic solvents, whereby traces of the reactants, the solvents and the catalyst remain. Moreover, these PCSs contain no cyclic compounds. Further wet-chemical processes are presented in US2007/0078252A1: 1. Halogenated aryloligosilanes to be reduced with sodium and subsequently to be cleaved with HCl/AlCl 3 aromatics. 2. Transition metal-catalyzed dehydrogenating polymerization of arylated H-silanes and subsequent dearylation with HCl/AlCl 3 . 3. Anionically catalyzed ring-opening polymerization (ROP) of (SiCl 2 ) 5 with TBAF (Bu 4 NF). 4. ROP of (SiAr 2 ) 5 with TBAF or Ph 3 SiK and subsequent dearylation with HCl/AlCl 3 . In all these methods, PCSs contaminated with solvent/catalyst are in turn obtained, of which only the distillable fractions can be effectively purified. No product mixture of high purity can therefore be obtained from the above reactions. It is further known to prepare such halogenated polysilanes via a plasma-chemical process. For example, DE 10 2005 024 041 A1 relates to a process for the preparation of silicon from halosilanes, in which the halosilane is reacted in a first step with generation of a plasma discharge to give a halogenated polysilane, which is subsequently decomposed in a second step with heating to give silicon. This known process is carried out at high energy densities (>10 Wcm −3 ) with respect to plasma generation, the end product being a not very compact waxy-white to yellow-brownish or brown solid. Spectroscopic investigations have shown that the final product obtained has a relatively large degree of cross-linking. The high energy densities used lead to products of high molar masses, wherefrom insolubility and low fusibility result. Moreover, this PCS also has a significant hydrogen content. Furthermore, a high-pressure plasma process for the synthesis of HSiCl 3 is described in WO 81/03168, in which PCSs are obtained as minor by-products. Since these PCSs are obtained under hydrogenating conditions (HSiCl 3 synthesis!), they have a significant hydrogen content. In US 2005/0142046 A1, a PCS preparation by silent electric discharge in SiCl 4 at normal pressure is described. In this process, only short-chain oligosilanes result, as the author shows by example of the selective reaction of SiH 4 to give Si 2 H 6 and Si 3 H 8 by connecting several reactors one after the other. The behavior is analogous in DE 10 2006 034 061 A1, where a similar reaction is described in which gaseous and liquid PCSs are obtained with Si 2 Cl 6 as the main constituent (p. 3, [0016]). Although the authors describe that the molar masses of the PCSs can be increased by use of several reactors connected one after the other, only material can be obtained here that can be brought into the gas phase undecomposed. The authors also express this situation in the claims, in which they provide for distillations for all PCS mixtures obtained. Furthermore, the PCSs mentioned in DE 10 2006 034 061 A1 are hydrogen-containing. Besides chlorinated polysilanes, further halogenated polysilanes Si x H y (X═F, Br, I) are also known in the prior art. According to F. Höfler, R. Jannach, Monatshefte für Chemie 107 (1976) 731-735, Si 3 F 8 can be prepared from Si 3 (OMe) 8 with BF 3 in a closed tube at −50 to −60° C. (8 h) in yields of 55-60%. The methoxyisotetrasilane is completely degraded to shorter perfluorosilanes under these conditions. E. Hengge, G. Olbrich, Monatshefte für Chemie 101 (1970) 1068-1073 describes the preparation of a 2-dimensionally built polymer (SiF) x . The 2-dimensionally constructed polymers (SiCl) x and (SiBr) x are obtained from CaSi 2 by reaction with ICl or IBr. A halogen exchange is then completed with SbF 3 . However, partial degradation of the Si layer structure occurs here. The resulting product contains the amount of CaCl 2 specified stoichiometrically from CaSi, which cannot be washed out. The preparation of polyfluorosilane (SiF 2 ) x is described, for example, in M. Schmeisser, Angewandte Chemie 66 (1954) 713-714. SiBr 2 F 2 reacts with magnesium in ether at room temperature to give a yellow, highly polymeric (SiF 2 ) x . Compounds such as Si 10 Cl 22 , (SiBr) x and Si 10 Br 16 can be transhalogenated with ZnF 2 to give the corresponding fluorides. R. L. Jenkins, A. J. Vanderwielen, S. P. Ruis, S. R. Gird, M. A. Ring, Inorganic Chemistry 12 (1973) 2968-2972 report that Si 2 F 6 decomposes at 405° C. to give SiF 4 and SiF 2 . By condensation of this intermediate, (SiF 2 ) x can be obtained. The standard method for the production of (SiF 2 ) x is illustrated, for example, in P. L. Timms, R. A. Kent, T. C. Ehlert, J. L. Margrave, Journal of the American Chemical Society 87 (1965) 2824-2828. Here, (SiF 2 ) x is produced by passing SiF 4 over silicon at 1150° C. and 0.1-0.2 torr and freezing out the resulting SiF 2 at −196° C. with polymerization during the subsequent thawing. The colorless to slightly yellow plastic polymer melts on warming to 200-350° C. in vacuo and releases perfluorinated silanes from SiF 4 to at least Si 14 F 30 . A silicon-rich polymer (SiF) x remains, which decomposes vigorously at 400±10° C. to give SiF 4 and Si. The lower perfluoropolysilanes are colorless liquids or crystalline solids that are isolable by fractional condensation in purities of >95%. Traces of secondary or tertiary amines catalyze the polymerization of the perfluorooligosilanes. U.S. Pat. No. 2,840,588 discloses that SiF 2 is formed at <50 torr and >1100° C. from SiF 4 and Si, SiC, silicon alloys or metal silicides. For the isolation of (SiF 2 ) x , the intermediate must be cooled rapidly to <0° C. G. P. Adams, K. G. Sharp, P. W. Wilson, J. L. Margrave, Journal of Chemical Thermodynamics 2 (1970) 439-443 describe that (SiF 2 ) x is prepared from SiF 4 and Si at 1250° C. In a similar manner, according to U.S. Pat. No. 4,070,444 A (SiF 2 ) x is prepared by reaction of a perfluorosilane with metallurgical silicon and subsequent deposition of the SiF 2 . Thermolysis of the polymer releases elemental silicon of higher purity than the starting material. The process disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,138,509 A likewise serves for purification. Silicon that contains aluminum as an impurity is reacted with SiF 4 in the presence of SiO 2 at temperatures >1100° C. in order to produce SiF 2 . A condensation of the product gas in two stages leads to the selective deposition of the gaseous impurities in a first fraction, while the second fraction consists of largely pure (SiF 2 ) x . Thermal decomposition of the polymer at 100-300° C. produces gaseous and liquid perfluorinated silanes, which are then decomposed to give silicon at 400-950° C. FI 82232 B discloses a reaction at even higher temperature. SiF 4 reacts with Si in an Ar plasma flame to give SiF 2 (0.8:1 mol, 70% SiF 2 content). Short-chain perbrominated polysilanes are formed according to A. Besson, L. Fournier, Comptes rendus 151 (1911) 1055-1057. An electrical discharge in gaseous HSiBr 3 produces SiBr 4 , Si 2 Br 6 , Si 3 Br 8 and Si 4 Br 10 . K. Hassler, E. Hengge, D. Kovar, Journal of molecular structure 66 (1980) 25-30 prepare cyclo-Si 4 Br 8 by reaction of (SiPh 2 ) 4 with HBr under AlBr 3 catalysis. In H. Stüger, P. Lassacher, E. Hengge, Zeitschrift für allgemeine and anorganische Chemie 621 (1995) 1517-1522, Si 5 Br 9 H is reacted by boiling with Hg(tBu 2 ) in heptane to give the corresponding bis-cyclopenta-silane Si 10 Br 18 . Alternatively, a ring linkage of Si 5 Ph 9 Br with naphthyllithium or K or Na/K in various solvents can take place with subsequent halogenation with HBr/AlBr 3 . Perbrominated polysilanes are described, for example, in M. Schmeisser, M. Schwarzmann, Zeitschrift für Naturforschung 11b (1956) 278-282. In the reaction of Mg turnings with SiBr 4 in boiling ether two phases are formed, the lower of which consists of magnesium bromide etherate and (SiBr) x , while the upper phase contains MgBr 2 dissolved in ether and small amounts of lower silicon sub-bromides. (SiBr) x can be purified by washing with ether. The reaction of SiBr 4 vapor with Si at 1200° C. and in vacuo produces brown, brittle (SiBr 2 ) x . The hydrolysis-sensitive substance is readily soluble in benzene and most non-polar solvents. In vacuo, the polymer decomposes from 200° C. with elimination of Si 2 Br 6 . At 350° C. (SiBr) x remains; further warming to 550-600° C. leads to elemental silicon. It is presumed on the basis of the good solubility that (SiBr 2 ) x consists of Si rings of restricted size. The molecular weight determination of about 3000 appears unreliable. (SiBr 2 ) x reacts with Mg in ether to give (SiBr 1.46 ) x . DE 955414 B likewise discloses a reaction at high temperature. If SiBr 4 or Br 2 vapor is passed through silicon grit in vacuo at 1000-1200° C., mainly (SiBr 2 ) x results in addition to some Si 2 Br 6 . According to M. Schmeisser, Angewandte Chemie 66 (1954) 713-714, in addition to (SiBr) x also Si 2 Br 6 and further oligosilanes such as Si 10 Br 16 are formed by action of SiBr 4 on elemental Si at 1150° C. In US 2007/0078252 A1, the ring-opening polymerization of cyclo-Si 5 Br 10 and cyclo-Si 5 I 10 by action of Bu 4 NF in THF or DME is claimed. For example, E. Hengge, D. Kovar, Angewandte Chemie 93 (1981) 698-701 or K. Hassler, U. Katzenbeisser, Journal of organometallic chemistry 480 (1994) 173-175 report on the production of short-chain periodinated polysilanes. By reaction of the phenylcyclosilanes (SiPh 2 ) n (n=4−6) or of Si 3 Ph 8 with HI under AlI 3 catalysis, the periodinated cyclosilanes (SiI 2 ) n (n=4−6) or Si 3 I 8 result. M. Schmeisser, K. Friederich, Angewandte Chemie 76 (1964) 782 describe various routes for the preparation of periodinated polysilanes. (SiI 2 ) x results in about 1% yield on passing SiI 4 vapor over elemental silicon at 800-900° C. in a high vacuum. The pyrolysis of SiI 4 under the same conditions yields the same very hydrolysis-sensitive and benzene-soluble product. On the action of a glow discharge on SiI 4 vapors in a high vacuum, a solid, amorphous, yellow-reddish silicon sub-iodide of the composition (SiI 2.2 ) x insoluble in all customary solvents is obtained with a yield of 60 to 70% (based on SiI 4 ). The pyrolysis of this substance at 220 to 230° C. in a high vacuum leads to a dark-red (SiI 2 ) x , simultaneously forming SiI 4 and Si 2 I 6 . The chemical properties of the compounds (SiI 2 ) x thus obtained coincide—except for the solubility in benzene. The pyrolysis of (SiI 2 ) x at 350° C. in a high vacuum affords SiI 4 , Si 2 I 6 and an orange-red, brittle solid of the composition (SiI) x (SiI 2 ) x reacts with chlorine or bromine between −30° C. and +25° C. to give benzene-soluble mixed silicon sub-halides such as (SiClI) x and (SiBrI) x . At higher temperatures, the Si—Si chains are cleaved by chlorine or bromine with simultaneous complete substitution of the iodine. Compounds of the type Si n X 2n+2 (n=2-6 for X=Cl, n=2-5 for X=Br) are obtained. (SiI 2 ) x reacts completely with iodine at 90 to 120° C. in a bomb tube to give SiI 4 and Si 2 I 6 . BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention is based on the object of creating a halogenated polysilane of the type indicated, which is particularly readily soluble and fusible. Furthermore, a process for the preparation of such a halogenated polysilane is to be provided. This object is achieved according to the invention with a halogenated polysilane of the type indicated in that the polysilane consists of rings and chains with a high proportion of branching sites which, based on the total product mixture, is greater than 1%, has a R AMAN molecular vibration spectrum of I 100 /I 132 <1, where I 100 denotes the Raman intensity at 100 cm −1 and I 132 denotes the Raman intensity at 132 cm −1 , and in the 29 Si NMR spectra has its significant product signals in the chemical shift range from +23 ppm to −13 ppm, from −18 ppm to −33 ppm and from −73 ppm to −93 ppm. The 29 Si NMR spectra were recorded on a 250 MHz apparatus of the Bruker DPX 250 type with the pulse sequence zg30 and referenced against tetramethylsilane (TMS) as the external standard [δ( 29 Si)=0.0]. The acquisition parameters here are: TD=32 k, AQ=1.652 s, D1=10 s, NS=2400, O1P=−40, SW=400. The R AMAN molecular vibration spectra were determined with an XY 800 spectrometer from Dilor with adjustable laser excitation (T-sapphire laser, pumped by Ar ion laser) and confocal Raman and luminescence microscope, with liquid nitrogen-cooled CCD detector, measuring temperature equal to room temperature, excitation wavelengths in the visible spectral range, inter alia 514.53 nm and 750 nm. The halogenated polysilane formed according to the invention is prepared using considerably “milder” conditions, than described, for example, in [Schmeisser 1964]. This means that the reaction is carried out at lower temperature and elevated pressure, whereby an excess of SiX 4 (X=halogen) is present in the gas phase, with which the SiX 2 formed can react with insertion into the Si—X bonds. By means of this, the degree of polymerization of the SiX 2 is reduced, whereby a liquid and better-soluble product results. Moreover, the conversion rate is increased, whereby a technical preparation process is obtained. The polysilane has a slight coloration from dull-yellow to yellowish-light brown and is not glassy and highly polymeric, but oily to viscous, which shows that the degree of polymerization is considerably lower. The polysilane is a complex substance mixture with average molar masses of up to about 900 g/mol. The degree of branching was determined by 29 Si NMR spectroscopy. It was discovered here that the halogenated polysilanes prepared using the process according to the invention have a high content of branched short-chain and cyclic compounds, their branching sites having a content in the total mixture of more than 1%. The branchings in the 29 Si NMR are seen here in a range from δ=−18 to −33 ppm and δ=−73 to −93 ppm. In standard 29 Si NMR spectra of the polysilanes according to the invention clear resonances are seen in these regions. The high content of branched polysilanes is thus related to the fact that the latter are thermodynamically more favorable than halogenated polysilanes having unbranched chains and therefore preferably result in the thermal reaction that proceeds near to the thermodynamic equilibrium. The content of cyclosilanes was also determined by 29 Si NMR spectroscopy and additionally by R AMAN spectroscopy (see below), where it was seen that a relatively high content of cyclic molecules is present. The halogenated polysilanes formed according to the invention further have a R AMAN molecular vibration spectrum of I 100 /I 132 <1. In particular, weak Raman signals in the range from 95-110 cm −1 occur in the low frequency range, while in the range 120-135 cm −1 significantly stronger Raman intensities were measured. For explanation of this, attention may be called to the following. Theoretical quantum mechanical calculations for cyclic halogenated polysilanes show, inter alia, intensive characteristic vibration modes of between 120 cm −1 and 135 cm −1 . Such calculations for linear halogenated polysilanes, however, show no distinctive modes in this range. The lowest frequency, intensive modes of the linear compounds, however, shift with increasing chain lengths to smaller wavelengths. In the mixture of halogenated polysilanes, they appear as RAMAN bands between 95 and 110 cm −1 . In this way, a conclusion about the content of cyclic and linear molecules can be made from the I 100 /I 132 criterion. The halogenated polysilane according to the invention is further distinguished in that it is completely soluble in many inert solvents, such that it can easily be removed from a reactor used for the preparation. The halogenated polysilane formed according to the invention can in particular be dissolved readily in inert solvents, such as SiCl 4 , benzene, toluene, paraffin etc, namely both at room temperature and also in cold and warm or boiling solvents. This is in contrast to the halogenated polysilane prepared according to the publication mentioned above (DE 10 2005 024 041 A1), that is not soluble at all in such solvents or can only be dissolved to a small extent. The halogenated polysilane is preferably characterized in that its substituents consist exclusively of halogen. The halogenated polysilane formed according to the invention preferably has a high content of branched chains and rings. It is oily to viscous without exception. The halogenated polysilane according to the invention is intrinsically clean on use of correspondingly pure starting materials and consists only of Si and X (X=halogen). To a considerable extent, the halogenated polysilanes according to the invention are further not volatile even under vacuum and decompose if it is attempted to distil them. The halogenated polysilane formed according to one embodiment of the invention further differs compared to the plasma-chemically prepared polysilane of the said prior art (DE 10 2005 024 041 A1) in that the polysilane crude mixture prepared has a lower average chain length of n=3−9. Finally, the plasma-chemically prepared halogenated polysilane of the prior art has a higher melting temperature than the halogenated polysilane according to the invention. A further distinguishing criterion compared to the prior art (DE 10 2005 024 041 A1; DE 10 2006 034 061 A1; WO 2008/031427 A2; WO 81/03168) consists in the fact that the halogenated polysilane according to the invention contains no hydrogen substituents. The polysilane according to the invention is further highly pure with respect to catalyst and solvent contamination on account of its preparation in a high temperature symproportionation process, which is a further distinguishing feature to the wet-chemical process for the preparation of polysilanes, since in the latter process traces of solvents and metal salt-like reagents always remain in the product. The invention relates in particular to a chlorinated polysilane. The abovementioned object is further achieved by a process for the preparation of halogenated polysilane of the type described above by reacting halosilane with silicon at high temperatures, which is characterized in that the reaction is carried out with an excess of halosilane with respect to the dihalosilylene (SiX 2 ) formed in the reactor. This can take place, for example, by adjusting the retention time of the halosilane in a silicon packed bed used to the grain size of the silicon used. The working pressure compared to the prior art (smaller than 10 −3 hPa, Schmeisser 1964) is further preferably significantly increased (0.1-1000 hPa) in order to increase the probability of active collisions of the SiX 2 formed with SiX 4 in the gas phase, whereby polymerization of the SiX 2 formed by wall reactions is suppressed. By means of this measure on the one hand the formation of a highly polymeric, glassy, slightly green-yellow solid described in the literature (Schmeisser 1964) is suppressed and on the other hand the conversion rate to the polysilanes according to the invention is significantly increased (greater than 4 times) compared to the prior art. A further differentiating feature is the lower average molar mass of the polysilanes of 300-900 g/mol compared to 1600-1700 g/mol in Schmeisser 1964. As far as the temperature of the reactor in which the process according to the invention is carried out is concerned, the reactor parts on which the halogenated polysilane is deposited are preferably kept at a temperature of −70° C. to 300° C., in particular −20° C. to 280° C. Generally, the temperature of the deposition zone is kept relatively low in order to avoid the formation of Si. Using the process according to the invention, molecular mixtures with average molar masses of 300-900 g/mol can be prepared. A particularly preferred halogenated polysilane according to the invention are the perchloro-polysilanes (PCS). For the process according to the invention, all energy sources that can bring the reactor to the necessary reaction temperatures, for example electrical resistance heating, gas burners or solar furnaces (concave mirror), can be used for carrying out the reaction. Electrical resistance heating is preferably used, since a very accurate temperature control is possible with this. A halosilane is used as a starting substance for the process according to the invention. A halosilane within the meaning of the process according to the invention is designated as compounds of the type SiX 4 (X═F, C1, Br, I) and their mixtures, it also being possible to employ halosilanes with mixed halogen substitution. The gas mixture (halosilane(s)) used in the process according to the invention can additionally be diluted by an inert gas and/or contain admixtures which favor product formation. The admixture of inert gases, however, is not compulsory in the process according to the invention. In the process according to the invention, fluorosilanes or chlorosilanes are preferably employed as the halosilane. A particularly preferred starting compound is SiCl 4 . The halogenated polysilane according to the invention can also contain halogen substituents from several different halogens. In the process according to the invention, halosilanes with mixed halogen substitution can also be employed. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows the 29 Si NMR spectra of a chlorinated polysilane made by Example 1. FIG. 2 shows a Raman molecular vibration spectrum of a chlorinated polysilane. FIG. 3 shows the 29 Si NMR spectra of a chlorinated polysilane made by Example 2. FIG. 4 shows the 29 Si NMR spectra of a chlorinated polysilane made by Example 3. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Working Example 1 210 g of SiCl 4 are led in vapor form into an evacuated quartz glass tube, which is conducted at a gradient of about 30° through a furnace, and the SiCl 4 vapor is led through a 20 cm long silicon packed bed heated to 1200° C., the process pressure being kept at about 1 hPa. After leaving the heated zone, the product mixture is condensed on the quartz glass walls cooled to 20° C. and mostly drains into a receiver flask cooled to −196° C. After 6 h, the viscous red-brown product is removed from the reactor by dissolving in a little SiCl 4 and filtered. After removing the SiCl 4 in vacuo, about 80 g of chlorinated polysilane remain in the form of a red-brown viscous liquid. The typical 29 Si NMR shifts and the high content of various, short-chain branched compounds, e.g. decachloroisotetrasilane (inter alia δ=−32 ppm), dodecachloroneopentasilane (inter alia δ=−80 ppm) (these signals occur in the shift region at (3), which is typical for signals of SiCl groups (tertiary Si atoms), and (4), which is typical for signals of Si groups with exclusively Si substituents (quaternary Si atoms)), are apparent on the basis of the following spectrum ( FIG. 1 ). By integration of the 29 Si NMR spectra, it is seen that the content of silicon atoms that form said branching sites (tertiary and quaternary Si atoms) of the short-chain fraction, based on the total product mixture, is 1.8 mass % and is thus >1 mass. The chemical shifts in the 29 Si NMR spectra at +23 ppm to −13 ppm ((1) and (2)) show signals of SiCl 3 (end groups) and SiCl 2 groups (unbranched chain or cycle sections), the signals in the range from −18 ppm to −33 ppm ((3)) show signals of SiCl groups and of the solvent SiCl 4 (about −19.6 ppm), as they are present, for example, in decachloroisotetrasilane, and the signals in the range from −73 ppm to −93 ppm are to be attributed to quaternary Si atoms of the chlorinated polysilanes, as they are present, for example, in dodecachloroneopentasilane. The average molar mass is determined by cryoscopy to be about 973 g/mol, which corresponds to the chlorinated polysilane (SiCl 2 ) n or Si n Cl 2n+2 obtained having an average chain length of about n=10 for (SiCl 2 ) n or about n=9 for Si n Cl 2n+2 . The ratio of Si to Cl in the product mixture is determined after decomposition by chloride titration according to M OHR to be Si:C1=1:2.1 (corresponds to the empirical (analytical) formula SiCl 2.1 ). The signal at about −19.6 ppm originates from the solvent tetrachlorosilane. Low molecular weight cyclosilanes can be detected in the mixtures by R AMAN spectroscopy by means of intensive bands in the region of 132 cm −1 . Indications of the presence of cyclosilanes are also found in the 29 Si NMR spectra by the signals at δ=−1.6 ppm (Si 5 Cl 10 ) and δ=−2.7 ppm (Si 6 Cl 12 ). A typical R AMAN molecular vibration spectrum of the chlorinated polysilane is shown below ( FIG. 2 ). The spectrum has a ratio I 100 /I 132 of <1, i.e., the Raman intensity at 132 cm −1 (I 132 ) is clearly higher than that at 100 cm −1 (I 100 ). For comparison, the spectrum of a plasma-chemically produced polysilane mixture and the calculated spectrum of cyclic tetrasilane (octachlorocyclotetrasilane, Si 4 Cl 8 ) are shown, where in the case of the plasma-chemically produced polysilane mixture the ratio changes to I 100 /I 132 >1. This chart also shows by way of example the section of a theoretical curve (red). Here, the quantum chemically-calculated modes [Hohenberg P, Kohn W, 1964. Phys. Rev. B136:864-71; Kohn W, Sham L J. 1965. Phys. Rev. A 140:1133-38, W. Koch and M. C. Holthausen, A Chemist's Guide to Density Functional Theory, Wiley, Weinheim, 2nd edn., 2000] are fitted using a multi-Lorentz peak function, which simulates, for example, the experimental spectral resolution. With respect to the absolute intensity, the theoretical curve was standardized such that it fitted well into the chart for illustration. The relative intensities of the peaks in theory originate directly from the first principle calculation. It should thus be shown that certain intensities are typical of cyclic oligosilanes. Working Example 2 158 g of SiCl 4 are led in vapor form into an evacuated quartz glass tube, which is conducted at a gradient of about 30° through a furnace, and the SiCl 4 vapor is led through a 10 cm long silicon packed bed heated to 1200° C., the process pressure being kept at about 5 hPa. After leaving the heated zone, the product mixture is condensed on the cooled quartz glass walls and partly drains into a cooled receiver flask. After 3 hours, the viscous yellow-brownish product is removed from the reactor by dissolving in a little SiCl 4 and filtered. After removing the SiCl 4 in vacuo, 27 g of chlorinated polysilane remain in the form of a slightly yellow viscous liquid. The typical 29 Si NMR shifts and the high content of various, short-chain branched compounds, e.g. decachloroisotetrasilane (inter alia δ=−32 ppm), dodecachloroneopentasilane (inter alia δ=−80 ppm) (these signals occur in the shift range at (3), which is typical for signals of SiCl groups (tertiary Si atoms), and (4), which is typical for signals of Si groups with exclusively Si substituents (quaternary Si atoms)), are apparent with the aid of the following spectrum ( FIG. 3 ). By integration of the 29 Si NMR spectra, it is seen that the content of silicon atoms that form said branching sites (tertiary and quaternary Si atoms) of the short-chain fraction, based on the total product mixture, is 2.1 mass % and is thus greater than 1 mass %. The chemical shifts in the 29 Si NMR spectra at +23 ppm to −13 ppm ((1) and (2)) show signals of SiCl 3 (end groups) and SiCl 2 groups (unbranched chain or cycle sections), the signals in the range from −18 ppm to −33 ppm ((3)) show signals of SiCl groups and of the solvent SiCl 4 (about −19.6 ppm), as they are present, for example, in decachloroisotetrasilane, and the signals in the range from −73 ppm to −93 ppm are to be attributed to quaternary Si atoms of the chlorinated polysilanes, as they are present, for example, in dodecachloroneopentasilane. After removal of readily volatile oligosilanes in vacuo, the average molar mass is determined by cryoscopy to be about 795 g/mol, which corresponds for the chlorinated polysilane (SiCl 2 ) n or Si n Cl 2n+2 to an average chain length of about n=8 for (SiCl 2 ) n or about n=7 for Si n Cl 2n+2 . The ratio of Si to Cl in the product mixture is determined after decomposition by chloride titration according to MOHR to be Si:Cl=1:2 (corresponds to the empirical (analytical) formula SiCl 2 ). The signal at about −19.6 ppm originates from the solvent tetrachlorosilane. Low molecular weight cyclosilanes could be detected in the mixtures by R AMAN spectroscopy by means of intensive bands in the region of 132 cm −1 . The signals at δ=−1.6 ppm (Si 5 Cl 10 ) and δ=−2.7 ppm (Si 6 Cl 12 ) show the presence of cyclosilanes in the 29 Si NMR spectra. Working Example 3 125 g of SiCl 4 are added dropwise to a quartz glass tube, which is conducted at a gradient of about 30° through a furnace, evaporated and the SiCl 4 vapor is led through a 10 cm long silicon packed bed heated to 1200° C., the process pressure being kept constant at about 1013 hPa. After leaving the heated zone, the product gas mixture is condensed on the quartz glass walls cooled to 20° C. and mostly drains into a receiver flask cooled to 0° C. After 4 h 30 min, the brownish product is removed from the reactor by dissolving in a little SiCl 4 and filtered. After removing the SiCl 4 in vacuo, 10 g of chlorinated polysilane remain in the form of a slightly yellow oily liquid. The typical 29 Si NMR shifts and the content of various, short-chain branched compounds, e.g. decachloroisotetrasilane (inter alia δ=−32 ppm), dodecachloroneopentasilane (inter alia δ=−80 ppm) (these signals occur in the shift region at (3), which is typical for signals of SiCl groups (tertiary Si atoms), and (4), which is typical for signals of Si groups with exclusively Si substituents (quaternary Si atoms)), are apparent on the basis of the following spectrum ( FIG. 4 ). By integration of the 29 Si NMR spectra, it is seen that the content of silicon atoms that form said branching sites (tertiary and quaternary Si atoms) of the short-chain fraction, based on the total product mixture, is 1.1 mass % and is thus greater than 1 mass %. The chemical shifts in the 29 Si NMR spectrum at +23 ppm to −13 ppm ((1) and (2)) show signals of SiCl 3 (end groups) and SiCl 2 groups (unbranched chain or cycle sections), the signals in the range from −18 ppm to −33 ppm ((3)) show signals of SiCl groups, as they are present, for example, in decachloroisotetrasilane, and the signals in the range from −73 ppm to −93 ppm are to be attributed to quaternary Si atoms of the chlorinated polysilanes, as they are present, for example, in dodecachloroneopentasilane. The average molar mass is determined by cryoscopy to be about 315 g/mol, which corresponds for the chlorinated polysilane (SiCl 2 ) n or Si n Cl 2n+2 to an average chain length of about n=3.2 for (SiCl 2 ) n or about n=2.4 for Si n Cl 2n+2 . The ratio of Si to Cl in the product mixture is determined after decomposition by chloride titration according to M OHR to be Si:C1=1:2.8 (corresponds to the empirical (analytical) formula SiCl 2.8 ). The signal in the 29 Si NMR spectrum at about −46 ppm originates from the solvent hexachloro-disiloxane.

The present invention relates to a halogenated polysilane as a pure compound or mixture of compounds each having at least one direct Si—Si bond, whose substituents consist exclusively of halogen or of halogen and hydrogen and in whose composition the atomic ratio substituent:silicon is greater than 1:1.

BACKGROUND 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to mounting apparatuses, and more particularly to a mounting apparatus for a storage device. 2. Description of Related Art An electronic apparatus, such as a typical desktop computer, a tower computer, a server, and the like, usually includes storage devices, such as hard disk drives, compact disk read-only memory (CD-ROM) drives, digital video disc (DVD) drives, floppy disk drives, and the like. These devices are typically added to increase the functionality of the electronic apparatus as desired by a user. However, the installation of such devices in the electronic apparatus is labor-intensive. The installation of a hard disk drive in a computer typically involves the use of screws to attach the hard disk drive to a bracket of a computer chassis. However, these screws are usually too small and difficult to handle. Additionally, because of their small size, the screws are easily dropped, by an assembler, into the computer. To address the aforementioned problems, a plurality of mounting apparatuses is invented to reduce the number of needed screws. For example, a pair of detachable rails is attached to opposite sides of a storage device with screws. The storage device is then slid into and secured to a drive bracket. However, the screws have to be removed to detach the rails from the storage device before replacing the storage device. What is needed, therefore, is a mounting apparatus which facilitates convenient and secure mounting of a storage device in a bracket. SUMMARY An exemplary mounting apparatus for a storage device includes a bracket configured for receiving the storage device and including a sidewall defining a through hole therein, a latching member pivotally mounted to the bracket and including a latching protrusion extending through the through hole of the bracket for fixing the storage device, a rotating mechanism connected between the bracket and the latching member to enable the latching member to rotate relative to the bracket, and an elastic member connected between the bracket and the latching member for urging the latching member toward the side wall of the bracket. Other advantages and novel features of the present invention will become more apparent from the following detailed description of an embodiment when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING FIG. 1 is an exploded, isometric view of a mounting apparatus with a storage device in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, the mounting apparatus including two latching members; FIG. 2 is an enlarged isometric view of the latch member of FIG. 1 , but viewed from another aspect; FIG. 3 is an assembled, partial, side elevational view of FIG. 1 ; and FIG. 4 is a top plan view of FIG. 3 . DETAILED DESCRIPTION Referring to FIG. 1 , a mounting apparatus for a storage device is provided in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. The mounting apparatus is used for fixing a storage device 10 defining two spaced assembly holes 12 , and includes a bracket 20 for receiving the storage device 10 , and two fixing assemblies. Each fixing assembly includes a latching member 80 , a shaft 90 , and an elastic member. In this embodiment, the elastic member is a torsion spring 70 . The bracket 20 includes a top wall 21 , a bottom wall 22 , and a pair of sidewalls 24 connecting the top wall 21 to the bottom wall 22 . Corresponding to each fixing assembly, one of the sidewalls 24 includes a pair of vertically spaced clipping tabs 61 extending therefrom, a blocking tab 65 extending therefrom and located at same sides of the clipping tabs 61 , and a through hole 67 defined therein. A C-shaped groove 63 is defined in each clipping tab 61 . Referring to FIG. 2 , each latching member 80 includes a round-shaped plate 81 , a beam 82 extending from a circumferential side of the plate 81 , a latching protrusion 87 extending from a center of the plate 81 , a pair of spaced triangular walls 83 extending from the beam 82 and joining with the latching protrusion 87 , and a blocking tab 84 extending from the beam 82 between the walls 83 . A C-shaped groove 86 is defined in the peak of each wall 83 . A distance between the walls 83 is less than a distance between the clipping tabs 61 of the bracket 20 . Referring to FIG. 3 , the torsion spring 70 includes two legs respectively extending from ends thereof. Referring also to FIG. 4 , in assembly, only one of the fixing assemblies is shown and described hereinafter as an example. The torsion spring 70 is coiled around the shaft 90 . The shaft 90 is snappingly received in the grooves 86 of the walls 83 of the latching member 80 , and the torsion spring 70 is placed between the two walls 83 . The latching protrusion 87 of the latching member 80 is generally aligned with the through the hole 67 of the bracket 20 , the shaft 90 is snappingly received in the grooves 63 of clipping tabs 61 of the bracket 20 , the two walls 83 of the latching member 80 are placed between the two tabs 61 , and ends of the two legs 72 of the torsion spring 70 are respectively abutted against the blocking tab 65 of the bracket 20 and the blocking tab 84 of the latching member 80 . Thus, the latching member 80 is rotatably mounted to the corresponding sidewall 24 of the bracket 20 , the latching member 80 is rotated toward the sidewall 24 of the bracket 20 by the torsion spring 70 engaged between the latching member 80 and the sidewall 24 , and a free end of the latching protrusion 87 of the latching member 80 is inserted in the bracket 20 through the hole 67 . Moreover, in other embodiments, the distance between the two clipping tabs 61 of the bracket may be less than the distance between the two walls 83 of the latching member 80 , and the torsion spring 70 is placed between the clipping tabs 61 , and the two tabs 61 are placed between the two walls 83 . In use, the latching member 80 is rotated around the shaft 90 to make the latching protrusion 87 thereof to disengage from the through hole 67 of the bracket 20 by pressing a free end of the beam 82 or pulling the plate 81 . The storage device 10 is inserted in the bracket 20 , and the assembly hole 12 of the storage device 10 is aligned with the corresponding through hole 67 of the bracket 20 . Releasing the latching member 80 , the latching member 80 is rotated back by the torsion spring 70 , and the free end of the latching protrusion 87 of the latching member 80 is inserted through the through hole 67 of the bracket 20 and inserted in the assembly hole 12 of the storage device 10 . Thus, the storage device 10 is fixed in the bracket 20 by the latching member 80 . To disassemble the storage device 10 , the latching member 80 is rotated to disengage the latching protrusion 87 from the assembly hole 12 of the storage device 10 , the storage device 10 can then be easily taken out from the bracket 20 . In other embodiments, the torsion spring 70 in the present embodiment may be replaced by an extension spring, the extension spring is placed between the latching protrusion 87 of the latching member 80 and the shaft 90 , and one end of the extension spring is connected with the latching member 80 and the other end of the extension spring is connected with the corresponding sidewall 24 of the bracket 20 . The torsion spring 70 may be replaced by a compression spring, the compression spring is placed between an free end of the beam 82 of the latching member 80 and the shaft 90 , and one end of the compression spring is connected with the latching member 80 and the other end of the compression spring is connected with the corresponding sidewall 24 of the bracket 20 . Moreover, a rotation mechanism made up of the shaft 90 , the corresponding C-shaped grooves 63 of the bracket 20 , and the C-shaped grooves 86 of the corresponding latching member may be shown in other forms. For example, the grooves 63 and/or 86 may be O-shaped; the shaft 90 may be replaced by a shaft having a smooth middle portion and two threaded segments adjacent two ends of the shaft, and correspondingly, the grooves 63 of the bracket 20 is replaced by screw holes corresponding to the screw threads of the shaft; one of the pair of clipping tabs 61 and the groove 63 thereof may be canceled; one of the pair of walls 83 and the groove 86 thereof may be canceled. It is to be understood, however, that even though numerous characteristics and advantages of the present invention have been set forth in the foregoing description, together with details of the structure and function of the invention, the disclosure is illustrative only, and changes may be made in detail, especially in matters of shape, size, and arrangement of parts within the principles of the invention to the full extent indicated by the broad general meaning of the terms in which the appended claims are expressed.

A mounting apparatus for a storage device includes a bracket configured for receiving the storage device and including a sidewall defining a through hole therein, a latching member pivotally mounted to the bracket and including a latching protrusion extending through the through hole of the bracket for fixing the storage device, a rotating mechanism connected between the bracket and the latching member to enable the latching member to rotate relative to the bracket, and an elastic member connected between the bracket and the latching member for urging the latching member toward the side wall of the bracket.

RELATED U.S. APPLICATION DATA [0001] This application claims the benefit of priority of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/277,555, filed on Sep. 28, 2009, and titled “Method and Means for Installing a Union Nut around a Valve Port”, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] Service valve assemblies used to connect and control the flow of water through a tankless water heater are usually characterized by long valve bodies having numerous ports and at least 2 operable valves. A tankless water heater typically requires 2 service valves, a cold water service valve and a hot water service valve. The cold water service valve has a main valve for controlling the flow of cold water from a supply to the tankless water heater. The hot water service valve has a main valve for controlling the flow of hot water from the tankless water heater to one or more faucets. All service valve assemblies have a drain valve that allows the tankless water heater to be isolated from the supply and/or faucets such that service and maintenance operations can be performed on the tankless water heater. Drain ports open to the environment, so it is possible that someone opening a drain valve could be sprayed by water. If proper precautions are not taken, someone could accidentally open a hot water drain valve and be scalded. [0003] Tankless water heaters are frequently installed into relatively small areas, so removing and replacing a bad service valve can be very difficult if there are long ports or protrusions off to the side of a valve assembly that prevent the valve assembly from rotating within a provided service area. To allow a valve assembly to be removable without needing to remove or damage an obstructing wall or structure, valve assemblies frequently are multi-piece assemblies. More piece parts usually means more opportunities for problems to develop between parts, and connectors always add bulk and length to an assembly. There is a need for a tankless water heater valve assembly that is safer to operate and easier to install. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0004] The present invention is a service valve assembly that incorporates one or more safety features that also allow a valve body to be more compact, easier to install and of simplified operation. Tankless water heaters are typically located in tight spaces that can make access difficult. Because installed water pipes are usually not able to be rotated, installation of a valve assembly is facilitated if the valve assembly can be rotated within an axis area. By optimally foreshortening all perpendicularly protruding ports, potential for rotational freedom is maximized. In order to accomplish these goals, the main valve and the service valve are intentionally distinguished from each other as follows: a main valve is provided on a large port with a large valve handle that is able to be turned with ease, such as a lever handle, while a service valve is provided on a smaller port, with a relatively small valve handle that is intentionally difficult to turn without using a tool. Additionally, the main valve is intentionally oriented parallel to the water pipes such that a larger valve does not protrude in a limiting fashion as the valve is rotated during installation. Shorter perpendicularly protruding ports characterized by smaller valves contribute to easier installation, while distinct valve handles prevent confusion and/or accidental opening of a water valve, especially a hot water valve that could spray onto a person. Installation can further be simplified by using a unique union nut that allows a service valve to be easily connected to an existing tankless water heater. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0005] FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a valve assembly of the present invention. [0006] FIG. 2 is a cross sectional view through line 2 - 2 of FIG. 1 . [0007] FIG. 3 is an exploded perspective view of the union in FIG. 1 . [0008] FIG. 4 is a cross sectional view through line 4 - 4 of FIG. 3 . [0009] FIG. 5 is a perspective view showing the union nut installed on the port. [0010] FIG. 6 is a plan view of the union nut. [0011] FIG. 7 is a perspective view showing the split ring installed on the port. [0012] FIG. 8 is a plan view of the split ring. [0013] The following is the list of numerical callouts used in FIGS. 1-8 : 10 . Valve assembly 12 . Casing 14 . First port 16 . Second port 18 . Main valve 20 . Main handle 22 . Third port 24 . Drain valve 26 . Drain handle 28 . Safety cap 30 . Fourth port 32 . Ridge 34 . Neck 36 . Flange 38 . Male Installation Threads 40 . First Seat 42 . Union Nut 44 . Shoulder 46 . Female Installation Threads 48 . Female Union Threads 50 . Split Ring 52 . Split 54 Inner cylindrical sleeve portion 56 . Outer cylindrical sleeve portion 58 . Middle cylindrical sleeve portion 60 . Rim 62 . Washer 64 . Adapter 66 . Second Seat 68 . Male Union Threads DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0044] This detailed description will begin by describing the relevant components of a valve assembly that incorporates the present invention, followed by a description of safety and installation features, and then the various coupler components in the order that they are installed onto the valve assembly. Where reference numbers in one figure are the same as another figure, those reference numbers carry substantially the same meaning. Preferred sizes, materials and methods of attachment will be discussed, but these preferences are not intended to exclude other suitable or functionally equivalent sizes, materials or methods of attachment. [0045] A valve assembly 10 has a casing 12 that encases at least two valves for selectively opening or obstructing the flow of water through pathways. The casing, which includes the entire valve body, is characterized by a main pathway for connecting a main inlet to a main outlet for the flow of water through the valve assembly. The main pathway is preferably the least restrictive path through and between the largest ports, or main ports, of the valve assembly. Other secondary ports frequently branch off of the main pathway at an angle, such as 90 degrees. All of these ports are part of the valve body. The casing can be formed from any known suitable material, such as metals or plastics, which meet the demands of a particular application. When used to service water pipes, the casing is preferably cast brass to allow the valve assembly to be compatible with numerous common pipe materials without creating an electric potential that causes corrosion. [0046] A first port 14 , herein arbitrarily defined as a main port that is closest to the main valve of the valve assembly, is either an inlet or an outlet, depending on the desired direction of water flow. On a tankless water heater application, the first port of the cold water valve assembly is preferably an inlet connected to a water supply, while the first port of the hot water valve assembly is preferably an outlet connected to a faucet. The first port can terminate, at its open end, with a common connection means, such as male or female threads or a socket type connection. [0047] A second port 16 is preferably a main port that is either an outlet or an inlet. The main valve 18 , which is intermediate the first port and the second port, is characterized by a valve member, such as a ball having a passageway that can be rotated, so a main valve whose valve member is a ball is a main ball valve. The valve member, which can open or obstruct the flow of a water through the valve body, is controlled by rotating a main handle 20 that turns a stem that passes through a bonnet in the casing and directly connects to the valve member. The main handle is preferably large enough to provide adequate leverage such that a user can rotate the main handle without requiring the use of any tools. A lever arm portion, such as a lever handle, or T-handle, is preferred. A lever handle's lever arm portion extends at least 2 cm from the stem portion of the main valve such that the main handle can be easily turned by hand without needing a tool. A T-handle's lever arm portion extends across the stem portion of the main valve, preferably spanning a distance of at least 3 cm, such that the handle can easily be grasped by a user's fingers. Obviously, larger main valves or difficult to turn stem portions will require a longer lever arm portion if it is desired to be able to operate a valve by hand. [0048] A third port 22 , is incorporated into a valve body to provide access to a water system for service or maintenance by a user. On tankless water heater applications, the third port preferably protrudes perpendicularly from the main pathway through the valve body intermediate the main valve and the second port. To make installation of a valve assembly easier, especially in tight spaces, the third port should not protrude more than approximately twice the value of the outer diameter of the casing. The outer diameter of the casing should be determined by measuring around the casing at a cross-section that represents the surroundings of the chamber independent of any ports or other features of the casing. In order to accommodate a drain valve 24 that controls the flow through the third port, the third port is preferably smaller than the main ports to allow for the use of a smaller drain valve. Preferably, where ball valves are utilized in the valve assembly, the diameter of a main ball valve is at least 50% larger than the diameter of a drain ball valve. A smaller drain valve and third port that is perpendicularly protruding will not significantly contribute to the overall size of a valve assembly. This feature is particularly valuable to allow for the rotation of an entire valve assembly within an adjacent space, especially where existing water pipes are relatively fixed in location and orientation. An open end of the third port usually is characterized by male threads that can easily be connected to common hose connections, so the use of too large of a drain valve could cause the third port to perpendicularly protrude too far in a limiting manner. [0049] The drain valve should only be open during servicing of the water system. A drain handle 26 of the drain valve preferably has a smaller profile that offers little leverage to a user, so it is very difficult to manipulate the drain valve's valve member without a tool, such as a wrench. A small hexagonal drain handle, which may also be slotted, is preferred. Most preferably, a thirteen millimeter, or half-inch, box-end, crescent or socket wrench can easily fit onto the drain handle for opening or closing the drain valve. Because a larger hexagonal drain handle is effectively a knob that can be turned by hand, it is recommended that no larger than about a fifteen millimeter hexagonal head be used. To provide an optional means for manipulating a drain, a slotted-head may be additionally incorporated into the drain handle such that a screwdriver or even a coin may be used to manipulate the drain valve orientation, especially because these tools are readily available. [0050] Opening the drain valve can cause water to spray onto a user, especially an unintended user, who is unaware of the potential harm the water could cause to property or persons. Making the drain handle obviously different from the main handle, as described above, should help prevent someone from accidentally opening the drain port. A safety cap 28 is additionally used to protect the drain port from dirt that may damage valve components, from leaking and from being accidentally opened. Collectively, the smaller sized third port, drain valve and drain handle make for easier installations and safer access for servicing a system that utilizes the valve assembly. When a water system is equipped with more than one valve assembly, color coded valve handles will allow a user to quickly distinguish water flow and water characteristics, such as red for hot and blue for cold. Familiar ON/OFF arrows are also beneficial. [0051] A fourth port 30 , optional, usually branching off of the main pathway somewhere between the main valve and the second port, can be provided to allow a pressure relief valve (not shown) to be installed onto the valve assembly. Pressure relief valves are usually not needed on a cold water valve because cold water supplies are expected to operate within a safe range of pressures. Additional or alternate ports, most commonly outlets, can be incorporated onto a valve body as needed. Because pressure relief valves can be relatively long, they protrude too far away from the valve assembly. In order to minimize this protrusion, the fourth port is preferably characterized by female threads. The fourth port can be larger in diameter than the diameter of the chamber, such that a female threaded portion of the fourth port is at least partially adjacent the chamber. Any suitable connection means can be formed or installed at an open end of any of the ports. [0052] Most preferably, at least the second port of the above described valve assembly has a rotatable union nut installed over the port, without requiring the use of any tools. Brass, which is the preferred material for forming the valve casing, is cast, forged and/or machined to produce a desired shape. Unlike some other materials, it is not effective to try to flare or crimp the open end of a brass port to secure a union nut over the port such that the union nut rotates freely and can be threaded into a male fitting to be connected to the valve assembly. Instead, the following description explains how to make and install a rotatable union nut on a valve port. [0053] A ridge 32 is formed around the exterior of the port such that a neck 34 is defined near the open end of the port. The neck is preferably machined, along with the other features described in this paragraph, such that a cast part that has not yet been machined probably is not characterized by any of these features. Adjacent the open end of the port is an outwardly flaring flange 36 , characterized by a larger diameter than at least the neck and ridge, formed to include male installation threads 38 . The male installation threads are preferably just a few projecting helical ribs having a fine pitch. It should be noted that the ridge and flange probably are not defined until after the neck has been machined into the port. The open end of the port terminates at a first seat 40 that has a flat and smooth face. [0054] A union nut 42 is preferably made of brass, but it could also be copper, steel, iron or other metal that is compatible with a material being joined to, or it could be plastic, such as PVC. The union nut has an inwardly flaring shoulder 44 characterized by female installation threads 46 that are cut into the inner-most diameter of the shoulder. The diameter of the shoulder is too small to slip over the port on the valve body unless the female installation threads are screwed onto the male installation threads on the flange of the port. After several turns, the shoulder of the union nut is completely threaded over the flange of the port until the union nut freely slips past the neck and ridge on the port, no longer in threaded engagement. As is more common, the union nut is multi-sided, such as a hexagon, and characterized by female union threads 48 . The nominal diameter hole of the union nut is greater than the largest diameter of the shoulder, so the female union threads easily slide over the flange on the port. [0055] After sliding the union nut over the port, a split ring 50 is installed around the neck of the port. The split ring is preferably a dielectric material, such as a strong plastic. The split ring is formed as two or three concentric offset cylindrical sleeves that do not have a continuous circumference because there is a split 52 that allows the split ring to be opened into a larger circumference. While the split ring is opened, it can pass over the flange on the port until it is positioned around the neck. Releasing the split ring will cause it to close around the neck such that an inner cylindrical sleeve portion 54 lies between the ridge and the flange of the port. An outer cylindrical sleeve portion 56 of the split ring partially covers the inner cylindrical sleeve portion, and fully covers the male installation threads on the port. A middle cylindrical sleeve portion 58 , if needed, joins the inner and outer cylindrical sleeve portions. With the split ring installed, the union nut can be partially drawn over the split ring until the shoulder of the union nut abuts an end of the outer cylindrical sleeve portion, against which the union nut can freely rotate. The shoulder is centered about the port by the inner cylindrical sleeve portion, which also serves to prevent the union nut from coming into electrical contact with the valve casing. [0056] A washer 62 , most preferably made from rubber or other similar flexible material, is installed against the first seat 40 . The outer cylindrical sleeve portion of the split ring can extend beyond the end of the port such that a rim 60 can be used to centrally align the outer diameter of the washer. The inner diameter of the washer should be approximately the same size as the water pathway at the end of the port. [0057] An adapter 64 , which is preferably made from a compatible or similar material as the union nut, is characterized by a second seat 66 that is positioned against the washer. The union nut can then be screwed to male union threads 68 on the adapter until the first and second seats are tightened against the washer. The other end of the adapter can be any desired connection means, such as a threaded connection or socket connection. Installation of a preferred service valve assembly can be performed by rotating the service valve to threadedly connect the first port to water pipes that are not able to be rotated, and then by using the above described union nut to connect the second port to the tankless water heater. [0058] While a preferred form of the invention has been shown and described, it will be realized that alterations and modifications may be made thereto without departing from the scope of the following claims.

A service valve assembly for a tankless water heater incorporates one or more features that provide safer operation and easier installation of a valve assembly. Installation of a valve assembly is facilitated by foreshortening all perpendicularly protruding ports, thereby increasing the rotational freedom during installation. A main valve and a drain valve are intentionally distinguished from each other by providing different port sizes, valve handles and valve shapes that change the overall shape and characteristics of the valve assembly in such a way that accidental opening a drain port becomes much less likely. Installation can further be simplified by using a unique union nut that allows a service valve to be easily connected to an existing tankless water heater.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] This application is a continuation application of and claims priority to U.S. application Ser. No. 14/512,167, filed Oct. 10, 2014, which application is a continuation application of and claims priority to U.S. application Ser. No. 13/872,033, filed Apr. 26, 2013, now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 8,862,228, which application is a continuation application of and claims priority to U.S. application Ser. No. 10/786,359, filed Feb. 24, 2004, now abandoned, which application is a continuation-in-part of and claims priority to U.S. application Ser. No. 10/704,366, filed on Nov. 6, 2003, now issued U.S. Pat. No. 7,220,235. All are hereby incorporated by reference. TECHNICAL FIELD [0002] This invention relates to the devices for assisting cardiac resuscitation. BACKGROUND [0003] This invention relates to the field of cardiac resuscitation, and in particular to devices for assisting rescuers in performing chest compression during cardio-pulmonary resuscitation (CPR). Chest compression during CPR is used to mechanically support circulation in subjects with cardiac arrest, by maintaining blood circulation and oxygen delivery until the heart is restarted. The victim's chest is compressed by the rescuer, ideally at a rate and depth of compression in accordance with medical guidelines, e.g., the American Heart Association (AHA) guidelines. One key step for creating blood flow through the heart is to release the chest adequately after each chest compression. The chest should be released sufficiently to create a negative pressure in the chest, to facilitate venous filling of the heart and increased blood flow upon the next chest compression. If the chest is not released adequately, a positive thoracic pressure will remain which will hinder venous return and right atrial filling. Other key CPR parameters are maximal velocity of compression, compression depth, and average velocity. Compression depth and average velocity, together, provide good indication of potential blood flow volume. Maximal velocity of compression is an important factor in proper mitral valve closure and higher blood flow volume. [0004] Sensors have been suggested for detecting the depth of chest compression. An accelerometer (with its output integrated to estimate depth) was disclosed, for example, in Freeman U.S. application Ser. No. 09/794,320, U.S. Pat. No. 6,306,107 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,390,996. Force (pressure) sensors were disclosed, for example, in Groenke U.S. Pat. No. 6,125,299. Force sensors provided no way of determining absolute displacement, as the compliance of the thoracic cage varies considerably from person to person. Accelerometers do not provide an indication of whether or not the chest is being released. They calculate displacement by double integration, which can result in a significant DC offset. U.S. Pat. No. 6,306,107 attempted to address the DC offset problem by incorporating a force sensor as a switch to indicate onset and conclusion of compression. The prior art has also employed mechanical pressure gauges to indicate to the rescuer the amount of force or pressure being applied to the chest. But these prior art uses of an accelerometer and/or force sensor have not provided a good solution to providing the rescuer with useful feedback as to whether the chest has been sufficiently released. Differences in compliance of the thoracic cage from one individual to another means that each individual will generally be able to support different amounts of force on the sternum without significant displacement occurring. [0005] Increasingly, automated external defibrillators (AEDs) are used by rescuers treating victims of cardiac arrest for the delivery of defibrillatory shocks with the minimum of delay. The algorithms contained in the currently-available AEDs call for ‘hands off’ periods during which electrocardiographic (ECG) analysis is performed by the device and the rescuer withholds compressions. Compressions must be withheld because the accuracy of current rhythm analysis algorithms in AEDs is severely degraded by the artifact induced by the chest compressions. These AEDs also call for the rescuer to check for pulse or for signs of circulation during which time no compressions are performed. It has been shown in several studies that interruptions in the performance of chest compressions of as short a time as 20 seconds can dramatically reduce the probability of the return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC), a key survival measure. Other studies have also shown that the minimum amount of time required for the ‘hands off’ period is 20 seconds. There is therefore a need for the ability of AEDs to perform rhythm analysis while the rescuer continues with the chest compressions uninterrupted. [0006] Resuscitation treatments for patients suffering from cardiac arrest generally include clearing and opening the patient's airway, providing rescue breathing for the patient, and applying chest compressions to provide blood flow to the victim's heart, brain and other vital organs. If the patient has a shockable heart rhythm, resuscitation also may include defibrillation therapy. The term basic life support (BLS) involves all the following elements: initial assessment; airway maintenance; expired air ventilation (rescue breathing); and chest compression. When all three (airway breathing, and circulation, including chest compressions) are combined, the term cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is used. [0007] Current automated ECG rhythm analysis methods interrupt cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) to avoid artifacts in the ECG resulting from chest compressions. Long interruptions of CPR have been shown to result in higher failure rate of resuscitation. Studies have reported that the discontinuation of precordial compression can significantly reduce the recovery rate of spontaneous circulation and the 24-hour survival rate. Y. Sato, M H. Weil, S. Sun, W. Tang, J. Xie, M. Noc, and J. Bisera, Adverse effects of interrupting precordial compression during cardiopulmonary resuscitation, Critical Care Medicine, Vol. 25(5), 733-736 (1997). Yu et al., 2002. Circulation, 106, 368-372 (2002), T. Eftestol, K. Sunde, and PA. Steen, Effects of Interrupting Precordial Compressions on the Calculated Probability of Defibrillation Success During Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest, Circulation, 105, 2270-2273, (2002). [0008] Management of breathing is another important aspect of the CPR process. Typical methods of monitoring breathing employ some form of impedance pneumography which measure and track changes in the transthoracic impedance of the patient. Currently, however, chest compressions result in significant artifact on the impedance signals, resulting in impedance-based pneumographic techniques as unreliable indicators of lung volume during chest compressions. [0009] Adaptive filters have been attempted as a way of removing chest-compression artifacts in the ECG signal. S O. Aase, T. Eftestol, J H. Husoy, K. Sunde, and P A. Steen, CPR Artifact Removal from Human ECG Using Optimal Multichannel Filtering, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, Vol. 47, 1440-1449, (2000). A. Langhelle, T. Eftestol, H. Myklebust, M. Eriksen, B T. Holten, P A. Steen, Reducing CPR Artifacts in Ventricular Fibrillation in Vitro. Resuscitation. March; 48(3):279-91 (2001). JH. Husoy, J. Eilevstjonn, T. Eftestol, S O. Aase, H Myklebust, and P A. Steen, Removal of Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation Artifacts from Human ECG Using an Efficient Matching Pursuit-Like Algorithm, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, Vol 49, 1287-1298, (2002). HR. Halperin, and RD. Berger, CPR Chest Compression Monitor, U.S. Pat. No. 6,390,996 (2002). Aase et al. (2000) and Langhelle et al. (2001) used the compression depth and thorax impedance as reference signals for their adaptive filter. Husoy et al. (2002) extended this study by using a matching pursuit iteration to reduce the computational complexity; however, their results are usually computationally intensive, such as involving the calculation of a high order inverse filter. Halperin et al. (2002) proposed a frequency-domain approach using the auto- and the cross-spectrum of the signals and a time-domain approach using a recursive least square method for adaptive filtering the ECG signal. In both approaches, intensive computations are required. [0010] There are numerous references available on adaptive filters. E.g., S. Haykin, Adaptive Filter Theory, Third Edition, Upper Saddle River, N.J., USA. Prentice-Hall, 1996 SUMMARY [0011] In a first aspect, the invention features an apparatus for assisting a rescuer in performing chest compressions during CPR on a victim, the apparatus comprising a pad or other structure configured to be applied to the chest near or at the location at which the rescuer applies force to produce the chest compressions, at least one sensor connected to the pad, the sensor being configured to sense movement of the chest or force applied to the chest, processing circuitry for processing the output of the sensor to determine whether the rescuer is substantially releasing the chest following chest compressions, and at least one prompting element connected to the processing circuitry for providing the rescuer with information as to whether the chest is being substantially released following chest compressions. [0012] Preferred implementations of this aspect of the invention may incorporate one or more of the following. The pad or other structure may be a pad to which force is applied by rescuer. The sensor may include an accelerometer. The sensor may include a force (or pressure) sensor. The sensor may include a velocity sensor. The sensor may include both a force (or pressure) sensor and an accelerometer or velocity sensor. The prompting device may include a speaker for delivering an audible message to the rescuer. The prompting device may include a display for delivering a visual message to the rescuer. The apparatus may be part of an external defibrillator. The external defibrillator may be an AED. The processing circuitry may include a digital processor executing software. Determining whether the rescuer is substantially releasing the chest may comprise analyzing motion of the chest. Analyzing motion of the chest may comprise analyzing features or the shape of a waveform representing chest motion. The apparatus may comprise both a sensor to sense movement of the chest and a sensor to sense force applied to the chest, and the processing circuitry may use outputs of both sensors to provide information representative of chest compliance. The information representative of chest compliance may be used to determine a level of applied pressure/force that corresponds to a substantial release of the chest. [0013] In a second aspect, the invention features an apparatus for assisting a rescuer in performing chest compressions during CPR on a victim, the apparatus comprising a pad or other structure configured to be applied to the chest near or at the location at which the rescuer applies force to produce the chest compressions, and at least one velocity sensor connected to the pad, the velocity sensor being configured to sense the velocity of movement of the chest. [0014] Preferred implementations of this aspect of the invention may incorporate one or more of the following. The apparatus may further comprise processing circuitry for processing the output of the velocity sensor to estimate the displacement of the chest. The processing circuitry may have the capability to integrate an output of the velocity sensor. The velocity sensor may be configured to be located approximately adjacent to the location at which the body is compressed. The velocity sensor may be configured to be positioned to sense the relative velocity between opposite surfaces of the chest. The velocity sensor may comprise a conductor and a magnet, and velocity may be sensed by sensing the current induced in the conductor by relative motion between the conductor and the magnet. The magnet may comprise one of a permanent magnet and an electromagnet. The conductor and magnet may be positioned on opposite surfaces of the chest. The conductor may comprise a coil that is unitary with a defibrillation electrode pad. The conductor and magnet each may comprise a coil that is unitary with a defibrillation electrode pad. The magnet may comprise an electromagnet and the electromagnet may produce a magnetic field that oscillates at a frequency greater than 1 KHz, and may further comprise coil detection circuitry to which the coil is connected, wherein the coil detection circuitry may be capable of synchronously demodulating the detected signal to reduce susceptibility to drift and noise. The apparatus may further comprise circuitry for acquiring ECG signals from the victim, and the processing circuitry may have the capability to process the output of the velocity sensor and the ECG signals to reduce ECG artifacts from chest compressions by use of velocity sensor output. [0015] In a third aspect, the invention features an apparatus for assisting a rescuer in performing chest compressions during CPR on a victim, the apparatus comprising a pad or other structure configured to be applied to the chest near or at the location at which the rescuer applies force to produce the chest compressions, at least one motion sensor connected to the pad, the motion sensor being configured to sense movement of the chest, processing circuitry for processing the output of the motion sensor to estimate the maximum velocity of compression of the chest, and at least one prompting device connected to the processing circuitry for providing the rescuer with information representative of the maximum velocity of compression. In preferred implementations of this aspect of the invention, the motion sensor may comprise a velocity sensor. [0016] In a fourth aspect, the invention features a method of determining chest compression during CPR, the method comprising applying a motion sensor to the chest of a patient at a location near or at the location at which a rescuer applies force to produce chest compressions, determining chest displacement from analysis of features of the motion waveform produced by the motion sensor. [0017] Preferred implementations of this aspect of the invention may incorporate one or more of the following. The motion sensor may be a velocity sensor. The motion sensor may be an accelerometer. The method may further comprise deciding from the analysis of features of the acceleration waveform whether or not a rescuer has sufficiently released the patient's chest. The method may further comprise processing the output of the accelerometer to provide velocity and acceleration waveforms. The method may further comprise processing the output of the accelerometer to provide velocity and acceleration waveforms, and analyzing the velocity and acceleration waveforms to determine whether or not a rescuer has sufficiently released the patient's chest. The analysis of velocity waveforms may include determining the maximal velocity of compression. Determining chest displacement from analysis of features may comprise determining onset and completion times for a compression cycle from the features of the waveforms. Determining chest displacement may further comprise integrating the acceleration waveform over a time segment defined by the onset and completion times. The method may further comprise analyzing the features of the upstroke portion of the waveforms to determine whether there has been sufficient release of the chest. The method may further comprise prompting a rescuer based as to whether compressions are within desired limits on compression depth and compression release. The prompts to the rescuer may be based on multi-cycle trends, so that they are not immediately influenced by the rescuer taking a brief break in the application of CPR. The method may further comprise determining chest compliance, and using the determined chest compliance to adjust the level of pressure/force that the rescuer is permitted to apply at the end of a compression stroke without being prompted as to insufficiently releasing the chest. The features determined from the waveforms may include one or more of the following: width, amplitude, area, center of mass, skewness, height/width ratio, TAR, TAMPR and TWR. The features may be used to make a decision as to whether the chest of the victim has been sufficiently released. Decisions may be made using either standard decision logic, fuzzy-logic decision methodology, or statistical estimation. [0018] In a fifth aspect, the invention features a method of analyzing ECG signals during application of CPR, the method comprising detecting ECG signals during application of chest compressions, detecting the output of a sensor from which information on the velocity of chest compressions can be determined, and using the information on the velocity to reduce at least one signal artifact in the ECG signal resulting from the chest compressions. [0019] Preferred implementations of this aspect of the invention may incorporate one or more of the following. The sensor may be a velocity sensor, and the information on the velocity may be determined from the velocity sensor. The sensor may be an accelerometer, and the information on the velocity may be determined from integration of the output of the accelerometer. Using the information on the velocity to reduce at least one signal artifact in the ECG signal may comprise time aligning the ECG signals with the velocity. Using the information on the velocity to reduce at least one signal artifact in the ECG signal may comprise an adaptive filter that is adjusted to remove chest compression artifacts. Using the information on the velocity to reduce at least one signal artifact in the ECG signal may comprise feed forward active noise cancellation. Using the information on the velocity to reduce at least one signal artifact in the ECG signal may comprise determining a cutoff frequency for a filter that separates the ECG signal from chest compression artifacts. [0020] In a sixth aspect, the invention features an apparatus for assisting a rescuer in performing chest compressions during CPR on a victim, the apparatus comprising a pad or other structure configured to be applied to the chest near or at the location at which the rescuer applies force to produce the chest compressions, at least one motion sensor connected to the pad, the motion sensor being configured to sense movement of the chest, at least one force (or pressure) sensor connected to the pad, the force sensor being configured to sense force applied to the chest, and processing circuitry for processing the output of the motion sensor and force sensor to estimate the compliance of the chest. [0021] Preferred implementations of this aspect of the invention may incorporate one or more of the following. The estimated compliance and the output of the force sensor may be used to determine the depth of compression of the chest. The motion sensor may be an accelerometer, and the output of the accelerometer may be used primarily for estimating chest compliance, and compression depth during CPR may be estimated by using the estimated compliance to convert the output of the force sensor into estimated compression depth. The output of the accelerometer may be used during limited time intervals for estimating chest compliance, and outside of those limited time intervals chest compression may be determined from the estimated compliance and the output of the force sensor without substantial use of the output of the accelerometer. The estimated compliance and the output of the force sensor may be used to determine whether the chest has been substantially released. [0022] In a seventh aspect, the invention features an apparatus for assisting a rescuer in performing chest compressions during CPR on a victim, the apparatus comprising a pad or other structure configured to be applied to the chest near or at the location at which the rescuer applies force to produce the chest compressions, at least one bistable mechanical element that when depressed provides tactile feedback to the hand of the rescuer upon the start of a compression and at the end of a compression. [0023] Preferred implementations of this aspect of the invention may incorporate one or more of the following. The mechanical element may comprise a dome that collapses under pressure and returns to a dome shape on release of pressure. The bistable mechanical element may further provide audible feedback at least at the end of a compression. The tactile feedback at the end of a compression may occur at approximately an applied force corresponding to substantial release of the chest, so that the tactile feedback serves as feedback to the rescuer that the chest has been substantially released. [0024] The invention provides numerous advantages. It provides a more accurate and detailed measure of compressions during CPR, e.g., by analyzing such compression/decompression cycle parameters as compression velocity and completeness of decompression release. And features of the velocity and acceleration waveforms may be analyzed to maximize CPR performance. E.g., the invention permits analysis of maximal velocity of compression, which is an important factor in proper mitral valve closure and higher blood flow volume. [0025] The invention may obviate the need for a secondary information channel, e.g., a force sensor, to provide the accuracy necessary for the use of acceleration to accurately measure displacement. The invention includes new methods for the analysis of the acceleration waveform that allow for decreased offset drift and improved displacement accuracy. The methods also provide for the ability to determine parameters relating to the quality of the compression/decompression cycle by morphological analysis of the acceleration and velocity waveform. Multiple parameters may be determined via the analysis and then combined in making a decision regarding chest release or other generalized descriptor of compression/decompression quality. The methods used may include standard decision logic (e.g., IF-THEN-ELSE) or may involve methods such as fuzzy-logic decision methodology or statistical estimation such as Bayesian methods. [0026] Direct physiological measurements of perfusion and oxygenation, such as end-tidal carbon dioxide (EtCO2) and pulse oximetry, can provide additional feedback to the CPR control algorithm. [0027] By determining chest compliance, some implementations of the invention overcome the difficulty of using a pressure/force sensor for determining the onset and release of compression. The compliance of the thoracic cage varies from person to person, and therefore each individual will generally be able to support different amounts of force on the sternum without any displacement occurring. In some implementations of the invention, compliance is estimated from measurements of force (or pressure) and chest motion during compressions. The estimated compliance can be used to adapt the chest-released force threshold to patients with differing chest compliance. Without adapting the threshold to the victim's chest compliance, the chest-released force threshold tends to have to be set quite low, to assure substantial release even on patients with large compliance. This can result in requiring the rescuer to release nearly all force from the chest, interfering with the process of CPR itself and confusing the rescuer with what appears to be irrelevant and interfering commands. [0028] Using a velocity sensor (as proposed with some aspects of the invention), can provide a more accurate and less noise sensitive measure for determining displacement. It requires only one integration to calculate displacement from velocity, thus reducing offset error, and it requires only one differentiation to calculate acceleration thus reducing high frequency noise susceptibility. Additionally, velocity in this implementation is a differential configuration that measures relative velocity between the front and back of the thorax, unlike acceleration which is inertial and whose motion is relative to the Earth. Differential velocity measurement provides a significantly improved performance during patient transport such as in an ambulance or on an airplane. In fact, the vibration and motion may make the acceleration for the most part unusable in these situations. [0029] Magnetic induction may be used to generate a voltage proportional to the relative velocity between a magnet and coil. The magnet may take the form of a permanent magnet, but preferably it is an electromagnet. The use of an electromagnet serves two main purposes: it can be used to calibrate the setup after the electrodes have been applied to the patient, and it can be used to provide a synchronous modulation/demodulation of the signal to improve accuracy and minimize susceptibility to noise and artifact. [0030] The magnetic pickup and induction coils may be incorporated into defibrillation pads. One defibrillation pad can be placed on the left thorax and another defibrillation pad can be placed on the victim's back in the left scapular area. These are excellent locations for defibrillation and provide a good placement to generate magnetic flux changes proportional to sternal displacement. The coils can incorporated directly into the outer edge of each of the defibrillation electrodes. Alternatively, if the desired electrode position is anterior/anterior with both electrodes on the front of the chest, a separate backboard panel may be supplied which is placed under the patient and contains the receiving coil. [0031] The invention's use of velocity sensor, which may make it possible to perform ECG analysis without a “hands off” period provides improved filtering and rhythm analysis. [0032] In general the invention features a method of analyzing a physiological (e.g., an ECG) signal during application of chest compressions. The method includes acquiring a physiological signal during application of chest compressions; acquiring the output of a sensor from which information on the velocity of chest compressions can be determined; and using the information on the velocity to reduce at least one signal artifact in the physiological signal resulting from the chest compressions. [0033] Preferred implementations of the invention may incorporate one or more of the following: The physiological signal may be any of a variety of physiological signals, including an ECG signal, an IPG signal, an ICG signal, or a pulse oximetry signal. The sensor may be a velocity sensor, and the information on the velocity may be determined from the velocity sensor. The sensor may be an accelerometer, and the information on the velocity may be determined from integration of the output of the accelerometer. Using the information on the velocity to reduce at least one signal artifact in the physiological signal may comprise time aligning the physiological signal with the velocity. Using the information on the velocity to reduce at least one signal artifact in the physiological signal may comprise using an adaptive filter that may be adjusted to remove chest compression artifacts. The method may include a ventricular fibrillation detection algorithm for processing the physiological signal with reduced artifact to estimate whether a ventricular fibrillation may be present. The method may include a preprocessing step that detects when chest compressions are applied and automatically initiates the adaptive filter. The method may include enabling delivery of a defibrillation shock if the algorithm estimates that ventricular fibrillation is present. A difference signal may be produced, the difference signal being representative of the difference between the physiological signal fed into the adaptive filter and the physiological signal after artifact reduction by the adaptive filter. The difference signal may provide a measure of the amount of artifact in the physiological signal. The difference signal may be used to modify the subsequent processing of the physiological signal. If the difference signal indicates that the amount of artifact exceeds a first threshold, the ventricular fibrillation detection algorithm may be modified to make it more resistant to being influenced by the artifact. If the difference signal indicates that the amount of artifact exceeds a second threshold higher than the first threshold, use of the ventricular defibrillation detection algorithm may be suspended. Spectral analysis may be performed on the difference signal, and adjustments may be made to filtering of the physiological signal based on the outcome of the spectral analysis. The velocity signal may undergo a normalization pre-processing prior to being fed to an adaptive filter. The adaptive filter may include an FIR filter. The adaptive filter may include a zero-th order filter. The adaptive filter may have coefficients that are dynamically controlled by an estimate of the physiological signal. The adaptive filter may have the capability of being automatically reset when the difference between the filter output and the measured physiological signal is beyond a threshold. The automatic reset may be capable of dynamically changing the step size and thus improving the relationship of convergence and stability of the filter. A time-aligning process may be performed on the physiological and velocity signals, wherein the time aligning process aligns the two signals relative to the compressions. The method may include adaptive filtering of the output of the time aligning process, wherein the adaptive filtering reduces the error between the physiological and velocity signals. The adaptive filter may include a Kalman filter. The adaptive filter may employ adaptive equalization. [0034] Among the many advantages of the invention (some of which may be achieved only in some of its various implementations) are the following: [0035] This invention provides excellent techniques for (a) adaptively removing the artifacts induced by CPR in an ECG signal, (b) enhancing an ECG signal for monitoring, and (c) increasing the reliability of ECG rhythm advisory algorithms. [0036] As part of a rhythm advisory algorithm, various implementations of the invention could be incorporated in an ECG monitor, an external defibrillator, an ECG rhythm classifier, or a ventricular arrhythmia detector. [0037] The invention makes it possible to continue performing CPR while ECG data is collected for an ECG rhythm advisory algorithm. This can enhance the result of CPR, leading, for example, to an increase in the success rate of resuscitation. [0038] The invention can also provide a “cleansed” ECG signal output for display to the user of a defibrillator. [0039] The invention also provides for the first time a means of measuring lung volume during chest compressions by impedance-based methods. The method may also be used to filter other physiological signals corrupted by compression-induced artifact, such as impedance cardiography and pulse oximetry. [0040] This invention demonstrates excellent performance at removing the CPR artifact with a zero-th order FIR filter, thus making some implementations of the invention much simpler and faster than the adaptive-filter structures proposed in the prior art. [0041] Pre-processing of the reference signal and an automatic-reset feature make it possible for some implementations of the invention to use a relatively large step size for adaptation, thus making convergence faster and more stable. [0042] Some implementations of the invention achieve excellent performance in CPR-artifact removal at reduced computational cost. [0043] Other features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following detailed description and drawings, and from the claims. DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS [0044] FIG. 1 is a diagram of one implementation including an AED and an accelerometer and pressure/force sensor built into a chest-mounted pad. [0045] FIG. 2 shows sample signals recorded during CPR with the implementation of FIG. 1 . [0046] FIG. 3 is a diagram of another implementation including an AED with a membrane switch and an accelerometer. [0047] FIG. 4 shows sample signals recorded during CPR with the implementation of FIG. 3 . [0048] FIG. 5 depicts acceleration, velocity, and displacement for a single compression cycle. [0049] FIG. 6 is a block diagram of another implementation. [0050] FIG. 7 depicts acceleration, velocity, and displacement for two compression cycles. [0051] FIGS. 8, 9A, and 9B show an implementation in which magnetic induction elements are built into electrodes placed in anterior and posterior locations on the thorax. [0052] FIG. 10 is an enlarged view of the composition of the electrode pad of FIG. 9A . [0053] FIG. 11 is a block diagram of a synchronous detector implementation. [0054] FIG. 12 is a block diagram of a filtered-X least mean squares (FXLMS ANC) algorithm. [0055] FIG. 13 is an implementation using the algorithm of FIG. 12 . [0056] FIG. 14 shows two spectral power distributions related to the implementation of FIG. 13 . [0057] FIG. 15 is a block diagram of another implementation. [0058] FIG. 16 is a block diagram of one implementation of the invention. [0059] FIG. 17 shows plots of the ECG signal, CPR reference signal, and output of adaptive filter for a normal sinus rhythm. [0060] FIG. 18 shows plots of the ECG signal, CPR reference signal, and output of adaptive filter for ventricular fibrillation. [0061] FIG. 19 is a block diagram of a filtered-X least mean squares (FXLMS ANC) algorithm. [0062] FIG. 20 is a block diagram of an implementation using the algorithm of FIG. 19 . [0063] FIG. 21 shows two spectral power distributions related to the implementation of FIG. 20 . DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0064] There are a great many possible implementations of the invention, too many to describe herein. Some possible implementations that are presently preferred are described below. It cannot be emphasized too strongly, however, that these are descriptions of implementations of the invention, and not descriptions of the invention, which is not limited to the detailed implementations described in this section but is described in broader terms in the claims. [0065] FIG. 1 shows a schematic of a preferred implementation. This implementation includes an accelerometer (and accelerometer housing), force sensor built into a pressure pad, and an AED which is electrically connected to the accelerometer and force sensor and contains a display and/or speaker for user feedback. The pressure pad provides the structural member on which the accelerometer (and housing) is supported. Neither the accelerometer nor force sensor of the pad are essential to detecting chest release, as other sensors can be used. The force sensor can measure force or pressure. [0066] The accelerometer housing can be shaped similar to a hockey puck and can rest either directly on the patient's sternum or on the pad or other structural member. Preferably the accelerometer is positioned to be over the victim's sternum in the position recommended for chest compressions. A force sensor can be placed below (as shown) or above the accelerometer housing. The rescuer presses on the accelerometer housing (or pressure pad) to perform chest compressions. The accelerometer senses the motion of the chest during CPR and the force sensor measures the force or pressure applied. The AED supplies power to the sensors and digitizes the electrical signals coming from the accelerometer and force sensor. Based on previous calibrations of the sensors, the accelerometer signal is integrated to determine the housing displacement, and the output of the force sensor is converted to standard pressure or force units. [0067] FIG. 2 shows a sample drawing of the signals recorded during CPR using the implementation of FIG. 1 . The acceleration signal is band pass filtered and integrated to derive displacement information (e.g., a displacement signal). Compressions (C1-C5) can be detected from the displacement signal. The compression rate is calculated from the interval between compressions (e.g. (time of C2−time of C1)), and compression depth is measured from the compression onset to peak displacement (e.g. (d1-d0)). The onset and peak compression values are saved for each compression. The pressures at the compression onset and offset are used to determine the force used to achieve a given compression depth. The compliance of the chest can be estimated from the compression displacement and the related compression pressure. The pressure “p0” is the reference pressure prior to the start of CPR and is related to the resting chest displacement “d0”. The pressure “p1” is the pressure required to achieve the displacement “d1”. The chest compliance is estimated from the following equation: [0000] Chest Compliance=|( d 1 −d 0)/( p 1 −p 0)| [0068] Where d1 is the displacement at the peak of the compression, d0 is the displacement at the onset of the compression, p1 is the pressure at the peak of the compression, and p0 is the pressure at the onset of the compression. The chest compliance can be calculated for each compression and averaged to improve the measurement accuracy. [0069] Once the patient specific chest compliance is known, it can be used to estimate the absolute displacement of the puck when combined with the instantaneous puck pressure measure from the following equation: [0000] Displacement=compliance*( p−p 0) [0070] Where p is the pressure measured from the puck at a point in time, p0 is the resting puck pressure when there is no compressions or handling by the rescuer. Therefore, the chest release displacement can be estimated by the following equation: [0000] Displacement at the release of chest=compliance*( p 3 −p 0). [0071] Where compliance is determined as described above, p3 is the chest release pressure (estimated as the onset pressure of the next compression), and p0 is the resting pressure. [0072] The chest release pressure can alternately be measured as the minimum pressure point between the two compressions. [0073] The chest release displacement point is compared to a pre-defined threshold level to determine if the chest was substantially released between two compressions (i.e., released sufficiently to create a pressure in the chest that facilitates venous filling of the heart). A combination of voice prompts and display messages can be used to tell the rescuer to more completely release the chest between compressions if the chest release displacement point does not return below the set threshold. The chest release displacement value can be averaged to improve the estimate accuracy. The comparison to the threshold level could also be done via “voting” logic such as the last x out of y values exceed the set threshold and trigger the release of chest feedback. The CPR release of chest algorithm continually runs while the rescuer performs CPR and provides immediate feedback if the rescuer does not release the chest at any time during the resuscitation. [0074] Although not necessary, the threshold level is preferably adjusted dynamically as a function of the calculated chest compliance. For patients with a lower compliance, the threshold can be increased since increased force will have little or no effect on displacement. For patients with higher compliance, the threshold may need to be decreased. [0075] The calculated estimate of chest compliance can also be used with the output of the force sensor to estimate the depth of chest compression. Thus, for example, the output of the accelerometer could be used with the output of the force sensor during an initial time interval to calculate an estimate of chest compliance. Thereafter, the estimated chest compliance could be used to convert the force measurement into an estimated depth of chest compression. [0076] FIG. 3 shows another implementation wherein the force sensor is replaced with a mechanical or electrical switch. The rescuer performs CPR by pressing on the switch/housing assembly. The switch is activated based on the forces used with CPR compressions and deactivated when a compression is released. The switch may provide for bistable positional states such as in a domed switch that when depressed would provide tactile feedback to the hand of the rescuer upon the start of the compression (dome collapse) and at the end of compression (dome return). The switch vibration associated with the transition between the two states may also be sufficient to provide an audible feedback to the rescuer as well. If the compression release vibration is heard and/or felt, the chest can be considered by the rescuer to have been released. [0077] FIG. 4 shows the acceleration, derived displacement, and switch output signals during a sample of CPR. Each compression is identified at the top of the diagram (C1-C5). The compression interval, rate, and depth are measured from the acceleration signal. The dashed line overlaying the switch output curve indicated the force on the puck assembly and is drawn to show the actuation of the switch when the force curve exceeds that activation threshold (solid straight line). Time t1 shows the actuation of the switch and time t2 shows the release of the switch. On the third compression (C3), the compression switches (ON) at time t3, but does not switch off at time t4 because the force on the chest does not go below the trigger threshold. The acceleration signal shows that chest compressions are continuing, but the switch indicates that the chest is not being substantially released. When chest release is not occurring, the AED can audibly and/or visually prompt the user to release the chest. [0078] In another implementation, the acceleration waveform alone is analyzed without the use of a switch or force sensor. FIG. 5 depicts the acceleration, velocity and displacement for a single compression/decompression cycle. The input signal from the acceleration sensor, as shown in the block diagram in FIG. 6 , is conditioned and filtered to minimized artifact and noise and is input to an A/D converter. The A/D converter is then read by the microprocessor. In FIG. 5 , the points of interest in the acceleration waveform are as follows: [0079] 1. A0 is the point of maximum acceleration during the compression downstroke. [0080] 2. A-2 is the compensatory small upstroke that rescuers often do just prior to the initiation of the compression downstroke and marks the initiation point of the compression downstroke. [0081] 3. A-1 is the point of maximum acceleration of the compression downstroke. [0082] 4. A1 is the point of maximum deceleration on the decompression upstroke. [0083] 5. A2 is a small upward release when the rescuer's hands are slightly lifted from the patient's sternum during an optimum compression cycle. [0084] 6. A-3 and A3 are inflection points where the signal deviates from baseline. [0085] 7. SA0 and SA1 are the slopes of the acceleration of the line segments on each side of A0. [0086] 8. SV0 and SV1 are the slopes of the line segments (˜acceleration) as shown on the velocity curve. [0087] 9. VMax is the maximum velocity achieved during the compression downstroke. [0088] Many algorithms can be used for determination of substantial release of the chest. One algorithm is as follows: [0089] 1. Determine fiducial point A0. Completion of the compression determination should approach real time in order to provide maximum benefit to the rescuer. Delays of approximately 1-4 seconds are acceptable and will limit the types of ‘search forward’ algorithms that can be implemented. A0 can be detected by a number of means. One method is to band pass filter the acceleration signal to produce maximum output signal amplitude of signals having a slope most closely approximating those observed in real compression signals. The band pass output is then input to a threshold detection function. If the signal amplitude is larger than the threshold, then SA0 has been detected. The threshold itself may be dynamically adjusted in amplitude to minimize susceptibility to noise and interference. For instance, if out of band noise such as 60 Hz interference is detected, then the threshold may be increased. The threshold may also be gradually lowered following an SA0 detection such that the probability of detection is increased for signals that occur at the expected interval and is decreasing for false signals that may occur immediately subsequent to the detection. Once SA0 has been detected, the algorithm can search forward until it finds the peak amplitude, A0. [0090] 2. Searching backwards and forwards from point A0, the points A-3, A-2, A-1, A0, A1, A2 and A3 can be determined. [0091] 3. The acceleration signal can then be decomposed into constituent triangles formed from these fiducial points. TriangleA0 refers to the triangle formed by the A-1, A0 and A1 fiducial points (in gray in FIG. 5 .). [0092] 4. The triangles are then parameterized using such morphological characteristics as width, amplitude, area, center of mass, skewness, height/width ratio, etc. [0093] 5. Area ratios are then calculated for the various triangle pairs. For example the ratio of the areas of TriangleA0 and TriangleA1, Acceleration Triangular Area Ratio(0,1) [TARA(0, 1)] [0000] TARA(0,1)=[Area Triangle A 0]/[Area of Triangle A 1] [0094] 6. Amplitude ratios are then calculated for the various triangle pairs. Degree of skew is incorporated into the amplitude calculation by incorporating either skewness or center of mass into the calculation for each triangle. For example the ratio of the areas of TriangleA0 and TriangleA1, Triangular Amplitude ratioA(0,1) (TAMPRA(0,1)) [0000] TAMPRA(0,1)=[Amplitude of Triangle A 0]/[Amplitude of Triangle A 1] [0095] 7. The same process is repeated for the triangular width ratio (TWR). [0096] 8. A rescuer who applies too much downward force during the decompression upstroke will cause incomplete decompression. This downward force opposes the natural elastic force of the thoracic cage and as a result causes a decreased amplitude and elongation of triangleA1 and triangleA2 as shown in FIG. 7 . [0097] 9. The acceleration signal is integrated beginning at inflection point A-3 and ending just subsequent to A3 in order to calculate the velocity. The same analysis is used to calculate the fiducial points V-2, VMax, V0 and V1, as well as TAR, TAMPR and TWRs for the velocity curve. [0098] 10. The velocity curve segment is integrated a second time to calculate displacement. Displacement values D-3 and D3 and DMax are calculated. Differential displacement, ΔD=D-3−D3 is calculated. [0099] 11. Based on DMax, the device can prompt the rescuer if the depth of compressions are not sufficient. [0100] 12. Based on VMax, the user can be prompted to deliver a ‘sharper’ more rapid pulse to improve hemodynamics. [0101] 13. End tidal carbon dioxide (EtCO2) measurements are taken during the course of CPR. Visual and/or audible prompting from the device can encourage the rescuer to increase rate and depth of compressions to improve hemodynamics. [0102] 14. The calculated parameters of width, amplitude, area, center of mass, skewness, height/width ratio, TAR, TAMPR and TWR for both the acceleration and the velocity as well as ΔD are used to make a decision on whether the chest was released. The methods used may be standard decision logic (IF-THEN-ELSE) or may involve methods such as fuzzy-logic decision methodology or statistical estimation such as Bayesian methods. In general, ΔD alone would not be used to determine chest release, but nonetheless the signal processing methods have made it possible with this method to be able to measure ΔD without the use of switches or force sensors. [0103] 15. Final determination of compression release can be withheld for a number of compression cycles to measure longer term trending of the parameters. For example, the rescuer may have momentarily had to pause to wipe their brow. [0104] Alternatively, other signal detection and classification methods known to those skilled in the art may be used to determine the relevant morphological features such as those shown in FIG. 7 (CPR with substantial chest release is shown by solid lines; inadequate chest release, by dashed line). [0105] In another implementation, a velocity sensor is used to determine the motion parameters. One of many possible techniques for sensing velocity is to use magnetic induction to generate a voltage proportional to the relative velocity between a magnet and coil. The configuration is shown in FIG. 8 . The magnet may take the form of a permanent magnet, but preferably it is an electromagnet. As shown in FIGS. 9A and 9B , a defibrillation pad is placed on the left thorax and another defibrillation pad is placed on the victim's back in the left scapular area. These are optimal locations for defibrillation and provide a good placement to generate magnetic flux changes proportional to sternal displacement. The coils are incorporated directly into the outer edge of each of the defibrillation electrodes. Alternatively, if the desired electrode position is anterior/anterior with both electrodes on the front of the chest, a separate backboard panel may be supplied which is placed under the patient and contains the receiving coil. The use of an electromagnet serves two main purposes: it can be used to calibrate the setup after the electrodes have been applied to the patient and they can be used to provide a synchronous modulation/demodulation of the signal to improve accuracy and minimize susceptibility to noise and artifact. [0106] The defibrillation electrodes can be constructed with a conventional configuration. An electrically conductive sheet of material that delivers defibrillation current to the patient is backed with an insulating thin foam material, and a slightly adhesive conductive gel coupling agent adheres the conductive sheet to the patient's skin. The foam backing also forms an approximately 0.5 to 1.0 inch border around the active conductive area. The magnetic coil element can be added onto the foam backing and becomes part of the border area, as shown in FIG. 10 . [0107] The device (e.g., AED) can be provided with circuitry for determining whether or not the electrodes have been properly applied to the patient. The method currently employed by most manufacturers of defibrillators is to use a small amplitude, high frequency signal (˜2 microamps, 60 KHz) to measure impedance. The electrodes are determined to be applied when the impedance falls into the physiologic range. [0108] When the device has detected the application of the electrodes, the device can prompt the rescuer to stand clear. At this time, the device will perform calibration of the velocity sensor. A time-varying signal, typically a ramp or sine wave of several frequencies of interest, such as the modulation frequency, is applied to the electromagnet and the signal is measured at the receiving coil. From this, gain and offset coefficients can be calculated for use during the CPR event. This calibration step allows for improved accuracy with patients of varying chest sizes and in the presence of any nearby magnetically conductive surfaces or objects. [0109] Preferably, a synchronous detector can be employed to minimize susceptibility to noise and artifact as shown in the block diagram in FIG. 11 . A sine wave carrier frequency of 500 Hz or more is supplied to the electromagnet coil to generate an oscillating magnetic field that, in turn, induces a voltage on the receiving coil. Chest compressions vary the field intensity at the receiving coil, thus causing an amplitude modulation of the carrier. As can be seen in FIG. 11 , a band pass filter immediately subsequent to signal reception reduces interference outside the range of the carrier frequency such as AC magnetic interference. The phase lock loop (PLL) is used for carrier regeneration, but since the transmitter and receiver are in the same device, the transmission carrier can be used for detection as well, as long as circuitry is provided for phase adjustment of the demodulation signal. Multiplexer S1, combined with the demodulation signal, causes rectification of the signal, which can then be low pass filtered to recover the compression velocity waveform. Alternatively, a synchronous AM demodulator can be employed with an analog multiplier stage. [0110] In another implementation, the velocity signal may then be used to reduce artifacts in the ECG signal. This is accomplished by first time-aligning the ECG and velocity signal by such methods as cross-correlation techniques known to those skilled in the art. This will provide alignment of the two signals relative to the compressions. Then, preferably, adaptive filtering methods are used such as those involved in the minimization of the mean-squared error between the ECG and the velocity. [0111] In a further implementation, more sophisticated signal processing methods may be used to minimize ECG artifacts induced by CPR chest compressions. For example, methods known as feed forward active noise cancellation (FANC) may be used. FIG. 12 shows a block diagram of the filtered-X least mean squares (FXLMS ANC) algorithm, as developed by Widrow and Burgess. P(z) represents the unknown plant through which the signal x(n) is filtered. Digital filter W(z) is adaptively adjusted to minimize the error signal e(n). In one implementation, as depicted in FIG. 13 , x(n) is the unfiltered ECG signal, P(z) is eliminated from the diagram, and d(n) is approximated with the chest compression velocity signal v(n). In the LMS algorithm, assuming a mean square cost function ξ(n)=E[e2(n)], the adaptive filter minimizes the instantaneous squared error, ξ(n)=e2(n), using the steepest descent algorithm, which updates the coefficient vector in the negative gradient direction with step size μ: [0000] w ( n+ 1)= w ( n )−μ/2 *Ñ ξ( n ), [0112] where Ñξ(n) is an instantaneous estimate of the mean square error (MSE) gradient at time n equal to −2v(n) e(n). Stability and accuracy of the FXLMS ANC algorithm by adding a variable cutoff low pass filter H(z) to eliminate frequency components in the ECG not related to the chest compression artifact. In general, the spectral energy of the chest compression artifact is predominately lower than those of the ECG. A cutoff frequency of approximately 3 Hz is adequate in many cases, but this may vary from patient to patient and among different rescuers performing chest compressions. To overcome this difficulty, an FFT is performed on v(n) and input into a cutoff frequency estimation (CFE) procedure that determines the optimal cutoff frequency, fC, for the lowpass filter. In a preferred implementation, the decision is based on calculating the frequency, not to exceed 5 Hz, below which 80% of the waveform energy is present, but this percentage may vary and additional decision logic may be employed. For instance, an FFT may also be calculated for x(n), also input to the CFE procedure. By first normalizing amplitude of the frequency spectra X(z) amplitude peak of the compression artifact and then subtracting the velocity spectra V(z) from the normalized input X′(z), the difference spectra is calculated ΔX′(z)=X′(z)−V′(z). Frequencies are then determined for V(z) and ΔX′(z) at which most of the spectral energy is within, set in this embodiment to 97%, and labeled fCV and fCX, respectively, and shown in FIG. 14 . FC is then set to the lesser of fCV and fCX. Alternatively, fC can be set to some intermediate frequency between fCV and fCX. [0113] A simpler though related implementation is shown in FIG. 15 , in which the CFE procedure is used to calculate the cutoff frequency for a high pass filter. Using the same methods as described in the previous paragraph, an FFT is performed on v(n) and input into a cutoff frequency estimation (CFE) procedure that determines the optimal cutoff frequency, fC, for, in this case, a high pass filter. In the preferred embodiment, the decision is based on calculating the frequency, not to exceed 5 Hz, below which 80% of the waveform energy is present, but this percentage may vary and additional decision logic may be employed. An FFT may also be calculated for x(n), and also input to the CFE procedure and the optimal high pass cutoff frequency can be determined by the methods described in the previous paragraph. For instances when the spectral energy of the compression artifact is distinct from the ECG signal, this method will have a performance equivalent to the FXLMS just described; its performance will be somewhat inferior when the spectra of the ECG and compression artifact overlap, however. [0114] One possible implementation is illustrated by a flow chart in FIG. 16 . The front end of an AED acquires both the ECG signal and the CPR signal, which is the velocity of compression of the chest. If chest displacement or acceleration are measured instead of velocity, velocity can be mathematically acquired via one or more integration or differentiation operations from the measurement signal. [0115] The velocity signal undergoes pre-processing, and is then fed to an adaptive filter. In a preferred implementation, the pre-processing is a normalization of the velocity signal so that the signal supplied to the adaptive filter is limited to be within 0 and 1. But normalization is not required. In another implementation, a time-aligning process is performed on the ECG and the reference signal by such methods as cross-correlation. This provide alignment of the two signals relative to the compressions so that the input signals of the adaptive filter are better aligned. But this aligning process is not required. Other preprocessing can be applied to the velocity signal to improve the performance of the adaptive filter. [0116] In FIG. 16 , x(n) and y(n) are the input and the output of the adaptive filter H, which can be an FIR filter, an IIR filter, or another type of filter. In a preferred implementation, the coefficients of the filter are dynamically controlled by the estimated ECG signal: [0000] h ( n )= h ( n− 1)+ m×e ( n )× X ( n ) [0117] where h(n) is a vector containing the filter coefficients, m is a vector containing the step sizes for each filter coefficients, e(n) is the estimated ECG signal, and X(n) is a vector containing the input data. The estimated ECG signal is computed by subtracting the filter output y(n) from the measured ECG signal (containing artifact). [0118] In some implementations, there is an automated resetting mechanism. When the difference between the filter output y(n) and the measured ECG s(n) is beyond a threshold, the adaptive filter will reset its coefficients so that the system will not become unstable. [0119] Other filter structures than the one shown in FIG. 16 , as well as other mathematical representations of the filtering, are possible. [0120] FIG. 17 shows samples of the performance of the adaptive filter of FIG. 16 in response to a normal sinus rhythm. The signal in (a) is the ECG signal with CPR artifact. The signal in (b) is the compression velocity used as the reference signal. The signal in (c) is the output of the adaptive filter. [0121] FIG. 18 shows samples of the performance of the adaptive filter of FIG. 16 during ventricular fibrillation. The signal in (a) is the ECG signal with CPR artifact. The signal in (b) is the compression velocity used as the reference signal. The signal in (c) is the output of the adaptive filter. [0122] As shown in both FIG. 17 and FIG. 18 , the implementation of FIG. 16 is able to suppress the CPR artifacts embedded in the measured ECG signals (a). The CPR artifact is nearly, if not completely, removed in the estimated ECG signal (c). The velocity signal (b) used as a reference signal is clearly correlated with the CPR artifacts in the measured ECG signals (a). [0123] The adaptive filter assumes that the artifact in the signal is correlated with the reference signal and uncorrelated with the desired signal (estimated ECG). It thus adaptively estimates the artifact using the reference signal and subtracts the estimated artifact from the measured ECG signal. [0124] The results shown in FIG. 17 are based on a 0th-order FIR filter, which simply scales the current sample of the ECG signal adaptively. The CPR artifact was significantly reduced, if not completely removed. This implementation thus combines simplicity and efficiency in its performance. [0125] In the applications of adaptive filters, the speed of adaptation convergence is usually controlled by a step-size variable. A faster convergence requires a larger step size, which usually tends to make the filter less stable. The automatic resetting mechanism of some implementations can dynamically change the step size and thus improve the relation of convergence and stability. [0126] The coefficients of the filter are updated in a sample-by-sample manner. The changes of the coefficients, i.e., h(n)-h(n−1) is proportional to the product of the step size and the reference signal. The amplitude of the reference signal can thus affect the stability and convergence of the filter. The pre-processing of the reference signal can therefore enhance the performance of the filter by adjusting the reference signal. [0127] In another implementation, a time-aligning process is performed on the ECG and velocity signals by such methods as cross-correlation. This provide alignment of the two signals relative to the compressions. Then, preferably, adaptive filtering methods are used such as those involved in the minimization of the mean-squared error between the ECG and the velocity. [0128] A processing unit could be provided for detecting when compressions are being applied and automatically turning on the adaptive filter. The output of the adaptive filter (i.e., the ECG signal with artifact reduced) could be supplied to a ventricular fibrillation (VF) detection algorithm (e.g., a shock advisory algorithm) of an automatic external defibrillator (AED). [0129] An error signal could be produced that is representative of the difference between the ECG input and ECG output of the adaptive filter. This error signal would give a measure of the amount of CPR artifact in the signal, and it would be useful as a means of modifying the subsequent processing of the ECG. For instance, if the artifact level gets high enough (e.g., higher than a first threshold), the VF detection algorithm thresholds could be increased to make it more resistant to any CPR artifact that still remained in the ECG signal. If the level got even higher (e.g., higher than a second threshold higher than the first threshold), the VF detection could be shut off entirely. [0130] In preferred implementation, the filter output is presented graphically on the display of a defibrillator or other medical device incorporating an electro-cardiographic function. The filter output may also be printed on a strip-chart recorder in the medical device. Alternatively, the filter output may provide the input signal for subsequent signal processing performed by the processing means. The purpose of such signal processing may take the form of QRS detection, paced beat detection during pacing, arrhythmia analysis, and detection of ventricular fibrillation or other shockable rhythms. [0131] Spectral analysis could be performed on the error signal, and based on the major bands of frequency content of the error signal, the pre-filtering of the ECG signal prior to the VF detection can be adjusted. For instance, if the error signal is found to reside primarily in the 3-5 Hz band, additional filtering can be provided in that band prior to input into the VF detection (or other ECG processing) algorithm. [0132] Many other implementations of the invention other than those described above are within the invention, which is defined by the following claims. [0133] For example, methods of adaptive channel equalization may be employed to ameliorate both synchronization and phase errors in the velocity waveform. Kalman filtering techniques may also be employed to improve performance of the filter when rescuer performance of chest compressions changes over time and is better modeled as a non-stationary process. [0134] Time alignment of the ECG and velocity signal may also be accomplished by such methods as cross-correlation techniques known to those skilled in the art. This will provide alignment of the two signals relative to the compressions. Then, preferably, adaptive filtering methods are used such as those involved in the minimization of the mean-squared error between the ECG and the velocity. [0135] In a further implementation, more sophisticated signal processing methods may be used to minimize ECG artifacts induced by CPR chest compressions. For example, methods known as feed forward active noise cancellation (FANC) may be used. FIG. 19 shows a block diagram of the filtered-X least mean squares (FXLMS ANC) algorithm, as developed by Widrow and Burgess. P(z) represents the unknown plant through which the signal x(n) is filtered. Digital filter W(z) is adaptively adjusted to minimize the error signal e(n). In one implementation, as depicted in FIG. 20 , x(n) is the unfiltered ECG signal, P(z) is eliminated from the diagram, and d(n) is approximated with the chest compression velocity signal v(n). In the LMS algorithm, assuming a mean square cost function ξ(n)=E[e2(n)], the adaptive filter minimizes the instantaneous squared error, ξ(n)=e2(n), using the steepest descent algorithm, which updates the coefficient vector in the negative gradient direction with step size μ: [0000] w ( n+ 1)= w ( n )−μ/2 *Ñ ξ( n ), [0136] where Ñξ(n) is an instantaneous estimate of the mean square error (MSE) gradient at time n equal to −2v(n) e(n). Stability and accuracy of the FXLMS ANC algorithm can be improved by adding a variable cutoff low pass filter H(z) to eliminate frequency components in the ECG not related to the chest compression artifact. In general, the spectral energy of the chest compression artifact is predominately lower than those of the ECG. A cutoff frequency of approximately 3 Hz is adequate in many cases, but this may vary from patient to patient and among different rescuers performing chest compressions. To overcome this difficulty, an FFT is performed on v(n) and input into a cutoff frequency estimation (CFE) procedure that determines the optimal cutoff frequency, fC, for the lowpass filter. In a preferred implementation, the decision is based on calculating the frequency, not to exceed 5 Hz, below which 80% of the waveform energy is present, but this percentage may vary and additional decision logic may be employed. For instance, an FFT may also be calculated for x(n), also input to the CFE procedure. By first normalizing amplitude of the frequency spectra X(z) amplitude peak of the compression artifact and then subtracting the velocity spectra V(z) from the normalized input X′(z), the difference spectra is calculated ΔX′(z)=X′(z)−V′(z). Frequencies are then determined for V(z) and ΔX′(z) at which most of the spectral energy is within, set in this embodiment to 97%, and labeled fCV and fCX, respectively, and shown in FIG. 21 . FC is then set to the lesser of fCV and fCX. Alternatively, fC can be set to some intermediate frequency between fCV and fCX. [0137] The quality of other physiological signals, such as impedance cardiographic (ICG), impedance pneumographic (IPG), or pulse oximetry, known to those skilled in the art, may also be also be enhanced by the filter, particularly if the sensor is located on the thoracic cage in nearby proximity to the motion sensor from which the velocity signal is derived. Minimization of compression artifact with impedance pneumography signals can be accomplished with any of the previously described methods. [0138] The adaptive filter can be used to minimize the cross-correlation of the adaptive-filter output with the reference signal or the cross-correlation of the adaptive-filter output with the measured ECG signal. [0139] Many other implementations of the invention other than those described above are within the invention, which is defined by the following claims. For example, it is not necessary that the invention include an external defibrillator, as a device for assisting delivery of CPR could be provided without defibrillation capability. The CPR assistance device could even be a pocket device that is for assisting with manual delivery of CPR. [0140] Features of the one aspect of the invention may not be required in implementations of other aspects of the invention. For example, it is not necessary in some implementations of the invention that chest compliance be determined, or that substantial release of the chest be determined, or that a particular type of sensor (e.g., accelerometer, force sensor, velocity sensor), or combination of sensors, be used, or that there be analysis of features of a motion waveform, or that maximum velocity be estimated, or that artifacts in detected ECG signals be reduced.

An apparatus for assisting a rescuer in performing chest compressions during CPR on a victim, the apparatus comprising a pad or other structure configured to be applied to the chest near or at the location at which the rescuer applies force to produce the chest compressions, at least one sensor connected to the pad, the sensor being configured to sense movement of the chest or force applied to the chest, processing circuitry for processing the output of the sensor to determine whether the rescuer is substantially releasing the chest following chest compressions, and at least one prompting element connected to the processing circuitry for providing the rescuer with information as to whether the chest is being substantially released following chest compressions.

This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 07/392,808 filed on Aug. 10, 1989. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Lighting systems for buildings typically are wired in the field by electricians. The electrician typically will run a shielded multi-conductor cable, such as BX cable, from a central panel through conduits that may be mounted in suspended ceilings or walls of a building. The cables that extend from the central panel typically will lead to distribution boxes, from which the electrician will extend a plurality of separate cables to lighting units, switches or the like. The electrician working in the field will strip insulation from the various cable wires and manually complete the electrical connections at the central panel, the distribution boxes and the junction boxes. Although this standard prior art process is effective, it is extremely labor intensive. Considerable manufacturing efficiencies have been achieved with respect to the stripping of insulation from wires, crimping terminals onto the wires and mounting terminated leads into electrical connector housings. In particular, the prior art includes many variations of apparatuses and processes for making electrical harnesses for signal lines having a plurality of insulated conductors terminated at each respective end, with the terminals thereof mounted in associated housings. The available harness assembling equipment, however, generally is operative to repeatedly perform a plurality of substantially identical operations, with each terminal, each wire and each harness being identical. Some known harness assembling equipment includes means for adjusting the crimp height to enable the harness assembling equipment to be changed over from making harnesses of a first dimension and/or type to making harnesses of a second dimension or type. Examples of this prior art include U.S. Pat. No. 4,587,725 which issued to Ogawa et al. on May 13, 1986; U.S. Pat. No. 4,790,173 which issued to Boutcher, Jr. on Dec. 13, 1988; U.S. Pat. No. 4,707,913 which issued to Moline on Nov. 24, 1987; and U.S. Pat. No. 4,400,873 which issued to Kindig et al. on Aug. 30, 1983. Each of these references shows apparatus for selectively adjusting the stroke of the crimp press. Another prior art terminating press is shown in U.S. Pat. No. 4,576,032 which issued to Maack et al. on Mar. 18, 1986 and which shows a crimp press having deflectable members to account for certain ranges of variations in the dimensions of a crimped terminal. The prior art includes power wire harness assemblies that are intended to eliminate a substantial portion of the on-site wiring that typically is completed by electricians in the field. In particular, extremely effective power wire harness assemblies have been provided by Lithonia-Reloc of Conyers, Ga. These assemblies include a shielded cable, such as BX cable, having a plurality of insulated conductors therein and having suitable electrical connectors securely mounted at opposed ends. The Reloc power wire harness assemblies can be extended from one junction box to another, from one cable to another or from a cable or junction box to a lighting fixture. Many power wire harnesses sold by Reloc include drop wires which extend from one of the two cable connectors of the power wire harness. The drop wire, with an associated connector mounted thereto, may be adapted to extend into a knockout on a lighting fixture. The typical power wire harness assembly manufactured by Lithonia-Reloc will include drop wires extending from the cable connector only at one end of the cable. The cable connector having drop wires extending therefrom will be mated to a cable connector on another harness assembly that has no drop wires. Thus, a daisy chain of power wire harness assemblies may be created, with drop wires extending from one cable connector in each harness assembly, and from one cable connector in each mated pair of cable connectors. The above described Reloc power wire harness assemblies substantially decrease the amount of on-site labor required by electricians. However, these prior art assemblies have not been well suited for the above referenced prior art automated harness assembling equipment. In particular, the terminations in each power wire harness assembly will vary significantly from one terminal to the next. For example, some terminations will require grounding clips, while others will not. Some terminals will include drop wires, while others will not. The drop wires may be 12 gauge solid or stranded wire, 18 gauge solid wire or 18 gauge stranded wire, with the particular selection of drop wires varying from one harness to the next. In most instances, the terminations at one end of the harness assembly will be significantly different from the terminations at the opposed end. In addition to the differences between the terminations on any single harness assembly, it is necessary to produce many different types of harness assemblies in accordance with the voltage and phasing requirements of the building's electrical system. For example, the gauge and number of conductors in the power cable may vary significantly from one harness assembly to the next. More particularly, the power cables are likely to include anywhere between three and five conductors per cable, with each conductor being either 12 or 18 gauge and being either solid or stranded. The length of the respective cables also will vary significantly from one harness assembly to the next. In view of these variables, the production of power wire harness assemblies has not been automated, and has merely moved the labor intensive assembling work from a largely uncontrolled field location to a more closely controlled factory location. Attempts to improve the efficiency of the above described power wire harness assembling process is also rendered difficult by the high degree of quality control required for power wiring in buildings. Quality control often can be assured by visually inspecting the harnesses at various stages of their manual assembly. Automated harness assembling devices, however, make visual inspection during the manufacturing process more difficult. In many instances, the terminations produced by the prior art apparatus are substantially hidden from view when the completed harness is ejected from the prior art apparatus. In view of the above, it is an object of the subject invention to provide an apparatus for more efficiently producing power wire harness assemblies. It is a further object of the subject invention to provide a power wire harness assembling apparatus that can readily adjust to different termination requirements from one conductor to the next and from one harness assembly to the next. A further object of the subject invention is to provide an apparatus and process for efficiently completing a power wire harness wherein selected terminals of the assembly have drop wires simultaneously terminated with selected cable wires. Still another object of the subject invention is to provide a power wire harness assembling apparatus and process which substantially simultaneously checks the presence of terminals and guides the terminals into a housing. An additional object of the subject invention is to provide a cable fixturing apparatus which places cable wires at a first pitch during trimming, stripping and terminating operations, but which establishes a second pitch for insertion into a housing. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The subject invention is directed to an apparatus and/or a system of apparatuses operatively connected to one another for assembling power wire harnesses. In particular, the subject invention may comprise conveying means for conveying a multi-conductor cable to a plurality of assembly or work stations at which the various conductors are prepared, terminated and inserted into a housing. A conveying means of the subject invention may cooperate with pallets on which cables of preselected lengths may be coiled and fixtured. The conveying means may comprise means for selectively indexing the pallets to one or more work stations at which various harness assembling steps may be carried out. The system may include means for selectively permitting idling of the pallets while work is being performed at one or more downstream locations. The system may further include means for selectively disengaging pallets from the conveying means and maintaining disengaged pallets at fixed positions in proximity to one or more work stations of the system. Each pallet of the conveying means preferably comprises a pair of fixtures for rigidly fixturing each end of the cable, such that the respective conductors thereof are in controlled spaced relationship to one another, with the respective ends of the conductors being disposed for selected work to be carried out thereon. The fixtures may be operative to change the spacing between the conductors at selected work stations. The system of the subject invention may comprise a work station with means for cutting and stripping drop wires to be terminated with selected conductors of the cable. This station may further comprise means for automatically placing the drop wires into selected wire receiving portions of the fixtures on the pallets. The drop wires may be positioned in the fixtures prior to or after placement of the cable wires therein. The order in which the drop wires are placed in the fixtures may be selected to achieve the most efficient flow of pallets through the work stations of the system. The system may further comprise one or more stations for trimming the cable wires to selected lengths, and/or for stripping selected lengths of insulation from the cable wires. The stripping preferably is carried out by cutting means which cuts through the insulation and subsequently pulls the insulation relative to a fixedly positioned pallet on which the cable wires are fixtured. The positioning of the drop wires relative to the cable wires can be either before or after the trimming and stripping of the cable wires as noted above. However, in embodiments where the drop wires are positioned first, it may be necessary to dispose the stripped end of the drop wire axially rearwardly of the end of the cable wire to prevent interference between the drop wire and the trimming and stripping means for the cable wire. In these latter embodiments, the station for stripping the cable wire may further comprise means for pulling the end of the drop wire axially forwardly and into alignment with the stripped end of the cable wire. The system of the subject invention may further comprise one or more stations for crimping terminals to the ends of the wires. The crimping station may be in proximity to means for feeding grounding clips to selected terminals in the power wire harness. The crimping station preferably is operative to sequentially crimp terminals to the conductors at each end of the power wire harness assembly. However, the sequential crimping may be carried out simultaneously at both ends of the harness assembly. The crimping apparatus may comprise programmable means for selectively varying the crimp height for each sequential crimp as needed. In particular, the crimp height will be adjusted depending upon the gauge of wires to be terminated, the presence or absence of a grounding clip and the presence, absence and/or size of a drop wire. The adjustment of the crimp height may be carried out by at least one cam wedge means which may be linearly slidable relative to the crimping press to effectively alter the position of the head of the crimp press for both the conductor and the insulation at the completion of a crimping cycle. The crimp press also may be programmable to control the number of crimping operations carried out at each end of the harness assembly in accordance with the number of conductors that are present at a particular end of the harness assembly. More than one crimping station may be provided to achieve optimum flow of harness assemblies through the system. The crimping station may further comprise means for assessing the quality of the crimped termination for each terminal. The system of the subject invention may further comprise a station for inserting the terminated wires of the cable into housings. In particular, housings may be sequentially fed into proximity to the fixtured ends of the cables. Means also may be provided for urging the terminated wires into a center-to-center spacing corresponding to the pitch required for the connector. The mounting of the terminals into the housings preferably is carried out with guide means for ensuring that the terminals are urged into the respective housings without potentially damaging contact between the terminals and the housings as part of the insertion process. The guide means may comprise probes that are directed through terminal receiving apertures in the housing and which subsequently engage the terminals. The probes may define either pins for engaging pin receiving terminals on a harness assembly or concave structures for engaging pin terminals, blades or other such male terminal means on the harness. The housing and the terminals may be moved relative to one another after the probes have properly engaged the terminals, to enable the probes to guide the terminals into the housing. The probes may comprise portions of test assemblies which test for the presence of terminals. The test assembly may be programmable to test for the presence of the specified number of terminals for the particular harness assembly. The absence of a specified terminal will be sensed by the probes and may generate a signal to identify an unacceptable harness assembly. The completed harness assembly may advance to other stations for mounting shells over the connector housing. These other stations on the system may be employed to test the completed harness assemblies, mount connectors to the drop wires and/or prepare the completed harnesses for shipment or storage. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a prior art power wire harness assembly that is manufacturable by the system of the subject invention. FIG. 2 is a schematic view of the system of the subject invention. FIG. 3 is a top plan view of a pallet for use in the system of the subject invention. FIG. 4 is a front elevational view of a pallet in proximity to a crimper of the subject system. FIG. 5 is a side elevational view of the wire continuity and position sensor assembly of the subject system. FIG. 6 is a front elevational view of the crimp station of the subject system. FIG. 7 is a top plan view of a pallet at the crimp station. FIG. 8 is a front elevational view of the crimp adjustment apparatus. FIG. 9 is a front elevational view of an alternate wire gathering assembly at the housing insertion station. FIG. 10 is a front elevational view of a wire lifter assembly for use with the wire gathering assembly. FIG. 11 is a side elevational view of the housing insertion station. FIG. 12 is a side elevational view of an alternative embodiment of the housing insertion station. FIG. 13 is a perspective view partly broken away of the housing push subassembly of the housing insertion station shown in FIG. 12. FIG. 14 is a front elevational view partly broken away of the pitch adjustment subassembly, of the housing insertion station shown in FIG. 12. FIG. 15 is a perspective view of the wire holding subassembly of the housing insertion station shown in FIG. 12. FIG. 16 is a front elevational view of an alternative embodiment of a wire holder mounted on a pallet. FIG. 17 is an exploded perspective view of an alternative wire continuity and position sensor assembly. FIG. 18 is a vertical sectional view, on enlarged scale, taken substantially on line 18--18 of FIG. 8. FIG. 19 is a perspective view of the swing arm assembly of FIG. 15. FIG. 20 is a detail side elevational view of a portion of the terminal positioning subassembly shown in FIG. 12. FIG. 21 is a detail rear elevational view of the portion of the terminal positioning subassembly shown in FIG. 20. FIG. 22 is a detail front elevational view of a portion of the wire separator of FIG. 17. FIG. 23 is a detail side elevational view of a portion of the wire separator of FIG. 22. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT The system of the subject invention is operative to efficiently produce a prior art power wire harness as indicated generally by the numeral 10 in FIG. 1, which may be one of the harness assemblies of the type manufactured by Lithonia-Reloc. The power wire harness 10 depicted in FIG. 1 is intended for interior applications, such as the fluorescent lighting widely employed in the suspended ceilings of commercial, office or light industrial buildings. It is to be understood, however, that many other applications for the power wire harness 10 exist. The power wire harness 10 comprises a cable 12, which may define a BX type of cable having a flexible outer metal shield. As depicted in FIG. 1, the cable 12 defines a relatively short length. It is to be understood, however, that the length of the cable 12 is subject to great variation depending upon the specifications established for the end use of the power wire harness 10. The cable 12 of the harness 10 includes a plurality of separately insulated conductors or cable wires (not shown) therein. The number and the cross sectional dimension or gauge of the separate cable wires may vary significantly from one power wire harness 10 to another. For example, the cable 12 may comprise a total of four cable wires therein, which are intended to define two hot wires, one neutral wire and one ground on the completed harness 10. Other cables, however, may have only three cable wires, while others may have five. The particular number of cable wires within the cable 12 will depend upon voltage, phasing and other system parameters. The power wire harness assembly 10 further comprises connectors 14 and 16 mounted respectively to the opposed ends of the cable 12. The connectors 14 and 16 include electrically conductive terminals (not shown) mounted therein and corresponding in number to the number of cable wires in the cable 12. The connectors 14 and 16 are defined by outer metallic shells 18 and 20 respectively that are mechanically joined to the cable 12. The connectors 14 and 16 further include non-conductive molded housings 22 and 24 respectively in which the terminals (not shown) are mounted. The connector 16 includes drop wires 25-28 extending therefrom. The drop wires 25-28 are terminated with the cable wires (not shown) to the respective terminals (not shown) within the connector 16. The drop wires 25-28 are terminated to a fixture connector 30 which can be snapped into engagement with a knock-out aperture in a lighting fixture for subsequent pluggable electrical connection to a corresponding connector on a lighting fixture. It will be noted that the connector 14 does not include a corresponding array of drop wires. A plurality of power wire harnesses 10 of selected lengths may be employed in daisy chain fashion by electrically joining the harnesses 10 in end-to-end relationship. Thus, the connector 14 of one power wire harness 10 will be mated with a connector 16 on a second power wire harness 10. The connections between power wire harnesses will be made in proximity to the knock-out apertures in the lighting fixtures, such that the drop wires 25-28 can be directed toward the lighting fixture. The fixture connector 30 then can be snapped into engagement with the knock-out aperture in the lighting fixture. It is to be understood that many of the power wire harnesses manufactured by the system and process of the subject invention will be similar to the harness 10 shown in FIG. 1, but will not include the drop wires 25-28. These harnesses will be used substantially like extension cords, and will minimize inventory problems of the specifically configured harnesses 10 having drop wires 25-28 28 extending therefrom. It also should be emphasized that the harnesses 10 are subject to many other variations as noted above. In particular, the specifications of the drop wires may vary considerably as to the number of wires, the gauge of the wires, and whether the wires are stranded or solid. The number and gauges of cable wires also can vary. Additionally, certain of the cable wires will be terminated with grounding clips, while others will not. The system for forming the power wire harnesses 10 is illustrated schematically in FIG. 2, and is identified generally by the numeral 32. The system 32 includes a chain track 34 along which pallets 36 are movable. The portion of the chain track 34 illustrated in FIG. 2 is operative to move the pallets 36 linearly in a direction indicated by arrow "A". The system 32 further comprises a down elevator 38 and an up elevator 40 which define the extreme ends of the system 32. The system 32 further comprises a lower chain track (not shown) which also connects the down elevator 38 and the up elevator 40 but which is operative to travel in a direction opposite the direction indicated by arrow "A". It is to be understood, however, that the system 32 may define a loop disposed at a single elevation and without the elevators 38 and 40. A pallet 36 is illustrated in greater detail in FIGS. 3 and 4. More particularly, the pallet 36 is a generally rectangular planar structure having a top surface 42 and an opposed bottom surface 44. The top surface 42 of the pallet 36 includes a plurality of cable guides 46 rigidly mounted thereto in spaced relationship to one another. The cable guides 46 enable a coil of cable 12 to be securely retained on the pallet 36, as shown in FIG. 3. The pallet 36 further comprises a pair of cable support brackets 48 having generally semi-cylindrical grooves 50 formed therein for receiving portions of the cable 12 adjacent the ends of the metallic shield thereon. The cable support brackets may optionally be provided with clamping means for securely, but releasably, retaining the cables therein. Wire holder assemblies 52 are mounted to the top surface 42 of the pallet 36 adjacent the cable support brackets 48. This particular embodiment of each wire holder assembly 52 comprises a pair of end supports 54 and 56 which are mounted to the top surface 42 of the pallet 36 in spaced relationship to one another. A plurality of wire guides 58-62 are disposed intermediate the supports 54 and 56 respectively. The wire guides 58-62 each include a notch in the top portion thereof dimensioned to engage one of the cable wires and to additionally engage one of the drop wires if required. The wire guide 58 is rigidly mounted to the end support 54. However, spring assemblies 63-66 are sequentially disposed intermediate adjacent wire guides 58-62 as shown in FIG. 3. Thus, the wire guides 59-62 can be collapsed relative to one another and urged respectively toward the wire guide 58. However, the forces exerted by the springs 63-66 will urge the wire guides into a fully extended position relative to one another such that the wire guide 62 is adjacent to the support 56. The wire holder assembly 52 further comprises core pins 68 and 69 which extend slidably through the support 56 and are attached to the wire guide 62. Thus, a force exerted on the core pins 68 and 69 will overcome the forces exerted by springs 63-66 and cause the wire guides 59-62 to be urged toward one another and toward the wire guide 58. In their extended condition, as shown in FIG. 3, the wire guides 58-62 define center to center spacings of approximately 0.588 inch. However, in their collapsed condition the wire guides 58-62 define center to center spacings of only about 0.316 inch which corresponds to the pitch of the housing as explained below. Other selected center to center spacings in the expanded and collapsed conditions of the wire holder assembly 52 may, of course, be provided depending upon the requirements of the system. The object of the selective expansion and contraction of the wire holder assembly is to provide adequate room for trimming, stripping and crimping operations in the expanded condition, and also to enable efficient insertion of the terminated wires into closely spaced apertures in a housing. Another efficient but substantially less expensive alternative to the above described wire hold assemblies 52 is to replace wire holder assemblies 52 with a rigid wire holder assembly generally designated 200 (FIG. 16) with wire guide receiving slots 201 disposed at a center-to-center spacing of 0.588 inch, or other appropriate spacing for the terminals being employed. Wire holder 200 includes a two piece block assembly 202 and 203 with springs 204 secured therebetween. Block 202 has vertical apertures 205 therethrough to permit block 202 to slide on bolts 206. In the embodiment shown, wire retainer 207 has five wire receiving slots 201 spaced 0.588 inches apart. Wire retainer 207 is made of polyurethane to permit wires 12c and 12d to be releasably held in each slot 201. As discussed below, an appropriate downstream station may then be provided to remove wires from the wire guides and to collapse the wires to a closer spacing for insertion into a housing as explained and illustrated below. The pallet 36 further includes a plurality of shot pin holes 70 which are engageable by shot pins 72 to lift the pallet 36 from the chain track 34 at selected work stations as shown in FIG. 3, and as explained further below. Returning to FIG. 2, the pallets 36 of the system 32 are movable along the chain track 34 to a plurality of different work stations. The first station is a cable load station 76. A technician may be disposed at location 76 to manually load coils of cable 12 onto the pallet 36 positioned at station 76. The cable 12 typically will be coiled to define a diameter of approximately 15 inches with lengths of cable extending between 2 inches and 12 inches beyond the tangent point of the coil. The cable 12 will be pre-cut to a selected length and will have selected lengths of cable wires extending from the respective opposed ends of the shielding. Stations 77 and 78 are located downstream of the cable load station 76 and define stations for fixturing the cable wires within the wire holder assemblies 52. The stations 77 and 78 may be operated by one or more technicians depending upon the cycle times required for the system 32. For example, station 77 may be employed to position and fixture the cable wires at the first end of the cable 12, while station 78 may be employed to position and fixture wires at the opposed second end of the cable 12. The cable wires are mounted in the wire holder assemblies 52 in an unstripped condition. Additionally, in some operations, drop wires may be positioned manually in the fixtures immediately prior to the manual placement of the cable wires. Any drop wires that may be positioned at this station will be stripped and may have terminals attached to the trailing end. The drop wires will be positioned in the fixtures first and the cable wires will then be positioned with their unstripped ends axially forwardly relative to the ends of the precisely positioned drop wires. It should be noted that most drop wires will be automatically positioned at a downstream station as explained herein. Manual placement of drop wires will only be employed to achieve optimum cycle time in some situations. A trim and strip station 80 is disposed downstream from the cable wire fixturing stations 77 and 78. The trim and strip station 80 is initially operative to simultaneously trim the cable wires to specified lengths, such that the trimmed ends of the cable wires are at specified distances forward of the fixtures and the ends of any previously positioned drop wires. The station 80 subsequently is operative to strip a selected amount of insulation from each cable wire. As shown in FIG. 2, the trim and strip station 80 includes first and second trimming and stripping devices 82 and 84 for the respective first and second ends of each cable 12. The trimming and stripping devices 82 and 84 are operative to simultaneously cut all wires on a pallet 36 and then to simultaneously strip all wires on the opposed first and second ends of the cable 12. Such trimming and stripping devices are well known in the art. One manufacturer of such devices is Komax AG, Lucerne, Switzerland. The trimming and stripping devices 82 and 84 are operative to move relative to the pallet 36 for pulling the insulation from the conductor of each cable wire 12. This pulling movement of the trimming and stripping devices 82 and 84 also is operative to grip any drop wire that may be present and pull it forwardly to be aligned with the trimmed end of the cable wire. The drop wire station 86 is operative to programmably pay-out specified lengths of a selected drop wire, which may be 12 gauge solid wire, 18 gauge solid wire or 18 gauge stranded wire. The leading end of the length of drop wire is appropriately stripped and is programmably placed in a selected wire guide 58-62 of the wire holder assembly 52. The opposed end of each drop wire may be stripped, partially stripped or unstripped depending upon the particular connection to be made with the drop wires. As noted above, not all harness assemblies produced by the system 32 will require drop wires. In situations where drop wires are not required, the station 86 will merely define a test station. The drop wire station 86 (FIG. 5) includes testers 88 as shown in FIG. 5. Each tester 88 includes probes 90 which are disposed to be axially in line with any cable wires 12c or drop wires 12d that may be present. The probes 90 are operative to move axially forward to contact the ends of the conductors that may be present, and to test for the presence of each conductor that should be present, to test for proper position of the conductor and to test for continuity between opposed ends of each cable wire 12c. A failure of any test will generate a signal to identify the particular pallet for a special treatment which may vary depending upon the particular sensed condition. In some instances, the cable 12 will have to be scrapped, while in other instances appropriate corrective action may be employed, such as realigning the stripped end of a wire or positioning a drop wire. An alternative testing station indicated generally at 350 is shown in FIG. 17. Testing station 350 has two substations 351 and 352, one for each end of cable 12. The first substation 351 is utilized for testing the end of cable 12 having only cable wires 12c. The second substation 352 is utilized for testing the end of cable 12 having both cable wires 12c and drop wires 12d. Substation 351 has five spring-loaded test probes 353 reciprocally mounted in lower contact holder 354 and oriented perpendicular to wires 12c. The test probes 353 project out of holder 354 a sufficient distance to permit contact with the conductor of stripped wires 12c. Electrical wires (not shown) are attached in known manner to the system controller. Pneumatic cylinder 355 is fixed to frame 356 and cylinder rod 357 is secured to block 358 which is secured to holder 354. When cylinder 355 is actuated, block 358 is forced upward and slides along guide rods 360 which extend therethrough. Tapered wire guides 359 are provided to guide wires 12c to probes 353. The second substation 352 includes the same structure as that of the first substation 351 and like numbers are used to describe like components. The second substation further comprises a wire separator 361 that is fixed to the top of guide rods 360. Wire separator 361 includes two outer insulating members 362 and 363 with a conductive plate 364 disposed therebetween. A wire (not shown) is attached to conductive plate 364 and extends to the system controller. Upper insulating member 362 is dimensioned so that a portion 365 of the upper surface of conductive plate 364 is exposed so that the stripped portion of drop wires 12d can contact portion 365 (FIG. 23). However, the portion 365 is sufficiently narrow so that a drop test wire probe 366 (described below) will contact the upper non-conductive member 362 rather than conductive plate 364 upon moving probes 366 towards wire separator 361. Drop wire test probes 366 are spring-loaded and mounted for reciprocal vertical movement in upper contact holder 367 in the same manner as probes 353 and also include electrical wiring to the system controller. Pneumatic cylinder 370 is secured to offset bar 371 and the cylinder rod 372 is fixed to block 378. Retracting cylinder 370 pulls block 378 downward and slides it along guide rods 373 which extend therethrough. Upper contact holder 367 is fixed to block 372. Offset bar 371 is fixed to shafts 374A which are driven by powerslide 375 that is fixed to frame 376. Proximity sensors 377 are connected to the system controller in known manner and are associated with proximity flag 380 so that the controller can confirm that the powerslide 375 has completed a stroke. In operation, a pallet 36 arrives at testing station 350 with wires 12c stripped and held in wire holder 200. The pallet is aligned so that wires 12c at each end of the harness 10 are located above probes 353 at the first and second substations 351 and 352. The wires 12c associated with substation 352 are located below wire separator 361 and the wires 12c associated with substation 351 are located beneath plate 379. Drop wires 12d having stripped ends are then inserted into the wire holder at substation 352 so that the stripped ends are located above wires separator 361. Power slide 374 is then actuated to slide offset bar 371 and the test probes 366 mounted thereon horizontally towards the drop wires until the test probes are located above the drop wires 12d and wire separator 361. Pneumatic cylinders 355 are then actuated to force probes 353 into contact with cable wires 12c. Pneumatic cylinder 370 is retracted which forces upper contact holder 367 downward. The drop wire test probes contact any drop wires that are located at substation 352. If no drop wire is present, the probe will contact upper insulating member 362. If a drop wire is present and is properly stripped, the probe associated with that drop wire will complete an electrical circuit between the conductive plate 364 and probe 366. The system controller will then test the wires to verify that each wire 12c at both ends of the cable 12 are in the correct position within wire holder 200. That is, the controller will determine whether the wires have been loaded into the wire holder in the incorrect sequence. If the controller does not sense the continuity between the ends of the wires, an error signal is generated. Likewise, if a drop wire is supposed to be present, probe 366 must complete the circuit to conductive plate 364 or else an error signal will be generated. Crimp stations 92 and 94 are disposed downstream from the drop wire station 86. The provision of two crimping stations 92 and 94 is intended to provide the most efficient cycle time and to avoid down time for maintenance. The crimp stations 92 and 94 are otherwise identical, except for the particular cable wires and terminals being crimped, and each is operative to crimp as many as five wires. Thus one crimp station 92 or 94 may be used for all crimps when the other station is down for repair or tool replacement. The crimp station 92 as shown in FIG. 2 and 6-8 includes first and second crimping presses 96 and 98 and a ground clip feed bowl 100 which is operative to feed ground clips (not shown) to the wire guides prior to crimping. The first and second crimp press 96 and 98 each are operative to sequentially crimp terminals fed from reels 102 and 104 to both the conductor and insulator of wires 12c, 12d at the respective first and second ends of the cable 12. The pallet 36 disposed at the crimp station 92 is indexed incrementally between sequential cycles of the crimp presses 96 and 98 by the servo feed shown schematically in FIG. 7 and identified generally by the numeral 106 in FIG. 7. Thus, the crimp presses 96 and 98 will simultaneously crimp a terminal to a first cable wire 12c plus any drop wire 12d or ground clip that may be present in the cable 12. The pallet 36 will then index approximately 0.588 inch and the first and second crimp presses 96 and 98 will crimp terminals to second cable wires in the cable 12 plus any drop wire or ground clip that may be present. This cycle will repeat at least a third time after which the pallet 36 may be advanced to a downstream station for either additional terminal crimping operations or for insertion of the terminated wires into the housing as explained below. Thus, crimp press 96 will crimp all of the terminals at one end of cable 12 and crimp press 98 will crimp all of the terminals at the other end. The crimping presses 96 and 98 comprise wire locators 108 and 110 respectively which are slidably mounted on support rods 112 and 114 as shown in FIG. 7. The wire guide locators 108 and 110 are urged downwardly as part of an initial movement of the crimp press 96, 98 to securely retain the wires and ground clips in the wire guides 58-62. The wire guide locators 108 and 110 will slide along the rods 112 and 114 with the indexing of the pallet 36 by servo motor 106 between sequential cycles of the crimp presses 96 and 98. As noted above, the terminations will vary significantly from one terminal to the next, depending upon the gauge and type of cable wire 12c, the gauge and type of any drop wire 12d that may be present, and the presence or absence of grounding clips. The terminals 156, however, are the same regardless of which wires are present. The system of the subject invention includes a programmable controller, indicated schematically by the numeral 116 in FIG. 2, into which control data as to the number and gauges of cable wires 12c, the presence, absence, type and location of drop wires 12d and the location of grounding clips may be entered. In order to achieve the optimum crimp for each terminal 156 as the pallet is indexed at crimp station 92, the travel of the crimp tooling must vary for each crimp depending upon the absence or presence of the various wires. Accordingly, the crimping presses 96 and 98 comprise crimp height controllers 118 as shown most clearly in FIG. 8, which are operatively connected to the programmable controller 116 in which the control data are entered. In this manner, the crimp presses 96 and 98 are operative to perform an optimum crimp on the particular arrangement of wires and grounding clips being presented thereto. More particularly, the crimp height controllers 118 each comprise cam wedges 119 and 120 which are slidably movable in opposed respective linear directions orthogonal to the crimping direction of the crimp presses and under the action of stepper motors 124 and 122, respectively. Conductor crimping punch 121 and insulation crimping punch 123 (FIGS. 8 and 18) are mounted adjacent each other above terminal 156. The punches are slidable vertically and have tapered top surfaces 125 and 127 which contact wedge surfaces 129 and 131 of cam wedges 119 and 120, respectively. Accordingly, by sliding cam wedges 119 and 120 horizontally, the height of punches 121 and 123 above their respective anvils, 133 and 135, and thus the crimp height can be varied. The controlled sliding movement of the cam wedges 118 and 120 determine the maximum crimp stroke enabled by the crimp press for the conductor crimp and insulation crimp respectively. Thus, the crimp height controller is operative to achieve an optimum crimp height and pull out force for each particular crimp, depending upon the programmed characteristics of the wires and/or grounding clips being terminated. After the termination has been completed, the pallet 36 advances downstream to the insertion station 126 as shown in FIG. 2. The movement of the pallet 36 into the insertion station 126 causes the core pins 68, 69 of the wire holder assemblies 52 to be engaged, and thereby collapsing the wire guides 58-62 toward one another. Alternatively, a pallet without collapsible wire holder assemblies may be provided. In this embodiment, as shown in FIG. 9, the insertion station 126 includes a collapsible fixture assembly 128 with separate notched fixtures 130 for engaging the terminated wires. The notched fixtures 130 are connected by pantograph linkage members 132 and are powered by air cylinder 134 to selectively collapse the wires to a 0.316 inch spacing. The insertion station 126 further includes a wire gripper and lifter assembly 136, as shown in FIG. 10, with selectively rotatable arms 138 and 140 for lifting and gathering the wires 12c into a spacing consistent with the collapsed condition of the fixture assembly 128. The collapsible fixture assembly 128 and the wire gripper and lifter assembly 136 are operative to lift the ends of the cable 12 from the fixture on the pallet and then to effect the collapsing. The insertion station 126 includes a dual track bowl feed and supply hopper 142, as shown generally in FIG. 2, from which molded plastic housings are fed into first and second positions 144 and 146 adjacent the opposed first and second ends of the cable 12. The first and second positions 144 and 146 of the insertion station 126 are in proximity to movable probe assemblies 148 as shown in FIG. 11, which have a plurality of probes 150 corresponding in number to the maximum number of cable wires 12c. Additionally, the spacing between the probes corresponding to the spacing between terminal receiving apertures 152 in the housings 154. The probe assemblies 148 advance toward the housing 154 such that the respective probes 150 pass through the corresponding terminal receiving apertures 152 in the housings 154. Additionally, the movement of the probe assemblies 148 causes the respective probes 150 to contact and engage the terminals 156 crimped to the ends of the respective wires 12c, 12d. The probes 150 are operatively connected to known test circuitry such that the presence of a terminal 156 can be sensed and, if desired, such that the continuity of a cable wire 12c can be sensed. A cable 12 will be identified for rejection if a required terminal is not sensed as being present, or if the probe assemblies 148 fail to accurately sense the necessary continuity along the length of the cable wires 12c. On the other hand, once the probe assemblies 148 have sensed an acceptable product, the insertion station 126 is operative to move the housings 154 relative to the terminals 156 and the probe assemblies 148. The probe assemblies 148 are thus operative to guide the respective terminals 156 into the terminal receiving cavities 152 of the housing 154, while simultaneously ensuring that inadvertent and potentially damaging contact between the leading ends of the terminals 156 and the walls of the housing 154 is avoided. Upon complete movement of the housings 154 over the terminals 156, the probe assemblies 148 are retracted and the pallet 36 is advanced to an unload station at which the completed harness assembly is unloaded. The pallet 36 is then advanced toward the down elevator for recycling in the system. In optional embodiments (not shown), the pallet 36 may advance to locations at which a metallic shell is mechanically engaged around the housing and the jacket of the cable. An alternative insertion station 126 is shown in FIG. 12. Such an insertion station is utilized with a pallet 36 having a constant pitch wire holder 200 (FIG. 16). The insertion station 126 includes a housing push subassembly indicated generally at 211 for pushing connector housing 154 onto terminals 156. A pitch adjustment subassembly indicated generally at 212 is provided for securing the wires 12c and 12d and reducing the pitch of the cable wires 12c prior to insertion into housing 154. A wire holding subassembly indicated generally at 213 and a subassembly 214 for depressing the wire holder 200 attached to the pallet are also provided. A terminal positioning subassembly indicated generally at 215 for accurately positioning the terminals 156 prior to insertion into housing 154 is further provided. As previously described, cable 12 has two ends onto which a housing is inserted. Accordingly, as described above, the insertion station 126 includes first and second positions 144 and 146 (FIG. 2) at which the housings 154 are inserted onto the terminals 156. Therefore, it should be understood that only one half of insertion station 126 is described below since each of the mechanisms is required at the first and second positions 144 and 146 of the insertion station. Housing push subassembly (FIG. 13) has two power slides 216, 217 mounted to insertion station frame 218. Power slide 216 is mounted so that center portion 220 is fixed to frame 218 and end portions 221 are reciprocally slidable. A housing push block 222 is fixed to one of end portions 221 so that actuation of power slide 216 reciprocally moves push block 222. Housing push block 222 has apertures 223 through which probes 150 extend towards terminals 156. Limit switches of known type 224 are provided to verify the position of power slide 216 so that the operation occurs in the proper sequence. The distance housing push block 222 can move housing 154 towards pitch adjustment subassembly 212 is adjustable through the use of nut and bolt assembly 219. Power slide 217 is mounted so that end portions 225 are fixed to frame 218 while center portion 226 slides relative to the end portions and the frame. Center portion 226 bores 227 through which probes 150 extend and are slidable therein. One probe 150 is provided for each terminal 156. The sliding movement of the probes is limited by stops 228 which are fixed to each probe and located between shoulder 229 and shoulder 231. Thus, probes 150 are only capable of limited travel relative to center portion 226. As described in further detail below, the springs 230 are compressed when the probes 150 contact terminals 156 during the end of the stroke of powerslide 217 as it moves to the left in FIG. 12. Thus, the probes are mounted on and extend through center portion 226 but the movement of center portion 226 horizontally also moves the probes horizontally through apertures 223 in push block 222 and into contact with terminals 156. Proximity flags 232 are fixed to probes 150. One proximity sensor 233 for each probe 150 is provided at support 234. One additional proximity sensor 235 is provided in support 236 and aligned with the center probe to monitor that the probes are fully retracted when they are supposed to be so that a new housing can be loaded into the insertion station. Wires (not shown) are connected to each proximity sensor and connected to the system controller in known manner. Sensors 233 operates first to determine whether the terminals 156 are properly positioned and then to determine whether they are properly inserted into housing 154. Proximity sensor 235 is used to determine when the probes 150 have been retracted so that a new housing 154 can be loaded into the insertion station 126. Pitch adjustment subassembly 212 (FIG. 14) includes similar lower and upper mechanisms 240 and 241 that are located below and above wires of cable 12, respectively. Each mechanism includes a fixed center arm 242 and inner moveable arms 243 located on opposed sides of center arm 242. Outer moveable arms 244 are located on the sides of inner arms 243 opposite center arm 242. Outer and inner arms 243 and 244 have bores therethrough and are slidably mounted on shafts 245. Pneumatic cylinders 246 are located adjacent the outside edge 247 of each outer arm. Upon actuating pneumatic cylinders 246, the shaft of each cylinder is forced into contact with the outside edge 247 of each outer arm 244 which in turn forces arm 244 towards center arm 242 and into contact with inner arm 243 so that outer arm 244 contacts inner arm 243 and the inner arm contacts center arm 242. Through such an arrangement, the gaps between the arms are eliminated upon actuation of the pneumatic cylinders and the pitch between the wires is changed. Springs 248 are provided between the arms to restore them to their original pitch after pneumatic cylinders 246 are retracted. Each arm of lower subassembly 240 has a vertical wire receiving slot 249 located at the top thereof. Each arm of upper subassembly 241 also has a vertical slot 250 into which a wire contacting pin 251 is slidably located. A compression spring 252 is located in slot 250 to bias pin 251 in a lowered position. The spring actuated pins permit the use of different diameter wires and multiple wire without modification of the tooling. In order to permit the pallets 36 to travel around track 34 of the system, each subassembly of the housing insertion station 126 has a mechanism for vertical movement so that each subassembly has a non-engaged position at which there is sufficient clearance so that the pallet can pass by the insertion station subassemblies. Each subassembly also has an engagement position at which wherein an operation is performed on the pallet or the cable wires. Lower subassembly 240 is moveable vertically on slide bearings 253 through the use of pneumatic cylinder 254 and linkage arms 255 and 256. The lower arm 255 is pinned to frame 218 and the upper arm 256 is pinned to lower subassembly 235. As best shown in FIG. 12, by extending cylinder 254, linkage arms 255 and 256 will move lower subassembly 240 upward so that wires 12c and 12d engage wire receiving slots 249. By actuating pneumatic cylinder 270, shaft 271 forces upper subassembly 241 downward towards pallet 36. Wire holding subassembly 213 (FIGS. 15 and 19) includes upper and lower mechanisms 260 and 261 mounted to plate 262. Upper mechanism 260 includes a power slide 263 fixed to plate 262. Block 264 is fixed to rods 269 of the power slide. A wire clamping block 265 made from a resilient material such as polyurethane is secured to block 264. Lower mechanism 261 includes a rotatable arm 266 secured to cylindrical block 267 (FIG. 19) which is rotatably and slidably mounted on shaft 268. Block 267 has an annular rib 272 at its edge closest to plate 262. A locator block 273 (FIG. 19) having a bore for receiving shot pin 274 is also mounted to arm 266. Shot pin 274 is fixed to the portion of bracket 275 that is parallel to plate 262. A wire clamping block 276 is fixed to the end of arm 266 opposite shaft 268. A first pneumatic cylinder 280 is mounted to plate 262 on the side opposite arm 266. The shaft 281 of cylinder 280 has mounted thereon a cylindrical block 282 having an annular rib 283. Cylinder 280 is located and blocks 267 and 282 are dimensioned so that annular rib 272 of block 266 is adjacent annular rib 283 of block 282. A second pneumatic cylinder 290 (FIG. 15) is provided wherein it is rotatably mounted to plate 262 at one end 291 and swively mounted to arm 266 at its other end 292. Thus, by extending cylinder 290, arm 266 swings through its range of motion from its non-engaged position (shown in phantom) to its engaged wire holding position as shown in FIGS. 12 and 15. Through activation of both upper and lower mechanisms 260 and 261, wires 12c and 12d are engaged between the lower face 293 of wire clamping block 265 and the wire clamping face 294 of arm 266. A third pneumatic cylinder 320 is also mounted to plate 262. The actuation of this cylinder forces push block 321 downward and into contact with cable 12 to ensure it is securely held by its clamping fixture 322. The subassembly 214 (FIG. 12) for depressing wire holder 200 is located between upper pitch adjustment mechanism 241 and wire holding subassembly 213. Subassembly 214 includes a pneumatic cylinder 295 which forces slide bearing 296 and block 297 attached thereto downward into contact with upper surface 298 (FIG. 16) of wire holder block 202. The force from cylinder 295 compresses springs 204 and forces the entire wire holder 200 downward. By actuating holder depressing subassembly 214 after activation of wire holding subassembly 213 and engagement of the wires 12c and 12d by pitch adjustment sub assembly 212, wires 12c and 12d are removed from the wire holder 200 while they are maintained on their pre-removal centerlines. Terminal positioning subassembly 215 (FIGS. 20 and 21) includes a terminal alignment template 300 for centering each terminal along the desired centerline at nesting positions 302. Template 300 has tapered edges 301 that guide the terminals 156 into the terminal nesting positions 302 upon actuation of cylinder 303 which forces shaft 304 and alignment template attached thereto downward towards the terminals. Attached to the template 300 are axial positioning nibs 305 which contact shoulder 306 of terminals 156 when the terminals are properly positioned. A terminal support member 309 is mounted to lower pitch adjustment mechanism 240 in order to support the terminals to ensure that they are not below the proper height before mating with probes 150. Subassembly 215 also includes a terminal rotating mechanism 310 which operates to ensure that none of the terminals 156 are rotated prior to insertion in the housing 154. Fingers 311 are spring loaded on bolts 312 which are secured to block 313 which in turn is fixed to the shaft of cylinder 314. Upon actuation of the cylinder, the fingers are moved downward so that the flat lower surface 315 of each finger contacts the flat portion of the crimp of each terminal. If the terminal is rotated, the force of the finger will rotate the terminal until the terminal is aligned with the crimp section facing upward. Fingers 311 also operate to close the cover (not shown) of housing 154 after terminals 156 have been inserted therein. In operation, pallet 34 arrives at insertion station 126 with wires 12c and 12d loaded into wire holder 200 and terminals 156 crimped on the wires. After the pallet is seated at the station, pneumatic cylinder 254 is actuated which elevates lower pitch adjustment mechanism 240 so that wires 12c and 12d are located within wire receiving slots 249. The height adjustment mechanisms comprised of pneumatic cylinder 254 and lower and upper arms 255 and 256 are adjusted so that wires 12c and 12d and terminals 156 crimped thereon are maintained at the desired centerlines in order to permit mating with probes 150. Upper pitch adjustment mechanism 241 (FIG. 14) is then lowered by actuating cylinder 270. The wire contacting pin 251 associated with each arm of upper subassembly 241 contacts the top surface of the wires and fixes the wires securely within wire receiving slot 249. The springs 252 are provided, in part, so that upper pitch adjustment mechanism 241 can be utilized without modification regardless of whether drop wires 12d are present in each terminal 156. That is, if a drop wire is present in one slot 249, the pin 251 associated with that slot will contact the drop wire before the pins associated with the other slots contact the wire in their respective slots. In such case, the spring 252 of the pin 251 that contacts the drop wire 12d will be compressed a greater amount than if a drop wire were not present. Through such an arrangement, the wires are gripped between the wire holder 200 and terminals 156. It should be noted that a sufficient length of each wire extends axially beyond the pitch adjustment subassembly 212 towards housing 154 so that the housing can be slid onto terminals 156 without the housing contacting the pitch adjustment subassembly 212. The lower and upper mechanisms 260 and 261 (FIG. 15) of wire holding subassembly 213 are then operated to secure the wires 12c and 12d on the side of wire holder 200 opposite pitch adjustment subassembly 212. Pneumatic cylinder 290 is actuated to swing rotatable arm 266 from its non-engaged position to its engaged position whereat wire clamping face 294 of rotatable arm 266 is positioned to support wires 12c and 12d. Pneumatic cylinder 280 is then actuated which forces block 282 into contact with arm 266 adjacent shaft 268 and thus slides arm 266 on shaft 268 away from plate 262. During the sliding motion, shot pin 274 mates with the bore in locator block 273. Arm 266 is secured in this manner to provide a mechanical barrier to prevent rotation rather than relying solely upon the force of pneumatic cylinder 290. As a result, powerslide 263 can exert a greater force on wire clamping face 294 in order to securely retain wires 12c and 12d. After arm 266 is secured in place, powerslide 263 is an actuated to force wire clamping block 265 downward towards wires 12c and 12d so that the lower face 293 of that block contacts the wires and secures them between the lower face 293 and wire clamping face 294 of rotatable arm 266. Cylinder 320 is also actuated to force cable 12 downward into its clamping fixture 322. At this point, the wires 12c and 12d are supported on both sides, in an axial direction, of wire holder 200. Pneumatic cylinder 295 (FIG. 12) of the subassembly 214 for depressing the wire holder 200 is then actuated which forces arm 296 and pusher block 297 downward to engage the upper surface 298 of block 202 and force the block 202 and wire retainer 207 downward, thus compressing springs 204. By supporting the wires 12c and 12d on opposite sides of wire holder 200 and then pushing the wire holder downward, the wires are removed from wire holder 200 without changing their centerline. Once the wires 12c and 12d have been removed from wire holder 200, pneumatic cylinders 246 of the pitch adjustment subassembly 212 are actuated to compress the inner and outer arms 242 and 243 of lower and upper pitch adjustment mechanisms 240 and 241 to force the wires and the terminals attached thereto into the desired pitch. Terminal alignment plate 300 (FIGS. 20 and 21) is then lowered by actuating cylinder 303. If the terminals are located to the side of the correct centerline, they will contact tapered edges 301 of the template and be guided by the taper into terminal nesting position 302 located at the apex of the taper. Vertical alignment occurs through the terminals contacting terminal support member 309 and template 300 at terminal nesting position 302. At this point, terminals 156 are supported between terminal support member 309 and template 300. The various clamps securing the wires 12c and 12d are then released so that the terminals can be located in the axial direction prior to insertion into housing 154. Powerslide 263 is retracted to raise block 265 off of the wires. Cylinder 280 is retracted to pull arm 266 along shaft 268 towards plate 262 so that shot pin 274 disengages from locator block 273. Arm 266 is then rotated back to its non-engaged position by retracting cylinder 290. Cylinder 270 is retracted which raises upper pitch adjustment mechanism 241 and so that pins 251 no longer contact wires 12c and 12d to retain them within slots 249. Accordingly, wires 12c and 12d together with the terminals 156 attached thereto are free to move in the axial direction only. Power slide 217 is actuated so that center portion 226 and probes 150 are moved towards the terminals 156 (to the left in FIG. 12). Near the end of the power slide's travel towards pitch adjustment subassembly 212, probes 150 contact the terminals and force them towards that subassembly until shoulder 306 (FIG. 20) of each terminal contacts axial positioning nib 305. Once the terminals are positioned against nib 305, any additional movement of power slide 217 results in the probes mating with the terminals and compression of spring 230. Cylinder 314 is actuated at this point to lower terminal rotating mechanism 310. The lower flat surface 315 of each finger 311 contacts the flat crimp section of terminal 156 and rotates it if necessary so that the flat crimp section contacts surface 315. Through this operation, all of the terminals will be aligned radially. Each terminal should now be accurately positioned and the system controller then monitors the status of the proximity sensors 233 to determine whether the proximity flags 232 are all in the correct position, thus indicating correct positioning of the terminals 156 and the probes 150. If the terminals and probes are not in the correct position, an error signal is generated by the system controller. Absent such a signal, cylinder 270 is actuated to lower upper pitch adjustment mechanism to reclamp the wires 12? and 12d in slots 249 with pins 251. Cylinders 303 and 314 are then retracted to disengage the terminal positioning subassembly from the terminals 156. The terminals are then supported only by probes 150 and the wires supported only by pitch adjustment mechanism 212. At this time, housing power slide 216 is actuated to move end portion 221 and push block 221 towards terminals 156. Such movement forces a housing 154 over the terminals 156 in a gang-loading operation. Cylinder 314 is then actuated again to force fingers 311 down to close a cover (not shown) located at the top surface of the housing 154. Once the push block 216 has completed its stroke towards terminals 156, the system controller again monitors the proximity sensors 233 to determine that all of the terminals were fully inserted into the housing. If, for example, one terminal were not fully inserted, the probe in contact with that terminal would be further to the left as viewed in FIG. 12 and the system controller would generate an error signal. Both power slides 216 and 217 are then retracted to withdraw the probes 150 from the terminals 156 and disengage the push block 222 from the housing 154. Cylinder 270 is retracted to raise upper pitch adjustment mechanism 241 and thus release wires 12c and 12d from slots 249. Cylinder 254 is retracted to lower the lower pitch adjustment mechanism 240. Cylinder 295 is retracted to release wire holder 200 and permit the pallet 34, having a completed harness, to advance to an unload station or a station for further processing. While the invention has been described with respect to certain preferred embodiments, it is apparent that various changes can be made without departing from the scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims.

A system for manufacturing wire harness assemblies is provided. Each wire harness includes a shielded cable having a plurality of insulated conductors therein, with each conductor being terminated at its respective opposed ends and with the terminated ends being mounted in connector housings. The system includes a plurality of pallets that are movable along a conveyor to work stations at which various assembly steps are carried out. A first station is provided for mounting the cables to the pallet, such that the wires at the opposed ends are mounted in fixtures. A second station may selectively deposit drop wires into fixtures on the pallets. A third station trims and strips the ends of the wires and aligns the drop wires with the cable wires. A fourth station sequentially crimps terminals to the ends of the wires, with the pallet being indexable between successive crimps. The crimp apparatus adjusts to the required crimp height depending on the presence or absence of drop wires and the presence or absence of grounding clips. A fourth station tests for the presence of the terminals and inserts the terminated wires into housings.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/131,915, filed Apr. 18, 2016, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/021,251, filed Jan. 28, 2008, and which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/727,271, filed Jun. 1, 2015, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/472,998, filed Aug. 29, 2014, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,215,323, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/266,446, filed Nov. 6, 2008, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,824,658, each of which is hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety as if fully set forth herein. FIELD OF THE DISCLOSURE This disclosure generally relates to contact centers and, more particularly, to techniques for benchmarking pairing strategies in a contact center system. BACKGROUND OF THE DISCLOSURE A typical contact center algorithmically assigns contacts arriving at the contact center to agents available to handle those contacts. At times, the contact center may have agents available and waiting for assignment to inbound or outbound contacts (e.g., telephone calls, Internet chat sessions, email) or outbound contacts. At other times, the contact center may have contacts waiting in one or more queues for an agent to become available for assignment. In some typical contact centers, contacts are assigned to agents ordered based on time of arrival, and agents receive contacts ordered based on the time when those agents became available. This strategy may be referred to as a “first-in, first-out”, “FIFO”, or “round-robin” strategy. Some contact centers may use a “performance based routing” or “PBR” approach to ordering the queue of available agents or, occasionally, contacts. PBR ordering strategies attempt to maximize the expected outcome of each contact—agent interaction but do so typically without regard for utilizing agents in a contact center uniformly. When a contact center changes from using one type of pairing strategy (e.g., FIFO) to another type of pairing strategy (e.g., PBR), overall contact center performance will continue to vary over time. It can be difficult to measure the amount of performance change attributable to using a new pairing strategy because there may be other factors that account for some of the increased or decreased performance over time. In view of the foregoing, it may be understood that there is a need for a system that enables benchmarking of alternative routing strategies to measure changes in performance attributable to the alternative routing strategies. SUMMARY OF THE DISCLOSURE Techniques for benchmarking pairing strategies in a contact center system are disclosed. In one particular embodiment, the techniques may be realized as a method for techniques for benchmarking pairing strategies in a contact center system comprising: cycling, by at least one processor, among at least two pairing strategies; and determining, by the at least one processor, a difference in performance between the at least two pairing strategies. In accordance with other aspects of this particular embodiment, the method may further comprise: determining, by the at least one processor, an arrival time of a contact; selecting, by the at least one processor, a first pairing strategy of the at least two pairing strategies based on the arrival time; and pairing, by the at least one processor, the contact to an agent using the first pairing strategy. In accordance with other aspects of this particular embodiment, the method may further comprise associating, by the at least one processor, an identifier of the first pairing strategy with a record of an interaction between the contact and the agent. In accordance with other aspects of this particular embodiment, the at least two pairing strategies may be allocated equal proportions of a cycle time period, a duration of a cycle through each of the at least two pairing strategies may be less than an hour, a duration of a cycle through each of the at least two pairing strategies may be less than a day, or a duration of a cycle through each of the at least two pairing strategies may be less than a week. In accordance with other aspects of this particular embodiment, the method may further comprise: determining, by the at least one processor, a prior pairing of a contact; selecting, by the at least one processor, a first pairing strategy of the at least two pairing strategies based on the prior pairing; and pairing, by the at least one processor, the contact to an agent using the first pairing strategy. In accordance with other aspects of this particular embodiment, a second pairing strategy of the at least two pairing strategies may have been selected based on an arrival time of the contact in an absence of the prior pairing. In accordance with other aspects of this particular embodiment, the method may further comprise determining, by the at least one processor, a differential in value attributable to at least one pairing strategy of the at least two pairing strategies. In accordance with other aspects of this particular embodiment, the method may further comprise determining, by the at least one processor, compensation to a provider of the at least one pairing strategy of the at least two pairing strategies based on the differential value. In accordance with other aspects of this particular embodiment, the at least one pairing strategy of the at least two pairing strategies may comprise at least one of: a behavioral pairing (BP) strategy, a first-in, first-out (FIFO) pairing strategy, a performance-based routing (PBR) strategy, a highest-performing-agent pairing strategy, a highest-performing-agent-for-contact-type pairing strategy, a longest-available-agent pairing strategy, a least-occupied-agent pairing strategy, a randomly-selected-agent pairing strategy, a randomly-selected-contact pairing strategy, a fewest-contacts-taken-by-agent pairing strategy, a sequentially-labeled-agent pairing strategy, a longest-waiting-contact pairing strategy, or a highest-priority-contact pairing strategy. In accordance with other aspects of this particular embodiment, a duration of a cycle through each of the at least two pairing strategies may align infrequently with changes to hours of a day. In another particular embodiment, the techniques may be realized as a system for benchmarking pairing strategies in a contact center system comprising at least one processor, wherein the at least one processor is configured to perform the above-described method. In another particular embodiment, the techniques may be realized as an article of manufacture for benchmarking pairing strategies in a contact center system comprising: a non-transitory processor readable medium; and instructions stored on the medium; wherein the instructions are configured to be readable from the medium by at least one processor and thereby cause the at least one processor to operate so as to perform the above-described method. The present disclosure will now be described in more detail with reference to particular embodiments thereof as shown in the accompanying drawings. While the present disclosure is described below with reference to particular embodiments, it should be understood that the present disclosure is not limited thereto. Those of ordinary skill in the art having access to the teachings herein will recognize additional implementations, modifications, and embodiments, as well as other fields of use, which are within the scope of the present disclosure as described herein, and with respect to which the present disclosure may be of significant utility. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS In order to facilitate a fuller understanding of the present disclosure, reference is now made to the accompanying drawings, in which like elements are referenced with like numerals. These drawings should not be construed as limiting the present disclosure, but are intended to be illustrative only. FIG. 1A shows a schematic representation of a benchmarking sequence according to embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 1B shows a schematic representation of benchmarking sequence according to embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 2A shows a schematic representation of benchmarking sequence according to embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 2B shows a schematic representation of benchmarking sequence according to embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 3A shows a schematic representation of benchmarking sequence according to embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 3B shows a schematic representation of benchmarking sequence according to embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 3C shows a block diagram of a contact center system according to embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 3D shows a block diagram of a behavioral pairing module according to embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 4 shows a block diagram of a contact center according to embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 5 shows a flow diagram of a benchmarking method according to embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 6 depicts a block diagram of a benchmarking module according to embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 7A shows a schematic representation of benchmarking sequence according to embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 7B shows a schematic representation of benchmarking sequence according to embodiments of the present disclosure. DETAILED DESCRIPTION A typical contact center algorithmically assigns contacts arriving at the contact center to agents available to handle those contacts. At times, the contact center may have agents available and waiting for assignment to inbound or outbound contacts (e.g., telephone calls, Internet chat sessions, email) or outbound contacts. At other times, the contact center may have contacts waiting in one or more queues for an agent to become available for assignment. In some typical contact centers, contacts are assigned to agents ordered based on time of arrival, and agents receive contacts ordered based on the time when those agents became available. This strategy may be referred to as a “first-in, first-out”, “FIFO”, or “round-robin” strategy. For example, a longest-available agent pairing strategy preferably selects the available agent who has been available for the longest time. Some contact centers may use a “performance based routing” or “PBR” approach to ordering the queue of available agents or, occasionally, contacts. PBR ordering strategies attempt to maximize the expected outcome of each contact-agent interaction but do so typically without regard for utilizing agents in a contact center uniformly. Some variants of PBR may include a highest-performing-agent pairing strategy, preferably selecting the available agent with the highest performance, or a highest-performing-agent-for-contact-type pairing strategy, preferably selecting the available agent with the highest performance for the type of contact being paired. For yet another example, some contact centers may use a “behavioral pairing” or “BP” strategy, under which contacts and agents may be deliberately (preferentially) paired in a fashion that enables the assignment of subsequent contact-agent pairs such that when the benefits of all the assignments under a BP strategy are totaled they may exceed those of FIFO and PBR strategies. BP is designed to encourage balanced utilization of agents within a skill queue while nevertheless simultaneously improving overall contact center performance beyond what FIFO or PBR methods will allow. This is a remarkable achievement inasmuch as BP acts on the same calls and same agents as FIFO or PBR methods, utilizes agents approximately evenly as FIFO provides, and yet improves overall contact center performance. BP is described in, e.g., U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/871,658, filed Sep. 30, 2015, which is incorporated by reference herein. Additional information about these and other features regarding the pairing or matching modules (sometimes also referred to as “SATMAP”, “routing system”, “routing engine”, etc.) is described in, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 8,879,715, which is incorporated herein by reference. Some contact centers may use a variety of other possible pairing strategies. For example, in a longest-available agent pairing strategy, an agent may be selected who has been waiting (idle) the longest time since the agent's most recent contact interaction (e.g., call) has ended. In a least-occupied agent pairing strategy, an agent may be selected who has the lowest ratio of contact interaction time to waiting or idle time (e.g., time spent on calls versus time spent off calls). In a fewest-contact-interactions-taken-by-agent pairing strategy, an agent may be selected who has the fewest total contact interactions or calls. In a randomly-selected-agent pairing strategy, an available agent may be selected at random (e.g., using a pseudorandom number generator). In a sequentially-labeled-agent pairing strategy, agents may be labeled sequentially, and the available agent with the next label in sequence may be selected. In situations where multiple contacts are waiting in a queue, and an agent becomes available for connection to one of the contacts in the queue, a variety of pairing strategies may be used. For example, in a FIFO or longest-waiting-contact pairing strategy, the agent may be preferably paired with the contact that has been waiting in queue the longest (e.g., the contact at the head of the queue). In a randomly-selected-contact pairing strategy, the agent may be paired with a contact selected at random from among all or a subset of the contacts in the queue. In a priority-based routing or highest-priority-contact pairing strategy, the agent may be paired with a higher-priority contact even if a lower-priority contact has been waiting in the queue longer. Contact centers may measure performance based on a variety of metrics. For example, a contact center may measure performance based on one or more of sales revenue, sales conversion rates, customer retention rates, average handle time, customer satisfaction (based on, e.g., customer surveys), etc. Regardless of what metric or combination of metrics a contact center uses to measure performance, or what pairing strategy (e.g., FIFO, PBR, BP) a contact center uses, performance may vary over time. For example, year-over-year contact center performance may vary as a company shrinks or grows over time or introduces new products or contact center campaigns. Month-to-month contact center performance may vary as a company goes through sales cycles, such as a busy holiday season selling period, or a heavy period of technical support requests following a new product or upgrade rollout. Day-to-day contact center performance may vary if, for example, customers are more likely to call during a weekend than on a weekday, or more likely to call on a Monday than a Friday. Intraday contact center performance may also vary. For example, customers may be more likely to call at when a contact center first opens (e.g., 8:00 AM), or during a lunch break (e.g., 12:00 PM), or in the evening after typical business hours (e.g., 6:00 PM), than at other times during the day. Intra-hour contact center performance may also vary. For example, more urgent, high-value contacts may be more likely to arrive the minute the contact center opens (e.g., 9:00 or 9:01) than even a little later (e.g., 9:05). Contact center performance may also vary depending on the number and caliber of agents working at a given time. For example, the 9:00-5:00 PM shift of agents may perform, on average, better than the 5:00-9:00 AM shift of agents. These examples of of variability at certain times of day or over larger time periods can make it difficult to attribute changes in performance over a given time period to a particular pairing strategy. For example, if a contact center used FIFO routing for one year with an average performance of 20% sales conversion rate, then switched to PBR in the second year with an average performance of 30% sales conversion rate, the apparent change in performance is a 50% improvement. However, this contact center may not have a reliable way to know what the average performance in the second year would have been had it kept the contact center using FIFO routing instead of PBR. In real-world situations, at least some of the 50% gain in performance in the second year may be attributable to other factors or variables that were not controlled or measured. For example, the contact center may have retrained its agents or hired higher-performing agents, or the company may have introduced an improved product with better reception in the marketplace. Consequently, contact centers may struggle to analyze the internal rate of return or return on investment from switching to a different to a different pairing strategy due to challenges associated with measuring performance gain attributable to the new pairing strategy. In some embodiments, a contact center may switch (or “cycle”) periodically among at least two different pairing strategies (e.g., between FIFO and PBR; between PBR and BP; among FIFO, PBR, and BP). Additionally, the outcome of each contact-agent interaction may be recorded along with an identification of which pairing strategy (e.g., FIFO, PBR, or BP) had been used to assign that particular contact-agent pair. By tracking which interactions produced which results, the contact center may measure the performance attributable to a first strategy (e.g., FIFO) and the performance attributable to a second strategy (e.g., PBR). In this way, the relative performance of one strategy may be benchmarked against the other. The contact center may, over many periods of switching between different pairing strategies, more reliably attribute performance gain to one strategy or the other. Several benchmarking techniques may achieve precisely measurable performance gain by reducing noise from confounding variables and eliminating bias in favor of one pairing strategy or another. In some embodiments, benchmarking techniques may be time-based (“epoch benchmarking”). In other embodiments, benchmarking techniques may involve randomization or counting (“inline benchmarking”). In other embodiments, benchmarking techniques may be a hybrid of epoch and inline benchmarking. In epoch benchmarking, as explained in detail below, the switching frequency (or period duration) can affect the accuracy and fairness (e.g., statistical purity) of the benchmark. For example, assume the period is two years, switching each year between two different strategies. In this case, the contact center may use FIFO in the first year at a 20% conversion rate and PBR in the second year at a 30% conversion rate, and measure the gain as 50%. However, this period is too large to eliminate or otherwise control for expected variability in performance. Even shorter periods such as two months, switching between strategies each month, may be susceptible to similar effects. For example, if FIFO is used in November, and PBR is used December, some performance improvement in December may be attributable to increased holiday sales in December rather than the PBR itself. In some embodiments, to reduce or minimize the effects of performance variability over time, the period may be much shorter (e.g., less than a day, less than an hour, less than twenty minutes). FIG. 1A shows a benchmarking period of ten units (e.g., ten minutes). In FIG. 1A , the horizontal axis represents time, and the vertical axis represents whether a first pairing strategy (“1”) or a second pairing strategy (“0”) is used. For the first five minutes (e.g., 9:00-9:05 AM), the first pairing strategy (e.g., BP) may be used. After five minutes, the contact center may switch to the second pairing strategy (e.g., FIFO or PBR) for the remaining five minutes of the ten-minute period (9:05-9:10 AM). At 9:10 AM, the second period may begin, switching back to the first pairing strategy (not shown in FIG. 1A ). If the period is 30 minutes (i.e., each unit of time in FIG. 1A is equal to three minutes), the first pairing strategy may be used for the first 15 minutes, and the second pairing strategy may be used for the second 15 minutes. With short, intra-hour periods (10 minutes, 20 minutes, 30 minutes, etc.), the benchmark is less likely to be biased in favor of one pairing strategy or another based on long-term variability (e.g., year-over-year growth, month-to-month sales cycles). However, other factors of performance variability may persist. For example, if the contact center always applies the period shown in FIG. 1A when it opens in the morning, the contact center will always use the first strategy (BP) for the first five minutes. As explained above, the contacts who arrive at a contact center the moment it opens may be of a different type, urgency, value, or distribution of type/urgency/value than the contacts that arrive at other times of the hour or the day. Consequently, the benchmark may be biased in favor of the pairing strategy used at the beginning of the day (e.g., 9:00 AM) each day. In some embodiments, to reduce or minimize the effects of performance variability over even short periods of time, the order in which pairing strategies are used within each period may change. For example, as shown in FIG. 1B , the order in which pairing strategies are used has been reversed from the order shown in FIG. 1A . Specifically, the contact center may start with the second pairing strategy (e.g., FIFO or PBR) for the first five minutes, then switch to the first pairing strategy (BP) for the following five minutes. In some embodiments, to help ensure trust and fairness in the benchmarking system, the benchmarking schedule may be established and published or otherwise shared with contact center management ahead or other users of time. In some embodiments, contact center management or other users may be given direct, real-time control over the benchmarking schedule, such as using a computer program interface to control the cycle duration and the ordering of pairing strategies. Embodiments of the present disclosure may use any of a variety of techniques for varying the order in which the pairing strategies are used within each period. For example, the contact center may alternate each hour (or each day or each month) between starting with the first ordering shown in FIG. 1A and starting with the second ordering shown in FIG. 1B . In other embodiments, each period may randomly select an ordering (e.g., approximately 50% of the periods in a given day used the ordering shown in FIG. 1A , and approximately 50% of the periods in a given day use the ordering shown in FIG. 1B , with a uniform and random distribution of orderings among the periods). In the examples of FIGS. 1A and 1B , each pairing strategy is used for the same amount of time within each period (e.g., five minutes each). In these examples, the “duty cycle” is 50%. However, notwithstanding other variables affecting performance, some pairing strategies are expected to perform better than others. For example, BP is expected to perform better than FIFO. Consequently, a contact center may wish to use BP for a greater proportion of time than FIFO—so that more pairings are made using the higher-performing pairing strategy. Thus, the contact center may prefer a higher duty cycle (e.g., 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, etc.) representing more time (or proportion of contacts) paired using the higher-performing pairing strategy. FIG. 2A shows an example of a ten-minute period with an 80% duty cycle. For the first eight minutes (e.g., 9:00-9:08 AM), the first pairing strategy (e.g., BP) may be used. After the first eight minutes, the contact center may switch to the second pairing strategy (e.g., FIFO) for the remaining two minutes of the period (9:08-9:10) before switching back to the first pairing strategy again (not shown). If, for another example, a thirty-minute period is used, the first pairing strategy may be used for the first twenty-four minutes (e.g., 9:00-9:24 AM), and the second pairing strategy may be used for the next six minutes (e.g., 9:24-9:30 AM). As shown in FIG. 2B , the contact center may proceed through six ten-minute periods over the course of an hour. In this example, each ten-minute period has an 80% duty cycle favoring the first pairing strategy, and the ordering within each period starts with the favored first pairing strategy. Over the hour, the contact center may switch pairing strategies twelve times (e.g., at 9:08, 9:10, 9:18, 9:20, 9:28, 9:30, 9:38, 9:40, 9:48, 9:50, 9:58, and 10:00). Within the hour, the first pairing strategy was used a total of 80% of the time (48 minutes), and the second pairing strategy was used the other 20% of the time (12 minutes). For a thirty-minute period with an 80% duty cycle (not shown), over the hour, the contact center may switch pairing strategies four times (e.g., at 9:24, 9:30, 9:48, and 10:00), and the total remains 48 minutes using the first pairing strategy and 12 minute using the second pairing strategy. In some embodiments, as in the example of FIG. 1B , the order in which the pairing strategies are used within a period may change (not shown), even as the duty cycle (percentage of time within the period that a given strategy is used) remains the same. Nevertheless, for periods which are factors or multiples of 60 minutes (e.g., 10 minutes, 30 minutes), periods may always or frequently align to boundaries at the top of each hour (e.g., new periods begin at 9:00, 10:00, 11:00, etc.), regardless of the ordering of pairing strategies to be used for the period at the beginning of a given hour. In some embodiments, as explained below with references to FIGS. 3A-D , choosing a period such as 11 minutes, 37 minutes, some prime or other numbers that do not factor into 60-minute intervals, can increase the number of periods required before a particular pattern repeats. Instead, the alignment of periods may drift through hours, days, weeks, etc. before repeating. The duration of a cycle through each pairing strategy may align infrequently with to the hours of a day, days of a week, weeks of a month or year, etc. FIG. 3A shows an example of a single non-factor period of 11 minutes and approximately a 73% duty cycle, with the first eight minutes using a first pairing strategy and the last three minutes using a second pairing strategy. FIG. 3B illustrates six consecutive cycles. For example, at the top of the first hour on the first day of the week (e.g., Monday at 9:00 AM), the first period may begin, aligned on the top of the hour, the first hour of the day, and the first day of the week. The first period may last from 9:00-9:11 AM, followed by the second period from 9:11-9:22 AM, and so on, as illustrated in FIG. 3B and Table I below. The sixth period begins at 9:55 and ends at 10:06. The top of the second hour (10:00 AM), occurs during the sixth cycle and is not aligned with the beginning of a period. FIG. 3C shows the same six periods as FIG. 3B , with the horizontal axis marking time on ten-minute intervals to illustrate the intentional intra-hour misalignment further. TABLE I Period # Time Period Begins 1 9:00 2 9:11 3 9:22 4 9:33 5 9:44 6 9:55 7 10:06  As shown in FIG. 3D and Table II below, the alignment of periods with respect to the nearest hour continues to drift throughout a day, using an example of a contact center open from 9:00 AM to 5:00 PM (9:00-17:00 hours). The first period of the first hour (9:00 AM) is aligned with the top of the hour (9:00 AM). The first period of the second hour (10:00 AM) begins at 10:06 AM, six minutes after the top of the hour. The first period of the third hour (11:00 AM) begins at 11:01 AM, one minute after the top of the hour. It would take 60 periods over 11 hours for the first period of an hour to once again align with the top of the hour. As shown in Table II, a contact center that is open from 9-5 would not be aligned on the hour again until 12:00 PM the following day (1.375 eight-hour days later). TABLE II Time of First Hour Period of Hour 1  9:00 2 10:06 3 11:01 4 12:07 5 13:02 6 14:08 7 15:03 8 16:09 (next day) 9  9:04 10 10:10 11 11:05 12 12:00 Table III below shows the sequence of days and times at which a new period begins at the top of the hour. For example, assuming five-day weeks Monday-Friday with eight-hour days from 9-5, the sequence would proceed from aligning on Monday at 9:00 AM, to Tuesday at 12:00 PM, to Wednesday at 3:00 PM (15:00), to Friday at 10:00 AM, and so on. As shown in Table III, it would take 2.2 weeks for a contact center that is open five days per week for eight hours per day to be aligned at the beginning of a day (e.g., Tuesday at 9:00 AM over two weeks later). TABLE III Next Time Period Day Starts at Top of Hour Monday  9:00 Tuesday 12:00 Wednesday 15:00 Friday 10:00 (next week) Monday 13:00 Tuesday 16:00 Thursday 11:00 Friday 14:00 (next week) Tuesday  9:00 Table IV below shows the sequence of days of the week on which a new period begins at the top of that day of the week. In this example, assuming five-day weeks Monday-Friday with eight-hour days, the sequence would proceed from aligning with the beginning of the day on Monday in week 1, Tuesday in week 3, Wednesday in week 5, and so on. As shown in Table IV, it would take 11 weeks for this contact center to be aligned at the beginning of a Monday again. TABLE IV Next Day Cycle Starts Week at Top of Day 1 Monday 3 Tuesday 5 Wednesday 7 Thursday 9 Friday 12  Monday Thus, as FIGS. 3A-3D and Tables I-IV have illustrated, selecting a non-factor period for an hour/day/week/etc. boundary may be effective for enabling the alignment of periods to “drift” through natural time boundaries over weeks/months/years. Because the alignment of periods drifts, it is less likely for a pattern to arise that confounds measuring relative performance of multiple pairing strategies. In some embodiments, selection of a non-factor period may be combined with other techniques for reducing the effect of confounding variables on performance, such as randomizing or otherwise changing the ordering of pairing strategies within each period or a set of periods. In some embodiments, the contact center may determine which pairing strategy to use based on the time at which a pairing request is made for a contact. For example, assume a contact center is benchmarking BP and FIFO using the example of FIG. 1A (ten-minute periods with a 50% duty cycle, starting with BP in the first half and FIFO in the second half). If the contact center requests a pairing at 9:04 AM, the time of the pairing falls in the first half of a period, so the BP strategy may be used. If the contact center requests a pairing at 9:06 AM, the time of the pairing falls in the second half of the period, so the FIFO strategy may be used. In other embodiments, the contact center may determine which pairing strategy to use based on the time at which a contact arrives. For example, assume a contact center is benchmarking BP and FIFO as in the preceding example. If the first contact arrives at 9:04 AM, the time of arrival falls in the first half of a period, so the BP strategy may be used for the contact. Even if the first contact must wait in a queue for two minutes, and the pairing is not requested until 9:06 AM, the pairing may still be made using the BP strategy. Moreover, if a second contact arrives at 9:05 AM, while the first contact is still waiting in queue, the second contact may be designated for FIFO pairing. Consequently, at 9:06 AM, contact choice under behavioral pairing may be limited to only the contacts in queue who arrived during the BP portion of the period and, in this example, only the first contact to arrive would be available. In embodiments for epoch-based benchmarking in which a contact arrives on a boundary between periods, or on a boundary between switching pairing strategies within a period, the system may have predetermined tie-breaking strategies. For example, the boundary may be defined as “at or before” an aforementioned time, or “on or after” an aforementioned time, etc. For example, if a period is defined to be associated with strategy “A” from 9:00-9:08 and strategy B from 9:08-9:10, it may mean that a contact must arrive on or after 9:00 but before 9:08 (e.g., 9:07.99) to be considered within the first part of the period. Alternatively, it may mean that a contact must arrive after 9:00 but at or before 9:08.00 to be considered within the first part of the period. In some embodiments, inline benchmarking techniques may be used, in which pairing strategies may be selected on a contact-by-contact basis. For example, assume that approximately 50% of contacts arriving at a contact center should be paired using a first pairing method (e.g., FIFO), and the other 50% of contacts should be paired using a second pairing method (e.g., BP). In some embodiments, each contact may be randomly designated for pairing using one method or the other with a 50% probability. In other embodiments, contacts may be sequentially designated according to a particular period. For example, the first five (or ten, or twenty, etc.) contacts may be designated for a FIFO strategy, and the next five (or ten, or twenty, etc.) may be designated for a BP strategy. Other percentages and proportions may also be used, such as 60% (or 80%, etc.) paired with a BP strategy and the other 40% (or 20%, etc.) paired with a FIFO strategy. From time to time, a contact may return to a contact center (e.g., call back) multiple times. In particular, some contacts may require multiple “touches” (e.g., multiple interactions with one or more contact center agents) to resolve an issue. In these cases, it may be desirable to ensure that a contact is paired using the same pairing strategy each time the contact returns to the contact center. If the same pairing strategy is used for each touch, then the benchmarking technique will ensure that this single pairing strategy is associated with the final outcome (e.g., resolution) of the multiple contact-agent interactions. In other situations, it may be desirable to switch pairing strategies each time a contact returns to the contact center. In some embodiments, the determination of whether a repeat contact should be designated for the same (or different) pairing strategy may depend on other factors. For example, there may be a time limit, such that the contact must return to the contact center within a specified time period for prior pairing strategies to be considered (e.g., within an hour, within a day, within a week). In other embodiments, the pairing strategy used in the first interaction may be considered regardless of how much time has passed since the first interaction. For another example, repeat contact may be limited to specific skill queues or customer needs. Consider a contact who called a contact center and requested to speak to a customer service agent regarding the contact's bill. The contact hangs up and then calls back a few minutes later and requests to speak to a technical support agent regarding the contact's technical difficulties. In this case, the second call may be considered a new issue rather than a second “touch” regarding the billing issue. In this second call, it may be determined that the pairing strategy used in the first call is irrelevant to the second call. In other embodiments, the pairing strategy used in the first call may be considered regardless of why the contact has returned to the contact center. One approach to considering prior pairing for inline benchmarking techniques is depicted in FIG. 4 . FIG. 4 shows a flow diagram of benchmarking method 400 according to embodiments of the present disclosure. Benchmarking method 400 may begin at block 410 . At block 410 , an identifier of a contact (e.g., caller) may be identified or otherwise determined. In this example, a caller's “Billing Telephone Number” or “BTN” may be identified. This example assumes that a caller uses the same BTN for each call. In other embodiments, other identifiers of the contact (e.g., a customer identification number, Internet Protocol (IP) address) may be used instead. Having identified the caller's BTN (or other contact identifier), benchmarking method 400 may proceed to block 420 . At block 420 , a pseudorandom number generator (PRNG) may be seeded with the BTN (or other contact identifier). Having seeded the PRNG with the BTN, benchmarking method 400 may proceed to block 430 . At block 430 , a pseudorandom number may be generated for the contact using the seeded PRNG. Because the seed will be the same for a given contact each time the contact returns to the contact center, the generated pseudorandom number will also be the same each time for the given contact. Having generated the pseudorandom number, benchmarking method 400 may proceed to block 440 . At block 440 , a pairing strategy (e.g., BP or FIFO) may be selected for the given contact based on the generated pseudorandom number. For example, if 50% of contacts should be paired using BP, and the other 50% should be paired using FIFO, the PRNG may be configured to generate either a 1 or a 0. If the generated pseudorandom number is a 1, the contact may be designated for BP pairing. If the generated pseudorandom number is 0, the contact may be designated for FIFO pairing. In this way, the contact will always be paired using the same strategy each time the contact returns to the contact center. The PRNG will be seeded with the same seed (e.g., the contact's BTN) each time, so the PRNG will generate the same pseudorandom number for the contact each time. Thus, benchmarking method 400 may select the same pairing strategy for the contact each time. In this way, it is possible to account for prior pairings without relying on a database or other storage means to determine whether or how a contact has been previously paired. In this way, benchmarking method 400 is stateless with respect to whether or how a contact has been previously paired. Having selected a pairing strategy for the contact, benchmarking method 400 may proceed to block 450 . At block 450 , the contact may be paired to an available agent using the selected pairing strategy. When a contact has been paired with an available agent, components of the contact center system (e.g., switches, routers) may connect the contact to the agent. Following (or during) the contact-agent interaction, the agent may create a record of the outcome of the interaction. For example, in a sales queue, the agent may create an order for the contact. In a technical support queue, the agent may create or modify a service ticket. The contact center system may also record information about the interaction, such as the time and duration of a call, the BTN or other identifier of the contact, the agent identifier, and other data. At this point, benchmarking method may proceed to block 460 . At block 460 , an identifier of the selected pairing strategy may be associated with the record of the contact-agent interaction created at block 450 . In some embodiments, this may happen simultaneously with the creation of the record. For example, when the contact center system records the time and duration of a call, it may also record whether the call had been paired using a BP or FIFO pairing strategy. In other embodiments, another module may create a separate record of the pairing. This module may record the time of the pairing, the contact and agent identifiers, the pairing strategy used (e.g., BP or FIFO), and any other data that may be helpful for later matching the pairing record with the record of the caller-agent interaction outcome. At some later time, the pairing records may be matched with the caller-agent interaction records so that the pairing strategy information may be associated with the outcome in one record or the other (or both). Following block 460 , benchmarking method 400 may end. In some embodiments, benchmarking method 400 may return to block 410 , waiting for another contact to arrive. Another approach to considering prior pairing in combination with epoch benchmarking techniques is depicted in FIG. 5 . This type of technique may be considered “hybrid inline-epoch benchmarking.” FIG. 5 shows a flow diagram of benchmarking method 500 according to embodiments of the present disclosure. Benchmarking method 500 may begin at block 510 . At block 510 , a contact (e.g., “contact n”) arrives at the contact center at a particular time t. Benchmarking method 500 may proceed to block 520 . At block 520 , it may be determined whether the contact has been previously paired; i.e., whether this contact is returning to the contact center for a subsequent touch or interaction. This decision may be made using a variety of techniques. For example, the benchmarking system may look up the contact's records using a contact identifier (e.g., BTN or customer ID) in a database to determine whether and when the contact had previously contacted the contact center. Using a suitable technique, the benchmarking system may determine that the contact had been previously paired and, in some embodiments, whether and how the prior pairing should influence the current pairing. In some embodiments, the benchmarking system may preferably pair a contact using the same pairing strategy every time the contact returns to the contact center. Thus, if contact n was previously paired using pairing strategy “A” (e.g., BP), benchmarking method 500 may proceed to block 560 for subsequent pairing using pairing strategy A again. Similarly, if contact n was previously paired using pairing strategy “B”) (e.g., FIFO), benchmarking method 500 may proceed to block 570 for subsequent pairing using pairing strategy B again. However, if it is determined at block 520 that contact n has not been previously paired (or, in some embodiments, any prior pairing should not influence the current pairing), benchmarking method 500 may proceed to using epoch benchmarking at block 550 . At block 550 , time may be used to determine which pairing strategy to use for contact n. In this example, arrival time t may be used. If contact n arrived during a time period when the benchmarking system is pairing using strategy A, benchmarking method 500 may proceed to to block 560 for subsequent pairing using strategy A. Similarly, if contact n arrived during a time period when the benchmarking system is pairing using strategy B, benchmarking method 500 may proceed to block 570 for subsequent pairing using strategy B. At blocks 560 and 570 , contacts may be paired to available agents using pairing strategies A and B, respectively. In some embodiments, more than two pairing strategies may be used (e.g., prior pairings using A, B, C, etc. or epoch benchmarking within time periods using A, B, C, etc.). Once paired, the contact may be routed or otherwise connected to the available agent within the contact center system. As described above with respect to benchmarking method 400 ( FIG. 4 ), the agent may create a record of the contact-agent interaction, and the contact center system may also create or modify this record. Benchmarking method may proceed to block 580 . At block 580 , an identifier to the selected pairing strategy (e.g., A or B) may be associated with the record created at block 560 or 570 . As described above with respect to benchmarking method 400 , this association may occur simultaneously with the creation of the contact-agent interaction record, or it may be matched at a later time with other records created by a benchmarking module or other module. Following block 580 , benchmarking method 500 may end. In some embodiments, benchmarking method 500 may return to block 510 , waiting for another contact to arrive. By associating the pairing strategy with the outcome as in, for example, benchmarking methods 400 and 500 , the outcomes associated with each pairing strategy may be measured (e.g., averaged, accumulated), and the relative performance of each pairing strategy may be measured (e.g., the relative overall performance gain attributable to pairing using BP instead of pairing using FIFO). This benchmarking data may be used for a variety of purposes. For example, the data may be used to assess the strength of one pairing module over another. For another example, the data may be used to improve the strength of a BP module by providing “BP on” and “BP off” (e.g., FIFO) contact-agent interaction records to enhance the artificial intelligence in the system. For another example, the data may be used for billing. Because the value added by one pairing strategy over another may be measured accurately and fairly, this benchmarking data may be used in a pay-for-performance business model, in which a client pays a pairing strategy vendor a percentage of the actual measured value added by using the vendor's pairing strategy (e.g., when BP is on as opposed to when BP is off). Specifically, in some embodiments, associated outcome data may be used to determine an economic value or gain associated with using one pairing strategy instead of another. In some embodiments, the economic value or gain may be used to determine compensation for a vendor or other service provider providing a module or modules for the higher-performing pairing strategy creating the economic value. For example, if a contact center benchmarks BP against FIFO and determines that, for a given time period (e.g., a day, a week, a month, etc.), that BP performed 5% better than FIFO on average over the time period, the BP vendor may receive compensation corresponding to the 5% value added by BP (e.g., a percentage of the 5% additional sales revenue, or a percentage of the 5% additional cost savings, etc.). Under such a business model, a contact center owner may forgo capital expenditure or vendor fees, only paying a vendor for periods of time in which the vendor demonstrates value added to the contact center's performance. FIG. 6 shows a block diagram of a contact center system 600 according to embodiments of the present disclosure. The description herein describes network elements, computers, and/or components of a system and method for simulating contact center systems that may include one or more modules. As used herein, the term “module” may be understood to refer to computing software, firmware, hardware, and/or various combinations thereof. Modules, however, are not to be interpreted as software which is not implemented on hardware, firmware, or recorded on a processor readable recordable storage medium (i.e., modules are not software per se). It is noted that the modules are exemplary. The modules may be combined, integrated, separated, and/or duplicated to support various applications. Also, a function described herein as being performed at a particular module may be performed at one or more other modules and/or by one or more other devices instead of or in addition to the function performed at the particular module. Further, the modules may be implemented across multiple devices and/or other components local or remote to one another. Additionally, the modules may be moved from one device and added to another device, and/or may be included in both devices. As shown in FIG. 6 , the contact center system 600 may include a central switch 610 . The central switch 610 may receive incoming contacts (e.g., callers) or support outbound connections to contacts via a telecommunications network (not shown). The central switch 610 may include contact routing hardware and software for helping to route contacts among one or more contact centers, or to one or more PBX/ACDs or other queuing or switching components within a contact center. The central switch 610 may not be necessary if there is only one contact center, or if there is only one PBX/ACD routing component, in the contact center system 600 . If more than one contact center is part of the contact center system 600 , each contact center may include at least one contact center switch (e.g., contact center switches 620 A and 620 B). The contact center switches 620 A and 620 B may be communicatively coupled to the central switch 610 . Each contact center switch for each contact center may be communicatively coupled to a plurality (or “pool”) of agents. Each contact center switch may support a certain number of agents (or “seats”) to be logged in at one time. At any given time, a logged-in agent may be available and waiting to be connected to a contact, or the logged-in agent may be unavailable for any of a number of reasons, such as being connected to another contact, performing certain post-call functions such as logging information about the call, or taking a break. In the example of FIG. 6 , the central switch 610 routes contacts to one of two contact centers via contact center switch 620 A and contact center switch 620 B, respectively. Each of the contact center switches 620 A and 620 B are shown with two agents each. Agents 630 A and 630 B may be logged into contact center switch 620 A, and agents 630 C and 630 D may be logged into contact center switch 620 B. The contact center system 600 may also be communicatively coupled to an integrated service from, for example, a third party vendor. In the example of FIG. 6 , benchmarking module 640 may be communicatively coupled to one or more switches in the switch system of the contact center system 600 , such as central switch 610 , contact center switch 620 A, or contact center switch 620 B. In some embodiments, switches of the contact center system 600 may be communicatively coupled to multiple benchmarking modules. In some embodiments, benchmarking module 640 may be embedded within a component of a contact center system (e.g., embedded in or otherwise integrated with a switch). The benchmarking module 640 may receive information from a switch (e.g., contact center switch 620 A) about agents logged into the switch (e.g., agents 630 A and 630 B) and about incoming contacts via another switch (e.g., central switch 610 ) or, in some embodiments, from a network (e.g., the Internet or a telecommunications network) (not shown). A contact center may include multiple pairing modules (e.g., a BP module and a FIFO module) (not shown), and one or more pairing modules may be provided by one or more different vendors. In some embodiments, one or more pairing modules may be components of benchmarking module 640 or one or more switches such as central switch 610 or contact center switches 620 A and 620 B. In some embodiments, a benchmarking module may determine which pairing module may handle pairing for a particular contact. For example, the benchmarking module may alternate between enabling pairing via the BP module and enabling pairing with the FIFO module. In other embodiments, one pairing module (e.g., the BP module) may be configured to emulate other pairing strategies. For example, a benchmarking module, or a benchmarking component integrated with BP components in the BP module, may determine whether the BP module may use BP pairing or emulated FIFO pairing for a particular contact. In this case, “BP on” may refer to times when the BP module is applying the BP pairing strategy, and “BP off” may refer to other times when the BP module is applying a different pairing strategy (e.g., FIFO). In some embodiments, regardless of whether pairing strategies are handled by separate modules, or if some pairing strategies are emulated within a single pairing module, the single pairing module may be configured to monitor and store information about pairings made under any or all pairing strategies. For example, a BP module may observe and record data about FIFO pairings made by a FIFO module, or the BP module may observe and record data about emulated FIFO pairings made by a BP module operating in FIFO emulation mode. Embodiments of the present disclosure are not limited to benchmarking only two pairing strategies. Instead, benchmarking may be performed for two or more pairing strategies. FIGS. 7A and 7B depict examples of benchmarking systems for three pairing strategies (e.g., benchmarking FIFO, PBR, and BP). FIG. 7A shows a schematic representation of benchmarking sequence according to embodiments of the present disclosure. In this epoch benchmarking example, a period is 15 units of time, and each pairing strategy is used for one-third of the time (5 units). FIG. 7A shows two complete periods, cycling among pairing strategies “2”, “1”, and “0” twice over 30 units of time. For example, from 9:00-9:10 AM, FIFO may be used; from 9:10-9:20 AM, PBR may be used; and from 9:20-9:30 AM, BP may be used. This pattern of FIFO-PBR-BP repeats in the second period. FIG. 7B shows a schematic representation of benchmarking sequence according to embodiments of the present disclosure. In this epoch benchmarking example, a complete period is 30 time units. A preferred pairing strategy “2” (e.g., BP) is used two-thirds of the time, and other pairing strategies “1” and “0” (e.g., FIFO and PBR) are used one-sixth of the time each. In this example, each time strategy “2” turns off, pairing strategies “1” and “0” alternately turn on. For example, the pattern may be BP-FIFO-BP-PBR. In addition to the examples of FIGS. 7A and 7B , many other patterns for switching among multiple pairing strategies are possible. In some embodiments, contact center management or other users may prefer a “stabilization period” or other neutral zone. For example, consider a contact center benchmarking BP and FIFO pairing strategies. When the system transitions from BP to FIFO (or vice versa), contact center management may be concerned that the effects of one pairing strategy may somehow influence the performance of another pairing strategy. To alleviate these concerns about fairness, a stabilization period may be added. One technique for implementing a stabilization period may be to exclude contact-agent interaction outcomes for the first portion of contacts after switching pairing strategies. For example, assume a contact center is benchmarking BP and FIFO with a 50% duty cycle over 30-minute periods. In the aforementioned embodiments (e.g., FIGS. 1A and 1B ), BP would be on for 15 minutes, followed by FIFO for 15 minutes, and all of the contact-agent interactions in the 30-minute period would be included in the benchmarking measurement. With a stabilization period, BP would be on for, e.g., 10 minutes. After 10 minutes, the system would switch to FIFO. However, the first, e.g., 10 minutes would be considered a stabilization period, and FIFO pairings made during this period would be excluded from the benchmark. The last 10 minutes of the period would continue pairing using FIFO, and these FIFO pairings would be included in the benchmark. This pattern is illustrated in FIG. 7A . In this example, instead of depicting switching among three pairing strategies “2”, “1”, and “0”, the “1” may represent the stabilization period. Pairing strategy “2” (e.g., BP) may be on for the first five time units. After five time units, BP may be switched off, and the other pairing strategy (e.g., FIFO) may be used for the remaining ten time units. The next five units (“1”) may be excluded as being part of the stabilization period, and the five time units after that (“0”) may be included as being part of the FIFO benchmarking period. In some embodiments, the stabilization period may be longer or shorter. In some embodiments, a stabilization period may be used in a FIFO-to-BP transition instead of, or in addition to, a BP-to-FIFO transition (or any transition between two different pairing strategies). At this point it should be noted that behavioral pairing in a contact center system in accordance with the present disclosure as described above may involve the processing of input data and the generation of output data to some extent. This input data processing and output data generation may be implemented in hardware or software. For example, specific electronic components may be employed in a behavioral pairing module or similar or related circuitry for implementing the functions associated with behavioral pairing in a contact center system in accordance with the present disclosure as described above. Alternatively, one or more processors operating in accordance with instructions may implement the functions associated with behavioral pairing in a contact center system in accordance with the present disclosure as described above. If such is the case, it is within the scope of the present disclosure that such instructions may be stored on one or more non-transitory processor readable storage media (e.g., a magnetic disk or other storage medium), or transmitted to one or more processors via one or more signals embodied in one or more carrier waves. The present disclosure is not to be limited in scope by the specific embodiments described herein. Indeed, other various embodiments of and modifications to the present disclosure, in addition to those described herein, will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art from the foregoing description and accompanying drawings. Thus, such other embodiments and modifications are intended to fall within the scope of the present disclosure. Further, although the present disclosure has been described herein in the context of at least one particular implementation in at least one particular environment for at least one particular purpose, those of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that its usefulness is not limited thereto and that the present disclosure may be beneficially implemented in any number of environments for any number of purposes. Accordingly, the claims set forth below should be construed in view of the full breadth and spirit of the present disclosure as described herein.

Techniques for benchmarking pairing strategies in a contact center system are disclosed. In one particular embodiment, the techniques may be realized as a method for techniques for benchmarking pairing strategies in a contact center system comprising: cycling, by at least one processor, among at least two pairing strategies; and determining, by the at least one processor, a difference in performance between the at least two pairing strategies.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION The invention relates to a method for damping the kinetic energy of ions in ion cells filled with collision gas and with an exit aperture to drain the ions out of the cell. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Some types of mass spectrometers, for example time-of-flight mass spectrometers with orthogonal ion injection, require a very well-conditioned ion beam for high mass resolution and precise mass determination. By a “well-conditioned ion beam” we mean here a beam of ions flying as parallel as possible with kinetic energies which are as uniform as possible. This “ion beam conditioning” can consist in first decelerating the motion of the ions in a conditioning cell by numerous collisions with a collision gas, drawing the decelerated ions out of the conditioning cell through suitable diaphragm systems, and then forming them into a relatively fine, almost parallel ion beam. The process of reducing the kinetic energy of the ions by decelerating them in a collision gas is termed “thermalization”. This reduces the “phase volume” of the ions. By “phase space” we mean the six-dimensional space made up of space and momentum coordinates measured in an entrained system of coordinates; by “phase volume” we mean that part of the phase space which is filled with ions. Good beam conditioning always requires compression of the phase volume. For a time-of-flight mass spectrometer with orthogonal ion injection, high mass resolution requires that a fine ion beam as parallel as possible with a diameter of only 0.5 millimeters if possible be generated, whereby the energy of the ions in the beam should be as uniform as possible, for example 20 electron volts with deviations of less than 0.5 electron volts. Ions from normal ion feeding systems, for example RF ion guidance systems, have a much larger phase volume and therefore have to be conditioned before being fed into a mass spectrometer of this type. Conditioning the ions by reducing their phase volume like this cannot be achieved by ion-optical methods (a consequence of the Liouville theorem) and with the exception of the complicated method of laser cooling, only the gas cooling described can reduce the phase volume. U.S. Pat. No. 4,963,736 (D. J. Douglas and J. B. French) describes an RF-operated ion guidance system which conditions the ions by cooling them for optimum injection into a mass-selective quadrupole filter. Ion storage cells filled with collision gas have proved successful in reducing the phase space, whereby the cells consist, for example, of four round rods positioned between the diaphragm systems on the input side and output side, and which use a supply with both phases of an RF voltage to build up an essentially quadrupole alternating field which, in conjunction with retaining potentials on the diaphragm systems, retains the ions in the storage cell. The demands on the conditioning cells are particularly high if it is intended that the conditioning cells will also be used for the fragmentation of ions, i.e. when it is intended that the deceleration gas will be simultaneously also used as the collision gas for a fragmentation. For fragmentation, the ions are injected into the collision-gas filled system with kinetic energies of between 30 and 200 electron volts. The fragmentation process is denoted by the abbreviation CID (collisionally induced decomposition); the fragmentation occurs only after many collisions, when the ion has absorbed sufficient intrinsic energy as a result of the high proportion of collisions to lead to the fragmentation of a bond. Regardless of whether the ions are fragmented or not, they are also kinetically cooled in the collision gas simultaneously and in competition with the fragmentation, i.e. their kinetic energy decreases. The fragmentation process in these quadrupole systems would proceed more effectively in collision gases with a heavier molecular weight; these heavier gases cannot be used, however, since their gas molecules deflect the ions more strongly to the side during collisions and it is then very easy for the ions, as a result of such collision cascades, to escape laterally out of the round-rod quadrupole system. All current tandem mass spectrometers require collision cells for the fragmentation of one species of ion (the “parent ions”) in order to obtain information about the structure of the parent ions by analyzing the fragment ion spectrum (or “daughter ion spectrum”). In general, the parent ions are selected from a primary ion mixture by a quadrupole filter; then fragmented in the collision cell; after fragmentation, the daughter ions can be analyzed in quadrupole mass spectrometers, time-of-flight mass spectrometers with orthogonal ion injection, in RF ion traps or in ion cyclotron resonance spectrometers. For many years, RF quadrupole systems have been used as collision cells, which are usually constructed of round rods and operated with purely RF voltage without superimposed DC voltage (in the so-called “RF-only mode”), usually with helium as the collision gas (sometimes with nitrogen), and in which both the parent and also the daughter ions remain trapped as well as possible. Mass spectrometers which use quadrupole filters near the inputs and near the outputs to select or analyze ions have become known as “Triple-Quads”, for obvious reasons; these Triple-Quads have been known for around 15 years. Collision cells usually consist of RF rod systems with round rods, although for high-quality quadrupole mass spectrometers, hyperbole systems, which permit significantly better separation efficiency and transmissions, have established themselves in the last 30 years. Inexpensive round-rod systems are still considered good enough for the collision chambers, expensive hyperbole systems are not used at all. From the work of F. von Busch and W. Paul, Z. Phys. 164,588 (1961), however, it is already known that in round-rod quadrupole filters, non-linear resonances exist which lead to the ejection of those ions whose motion parameters lie in the middle of the “Mathieu stability zone” and which should therefore be collected in a stable state. In three-dimensional RF ion traps, these resonances lead to the phenomenon of “black holes”, which occur in the same way in rod systems, particularly in round-rod systems. Round-rod systems contain octopole and higher even-numbered multipole fields of considerable strength superimposed on the quadrupole field, leading to a distortion of the ion oscillations in the radial direction and hence to the formation of overtones of the ion oscillation. Their meeting with the Mathieu side bands leads to the resonances, which only occur, however, when the ions sweep through relatively wide radial oscillations. For ions lying damped in the axis of the system, the resonances are not effective. The Mathieu stability field is traversed by numerous non-linear resonance lines, the resonances are by no means rare. Now it is precisely the case in collision cells that the ions injected with higher energies of between 30 and 200 electron volts must reach the vicinity of the rods or their intermediate areas in large numbers by means of collision cascades, and they are therefore inevitably subjected to the phenomenon of non-linear resonances if they fulfill the resonance conditions. Specific species of daughter ions can thus disappear from the collision cell and hence out of the daughter ion spectrum and thus adulterate the spectrum of the daughter ions. In the most unfavorable case, even the selected parent ions are subjected to this resonance and disappear to a large extent from the collision cell. Apart from this, round-rod systems have the further disadvantage that the pseudopotential wall between the rods is extremely low (for commercially available systems only some ten to twenty volts) and can easily be overcome by ions with an energy of 50 electron volts, usually the minimum energy required for fragmentation processes, by means of a random laterally-deflecting collision cascade. This escape affects both parent and daughter ions. The higher the mass of the collision gas molecules, the more ions are lost, because in this case, the angles of deflection per collision are greater. A cascade of a few collisions which coincidentally deflect in the same lateral direction is enough to remove the ion from the collision cell. In the case of a very light collision gas, the larger angles of deflection of a small number of collisions are no longer able to compensate statistically as well as the large number of smaller angles of deflection. As far as the conditioning of the ions is concerned, a disadvantage of most collision cells is that either the ions leave the cell again with relatively high energy after sweeping through once, since their energy has not been sufficiently reduced by collisions, or that, after a sufficiently large number of collisions (after a long sweep at high pressure or also after several sweeps with reflections at the ion output) they have given up their kinetic energy apart from residues of thermal energy and then remain in the collision cell. There has been a long search for collision cells which make it possible to construct an axial DC voltage drop to fish out the fragmented and thermalized ions from the collision cell in an efficient and uniform manner. The DC voltage drop needs only to be a few volts. The easiest way to generate a DC voltage drop is in a quadrupole electrode system made of four thin resistance wires. The thin wires require an extremely high RF voltage, however, in order to build up the quadrupole RF field since the largest voltage drop occurs in the immediate vicinity of the thin wire. In addition, the resistance must not be particularly high, otherwise the RF alternating voltage cannot propagate along the wires sufficiently quickly. It is therefore only possible to generate very low DC voltage drops along the wire. Moreover, the pseudopotential wall between the wires is very low; the ions can escape very easily. Furthermore, the proportion of higher multipole fields is very high. Hyberbolic quadrupole systems comprising a large number of clamped parallel wires which imitate the four hyperbolic areas of the ideal quadrupole system provide a way out. Quadrupole systems replicated in wire like this were already being used around 40 years ago in the laboratories of Wolfgang Paul, the inventor of all quadrupole systems. These quadrupole systems are difficult to produce, however, and not very precise. Another type of ion storage system with an electrically switched forward thrust is known from patent specification U.S. Pat. No. 5,572,035 (J. Franzen). The patent specification relates to various types of ion guidance systems which are completely different to the rod and wire systems described here. One of these consists of only two helical, coiled conductors in the shape of the double helix, operated by connection to the two phases of RF voltage. Another consists of coaxial rings connected in turn to the phases of RF alternating voltage. Both systems can be operated so that an axial forward thrust of the ions is generated. The double helix can be produced from resistance wire across which a DC voltage drop is generated, in a similar way to the quadrupole rod system made of thin wires; since the double helix is more compatible with thinner wires, however, and also has longer wires, it is more suitable for the DC voltage drop. The individual rings of the ring system can be supplied with a DC voltage potential which decreases in stages ring by ring, as also described in the patent. Further solutions for collision cells which permit a thrust of the ions along the axis in the interior of the system are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,847,386 (B. A. Thomson and C. L. Jolliffe) and protected by patent. All these systems are based on round rods: (a) a segmented quadrupole system made of a chain of a few short rod systems whose potential on the axis falls off in stages; (b) a quadrupole rod system made of conically tapering rods running parallel to the axis; (c) a quadrupole rod system whose rods are arranged conically against each other; (d) a quadrupole system of parallel rods with externally encompassing rings at DC voltage potentials which decrease step by step and which reach into the interior of the rod system where they generate a decreasing potential on the axis; (e) a quadrupole rod system whose nonconducting rods have an externally applied resistance layer across which a voltage drop is generated (better than the quadrupole system made of thin resistance wires); (f) a quadrupole rod system made of insulating thin-walled ceramic tubes, with an external resistance layer for a DC voltage drop and an internal metal layer for the RF feed which acts through the insulator to the outside; (g) a quadrupole rod system with auxiliary electrodes at weak DC voltage potential between the rods, whereby the auxiliary electrodes are arranged so as to taper to the axis of the system. The auxiliary electrodes are each located at the point of the zero potential of the two-phase RF voltage which is applied alternately across the rods. This generates a potential on the axis with potential gradient along the axis. These arrays are, however, not completely satisfactory: partly because they are complicated to produce and therefore not particularly cheap, and partly because they function only moderately satisfactorily. The transitions between the split quadrupole systems thus present transmission losses and reflections in System (a). System (g) with the long auxiliary diaphragms between the rods exhibits larger ion losses in practice as a result of touching the auxiliary electrodes, which fundamentally decrease the height of the pseudopotential wall between the rods. This system has only limited suitability for the fragmentation of ions since the fragmentation always scatters the ions as well, and the losses are therefore much too high. The nonconducting rods (e) with resistance coating only partially conduct the RF voltage since here the higher capacity of the system compared with the thin wires means larger currents must be carried; or conversely, the resistance coating must really have an extremely low resistance. The ion guidance system (c), which is tapered instead of cylindrical, drives practically only those ions forward which have not collected at rest in the axis of the system, since only these experience a potential with a forward thrust. Almost the same is true for the rod system (b) comprising tapering rods. System (f) comprising thin ceramic tubes (according to the description tube walls around 0.5 to 1 millimeter thick) with interior metal coating to generate the RF field, and exterior resistance layer for the DC voltage drop, has disadvantages: the RF frequency causes such high dielectric losses in the material of the ceramic tubes that the system becomes extremely hot within a very short time and practically glows in the vacuum. DE 102 21 468 A1 (J. Franzen and A. Brekenfeld) presents further systems with axial DC voltage drop, which are essentially based on the effect of DC voltages on externally encompassing tapering or trumpet-shaped electrodes. It should be mentioned also that all rod systems into which external DC voltage potentials reach, as in U.S. Pat. No. 5,847,386, case (d) or (g), or as in DE 102 21 468 A1, are disadvantageous. The DC potential on the axis of the rod system is raised, thereby disturbing the parabolic minimum of the pseudopotential in the axis. In a quadrupole system of this type, four new potential minima in which the ions can oscillate are created between the axis and the rods. The possible oscillation amplitudes for the ions are extremely limited, however; the ions can easily collide with the rods and be lost through discharge. The best systems are those which leave the parabolic minimum in the axis of the rod system undisturbed yet generate a DC voltage drop, as is the case with the rod system made of thin resistance wires or case (g) from U.S. Pat. No. 5,847,386, whose basic principle of the dielectric penetrated by RF has also been known for a long time. Every conductor radiates RF, whether it is insulated or not. A cylinder made of resistance material penetrated by RF has also been known as a “leaky dielectric” for some time (P. H. Dawson, “Performance of the Quadrupole Mass Filter with Separated RF and DC Fringing Fields”, Int. J. Mass Spectrom. Ion Phys., 25 (1977) 375-392. Cited is: W. L. Fite, Rev. Sci. Instrum., 47 (1976) 326). Multipole systems of a higher order can also be used as a collision cell. Such multipole systems comprise more than just two rod pairs. With more than two rod pairs, hexapole, octopole, decapole, dodecapole fields etc. are created. Both phases of a two-phase RF voltage are applied across two neighboring rods. Walls of a so-called pseudopotential then develop between the rods, as is the case with the quadrupole system, these walls hold the ions in the interior of the rod system. In contrast to the quadrupole system, the pseudopotential forms a flat trough in the vicinity of the axis in which the thermalized ions collect further away from the axis than is the case with the parabolic minimum of a quadrupole system. The more rod pairs there are, the shallower the trough. Multipole systems are therefore not as suitable as quadrupole systems for beam conditioning. In octopole systems, it is even possible to observe that the Coulombic repulsion of the ions causes them to collect around the fringes; the axis has a much lower ion density. For some types of mass spectrometer, the higher multipole systems cannot therefore be used as a collision cell for the analysis of the daughter ions owing to their poor beam conditioning. Time-of-flight mass spectrometers with orthogonal injection of a primary ion beam possess a so-called pulser at the beginning of the flight path which accelerates a section of the primary ion beam, i.e. a string-shaped ion package, at right angles to the previous direction of the beam. This forms a ribbon-shaped secondary ion beam in which light ions fly quickly and heavier ones more slowly, and whose direction of flight lies between the previous direction of the primary ion beam and the direction of acceleration at right angles to this. A time-of-flight mass spectrometer of this type is preferably operated with a velocity-focusing reflector which reflects the whole width of the ribbon-shaped secondary ion beam and directs it towards a similarly extended detector. If all ions fly in a line exactly in the axis of the pulser, and if the ions have no velocity components transverse to the primary ion beam, then theoretically—as can easily be understood—an infinitely high mass resolution power can be achieved, since all ions with the same mass fly precisely in the same front and reach the detector at precisely the same time. If the primary ion beam has a finite cross section, but no ion has a velocity component transverse to the direction of the beam, then spatial focusing of the pulser again theoretically means an infinitely high mass resolution can be achieved. The high mass resolution can even still be achieved if a strict correlation exists between the ion location (measured from the beam axis of the primary beam in the direction of the acceleration) and the ion transverse velocity in the primary beam in the direction of the acceleration. If no such correlation exists, however, i.e. if ion locations and ion transverse velocities are statistically distributed with no correlation between the two distributions, then it is no longer possible to achieve high mass resolution. The primary ion beam must therefore be conditioned with respect to location and velocity distribution in order to achieve a high mass resolution in the time-of-flight mass spectrometer. Beam conditioning is also required for other types of mass spectrometer, or at the very least it is useful. Every mass spectrometer has a phase space acceptance cross section which determines which of the injected ions are accepted and which deflected or reflected. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The invention uses a conditioning cell with an adjustable DC potential which decreases towards the exit aperture to compress the phase volume of the ions by damping their kinetic energies, collecting the ions after thermalization in the spatial potential minimum thus created and letting them drain away relatively slowly through a central potential minimum in the exit aperture system. This facilitates the production of very fine, highly parallel ion beams which consist of almost monoenergetic ions. In particular, the method can also be coupled with a fragmentation of the ions. The invention provides a method in which a fine monoenergetic ion beam is produced by steps including: (a) injecting ions into a conditioning cell filled with a collision gas thereby thermalizing the ions, the collision cell having a diaphragm system to drain the ions out of the conditioning cell; (b) collecting the ions in a DC potential well in front of the diaphragm system; and (c) draining the ions out of the conditioning cell via a fine overflow potential minimum in the diaphragm system. This generates the desired fine beam with ions displaying high energy homogeneity. Here, the potential minimum in the diaphragm system, viewed in the plane of the apertured diaphragms, is a point-shaped potential minimum directly at the center of the apertured diaphragms, with the potential increasing radially very quickly to a high barrier potential. A wall with a narrow channel forms along the axis of the electrode system and acts as the overflow. On the one hand, the method can run continuously by having simultaneous and continuous ion introduction, thermalization, collection and draining over a pre-determined time interval. On the other, it can be also be discontinuous, in which case introduction, thermalization and collection form the first phase of the method, and the draining forms a second phase, whereby during the draining, the voltage drop along the conditioning cell can be temporally changed to make it possible for the draining to continue until the potential well is empty. This process can be repeated a number of times. The method can use a conditioning cell constructed of parallel ring electrodes. The generation of a potential gradient in such a cell is known from patent specification U.S. Pat. No. 5,572,035. It is also possible, however, to use a conditioning cell consisting of two or more helical, coiled wires. In this case also, the generation of a potential gradient is known from the patent specification cited. Lastly, it is possible to use a conditioning cell consisting of longitudinal electrodes in which a multipole RF field is present. The conditioning cell uses in particular four longitudinal electrodes which generate a quadrupole field, because this quadrupole field possesses a well-formed pseudopotential minimum. The generation of DC voltage potential gradients in such quadrupole systems is described below. To avoid ion losses, the quadrupole RF field can be generated so as to be as free as possible from superimpositions with higher multipole fields by designing the longitudinal electrodes which generate the RF field with a hyperbolic shape towards the interior. A DC voltage potential gradient can be generated by longitudinal electrodes equipped with electrically conductive surface layers and each separated from the RF-carrying longitudinal electrode below by a thin insulating layer and supplied with a mixture of RF and DC voltages. The potential gradient is generated via a DC voltage drop across the electrically conductive surface layers. This keeps the pseudopotential minimum in the axis. When plotted over a cross-sectional area of the quadrupole system, this minimum has the shape of a rotary paraboloid. Thermalized ions collect exactly in the axis of the quadrupole system. It may be desirable to select at least two individually adjustable potential gradients along the quadrupole system; this can be achieved by them each having at least one through-hole plating of the surface layers to the longitudinal electrode below. If the longitudinal electrodes are hyperbolic in shape, the insulated surface layer only needs to cover the hyperbolic part of the longitudinal electrode. For the task of collisionally induced fragmentation, it is particularly favorable to use hyperbolic electrodes since, here, the risk of losses due to collision cascades and nonlinear resonating daughter ions is particularly high. Before being put into operation, the collision cell is filled, as usual, with a collision gas at a pressure of between 10 −2 and 10 +2 Pascal, the ions to be fragmented are injected from one of the ends with energies of between 30 and 200 electron volts. A hyperbolic quadrupole system has the advantage over the round-rod systems regularly used nowadays in that, firstly, there is no escape via nonlinear resonances and, secondly, the pseudopotentials arising from the axis in all radial directions have the same slope, i.e., supply the same restoring forces. The escape of ions via too low a pseudopotential wall between the pole rods as a result of laterally deflected collision cascades is almost completely prevented; if ions at all get lost from this system it is by the rare cases of colliding with the electrodes. The mixture of RF and DC voltages for the DC voltage drop along the system can be generated using an air core transformer whose secondary windings are each designed to take both phases at least twice so that the DC voltage potentials can be fed into the cold center taps of two secondary windings. Three secondary windings are favorable: one winding serves to supply the RF for the hyperbolic electrodes, and two windings serve to supply the superimposed DC voltage. This enables two independent potential gradients to be generated. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows the scheme of a collision and conditioning cell according to the invention in a tandem mass spectrometer. The ion beam ( 50 ) is injected through the diaphragm system ( 51 ) into a quadrupole system ( 52 ) to select the parent ions; the parent ions selected are accelerated through the diaphragm system ( 53 ) and injected into the quadrupole system ( 54 ) forming the collision cell where they are fragmented; finally, thermalized fragment ions and the remaining parent ions are threaded through the potential overflow in the diaphragm system ( 55 ) into the pulser ( 56 ) of a time-of-flight mass spectrometer where they are accelerated, locally focused, through the accelerating electrodes ( 57 ) as an ion beam ( 58 ) into the flight path. FIG. 2 shows a three-dimensional diagram of the potential well with exit channel at the end of the collision cell, shown as a longitudinal section of the collision cell. The parabolic potential minima of the quadrupole system decrease towards the exit end and are terminated by the potential distribution of the apertured diaphragm system. An ion pool is formed in the potential well with a surface ( 48 ) whose ions can drain away through the narrow exit potential channel ( 49 ) in the apertured diaphragm system. FIG. 3 represents a glass quadrupole system which can form the essential part of a conditioning cell. The apertured diaphragm systems on both sides are not shown. The hyperbolic electrode sheets ( 2 , 3 ) are melted onto the inside of the glass body ( 1 ), and the insulated resistance layers are vapor deposited onto these. The connector pins ( 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 and 12 , 13 , 14 ) bring the DC voltage to the resistance layers, the connector pins ( 8 , 9 , 10 ) guide the RF voltage to the electrode sheets. FIG. 4 illustrates a quadrupole system made of rigid aluminum electrodes ( 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 ), on whose anodized oxide layer the resistance layers ( 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 ) are applied, screwed into a glass holder ( 20 ) with a precise internal cross section. FIG. 5 depicts an example of a diagram of the voltage supply with mixing of the RF phases and the DC voltage potentials; a transformer with three secondary windings is used to generate two potential gradients. FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram of a quadrupole system (row A) with longitudinal electrodes ( 70 ) and resistance layer ( 71 ) with through-hole plating ( 72 ) and underneath the filling (row B) and emptying of the ion pool (rows C to E) by changing the DC potentials in the quadrupole system and across the exit diaphragm system ( 74 ). DETAILED DESCRIPTION A preferred embodiment of the method for producing a fine ion beam with ions displaying homogeneous energies consists in using a hyperbolic quadrupole system which facilitates the generation of an axial potential gradient, roughly the quadrupole system ( 54 ) in FIG. 1 , in conjunction with a diaphragm system ( 55 ) at the ejection end of the quadrupole system. The ions can be introduced through an injection diaphragm system ( 53 ) into the interior of the quadrupole system, for example. A glass quadrupole system ( 1 ) shown in FIG. 3 can be used as the quadrupole system, for instance. For this, the quadrupole system is filled with collision gas at a pressure of between 10 −2 and 10 +2 Pascal, causing the ions to thermalize more or less rapidly, i.e. they give up their kinetic energy to the collision gas keeping only thermal residual energies. The restoring forces of the pseudopotential cause the ions having lost their kinetic energy, to collect in the axis of the quadrupole system. By switching on a weak DC voltage drop across the electrically conductive surface layer of the quadrupole system ( 1 ), the ions are driven slowly in the axis to the exit end of the quadrupole system. By applying DC voltages across the diaphragm system ( 55 ) ( FIG. 1 ) on the exit side in this case, a potential barrier can be set up so that here in the end of the quadrupole system an “ion pool” forms within the potential well which slowly fills with ions, whereby the ions in the ion pool are continuously further thermalized in the collision gas. The potential well of the “ion pool” with the ion reflector ( 48 ) is shown in FIG. 2 as a potential over a section of the longitudinal axis. The apertured diaphragm system ( 55 ) ( FIG. 1 ) barring the ions now possesses a potential minimum directly in the axis, which forms a point-shaped overflow ( 49 ) ( FIG. 2 ) over which the ions from the ion pool can slowly drain away out of the quadrupole system. A restoring potential of this type with a point-shaped overflow in the axis can easily be produced by the three apertured diaphragms ( 55 ) ( FIG. 1 ) supplied with a DC voltage. The ions which drain out of the ion pool like this are very monoenergetic; it is thus possible, as mathematical simulations demonstrate, to generate ion beams which have an energy spread of only 0.2 electron volt. The “ion pool” in FIG. 2 is here a symbolic representation. The filling of the pool and the associated spatial expansion of the ions is a result of the Coulombic repulsion of the ions. The surface ( 48 ) does not exist, of course, since the ions collect in a three-dimensional lobe with rotational symmetry. The surface ( 48 ) here actually indicates a particular pressure of the Coulomb potential which presses the ions against the pseudopotential of the quadrupole system and against the barrier potential of the diaphragm system. If the collection of ions is large enough to make this Coulomb pressure sufficiently high, the ions can drain away via the overflow potential of the diaphragm system. This effect produces the extraordinarily good energy homogeneity of the ions draining away. If the ions are injected through the injection diaphragms ( 53 ) with sufficient energy, most of them are fragmented. The conditioning cell then acts as a collision cell for the fragmentation of the ions (CID=collisionally induced decomposition). This embodiment of a collision cell can be used for an arrangement which, according to FIG. 1 , comprises a selective quadrupole filter mass spectrometer ( 52 ), the quadrupole system ( 54 ) forming the collision cell, a pulser ( 56 ) for the ion beam in the time-of-flight mass spectrometer and the apertured diaphragm systems ( 51 ), ( 53 ) and ( 55 ). A preferred embodiment of the quadrupole system for the collision cell assumes, as shown in FIG. 3 , a normal monolithic glass quadrupole ( 1 ) with melted-on hyperbolic sheet surfaces ( 2 , 3 ), as described in DE 27 37 903 (U.S. Pat. No. 4,213,557). The glass quadrupole system is formed in one operation in a hot molding process and fused with the sheet electrodes ( 2 , 3 ) and is thus relatively inexpensive to manufacture. It is extraordinarily precise in maintaining all dimensions. The hyperbolic surfaces ( 2 , 3 ) of a glass quadrupole of this type are thinly coated with insulating paint and after drying in the vacuum, a thin layer of chromium is vapor deposited which acts as the electrically conductive surface layer. The chromium layer deposited in this process is only a few nanometers thick, it is possible in this case to generate a resistance of around five kilohms with good reproducibility. The chromium layer extends here to the end surfaces and also covers the front area of the glass so that connector pins ( 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 12 , 13 , 14 ) can be connected with the chromium layer on the electrodes ( 2 , 3 ) via a conductive paint. For a voltage drop of five volts, a current of one milliampere flows with a loss of power of five milliwatts. A voltage drop of five volts is more than sufficient; a smaller voltage drop is usually used. Instead of the chromium layer it is also possible to apply a layer of another metal. At a defined position, the chromium layer can be connected to the hyperbolic electrode underneath by means of a gap in the insulating layer as schematically represented in the supply diagram in FIG. 5 . It is then possible to produce sections with different voltage drops. A favorable embodiment for the voltage supply is illustrated schematically in FIG. 5 . A transformer is used for the voltage supply which uses a primary winding ( 30 ) and three secondary windings ( 34 , 37 ), ( 32 , 35 ) and ( 33 , 36 ), each with a center tap. The secondary windings are (unlike the schematic drawing which makes use of the form usually used in electrical engineering) all wound on the same core with the same coupling to the primary winding ( 30 ). This can be an air core transformer or a transformer with magnetic core, for example with ferrite core. The hot ends of the secondary winding ( 33 , 36 ) supply the four hyberbolic electrode sheets in the usual way, electrodes ( 40 , 41 ) positioned opposite each other each being supplied with the same phase (the two other electrodes and their supply are not shown here). Two independently variable DC voltages ( 38 ) and ( 39 ) are fed into the center taps of the two other secondary windings ( 34 , 37 ) and ( 32 , 35 ) and the aforementioned secondary winding ( 33 , 36 ). The ends ( 32 ) and ( 34 ) of these windings are each connected with the ends of the insulated chromium layers ( 42 , 43 ) applied to the electrodes ( 40 , 41 ) in such a way that a DC current flows through the windings and the chromium layer, generating a voltage drop while, at the same time, the RF alternating voltage is also applied across both ends. The resistance layers ( 42 , 43 ) are connected with the hyperbolic electrodes below at position ( 44 ), it is therefore possible to generate two independent voltage drops in the sections ( 45 , 44 ) and ( 44 , 46 ) of the quadrupole system. The RF alternating voltage of these feeds does not have to supply all the chromium layers ( 42 , 43 ) with RF voltage in this case, since there is capacitive coupling between the RF voltage through the insulating paint and the hyperbolic electrodes ( 40 , 41 ), which are good conductors. This simple circuit avoids the use of capacitors, resistances or inductors to connect the hot side of the transformer windings. It is possible to use a litz wire made of three braided strands for the windings, for example. Since the electrically conductive surface layers ( 42 ) and ( 43 ), which each form a resistance layer insulated from the hyperbolic electrodes ( 40 ) and ( 41 ), are connected at position ( 44 ) with the hyperbolic electrodes ( 40 ) and ( 41 ) below, it is possible to form the voltage drop in the two partial sections ( 45 , 44 ) and ( 44 , 46 ) separately. The two independently adjustable potential gradients can be used to greatly vary the size of the pool which results in the overflow. A very small voltage drop in the larger part of the quadrupole system and a slightly higher potential gradient in front of the ejection diaphragm system make it possible to produce a small pool. The two independent voltage drops in the sections ( 45 , 44 ) and ( 44 , 46 ) make it possible to empty the ion pool more rapidly at the end of a measurement by using a continuous increase of the voltage drop ( 44 , 46 ) to reduce the expansion of the pool and by completely draining the pool via the potential channel in the apertured diaphragm system on the output side. The glass quadrupole system of FIG. 3 is eminently suitable for filling with collision gas. Clean nitrogen can be used for this, it is not necessary to use expensive helium in this case since, even with collision gases of higher molecular weights, the collision cascades with random lateral deflection do not lead to noticeable ion losses. Nitrogen as the collision gas has a higher fragmentation yield. It is even possible to use argon as the collision gas, producing an even higher fragmentation yield. It is advisable to make the injection and ejection apertures as fine as possible in order to be able to keep the pressure in the collision cell high without worsening the vacuum in the surrounding mass spectrometers by providing them with more collision gas than they can tolerate. A higher pressure leads to more rapid fragmentation and thermalization, which is particularly favorable for pulsed operation. Gas mixtures, for example helium and argon, can create an equilibrium between thermalization and fragmentation. In this case, the helium is mainly responsible for the thermalization, the argon for the fragmentation. The mixture enables the desired ratio of fragmentation to kinetic cooling to be produced. As illustrated in FIG. 1 , the hyberbolic quadrupole system ( 54 ) is sealed on both sides with apertured diaphragm systems ( 53 ) and ( 55 ). The apertured diaphragm system on the input side ( 53 ) provides the accelerating voltage for the subsequent fragmentation, the apertured diaphragm system on the output side ( 55 ) provides only a fine potential minimum in the axis to drain away thermalized ions, otherwise it is ion repulsive. The parent ions are selected in the quadrupole system ( 52 ). The usual method here is to select the whole isotope group of the parent ions in order to recover the isotope groups in the daughter ion spectrum; the specific mass range selected is therefore roughly between three and five mass units per elementary charge. The parent ions which are injected with energies of between 30 and 200 electron volts will first traverse the collision cell ( 54 ) with a few hundred collisions and be reflected on the output side of the diaphragm system ( 55 ). On returning to the diaphragm system on the input side ( 53 ) they are reflected again; they thus oscillate in the hyperbolic quadrupole system ( 54 ) until they are thermalized. This causes a proportion of the ions to be fragmented, this proportion depending on the collision density and the power of the collision. The collision density is given by the number, the power of the collision by the mass of the collision gas molecules. The thermalized ions collect in the axis of the quadrupole system, in the minimum of the pseudopotential. The slight DC voltage drop along the quadrupole system ( 54 ) allows the thermalized ions to flow towards the output in front of the diaphragm system ( 55 ), where they collect in the “ion pool”. According to the invention, the potential of the outflow aperture in the axis of the diaphragm system ( 55 ) is kept high enough so that a certain quantity of thermalized ions must first fill the ion pool with a certain “overflow pressure” before the ions can emerge over the slight potential threshold in the outlet hole. As described above, the overflow pressure is formed by the Coulombic repulsion of the ions in the ion pool. This overflow out of an ion pool provides ions with extraordinarily homogeneous energies (“monoenergetic” ions). It is possible to form an ion beam out of the outflowing monoenergetic ions which is eminently suitable for a time-of-flight mass spectrometer with orthogonal injection. The non-thermalized ions which occasionally emerge from the fine aperture, ions which can only emerge when they, by a rare coincidence, aim directly at this potential hole, are not a problem in the subsequent time-of-flight mass spectrometer because their velocity is too high and they either quickly completely sweep through the pulser or, alternately, they cannot hit the ion detector at the end of the flight path after being ejected as a pulse in the pulser. If the ions are injected into the collision cell with a small angle, their chance of escaping unthermalized from the overflow potential channel is reduced. Injection at a small angle is the norm for ions coming out of a selective quadrupole system, since the radial oscillation of the ions in the selective quadrupole occurs to a large extent unhindered. The quantity of ions in the ion pool, which brings about the draining, depends on the profile of the DC voltage along the quadrupole system. As described above, this profile can be generated by three or more windings of the RF transformer. Controlling the voltage drop in front of the apertured diaphragm system on the output side makes it possible to empty the pool after measuring a daughter ion spectrum slowly and completely. The quadrupole system with hyperbolic electrodes can be constructed in a completely different way, as shown in FIG. 4 . For example, four electrodes ( 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 ) can be manufactured out of aluminum with a hyperbolic electrode surface on the front and shaped on the rear so that there is a good screw fit in a retaining insulator ( 20 ). The retaining insulator ( 20 ) can be produced out of glass, for instance, using a method for producing so called “calibrated precision glass”, for example. The aluminum electrodes ( 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 ) are strongly anodized on the hyperbolic side at least, thus forming a nonconducting oxide layer. A thin layer of metal is then, in turn, vapor deposited onto this layer in order to produce the resistance layers ( 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 ) on the surface. The vapor is again deposited only on the hyperbolic surface here. The screw-fastened system is bonded in a similar way to the quadrupole system made of hyperbolic sheets which are melted onto the glass. The collision cells according to the invention are particularly suitable for operation with a quadrupole mass spectrometer for selecting the parent ions, and with a time-of-flight mass spectrometer with orthogonal ion injection for analyzing daughter ions, as shown in FIG. 1 . The time-of-flight mass spectrometers provide extraordinarily good accuracy for mass determination; even with relatively small table-top instruments it is possible to obtain mass determinations to an accuracy of two to three millionths of the mass in a mass range of around 200 to 4000 atomic mass units, i.e. eminently suitable for the exceedingly interesting use in the field of protein and peptide analysis. This method is especially good for de-novo sequencing of peptides, i.e. the determination of the sequence of amino acids with no additional prior knowledge. Time-of-flight mass spectrometers with orthogonal injection of a primary ion beam have a pulser ( 56 ) at the beginning of their flight path which accelerates a section of the primary ion beam, i.e., a fine string-shaped ion package, at right angles to the previous direction of the beam. This forms a ribbon-shaped secondary ion beam ( 58 ) in which light ions fly quickly and heavier ones more slowly, and whose direction of flight lies between the previous direction of the primary ion beam and the direction of acceleration at right angles to this. A time-of-flight mass spectrometer of this type is usually operated with a velocity-focusing reflector which reflects the whole width of the ribbon-shaped secondary ion beam and deflects it onto a detector which is also extended. The resolution of this time-of-flight mass spectrometer depends on the quality of the primary ion beam, as described in the introduction. The primary ion beam must therefore be conditioned with respect to spatial and velocity distribution in order to achieve a high mass resolution in the time-of-flight mass spectrometer. This conditioning of the primary ion beam can be achieved by using the collision cell according to the invention. A collision cell according to the invention can be operated both in continuous mode and also in a pulsed mode. The pulsed mode injects a predefined quantity of parent ions, allows them to oscillate backwards and forwards in the collision cell preferably without significant DC voltage drop until their kinetic energy has been absorbed by cooling or fragmenting collisions, and then empties the collision cell by increasing the decreasing DC voltages. The ions are then transported to the output, where they collect in the ion pool and can escape monoenergetically through the potential minimum in the center of the apertured diaphragm system. The pulsed mode can be repeated here for every spectrum of the time-of-flight spectrometer; fragmentation, thermalization and emptying must then take place very quickly. With a scan rate of ten kilohertz, each pulse operation must be completed in 100 microseconds, something which is only possible with very high collision gas pressures and which requires the DC voltages to be increased very rapidly. The quality of the beam suffers as a result, even with a scan rate of three kilohertz, the voltages of DC voltage drop and the apertured lens system must be very carefully matched in order to obtain a well-conditioned ion beam. It is also possible to choose a slow pulsed mode in which one pulse encompasses the scan of a total of around 1000 individual spectra for a daughter spectrum, the daughter spectrum being scanned in around a tenth of a second. It is also possible, however, to have pulsed operation with a period of around five milliseconds. In this case, the parent ions are injected for around a millisecond, for example out of an ion pool in the preceding selective quadrupole system. The ions then get around two milliseconds for fragmentation, thermalization and collection in the ion pool. This requires a collision gas pressure of around one to ten Pascal. After this, the ions are allowed to flow out of the ion pool for around two milliseconds, whereby the potential gradient of the ion pool is continuously increased, until the ion pool is practically empty. The emptying of the ion pool is shown schematically in FIG. 6 in several phases. Residues in the ion pool are not a problem, since immediately afterwards, a new filling period with the same parent ions begins. This method of emptying the ion pool should produce excellent results with respect to the energy homogeneity and the composition of the ions. With longer collection phases, the heavy and the light ions in the ion pool segregate because the action of the pseudopotentials is mass-dependent. Collection phases which are too long when there is a good supply of ions then lead to a loss of heavy ions. A pulsed mode of this type does not use the subsequent time-of-flight mass spectrometer to the full. The spectra are only ever taken for an interval of two milliseconds in a period of five milliseconds, the scanning of the spectra therefore occurs only 40% of the time. This has the effect of reducing the dynamic measuring range by a factor of 2.5. Nevertheless, this type of operation has proven to be advantageous for the resolution of the spectra and the accuracy of the mass spectra. If the total duration of the scan of a daughter ion spectrum is a tenth of a second, then with ten kilohertz scanning frequency, only 400 instead of 1000 daughter ion spectra are scanned and added. However, since the daughter ion spectra, which, after all, only utilize a fraction of the ions allowed into the mass spectrometer, practically never fully extend the ion detector and the digitalization electronics, this mode is desirable. Knowledge of this invention makes it possible for those skilled in the art to set up yet more modes of operation for other types of analytical tasks using analogous methods.

The invention relates to a method for damping the kinetic energy of ions in ion cells filled with collision gas and with an exit aperture to drain the ions out of the cell. The invention uses a conditioning cell with an adjustable DC potential which decreases towards the exit aperture to compress the phase volume of the ions by damping their kinetic energies, collecting the ions after thermalization in the spatial potential minimum thus created and letting them drain away relatively slowly through a central potential minimum in the exit aperture system. This facilitates the production of very fine, highly parallel ion beams which consist of almost monoenergetic ions. In particular, the method can also be coupled with a fragmentation of the ions.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention provides method and apparatus for rebuilding nominally disposable toner cartridges commonly used in electrostatic printers and copiers. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION It is common practice in the office printer and copier industry to make a lower priced copier or printer with a toner dispensing portion that is nominally a disposable cartridge. This cartridge commonly includes a toner bin, as well as a combination of a doctor blade and a gear-driven magnetic roller that is used to meter the toner onto a charged photoconductive surface. The cost of replacing nominally disposable cartridges can be a significant fraction of the total cost of ownership. These cartridges commonly retail for 10-20% of the price of a new printer or copier. This high cost has given rise to an entire sub-industry of toner cartridge recyclers who recharge (and sometimes rebuild) the cartridges for a fraction of their new cost. Although a cartridge can be refilled with toner many times, the precise mechanical and electrical components of the toner cartridge wear out and soon produce a visible degradation of copy quality. Since the cartridge is designed with the expectation of a short service life, serious wear problems can be encountered after only a few rechargings. Diagnosing just what wear mechanism causes which sort of copy degradation is a challenge for the re-builder, who must seek for his answers in an area unanticipated by the original designers. An example of such a diagnostic and corrective procedure is presented in a related patent application by the inventor. In his U.S. application, Ser. No. 07/823,290, the disclosure of which is herein incorporated by reference, the inventor described method and apparatus for maintaining copy quality by providing a substitute for a worn electrical contact to the toner roller. One of the quality issues that has not been successfully addressed by the toner cartridge re-building industry is that of the "right side problem" in which a dark streak or gray background appears towards the right side of the imprinted surface of a piece of paper that has been processed through an affected electrostatic copier or printer. Re-builders have observed that when a printer or copier exhibits this effect, there is usually a build-up of excess toner on the corresponding "right side" of the corona wire (located adjacent the toner roller). Toner build-up on the corona wire can partially electrostatically shield the photoconductive drum, which prevents the corresponding "right side" of the photoconductor surface from being fully charged thus causing the observed dark streak on the right side of the paper. Some re-builders have hypothesized that excess toner is blown onto this portion of the corona wire by a cooling fan (an exhaust vent for the air stream is normally adjacent the "right side" end of the corona wire) and have suggested placing a permanent magnet adjacent the corona wire to preferentially capture the toner (which is ferromagnetic) that would otherwise get on the wire. The inventor has found no one in the industry who has suggested solving the "right side" problem by controlling the gap between the doctor blade and the toner roller and thereby preventing excess toner from getting out of the cartridge in the first place. This is not surprising, since (as will become apparent in the following discussion) the gap may open excessively only during printer operation, but remain within specification when the unit is at rest. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is an object of the invention to reduce excess toner deposition near the right side of the image-bearing surface of a sheet of paper that has been processed through an electrostatic printer or copier. It is a further object of the invention to reduce toner consumption in an electrostatic printer or copier. It is an object of the invention to provide a method of rebuilding a worn toner cartridge so as to assure a uniform and accurately set gap between the doctor blade and the toner roller of the rebuilt cartridge. It is a specific object of the invention to provide a bearing and a method of installing that bearing in place of a worn factory-installed bearing on a toner roller in order to extend the service life of a dry toner cartridge in an electrostatic printer or copier. It is yet a further object of the invention to allow rebuilding of a toner cartridge without having to place a magnet near the corona wire in order to capture excess toner. It is yet a further object of the invention to provide an indication of bearing wear to a toner cartridge recharger. DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING FIG. 1 of the drawing is a front plan view of a toner cartridge in which the bearing of the invention is installed. FIG. 2 of the drawing is a side elevational view of a prior art bearing. FIG. 3 of the drawing shows two views of the improved bearing. FIG. 3a is a side elevational view of one version of the improved bearing, with selected regions shown with distorted sizes for the sake of illustration. FIG. 3b is cross-sectional view taken through the section marked with reference numeral 76 in FIG. 3a. FIG. 4 of the drawing is a side elevational view of a second version of the improved bearing, with selected regions distorted for the sake of illustration. FIG. 5 of the drawing is a cross-section taken on a plane indicated as 70--70 in FIG. 1. FIG. 5a-b illustrate two steps in the process of installing the bearing of the invention into a housing after the bearing has been placed on the toner roller shaft. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Turning now to FIG. 1 of the drawing, one finds a toner cartridge typical of those that may be re-built according to the invention. A cartridge body 10 holds a doctor blade 12 and a toner roller 15. The doctor blade 12 can be fastened to the cartridge body 10 with a variety of screws, locating bosses, and the like that are well known in the art and that allow the edge of the blade 12 to be set parallel to the axis of the toner roller 15 and a controlled distance (e.g. 0.008-0.010") from the surface of the roller 15. The toner roller 15 is held in position in the cartridge body by bearings 18, 20 at either end thereof, and is rotated about its axis by means of a gear 22. Satisfactory precision in metering the dry toner onto the roller requires a carefully set gap of approximately 0.008"-0.010" between the doctor blade 12 and the toner roller 15. The requisite precision can be readily attained during original equipment manufacture, and is normally held during the designed service life of the cartridge (i.e. in the absence of recharging). Progressive wear of the various components of the cartridge eventually leads to an uncontrolled and asymmetrical gap width, as will be subsequently discussed. It is noteworthy that the two bearings 18, 20 have entirely different wear characteristics and wear mechanisms. The un-driven end bearing 18 outlasts the driven end bearing 20, which is subject to other forces that will be subsequently described. For the purposes of this disclosure, the service life of the un-driven end bearing 18 is of no concern, and the teachings herein presented will be directed at improvements to the driven-end bearing 20. Turning now to FIG. 2 of the drawing, one finds an end view of a prior art version 20a of the driven-end bearing 20. The bearing 20a is generally a radially truncated disk that has outer 26 and inner 27 walls separated by a thinner web 28 region. The bearing 20a has a cylindrical inner bearing surface 30 that has a radius slightly greater than the end shaft 31 of the toner roller 15 about which it fits so that the bearing 20a can be easily slid onto the shaft 31 during assembly. The bearing 20a has a concentric outer cylindrical surface portion 32 that fits into a cylindrical bearing retainer 34 that is part of the end cap 24. The inner and outer surfaces of an OEM bearing (e.g. FIG. 20a) are separated by a predefined rear web width 29 that is marked with a double-headed arrow in FIG. 2. Since the bearing 20a can not extend substantially further outward than the toner roller 15 (i.e. the toner roller 15 needs to be brought into a close-spaced relation with the photoconductor surface so that it can donate toner to the charged photoconductor), the bearing 20a also has a generally flat outer surface portion 36 (i.e. the part of the bearing 20 that is visible in the elevation of FIG. 1). Observations on bearings taken from used toner cartridges show that the inner surface 30 of the bearing 20 does not wear uniformly. Reaction forces to driving torques applied to the toner roller 15 by the driven gear 22, in combination with other forces (e.g. the weight of toner in the hopper) act to preferentially wear a portion 38 (shown in phantom in FIG. 2 of the drawing) that is approximately diametrically opposite that portion of the bearing 20 that is nearest the doctor blade 12. Thus, as wear progresses, the gap between the driven-end of the toner roller 15 and the doctor blade 12 becomes wider during the operation of the printer or copier. (The inventor has measured a gap of as much as 0.016" adjacent the driven-side bearing 20 in a worn cartridge by restraining the roller from turning and applying pressure to the drive gear (i.e. by simulating the torques associated with driving the roller). The same cartridge had a gap of 0.008-0.010" adjacent the un-driven bearing 18). This wear-induced wedge-shaped gap allows excess toner to be donated to the "right side" of the photoconductor. Other excess toner drifts into the neighborhood of the corona wire and preferentially builds up on the "right side" of the corona wire. Thus it appears that preferential wear of a bearing on the toner roller is the principal cause of the "right side problem", which is perhaps more properly called the "driven-side problem" or "gear-side problem". The terms "right side" and "left side", as used above, rapidly become ambiguous unless one understands that they refer strictly to the named side of the image-bearing surface of a sheet of paper and, by inference, to corresponding portions of the mechanisms that process that paper. Note that when the toner roller 15 is not being driven, the rear web width 29 of the bearing 20a holds the roller in the proper position so that a normal gap width is measured between the toner roller 15 and doctor blade 12 as long as the preferential wear 38 has not reduced the rear web width 29. Turning now to FIG. 3a of the drawing, one finds an end view of a bearing 20b of the invention. The bearing 20b, like the bearing 20a that it replaces, is in the form of a radially truncated disk with an inner wall 40 and a surrounding body portion 42 that is shown in FIG. 3b as being of uniform thickness, but that may also be configured similarly to the webbed design shown in FIG. 2. The radius of the cylindrical inner surface 44 of bearing 20b is chosen to be essentially the same or larger than that of bearing 20a so that the replacement bearing 20b can be easily slid over the end shaft 31 of the toner roller 15. One key improvement in the replacement bearing 20b is a radial slot 50 (preferably approximately 0.030" in width) that extends from the inner surface 44 to a generally flat portion 52 of the outer surface of the bearing 20b, the flat portion being a plane parallel to the cylindrical axis of the inner wall 44 of the bearing. A second key improvement in the new bearing 20b is the provision of additional material 55 adjacent the outer prolate surface 58 of the bearing 20b. The additional material 55 can be seen from FIG. 3a to extend beyond the phantom surface 60 that would have been formed approximately ninety degrees of arc from the flat surface portion had the new bearing 20b been made with the same outer radius as the cylindrical prior art bearing 20a. This additional material 55 may preferably add approximately 0.004" to 0.008" to the prolate radius of the distorted cylindrical outer surface 58 of bearing 20b. It should be noted that the additional material 55 of the bearing 20b may be provided by a variety of composite surface geometries. The outer surface 58 could, for example, be a section of right elliptical cylinder. In a preferred embodiment, however, the outer surface 58 is constructed using arcuate segments that are the surfaces of sections of right circular cylinders drawn about two axes 61, 62 that are displaced from the principal axis 78 of the bearing 20b along a fictitious line segment 90 parallel to the flat face 52 of the bearing 20b. This construction, shown in FIGS. 3a and 3b of the drawing, provides the additional material 55 while maintaining the same rear web width 29 as was found in the OEM bearing 20a that is to be replaced. Another feature of the new bearing 20b is a small locking ridge 65 on the outer bearing surface 58 adjacent one end 66 of the generally flat portion 52 of the bearing 20b. The purpose of this locking ridge 65, which may preferably protrude approximately 0.002" above the surface 58, will be subsequently discussed. The ear 68 that constitutes the other end of the generally flat portion 52 of the bearing 20b is provided as a handle for the operator to used during installation of the bearing 20b. Turning now to FIG. 4 of the drawing, one finds an elevational view of a second bearing 20c of the invention. The bearing 20c, like bearings 20a and 20b, is in the form of a radially truncated disk with an inner wall 40 and a surrounding body portion 42. The inner surface 44 of bearing 20c is the same as that of bearing 20b discussed above, i.e. it is a section of a circular cylinder with an axis indicated with reference numeral 78 in FIG. 4. The outer surface 80 of bearing 20c is also cylindrical, but has a second axis 82 and a larger radius, which are chosen so as to provide the additional material 55 (shown as lying between the outer bearing surface 80 and a phantom right cylindrical surface 84, formed about the first cylindrical axis 78) while keeping the critical rear web width (indicated by a double headed arrow 29 in FIG. 4) between the first cylindrical axis 78 and the outer surface 80 of the bearing the same as it was for the OEM bearing 20a shown in FIG. 2. Although the bearing 20c is shown, for purposes of illustration, in FIG. 4 as having two dramatically disparate cylindrical radii, the actual differences in radii and in axial positionings are small. In the preferred construction, the outer cylindrical bearing surface 80 has a radius approximately 0.005" greater than that of the inner cylindrical surface 44--i.e. the second cylindrical axis 82 is displaced only about 0.005" from the first cylindrical axis 78 along a fictitious line segment 92 that runs from the axis 78 to the flat portion 52 of the bearing 20c. Thus, the invention provides bearings 20b and 20c that can be viewed as having been derived from the OEM bearing 20a by adding additional material 55 to a portion of the outer surface 32 of bearing 20a, where that portion lies between a phantom outer surface 60 and a cylindrical section formed about an axis that may be translated from the cylindrical axis 78 of the original bearing 20a. The translation may be in a variety of directions, including parallel to the flat surface portion 52 (bearing 20b) or perpendicular to the flat surface portion (bearing 20c). The purposes of the various features of the new bearings 20b and 20c can be understood more clearly by considering the steps involved in using a new bearing 20b in re-building a toner cartridge (the use of 20c is identical). In disassembly of the worn cartridge, one would, inter alia, remove the gear-driven end of the toner roller from the cartridge body 10 by first removing the cartridge end cap 24 by pulling it to the left in the view shown in FIG. 1 (note that in many toner cartridge designs, the cartridge end cap includes a cylindrical sleeve that serves as the bearing retainer 34). One then twists the roller 15 from the body 10 and slides the gear 22 off a flattened portion of the toner roller shaft 31, and slides the bearing 20 off the shaft 31. On re-assembly, one would proceed in reverse order, and would place the new bearing 20b on the shaft 31 so that the ear 68 faced away from the bearing housing 34 (This position is shown in FIG. 5a of the drawing, which is a cross-section along a line indicated by the reference numeral 70 in FIG. 1.). In the view of FIG. 1, the ear 68 would be positioned so as to extend outward from the toner roller 15--i.e. out of the plane of the drawing of FIG. 1). Then after re-inserting the toner roller 15, one would push the end cap 24 into a recess in the toner cartridge body 10. When in the position shown in FIG. 5a of the drawing, the new bearing 20b can be slid easily into position. The diameter of the inner surface 44 is at least as great as that of the original equipment manufacturer's bearing 20a, so the bearing 20b slides freely onto the shaft 31. Once the above recited components of the toner cartridge are assembled, the new bearing 20b can be rotated into its seated position (shown in FIG. 5b) by pushing on the ear 68 (e.g. by pushing downward in the view of FIG. 1). In this position, the excess diameter of the outer bearing surface 58 of the new bearing 20b is rotated into a zero tolerance fit in the bearing housing 34. As the bearing 20b is wedged into the housing 34, the slot 50 is forced partially closed, thus securing a zero tolerance fit at both the inner 44 and outer 58 bearing surfaces of the improved bearing 20b. If, as is commonly the case, the bearing retainer 34 is in the form of a relatively thin cylindrical shell, the act of rotating the new bearing 20b or 20c into its locked position can force the walls of the bearing retainer 34 outward so as to obtain a zero tolerance fit between the bearing retainer 34 and the body 10 of toner cartridge (e.g. as shown in FIG. 5b). The proper position for the bearing 20b can be felt by the installer when the locking ridge 65 is rotated past the end 72 of the bearing housing wall 34 and snaps perceptibly into place. It should be noted that a further benefit of the improved bearing of the invention is that a zero tolerance fit is maintained even as the bearing wears. When the inner surface 44 of the new bearing 20b wears, the compressive forces resulting from jamming the bearing 20b into the housing 34 will cause the slot 50 to shrink further, and maintain the zero tolerance fit. Thus, for a given combination of OEM bearing 20a, housing 34 and replacement bearing 20b, one can select the width of the slot 50 so that the flat faces 74 that bound the slot are a first predetermined distance apart (e.g. 0.030") prior to installation; a second predetermined distance (e.g. 0.020") when first installed; and a third predetermined distance (e.g. 0.015") when the replacement bearing 20b is worn out. Whenever the cartridge is recharged with additional toner these gap widths can be easily checked without disassembling the cartridge to make the measurement. Alternately, of course, one could choose the dimensions of the improved bearings 20b, 20c so that the slot 50 closed completely when the bearing was installed. In comparison with the approach described above, this "zero gap" approach would provide a more nearly cylindrical inner bearing surface for the toner roller 15 when the bearing was first installed. The disadvantages of the "zero gap" approach are, of course, that there would be no change in gap width to indicate wear, and wear would result in a greater amount of lateral "play" in the toner roller 15 over the service life of the bearing. The improved bearings taught herein provide means of rebuilding a toner cartridge so that excess toner does not pass through a wedged and enlarged gap between the doctor blade 12 and the toner roller 15. This solves the "right side problem" and reduces the amount of toner used. Although the present invention has been described with respect to a preferred embodiment, many modifications and alterations can be made without departing from the invention. Accordingly, it is intended that all such modifications and alterations be considered as within the spirit and scope of the invention as defined in the attached claims. What is desired to be secured by Letters Patent is:

A replacement bearing is provided for use in rebuilding the nominally disposable toner cartridges that are commonly used in popularly priced electrostatic printers and copiers. When the bearing is rotated into its final position about the shaft of a toner roller, an oversize portion of the bearing is forced into a position that ensures that both the bearing retainer and the toner roller are restrained in a precise alignment. A slot, that has a predetermined gap when installed, is preferably provided in the bearing, and a decrease of the width of this gap is indicative of bearing wear. The precise alignment and wear indication means that are provided by the new bearing allow an operator to rebuild a toner cartridge that had been demonstrating the "right side problem", and to subsequently monitor the wear of a replacement bearing so as to prevent recurrence of copy degradation.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 09/399,499 filed Sep. 20, 1999, now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 6,544,949, which is a continuation-in-part of both U.S. application Ser. No. 08/779,768 filed Jan. 7, 1997, now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 5,969,095, and Ser. No. 09/341,217, filed Nov. 22, 1999, now abandoned, which is the national phase application of International Application No. PCT/US97/22498, filed Dec. 8, 1997, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 08/813,534, filed Mar. 7, 1997, now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 5,955,574, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 08/779,768, filed Jan. 7, 1997, now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 5,969,095, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 08/626,186, filed Mar. 29, 1996, now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 5,723,577, which claims the benefit of priority of U.S. application No. 60/003,305, filed Sep. 6, 1995 and U.S. application No. 60/001,105, filed Jul. 13, 1995. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Parathyroid hormone (“PTH”) is a polypeptide produced by the parathyroid glands. The mature circulating form of the hormone is comprised of 84 amino acid residues. The biological action of PTH can be reproduced by a peptide fragment of its N-terminus (e.g. amino acid residues 1 through 34). Parathyroid hormone-related protein (“PTHrP”) is a 139 to 173 amino acid-protein with N-terminal homology to PTH. PTHrP shares many of the biological effects of PTH including binding to a common PTH/PTHrP receptor. Tregear, et al, Endocrinol. 93:1349 (1983). PTH peptides from many different sources, e.g. human, bovine, rat, chicken, have been characterized. Nissenson. et al., Receptor, 3:193 (1993). PTH has been shown to both improve bone mass and quality Dempster, et al., Endocrine Rev., 14:690 (1993); and Riggs, Amer. J. Med. 91 (Suppl 5B):37S (1991). The anabolic effect of intermittently administered PTH has been observed in osteoporotic men and women either with or without concurrent antiresorptive therapy. Slovik, et al, J. Bone Miner. Res., 1:377 (1986); Reeve, et al., Br. Med. J., 301:314 (1990); and Hesch, R-D., et al., Calcif. Tissue Int'l, 44:176 (1989). SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In one aspect, the invention features a peptide of the formula (I), wherein A 1 is Ser, Ala, or Dap; A 3 is Ser, Thr, or Aib; A 5 is Leu, Nle, Ile, Cha, β-Nal, Trp, Pal, Acc, Phe or p-X-Phe, in which X is OH, a halogen, or CH 3 ; A 7 is Leu, Nle, Ile, Cha, β-Nal, Trp, Pal, Acc, Phe, or p-X-Phe in which X is OH, a halogen, or CH 3 ; A 8 is Met, Nva, Leu, Val, Ile, Cha, Acc, or Nle. A 11 is Leu, Nle, Ile, Cha, β-Nal, Trp, Pal, Acc, Phe or p-X-Phe in which X is OH, a halogen, or CH 3 ; A 12 is Gly, Acc, or Aib; A 15 is Leu, Nle, Ile, Cha, β-Nal, Trp, Pal, Acc, Phe, or p-X-Phe in which X is OH, a halogen, or CH 3 ; A 16 is Ser, Asn, Ala, or Aib. A 17 is Ser, Thr, or Aib; A 18 is Met, Nva, Leu, Val Ile, Nle, Acc, Cha, or Aib; A 19 is Glu or Aib; A 21 is Val, Acc, Cha, or Met; A 22 is Acc or Glu; A 23 is Trp, Acc, or Cha; A 24 is Leu, Acc, or Cha, A 27 is Lys, Aib, Leu, hArg, Gin, Acc, or Cha; A 28 is Leu, Acc, or Cha; A 29 is Gin, Acc, or Aib; A 30 is Asp or Lys; A 31 is Val, Leu, Nle, Acc, Cha, or deleted; A 32 is His or deleted; A 33 is Asn or deleted; A 34 is Phe, Tyr, Amp, Aib, or deleted; each of R 1 and R 2 is, independently, H, C 1-12 alkyl, C 2-12 alkenyl, C 7-20 phenylalkyl, C 11-20 naphthylalkyl, C 1-12 hydroxyalkyl, C 2-12 hydroxyalkenyl, C 7-20 hydroxyphenylalkyl, or C 11-20 hydroxynaphthylalkyl; or one and only one of R 1 and R 2 is COE 1 in which E 1 is C 1-12 alkyl, C 2-12 alkenyl, C 7-20 phenylalkyl, C 11-20 naphthylalkyl, C 1-12 hydroxyalkyl, C 2-12 hydroxyalkenyl, C 7-20 hydroxy-phenylalkyl, or C 11-20 hydroxynaphthylalkyl; and R 3 is OH, NH 2 , C 1-12 alkoxy, or NH—Y—CH 2 -Z in which Y is a C 1-12 hydrocarbon moiety and Z is H, OH, CO 2 H, or CONH 2 ; provided that at least one of A 5 , A 7 , A 8 , A 11 , A 12 , A 15 , A 18 , A 21 , A 22 , A 23 , A 24 , A 27 , A 28 , A 29 , and A 31 is Acc; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. A preferred embodiment of the immediately foregoing peptide is where A 3 is Ser; A 5 is Ile or Acc; A 7 is Leu, Acc, or Cha; A 8 is Acc, Met, Nva, Leu, Val, Ile, or Nle; A 11 is Leu, Acc, or Cha; A 12 is Acc or Gly; A 15 is Leu, Acc, or Cha; A 16 is Asn or Aib; A 17 is Ser or Aib; A 18 is Acc, Met, or Nle; A 21 is Val or Acc; A 27 is Lys, hArg, Acc, or Cha; A 31 is Val, Leu, Nle, Acc, or Cha; A 32 is His; A 33 is Asn; A 34 is Phe, Tyr, Amp, or Aib; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. A preferred embodiment of the immediately foregoing peptide, designated Group B, is where A 5 is Ile or Ahc; A 7 is Leu, Ahc, or Cha; A 8 is Ahc, Met, or Nle; A 11 is Leu, Ahc, or Cha; A 12 is Ahc or Gly; A 15 is Leu, Ahc, or Cha; A 18 is Met or Ahc; A 21 is Val or Ahc; A 22 is Glu or Ahc; A 23 is Trp, Ahc, or Cha; A 24 is Leu, Ahc, or Cha; A 27 is Lys, hArg, Ahc, or Cha; A 28 is Leu, Ahc, or Cha; A 29 is Gln, Ahc or Aib; A 31 is Val, Leu, Nle, Ahc, or Cha; R 1 is H; R 2 is H; and R 3 is NH 2 ; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. A preferred group of peptides of Group B is where at least one of A 7 , A 11 , A 15 , A 23 , A 24 , A 27 , A 28 , or A 31 is Cha. Another preferred group of peptides of Group B is where at least one of A 16 , A 17 , A 19 , A 29 , or A 34 is Aib. Preferred peptides of formula (I) are [Ahc 7,11 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 7,11 , Nle 8,18 , Tyr 34 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 11 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 7,11,15 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 7 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 23 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 24 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Nle 8,18 , Ahc 27 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 28 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 31 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 24,28,31 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 24,28,31 , Lys 30 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 28,31 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 5 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 24,27 , Aib 29 , Lys 30 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 24,27 , Aib 29 , Lys 30 , Leu 31 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 5 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 12 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 27 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 29 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 24,27 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 , [Ahc 24,27 , Aib 29 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 24 , Aib 29 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 27 , Aib 29 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 18 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 8 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 18,27 , Aib 29 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; or [Ahc 18,24,27 , Aib 29 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 22 , Leu 27 , Aib 29 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 24 , Leu 27 , Aib 29 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 22 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; and [Ahc 22 , Aib 29 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. The invention also features peptides of the following formulae; [Cha 22,23 , Glu 25 , Lys 26,30 , Leu 28 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 22,23 , Glu 25 , Lys 26,30 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 26 , Aib 29 , Nle 30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,28,30,31 , Lys 26 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25,29 , Leu 23,28,30,31 , Lys 26 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 26 , Nle 30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ser 1 , Ile 5 , Met 8 , Asn 10 , Leu 11,23,28,31 , His 14 , Cha 15 , Glu 22,25 , Lys 26,30 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25 , Cha 23 , Lys 26 , Leu 28,31 , Aib 29 , Nle 30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 22,23 , Glu 25 , Lys 26,30 , Leu 28,31 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Glu 25,29 , Lys 26 , Nle 30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 7,11,15 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 7,8,15 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22 , Cha 23 , Aib 25,29 , Lys 26,30 , Leu 28,31 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22 , Cha 23 , Aib25,29, Lys 26 , Leu 28 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22 , Leu 23,28 , Aib 25,29 , Lys 26 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25 , Cha 23 , Lys 26 , Leu 28,31 , Aib 29 , Nle 30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25 , Cha 23 , Lys 26,30 , Aib 29 , Leu 31 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 26 , Aib 29,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25 , Leu23,28,31, Lys 26 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,28,31 , Aib 26,29 , Lys 30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25 , Cha 23 , Lys 26,30 , Leu 28,31 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25 , Cha 23 , Lys 26,30 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25 , Cha 23 , Lys 26,30 , Leu 28 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; or [Leu 27 , Aib 29 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. The following are examples of the peptides of the invention covered by the above formula; [Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,28 , Lys 26,30 , Aib 29 , Ahc 31 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25 , Ahc 23 , Lys 26,30 , Leu 28,31 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 , [Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 26,30 , Ahc 27 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 26 l Ahc 30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Glu 25 , Lys 26,30 , Ahc 27 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,28,31 , Ahc 24 , Lys 26,30 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Aib 25 , Lys 26,30 , Ahc 27 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Aib 25,29 , Lys 26,30 , Ahc 27 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 22 , Leu23,28,31, Glu 25 , Lys 26,30 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,31 , Lys 26,30 , Ahc 28 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 22 , Ahc 23 , Glu 25 , Lys 26,30 , Leu 28,31 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 22,24,27 , Leu 23,28,31 , Glu 25 , Lys 26,30 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Ahc 24,27 , Glu 25 , Lys 26,30 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Ahc 24,27 , Lys 25,26 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 18,24,27 , Glu 22 , Cha 23 , Lys 25,26 , Leu 28 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22 , Cha 23 , Ahc 24 , Lyc 25,26 , Leu 28 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 26 , Ahc 27 , Aib 29 , Nle 30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ser 1 , Ile 5 , Cha 7,11 , Met 8 , Asn 10 , His 14 , Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 26,30 , Ahc 27 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ser 1 , Ile 5 , Met 8 , Asn 10 , Leu 11,23,28,31 , His 14 , Cha 15 , Glu 22,25 , Lys 26,30 , Ahc 27 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 22 , Ahc 23 , Glu 25 , Lys 26,30 , Leu 28,31 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22 , Ahc 23 , Aib 25,29 , Lys 26,30 , Leu 28,31 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 26,30 , Ahc 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Ahc 24 , Glu 25 , Lys 26,30 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 , [Cha 22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Ahc 24,27 , Glu 25 , Lys 26,30 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,28,31 , Ahc 24,27 , Lys 26,30 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 22,24,27 , Leu 23,28,31 , Glu 25 , Lys 26,30 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Aib 25,29 , Lys 26,30 , Ahc 27 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 22,27 , Leu 23,28,31 , Aib 25,29 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Ahc 24,27 , Lys 25,26,30 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP 1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22 , Leu 23,28 , Ahc 24,27 , Lys 25,26,30 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22 , Cha 23 , Ahc 24,27 , Lys 25,26,30 , Leu 28 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25 , Cha 23 , Ahc 24,27 , Lys 26,30 , Leu 28,31 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22 , Cha 23 , Ahc 24,27 , Lys 25,26,30 , Leu 28,31 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Ahc 24,27 , Lys 25,26 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22 , Leu 23,28 , Ahc 24,27 , Lys 25,26 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22 , Cha 23 , Ahc 24,27 , Lys 25,26 , Leu 28,31 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22 , Cha 23 , Ahc 24,27 , Lys 25,26 , Leu 28 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22 , Leu 23,28 , Lys 25,26 , Ahc 27 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 25,26 , Ahc 27 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 25,26,30 , Ahc 27 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22 , Leu 23,28 , Lys 25,26,30 , Ahc 27 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 , [Glu 22 , Cha 23 , Ahc 24 , Lys 25,26 , Leu 28 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 26 , Aib 29 , Ahc 30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Aib 22,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Glu 25 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 22 , Ahc 23 , Glu 25,29 , Lys 26,30 , Leu 28,31 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 , [Cha 22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Ahc 24 , Glu 25,29 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Glu 25,29 , Lys 26,30 , Ahc 27 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 , [Cha 22 , Leu 23,31 , Glu 25,29 , Lys 26,30 , Ahc 28 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Glu 25,29 , Lys 26 , Ahc 30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 22 , Leu 23,28 , Glu 25,29 , Lys 26,30 , Ahc 31 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,29 , Ahc 23 , Aib 25 , Lys 26,30 , Leu 28,31 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 , [Ahc 22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Aib 25 , Lys 26,30 , Glu 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Ahc 24 , Aib 25 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,29 , Leu 23,31 , Aib 25 , Lys 26,30 , Ahc 28 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,29 , Leu 23,28 , Aib 25 , Lys 26,30 , Ahc31]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Aib 25 , Lys 26 , Ahc 30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 26 , Ahc 27 , Aib 30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Ahc 24 , Lys 26 , Aib 30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Glu 25,29 , Lys 26 , Aib 30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 22 , Leu 23,28 , Glu 25,29 , Lys 26,30,31 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25,29 , Leu 23,28 , Lys 26,31 , Ahc 30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25,29 , Leu 23,28 , Lys 26,30,31 , Ahc 27 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 22 , Cha 23 , Glu 25 , Lys 26,30 , Leu 28,31 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 22 , Cha 23 , Lys 25,26,30 , Leu 28,31 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 22 , Cha 23 , Lys 25,26 , Leu 28,31 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 , [Ahc 22 , Leu 23,28 , Lys 25,26 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 , [Ahc 22 , Leu 23,28 , Arg 25 , Lys 26 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 22,24 , Leu 23,28,31 , Glu 25 , Lys 26,30 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 22,24 , Leu 23,28 31 , Lys 25,26,30 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 22,24 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 25,26 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 22,24 , Leu 23,28 , Lys 25,26 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 22,24 , Leu 23,28 , Arg 25 , Lys 26 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Ahc 24 , Lys 25,26,30 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Ahc 24 , Lys 25,26 , Aib 2 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22 , Leu 23,28 , Ahc 24 , Lys 25,26 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Ahc 24 , Arg 25 , Lys 26,30 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Ahc 24 , Arg 25 , Lys 26 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22 , Leu 23,28 , Ahc 24 , Arg 25 , Lys 26 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 , [Glu 22 , Ahc 23 , Aib 25,29 , Lys 26,30 , Leu 28,31 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22 , Ahc 23 , Aib 25,29 , Lys 26 , Leu 28 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22 , Ahc 23,31 , Aib 25,29 , Lys 26 , Leu 28 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22 , Leu 23,28 , Aib 25,29 , Lys 26,30 , Ahc 31 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22 , Leu 23,28 , Aib 25,29 , Lys 26 , Ahc 31 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,28 , Ahc 24,31 , Lys 26,30 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; or [Glu 22 , Leu 23,28 , Ahc 24,31 , Lys 25,26 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Ahc 24 , Aib 25,29 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In another aspect, the invention relates to peptide variants of PTH(1-34) of the following generic formula: wherein A 1 is Ser, Ala, or Dap; A 3 is Ser, Thr, or Aib; A 5 is Leu, Nle, Ile, Cha, β-Nal, Trp, Pal, Phe or p-X-Phe, in which X is OH, a halogen, or CH 3 , A 7 is Leu, Nle, Ile, Cha, β-Nal, Trp, Pal, Phe, or p-X-Phe in which X is OH, a halogen, or CH 3 ; A 8 is Met, Nva, Leu, Val, Ile, Cha, or Nle; A 11 is Leu, Nle, Ile, Cha, β-Nal, Trp, Pal, Phe or p-X-Phe in which X is OH, a halogen, or CH 3 ; A 12 is Gly or Aib; A 15 is Leu, Nle, Ile, Cha, β-Nal, Trp, Pal, Phe, or p-X-Phe in which X is OH, a halogen, or CH 3 , A 16 Is Ser, Asn, Ala, or Aib; A 17 is Ser, Thr, or Aib; A 18 is Met, Nva, Leu, Val, Ile, Nle, Cha, or Aib; A 19 is Glu or Aib, A 21 is Val, Cha, or Met, A 23 is Trp or Cha; A 24 is Leu or Cha; A 27 is Lys, Aib, Leu, hArg, Gln, or Cha; A 28 is Leu or Cha; A 30 is Asp or Lys; A 31 is Val, Nle, Cha, or deleted; A 32 is His or deleted; A 33 is Asn or deleted; A 34 is Phe, Tyr, Amp, Aib, or deleted; each of R 1 and R 2 is, independently, H, C 1-12 alkyl, C 2-12 alkenyl, C 7-20 phenylalkyl, C 11-20 naphthylalkyl, C 1-12 hydroxyalkyl, C 2-12 hydroxyalkenyl, C 7-20 hydroxyphenylalkyl, or C 11-20 hydroxynaphthylalkyl; or one and only one of R 1 and R 2 is COE 1 in which E 1 is C 1-12 alkyl, C 2-12 alkenyl, C 7-20 phenylalkyl, C 11-20 naphthylalkyl, C 1-12 hydroxyalkyl, C 2-12 hydroxyalkenyl, C 7-20 hydroxy-phenylalkyl, or C 11-20 hydroxynaphthylalkyl; and R 3 IS OH, NH 2 , C 1-12 alkoxy, or NH—Y—CH 2 -Z in which Y is a C 1-12 hydrocarbon moiety and Z is H, OH, CO 2 H, or CONH 2 ; provided that (i) at least one of A 5 , A 7 , A 8 , A 11 , A 15 , A 18 , A 21 , A 23 , A 24 , A 27 , A 28 , and A 31 is Cha, or at least one of A 3 , A 12 , A 16 , A 17 , A 18 , A 19 , and A34 is Aib; or that (ii) at least A 1 is Dap, A 7 is β-Nal, Trp, Pal, Phe, or p-X-Phe, A 15 is β-Nal, Trp, Pal, Phe, or p-X-Phe, A 27 is hArg, or A 31 is Nle; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In another aspect, the invention relates to peptide variants of PTH(1-34) of the following formula (II): wherein A 1 is Ser, Ala, or Dap; A 3 is Ser, Thr, or Aib; A 5 is Leu, Nle, Ile, Cha, β-Nal, Trp, Pal, Phe or p-X-Phe, in which X is OH, a halogen, or CH 3 ; A 7 is Leu, Nle, Ile, Cha, β-Nal, Trp, Pal, Phe, or p-X-Phe in which X is OH, a halogen, or CH 3 ; A 8 is Met, Nva, Leu, Val, Ile, Cha, or Nle; A 11 is Leu, Nle, Ile, Cha, β-Nal, Trp, Pal, Phe or p-X-Phe in which X is OH, a halogen, or CH 3 ; A 12 is Gly or Aib; A 15 is Leu, Nle, Ile, Cha, β-Nal, Trp, Pal, Phe, or p-X-Phe in which X is OH, a halogen, or CH 3 ; A 16 is Ser, Asn, Ala, or Aib; A 17 is Ser, Thr, or Aib; A 18 is Met, Nva, Leu, Val, Ile, Nle, Cha, or Aib; A 19 is Glu or Aib; A 21 is Val, Cha, or Met; A 23 is Trp or Cha; A 24 is Leu or Cha; A 27 is Lys, Aib, Leu, hArg, Gln, or Cha; A 28 is Leu or Cha; A 30 is Asp or Lys; A 31 is Val, Nle, Cha, or deleted; A 32 is His or deleted; A 33 is Asn or deleted; A 34 is Phe, Tyr, Amp, Aib, or deleted, each of R 1 and R 2 is, independently, H, C 1-12 alkyl, C 2-12 alkenyl, C 7-20 phenylalkyl, C 11-20 naphthylalkyl, C 1-12 hydroxyalkyl, C 2-12 hydroxyalkenyl, C 7-20 hydroxyphenylalkyl, or C 11-20 hydroxynaphthylalkyl; or one and only one of R 1 and R 2 is COE 1 in which E 1 is C 1-12 alkyl, C 2-12 alkenyl, C 7-20 phenylalkyl, C 11-20 naphthylalkyl, C 1-12 hydroxyalkyl, C 2-12 hydroxyalkenyl, C 7-20 hydroxy-phenylalkyl, or C 11-20 hydroxynaphthylalkyl; and R 3 is OH, NH 2 , C 1-12 alkoxy, or NH—Y—CH 2 -Z in which Y is a C 1-12 hydrocarbon moiety and Z is H, OH, CO 2 H, or CONH 2 ; provided that (i) at least one of A 5 , A 7 , A 8 , A 11 , A 15 , A 18 , A 21 , A 23 , A 24 , A 27 , A 28 , and A 31 is Cha, or at least one of A 3 , A 12 , A 16 , A 17 , A 18 , A 19 , and A 34 is Aib, and the peptide is not [Aib 12 , Tyr 34 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. A preferred group of peptides of formula (II), designated Group (i) is where at least one of A 7 , A 11 , A 15 , A 23 , A 24 , A 27 , A 28 , and A 31 is Cha; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. A preferred group of peptides of Group (i), designated Group (ii), is where A 3 is Ser; A 5 is Ile; A 7 is Leu or Cha; A 8 is Met, Nva, Leu, Val, Ile, or Nle; A 12 is Leu or Cha; A 12 is Gly; A 15 is Leu or Cha; A 16 is Asn or Aib; A 17 is Ser; A 18 is Met or Nle. A 21 is Val; A 27 is Lys, hArg, or Cha; A 32 is His; A 31 is Val, Nle, or Cha; A 33 is Asn; A 34 is Phe, Tyr, Amp, or Aib; R 1 is H; R 2 is H, and R 3 is NH 2 ; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. A preferred group of peptides of Group (ii), designated Group (iii), is where at least one of A 7 and A 11 is Cha, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. Preferred peptides of Group (iii) are [Cha 7,11 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 , [Cha 7,11 , Nle 8,18 , Tyr 34 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 11 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 7,11,15 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; and [Cha 7 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. Another preferred group of peptides of Group (ii), designated Group (iv), is where at least one of A 15 , A 23 , A 24 , A 27 , A 28 , and A 31 is Cha; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. Preferred peptides of Group (iv) are [Cha 23 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 , [Cha 24 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 , [Nle 8,18 , Cha 27 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 , [Cha 28 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 , [Cha 31 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 , [Cha 24,28,31 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 24,28,31 , Lys 30 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 28,31 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; and [Cha 15 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. Another preferred group of peptides of formula (II), designated Group (v), is where at least one of A 3 , A 12 , A 16 , A 17 , A 18 , A 19 , and A 34 is Aib; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. A preferred group of peptides of Group (v), designated Group (vi), is where A 3 is Ser or Aib; A 5 is Ile, A 7 is Leu or Cha; A 8 is Met, Nva, Leu, Val, Ile, or Nle; A 11 is Leu or Cha; A 15 is Leu or Cha; A 16 is Asn or Aib; A 18 is Met, Aib, or Nle; A 21 is Val; A 27 is Lys, Aib, Leu, hArg, or Cha; A 31 is Val, Nle, or Cha; A 32 is His; A 33 is Asn; A 34 is Phe, Tyr, Amp, or Aib; R 1 is H; R 2 is H, and R 3 is NH 2 ; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. A preferred group of peptides of Group (vi), designated Group (vii), is where at least one of A 3 , A 12 , A 16 , A 17 , A 19 , and A 34 is Aib; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. Preferred peptides of Group (vii) are [Aib 16 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 , [Aib 19 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 [Aib 34 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Aib 16,19 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Aib]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 , [Aib 17 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; and [Aib 12 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. Another preferred group of peptides of formula (II), designated Group (viii), is where at least one of A 7 , A 11 , A 15 , A 23 , A 24 , A 27 , A 28 , and A 31 is Cha and at least one of A 3 , A 12 , A 16 , A 17 , A 18 , A 19 , and A 34 is Aib; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. A preferred group of peptides of Group (viii), designated Group (ix), is where A 3 is Ser or Aib; A 5 is Ile; A 7 is Leu or Cha; A 8 is Met, Nva, Leu, Val, Ile, or Nle; A 11 is Leu or Cha; A 15 is Leu or Cha; A 16 is Asn or Aib; A 18 is Met, Aib, or Nle, A 21 is Val; A 27 is Lys, Aib, Leu, hArg, or Cha; A 31 is Val, Nle, or Cha; A 32 is His; A 33 is Asn; A 34 is Phe, Tyr, Amp, or Aib; R 1 is H, R 2 is H; and R 3 is NH 2 , or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. A preferred group of peptides of Group (ix), designated Group (x), is where at least one of A 7 and A 11 is Cha and at least one of A 16 , A 19 , and A 34 is Aib; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. Preferred peptides of Group (x) are [Cha 7,11 , Nle 8,18 , Aib 16,19 , Tyr 34 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 , [Cha 7,11 , Nle 8,18,31 , Aib 16,19 , Tyr 34 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 , [Cha 7.11 , Aib 19 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 7,11 , Aib 16 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 7,11 , Nle 8,18 , Aib 34 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; or [Cha 7,11 , Aib 19 , Lys 30 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. Another preferred group of peptides of Group (ix), designated Group (xi), is where at least one of A 24 , A 28 , and A 31 is Cha and at least one of A 16 and A 17 is Aib; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. Preferred peptides of Group (xi) are [Cha 28 , Nle 8,18 , Aib 16,19 , Tyr 34 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 , and [Cha 28 , Aib 16,19 ]PTH(1-34)NH 2 ; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a peptide of the formula (III): wherein A 3 is Ser, Thr, or Aib; A 5 is Leu, Nle, Ile, Cha, β-Nal, Trp, Pal, Phe or p-X-Phe, in which X is OH, a halogen, or CH 3 ; A 7 is Leu, Ile, Nle, Cha, β-Nal, Trp, Pal, Phe, or p-X-Phe in which X is H, OH, a halogen, or CH 3 ; A 8 is Met, Nva, Leu, Val, Ile, Cha, or Nle; A 11 is Leu, Nle, Ile, Cha, β-Nal, Trp, Pal, Phe or p-X-Phe in which X is OH, a halogen, or CH 3 ; A 12 is Gly or Aib; A 15 is Leu, Nle, Ile, Cha, β-Nal, Trp, Pal, Phe, or p-X-Phe in which X is OH, a halogen, or CH 3 ; A 16 is Ser, Asn, Ala, or Aib; A 17 is Ser, Thr, or Aib; A 18 is Met, Nva, Leu, Val, Ile, Nle, Cha, or Aib; A 19 is Glu or Aib; A 21 is Val, Cha, or Met; A 23 is Trp or Cha, A 24 is Leu or Cha; A 27 is Lys, Aib, Leu, hArg, Gln, or Cha; A 28 is Leu or Cha; A 30 is Asp or Lys; A 31 is Val, Nle, Cha, or deleted; A 32 is His or deleted; A 33 is Asn or deleted; A 34 is Phe, Tyr, Amp, Aib, or deleted; each of R 1 and R 2 is, independently, H, C 1-12 alkyl, C 2-12 alkenyl, C 7-20 phenylalkyl, C 11-20 naphthylalkyl, C 1-12 hydroxyalkyl, C 2-12 hydroxyalkenyl, C 7-20 hydroxyphenylalkyl, or C 11-20 hydroxynaphthylalkyl; or one and only one of R 1 and R 2 is COE 1 in which E 1 is C 1-12 alkyl, C 2-12 alkenyl, C 7-20 phenylalkyl, C 11-20 naphthylalkyl, C 1-12 hydroxyalkyl, C 2-12 hydroxyalkenyl, C 7-20 hydroxy-phenylalkyl, or C 11-20 hydroxynaphthylalkyl; R 3 is OH, NH 2 , C 1-12 alkoxy, or NH—Y—CH 2 -Z in which Y is a C 1-12 hydrocarbon moiety and Z is H, OH, CO 2 H, or CONH 2 ; provided that at least A 1 is Dap, A 7 is β-Nal, Trp, Pal, Phe, or p-X-Phe; A 15 is β-Nal, Trp, Pal, Phe, or p-X-Phe, A 27 is hArg, or A 31 is Nle; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. A preferred group of peptides of formula (III) is where A 1 is Ser, Gly, or Dap; A 3 is Ser or Aib; A 8 is Met, Nva, Leu, Val, Ile, or Nle; A 16 is Asn or Aib; A 18 is Met, Aib, or Nle; A 21 is Val; A 27 is Lys, Aib, Leu, hArg, or Cha; A 31 is Val, Nle, or Cha; A 32 is His; A 33 is Asn; A 34 is Phe, Tyr, Amp, or Aib; R 1 is H; R 2 is H; and R 3 is NH 2 , or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. Preferred peptides of the immediately foregoing peptides are [Nle 31 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 , [hArg 27 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 , and [Dap 1 , Nle 8,18 , Tyr 34 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a peptide of the formula (IV): wherein A 1 is Ala, Ser, or Dap; A 3 is Ser or Aib; A 5 is His, Ile, or Cha; A 7 is Leu, Cha, Nle, β-Nal, Trp, Pal, Phe, or p-X-Phe in which X is OH, a halogen, or CH 3 ; A 8 is Leu, Met, or Cha; A 10 is Asp or Asn; A 11 is Lys, Leu, Cha, Phe, or β-Nal; A 12 is Gly or Aib; A 14 is Ser or His; A 15 is Ile, or Cha; A 16 is Gln or Aib, A 17 is Asp or Aib; A 18 is Leu, Aib, or Cha; A 19 is Arg or Aib; A 22 is Phe, Glu, Aib, or Cha; A 23 is Phe, Leu, Lys. or Cha; A 24 is Leu, Lys, or Cha; A 25 is His, Aib, or Glu; A 26 is His, Aib, or Lys; A 27 is Leu, Lys, or Cha; A 28 is Ile, Leu, Lys, or Cha; A 29 is Ala, Glu, or Aib; A 30 is Glu, Cha, Aib, or Lys; A 31 is Ile, Leu, Cha, Lys, or deleted; A 32 is His or deleted; A 33 is Thr or deleted; A 34 is Ala or deleted; each of R 1 and R 2 is, independently, H, C 1-12 alkanyl, C 7-20 phenylalkyl, C 11-20 naphthylalkyl, C 1-12 , hydroxyalkyl, C 2-12 hydroxyalkenyl, C 7-20 hydroxyphenylalkyl, or C 11-20 hydroxynaphthylalkyl; or one and only one of R 1 and R 2 is COE 1 in which E 1 is C 1-12 alkyl, C 2-12 alkyl, C 2-12 alkenyl, C 7-20 phenylalkyl, C 11-20 naphthylalkyl, C 1-12 hydroxyalkyl, C 2-12 hydroxyalkenyl, C 7-20 hydroxyphenylalkyl, or C 11-20 hydroxynaphthylalkyl; and R 3 is OH, NH 2 , C 1-12 alkoxy, or NH—Y—CH 2 -Z in which Y is a C 1-12 hydrocarbon moiety and Z is H, OH, CO 2 H or CONH 2 ; provided that at least one of A 5 , A 7 , A 8 , A 11 , A 15 , A 18 , A 22 , A 23 , A 24 , A 27 , A 28 , A 30 , or A 31 is Cha, or at least one of A 3 , A 12 , A 16 , A 17 , A 18 , A 19 , A 22 , A 25 , A 26 , A 29 , A 30 , or A 34 is Aib; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. A preferred group of peptides of formula (IV) is where A 22 is Phe or Cha; A 23 is Phe or Cha; A 25 is His; A 26 is His; A 27 is Leu or Cha; A 28 is Ile or Cha; A 29 is Ala; A 30 is Glu or Lys; A 31 is Ile or Cha; A 32 is His; A 33 is Thr; and A 34 is Ala; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. Two preferred groups of peptides of the immediately foregoing group of peptides is where at least one of A 7 and A 11 is Cha; or where at least one of A 16 or A 19 is Aib; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. Another preferred group of peptides of formula (IV), is where A 22 is Glu, Aib, or Cha; A 23 is Leu, Lys, or Cha; A 25 is Aib or Glu; A 26 is Aib or Lys; A 28 is Leu, Lys, or Cha; A 29 is Glu or Aib; A 30 is Cha, Aib, or Lys, A 31 is Leu, Cha, or Lys A 32 is His; A 33 is Thr; and A 34 is Ala; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. Two preferred groups of peptides of the immediately foregoing group of peptides is where at least one of A 7 and A 11 is Cha; or where at least one of A 16 or A 19 is Aib; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In another aspect, this invention is directed to a peptide of the formula (V): wherein A 1 is Ala, Ser or Dap, A 3 is Ser or Aib, A 5 is His, Ile or Cha, A 7 is Leu, Cha, Nle, β-Nal, Trp, Pal, Phe, or p-X-Phe in which X is OH, a halogen or CH 3 ; A 8 is Leu, Met or Cha; A 10 is Asp or Asn; A 11 is Lys, Leu, Cha, Phe or β-Nal; A 12 is Gly or Aib; A 14 is Ser or His; A 15 is Ile or Cha; A 16 is Gln or Aib; A 17 is Asp or Aib; A 18 is Leu, Aib or Cha; A 19 is Arg or Aib; A 22 is Phe, Glu, Aib, Acc or Cha; A 23 is Phe, Leu, Lys, Acc or Cha; A 24 is Leu, Lys, Acc or Cha; A 25 is His, Aib or Glu; A 26 is His, Aib or Lys, A 27 is Leu, Lys, Acc or Cha, A 28 is Ile, Leu, Lys, Acc or Cha; A 29 is Ala, Glu or Aib; A 30 is Glu, Cha, Aib, Acc or Lys; A 31 is Ile, Leu, Cha, Lys, Acc or deleted; A 32 is His or deleted; A 33 is Thr or deleted; A 34 is Ala or deleted; each of R 1 and R 2 is, independently, H, C 1-12 alkanyl, C 7-20 phenylalkyl, C 11-20 naphthylalkyl, C 1-12 , hydroxyalkyl, C 2-12 hydroxyalkenyl, C 7-20 hydroxyphenylalkyl, or C 11-20 hydroxynaphthylalkyl; or one and only one of R 1 and R 2 is COE 1 in which E 1 is C 1-12 alkyl, C 2-12 alkyl, C 2-12 alkenyl, C 7-20 phenylalkyl, C 11-20 naphthylalkyl, C 1-12 hydroxyalkyl, C 2-12 hydroxyalkenyl, C 7-20 hydroxyphenylalkyl, or C 11-20 hydroxynaphthylalkyl; and R 3 is OH, NH 2 , C 1-12 alkoxy, or NH—Y—CH 2 -Z in which Y is a C 1-12 hydrocarbon moiety and Z is H, OH, CO 2 H or CONH 2 ; provided that at least one of A 23 , A 24 , A 27 , A 28 , or A 31 is Lys; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. A preferred group of peptides of formula (V) is where A 22 is Glu, Aib, Acc, or Cha; A 23 is Leu, Lys, Acc, or Cha; A 25 is Aib or Glu; A 26 is Aib or Lys, A 28 is Leu, Lys, Acc, or Cha; A 29 is Glu or Aib, A 30 is Cha, Aib, Acc, or Lys; A 31 is Leu, Cha, Acc, or Lys; A 32 is His; A 33 is Thr; and A 34 is Ala; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. Two preferred groups of peptides of the immediately foregoing group of peptides is where at least one of A 7 and A 11 is Cha; or where at least one of A 16 or A 19 is Aib, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. The following are examples of peptides of this invention as encompassed by formula (II): [Cha 7 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 11 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 15 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 , [Cha 7,11 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 7,11 , Nle 8,18 , Tyr 34 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 23 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 24 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Nle 8,18 , Cha 27 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 , [Cha 28 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 31 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 27 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 27,29 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 28 ]bPTH(1-34)NH 2l ; [Cha 28 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 24,28,31 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Aib 16 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Aib 19 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Aib 34 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Aib 16,19 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Aib 16,19,34 ]bPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Aib 16,34 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Aib 19,34 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 7,11 , Nle 8,18 , Aib 16,19 , Tyr 34 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 7,11 , Nle 8,18,31 , Aib 16,19 , Tyr 34 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 7 , Aib 16 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ;[Cha 11 , Aib 16 ]hPTH(1-34) 2 , [Cha 7 , Aib 34 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 11 , Aib 34 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 27 , Aib 16 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 27 , Aib 34 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 28 , Aib 16 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 28 , Aib 34 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Nle 31 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 , [hArg 27 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Dap 1 , Nle 8,18 , Tyr 34 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Nle 31 ]bPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Nle 31 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 , [hArg 27 ]bPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [hArg 27 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 7,11 , Aib 19 , Lys 30 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Aib 12 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 , [Cha 24,28,31 , Lys 30 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 28,31 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 , [Cha 7,11 , Nle 8,18 , Aib 34 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Aib 3 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 , [Cha 8 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 15 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 7,11 , Aib 19 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 7,11 , Aib 16 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Aib 17 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 5 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ;[Cha 7,11,15 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 7,11 , Nle 8,18 , Aib 19 , Tyr 34 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 7,11 , Nle 8,18 , Aib 19 , Lys 30 , Tyr 34 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 7,11,15 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Aib 17 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 7,11 , Leu 27 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 7,11,15 , Leu 27 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 , [Cha 7,11,27 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 7,11,15,27 ]hPTH (1-34)NH 2 ; [Trp 15 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Nal 15 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Trp 15 , Cha 23 hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 15,23 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Phe 7,11 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Nal 7,11 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Trp 7,11 ]hPTH (1-34)NH 2 , [Phe 7,11,15 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Nal 7,11,15 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; [Trp 7,11,15 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; and [Tyr 7,11,15 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 . The following are specific examples of peptides encompassed by one or more of formulas (III) to (V), hereinabove. [Cha 7 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 11 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 7,11,15 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Aib 16 , Tyr 34 hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Aib 19 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 , [Aib 16,19 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 7,11 , Aib 16 hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 7,11 , Aib 19 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Glu 25,29 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 26,27,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 22,23 , Glu 25,29 , Leu 28,31 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,28,31 , Aib 29 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25,29 , Lys23,26,30, Leu 28,31 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 26 , Cha 30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 26 , Aib 30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25,29 , Leu 23,31 , Lys 26,28,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 22,23,24,27,28,31 , Glu 25,29 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25,29 , Cha 23,24,28,31 , Lys 26,27,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25,29 , Cha 23,24,27,31 , Lys 26,28,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25,29 , Lys 23,26,30 , Cha 24,27,28,31 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Glu 25,29 , Lys 26,27,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 22 , Leu 23,31 , Glu 25,29 , Lys 26,28,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 22 , Lys 23,26,30 , Glu 25,29 , Leu 28,31 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Glu 25 , Lys 26,30 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Glu 25,29 , Lys 26 , Aib 30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 26,27,30 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25 , Lys 23,26,30 , Leu 28,31 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,31 , Lys 26,28,30 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 7,11 , Glu 22,25,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 7,11,22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Glu 25,29 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 7,11 , Glu 22,25,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 26,27,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 7,11,22,23 , Glu 25,29 , Leu 28,31 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 7,11 , Glu 22,25,29 , Lys 23,26,30 , Leu 28,31 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 7,11 , Glu 22,25,29 , Leu 23,31 , Lys 26,28,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 7,11 , Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,28,31 , Aib 29 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 7,11 , Glu 22,25,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 26 , Aib 30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 15 , Glu 22,25,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 15,22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Glu 25,29 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 15 , Glu 22,25,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 26,27,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 15,22,23 , Glu 25,29 , Leu 28,31 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 15 , Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,28,31 , Aib 29 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 15 , Glu 22,25,29 , Lys 23,26,30 , Leu 28,31 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 15 , Glu 22,25,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 26 , Aib 30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 15 Glu 22,28,29 , Leu 23,31 , Lys 26,28,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 15,30 , Glu 22,25,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 26 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 7,8,22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Glu 25,29 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 7,8 , Glu 22,25,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 26,27,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 7,8,22,23 , Glu 25,29 , Leu 28,31 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP (1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 7,8 , Glu 22,25,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 7,8 , Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,28,31 , Aib 29 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 7,8 , Glu 22,25,29 , Lys 23,26,30 , Leu 28,31 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 7,8 , Glu 22,25,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 26 , Aib 30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 . [Cha 7,8 , Glu 22,25,29 , Leu 23,31 , Lys 26,28,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 7,8,30 , Glu 22,25,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 26 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ser 1 , Ile 5 , Cha 7,11,22 , Met 8 , Asn 10 , His 14 , Leu 23,28,31 , Glu 25,29 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ser 1 , Ile 5 , Cha 7,11 , Met 8 , Asn 10 , His 14 , Glu 22,25,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 26,27,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ser 1 , Ile 5 , Cha 7,11 , Met 8 , Asn 10 , His 14 , Glu 22,25,29 , Leu 23,31 , Lys 26,28,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ser 1 , Ile 5 , Cha 7,11 , Met 8 , Asn 10 , His 14 , Glu 22,25,29 , Lys 23,26,30 , Leu 28,31 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ser 1 , Ile 5 , Cha 7,11 , Met 8 , Asn 10 , His 14 , Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,28,31 , Aib 29 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ser 1 , Ile 5 , Cha 7,11 , Met 8 , Asn 10 , His 14 , Glu 22,25,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 26 , Aib 30 ]PTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ser 1 , Ile 5 , Cha 7,11,22,23 , Met 8 , Asn 10 , His 14 , Glu 25,29 , Leu 28,31 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ser 1 , Ile 5 , Cha 7,11,15 , Met 8 , Asn 10 , His 14 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ser 1 , Ile 5 , Met 8 , Asn 10 , Leu 11 , His 14 , Aib 16 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ser 1 , Ile 5 , Met 8 , Asn 10 , Leu 11,28,31 , His 14 , Cha 22,23 , Glu 25,29 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ser 1 , Ile 5 , Cha 7,11 , Met 8 , Asn 10 , His 14 , Glu 22,25,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ser 1 , Ile 5 , Met 8 , Asn 10 , His 14 Cha 15 , Glu 22,25,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ser 1 , Ile 5 , Cha 7,8 , Asn 10 , His 14 , Glu 22,25,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP (1-34)NH 2 ;[Glu 22,25,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 24,26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Aib 22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Glu 25,29 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Aib 25 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,24,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Aib 26 , Lys 30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25,29 , Leu 23,28 , Lys 26,30,31 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ser 1 , Ile 5 , Met 8 , Asn 10 , Leu 11,23,28,31 , His 14 , Cha 22 , Glu 25,29 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 , [Ser 1 , Ile 5 , Met 8 , Asn 10 , Leu 11,2831 , His 14 , Glu 22,25,29 , Lys 23,26,30 PTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ser 1 , Ile 5 , Met 8 , Asn 10 , Leu 11,23,28,31 , His 14 , Glu 22,25,29 , Lys 26,27,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ser 1 , Ile 5 , Met 8 , Asn 10 , Leu 11,23,31 , His 14 , Glu 22,25,29 , Lys 26,28,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ser 1 , Ile 5 , Met 8 Asn 10 , Leu 11,23,28,31 , His 14 , Glu 22,25 , Aib 29 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ser 1 , Ile 5 , Met 8 , Asn 10 , Leu 11,23,28,31 , His 14 , Glu 22,25,29 , Lys 26 , Aib 30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; or [Ser 1 , Ile 5 , Met 8 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 [Glu 22,25 , Ahc 23 , Lys 26,30 , Leu 28,31 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys26,30, Ahc 27 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,28 , Lys 26,30 , Aib 29 , Ahc 31 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 , [Glu 22,25 , Cha 23 , Lys26,30, Leu 28,31 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25 , Cha 23 , Lys 26,30 Leu 28 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25 , Cha 23 , Lys 26,30 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 , [Ahc 22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Glu 25 , Lys 26,30 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 26 , Aib 29 , Ahc 30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25 , Cha 23 , Lys 26,30 , Aib 29 , Leu 31 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,28,31 , Ahc 24 , Lys 26,30 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu22,25, Leu 23,31 , Lys 26,30 , Ahc 28 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,28,3 , Lys 26 , Aib 29,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Aib 22,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Glu 25 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,28,31 , Aib 26,29 , Lys 30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 22 , Ahc 23 , Glu 25,29 , Lys 26,30 , Leu 28,31 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Ahc 24 , Glu 25,29 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Glu 25,29 , Lys 26,30 , Ahc 27 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 22 , Leu 23,31 , Glu 25,29 , Lys 26,30 , Ahc 28 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Glu 25,29 , Lys 26 , Leu 28 , Ahc 30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 , [Cha 22,23 , Glu 25,29 , Lys 26,30 , Leu 31 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 22 , Leu 23,28 , Glu 25,29 , Lys 26,30 , Ahc 31 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 22,23 , Glu 25,29 , Lys 26,30 , Leu 31 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 22,23 , Glu 25,29 , Lys 26,30 , Leu 28 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 22,23 , Glu 25,29 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Aib 25,29 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,29 , Ahc 23 , Aib 25 , Lys 26,30 , Leu 28,31 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 22 , Leu 23,21,31 , Aib 25 , Lys 26,30 , Glu 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Aib 22,25 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 26,30 , Glu 29 ]hPTHrP (1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Ahc 24 , Aib 25 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Aib 25,26 , Lys 30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Aib 25 , Lys 26,30 , Ahc 27 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,29 , Leu 23,31 , Aib 25 , Lys 26,30 , Ahc 28 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,29 , Leu 23,28 , Aib 25 , Lys 26,30 , Ahc 31 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Aib 25,30 , Lys 26 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Aib 25 , Lys 26 , Ahc 30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,29 , Cha 23 , Aib 25 , Lys 26,30 , Leu 28,31 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,29 , Cha 23 , Aib 25 , Lys 26,30 , Leu 31 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,29 , Cha 23 , Aib 25 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,29 , Cha 23 , Aib 25 , Lys 26,30 , Leu 28 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25,29 , Cha 23 , Lys 26 , Leu 28,31 , Aib 30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25,29 , Cha 23 , Lys 26 , Aib 30 , Leu 31 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25,29 , Cha 23 , Lys 26 , Aib 30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25,29 , Cha 23 , Lys 26 , Leu 28 , Aib 30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 26 , Ahc 27 , Aib 30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Ahc 24 , Lys 26 , Aib 30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 , [Ahc 22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Glu 25,29 , Lys 26 , Aib 30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Aib 22,30 , Leu 23,28,31 , Glu 25,29 , Lys 26 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,28 , Lys 26,30,31 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Cha 22 , Leu 23,28 , Glu 25,29 , Lys 26,30,31 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 22 , Leu 23,28 , Glu 25,29 , Lys 26,30,31 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25,29 , Leu 23,28 , Lys 26,30,31 , Ahc 30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 26 , Ahc 30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 ; [Ahc 22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Glu 25,29 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP (1-34)NH 2 ; [Glu 22,25,29 , Leu 23,28 , Lys 26,30,31 , Ahc 27 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 . In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a method of treating osteoporosis in a patient in need thereof, which comprises administering to said patient a compound of formula (I), (II), (III), (IV) or (V) or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, as defined hereinabove. In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a method of treating osteoporosis in a patient in need thereof, which comprises administering to said patient a combination of a bisphosphonate or calcitonin and a compound of formula (I), (II), (III), (IV) or (V) or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, as defined hereinabove. In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound of formula (I), (II), (III), (IV) or (V) or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or diluent. In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound of formula (I), (II), (III), (IV) or (V) or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof as defined hereinabove, a bisphosphonate or calcitonin and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or diluent. In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a method of treating osteoporosis in a patient in need thereof, which comprises administering to said patient a peptide of the formula [Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,28,31 , Aib 29 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a method of treating osteoporosis in a patient in need thereof, which comprises administering to said patient a combination of a bisphosphonate or calcitonin and a peptide of the formula [Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,28,31 , Aib 29 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a pharmaceutical composition comprising a peptide of the formula [Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,28,31 , Aib 29 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or diluent. In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a pharmaceutical composition comprising a peptide of the formula [Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,28,31 , Aib 29 , Lys 26,30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, a bisphosphonate or calcitonin, and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or diluent. In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a method of treating osteoporosis in a patient in need thereof, which comprises administering to said patient a peptide of the formula (VI): wherein A 1 is Ala, Ser, or Dap; A 3 is Ser or Aib; A 5 is His, Ile, Acc, or Cha; A 7 is Leu, Cha, Nle, β-Nal, Trp, Pal, Acc, Phe, or p-X-Phe in which X is OH, a halogen, or CH 3 ; A 8 is Leu, Met, Acc, or Cha; A 10 is Asp or Asn; A 11 is Lys, Leu, Cha, Acc, Phe, or β-Nal; A 12 is Gly, Acc, or Aib; A 14 is Ser or His; A 15 is Ile, Acc, or Cha; A 16 is Gln or Aib; A 17 is Asp or Aib; A 18 is Leu, Aib, Acc, or Cha; A 19 is Arg or Aib; A 22 is Phe, Glu, Aib, Acc, or Cha; A 23 is Phe, Leu, Lys, Acc, or Cha; A 24 is Leu, Lys, Acc, or Cha; A 25 is His, Lys, Aib, Acc, or Glu; A 26 is His, Aib, Acc, or Lys; A 27 is Leu, Lys, Acc, or Cha; A 28 is Ile, Leu, Lys, Acc, or Cha; A 29 is Ala, Glu, Acc, or Aib; A 30 is Glu, Leu, Nle, Cha, Aib, Acc, or Lys; A 31 is Ile, Leu, Cha. Lys, Acc, or deleted; A 32 is His or deleted; A 33 is Thr or deleted; A 34 is Ala or deleted; each of R 1 and R 2 is, independently, H, C 1-12 alkanyl, C 7-20 phenylalkyl, C 11-20 naphthylalkyl, C 1-12 , hydroxyalkyl, C 2-12 hydroxyalkenyl, C 7-20 hydroxyphenylalkyl, or C 11-20 hydroxynaphthylalkyl; or one and only one of R 1 and R 2 is COE 1 in which E 1 is C 1-12 alkyl, C 2-12 alkyl, C 2-12 alkenyl, C 7-20 phenylalkyl, C 11-20 naphthylalkyl, C 1-12 hydroxyalkyl, C 2-12 hydroxyalkenyl, C 7-20 hydroxyphenylalkyl, or C 11-20 hydroxynaphthylalkyl; and R 3 is OH, NH 2 , C 1-12 alkoxy, or NH—Y—CH 2 -Z in which Y is a C 1-12 hydrocarbon moiety and Z is H, OH, CO 2 H or CONH 2 ; provided that at least one of A 5 , A 7 , A 8 , A 11 , A 12 , A 15 , A, 8 , A 22 , A 23 , A 24 , A 25 , A 26 , A 27 , A 28 , A 29 , A 30 , or A 31 is Acc; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a method of treating osteoporosis in a patient in need thereof, which comprises administering to said patient a combination of a bisphosphonate or calcitonin and a peptide of formula (VI), as defined hereinabove. In another aspect, the present Invention is directed to a pharmaceutical composition comprising a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or diluent and a peptide of formula (VI), as defined hereinabove. In another aspect, the present invention is directed to a pharmaceutical composition comprising a bisphosphonate or calcitonin, a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or diluent, and a peptide of formula (VI), as defined hereinabove. With the exception of the N-terminal amino acid, all abbreviations (e.g. Ala or A 1 ) of amino acids in this disclosure stand for the structure of —NH—CH(R)—CO—, wherein R is a side chain of an amino acid (e.g., CH 3 for Ala). For the N-terminal amino acid, the abbreviation stands for the structure of ═N—CH(R)—CO—, wherein R is a side chain of an amino acid, β-Nal, Nle, Dap, Cha, Nva, Amp, Pal, Ahc, and Aib are the abbreviations of the following α-amino acids; β-(2-naphthyl)alanine, norleucine, α,β-diaminopropionic acid, cyclohexylalanine, norvaline, 4-amino-phenylalanine, β-(3-pyridinyl)alanine, 1-amino-1-cyclo-hexanecarboxylic acid, and α-aminoisobutyric acid, respectively. What is meant by Acc is an amino acid selected from the group of 1-amino-1-cyclopropanecarboxylic acid. 1-amino-1-cyclobutanecarboxylic acid; 1-amino-1-cyclopentanecarboxylic acid; 1-amino-1-cyclohexanecarboxylic acid; 1-amino-1-cycloheptanecarboxylic acid, 1-amino-1-cyclooctanecarboxylic acid, and 1-amino-1-cyclononanecarboxylic acid. In the above formula, hydroxyalkyl, hydroxyphenyl-alkyl, and hydroxynaphthylalkyl may contain 1-4 hydroxy substituents. Also, COE 1 stands for —C═O.E 1 . Examples of —C═O.E 1 include, but are not limited to, acetyl and phenylpropionyl. A peptide of this invention is also denoted herein by another format, e.g., [Ahc 7,11 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 , with the substituted amino acids from the natural sequence placed between the second set of brackets (e.g., Ahc 7 for Leu 7 , and Ahc 11 for Leu 11 in hPTH). The abbreviation hPTH stands for human PTH; hPTHrP for human PTHrP, rPTH for rat PTH, and bPTH for bovine PTH. The numbers between the parentheses refer to the number of amino acids present in the peptide (e.g., hPTH(1-34) is amino acids 1 through 34 of the peptide sequence for human PTH). The sequences for hPTH(1-34), hPTHrP(1-34), bPTH(1-34), and rPTH(1-34) are listed in Nissenson, et al., Receptor, 3 193 (1993). The designation “NH 2 ” in PTH(1-34)NH 2 indicates that the C-terminus of the peptide is amidated. PTH(1-34), on the other hand, has a free acid C-terminus. Each of the peptides of the invention is capable of stimulating the growth of bone in a subject (i.e., a mammal such as a human patient). Thus, it is useful in the treatment of osteoporosis and bone fractures when administered alone or concurrently with antiresorptive therapy, e.g., bisphosphonates and calcitonin. The peptides of this invention can be provided in the form of pharmaceutically acceptable salts. Examples of such salts include, but are not limited to, those formed with organic acids (e.g., acetic, lactic, maleic, citric, malic, ascorbic, succinic, benzoic, methanesulfonic, toluenesulfonic, or pamoic acid), inorganic acids (e g., hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, or phosphoric acid), and polymeric acids (e g., tannic acid, carboxymethyl cellulose, polylactic, polyglycolic, or copolymers of polylactic-glycolic acids). A therapeutically effective amount of a peptide of this invention and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier substance (e.g., magnesium carbonate, lactose, or a phospholipid with which the therapeutic compound can form a micelle) together form a therapeutic composition (e g., a pill, tablet, capsule, or liquid) for administration (e.g., orally, intravenously, transdermally, pulmonarily, vaginally, subcutaneously, nasally, iontophoretically, or by intratracheally) to a subject. The pill, tablet, or capsule that is to be administered orally can be coated with a substance for protecting the active composition from the gastric acid or intestinal enzymes in the stomach for a period of time sufficient to allow it to pass undigested into the small intestine. The therapeutic composition can also be in the form of a biodegradable or nonbiodegradable sustained release formulation for subcutaneous or intramuscular administration. See. e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,773,919 and 4,767,628 and PCT Application No WO 94/15587. Continuous administration can also be achieved using an implantable or external pump (e.g., INFUSAID™ pump). The administration can also be conducted intermittently, e.g., single daily injection, or continuously at a low dose, e.g., sustained release formulation. The dose of a peptide of the present invention for treating the above-mentioned diseases or disorders varies depending upon the manner of administration, the age and the body weight of the subject, and the condition of the subject to be treated, and ultimately will be decided by the attending physician or veterinarian. Also contemplated within the scope of this invention is a peptide covered by the above generic formula for use in treating diseases or disorders associated with deficiency in bone growth or the like, e.g. osteoporosis or fractures. Other features and advantages of the present invention will be apparent from the detailed description and from the claims. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Based on the description herein, the present invention can be utilized to its fullest extent. The following specific examples are to be construed as merely illustrative, and should not be construed as a limitation of the remainder of the disclosure in any way whatsoever. Further, all publications cited herein are incorporated by reference. Structure PTH(1-34) and PTHrP(1-34) have been reported to have two amphophilic alpha helical domains. See, e.g., Barden, et al., Biochem., 32:7126 (1992). The first ″-helix is formed between amino acid residues 4 through 13, while the second ″-helix is formed between amino acid residues 21 through 29. Some peptides of this invention contain the substitution of Acc for one or more residues within or near these two regions of PTH(1-34) and PTHrP(1-34), e.g. Ahc 7 and Ahc 11 within the first ″-helix or Ahc 27 and Ahc 28 within the second ″-helix; or Cha 7 and Cha 11 within the first α-helix or Cha 27 and Cha 28 within the second α-helix. Synthesis The peptides of the invention can be prepared by standard solid phase synthesis. See, e.g., Stewart, J. M., et al., Solid Phase Synthesis (Pierce Chemical Co., 2d ed. 1984). The following is a description of how [Glu 22,25 , Leu23,28, Lys26,30, Aib 29 , Ahc 31 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 was prepared. Other peptides of the invention can be prepared in an analogous manner by a person of ordinary skill in the art. 1-[N-tert-Butoxycarbonyl-amino]-1-cyclohexane-carboxylic acid(Boc-Ahc-OH) was synthesized as follows. 19.1 g (0.133 mol) of 1-amino-1-cyclohexanecarboxylic acid (Acros Organics, Fisher Scientific, Pittsburgh, Pa.) was dissolved in 200 ml of dioxane and 100 ml of water. To it was added 67 mg of 2N NaOH. The solution was cooled in an ice-water bath. 32.0 g (0.147 mol) of di-tert-butyl-dicarbonate was added to this solution. The reaction mixture was stirred overnight at room temperature. Dioxane was then removed under reduced pressure. 200 ml of ethyl acetate was added to the remaining aqueous solution The mixture was cooled in an ice-water bath. The pH of the aqueous layer was adjusted to about 3 by adding 4N HCl. The organic layer was separated. The aqueous layer was extracted with ethyl acetate (1×100 ml). Two organic layers were combined and washed with water (2×150 ml), dried over anhydrous MgSO 4 , filtered, and concentrated to dryness under reduced pressure. The residue was recrystallized in ethyl acetate/hexanes, 9.2 g of a pure product was obtained, 29% yield. Other protected Acc amino acids can be prepared in an analogous manner by a person or ordinary skill in the art. The peptide was synthesized on an Applied Biosystems (Foster City, Calif.) model 430A peptide synthesizer which was modified to do accelerated Boc-chemistry solid phase peptide synthesis. See Schnoize, et al., Int. J. Peptide Protein Res., 90:180 (1992). 4-Methylbenz-hydrylamine (MBHA) resin (Peninsula, Belmont, Calif.) with the substitution of 0.93 mmol/g was used. The Boc amino acids (Bachem, Calif., Torrance, Calif.; Nova Biochem., LaJolla, Calif.) were used with the following side chain protection: Boc-Ala-OH, Boc-Arg(Tos)-OH, Boc-Asp(OcHex)-OH, Boc-Glu(OcHex)-OH, Boc-His(DNP)-OH, Boc-Val-OH, Boc-Leu-OH, Boc-Gly-OH, Boc-Gln-OH, Boc-Ile-OH, Boc-Lys(2CIZ)-OH, Boc-Ahc-OH, Boc-Thr(Bzl)-OH, Boc-Ser(Bzl)-OH; and Boc-Aib-OH. The synthesis was carried out on a 0.14 mmol scale. The Boc groups were removed by treatment with 100% TFA for 2×1 min. Boc amino acids (2.5 mmol) were pre-activated with HBTU (2.0 mmol) and DIEA (1.0 mL) in 4 mL of DMF and were coupled without prior neutralization of the peptide-resin TFA salt. Coupling times were 5 min except for the Boc-Aib-OH, and its following residue Boc-Leu-OH, and Boc-Ahc-OH, and its following residue Boc-Lys(2Clz)-OH, wherein the coupling times for these four residues were 2 hrs. At the end of the assembly of the peptide chain, the resin was treated with a solution of 20% mercaptoethanol/10% DIEA in DMF for 2×30 min. to remove the DNP group on the His side chain. The N-terminal Boc group was then removed by treatment with 100% TFA for 2×2 min. The partially-deprotected peptide-resin was washed with DMF and DCM and dried under reduced pressure. The final cleavage was done by stirring the peptide-resin in 10 mL of HF containing 1 mL of anisole and dithiothreitol (24 mg) at OEC for 75 min. HF was removed by a flow of nitrogen. The residue was washed with ether (6×10 mL) and extracted with 4N HOAc (6×10 mL). The peptide mixture in the aqueous extract was purified on a reversed-phase preparative high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) using a reversed phase VYDAC™ C 18 column (Nest Group, Southborough, Mass.) The column was eluted with a linear gradient (10% to 45% of solution B over 130 min.) at a flow rate of 10 mL/min (Solution A=0.1% aqueous TFA; Solution B=acetonitrile containing 0.1% of TFA). Fractions were collected and checked on analytical HPLC. Those containing pure product were combined and lyophilized to dryness, 85 mg of a white solid was obtained. Purity was >99% based on analytical HPLC analysis. Electro-spray mass spectrometer analysis gave the molecular weight at 3972.4 (in agreement with the calculated molecular weight of 3972.7). The synthesis and purification of [Cha 22 , Leu 23,2831 , Glu 25 , Lys 26,30 , Ahc 27 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 was carried out in the same manner as the above synthesis of [Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,28 , Lys 26,30 , Aib 29 , Ahc 31 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 The protected amino acid Boc-Cha-OH was purchased from Bachem, Calif. The purity of the final product was >99%, and the electron-spray mass spectrometer gave the molecular weight at 3997.2 (calculated molecular weight is 3996.8). The following is a description of how [Aib 34 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 was prepared. The peptide, [Aib 34 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 , was synthesized on an Applied Biosystems (Foster City, Calif.) model 430A peptide synthesizer which was modified to do accelerated Boc-chemistry solid phase peptide synthesis. See Schnoize, et al. Int. J. Peptide Protein Res., 90:180 (1992). 4-Methylbenz-hydrylamine (MBHA) resin (Peninsula, Belmont, Calif.) with the substitution of 0.93 mmol/g was used. The Boc amino acids (Bachem, Calif., Torrance, Calif.; Nova Biochem., LaJolla, Calif.) were used with the following side chain protection: Boc-Arg(Tos)-OH, Boc-Asp(OcHxl)-OH, Boc-Asn(Xan)-OH, Boc-Glu(OcHxl)-OH. Boc-His(DNP)-OH, Boc-Asn-GH, Boc-Val-OH, Boc-Leu-OH, Boc-Ser-OH, Boc-Gly-OH, Boc-Met-OH, Boc-Gln-OH, Boc-Ile-OH, Boc-Lys(2CIZ)-OH, Boc-Ser(Bzl)-OH, and Boc-Trp(Fm)-OH The synthesis was carried out on a 0.14 mmol scale. The Boc groups were removed by treatment with 100% TFA for 2×1 min. Boc amino acids (2.5 mmol) were pre-activated with HBTU (2.0 mmol) and DIEA (1.0 mL) in 4 mL of DMF and were coupled without prior neutralization of the peptide-resin TFA salt. Coupling times were 5 min except for the Boc-Aib-OH and the following residue. Boc-Asn(Xan)-OH, wherein the coupling times were 20 min. At the end of the assembly of the peptide chain, the resin was treated with a solution of 20% mercaptoethanol/10% DIEA in DMF for 2×30 min. to remove the DNP group on the His side chain. The N-terminal Boc group was then removed by treatment with 100% TFA for 2×2 min. After neutralization of the peptide-resin with 10% DIEA in DMF (1×1 min.). the formyl group on the side chain of Trp was removed by treatment with a solution of 15% ethanolamine/15% water/70% DMF for 2×30 min. The partially-deprotected peptide-resin was washed with DMF and DCM and dried under reduced pressure. The final cleavage was done by stirring the peptide-resin in 10 mL of HF containing 1 mL of anisole at 0° C. for 75 min. HF was removed by a flow of nitrogen. The residue was washed with ether (6×10 mL) and extracted with 4N HOAc (6×10 mL). The peptide mixture in the aqueous extract was purified on a reversed-phase preparative high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) using a reversed phase VYDAC™ C 18 column (Nest Group, Southborough, Mass.). The column was eluted with a linear gradient (10% to 45% of solution B over 130 min.) at a flow rate of 10 mL/min (Solution A=0.1% aqueous TFA; Solution B=acetonitrile containing 0.1% of TFA). Fractions were collected and checked on analytical HPLC. Those containing pure product were combined and lyophilized to dryness. 62.3 mg of a white solid was obtained Punty was >99% based on analytical HPLC analysis. Electro-spray mass spectrometer analysis gave the molecular weight at 4054.7 (in agreement with the calculated molecular weight of 4054.7). The synthesis and purification of [Cha 7,11 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 was carried out in the same manner as the above synthesis of [Aib 34 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 . The protected amino acid Boc-Cha-OH was purchased from Bachem, Calif. The purity of the final product was >98%, and the electron-spray mass spectrometer gave the molecular weight at 4197 0 (calculated molecular weight is 4196.9). The following is a description of how [Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,28 , Lys 26,30 , Aib 29 , Ahc 31 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 was prepared. Other peptides of the invention can be prepared in an analogous manner by a person of ordinary skill in the art. 1-[N-tert-Butoxycarbonyl-amino]-1-cyclohexane-carboxylic acid (Boc-Ahc-OH) was synthesized as follows: 19.1 g (0.133 mol) of 1-amino-1-cyclohexanecarboxylic acid (Acros Organics, Fisher Scientific, Pittsburgh, Pa.) was dissolved in 200 ml of dioxane and 100 ml of water To it was added 67 mg of 2N NaOH The solution was cooled in an ice-water bath. 32.0 g (0.147 mol) of di-tert-butyl-dicarbonate was added to this solution The reaction mixture was stirred overnight at room temperature. Dioxane was then removed under reduced pressure. 200 ml of ethyl acetate was added to the remaining aqueous solution. The mixture was cooled in an ice-water bath. The pH of the aqueous layer was adjusted to about 3 by adding 4N HCl. The organic layer was separated. The aqueous layer was extracted with ethyl acetate (1×100 ml). Two organic layers were combined and washed with water (2×150 ml), dried over anhydrous MgSO 4 , filtered, and concentrated to dryness under reduced pressure. The residue was recrystallized in ethyl acetate/hexanes 9.2 g of a pure product was obtained. 29% yield. Other protected Acc amino acids can be prepared in an analogous manner by a person or ordinary skill in the art. The peptide was synthesized on an Applied Biosystems (Foster City, Calif.) model 430A peptide synthesizer which was modified to do accelerated Boc-chemistry solid phase peptide synthesis. See Schnoize, et al., Int. J Peptide Protein Res., 90:180 (1992). 4-Methylbenz-hydrylamine (MBHA) resin (Peninsula, Belmont, Calif.) with the substitution of 0.93 mmol/g was used. The Boc amino acids (Bachem, Calif., Torrance, Calif.; Nova Blochem., LaJolla, Calif.) were used with the following side chain protection. Boc-Ala-OH, Boc-Arg(Tos)-OH, Boc-Asp(OcHex)-OH, Boc-Glu(OcHex)-OH, Boc-His(DNP)-OH, Boc-Val-OH. Boc-Leu-OH, Boc-Gly-OH, Boc-Gln-OH, Boc-Ile-OH, Boc-Lys(2CIZ)-OH, Boc-Ahc-OH, Boc-Thr(Bzl)-OH, Boc-Ser(Bzl)-OH; and Boc-Aib-OH. The synthesis was carried out on a 0.14 mmol scale. The Boc groups were removed by treatment with 100% TFA for 2×1 min. Boc amino acids (2.5 mmol) were pre-activated with HBTU (2.0 mmol) and DIEA (1.0 mL) in 4 mL of DMF and were coupled without prior neutralization of the peptide-resin TFA salt. Coupling times were 5 min except for the Boc-Aib-OH, and its following residue Boc-Leu-OH, and Boc-Ahc-OH, and its following residue Boc-Lys(2Clz)-OH, wherein the coupling times for these four residues were 2 hrs. At the end of the assembly of the peptide chain, the resin was treated with a solution of 20% mercaptoethanol/10% DIEA in DMF for 2×30 min. to remove the DNP group on the His side chain. The N-terminal Boc group was then removed by treatment with 100% TFA for 2×2 min. The partially-deprotected peptide-resin was washed with DMF and DCM and dried under reduced pressure. The final cleavage was done by stirring the peptide-resin in 10 mL of HF containing 1 mL of anisole and dithiothreitol (24 mg) at 0° C. for 75 min. HF was removed by a flow of nitrogen. The residue was washed with ether (6×10 mL) and extracted with 4N HOAc (6×10 mL). The peptide mixture in the aqueous extract was purified on a reversed-phase preparative high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) using a reversed phase VYDAC™ C 18 column (Nest Group, Southborough, Mass.). The column was eluted with a linear gradient (10% to 45% of solution B over 130 min.) at a flow rate of 10 mL/min (Solution A=0.1% aqueous TFA; Solution B=acetonitrile containing 0.1% of TFA) Fractions were collected and checked on analytical HPLC. Those containing pure product were combined and lyophilized to dryness. 85 mg of a white solid was obtained. Purity was >99% based on analytical HPLC analysis. Electro-spray mass spectrometer analysis gave the molecular weight at 3972.4 (in agreement with the calculated molecular weight of 3972.7). The synthesis and purification of [Cha 22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Glu 25 , Lys 26,30 , Ahc 27 , Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 was carried out in the same manner as the above synthesis of [Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,28 , Lys 26,30 , Aib 29 , Ahc 31 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 . The protected amino acid Boc-Cha-OH was purchased from Bachem, Calif. The purity of the final product was >99%, and the electron-spray mass spectrometer gave the molecular weight at 3997.2 (calculated molecular weight is 3996.8). The full names for the abbreviations used above are as follows: Boc for t-butyloxycarbonyl, HF for hydrogen fluoride, Fm for formyl, Xan for xanthyl, Bzl for benzyl, Tos for tosyl, DNP for 2,4-dinitrophenyl, DMF for dimethylformamide, DCM for dichloromethane, HBTU for 2-(1H-Benzotnazol-1-yl)-1,1,3,3-tetramethyl uronium hexafluorophosphate, DIEA for diisopropylethylamine. HOAc for acetic acid, TFA for trifluoroacetic acid, 2CIZ for 2-chlorobenzyloxycarbonyl, and OcHex for O-cyclohexyl. The substituents R 1 and R 2 of the above generic formula may be attached to the free amine of the N-terminal amino acid by standard methods known in the art. For example, alkyl groups, e.g., C 1-12 alkyl, may be attached using reductive alkylation. Hydroxyalkyl groups, e.g., C 1-12 hydroxyalkyl, may also be attached using reductive alkylation wherein the free hydroxy group is protected with a t-butyl ester. Acyl groups, e.g., COE 1 , may be attached by coupling the free acid, e.g., E 1 COOH, to the free amine of the N-terminal amino acid by mixing the completed resin with 3 molar equivalents of both the free acid and diisopropylcarbodiimide in methylene chloride for one hour and cycling the resulting resin through steps (a) to (f) in the above wash program. If the free acid contains a free hydroxy group, e.g., p-hydroxyphenylpropionic acid, then the coupling should be performed with an additional 3 molar equivalents of HOBT. Other peptides of this invention can be prepared in an analogous manner by a person of ordinary skill in the art. Functional Assays A. Binding to PTH Receptor The peptides of the invention were tested for their ability to bind to the PTH receptor present on SaOS-2 (human osteosarcoma cells). SaOS-2 cells (American Type Culture Collection. Rockville, Md.; ATCC #HTB 85) were maintained in RPMI 1640 medium (Sigma, St. Louis. Mo.) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS) and 2 mM glutamine at 37EC in a humidified atmosphere of 5% CO 2 in air. The medium was changed every three or four days, and the cells were subcultured every week by trypsinization. SaOS-2 cells were maintained for four days until they had reached confluence. The medium was replaced with 5% FBS in RPMI 1640 medium and incubated for 2 hrs at room temperature with 10×10 4 cpm mono- 125 I-[Nle 8,18 , Tyr 34 (3- 125 I)]bPTH(1-34)NH 2 in the presence of a competing peptides of the invention at various concentrations between 10 −11 M to 10 −4 M. The cells were washed four times with ice-cold PBS and lysed with 0.1 M NaOH, and the radioactivity associated with the cells was counted in a scintillation counter. Synthesis of mono- 125 I-[Nle 8,18 , Tyr 34 (3- 125 I)]bPTH(1-34)NH 2 was carried out as described in Goldman, M. E., et al., Endocrinol., 123:1468 (1988). The binding assay was conducted with various peptides of the invention, and the Kd value (half maximal inhibition of binding of mono- 125 I-[Nle 8,18 , Tyr 34 (3- 125 I)]bPTH(1-34)NH 2 ) for each peptide was calculated. As shown in Table I, all of the tested peptides had a high binding affinity for the PTH receptor on the SaOS-2 cell. B. Stimulation of Adenylate Cyclase Activity The ability of the peptides of the invention to induce a biological response in SaOS-2 cells were measured. More specifically, any stimulation of the adenylate cyclase was determined by measuring the level of synthesis of cAMP (adenosine 3′,5′-monophosphate) as described previously in Rodan, et al., J. Clin. Invest. 72: 1511 (1983) and Goldman, et al., Endocrinol., 123:1468 (1988). Confluent SAOS-2 cells in 24 wells plates were incubated with 0.5:Ci [ 3 H]adenine (26.9 Ci/mmol, New England Nuclear, Boston, Mass.) in fresh medium at 37EC for 2 hrs, and washed twice with Hank's balanced salt solution (Gibco, Gaithersburg, Md.). The cells were treated with 1 mM IBMX [isobutylmethyl-xanthine, Sigma, St. Louis, Mo.] in fresh medium for 15 min, and the peptides of the invention were added to the medium to incubate for 5 min. The reaction was stopped by the addition of 1.2 M trichloroacetic acid (TCA) (Sigma, St. Louis, Mo.) followed by sample neutralization with 4N KOH. cAMP was isolated by the two-column chromatographic method (Salmon, et al. 1974, Anal. Biochem. 58, 541). The radioactivity was counted in a scintillation counter (Liquid Scintillation Counter 2200CA, PACKARD, Downers Grove, Ill.). The respective EC 50 values (half maximal stimulation of adenylate cyclase) for the tested peptides were calculated and shown in Table I. All tested peptides were found to be potent stimulators of adenylate cyclase activity, which is a biochemical pathway indicative as a proximal signal for osteoblast proliferation (e.g., bone growth). TABLE I PEPTIDE Kd (μM) EC 50 (nM) [Cha 7,11 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 0.01 0.6 [Cha 23 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 0.2 20 [Cha 24 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 0.1 10 [Nle 8,18 , Cha 27 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; 0.05 2 [Cha 28 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 0.05 2.5 [Cha 31 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 0.03 4 [Aib 16 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 , 0.004 0.7 [Aib 19 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; 0.005 0.6 [Aib 34 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 , 0.007 3 [Nle 31 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 , 0.004 0.7 [hArg 27 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 0.007 1 [Dap, Nle 8,18 , Tyr 34 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 0.150 10 [Cha 24,28,31 , Lys 30 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 ; 0.5 7 [Cha 7,11 , Nle 8,18 , Tyr 34 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 0.006 0.6 [Cha 7,11 , Nle 8,18 , Aib 16,19 , 0.005 1.5 Tyr 34 ]hPTH (1-34)NH 2 [Cha 7,11 , Nle 8,18,31 , Aib 16,19 , 0.04 4 Tyr 34 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 [Cha 11 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 0.005 2 [Cha 28,31 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 0.06 7 [Cha 7,11 , Nle 8,18 , Aib 34 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 0.03 1.5 [Cha 15 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 0.005 1.3 [Cha 7,11 , Aib 19 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 0.007 0.5 [Cha 7 11 , Aib 16 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 0.004 1.1 [Aib 16 19 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 0.004 0.6 [Aib 12 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 0.005 2 [Aib 3 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 0.004 1.1 [Cha 7,11 , Aib 19 , Lys 30 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 0.004 2 [Cha 7 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 0.02 2.3 [Cha 24,28,31 ]hPTH(1-34)NH 2 1.0 30 [Aib 17 ]hPTH(1-34) 0.05 3 [Cha 7,11,15 ]hPTH(1-34) 0.01 1.4 TABLE II PEPTIDE Kd (μM) EC 50 (nM) [Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,28 , Lys 26,30 , Aib 29 , 0.200 3.7 Ahc 31 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 [Glu 22,25 , Ahc 23 , Lys 26,30 , Leu 28 31 , 0.070 3.9 Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 [Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 26,30 , Ahc 27 , 0.230 3.0 Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 [Glu 22,25,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Lys 26 , 0.230 20 Ahc 30 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 [Cha 22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Glu 25 , Lys 26,30 , Ahc 27 , 0.060 2.0 Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 [Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,28,31 , Ahc 24 , Lys 26,30 , 0.006 0.5 Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 [Glu 22,29 , Leu 23,28,31 , Aib 25 , Lys 26,30 , 5 Ahc 27 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 [Glu 22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Aib 25,29 , Lys 26,30 , 2 Ahc 27 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 [Ahe 22 , Leu 23,28,31 , Glu 25 , Lys 26,30 , 0.3 Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 [Glu 22,25 , Leu 23,31 , Lys 26,30 , Ahe 28 , 0.5 Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 [Cha 22 , Ahc 23 , Glu 25 , Lys 26,30 , Leu 28,31 , 0.4 Aib 29 ]hPTHrP(1-34)NH 2 Other Embodiments It is to be understood that while the invention has been described in conjunction with the detailed description thereof, that the foregoing description is intended to illustrate and not limit the scope of the invention, which is defined by the scope of the appended claims. Other aspects, advantages, and modifications are within the claims.

The present invention is directed to peptide analogues of fragment of parathyroid hormone (PTH) or parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP), a method of using said analogues alone or in combination with a bisphosphonate or calcitonin to treat osteoporosis and pharmaceutical compositions comprising said analogues alone or in combination with a bisphosphonate or calcitonin.

CROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] This application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. §119 (e) to, and hereby incorporates by reference, U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/238,668, filed Oct. 6, 2000. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] 1. Field of the Invention [0003] This invention is directed to substances for suppressing scents. More particularly, this invention is directed to liquid formulations applied to articles of attire, footwear, and equipment to prevent a person's scent from emanating therefrom. [0004] 2. Background of the Invention [0005] It is unavoidable that persons generate and give off odors (or scents). These odors may originate from sources such as natural body secretions (perspiration, oils), bacteria residing on the skin, and clothing worn by the individual. [0006] Many animals, such as bear, deer, elk, and fox, have highly developed abilities to detect a person in proximity by sensing the person's odor. Therefore, persons hunting and observing these animals, in addition to visual camouflage, often attempt to prevent these animals from sensing odors characteristic of humans. To this end, several liquid and cream formulations are applied to the user's skin for masking or camouflaging the person's scent. Other substances are applied during bathing to temporarily remove the user's scent. Liquid formulations are also applied to garments worn by these persons to reduce odors. These liquid formulations have been proven to be effective in preventing the user's body odor from being detected by game. These liquid formulations typically contain ingredients for preventing or minimizing formation of odor causing chemical compounds. However, a liquid formulation suitable to be applied to clothing, footwear, and equipment with longer lasting and even more effective odor-suppressing properties would be even more desirable. There then is a need for a long lasting, odor-suppressing liquid formulation, which can be applied to apparel worn when hunting or observing animals and which can suppress odors caused by chemical compounds already present. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0007] This invention substantially meets the aforementioned needs of the industry by providing a liquid formulation suitable to be applied to an article of apparel, the article of apparel to be worn by, or to be in close contact with, a person hunting or observing game or otherwise used to prevent game from sensing the user's scent. The present liquid formulation may also be advantageously applied to articles of equipment and with beneficial effects similar to those effects encountered when used on articles of apparel. When the present liquid formulation is applied to textiles and other materials used in making apparel, game animals are much less likely to detect the user. One way in which these odors are suppressed is by adsorbing odor-producing substances. Moreover, the liquid formulation of this invention may contain a substance which inhibits odiferous substance formation. [0008] One embodiment of the present scent-adsorbing liquid formulation includes an alkali metal carbonate or bicarbonate salt, and a particulate, odor-adsorbing agent such as activated carbon. In another embodiment, a preservative may be included. The preservative may include a substance with antimicrobial activity. A nonionic surfactant, such as an alkylaryl polyether alcohol, may also be present in an amount sufficient to allow the preservative to be incorporated into the formulation as a solution, suspension, or emulsion and/or to allow for better coverage when applied to the article of apparel. The liquid formulation may further include a base, such as an alkali metal hydroxide, in an amount sufficient to provide a formulation pH between about 9 and 11. An alkaline pH may be advantageous in promoting penetration or coverage of the substance being treated, in retarding formation of some odiferous substances per se, and in providing an environment in which the preservatives are most effective in inhibiting bacterial (or generally microfloral) growth and development. [0009] It is one feature that the present liquid formulation suppresses odors otherwise emanating from users by providing an adsorptive agent, such as particulate activated carbon. The liquid formulation is applied to an article of attire or other object worn by, or in close contact with, the user. The adsorptive agent adsorbs odiferous substances given off by the user which otherwise become airborne and would be detected by animals. [0010] It is a second feature of this invention that some embodiments of the present liquid formulation may also inhibit or retard generation of odiferous substances by containing a preservative, such as an antimicrobial agent. The preservative, when applied to an item of apparel or an article to be in close contact with a user, stops or inhibits microflora (such as bacteria) from producing odiferous substances, which might otherwise be detected by animals. [0011] It is a third feature of this invention that the present liquid formulation can be applied to garments worn by a user while hunting or observing game animals. When garments to which the present liquid formulation is applied are worn, the likelihood of being scented by the game animals is minimized. Stated otherwise, the likelihood of game animals moving into near proximity with the wearer of apparel treated by the present liquid formulation is maximized because of eliminated or greatly reduced odors emanating from the wearer. [0012] Additional objects, advantages, and features of various embodiments of this invention will be set forth in part in the description which follows, and in part will become apparent to those skilled in the art. The objects and advantages of various embodiments of this invention may be realized and attained by persons of ordinary skill in the art by means of the instrumentalities and combinations particularly pointed out in the description below. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0013] The present invention is a substantially liquid formulation suitable to be applied to fabrics or other articles of apparel, footwear, and items of equipment. These articles, when the present liquid formulation has been applied thereto, effectively prevent game animals from detecting a wearer's body odor or scent. [0014] The term “substantially liquid formulation” is contemplated to describe formulations which may contain nonliquid ingredients, but can nonetheless be applied by methods used to apply other liquids after the nonliquid ingredients are suspended, e.g., by agitation. One such method of application is by using a spray bottle. [0015] The present invention may include an odor-adsorbing material, the odor-adsorbing material suspendable (or otherwise included) in an aqueous solution (or emulsion). The present formulation may also include one or more preservatives (to include one or more antimicrobial formulations), an alkali metal carbonate or bicarbonate, one or more surfactants, and/or an alkali metal hydroxide. Powdered activated carbon may be advantageously suspended in this liquid formulation. Optionally, a dye is included. Unless otherwise specified, ingredient proportions are stated in percent by weight of the final product. [0016] Preservatives [0017] Suitable preservatives for use in the present formulation include: [0018] 1. Alkali metal salts of C 2 -C 6 carboxylic acids, e.g., sodium propionate (Niacet Corporation). [0019] 2. Derivatives of imidazoles, e.g., imidazolidinyl urea (Tristad 1U, Tri-K Industries). [0020] 3. Mixtures of esterified phenols and phenol derivatives, e.g., methylparaben, propylparaben, and diazolidinyl urea (Germaben 2, Sutton Labs). [0021] 4. Organic sulfur compounds. [0022] a. 3-isothiazolones and salts formed by reactions with acids such as hydrochloric, nitric, and sulfuric acids; e.g., 5-chloro-2-methyl-4-isothiazolin-3-one; 2-n-butyl-3-isothiazolone; 2-benzyl-3-isothiazolone; 2-phenyl-3-isothiazolone, 2-methyl-4,5-dichloroisothiazolone; 5-chloro-2-methyl-3-isothiazolone; 2-methyl-4-isothiazolin-3-one; and mixtures thereof. An exemplary broad spectrum 3-isothiazolone preservative is available as Kathon® CG by Rohm and Haas Company. [0023] b. Sodium pyrithione and mixtures of organic sulfur compounds. [0024] 5. Halogenated compounds. [0025] a. 5-bromo-5-nitro-1,3-dioxane (e.g., Bronidox L® from Henkel). [0026] b. 2-bromo-2-nitropropane-1,3-diol, (e.g., Bronopol® from Inolex). [0027] c. 1,1′-hexamethylene bis(5-(p-chlorophenyl)biguanide), commonly known as chlorhexidine and its salts. [0028] d. 1,1,1-trichloro-2-methylpropan-2-ol, commonly known as chlorobutanol. [0029] e. 4,4′-(trimethylenedioxy)bis-(3-bromobenzamidine) diisethionate or dibromopropamidine. [0030] 6. Cyclic organic nitrogen compounds. [0031] a. Imidazolidinedione compounds. [0032] i. 1,3-bis(hydroxymethyl)-5,5-dimethyl-2,4-imidazolidinedione, commonly known as dimethyloldimethylhydantoin, or DMDM hydantoin, available as, e.g., Glydant® from Lonza. [0033] ii. N-[1,3-bis(hydroxymethyl)2,5-dioxo-4-imidazolidinyl]-N,N′-bis(hydroxymethyl) urea, commonly known as diazolidinyl urea, available under the trade name Germall II® from Sutton Laboratories, Inc. [0034] iii. N,N″-methylenebis {N′-[1-(hydroxymethyl)-2,5-dioxo-4-imidazolidinyl]urea}, commonly known as imidazolidinyl urea, available, e.g., under the trade name Abiol® from 3V-Sigma, Unicide U-13® from Induchem, Germall 115®. [0035] b. Polymethoxy Bicyclic Oxazolidine, such as Nuosept® C from Huls America. [0036] 7. Low Molecular Weight Aldehydes. [0037] a. Formaldehyde. [0038] b. Glutaraldehyde. [0039] 8. Cationic and/or Quaternary Compounds. [0040] a. Polyaminopropyl biguanide, also known as polyhexamethylene biguanide, such as Cosmocil CQ® from ICI Americas, Inc., or Mikrokill® from Brooks, Inc. [0041] b. 1-(3-Chlorallyl)-3,5,7-triaza-1-azoniaadamantane chloride, available, e.g., Dowicil 200 from Dow Chemical. [0042] 9. Dehydroacetic Acid. [0043] 10. Phenyl and Phenoxy Compounds. Some non-limiting examples of phenyl and phenoxy compounds suitable for use in the present invention are: [0044] a. 4,4′-diamidino-.alpha.,.omega.-diphenoxypropane diisethionate, commonly known as propamidine isethionate. [0045] b. Benzyl alcohol. [0046] c. 2-phenylethanol. [0047] d. 2-phenoxyethanol. [0048] The preservative or preservatives may be present in an amount between about 0.025% and 5%, 0.025% and 2.5%, 0.025% and 1%, or any range subsumed therein. [0049] Surfactants [0050] A variety of surfactants may be useful in the present invention. These surfactants are contemplated to include nonionic, anionic, and/or cationic surfactants. These surfactants may facilitate the inclusion of other substances in the present formulation as solutions, dispersions, and/or emulsions. These surfactants may also enable more complete coverage when the present formulation is applied to articles of attire. [0051] Nonlimiting examples of nonionic surfactants which may be suitable for use in embodiments of this invention are recited below. [0052] 1. Nonylphenol ethoxylates with 4-100 ethylene oxide groups per nonylphenol molecule. [0053] 2. Dinonylphenol ethoxylates with 4-150 ethylene oxide groups per dinonylphenol molecule. [0054] 3. Linear alcohol ethoxylates with the alcohol chain consisting of 2-24 carbon atoms and with 2 to 150 ethylene oxide groups per alcohol molecule. [0055] 4. Dodecylphenol ethoxylates with 4-100 ethylene oxide groups per dodecylphenol molecule. [0056] 5. Octylphenol ethoxylates with 4-100 ethylene oxide groups per octylphenol molecule. [0057] 6. Alkanolamides in which the carbon chain includes a C 6 -C 18 fatty acid reacted with monoethanolamine, diethanolamine or isopropanolamine. [0058] 7. Ethoxylated alkanolamides in which the carbon chain consists of a C 6 -C 18 fatty acid reacted with ethylene oxide and monoethanolamine, diethanolamine or isopropanolamine. [0059] 8. Amine oxides having a carbon chain from C 6 to C 18 . [0060] 9. Fatty acid ethoxylates with 2-40 ethylene oxide groups per fatty acid molecule where the fatty acid has a carbon chain from C 4 to C 18 . [0061] 10. Ethylene oxide/propylene oxide (eo/po) block copolymers with average molecular weights of between 500 and 15,000. [0062] 11. Nonylphenol ethoxylate propoxylates with average molecular weights between 400-8000. [0063] 12. Alkylaryl polyether alcohols prepared by reacting octylphenol with ethylene oxide, e.g., octylphenoxypolyethoxyethanol with between about 1-70, 7-40, 9-30, or 9-10 ethylene oxide groups per molecule, e.g., Triton X-100 (Van Waters and Rogers). [0064] 13. Linear alcohol alkoxylates (e.g., ethoxylates, propoxylates) with average molecular weights between 400-8000 and carbon chains from C 8 to C 18 . [0065] Anionic surfactants which could be included in the present invention include, but are not limited to, the following examples. [0066] 1. Alkyl sulfonate salts and alkylaryl sulfonate salts supplied with sodium, potassium, ammonium, protonated monoethanolamine, diethanolamine, or triethanolamine or protonated isopropanolamine cations, such as the following salts. [0067] a. Linear primary C 6 -C 18 sulfonate salts. [0068] b. Linear secondary C 3 -C 18 sulfonate salts. [0069] c. Alpha olefin sulfonate salts. [0070] d. Dodecylbenzene sulfonate salts. [0071] e. Tridecylbenzene sulfonate salts. [0072] f. Xylene sulfonate salts. [0073] g. Cumene sulfonate salts. [0074] h. Toluene sulfonate salts. [0075] 2. Alkyl sulfate salts and alkylaryl sulfate salts supplied with Na, K, NH 4 , protonated monoethanolarnine, diethanolamine, or triethanolamine, or protonated isopropanolamine cations, such as the following salts. [0076] a. Linear primary C 6 -C 18 sulfate salts. [0077] b. Linear secondary C 3 -C 18 sulfate salts. [0078] c. C 12 -C 13 benzene sulfate salts. [0079] 3. Alkyl C 6 -C 18 naphthalene sulfonate salts with Na, K or NH 4 cations. [0080] 4. Alkyl C 6 -C 18 diphenyl sulfonate salts with Na, K or NH 4 cations. [0081] 5. Alkyl ether sulfate salts or alkylaryl ether sulfate salts supplied with Na, K, NH 4 , protonated monoethanolamnine, diethanolarnine, or triethanolamine, or protonated isoprponolamine cations, such as the following salts. [0082] a. Alkyl C 8 -C 18 alcohol (ethoxylate) 1-6 sulfate salts. [0083] b. Alkyl C 8 -C 12 phenoxy (ethoxylate) 1-12 sulfate salts. [0084] 6. Alkyl ether sulfonate salts or alkylaryl ether sulfonate salts supplied with Na, K, NH 4 , protonated monoethanolamine, diethanolamnine or triethanolamine or protonated isopropanolamine cations, such as the following salts. [0085] a. Alkyl C 8 -C 18 alcohol (ethoxylate) 1-6 sulfonate salts. [0086] b. Alkyl C 8 -C 12 phenoxy (ethoxylate) 1-12 sulfonate salts. [0087] 7. C 4 -C 18 dialkyl sulfosuccinate salts supplied with Na, K, NH 4 , protonated monoethanolamine, diethanolamine, or triethanolamine or protonated isopropanolamine cations, such as disodium dioctyl sulfosuccinate. [0088] 8. Other anionic surfactants such as monoalkyl phosphate ester salts, dialkyl phosphate ester salts, isothionates, or taurate salts. [0089] Cationic surfactants can also be used in the present composition. By way of illustration and not limitation, suitable cationic surfactants may include quaternary ammonium compounds selected from mono C 6 -C 16 , C 6 -C 10 N-alkyl, or alkenyl ammonium surfactants, wherein the remaining N positions are substituted by methyl, hydroxyethyl or hydroxypropyl groups. [0090] Surfactants may be present in the present formulation in concentrations of between about 0.010% and 5%, 0.015% and 2.5%, 0.020% and 1%, or any range subsumed therein. [0091] Adsorbing Agent [0092] The odor-adsorbing agent of this invention may have a particle size range sufficiently small to be suspended easily and to pass through spray dispensers. One method of making a suitable activated carbon is to carbonize a starting material (e.g., coconut shells, coal, wood, soybean hulls, almond hulls, hazel nut shells, black walnut shells, Brazil nut shells, macadamia nut shells) at a high temperature in an inert atmosphere. The carbonized coconut shells are then steam activated at 800° C. to 1000° C. In many cases, the foregoing produces activated carbon with an internal surface area of from 900 square meters per gram to 1500 square meters per gram. Suitable activated carbons include those sold as 208C 4×8, 607 4×6, HR5 12×40, HR5 AW 12×40, 206A 12×40, 207A 4×10, and 207AW 12.40 (Bamebey and Sutcliffe). However, other adsorbents which might be suitable in mixtures with the foregoing or as sole adsorbents include modified clay media (e.g., 30% organically modified bentonite clay and 70% anthracite or activated carbon), bone char adsorbent, and impregnated activated carbon. If used in the present formulation, activated carbon may be present in an amount of about 1.0% or 1.5% or in amounts between about 0.10% and 5%, 0.20% and 2.5%, 0.70% and 2.00%, or any range subsumed therein. [0093] Alkali Metal Carbonates/Bicarbonates [0094] The alkali metal carbonate or bicarbonate used in the present formulation may be effective in suppressing and/or adsorbing odors and scents. Suitable alkali metal salts of this nature include sodium and potassium carbonates and bicarbonates and be present in amounts between about 0.01% and 5%, 1% and 5%, 2% and 4%, or any range subsumed therein. [0095] Base [0096] A base, such as an alkali metal hydroxide (e.g., Na OH) may be present in the formulation of this invention. The base will adjust the pH of the present formulation to between about 7 and 13, 8 and 12, 9 and 11, or any pH at which the present formulation disperses on textiles and effectively adsorbs and/or prevents the wearer's scent or odors from emanating therefrom. Thus, in some embodiments the base may be present in an amount between about 0.1% and 5.0%, 0.2% and 2.5%, 0.25% and 1.0%, or any range subsumed therein. [0097] One way of making the present formulation is to add the preservatives, alkali metal carbonate or bicarbonate, surfactants, and base (if present) to a predetermined volume of water (e.g., deionized). The foregoing ingredients may be mixed or agitated until they are either in solution or emulsified. Undissolved ingredients and particulate impurities may then be removed by passing the solution through one or more filters (e.g., 10, 5, 1 micron). Finally, the odor-adsorbing agent is added and suspended (e.g., by agitation). Optionally, a dye may be added to the solution before or after the filtration step. A suitable black dye may be obtained from Keystone Corporation. The dye may be present in an amount such that the present formulation can be detected when applied to textiles, e.g., 0.01% -1.0%, or any range subsumed therein. [0098] When being used, the present formulation may be agitated to the extent necessary to resuspend any settled activated carbon particulates. The present formulation may be applied as a spray or mist application to any desired surface. From four to five ounces of the present solution can be spray-applied to an individual garment. Alternatively, 128 (±4) ounces can be applied to a garment dipped in the present solution. For example, the present formulation may be sprayed on apparel such as clothing and boots, or on hunting gear and equipment. When applied thusly, the solution permeates the fibers and/or pores of the clothing, boots, and equipment. The solution may also be applied to the surfaces of equipment made of wood, metal, plastic, and composites. Moreover, the present formulation may be applied by immersing the article therein. After being applied, the solution dries and is actively present on the surface until washed or worn away. The present formulation may be applied as frequently as desired during use. EXAMPLE I [0099] Samples of 1) a test scent blocking formulation of the present invention (denoted below as A) and 2) a test scent blocking formulation of the prior art (denoted below as B) were tested for sorption capacity. The test scent blocking formulations had the ingredients shown below in Table 1. TABLE 1 Ingredients Present in Test Scent Blocking Formulations of the Present Invention (A) and the Prior Art (B). A (%) B (%) Deionized water 96.036 96.591 Sodium bicarbonate 1 2.000 3.000 Sodium hydroxide 0.189 0.189 Sodium propionate 0.050 0.050 Triton X 100 ® 0.025 0.020 Particulate activated carbon 2 1.500 — Glydant Plus ® 0.200 0.150 [0100] [0100] 1 pH9-11 [0101] [0101] 2 Minimum adsorption capacity 60% (w/w); particle size (powder) 325×F; minimum mean particle diameter 18 microns; maximum mean particle diameter 62 microns; D(90) micron particle size below which 90% of particles flow=165 maximum; derived from coconut shells [0102] Two sets of test “spike” solutions were prepared at various levels in a 1% Triton X 100 aqueous solvent using compounds chosen from prior studies as associated with human odors. A first set of spike solutions contained known concentrations of butyric acid and isovaleric acid. Butyric and isovaleric acids are known to be present in human perspiration. (“Study of the Composition of Volatile Compounds of Human Sweat and Urine,” Savina et al., Kosm. Biol. Aviakosm. Med., 1975). A second set of spike solutions contained known concentrations of six non-acidic organic compounds. These non-acidic compounds were chosen for their chemical functionality and/or their documented presence in human perspiration or urine. The six compounds and their functional classes were an aldehyde, isovaleraldehyde (3-methylbutanal); an alcohol, 2-butanol; a ketone, 2-hexanone; an ester, ethylbutyrate (ethyl butanoate); a disulfide, dimethyl disulfide (2,3-dithiabutane); and an unsaturated hydrocarbon limonene (methyl-4-isopropenyl-1-cyclohexene). Aldehydes, alcohols, and ketones and acids are known to occur in human perspiration and urine. The ester, unsaturated hydrocarbon, and disulfide are also commonly found in various human use products. [0103] Three pieces of 70 mm diameter filter paper (Whatman GF/A 41) were inserted into, then formed to cover the sides of, 40 mm VOA vials. The VOA vials with inserted filter papers were then dried for two hours at 85° C. The vials with dried filter papers and septum screw caps were weighed. The test scent blocking formulations were thoroughly shaken to mix them well before being added to two ml vials. The two ml vials were then rolled to coat the formulation evenly on the filter papers. The total volume of test scent blocking formulation dispensed into each two ml vial was held constant at 30 ul of total solution by adding 1% Triton X 100 throughout the sampling period as necessary. This ensured that the test formulation did not splash onto the filter paper and also minimized solvent effects in the system. The VOA vial was then sealed with a septum screw cap and allowed to stand for two hours at room temperature. The two hour period was to attain equilibrium with respect to vapor and liquid phases of the spike solution. After the two hour period, a 75 um Carboxen/PDMS solid phase micro extraction fiber (SPME fiber), available from Supelco as part #57318, was inserted through the septum of the cap and the headspace in the VOA vial was extracted for 30 minutes at room temperature. Following the SPME extraction, the SPME fiber was desorbed into a gas chromatography-mass spectrometry system (GCMS) and analyzed under the select ion monitoring (SIM). [0104] The SPME fiber was then removed from the vial headspace, inserted into a GC injection port, and desorbed in the GC injection port for three minutes at 280° C. The following conditions were present with respect to the GCMS instrument: Interface Temperature 280° C. Source Temperature 200° C. Injector Temperature 280° C. Initial Temperature 30° C. Initial Hold 3 min. Ramp Rate 6° C./min to 90° C., 20° C./min to 230° C., hold 3 min Column DB Wax (J&W, 30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 um). Mass Range SIM (Select Ion Monitoring) Solvent Delay 3.2 min Group 1 Start Time 3.2 min (mass, dwell) 44, 100 58, 100 Group 2 Start Time 6.0 min (mass, dwell) 45, 100 59, 100 71, 100 88, 100 Group 3 Start Time 7.2 min (mass, dwell) 43, 100 58, 100 79, 100 94, 100 Group 4 Start Time 8.2 min (mass, dwell) 68, 100 93, 100 Group 5 Start Time 11.5 min (mass, dwell) 60, 100 73, 100 87, 100 Group 6 Start Time 21.7 min 200, 100 [0105] Individual compound response factors were generated daily from at least a two point standard curve. The two point standard curve bounded the response of the compounds in the headspace of the VOA vial. Standards used were prepared by adding a known mass of the analytes to a blank VOA vial, extracting the headspace with the SPME fiber for 30 minutes, and analyzing desorbed standards under the same GCMS method used to analyze the samples. The daily response factors (area of the principal ion vs. mass of analytes added to a 40 ml VOA vial) were stored in a calibration file and were used to calculate the headspace concentration from the testing done in a given day. [0106] Each formulation sample was prepared and analyzed at least three times. Concentrations of analytes remaining in the headspaces were calculated by applying the response factors generated the same day as the test was conducted. A blank vial containing only the dried filter paper and 30 ul of the Triton X 100 without analytes was shown to be free of interferences. The mass of each test compound sorbed by each treatment solution was calculated by the following equation: Mass Sorbed=Mass Added by Spike−Mass Remaining in Headspace. [0107] The analysis protocol was based on about 0.1 to 1.0 ug of each analyte remaining in the headspace after being sorbed for two hours (5-15 ug acids remaining). In order to achieve this endpoint, the mass of each non-acid analyte added to the closed systems was about 1 ug for the second scent blocking formulation (Table 2). In the case of the present sent blocking formulation, several hundreds of micrograms were added. The amount of the two acids was held constant at about 69 ug for each scent blocking solution because the sorption/neutralization capacity of each formulation for the acids was substantially the same. TABLE 2 Mass (ug) of Analytes Added to Two Scent Blocking Solutions. A B Isovaleraldehyde 275 0.66 2-butanol 415 1.00 Ethylbutyrate 333 0.80 Dimethyl disulfide 354 0.85 2-hexanone 320 0.77 d-limonene 303 0.73 Butyric acid 68.7 68.7 Isovaleric acid 69.6 69.6 [0108] The sorption capacity results by individual compound (mean±standard deviation) are depicted in Table 3. Considering the capacity for all compounds spiked, the present formulation had about 15 times more capacity than the prior art formulation. Because the acid sorbing capacity was the same for both scent blocking solutions, the addition of activated charcoal was obviously the reason for the superior sorbing of the non-acid compounds by the present formulation A. Considering only the six non-acid compounds, the present formulation had about 1000 fold more sorptive capacity than the prior art formulation. TABLE 3 Mean Sorption Capacity of Two Scent Blocking Solutions Analyte A B Isovaleraldehyde 274 (0.1) 0.1 (0.1) 2-butanol 413 (0.6) 0.7 (<0.1) Ethylbutyrate 333 (<0.1) 0.5 (<0.1) Dimethyl disulfide 354 (0.1) <0.1 (0.1) 2-hexanone 319 (<0.1) 0.4 (0.1) d-limonene 303 (0.1) 0.4 (0.1) Butyric acid 66 (2.9) 66 (2.8) Isovaleric acid 66 (2.9) 67 (2.7) Total All 2128 135 Compounds Total Non-Acids 1996 2.1 [0109] Four additional embodiments of the present odor inhibiting formulation are presented below in Table 7 as formulations C, D, E, and F. TABLE 7 Ingredients Present in Test Scent Blocking Formulations of the Present Invention. E (%) F (%) G (%) H (%) Deionized water 95.500 95.050 92.500 96.675 Sodium bicarbonate 0.850 1.750 2.500 Potassium carbonate 1.000 Sodium hydroxide 1 2.500 1.500 2.000 Sodium Propionate 0.050 0.075 Glydant Plus ® 0.250 Triton X 100 ® 1.050 Particulate activated carbon 2 2.000 1.500 2.500 0.750 [0110] Because numerous modifications of this invention may be made without departing from the spirit thereof, the scope of the invention is not to be limited to the embodiments illustrated and described. Rather, the scope of the invention is to be determined by the appended claims and their equivalents.

An odor-absorbing liquid formulation, one embodiment thereof comprising a preservative, an alkali metal salt, and a particulate odor-adsorbing agent such as activated carbon. The formulation may further include an alkylaryl polyether nonionic surfactant and may have an alkaline pH. The present liquid formulation is applied to apparel to be worn during hunting or observation to avoid being sensed by animals.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application is a continuation-in-part of application Ser. No. 74/067698, filed on June 11, 1990. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to the field of barbecue grills, and more specifically to a barbecue grill having multiple chambers for improved cooking capability and ease of use. 2. Description of the Prior Art A barbecue grill with multiple chambers for cooking meat and other foodstuffs is known from U.S. Pat. No. 4,932,390 to the applicant of the instant invention, which is a further improvement of aforesaid U.S. patent. The aforesaid multi-chambered grill has the drawback that the grilled foodstuffs must be removed from the barbecue and placed in serving trays and the like before eating. In this process the food tends to become cold before it can be eaten, and additional eating utensils are required to be cleaned and/or disposed of. Other barbecue grills of known construction have a similar disadvantage. These include Fuss, U.S. Pat. No. 3,598,102, issued on Aug. 10, 1971, and Thompson, U.S. Pat. No. 3,657,996, issued on April 25, 1972. Fuss also fails to provide any means for raising and lowering the cooking grill. In addition, one cannot rotate the Fuss cooking grill without in some way touching its burning hot surface. Thompson provides mechanisms for rotating, raising and lowering the grill. These mechanisms, however, involve complex arrangements of gears and brackets which are expensive and prone to jamming. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention accomplishes the above-stated objectives, as well as others, as may be determined by a fair reading and interpretation of the entire specification. It is accordingly a primary object of the instant invention to provide a barbecue grill that overcomes the drawbacks of the known barbecue grills. In accordance with the objects of the invention there is provided a multi-chambered barbecue grill having a main chamber, a cooking grill located in the main chamber, a fire source located in the main chamber below the cooking grill, an ash chamber integral with or attached to the main chamber below the fire source for catching ashes, and a reversible top chamber located above the main chamber, adapted for receiving the cooking grill in its reversed position. In accordance with a further object, there is provided a barbecue grill wherein the fire source is a grate for supporting burning coals, or wherein said fire source is a gas burner, including an arrangement for supplying cooking gas to at least part of the gas burner. In accordance with a further feature, there is provided a barbecue grill including a divider on top of the grate, which divides the grate into at least two sections, wherein one or several sections may contain burning coals. In accordance with another feature there is provided a barbecue grill including a cooking grill support for rotatably supporting the cooking grill, and wherein the cooking grill support includes a height-adjusting arrangement for adjusting the height of the cooking grill above the fire source. There may further be provided a barbecue grill wherein the cooking grill support includes a support bracket disposed above the cooking grill and is rigidly attached thereto and has a threaded hole therein with an axis perpendicular to the cooking grill, an elongate threaded member having a lower end threadedly receivable in the threaded hole, an upstanding post aligned with the threaded hole attached to the grate or fire source for rotatably supporting the lower end of the elongate threaded member. There may alternatively be provided a barbecue grill wherein the fire source is a grate for supporting burning coals and the ash chamber has an underside, additionally including a tubular member attached to the grate and extending upward perpendicular to the grate for supporting the cooking grill in its lowest position and a push rod member slidably contained within the tubular member, which bears against underside of the cooking grill, for raising and lowering the cooking grill, said push rod member extending through a hole in said ash chamber, and supported at any of several elevations by support means attached beneath the ash chamber. There may be provided a barbecue grill wherein the support means includes a lever member pivotally mounted on fulcrum means secured to the underside of the ash chamber, one end of the lever member extending under and supporting the push rod member and the other end forming a handle for pushing the lever member down or up to raise or lower, respectively, the push rod member, the lever member being adjustably secured in any of several positions by adjustment means. There may be provided a barbecue grill wherein the support means includes a lever member, one end of which is pivotally mounted on fulcrum means secured to the underside of the ash chamber, extending under and supporting the push rod member, and the other end of which forms a handle for pivoting the lever member down or up to raise or lower, respectively, the push rod member, the lever member being adjustably secured in any of several elevations by adjustment means. There may be provided a barbecue grill additionally including an inverted cup member having a lip and a closed end, wherein a hole is cut in the center of the cooking grill and the lip of the inverted cup member is attached to the cooking grill surrounding the hole, and the push rod extends through the hole and into the inverted cup member and presses against its closed end to support and to raise and lower the inverted cup member and the cooking grill. Another alternative is provided wherein the support means includes a vertical support member which is cylindrical and has external threads and upper and lower ends, and passes through a hole in the bottom the main chamber having corresponding internal threads, such that the internal threads engage the external threads, the upper end of said vertical support member being attached to the cooking grill, for rotating and for raising and lowering the cooking grill by rotating the lower end of the vertical support member. The lower end of the vertical support member may be fitted with a knob for gripping and rotating. The elevation mechanism may be contained within the main chamber between the cooking grill and the fire source. In this instance, the fire source is a grate for supporting burning coals, additionally including an upstanding post member attached to the grate and extending upward perpendicular to the grate for supporting the cooking grill in its lowest position, and an inverted cup member having a lip and a closed end, wherein a hole is cut in the center of the cooking grill and the lip of the inverted cup member is attached to the cooking grill so that the lip surrounds the hole, and the upstanding post member extends through the hole and into the inverted cup member to guide the cooking grill when the elevation of the cooking grill is changed, and an elevation mechanism for raising and lowering the cooking grill. The elevation mechanism includes a lever member located between the cooking grill and the grate, pivotally attached to the main chamber wall and extending essentially diametrically across the interior of the main chamber and through a port in the main chamber wall to form a handle end of the lever member, for changing the elevation of the cooking grill, a tubular member which surrounds the upstanding post member and extends between the lever member and the cooking grill, for transmitting the movements of the lever member to the cooking grill, and a ratchet and pawl assembly for maintaining the lever member and the cooking grill at more than one elevation. The elevation means may also include a fulcrum member mounted on the grate or the ash chamber and extending upward toward the cooking grill, having an essentially vertical edge with at least two teeth cut into the edge having and a horizontally projecting fulcrum pin, and a lever member with an axial slot for slidably receiving the fulcrum pin, and a horizontally projecting securing pin which can slide between the teeth when the lever member is slid axially in one direction, and out from the between the teeth when the lever member is slid axially in the opposite direction, one end of the lever member being located adjacent the upstanding post and supporting the cooking grill, and the other end extending through a port in the main chamber wall and serving as a handle for pivoting the lever member and thereby changing the elevation of the cooking grill. The elevation means may also include a fulcrum member mounted on the grate or the ash chamber and extending upward toward the cooking grill having a horizontally projecting fulcrum pin, and a lever member with a pin hole for receiving the fulcrum pin, one end of the lever member being located adjacent the upstanding post and supporting the cooking grill, and the other end extending through a port in the main chamber wall and serving as a handle for pivoting the lever member and thereby changing the elevation of the cooking grill, said other end having a ratchet vertically and pivotally suspended therefrom for engaging a fixed pawl attached to the ash chamber. In accordance with still another feature, there is provided a barbecue grill including cooking grill support means disposed in the reversible top chamber for supporting the cooking grill in its reversed position. In accordance with a still further feature, there is provided a barbecue grill wherein the reversible top chamber includes an upward facing projection for supporting the top chamber in its reversed position. In addition, there may be provided a barbecue grill which has a plurality of upward facing legs circumferentially attached to the reversible top chamber for supporting the top chamber in its reversed position, wherein the main chamber and the ash chamber have peripheral walls, wherein the peripheral wall of the ash chamber is inwardly spaced from the peripheral wall of the main chamber for forming air access to the fire source. Further still, there may be provided a barbecue grill which includes a plurality of legs and an equal plurality of leg holders attached to the underside of the ash chamber or peripherally attached to the peripheral wall of the main chamber for receiving those legs. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Various other objects, advantages, and features of the invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art from the following discussion taken in conjunction with the following drawings, in which: 1. FIG. 1 is an elevational cross-sectional view of the first embodiment of the invention, showing the interior construction. The optional features of peripherally attached legs and a non-integral ash chamber are as illustrated in FIGS. 1 through 10; 2. FIG. 2 is a plan view of the invention with part of the wall broken away to show the interior construction; 3. FIG. 3 is an elevational view of the invention showing the reversible top chamber in reversed position; 4. FIG. 4 is a fragmentary detail view showing a bracket for supporting the cooking grill; 5. FIG. 5 is an elevational view of the invention showing external details of the invention assembled for storage; 6. FIG. 6 is an elevational fragmentary enlarged detail of the invention showing a latching detail for the top chamber; 7. FIG. 7 is a top plan view of the invention showing the legs inserted in resilient leg holders for storage; 8. FIG. 8 is a fragmentary detail view of the invention showing the chambers in opened position; 9. FIG. 9 is an elevational view of the invention showing the chambers in opened position; 10. FIG. 10 is a fragmentary enlarged detail view showing holding details, seen along the line 10--10 of FIG. 9; 11. FIG. 11 is a side cross-sectional view of the invention showing the interior construction of the elevation assembly wherein an end of the lever member supports the push rod. This and subsequent FIGURES illustrate the preferred leg and leg holder attachment positions at the underside of the ash chamber, and the preferred ash chamber design which is integral with the main chamber; 12. FIG. 12 is a side cross-sectional view of the invention showing the interior construction of the elevation assembly wherein an end of the lever member supports the push rod, and the cooking grill includes the inverted cup member feature; 13. FIG. 13 is a fragmentary detail view of the lever member adjustment assembly. 14. FIG. 14 is a side cross-sectional view of the invention showing the interior construction of the elevation assembly wherein the middle of the lever member supports the push rod; and 15. FIG. 15 is a side cross-sectional view of the invention showing the interior construction of the elevation assembly wherein the push rod is threaded and engages threads in a hole in the ash chamber. 16. FIG. 16 is a side cross-sectional view of the invention showing the interior construction of the elevation assembly wherein the lever member extends radially from the center of the main chamber between the cooking grill and the grate through a port in the main chamber wall and pivots on a fulcrum mounted on the grate. 17. FIG. 17 is a close-up view of a preferred ratchet construction for securing the lever member and grill at any of several elevations, wherein the ratchet is pivotally suspended from the handle end of the lever member and engages a fixed pawl attached to the ash chamber. 18. FIG. 18 is a side cross-sectional view as in FIG. 16 wherein the lever member is pivotally attached to the main chamber wall and extends diametrically through the main chamber. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT As required, detailed embodiments of the present invention are disclosed herein; however, it is to be understood that the disclosed embodiments are merely exemplary of the invention which may be embodied in various forms. Therefore, specific structural and functional details disclosed herein are not to be interpreted as limiting, but merely as a basis for the claims and as a representative basis for teaching one skilled in the art to variously employ the present invention in virtually any appropriately detailed structure. Reference is now made to the drawings, wherein like characteristics and features of the present invention shown in the various FIGURES are designated by the same reference numerals. FIRST PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Referring to FIGS. 1, 2, 3, 5, 7 and 8 a main chamber 1, advantageously of circular construction, with a peripheral wall 2 which contains a cooking grill 3 on which foodstuffs to be grilled or cooked can be placed, is shown. Below the cooking grill 3 there is a fire source, e.g. in the form of a slotted grate 4 which can hold a fire source, such as coal briquets 6, wood chips, charcoal or other combustible materials. A divider 10 in the form of a low vertical wall is positioned atop the grate 4 dividing the surface of the grate into two or more sections that each, several or all can be used to support burning material. The drawing shows the grate divided into two sections of which, for example, the left hand section may be covered with burning coals, as shown. The user of the barbecue grill can selectively heat the food-stuffs placed on the cooking grill 3 by turning it by means of a handle having a vertical elongate member 8 resting with its lower end 9 on the upper end 11 of an upstanding post 12 rigidly attached to the grate 4. By intermittently turning the handle, the user can accomplish intermittent cooking in which the food goes back and forth over the coals until it is properly cooked. The post 12 leads loosely through an opening 13 in the grate 3 which is suspended by at least two downward facing rods 14, each attached at its upper end to a transverse support bracket 16, with a threaded hole 17 through which the elongate member 8 is threaded. The suspended grate 3 can rotate about the post 12, and its height above the grate 3 ca be adjusted by turning the knob 7 with the threaded member 8 in the threaded hole 17. The fire source 4 can alternatively be a gas burner (not shown) with several gas jets as is well known, wherein various jets or groups of jets can be supplied with cooking gas through separate gas valves so that the heating surface can be sectionalized in a manner similar to the divided grate sections described above. An ash chamber 18 to catch ashes and embers from the burning coals 6 is preferably a horizontal bottom wall integrally joined with main chamber walls 2. Alternatively, ash chamber 18 is a disk-shaped pan with upstanding peripheral walls 19 placed below the grate 4 and having its walls 19 spaced inward from the main chamber walls 2 to form a space indicated by arrows 21 for admitting air to the fire source 4. This alternative variation of ash chamber 18 is attached by rivets 22, screws or the like to the peripheral walls 2 of the main chamber 1. FIGS. 1 through 10 illustrate the invention with the alternative ash chamber 18 design, while FIGS. 11 through 17 illustrate the preferred ash chamber 18 design. A plurality of legs 23 are slidably inserted in leg holders 24. After use, the legs 23 can be drawn out of the holders 24, and stored in resilient snap-in leg holders 26, best seen in FIGS. 7 and 8. Holders 24 may be attached to the periphery of chamber walls 2, as illustrated in FIGS. 1 through 10, or attached to the underside of ash chamber 18, as illustrated in FIGS. 11 through 17. Carrying handles 27 may advantageously be attached to the main chamber walls 2. An upper top chamber 5 with lower rolled edges 28 that fit over the peripheral walls 2 of the main chamber 1 serves two purposes, namely that of a cover for the main chamber 1, as shown in FIGS. 1 and 2, and that of supporting the cooking grill 3 in its inverted (upside-down) position, as shown in FIG. 3, for serving the cooked foodstuffs after completion of cooking. To that end a plurality of small inward facing brackets 29 are disposed peripherally along the peripheral wall 31 of the top chamber 5, attached to the peripheral walls 31. The top chamber 5 has an upward facing projection 32, that in its normal position, as seen in FIG. 1, makes room for the handle 7 and support bracket 16, and in its inverted position, seen in FIG. 3, serves to catch drippings and gravy from the grilled foodstuffs, after the cooking grill has been removed from the main chamber and placed on the brackets 29 of the upturned top chamber 5, as seen in FIG. 3. The top chamber 5 may advantageously have short legs 33 as seen in FIGS. 1 and 3 that serve to steady the top chamber in its reversed position, for example on top of a table (not shown). Alternatively the projection 32 may have small dimples 35, as seen in FIG. 3 for steadying the top chamber in the reversed position. FIG. 4 shows the brackets 29 as seen along the line 4--4 of FIG. 3. FIGS. 5 and 6 show the top chamber 5 secured to the main chamber 1 in assembled position, e.g. for storage, by means of a slot 34 and lip 36 attachment and a rivet 37. FIG. 9 shows the top chamber 5 and ash chamber 18 pivotally attached by means of respective hinges 38, 39 to the walls 2 of the main chamber 1 as may be required to control airflow to the heat source in the main chamber. Respective holding brackets 41, 42, with adjusting holes 43 are advantageously provided to respectively hold the top or bottom chamber in a selected position. SECOND PREFERRED EMBODIMENT The second preferred embodiment is like the first, except that threaded member 8, upstanding post 12, rods 14 and bracket 16 are replaced with an elevation assembly 50. Assembly 50 raises and lowers the cooking grill 3 and is operated from underneath the ash chamber 18. Assembly 50 may take any of several forms, which include the following. A tubular member 52 is attached to the center of grate 4 and extends perpendicularly upward. See FIG. 11. A push rod 54 extends axially through member 52, through grate 4, and through a hole 60 in the center of ash chamber 18. The top end 56 of push rod 54 bears against cooking grill 3, so that moving push rod 54 upward within member 52 raises cooking grill 3. Conversely, moving push rod 54 downward lowers cooking grill 3. The lowest position of cooking grill 3 is reached when cooking grill 3 rests on tubular member 52. Cooking grill 3 may include a solid center plate 62 for push rod 54 to bear against. Rather than simply bearing against cooking grill 3, push rod 54 may alternatively be attached thereto. Alternatively, the center of cooking grill 3 may be cut away to form a port 64 surrounded by the lip 66 of an inverted cup member 70, which is attached to cooking grill 3. See FIG. 12. In this instance, push rod 54 is of sufficient length to extend through port 64 into cup member 70, so that top end 56 bears against closed end 72. When cooking grill 3 is in its lowest position, closed end 72 rests on tubular member 52. Rather than simply bearing against closed end 72, push rod 54 may alternatively be attached thereto. Push rod 54 is moved upward and downward within tubular member 52 by an adjustable support apparatus 80. Apparatus 80 includes a lever member 82 having a support end 84 and a handle end 86. Lever member 82 is mounted on a fulcrum 90 attached to the underside 92 of ash chamber 18. Push rod 54 rests on the support end 84 of lever member 82. An adjustment device 100, such as a screw 102 extending through a threaded passageway 104 in lever member 82 and against underside 92, holds handle end 86 in one of many possible positions, in turn holding push rod 54 at one of many elevations. See FIG. 13. Push rod 54 is not attached to lever member 82, so that push rod 54 remains free to rotate, which in turn assures that cooking grill 3 is free to rotate. Fulcrum 90 may alternatively be attached to the edge of the underside 92 of ash chamber 18. The end of lever member 82 which was support end 84 in the above described arrangement is pivotally joined to fulcrum 90. Lever member 82 extends diametrically across the underside 92 from fulcrum 90 to handle end 86. In this instance, the middle 106 of lever member 82 supports push rod 54. See FIG. 14. Again, push rod 54 is not attached to lever member 82. The lower portion 108 of push rod 54 may alternatively be threaded and engage corresponding threads in hole 60. This permits the raising and lowering of push rod 54, and thus of cooking grill 3, simply by rotating push rod 54 in one direction or the other. See FIG. 15. A knob 110 is preferably affixed to the lower end 112 of push rod 54 for the user to grip while turning push rod 54. Hole 60 and its internal threads may be extended for added strength by attaching a plate 114 with a threaded bore 116 over hole 60. Bore 116 is of the same diameter as hole 60 and they are aligned one above the other with a common center axis. THIRD PREFERRED EMBODIMENT The third preferred embodiment is similar to the second. The elevation assembly 50 is contained within the main chamber 1 between the cooking grill 3 and the grate 4. See FIGS. 16 and 17. Assembly 50 is operated by moving the handle end 86 of lever member 82, which extends through a vertical slot 122 in main chamber wall 2. The cooking grill 3 is fitted with the cup member 70. Upstanding post 12, as described for the first embodiment, extends from grate 4 into cup member 70. When the cooking grill 3 is in its lowest position, the closed end 72 of cup member 70 rests on the top end 124 of upstanding post 12. Lever member 82 bears against the cooking grill 3, adjacent to cup member 70, to raise, lower and support cooking grill 3. Cup member 70 may be provided with a flange portion 126 extending from lip 66 underneath cooking grill 3, to provide a solid surface for lever member 82 to bear against. Lever member 82 can be mounted in at least two ways, each having its own particular adjustment and support mechanism 130. The first way, illustrated in FIG. 16, is for lever member 82 to extend only to the middle of cooking grill 3, terminating to form support end 84. Support end 84 may take the form of a fork of ring surrounding upstanding post 12, or a slat extending adjacent to or through upstanding post 12. Lever arm 82 pivots on a fulcrum pin 132 projecting from a fulcrum member 134. Fulcrum member 134 is a plate mounted vertically along a radial line between upstanding post 12 and wall 2, and attached to ash chamber 18. The vertical edge 136 of fulcrum member 134 closest to wall 2 is cut into a radial arc with its center at pin 132. Edge 136 is notched to form gear teeth 140. Fulcrum pin 132 extends through an axial slot 142 in lever member 82, which permits lever member 82 to slide longitudinally beside fulcrum member 134 over fulcrum pin 132. A positioning pin 144 projects from lever member 82. When lever member 82 is slid toward upstanding post 12, positioning pin 144 slides between two of the gear teeth 140. Teeth 140 may alternatively extend from the exterior of wall 2, adjacent vertical slot 122, with positioning pin 144 once again located to slide between teeth 140. To adjust the height of cooking grill 3, lever member 82 is slid longitudinally away from upstanding post 12. This action causes positioning pin 144 to slide out from between gear teeth 140, freeing lever member 82 to pivot about fulcrum pin 132. Lever member 82 is pivoted to raise or lower cooking grill 3 to the desired elevation. Then lever member 82 is slid toward upstanding post 12 to place positioning pin 144 between two of the adjacent gear teeth 140. This holds lever member 82 and cooking grill 3 in the desired position until further repositioning is sought. The coal briquets 6 is preferably confined to the side of grate 4 opposite mechanism 130. Alternatively, fulcrum member 134 may be mounted on grate 4 or ash chamber 18 and extend upward toward cooking grill 3, having a horizontally projecting fulcrum pin 132 fitting through a pin hole 142 in lever member 82. A ratchet 148 is vertically and pivotally suspended from handle end 86 for engaging a fixed pawl 160 attached to ash chamber 18 or main chamber 1. See FIG. 17. The other illustrated variation of this embodiment is like the first, except that lever member 82 extends diametrically across the interior of main chamber 1 and is pivotally attached to wall 2 opposite handle end 86. See FIG. 18. Lever member 82 is contained within separating wall 10, which for this variation is a double wall. A tube 150 slidably surrounds upstanding post 12 and extends from the middle 106 of lever member 82 to flange portion 126. Cooking grill 3 is supported by flange portion 126, which rests on tube 150, which in turn rests on the middle 106 of lever member 82. Handle end 86 is bent upward at a right angle to form a connector portion 152, and then turns at another right angle to again extend in its original direction away from upstanding post 12. The remote edge 154 of connector portion 152 is cut to form ratchet teeth 156, which slope only in the downward direction, and are engaged by a pawl 160. Pawl 160 is resiliently retained against remote edge 154 by a spring 158. To adjust the height of cooking grill 3, handle end 86 is lifted to raise the cooking grill 3. The slope of ratchet teeth 156 permits the pawl 160 to slide over them when the handle end 86 is raised. When the desired elevation of cooking grill 3 is reached, handle end 86 is simply released. Spring 158 causes pawl 160 to automatically engage teeth 156 and prevent downward movement. To lower cooking grill 3, the pawl 160 is pulled out from between ratchet teeth 156, and handle end 86 is lowered until cooking grill 3 reaches the desired elevation. Then the pawl 160 is released to again engage ratchet teeth 156 and retain cooking grill 3 at this elevation. The pivoting, suspended ratchet and pawl assembly set forth earlier may alternatively secure handle end 86. The low profiles of the elevation assemblies of the second and third embodiments illustrated in FIGS. 11 and 13-15 permit the use of the beveled lid shown in those FIGURES. The beveled portion fits against the rim of the main chamber 1 when top chamber 5 is inverted, eliminating the need for top chamber 5 short legs 33. The grill of the invention can be used in two modes: Half-a-grill mode: In this mode only half of the grate is filled with charcoal, this becoming the "fire-side" with the other half becoming the "indirect heat side". The "indirect heat side" achieves four functions: a) Intermittent exposure cooking: The free-spinning grid with the food on it can be rotated back and forth over the "fire side" (for direct exposure to the fire) and the "indirect heat side" (for continuity of cooking at lower heat). The food can be brought back to the "fire side" for a final roasting of the surface of the food. In most grills this is not possible as the surface of the food is being roasted and burned while the center is still raw. b) Defrosting: The food is left over the "indirect heat side" to accomplish defrosting. c) Keep warm: The "indirect heat side" allows the food to be kept warm until it is ready to be served. d) Verification of degree of cooking: A piece of food can be cut to determine to what extent it has been cooked inside, and this can be done without exposing the hands to the fire. When cooking on the "indirect side", the hands are farther away from the fire. When cooking on the "fire side", in case of a flame-up, the food can be rotated away from the fire to the "indirect heat side". Full-grill mode: Both halves of the grate can be loaded with charcoal if desired, for example to cook a large amount of food, while still retaining the advantages of the rotating grid and vertical adjustment of the grid. This novel, economical way of barbecuing using Intermittent Exposure Cooking greatly reduces or eliminates the roast-burn biproduction of toxic, dangerous substances and allows direct and indirect cooking and defrost-keep warm capabilities. While the invention has been described, disclosed, illustrated and shown in various terms or certain embodiments or modifications which it has assumed in practice, the scope of the invention is not intended to be, nor should it be deemed to be, limited thereby and such other modifications or embodiments as may be suggested by the teachings herein are particularly reserved especially as they fall within the breadth and scope of the claims here appended.

A multi-chambered barbecue grill having a main chamber, a cooking grill located in the main chamber, a fire source located in the main chamber below the cooking grill, an ash chamber attached to the main chamber below the fire source for catching ashes, and a reversible top chamber located above the main chamber, adapted for receiving the cooking grill in its reversed position. Various mechanisms are provided for raising and lowering the cooking grill to desired elevations above the fire source.

This is a division of application Ser. No. 08/627,281 filed Apr. 4, 1996, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,305,069. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an oxide superconducting wire and a method of preparing the same, and a cable conductor which is formed by assembling such oxide superconducting wires, and more particularly, it relates to an oxide superconducting wire which can carry a heavy current in ac application and a method of preparing the same, and a cable conductor which is formed by assembling such oxide superconducting wires. 2. Description of the Background Art The principal feature of an oxide superconductor resides in that the same is in a superconducting state also at a temperature exceeding the liquid nitrogen temperature. Therefore, a wire consisting of such an oxide superconductor is expected for application to a superconducting device, as a material which can be used under cooling with liquid nitrogen. The inventors have developed a tape-shaped Bi-based Ag-coated multifilamentary wire, which is prepared from filaments of an oxide superconductor with a stabilizer of silver. A Bi-based Ag-coated wire can be prepared by charging a metal pipe with raw material powder serving as a precursor for a Bi oxide superconductor, wire-drawing the pipe and thereafter repeating rolling and a heat treatment a plurality of times. On the other hand, a multifilamentary wire can be prepared by charging metal pipes with raw material powder, wire-drawing the same, engaging a plurality of such wires in a metal pipe for forming a multi-filamentary substance, further wire-drawing the same and thereafter repeating rolling and a heat treatment a plurality of times. Among such preparation steps, the rolling step is effective for improving the orientation of crystal grains in the Bi superconductor having a plate-type crystal structure, strengthening bonding between the crystal grains and improving the density of the filaments, and regarded as being indispensable for attaining a high critical current density in preparation of a Bi-based Ag-coated wire. Further, the aspect ratio of a section of the wire is increased by this rolling, whereby the aspect ratio of a section of each filament is also increased. This is advantageous for growth of the plate-type crystals, and a high critical current density is consequently attained. On the other hand, the heat treatment step for the purpose of sintering is also indispensable for forming the superconductor, attaining crystal growth and strengthening bonding between the crystal grains, since the oxide superconductor is ceramics. The Bi-based Ag-coated wire which is prepared in the aforementioned manner is excellent in bending property and capable of preparing a long wire having a critical current density exceeding 10 4 A/cm 2 , and hence the same is expected for application to a superconducting cable or magnet. In ac application of such an oxide superconducting wire, however, ac loss resulting from a fluctuating magnetic field in driving comes into question. In a cable conductor which is formed by assembling superconducting wires, on the other hand, there arises a new problem to be solved such as a drift phenomenon resulting from ununiformity between impedances of the wires, which cannot be caused in dc application. Due to a drift caused in such a manner, further, loss upon formation of the conductor is disadvantageously increased beyond the sum of ac loss values of strands. As to such problems caused in ac application, various countermeasures have generally been studied in relation to metal superconducting wires, for example. In more concrete terms, countermeasures of arranging high resistance barrier layers around or between filaments, preparing an extra-fine multifilamentary wire from superconducting filaments, increasing the specific resistance of a matrix and the like are studied in order to reduce ac loss. In order to suppress a current drift by uniformalizing the impedances of the filaments or wires in a conductor for an ac magnet, on the other hand, countermeasures of twisting the filaments or wires, dislocating the wires or filaments and the like are studied. In order to attain a heavy current, further, a countermeasure of further twisting primary stranded wires each prepared by twisting superconducting strands to attain a flat-molded multinary structure or the like is studied. While a countermeasure of further twisting primarily stranded wires to attain a multinary structure or the like must be taken also in employment of the aforementioned Bi-based Ag-coated wire for ac application similarly to the metal superconducting wire, however, it is impossible to implement the aforementioned multinary structure through an oxide superconducting wire by a method which is absolutely identical to that for the metal superconducting wire. This is because a Bi-based Ag-coated multifilamentary wire indispensably requires rolling and sintering processes as described above, while no such rolling and sintering steps are required for preparing a metal superconducting wire. Namely, it is difficult to twist wires of a Bi oxide superconductor after sintering, since the Bi oxide superconductor is ceramics which is weak against bending distortion. Even if such wires can be twisted, a high critical current density cannot be attained. Further, it is difficult to twist wires in which aspect ratios of sections are increased by rolling. Even if such wires can be twisted, a number of clearances are defined in the stranded wire as compared with that prepared by twisting round wires, and a high critical current density cannot be attained. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In order to solve the aforementioned problems, an object of the present invention is to provide an oxide superconducting wire which maintains a high critical current density and has a small current drift with small ac loss when the same carries an alternating current and a method of preparing the same, and a cable conductor which is formed by assembling such oxide superconducting wires. According to an aspect of the present invention, an oxide superconducting wire is provided. This oxide superconducting wire is a flat-molded stranded wire which is formed by twisting a plurality of metal-coated strands consisting of an oxide superconductor, and is characterized in that the flat-molded stranded wire has a rectangular sectional shape, and a section of each strand forming the flat-molded stranded wire has an aspect ratio of at least 2. Throughout the specification, the term “aspect ratio” indicates the ratio of the thickness to the width in a cross section of the oxide superconducting wire. Superconducting filaments provided in the strands can be brought into flat shapes having a high aspect ratio by setting the strands at an aspect ratio of at least 2. Consequently, a superconducting wire having a high critical current density can be obtained. In particular, the aspect ratio of the superconducting filaments is preferably around 10. The section of each strand preferably has an aspect ratio of not more than 20. It is difficult to increase the aspect ratio of the strands beyond 20 in case of twisting and molding the same. According to the present invention, the strands are completely dislocated due to the twisting, whereby the impedances of the strands forming the stranded wire can be equalized to each other. According to the present invention, further, the stranded wire has a rectangular sectional shape. Thus, the wire can be densely wound to be advantageously compacted when the same is applied to a coil or a cable. Preferably, the metal coatings of the strands consist of silver or a silver alloy, and coating layers consisting of a material having higher resistance than silver are provided on the outer peripheries of the metal coatings. Due to the presence of such coating layers, the strands can be prevented from bonding in the stranded wire, so that ac loss is effectively reduced. The material having higher resistance than silver is prepared from a high resistance metal material or an inorganic insulating material, for example. When no such coating layers consisting of a material having higher resistance than silver such as a high resistance metal material or an inorganic insulating material are present, metal matrices of silver or the like are so diffused during the heat treatment that the strands are disadvantageously bonded with each other, and hence bonding loss between the strands may be increased. The coating layers having higher resistance than silver effectively function to reduce such bonding loss. The high resistance material is prepared from an Ag—Mn alloy, an Ag—Au alloy, or Ni or Cr having high resistance, for example. On the other hand, the inorganic insulating material is prepared from an oxide insulating material such as MgO or CuO which is obtained by oxidizing Mg or Cu, for example. Bonding between the strands can be completely prevented by the coating layers consisting of such an insulating material. Further, the effect of dislocation is rendered further complete. According to another aspect of the present invention, a method of preparing an oxide superconducting wire is provided. This method comprises the steps of preparing a stranded wire by twisting a plurality of strands each formed by metal-coating an oxide superconductor or raw material powder therefor, flat-molding the prepared stranded wire, and repeating rolling and a heat treatment of at least 800° C. on the flat-molded stranded wire a plurality of times. Namely, a plurality of round wire type strands each formed by metal-coating an oxide superconductor or raw material powder therefor, which are not sintered as wires, are prepared. Then, the plurality of strands are twisted for preparing a stranded wire. As to the number of twisted strands, three, seven or twelve strands can be twisted, for example. This stranded wire is flat-molded and thereafter further rolled, whereby superconducting filaments having circular sections which are provided in the strands can be deformed in the form of flat plates having a high aspect ratio. The dimensions of the superconducting filaments are preferably within the ranges of 0.1 to 100 μm in thickness and 1 μm to 1 mm in width. In the flat-molding, the superconducting filaments can be simultaneously deformed by application of rolling loads from above and under the wire. Thereafter the step of performing rolling and a heat treatment is carried out at least twice, whereby an oxide superconducting wire in which strands are completely dislocated in order to cope with application to an ac wire can be obtained. According to the present invention, the respective filaments are subjected to twisting as well as rolling. In the inventive wire, therefore, the impedances of the respective filaments are uniformalized by twisting. Also when the wire carries an alternating current, therefore, the current can be uniformly fed to the respective filaments. Further, bonding currents between the filaments are suppressed for effectively reducing ac loss. When the surfaces of the strands are insulated, it is possible to further suppress the bonding currents and reduce the ac loss. According to the present invention, the flat-molded stranded wire rolled and heat treated. Thus, a high critical current density can also be attained by strengthening grain bonding which is broken by distortion in formation of the stranded wire and regularizing disturbed orientation. According to the present invention, further, it is also possible to prepare a flat-molded multinary stranded wire by further twisting a plurality of primary stranded wires each obtained by twisting a plurality of strands. As to the number of twisted stranded wires, nine primary stranded wires can be twisted, for example. It is particularly important to carry out the twisting step a plurality of times, in order to attain the aforementioned effects when the number of strands which are twisted for the purpose of attaining a high capacitance is increased. According to the present invention, further, a stranded wire may be prepared by stacking and integrating a plurality of tape-shaped strands with each other and thereafter twisting the same. Particularly in case of a silver sheath Bi 2223 superconducting wire, it is important to prepare tape-shaped strands for attaining a high critical current density. Twisting is simplified by stacking the tape-shaped strands with each other for reducing the aspect ratio of sections thereof and thereafter twisting the same, and characteristic deterioration caused by bending distortion or the like can be effectively prevented. The strands can be integrated with each other by a method of heat treating the stacked strands and bonding the same with each other by diffusion of silver, a method of performing compression molding, or a method of stacking the strands in a flat pipe, for example. In case of a long wire, it is effective to wire-draw and twist the strands after integrating the same with each other. The tape-shaped strands are preferably previously heat treated in advance of twisting. It is possible to reinforce grain bonding of the oxide superconductor for attaining a high critical current density by further performing a heat treatment after forming the oxide superconductor by this heat treatment and performing the step of twisting etc. According to the present invention, the method preferably further comprises a step of previously coating the outer peripheries of the strands with a material having higher resistance than silver before twisting the metal-coated strands for preparing the stranded wire. The coating layers consisting of a material having higher resistance than silver can be formed by a method of adding Ni or Cr of high resistance to the outer surfaces of the strands by plating, or a method of applying a solution in which powder of an oxide insulating material such as AlO 3 is dispersed to the outer surfaces of the strands, for example. Alternatively, coating layers consisting of a metal such as Mg or Cu may be formed on the outer peripheries of the strands so that these layers are thereafter oxidized to form coating layers consisting of an oxide insulating material such as MgO or CuO. In particular, excellent workability can be attained by performing an oxidizing step after the rolling of the stranded wire. Mg or Cu is richer in workability than MgO or CuO, and hence the stranded wire can be molded and rolled into a better shape by oxidizing the coating layers after performing twisting and rolling. According to the present invention, the method preferably further comprises a step of previously coating the flat-molded stranded wire with a metal before rolling. If the outermost layer of a flat-molded multinary stranded wire is so thin that superconducting filaments may be exposed through the subsequent rolling step, the stranded wire is preferably coated with a metal in advance. Metal coating layers may be further formed on the outer peripheries of the strands which are coated with a metal such as silver or a silver alloy by performing metal coating on the surface of the flat-molded multinary stranded wire or engagement in a flat metal pipe. According to the present invention, further, each strand is preferably a multifilamentary wire which is formed by embedding a plurality of superconductors in a metal matrix. Due to a plurality of superconducting filaments provided in each strand, flexibility of the wire is improved. According to the present invention, the strands themselves are preferably subjected to twisting. Due to such twisting of the strands themselves, bonding loss and eddy current loss are reduced thereby reducing ac loss as a result. According to the present invention, the method preferably further comprises a step of temporarily heat treating the flat-molded stranded wire before rolling. Workability in rolling can be improved by heat treating the flat-molded stranded wire at about 800° C. for diffusion-bonding the strands with each other. According to the present invention, further, a step of winding strands around a core of a flat-molded stranded wire and flat-molding the same is preferably repeated a plurality of times. A wire having low loss and a high capacitance can be obtained by repeating flat-twisting/molding a plurality of times. Such a wire is effective as a material for forming a compact cable conductor having low loss and a high capacitance. According to still another aspect of the present invention, an oxide superconducting cable conductor is provided. This oxide superconducting cable conductor is formed by assembling oxide superconducting wires on a cylindrical former. Each oxide superconducting wire is a flat-molded stranded wire which is formed by twisting a plurality of metal-coated strands consisting of an oxide superconductor. This flat-molded stranded wire has a rectangular sectional shape, while a section of each strand forming the flat-molded stranded wire has an aspect ratio of at least 2. In a single-layer cable conductor formed by assembling oxide superconducting wires on a former in a single layer, for example, all strands are dislocated to occupy positions which are electromagnetically completely equivalent to each other, whereby current distribution in the conductor is so uniformalized that increase of ac loss caused by a drift can be prevented. When wires are spirally wound on a former, on the other hand, it is effective to form the conductor in a two-layer structure so that first and second layers are wound in opposite directions, in order to cancel a magnetic field component along the longitudinal direction of the conductor. Thus, a drift between the layers caused by impedance difference therebetween as well as following ac loss can be minimized as compared with a multilayer conductor, by forming the conductor in a single- or two-layer structure. According to the present invention, as hereinabove described, a metal-coated oxide superconducting wire having a high critical current density which can transmit a current with los loss can be obtained. According to the present invention, further, it is also possible to increase the critical current per wire beyond 100 A by increasing the number of stranded wires and the degree of twisting, i.e., the number of times of twisting, so that the inventive wire is usefully applied to an oxide superconducting cable or a superconducting magnet which is employed for carrying a high capacitance alternating current. The foregoing and other objects, features, aspects and advantages of the present invention will become more apparent from the following detailed description of the present invention when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a sectional view showing an intermediate in a step of preparing an oxide superconducting wire according to Example 1 of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a sectional view showing the structure of the oxide superconducting wire according to Example 1 of the present invention; FIG. 3 is a sectional view showing an intermediate in a step of preparing an oxide superconducting wire according to Example 5 of the present invention; FIG. 4 is a sectional view showing an intermediate in another step of preparing an oxide superconducting wire according to Example 5 of the present invention; FIG. 5 is a sectional view showing the structure of another exemplary oxide superconducting wire according to Example 5 of the present invention; FIG. 6 is a sectional view showing the structure of a strand forming an oxide superconducting wire according to Example 6 of the present invention; FIG. 7 is a sectional view showing the structure of a strand employed for an oxide superconducting wire according to Example 7 of the present invention; FIG. 8 is a sectional view showing an intermediate in a step of preparing an oxide superconducting wire according to Example 7 of the present invention; FIG. 9 is a sectional view showing an intermediate in another step of preparing an oxide superconducting wire according to Example 7 of the present invention; FIG. 10 is a sectional view showing the structure of the oxide superconducting wire according to Example 7 of the present invention; FIG. 11 is a sectional view showing an intermediate in a step of preparing an oxide superconducting wire according to Example 8 of the present invention; FIG. 12 is a sectional view showing the structure of the oxide superconducting wire according to Example 8 of the present invention; FIG. 13 is a perspective view showing the structure of an oxide superconducting cable conductor according to Example 12 of the present invention; FIG. 14 is a sectional view showing the structure of the oxide superconducting cable conductor according to Example 12 of the present invention; and FIG. 15 is a sectional view showing the structure of an oxide superconducting wire according to Example 13 of the present invention. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS EXAMPLE 1 Bi 2 O 3 , PbO, SrCO 3 , CaCO 3 and CuO were blended with each other so that Bi, Pb, Sr, Ca and Cu were in composition ratios of 1.81:0.30:1.92:2.01:3.03. The blended powder was heat treated a plurality of times. This powder was crushed after each heat treatment. The powder obtained through such a heat treatment and crushing was further crushed by a ball mill, to obtain submicron powder. Precursor powder obtained in the aforementioned manner was heat treated at 800° C. for 2 hours, and thereafter charged in a silver pipe of 12 mm in outer diameter and 8 mm in inner diameter. Then, the silver pipe charged with the powder was drawn into 0.9 mm, to prepare strands. Seven such strands were twisted to prepare the so-called primary stranded wire. Further, 15 such primary stranded wires were twisted and thereafter compression-molded, for preparing a flat-molded secondary stranded wire. FIG. 1 is a sectional view showing the structure of the secondary stranded wire prepared in the aforementioned manner. Referring to FIG. 1, 15 primary stranded wires 12 each formed by twisting seven strands 11 are further twisted. Then, the secondary stranded wire was heat treated at 800° C. for 2 hours so that the strands were integrated with each other by diffusion bonding, and thereafter rolled. Then, the stranded wire was heat treated at 845° C. for 50 hours, further rolled and thereafter heat treated at 840° C. for 50 hours. FIG. 2 is a sectional view showing the structure of an oxide superconducting wire obtained in the aforementioned manner. Referring to FIG. 2, the flat-molded stranded wire has a rectangular sectional shape in this wire, and each strand 11 has a flat section having an aspect ratio (W1/T1) of about 4. Then, the oxide superconducting wire obtained in the aforementioned manner was subjected to measurement of a critical current value Ic in liquid nitrogen. Consequently, this wire exhibited a value Ic of 50 A. Ac loss values of a multilayer conductor which was formed by stacking five Bi-based Ag-coated single-filamentary wires having a critical current value Ic of 10 A and the inventive wire were measured by an energization four-probe method. Consequently, it has been confirmed that the ac loss of the inventive wire was smaller than that of the multilayer conductor in a region of not more than 50 Ap. EXAMPLE 2 Precursor powder having a composition equal to that of the precursor powder employed in Example 1, which was obtained similarly to Example 1, was heat treated at 800° C. for 2 hours, and thereafter charged in a silver pipe of 12 mm in outer diameter and 9 mm in inner diameter. Then, the silver pipe charged with the powder was drawn into 0.9 mm, to prepare strands. Seven such strands were twisted to form the so-called primary stranded wire. Further, 15 such primary stranded wires were twisted and thereafter compression-molded, to prepare a flat-molded secondary stranded wire. Then, the secondary stranded wire was engaged in a flat silver pipe of 1 mm in thickness, subjected to diffusion bonding at 800° C. for 2 hours, and thereafter rolled. Then, the pipe was heat treated at 845° C. for 50 hours, further rolled and thereafter heat treated at 840° C. for 50 hours. In the structure of an oxide superconducting wire obtained in the aforementioned manner, the flat-molded stranded wire had a rectangular sectional shape, and each strand had a flat section having an aspect ratio of about 4, similarly to Example 1. Then, the oxide superconducting wire obtained in the aforementioned manner was subjected to measurement of a critical current value Ic in liquid nitrogen. Consequently, this wire exhibited a value Ic of 50 A. Ac loss values of a multilayer conductor which was formed by stacking five Bi-based Ag-coated single-filamentary wires having a critical current value Ic of 10 A and the inventive wire were measured by an energization four-probe method. Consequently, it has been confirmed that the ac loss of the inventive wire was smaller than that of the multilayer conductor in a region of not more than 50 Ap. EXAMPLE 3 Precursor powder having a composition equal to that of the precursor powder employed in Example 1, which was obtained similarly to Example 1, was heat treated at 800° C. for 2 hours, and thereafter charged in a silver pipe of 12 mm in outer diameter and 9 mm in inner diameter. Then, the silver pipe charged with the powder was drawn into 0.9 mm, and seven such wires were engaged in a silver pipe and drawn to prepare a seven-conductor multifilamentary wire. Further, the seven-conductor multifilamentary wire was twisted at a pitch of 20 mm. Seven strands consisting of such twisted seven-conductor multifilamentary wires were twisted, to prepare the so-called primary stranded wire. Further, 15 such primary stranded wires were twisted and thereafter compression-molded, to prepare a flat-molded secondary stranded wire. Then, this secondary stranded wire was engaged in a flat silver pipe of 1 mm in thickness, subjected to diffusion bonding at 800° C. for 2 hours, and thereafter rolled. Then, the pipe was heat treated at 845° C. for 50 hours, further rolled and thereafter heat treated at 840° C. for 50 hours. In the structure of an oxide superconducting wire obtained in the aforementioned manner, the flat-molded stranded wire had a rectangular sectional shape similarly to Example 1, and each strand had a flat section having an aspect ratio of about 5. Then, the oxide superconducting wire obtained in the aforementioned manner was subjected to measurement of a critical current value Ic in liquid nitrogen. Consequently, the inventive wire exhibited a value Ic of 40 A. Ac loss values of a multilayer conductor which was formed by stacking four Bi-based Ag-coated single-filamentary wires having a critical current value Ic of 10 A and the inventive wire were measured by an energization four-probe method. Consequently, it has been confirmed that the ac loss of the inventive wire was smaller than that of the multilayer conductor in a region of not more than 40 Ap. EXAMPLE 4 Precursor powder having a composition equal to that of the precursor powder employed in Example 1, which was obtained similarly to Example 1, was heat treated at 800° C. for 2 hours, and thereafter charged in a silver pipe of 12 mm in outer diameter and 10 mm in inner diameter. Seven such silver pipes charged with the powder were drawn and further engaged in a silver pipe of 12 mm in outer diameter and 9 mm in inner diameter to form a seven-conductor wire, which in turn was drawn into 0.9 mm. Seven strands consisting of seven-conductor wires obtained in the aforementioned manner were twisted to prepare the so-called primary stranded wire. Further, 15 such primary stranded wires were twisted and thereafter compression-molded, to prepare a flat-molded secondary stranded wire. Then, this secondary stranded wire was engaged in a flat silver pipe of 1 mm in thickness, which in turn was rolled, heat treated at 845° C. for 50 hours, further rolled and thereafter heat treated at 840° C. for 50 hours. In the structure of an oxide superconducting wire obtained in the aforementioned manner, the flat-molded stranded wire had a rectangular sectional shape similarly to Example 1, and each strand had a flat section having an aspect ratio of about 5. Then, the oxide superconducting wire obtained in the aforementioned manner was subjected to measurement of a critical current value Ic in liquid nitrogen. Consequently, this wire exhibited a value Ic of 40 A. Ac loss values of a multilayer conductor which was formed by stacking four Bi-based Ag-coated single-filamentary wires having a critical current value Ic of 10 A and the inventive wire were measured by an energization four-probe method. Consequently, it has been confirmed that the ac loss of the inventive wire was smaller than that of the multilayer conductor in a region of not more than 40 Ap. EXAMPLE 5 Precursor powder having a composition equal to that of the precursor powder employed in Example 1, which was obtained similarly to Example 1, was heat treated at 800° C. for 2 hours, and thereafter charged in a silver pipe of 24 mm in outer diameter and 20 mm in inner diameter. Then, 61 such silver pipes charged with the powder were drawn into diameters of 1.02 mm and further engaged in a silver pipe of 24 mm in outer diameter and 20 mm in inner diameter, which in turn was further drawn into a diameter of 1.02 mm, to form a strand. 12 such strands were twisted and flat-molded. FIG. 3 is a sectional view showing the structure of a flat-molded stranded wire 52 obtained in the aforementioned manner. Referring to FIG. 3, this stranded wire 52 had a width W2 of 7.4 mm, and a thickness T2 of 1.45 mm. Then, this wire was rolled into a thickness of 1 mm, and thereafter heat treated at 845° C. for 50 hours. Then the wire was rolled into 0.9 mm, and thereafter heat treated at 840° C. for 50 hours. FIG. 4 is a sectional view showing the structure of a reacted flat-molded stranded wire 58 according to the present invention obtained in the aforementioned manner. Referring to FIG. 4, this stranded wire 58 had a width W2 of 12 mm, and a thickness T1 of 1 mm. Each strand 51 forming the stranded wire 58 had an aspect ratio (W1/T1) of 4.4. As a result of a detailed analysis, each superconducting filament provided in each strand 51 had a width of about 100 μm and a thickness of about 10 μm. The volume percentage of a Bi 2223 phase was about 95%. Further, this superconducting flat-molded stranded wire had a critical current value Ic of 110 A. Throughout the specification, the term “volume percentage” indicates the ratio of a magnetization rate exhibited by each sample in practice with respect to a magnetization rate (−{fraction ( 1 / 4 )}π [emU/cc]) which is measured when a superconductor exhibits complete diamagnetism. FIG. 5 is a sectional view showing the structure of another exemplary oxide superconducting wire 152 after rolling. The superconducting wire 152 having absolutely no clearances between strands 151 can be obtained by rolling the same under a condition of setting a draft at 30 to 40% while providing guides on both sides thereof. As comparative example, a substance obtained by engaging 61 conductors and thereafter drawing the same into a diameter of 1.02 mm similarly to the aforementioned wire was rolled into a thickness of 0.25 mm, and heat treated at 845° C. for 50 hours to prepare a wire. Four such wires were stacked, rolled into a thickness of 0.9 mm and heat treated at 840° C. for 50 hours, to be subjected to measurement of a critical current value Ic. Consequently, this comparative example exhibited a value Ic of 100 A. Further, ac loss values of the aforementioned two types of wires were measured by an energization four-probe method. Consequently, the ac loss of the flat stranded wire was 0.05 mW/m while that of comparative example was 0.5 mW/m in energization under 60 Hz and 20 A rms . Thus, it has been recognized that the ac loss was reduced to {fraction (1/10)} in the inventive wire. EXAMPLE 6 Cr or Ni was plated on the surfaces of the strands prepared in Example 5. 12 such strands were twisted and flat-molded. After the molding, the stranded wire had a width of 7.4 mm and a thickness of 1.45 mm. This wire was rolled into a thickness of 1 mm, and thereafter heat treated at 845° C. for 50 hours. Thereafter the wire was rolled into 0.9 mm, and thereafter heat treated at 840° C. for 50 hours. FIG. 6 is a sectional view showing the structure of each strand 61 forming the flat-molded stranded wire obtained in the aforementioned manner. Referring to FIG. 6, this strand 61 had a flat shape at an aspect ratio (W1/T1) of 3.7, and comprised a coating layer 66 consisting of Cr or Ni plating on its outer periphery. Further, the strand 61 was formed by embedding 61 superconductor filaments 65 in a matrix 64 consisting of silver, and each filament 65 had a width W5 of about 90 μm and a thickness T5 of about 10 μm. The arrangement of the filaments 65 shown in FIG. 6 is a mere example, and the present invention is not necessarily restricted to such arrangement. The volume percentage of a Bi 2223 phase was about 95%, and the critical current value Ic was 105 A. Ac loss of this wire which was measured by an energization four-probe method was 0.01 mW/m in energization under 20 A. Thus, it has been recognized that the ac loss was reduced to ⅕ as compared with the strand of Example 1. EXAMPLE 7 Precursor powder having a composition equal to that of the precursor powder employed in Example 1, which was obtained similarly to Example 1, was charged in a silver pipe of 24 mm in outer diameter and 20 mm in inner diameter. 61 such silver pipes were drawn into diameters of 1.02 mm and engaged in an Ag—Mn alloy pipe of 24 mm in outer diameter and 20 mm in inner diameter, which in turn was drawn into a diameter of 1.02 mm. Thereafter this wire was twisted at a pitch of 25 mm and thereafter rolled into a width of 3 mm and a thickness of 0.25 mm, to prepare a tape-shaped strand. FIG. 7 is a sectional view showing the structure of a tape-shaped strand 71 obtained in the aforementioned manner. Referring to FIG. 7, this strand 71 is formed by embedding 61 superconducting filaments 75 in a matrix 74 consisting of silver, and a coating layer 76 consisting of an Ag—Mn alloy is formed on its outer periphery. Then, 12 tape-shaped strands 71 obtained in the aforementioned manner were stacked as shown in FIG. 8, and heat treated at 840° C. for 50 hours. Thus, a multilayer wire 77 obtained in this manner was flat-drawn so that each side was 1 mm, and thereafter four such wires were twisted and flat-molded as shown in FIG. 9 . In the molding, the thickness was reduced by 10%. This wire was heat treated at 840° C. for 50 hours. FIG. 10 is a sectional view showing the structure of an oxide superconducting wire obtained in the aforementioned manner. Referring to FIG. 10, this wire is a flat-molded stranded wire formed by twisting four multilayer wires 77 . Then, the oxide superconducting wire obtained in the aforementioned manner was subjected to measurement of a critical current value Ic in liquid nitrogen. Consequently, this wire exhibited a value Ic of 50 A. In this oxide superconducting wire, each superconducting filament had a width of about 30 μm and a thickness of about 3 μm. Further, ac loss values of the flat-molded stranded wire obtained in the aforementioned manner and a 61-conductor wire having a critical current value Ic of 50 A, which was obtained by engaging 61 conductors and thereafter drawing, rolling and heat treating the same similarly to comparative example prepared in relation to Example 5, were measured by an energization four-probe method. Consequently, the ac loss of the flat stranded wire was 0.1 mW/m while that of comparative example was 4 mW/m in energization under 20 A peak . Thus, it has been recognized that the ac loss was reduced to {fraction (1/40)} in the inventive wire. EXAMPLE 8 The tape-shaped wire 71 shown in FIG. 7 employed in Example 7 was heat treated at 845° C. for 50 hours, and thereafter rolled into a thickness of 0.2 mm. Then, Cr plating was performed on its surface. Then, 12 strands 81 having Cr-plated surfaces were stacked and inserted in a silver flat pipe 86 , as shown in FIG. 11. A multilayer wire 87 obtained in this manner was flat-drawn so that each side was 1 mm, and 12 such wires were further twisted and flat-molded. This wire was heat treated at 840° C. for 50 hours. FIG. 12 is a sectional view showing the structure of an oxide superconducting wire obtained in the aforementioned manner. Referring to FIG. 12, this wire is a flat-molded stranded wire formed by twisting 12 multilayer wires 87 . Then, the oxide superconducting wire obtained in the aforementioned manner was subjected to measurement of a critical current value Ic in liquid nitrogen. Consequently, this wire exhibited a value Ic of 150 A. In this oxide superconducting wire, each superconducting filament had a width of about 30 μm and a thickness of about 3 μm. Further, ac loss values of the flat-molded stranded wire obtained in the aforementioned manner and a wire obtained by stacking two 61-conductor wires having a critical current value Ic of 70 A, each of which was obtained by engaging 61 conductors, and thereafter drawing, rolling and heat treating the same similarly to comparative example prepared in relation to Example 5, were measured by an energization four-probe method. Consequently, the ac loss of the flat stranded wire was 0.2 mW/m while that of comparative example was 4 mW/m in energization under 20 A peak . Thus, it has been recognized that the ac loss was reduced. EXAMPLE 9 Two types of wires were prepared by plating surfaces of strands of 1.02 mm in diameter prepared in Example 5 with Mg and Cu in thicknesses of 10 μm. Then, 12 such strands were twisted and flat-molded similarly to Example 1, and thereafter subjected to rolling and a heat treatment twice to form an oxide superconducting flat-molded stranded wire. In the superconducting wires obtained in this manner, Cu on the surfaces of strands was oxidized into CuO while Mg was also oxidized into MgO by the heat treatment which was repeated twice. Consequently, the strands were substantially completely insulated from each other. Then, a critical current value Ic in liquid nitrogen was measured as to the oxide superconducting wire obtained in the aforementioned manner. Consequently, this wire exhibited a value Ic of 98 A. Thus, it is understood that Cu or Mg is entirely is oxidized in the heat treatment so that only oxide films of CuO or MgO are formed on the strand surfaces when the Mg or Cu plating films formed on the strand surfaces are sufficiently reduced in thickness. Thus, it has been confirmed that the superconductivity of the wire was not influenced by Mg or Cu in this case. Further, ac loss was measured as to the oxide superconducting wire obtained in the aforementioned manner. Consequently, ac loss in energization under 20 A peak was 0.01 mW/m in the case of forming CuO films on the strand surfaces, and 0.02 mW/m in the case of forming MgO films on the strand surfaces. Thus, it has been confirmed that bonding loss between the strands could be extremely reduced in both cases. EXAMPLE 10 A solution which was prepared by dispersing alumina powder in an organic solvent was applied to the surfaces of the strands of 1.02 mm in diameter prepared in Example 5. Then, 12 such strands were twisted and flat-molded similarly to Example 1, and thereafter subjected to rolling and a heat treatment twice to prepare an oxide superconducting flat-molded stranded wire. In the superconducting wire obtained in the aforementioned manner, alumina was uniformly dispersed in the surfaces of the strands by the heat treatment which was repeated twice. Consequently, the strands were substantially completely insulated from each other. Then, the oxide superconducting wire obtained in the aforementioned manner was subjected to measurement of a critical current value Ic in liquid nitrogen. Consequently, this wire exhibited a value Ic of 89 A. Further, ac loss was measured as to the oxide superconducting wire obtained in the aforementioned manner. Consequently, ac loss in energization under 20 A peak was 0.02 mW/m, and it has been confirmed that bonding loss between the strands could be extremely reduced. EXAMPLE 11 Strands and a flat-molded stranded wire were prepared under conditions absolutely similar to those of Example 5, except that an Ag—Mn or Ag—Au alloy pipe was employed as a sheath material in place of the silver pipe. The obtained superconducting wire was subjected to measurement of a critical current value Ic in liquid nitrogen and ac loss under 51 Hz and 20 A peak . Table 1 shows results of comparison of characteristics. TABLE 1 Comparative Example Example Example Example 5 Example 6 11 11 Sheath Ag Ag Ag Ag-Mn Ag-Au Material (Matrix) High no no Cr, Ni no no Resistance Phase Structure four flat- flat- flat- flat- stacked molded molded molded molded layers Ic 100A 110A 105A 90A 108A AC Loss 0.5 0.05 0.01 0.03 0.02 (51 Hz, mW/m mW/m mW/m mW/m mW/m 20 A peak) Referring to Table 1, it has been recognized that bonding loss between strands is considerably reduced and ac loss is consequently reduced when a silver alloy of high resistance is employed for metal coatings of the strands. EXAMPLE 12 FIG. 13 is a perspective view showing the structure of an exemplary oxide superconducting cable conductor according to the present invention, and FIG. 14 is a sectional view thereof. Referring to FIGS. 13 and 14, this oxide superconducting cable conductor is formed by spirally assembling oxide superconducting wires 58 of Example 5 shown in FIG. 4 on a Cu pipe 9 in two layers. The first and second layers are assembled in S twist (anticlockwise) and Z twist (clockwise) respectively. The oxide superconducting cable conductor obtained in this manner was subjected to measurement of a critical current value Ic in liquid nitrogen. Consequently, this cable conductor exhibited a value Ic of 1500 A. For the purpose of comparison, four layers of 61-conductor wires having a critical current value Ic of 25 A, each of which was obtained by engaging 61 conductors and thereafter drawing, rolling and heat treating the same similarly to the comparative wire prepared in relation to Example 5, were assembled on a Cu pipe of the same size as the above, to prepare a cable conductor having a critical current value Ic of 1500 A. Ac loss values were measured as to these two cable conductors. Consequently, the stranded wire two-layer conductor according to the present invention exhibited a value which was smaller by two digits than that of the four-layer conductor of comparative example. EXAMPLE 13 The flat-molded stranded wire 52 prepared in Example 5 as shown in FIG. 3, which was not yet rolled and heat treated, was employed as a core so that 16 strands 51 employed in Example 5 were wound on its periphery, and flat-molded. This wire was rolled into a thickness of 2 mm, and thereafter heat treated at 845° C. for 50 hours. Then the wire was rolled into a thickness of 1.9 mm, and thereafter heat treated at 840° C. for 50 hours. FIG. 15 is a sectional view showing the structure of the oxide superconducting wire obtained in the aforementioned manner. Then, the oxide superconducting wire obtained in the aforementioned manner was subjected to measurement of a critical current value Ic in liquid nitrogen. Consequently, this wire exhibited a value Ic of 230 A. In this oxide superconducting wire, each superconducting filament had a width of about 110 μm, and a thickness of 9 μm. As comparative example, 10 wires each obtained by engaging 61 conductors and thereafter drawing, rolling and heat treating the same similarly to Example 5 were stacked, rolled into a thickness of 2 mm and heat treated at 840° C. for 50 hours, to be subjected to measurement of a critical current value Ic. Consequently, this wire exhibited a value Ic of 250 A. Further, ac loss values of the aforementioned two types of wires were measured by an energization four-probe method. Consequently, the ac loss of the flat stranded wire was 0.3 mW/m while that of comparative example was 2 mW/m in energization under 100 A rms . Thus, it has been recognized that the ac loss was reduced. EXAMPLE 14 The flat-molded stranded wire prepared in Example 6 was employed to prepare an oxide superconducting cable conductor having the same structure as Example 12. The obtained oxide superconducting cable conductor exhibited a critical current value Ic of 1400 A in liquid nitrogen. Further, this conductor exhibited ac loss which was lower by 100% than that of the cable conductor according to Example 12. Although the present invention has been described and illustrated in detail, it is clearly understood that the same is by way of illustration and example only and is not to be taken by way of limitation, the spirit and scope of the present invention being limited only by the terms of the appended claims.

Provided are an oxide superconducting wire which maintains a high critical current density and has a small current drift with small ac loss when the same carries an alternating current and a method of preparing the same, and a cable conductor which is formed by assembling such oxide superconducting wires. The oxide superconducting wire is a flat-molded stranded wire which is formed by twisting a plurality of metal-coated strands consisting of an oxide superconductor, and is characterized in that the flat-molded stranded wire has a rectangular sectional shape, and a section of each strand forming the flat-molded stranded wire has an aspect ratio (W1/T1) of at least 2. The method of preparing this oxide superconducting wire comprises the steps of preparing a stranded wire by twisting a plurality of strands, each of which is formed by metal-coating an oxide superconductor or raw material powder therefor, flat-molding the prepared stranded wire, and repeating rolling and a heat treatment of at least 800° C. on the flat molded stranded wire a plurality of times.

RELATED APPLICATION DATA [0001] This patent application is a continuation in part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/588,636, filed Jan. 2, 2015 (published as US 2015-0187039 A1), which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/923,060, filed Jan. 2, 2014. The present application also claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/152,745, filed Apr. 24, 2015. Each of these patent documents are hereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. [0002] This application is related to U.S. Pat. Nos. 9,224,184, 9,129,277 and 8,199,969; US Published Patent Application Nos. US 2010-0150434 A1, US 2014-0119593 A1, US 2015-0156369 A1; and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/975,919, filed Aug. 26, 2013. [0003] The above patent documents are each hereby incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. TECHNICAL FIELD [0004] The present disclosure relates generally to color science, image processing, steganographic data hiding and digital watermarking. BACKGROUND AND SUMMARY [0005] The term “steganography” generally means data hiding. One form of data hiding is digital watermarking. Digital watermarking is a process for modifying media content to embed a machine-readable (or machine-detectable) signal or code into the media content. For the purposes of this application, the data may be modified such that the embedded code or signal is imperceptible or nearly imperceptible to a user, yet may be detected through an automated detection process. Most commonly, digital watermarking is applied to media content such as images, audio signals, and video signals. [0006] Digital watermarking systems may include two primary components: an embedding component that embeds a watermark in media content, and a reading component that detects and reads an embedded watermark. The embedding component (or “embedder” or “encoder”) may embed a watermark by altering data samples representing the media content in the spatial, temporal or some other domain (e.g., Fourier, Discrete Cosine or Wavelet transform domains). The reading component (or “reader” or “decoder”) analyzes target content to detect whether a watermark is present. In applications where the watermark encodes information (e.g., a message or payload), the reader may extract this information from a detected watermark. [0007] A watermark embedding process may convert a message, signal or payload into a watermark signal. The embedding process then combines the watermark signal with media content and possibly another signals (e.g., an orientation pattern or synchronization signal) to create watermarked media content. The process of combining the watermark signal with the media content may be a linear or non-linear function. The watermark signal may be applied by modulating or altering signal samples in a spatial, temporal or some other transform domain. [0008] A watermark encoder may analyze and selectively adjust media content to give it attributes that correspond to the desired message symbol or symbols to be encoded. There are many signal attributes that may encode a message symbol, such as a positive or negative polarity of signal samples or a set of samples, a given parity (odd or even), a given difference value or polarity of the difference between signal samples (e.g., a difference between selected spatial intensity values or transform coefficients), a given distance value between watermarks, a given phase or phase offset between different watermark components, a modulation of the phase of the host signal, a modulation of frequency coefficients of the host signal, a given frequency pattern, a given quantizer (e.g., in Quantization Index Modulation) etc. [0009] The present assignee's work in steganography, data hiding and digital watermarking is reflected, e.g., in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,947,571; 6,912,295; 6,891,959. 6,763,123; 6,718,046; 6,614,914; 6,590,996; 6,408,082; 6,122,403 and 5,862,260, and in published specifications WO 9953428 and WO 0007356 (corresponding to U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,449,377 and 6,345,104). Each of these patent documents is hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. Of course, a great many other approaches are familiar to those skilled in the art. The artisan is presumed to be familiar with a full range of literature concerning steganography, data hiding and digital watermarking. [0010] One possible combination of the inventive teaching is a method including: receiving a color image or video; transforming the color image or video signal by separating the color image or video into at least first data representing a first color channel of the color image or video and second data representing a second color channel of the color image or video, where the first data comprises a digital watermark signal embedded therein and the second data comprises the digital watermark signal embedded therein with a signal polarity that is inversely related to the polarity of the digital watermark signal in the first data; subtracting the second data from the first data to yield third data; using at least a processor or electronic processing circuitry, analyzing the third data to detect the digital watermark signal; once detected, providing information associated with the digital watermark signal. [0011] Another combination is a method including: obtaining first data representing a first chrominance channel of a color image or video, where the first data comprises a watermark signal embedded therein; obtaining second data representing a second chrominance channel of the color image or video, the second data comprising the watermark signal embedded therein but with a signal polarity that is inversely related to the polarity of the watermark signal in the first data; combining the second data with the first data in manner that reduces image or video interference relative to the watermark signal, said act of combining yielding third data; using at least a processor or electronic processing circuitry, processing the third data to obtain the watermark signal; once obtained, providing information associated with the watermark signal. [0012] Still another combination is an apparatus comprising: a processor or electronic processing circuitry to control: (a) handling of first data representing a first color channel of a color image or video, where the first data comprises a watermark signal embedded therein; (b) handling of second data representing a second color channel of the color image or video, the second data comprising the watermark signal embedded therein but with a signal polarity that is inversely related to the polarity of the watermark signal in the first data; (c) combining the second data with the first data in manner that reduces image or video interference relative to the watermark signal, the combining yielding third data; (d) processing the third data to obtain the watermark signal; and (e) once obtained, providing information associated with the watermark signal. [0013] Yet another possible combination is a method including: a method including: obtaining first data representing a first chrominance channel of a color image or video signal; obtaining second data representing a second chrominance channel of the color image or video signal; using a processor or electronic processing circuitry, embedding a watermark signal in the first data with a first signal polarity; using a processor or electronic processing circuitry, transforming the second data by embedding the watermark signal in the second data so that when embedded in the second data the watermark signal comprises a second signal polarity that is inversely related to the first signal polarity of the watermark signal in the first data; combining the watermarked first data and the watermarked second data to yield a watermarked version of the color image or video signal, whereby during detection of the watermark signal from the watermarked version of the color image or video signal, the second data is combined with the first data in a manner that reduces image or video signal interference relative to the watermark signal. [0014] Still a further combination is a digital watermarking method comprising: using a programmed electronic processor, modeling a first color ink and a second color ink in terms of CIE Lab values; modulating the values with a watermarking signal; scaling the modulated values in a spatial frequency domain; spatially masking the scaled, modulated values; providing the spatially masked, scaled, modulated values, such values carrying the watermark signal. [0015] Another combination includes an apparatus, comprising: memory for storing: i) a luminance contrast sensitivity function (CSF 1 ), ii) a chrominance contrast sensitivity function (CSF 2 ), and iii) data representing color imagery; and one or more processors configured for: applying the CSF 1 and the CSF 2 to predict degradation of image areas associated with an application of digital watermarking to the data representing color imagery, in which the CSF 1 varies depending on luminance values associated with local regions of the data representing color imagery and in which the CSF 1 is used for processing luminance data and the CSF 2 is used for processing chrominance data; transforming the data representing color imagery with digital watermark, in which the digital watermarking is guided based on results obtained from the applying including predicted degradation of image areas. [0016] In one implementation the CSF 1 varies spatially, perhaps in terms of spatial width. In another implementation, the CSF 2 varies spatially in terms of spatial width. [0017] The CSF 1 may be applied to predict degradation of image areas produces image blurring as the predicted degradation, in which the CSF 1 varies so that relatively more blurring occurs as luminance of a local image region decreases. [0018] In some implementations the digital watermarking is guided based on results obtained from the applying by varying embedding strength across different image areas of the data representing color imagery based on predicted degradation of the different image areas. The predicted degradation of the digital watermarking across the different image areas may include uniform predicted degradation. [0019] The one or more processors may be configured for processing the data representing color imagery with an attention model to predict visual traffic areas. [0020] In other implementations the digital watermarking may be guided based on the results obtained from the predicted visual traffic areas and the predicted degradation of image areas. [0021] In some cases, the chrominance contrast sensitivity function (CSF 2 ) includes a blue-yellow contrast sensitivity function and a red-green contrast sensitivity function. [0022] The CSF 2 may vary depending on luminance values associated with local regions of the obtained color image data. [0023] The transforming the data representing color imagery with digital watermarking may embed a machine-readable code into the data representing color imagery. And, in some cases, the imagery comprises video. [0024] Further combinations, aspects, implementations, features and advantages will become even more apparent with reference to the following detailed description and accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0025] The patent or application file contains at least one drawing executed in color. Copies of this patent or patent application publication with color drawing(s) will be provided by the Office upon request and payment of the necessary fee. [0026] FIG. 1 represents a color image. [0027] FIG. 2 represents a first color channel (‘a’ channel) of the color image representation shown in FIG. 1 . [0028] FIG. 3 represents a second color channel (‘b’ channel) of the color image representation shown in FIG. 1 . [0029] FIG. 4 is a representation of the sum of the first color channel of FIG. 2 and the second color channel of FIG. 3 (e.g., a+b). [0030] FIG. 5 is a graph showing a histogram standard deviation of FIG. 4 . [0031] FIG. 6 is a representation of the difference between the first color channel of FIG. 2 and the second color channel of FIG. 3 (a−b). [0032] FIG. 7 is a graph showing a histogram standard deviation of FIG. 6 . [0033] FIG. 8 is an image representation of the difference between the first color channel of FIG. 2 (including a watermark signal embedded therein) and the second color channel of FIG. 3 (including the watermark signal embedded therein). [0034] FIG. 9 is a graph showing a histogram standard deviation of FIG. 8 . [0035] FIGS. 10A and 10B are block diagrams showing, respectively, an embedding process and a detection process. [0036] FIG. 11 is a diagram showing watermarks embedded in first and second video frames. [0037] FIG. 12 is a diagram showing a detailed signal size view with ink increments of 2%, and the addition of press visibility constraints. [0038] FIG. 13A corresponds to Appendix D's FIG. 1 , which shows a quality ruler increasing in degradation from B (slight) to F (strong). [0039] FIG. 13B corresponds to Appendix D's FIG. 2 , which shows thumbnails of the 20 color patch samples with a watermark applied. [0040] FIG. 14 corresponds to Appendix D's FIG. 3 , which shows a mean observer responses with 95% confidence intervals for color patches. [0041] FIG. 15 corresponds to Appendix D's FIG. 4 , which shows mean observer response compared with a proposed visibility model. [0042] FIG. 16 corresponds to Appendix D's FIG. 5 , which shows mean observer response compared with the proposed visibility model with luminance adjustment. [0043] FIG. 17 corresponds to Appendix D's FIG. 6 , which shows mean observer response compared with S-CIELAB. [0044] FIG. 18 corresponds to Appendix D's FIG. 7 , which shows watermark embedding with uniform signal strength (left) and equal visibility from a visibility model (right). The insets are magnified to show image detail. [0045] FIG. 19 corresponds to Appendix D's FIG. 8 , which shows visibility map from uniform signal strength embedding (left) and equal visibility embedding (right) from FIG. 18 . [0046] FIG. 20 corresponds with Appendix D's FIG. 9 , which shows Apple tart, Giraffe stack and Pizza puff design used in tests. [0047] FIG. 21 is a block diagram for a color visibility model. [0048] FIG. 22 is a block diagram for a color visibility model with CSFs varied according to image local luminance. [0049] FIG. 23A is a block diagram for a color visibility model to achieve equal visibility embedding (EVE). [0050] FIG. 23B is a diagram showing EVE embedding compared to uniform embedding. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0051] Portions of the following disclosure discusses a digital watermarking technique that utilizes at least two chrominance channels (also called “color planes,” “color channels” and/or “color direction”). Chrominance is generally understood to include information, data or signals representing color components of an image or video. In contrast to a color image or video, a grayscale (monochrome) image or video has a chrominance value of zero. [0052] Media content that includes a color image (or color video) is represented in FIG. 1 . An industry standard luminance and chrominance color space is called “Lab” (for Lightness (or luminance), plus ‘a’ and ‘b’ color channels) that can be used to separate components of images and video. FIG. 2 is an ‘a’ channel representation of FIG. 1 (shown in grayscale), and FIG. 3 is a ‘b’ channel representation of FIG. 1 (shown in grayscale). Of course, our inventive methods and apparatus will apply to and work with other color schemes and techniques as well. For example, alternative luminance and chrominance color schemes include “Yuv” (Y=luma, and ‘u’ and ‘v’ represent chrominance channels) and “Ycc.” (also a dual chrominance space representation). [0053] Let's first discuss the additive and subtractive effects on FIGS. 2 and 3 . FIG. 4 illustrates a representation of the result of adding the ‘a’ channel ( FIG. 2 ) with the ‘b’ channel ( FIG. 3 ). FIG. 6 illustrates a representation of the result of subtracting the ‘b’ channel ( FIG. 3 ) from the ‘a’ channel ( FIG. 2 ). The result of subtracting the ‘b’ channel from the ‘a’ channel yields reduced image content relative to adding the two channels since the ‘a’ and ‘b’ color planes have correlated image data in the Lab scheme. (In typical natural imagery, the ‘a’ and ‘b’ chrominance channels tend to be correlated. That is to say where ‘a’ increases, ‘b’ also tends to increase. One measure of this is to measure the histogram of the two chrominance planes when they are added (see FIG. 5 ), and compare that to the histogram when the two color planes are subtracted (see FIG. 7 ). The fact that the standard deviation of FIG. 7 is about half that of FIG. 5 also supports this conclusion, and illustrates the reduction in image content when ‘b’ is subtracted from ‘a’) In this regard, FIG. 4 provides enhanced or emphasized image content due to the correlation. Said another way, the subtraction of the FIG. 3 image from FIG. 2 image provides less image interference or reduces image content. The histogram representations of FIG. 4 and FIG. 6 (shown in FIGS. 5 and 7 , respectively) further support this conclusion. [0054] Now let's consider watermarking in the context of FIGS. 2 and 3 . [0055] In a case where a media signal includes (or may be broken into) at least two chrominance channels, a watermark embedder may insert digital watermarking in both the ‘a’ color direction ( FIG. 2 ) and ‘b’ color direction ( FIG. 3 ). This embedding can be preformed in parallel (if using two or more encoders) or serial (if using one encoder). The watermark embedder may vary the gain (or signal strength) of the watermark signal in the ‘a’ and ‘b’ channel to achieve improved hiding of the watermark signal. For example, the ‘a’ channel may have a watermark signal embedded with signal strength that greater or less than the watermark signal in the ‘b’ channel. Alternatively, the watermark signal may be embedded with the same strength in both the ‘a’ and ‘b’ channels. Regardless of the watermark embedding strength, watermark signal polarity is preferably inverted in the ‘b’ color plane relative to the ‘a’ color plane. The inverted signal polarity is represented by a minus (“−”) sign in equations 1 and 2. [0000] WMa=a (channel)+ wm   (1) [0000] WMb=b (channel)− wm   (2) [0056] WMa is a watermarked ‘a’ channel, WMb is a watermarked ‘b’ channel, and wm represents a watermark signal. A watermarked color image (including L and WMb and WMa) can be provided, e.g., for printing, digital transfer or viewing. [0057] An embedded color image is obtained (from optical scan data, memory, transmission channel, etc.), and data representing the color image is communicated to a watermark detector for analysis. The detector (or a process, processor or electronic processing circuitry used in conjunction with the detector) subtracts WMb from WMa resulting in WMres as shown below: [0000] WMres=WMa−WMb   (3) [0000] WMres =( a+wm )−( b−wm )  (4) [0000] WMres =( a−b )+2* wm   (5) [0058] This subtraction operation yields reduced image content (e.g., FIG. 6 ) as discussed above. The subtraction or inverting operation of the color channels also emphasizes or increases the watermark signal (2*wm), producing a stronger watermark signal for watermark detection. Indeed, subtracting the color channels increases the watermark signal-to-media content ratio: WMres=(a−b)+2*wm. [0059] FIG. 8 illustrates the result of equation 5 (with respect to watermarked versions of FIG. 2 and FIG. 3 ). As shown, the perceptual “graininess” or “noise” in the image corresponds to the emphasized watermark signal. The image content is also reduced in FIG. 8 . A histogram representation of FIG. 8 is shown in FIG. 9 and illustrates a favorable reduction of image content. [0060] A watermark detector may extract or utilize characteristics associated with a synchronization signal (if present) from a frequency domain representation of WMres. The detector may then use this synchronization signal to resolve scale, orientation, and origin of the watermark signal. The detector may then detect the watermark signal and obtain any message or payload carried thereby. [0061] To even further illustrate the effects of improving the watermark signal-to-media content ratio with our inventive processes and systems, we provide some additive and subtractive examples in the content of watermarking. [0062] For the following example, a watermark signal with the same polarity is embedded in each of the ‘a’ color channel and the ‘b’ color channel. The same signal polarity is represented by a plus (“+”) sign in equations 6 and 7. [0000] WMa=a+wm   (6) [0000] WMb=b+wm   (7) [0063] WMa is a watermarked ‘a’ channel, WMb is a watermarked ‘b’ channel, and wm represents a watermark signal. A watermarked color image (including L and WMb and WMa) can be provided, e.g., for printing, digital transfer or viewing. [0064] An embedded color image is obtained, and data representing the color image is communicated to a watermarked detector for analysis. The detector (or a process, processor, or electronic processing circuitry used in conjunction with the detector) adds the ‘a’ and ‘b’ color channels to one another (resulting in WMres) as shown below: [0000] WMres=WMa+WMb   (8) [0000] WMres =( a+wm )+( b+wm )  (9) [0000] WMres =( a+b )+2* wm   (10) [0065] This addition operation results in increased image content (e.g., FIG. 4 ). Indeed, image interference during watermark detection will be greater since the two correlated ‘a’ and ‘b’ color channels tend to reinforce each other. [0066] By way of further example, if WMb is subtracted from WMa (with watermark signals having the same polarity), the following results: [0000] WMres=WMa−WMb   (11) [0000] WMres =( a+wm )−( b+wm )  (12) [0000] WMres =( a−b )+≈0* wm   (13) [0067] A subtraction or inverting operation in a case where a watermark signal includes the same polarity decreases image content (e.g., FIG. 4 ), but also significantly decreases the watermark signal. This may result in poor—if any—watermark detection. [0068] FIGS. 10A and 10B are flow diagrams illustrating some related processes and methods. These processes may be carried out, e.g., via a computer processor, electronic processing circuitry, printer, handheld device such as a smart cell phone, etc. [0069] With reference to FIG. 10A , a color image (or video) is obtained and separated into at least two (2) color channels or planes ( 10 ). A watermark signal is determined for the color image or video ( 12 ). Of course, the watermark signal for the color image or video may be determined prior to or after color plane separation. The determined watermark signal is embedded in a first of the color planes ( 14 ). An inverse polarity version of the watermark signal is embedded in a second color plane. The color planes are recombined (perhaps with data representing luminance) to form a composite color image. [0070] With reference to FIG. 10B , a watermarked color image or video is obtained or received ( 11 ). The color image (or video) has or can be separated into at least two (2) color planes or channels ( 13 ). A first color plane includes a watermark signal embedded therein. A second color plane includes the watermark signal embedded therein with a polarity that is inversely related to the watermark signal in the first color plane. The watermarked second color plane is subtracted from the watermarked first color ( 15 ). The result of the subtraction is analyzed to detect the watermark signal. A detected watermark message, signal or payload can be provided ( 19 ), e.g., to a remote database to obtain related metadata or information, to a local processor, for display, to a rights management system, to facilitate an online transaction, etc. [0071] In addition to the Lab color scheme discussed above, a watermark signal may be embedded in color image (or video) data represented by RGB, Yuv, Ycc, CMYK or other color schemes, with, e.g., a watermark signal inserted in a first chrominance direction (e.g., red/green direction, similar to that discussed above for the ‘a’ channel) and a second chrominance direction (e.g., a blue/yellow direction, similar to that discussed above for the ‘b’ channel). For watermark signal detection with an alterative color space, e.g., an RGB or CMYK color space, an image can be converted to Lab (or other color space), or appropriate weights of, e.g., RGB or CMY channels, can be used. For example, the following RGB weights may be used to calculate ‘a’−‘b’: Chrominance Difference=0.35*R−1.05*G+0.70*B+128, where R, G and B are 8-bit integers. [0072] Further Considerations of Video [0073] The human contrast sensitivity function curve shape with temporal frequency (e.g., relative to time) has a very similar shape to the contrast sensitivity with spatial frequency. [0074] Successive frames in a video are typically cycled at about at least 60 Hz to avoid objectionable visual flicker. So-called “flicker” is due to the high sensitivity of the human visual system (HVS) to high temporal frequency changes in luminance. The human eye is about ten (10) times less sensitive to high temporal frequency chrominance changes. [0075] Consider a video sequence with frames as shown in FIG. 11 . A chrominance watermark can be added to frame 1 per the above description for images. In a similar way, a watermark is added to frame 2 but the polarity is inverted as shown in FIG. 11 . [0076] In order to recover the watermark, pairs of frames are processed by a watermark detector, and the ‘a’ channels are subtracted from each other as shown below. [0000] Det_ a =( a 1+ wm )−( a 2− wm )=( a 1− a 2)+2* wm   (14) [0077] Det_a refers to watermark detection processing of the ‘a’ channel. Because of the temporal correlation between frames, the image content in equation 14 is reduced while the watermark signal is reinforced. [0078] In a similar way the ‘b’ channels are also subtracted from each other [0000] Det_ b =( b 1− wm )−( b 2+ wm )=( b 1− b 2)−2* wm   (15) [0079] Det_a refers to watermark detection processing of the ‘b’ channel. Equation 14 and 15 are then subtracted from each other as shown below in equation 16. [0000] Det_a - Det_b =  ( a   1     -   a   2 + 2 * wm ) - ( b   1   -  b   2   -   2 * wm ) =  ( a   1     -   a   2 ) - ( b   1  -   b   2 ) + 4 * wm ( 16 ) [0080] In generally, related (but not necessarily immediately adjacent) frames will have spatially correlated content. Because of the spatial correlation between the ‘a’ and ‘b’ frames, the image content is reduced while the watermark signal is reinforced. See equation 16. [0081] For any one pair of frames selected by a watermark detector, the polarity of the watermark could be either positive or negative. To allow for this, the watermark detector may examine both polarities. [0082] Watermark Embedding for Spot Colors [0083] Product packaging is usually printed in one of two ways: [0084] 1. Process color printing using cyan, magenta yellow and/or black (CMYK) [0085] 2. Spot color printing (e.g., using special Pantone color or other ink sets) [0086] The majority of packaging is printed using spot colors mainly for reasons of cost and color consistency, and to achieve a wide color gamut over various packaging. Some conventional watermarking techniques embed digital watermarks in either CMYK for printed images or RGB for digital images that are being displayed. But how to embed a watermark with a spot color? [0087] An improvement addresses problem associated with watermarking spot color images. Preferably, packaging contains two (2) or more spot colors (e.g., printed cooperatively to achieve a certain color consistency). Each different color is altered to collectively carry a watermark signal. A maximum signal strength within a user selectable visibility constraint with watermark in at least two (2) of the spot. [0088] A maximized watermark signal is embedded preferably by modulating the spot color inks within a certain visibility constraint across the image. The approach models a color (ink) in terms of CIE Lab values. Lab is a uniform perceptual color space where a unit difference in any color direction corresponds to an equal perceptual difference. [0089] The Lab axes are then scaled for the spatial frequency of the watermark being added to the image, in a similar manner to the Spatial CieLab model by X. Zhang and B. A. Wandell, e.g., “A spatial extension of CIELAB for digital color image reproduction,” in Proceedings of the Society of Information Display Symposium (SID '96), vol. 27, pp. 731-734, San Jose, Calif., USA, June 1996. This is a uniform perceptual color space which we will call SLAB, where a unit difference in any color direction corresponds to an equal perceptual difference due to the addition of a watermark signal at that spatial frequency. [0090] The allowable visibility magnitude in SLAB is scaled by spatial masking of the cover image. Spatial masking of the cover image can include the techniques described by Watson in US Published Patent Application No. US 2006-0165311 A1, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety, and can be used to scale the allowable visibility across the image. This is a uniform perceptual color space which we will call VLAB, where the visibility circle is scaled to correspond to an equal perceptual difference due to the addition of a watermark signal at that spatial frequency for that particular image. [0091] The chrominance embedding techniques discussed above forms the foundation for the present watermark embedding techniques. A related discussion is found in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/975,919, filed Aug. 26, 2013, under the section “Chrominance watermark to embed using a full color visibility model,” which uses an iterative embed technique to insert a maximum watermark signal into CMYK images. [0092] The spot color technique described extends this work to embedding that supports special color inks (e.g., spot colors) used in packaging and uses a full color visibility model with spatial masking. A geometric enumerated embed approach can be used to evaluate a range of possible ink changes, which meet the user selected visibility constraint and press constraints. The set of allowable ink changes are evaluated to choose the pair of ink changes which result in the maximum signal strength while meeting the visibility and press constraints. [0093] FIG. 12 shows a detailed signal size view with ink increments of 2%, and the addition of press constraints. [0094] A user can insert a maximum watermark signal, while meeting any pre-required visibility constraint. The method has been applied to the case of two spot colors and images have been produced which are more than twice as robust to Gaussian noise as a single color image which is embedded using a luminance only watermark to the same visibility. [0095] A method has been described which allows an image containing 2 or more spot colors to be embedded with a watermark in 2 of the spot colors, with the maximum signal strength within a user selectable visibility constraint. [0096] A look-up table based approach can be used for given colors at given locations, and can easily be extended to 3 or more dimensions while still being computationally reasonable. [0097] Additional related disclosure is found in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/975,919, under the heading sections “Geometric Enumerated Chrominance Watermark Embed for Spot Colors” and “Watermarking Embedding in Optimal Color Direction.” [0098] Full-Color Visibility Model [0099] A full color visibility model has been developed that uses separate contrast sensitivity functions (CSFs) for contrast variations in luminance and chrominance (red-green and blue-yellow) channels. The width of the CSF in each channel can be varied spatially depending on the luminance of the local image content. The CSF can be adjusted so that relatively more blurring occurs as the luminance of the local region decreases. The difference between the contrast of the blurred original and marked image can be measured using a color difference metric. [0100] This spatially varying CSF performed better than a fixed CSF in the visibility model, approximating subjective measurements of a set of test color patches ranked by human observers for watermark visibility. [0101] A full color visibility model can be a powerful tool to measure visibility of an image watermark. Watermarks used for packaging can be inserted in the chrominance domain to obtain the best robustness per unit visibility. A chrominance image watermark is preferably embedded in a way that the color component in the cover image is minimally altered and is hardly noticeable, due to human vision system's low sensitivity to color changes. [0102] One example of a color visibility model is discussed relative to Spatial CIELAB (S-CIELAB). The accuracy of this model was tested by comparing it to human subjective tests on a set of watermarked color patches. The model was found to significantly overestimate the visibility of some dark color patches. A correction can be applied to the model for the variation of the human contrast sensitivity function (CSF) with luminance. After luminance correction, better correlation was obtained with the subjective tests. [0103] The luminance and chrominance CSF of the human visual system has been measured for various retinal illumination levels. The luminance CSF variation was measured by Van Nes (1967) and the chrominance CSF variation by van der Horst (1969). These measurements show a variation in peak sensitivity of about a factor of 8 for luminance and 5 for chrominance over retinal illumination levels which change by about a factor of 100. [0104] Since the retinal illumination can change by about a factor of 100 between the lightest to darkest area on a page, the CSF peak sensitivity and shape can change significantly. The function is estimated by the average local luminance on the page, and a spatially dependent CSF is applied to the image. This correction is similar to the luminance masking in adaptive image dependent compression. [0105] The luminance dependent CSF performed better than a fixed CSF in the visibility model, when compared to subjective measurements of a set of test color patches ranked by human observers for watermark visibility. In some cases, we use a method of applying a spatially dependent CSF which depends on local image luminance. [0106] The visibility model can be used to embed watermark into images with equal visibility. During the embedding stage, the visibility model can predict the visibility of the watermark signal and then adjust the embedding strength. The result will be an embedded image with a uniform watermark signal visibility, with the embedding strength varying depending on the cover image's content. [0107] The following documents are hereby incorporated herein by reference: Lyons, et al. “Geometric chrominance watermark embed for spot color,” Proc. Of SPIE, vol. 8664, Imaging and Printing in a Web 2.0 World IV, 2013; Zhang et al. “A spatial extension of CIELAB for digital color-image reproduction” Journal of the Society for Information Display 5.1 (1997): 61-63; Van Nes et al. “Spatial modulation transfer in the human eye,” Journal of Optical Society of America, vol. 57, issue 3, pp. 401-406, 1967; Van der Horst et al. “Spatiotemporal chromaticity discrimination,” Journal of Optical Society of America, vol. 59, issue 11, 1969; and Watson, “DCTune,” Society for information display digest of technical papers XXIV, pp. 946-949, 1993. [0108] In some cases, even better results can be achieved by combining an attention model with our above visibility model when embedding watermarks in color image data. An attention model generally predicts where the human eye is drawn to when viewing an image. For example, the eye may seek out flesh tone colors and sharp contrast areas. One example attention model is described in Itti et al., “A Model of Saliency-Based Visual Attention for Rapid Scene Analysis,” IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON PATTERN ANALYSIS AND MACHINE INTELLIGENCE, VOL. 20, NO. 11, NOVEMBER 1998, pgs. 1254-1259, which is hereby incorporated herein by reference. [0109] High visual traffic areas identified by the attention model, which would otherwise be embedded with a relatively strong or equal watermark signal, can be avoided or minimized by a digital watermark embedder. [0110] Additional related disclosure is found in Appendix D, attached and included as part of this specification, and which is hereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. [0111] Disclosure from Appendix D is also provided below: [0000] Full-Color Visibility Model Using CSF which Varies Spatially with Local Luminance [0112] Abstract: [0113] A full color visibility model has been developed that uses separate contrast sensitivity functions (CSFs) for contrast variations in luminance and chrominance (red-green and blue-yellow) channels. The width of the CSF in each channel is varied spatially depending on the luminance of the local image content. The CSF is adjusted so that more blurring occurs as the luminance of the local region decreases. The difference between the contrast of the blurred original and marked image is measured using a color difference metric. [0114] This spatially varying CSF performed better than a fixed CSF in the visibility model, approximating subjective measurements of a set of test color patches ranked by human observers for watermark visibility. The effect of using the CIEDE2000 color difference metric compared to CIEDE1976 (i.e., a Euclidean distance in CIELAB) was also compared. Introduction [0115] A full color visibility model is a powerful tool to measure the visibility of the image watermark. Image watermarking is a technique that covertly embeds additional information in a cover image, such that the ownership, copyright and other details about the cover image can be communicated. Watermarks used for packaging are inserted in the chrominance domain to obtain the best robustness per unit visibility. See Robert Lyons, Alastair Reed and John Stach, “Geometric chrominance watermark embed for spot color,” Proc. Of SPIE, vol. 8664, Imaging and Printing in a Web 2.0 World IV, 2013. The chrominance image watermark is embedded in a way that the color component in the cover image is minimally altered and is hardly noticeable, due to human vision system's low sensitivity to color changes. [0116] This visibility model is similar to Spatial CIELAB (S-CIELAB). See Xuemei Zhang and Brian A. Wandell, “A spatial extension of CIELAB for digital color-image reproduction” Journal of the Society for Information Display 5.1 (1997): 61-63. The accuracy of this model was tested by comparing it to subjective tests on a set of watermarked color patches. The model was found to significantly overestimate the visibility of some dark color patches. A correction was applied to the model for the variation of the human contrast sensitivity function (CSF) with luminance as described below. After luminance correction, good correlation was obtained with the subjective tests. [0117] The luminance and chrominance CSF of the human visual system has been measured for various retinal illumination levels. The luminance CSF variation was measured by Floris L. Van Nes and Maarten Bouman, “Spatial modulation transfer in the human eye,” Journal of Optical Society of America, vol. 57, issue 3, pp. 401-406, 1967 and the chrominance CSF variation by G J Van der Horst and Maarten Bouman, “Spatiotemporal chromaticity discrimination,” Journal of Optical Society of America, vol. 59, issue 11, 1969. These measurements show a variation in peak sensitivity of about a factor of 8 for luminance and 5 for chrominance over retinal illumination levels which change by about a factor of 100. [0118] Since the retinal illumination can change by about a factor of 100 between the lightest to darkest area on a page, the CSF peak sensitivity and shape can change significantly. The function is estimated by the average local luminance on the page, and a spatially dependent CSF is applied to the image. This correction is similar to the luminance masking in adaptive image dependent compression. See G J Van der Horst and Maarten Bouman, “Spatiotemporal chromaticity discrimination,” Journal of Optical Society of America, vol. 59, issue 11, 1969. [0119] The luminance dependent CSF performed better than a fixed CSF in the visibility model, when compared to subjective measurements of a set of test color patches ranked by human observers for watermark visibility. Results of our model with and without luminance correction are compared to S-CIELAB in Section 2, Visual Model Comparison. The method of applying a spatially dependent CSF which depends on local image luminance is described in Section 3, Pyramid Processing Method. [0120] The visibility model is then used to embed watermark into images with equal visibility. During the embedding stage, the visibility model can predict the visibility of the watermark signal and then adjust the embedding strength. The result will be an embedded image with a uniform watermark signal visibility, with the embedding strength varying depending on the cover image's content. This method was compared to a uniform strength embed in terms of both visibility and robustness, and the results are shown in Section 4, Watermark Equal Visibility Embed. Visual Model Comparison Psychophysical Experiment [0121] To test the full-color visibility model a psychophysical experiment was conducted. The percept of degradation caused by the watermark was compared to the results of the visibility model, as well as to the S-CIELAB metric. [0122] A set of observers were asked to rate their perception of the image degradation of 20 color patch samples using a quality ruler. The quality ruler (illustrated in [ FIG. 13A ]) increases in watermark strength from left (B) to right (F). The color samples were viewed one at a time at a viewing distance of approximately 12 inches. The samples were presented using the Latin square design (see Geoffrey Keppel and Thomas Wickens, “Design and analysis: A researcher's handbook.” Prentice Hall, pp. 381-386, 2004) to ensure a unique viewing order for each observer. [0123] FIG. 13A shows quality ruler increasing in degradation from B (slight) to F (strong). [0124] All 22 participants passed the Ishihara color test. There were eight female and 14 male participants, with an average age of 43. Their professions and experience varied. Four people had never participated in a visibility experiment, 12 had some experience and six had participated on several occasions. [0125] Thumbnails of the 20 color patches are illustrated in [ FIG. 13B ]. The color samples were chosen largely based on the results of a previous experiment; where it was observed that the visibility model had difficulty accurately predicting the observer response with darker color patches. Additionally, one color patch had a much higher perceived and predicted degradation. Ten of the original samples were included in the second experiment. Dark patches, patches which were expected to have a higher perception of degradation and memory colors were added to complete the set of 20 patches. The experiment and the quality ruler patches were all printed with an Epson Stylus 4880 on Epson professional photo semi-gloss 16 inch paper. [0126] FIG. 13B shows thumbnails of the 20 color patch samples with the watermark applied. [0127] The mean observer scores for the 20 color samples are plotted in [ FIG. 14 ]. In general the colors on the far right are lighter. As discussed in the previous experiment, the cyan1 patch was observed to have a higher level of degradation. In this second experiment, other colors with similar properties were determined to have a similarly high perception of degradation. [0128] FIG. 14 shows the mean observer responses with 95% confidence intervals. Validation of the Visibility Model [0129] The motivation for the psychophysical experiment is to test how well the proposed full-color visibility model correlates to the perception of the degradation caused by the watermark signal. The model without and with the luminance adjustment are plotted in [ FIG. 15 ] and [ FIG. 16 ], respectively. [0130] FIG. 15 shows mean observer response compared with the proposed visibility model. The solid black line is the polynomial trendline. [0131] FIG. 16 shows mean observer response compared with the proposed visibility model with luminance adjustment. [0132] The addition of the luminance adjustment primarily affected the darker color patches, darkgreen, foliage and darkblue1. CIEDE94 and CIEDE2000 color difference models were also considered, however there was not a clear advantage to using the more complex formulas. [0133] FIG. 17 shows Mean observer response compared with S-CIELAB. [0134] The S-CIELAB values are also plotted against the mean observer response [ FIG. 17 ]. [0135] Two different methods were used to compare the different metrics to the observer data, Pearson's correlation and the coefficient of determination (R 2 ). Both correlation techniques describe the relationship between the metric and observer scores. The coefficient indicates the relationship between two variables on a scale of +/−1, the closer the values are to 1 the stronger the correlation is between the objective metric and subjective observer results. The correlations are summarized in Table 1. Table 1. [0136] [0000] TABLE 1 Pearson and R 2 correlation between the observers' mean responses and the objective metrics. For both tests, the proposed full-color visibility model with the luminance adjustment shows the highest correlation. Visibility model using CIE ΔE 76 No Adjust With Adjust S-CIELAB Pearson 0.81 0.86 0.61 R 2 0.70 0.85 0.38 As shown in Table 1, all three objective methods have a positive correlation to the subjective results with both correlation methods. The full-color visibility model with the luminance adjustment had the highest correlation with both the Pearson and R 2 correlation tests, while S-CIELAB had the lowest. Pyramid Processing Method [0137] In image fidelity measures, the CSF is commonly used as a linear filter to normalize spatial frequencies such that they have perceptually equal contrast thresholds. This can be described by the following shift invariant convolution: [0000] f ~  ( x , y ) =  h  ( x , y ) * f  ( x , y ) =  ∑ m   ∑ n   h  ( m , n )  f  ( x - m , y - n ) , ( 1 ) [0000] where f(x,y) is an input image, h(x,y) is the spatial domain CSF, and {tilde over (f)}(x,y) is the frequency normalized output image. [0138] For our luminance dependent CSF model, we allow the CSF to vary spatially according to the local luminance of the image, i.e.: [0000] f ~  ( x , y ) = ∑ m   ∑ n   h  ( m , n ; x , y )  f  ( x - m , y - n ) . ( 2 ) [0139] Since evaluating this shift variant convolution directly can be computationally expensive, we seek an approximation that is more efficient. [0140] The use of image pyramids for fast image filtering is well-established. An image pyramid can be constructed as a set of low-pass filtered and down-sampled images f l (x,y), typically defined recursively as follows: [0000] f 0 ( x,y )= f ( x,y )  (3) [0000] and [0000] f l  ( x , y ) = ∑ m   ∑ n  h 0  ( m , n )  f l - 1  ( 2  x - m , 2  y - n ) ( 4 ) [0000] for l>0 and generating kernel h 0 (m,n). It is easily shown from this definition that each level f l (x,y) of an image pyramid can also be constructed iteratively by convolving the input image with a corresponding effective kernel h l (m,n) and down-sampling directly to the resolution of the level, as follows: [0000] f l  ( x , y ) = ∑ m   ∑ n  h l  ( m , n )  f 0  ( 2 l  x - m , 2 l  y - n ) , ( 5 ) [0141] where h l (m,n) is an l-repeated convolution of h 0 (m,n) with itself. [0142] For image filtering, the various levels of an image pyramid are used to construct basis images of a linear decomposition representing the point-spread response of the desired filtering, i.e.: [0000] f ~  ( x , y ) = ∑ l   a l  f ~ l  ( x , y ) , ( 6 ) [0000] where α l is the coefficient of the basis function {tilde over (f)} l (x,y) obtained by up-sampling the corresponding pyramid level f l (x,y) back to the base resolution. [0143] We use the effective convolution kernel h l (x,y) as an interpolating kernel, i.e., [0000] f ~ l  ( x , y ) = 4 l  ∑ m   ∑ n  h l  ( x - 2 l  m , y - 2 l  n )  f l  ( m , n ) , ( 7 ) [0000] such that each basis function {tilde over (f)} l (x,y) can be described by a simple shift-invariant convolution of the input image with a composite kernel {tilde over (h)} l (x,y): [0000] {tilde over (f)} l ( x,y )= {tilde over (h)} l ( x,y )* f l ( x,y )  (8) [0000] where {tilde over (h)} l (x,y)=h l (x,y)*h z (x,y). Thus, considering Eq. (6), we assert that the optimal representation is obtained by minimizing the sum of the squared error between the desired CSF and the Gaussian representation; i.e., [0000] E = ∑ x   ∑ y  ( h  ( x , y ) - ∑ l   a l  h ~ l  ( x , y ) ) 2 , ( 9 ) [0000] where [0000] a = arg  min a  E , ( 8 ) [0144] and a=[α 1 , α 2 , . . . ]. This is a standard linear least-squares problem and can be solved using standard software packages, like Matlab® or GNU Octave. Further, the optimization can be pre-calculated for each local luminance of interest and stored in a look-up table, noting that for our application each coefficient α 1 is spatially varying according to the local luminance level L f =L f (x,y) of f(x,y), i.e., [0000] a l =a l ( L f )= a l ( L f ( x,y )). [0145] While the development of our approach has been conducted for basis image at the resolution of the input image, the procedure can be conducted within a multi-resolution scheme, reducing the calculation of the spatially variant convolution in Eq. (3.2) into a pyramid reconstruction with spatially variant analysis coefficients. Watermark Equal Visibility Embed [0146] FIG. 18 shows an example from a cover image mimicking a package design. The design has two embedding schemes: on the left the watermark signal strength is uniform across the whole image, and on the right the watermark signal strength is adjusted based on the prediction from the visibility model. Since the human visual system is approximately a peak error detector, the image degradation caused by the watermark signal is determined by the most noticeable area. In this example, the hilly area in the background has the most noticeable degradation, as shown in the magnified insets. The visibility model is used to find this severe degradation. The signal strength in this area is reduced which improves the overall visibility of the embedded image, making it more acceptable. The total watermark signal on the right is 40% more than that on the left, but visually, the marked image on the right is preferable to the left one, because the degradation in the most noticeable area is reduced significantly. [0147] FIG. 19 shows the calculated visibility for the uniform signal strength embedding (left) and the visibility model adjusted embedding (right). Notice that the visibility map is smoother on the right than on the left. [0148] In terms of watermark detection, the embedding scheme with visibility model based adjustment can accommodate more watermark signal without creating a very noticeable degradation, thus making the detection more robust. To demonstrate the powerfulness of applying the visibility model, we performed a stress test with captures of 4 images from the two embedding schemes at various distances and perspectives. The other 3 images from the uniform visibility embedding are shown in [ FIG. 20 ]. Their visibility maps are not included but instead the standard deviation of each visibility map is listed in Table 2. The percentage of successful detection is shown in Table 3. [0149] These two tables show that the equal visibility embedding showed a significant visibility improvement over the uniform strength embedding scheme, together with robustness that was about the same or better. [0150] FIG. 18 shows watermark embedding with uniform signal strength (left) and equal visibility from the visibility model (right). The insets are magnified to show image detail. [0151] FIG. 19 shows visibility map from uniform signal strength embedding (left) and equal visibility embedding (right). [0152] FIG. 20 shows Apple tart, Giraffe stack and Pizza puff design used in tests. [0153] Table 2 shows standard deviation of the visibility maps on the 4 images from the two embedding schemes. [0000] TABLE 2 Test image Uniform strength embedding Equal visibility embedding Granola 18.32 9.71 Apple Tart 8.19 4.96 Giraffe Stack 16.89 11.91 Pizza Puff 11.81 8.27 [0154] Table 3 shows detection rate on 4 images from the two embedding schemes, out of 1000 captures each image/embedding. [0000] TABLE 3 Test image Uniform strength embedding Equal visibility embedding Granola 18% 47% Apple Tart 50% 58% Giraffe Stack 47% 49% Pizza Puff 63% 61% Conclusions [0155] A full color visibility model has been developed which has good correlation to subjective visibility tests for color patches degraded with a watermark. The best correlation was achieved with a model that applied a luminance correction to the CSF. [0156] The model was applied during the watermark embed process, using a pyramid based method, to obtain equal visibility. Better robustness and visibility was obtained with equal visibility embed than uniform strength embed. Discussion [0157] One goal of a color visibility model is to create an objective visual degradation model due to digital watermarking of an image. For example, a model may predict how noticeable or visible image changes will be due to watermark insertion. Highly noticeable changes can be reduced or modified to reduce watermark visibility, and/or to create equal watermark visibility (or lack thereof) across an image. For example, an error metric above or relative to the standard “Just Noticeable Difference” (JND) can be used to determine noticeable changes. [0158] In a first implementation, with reference to FIG. 21 , a digital watermarked image is compared to a processed version of an original image to determine a visibility map. The visibility map can be used to weight watermark embedding of the original image, e.g., to reduce watermark strength in high visibility areas. The process starts with conversion of an original image into the so-call CIELAB space, resulting in L*, a* and b* color representations. As mentioned above, the L* coordinate represents the perceived lightness or luminance, an L* value of 0 indicates black and a value of 100 indicates white. The CIE a* coordinate position goes between “redness” (positive) and “greenness” (negative), while the CIE b* goes between “yellowness” (positive) and “blueness” (negative). The original image is digitally watermarked and then converted into the CIELAB space. For example, the watermarking for this initial process may use a uniform embedding strength across the entire image. [0159] Contrast between the original image and the marked image can be determined, and then contrast sensitivity functions (CSFs) can be applied to each of the L*, a* and b* channels. For example, the L* CSFs discussed in Daly, “Visible differences predictor: an algorithm for the assessment of image fidelity,” F. L. van Nes et al. “Spatial Modulation Transfer in the Human Eye,” J. Opt. Soc. Am., Vol. 57, Issue 3, pp. 401-406 (1967), or Johnson et al, “On Contrast Sensitivity in an Image Difference Model,” PICS 2002: Image Processing, Image Quality, Image Capture Systems Conference, Portland, Oreg., April 2002; p. 18-23 (which is herein incorporated herein in its entirety), can be used. In other cases a bandpass filter, with a drop off toward low-frequencies, can be applied to the L*. The processed or blurred L* channel (from the original image) can be used to determine visibility masking. For example, areas of high contrast, edges, features, high variance areas, can be identified for inclusion of more or less watermarking strength. Some areas (e.g., flat area, edges, etc.) can be entirely masked out to avoid watermarking all together. [0160] For the a* and b* channels, chrominance CSFs can be applied to the respective channels, e.g., such CSFs as discussed in Johnson et al, “Darwinism of Color Image Difference Models;” G. J. C. van der Horst et al., “Spatiotemporal chromaticity discrimination,” J. Opt. Soc. Am., 59(11), 1482-1488, 1969; E. M. Granger et al., “Visual chromaticity modulation transfer function,” J. Opt. Soc. Am., 63(9), 73-74, 1973; K. T. Mullen, “The contrast sensitivity of human colour vision to red-green and blue-yellow chromatic gratings,” J. Physiol., 359, 381-400, 1985; each of which are hereby incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. In other cases, a low-pass filter is used which has a lower cut-off frequency relative to the CSF of luminance. [0161] Channel error difference can then be determined or calculated. For example, on a per pixel basis, L*, a* and b* data from the original image are compared to the blurred (e.g., processed with respective CSFs) L*, a* and b*channels from the watermarked image. One comparison utilizes ΔE76: [0162] Using (L* 1 , a* 1 , b* 1 ) and (L* 2 , a* 2 , b* 2 ), two colors in L*a*b*, the error between two corresponding pixel values is: [0000] Δ E* ab =√{square root over (( L* 2 −L* 1 )+( a* 2 −a* 1 )+( b* 2 −b* 1 ) 2 )}, [0000] where ΔE* ab ≈2.3 corresponds to a JND (just noticeable difference). Other comparisons may utilize, e.g., ΔE 94 or ΔE 2000 . [0163] Of course, and more preferably used, is an error determination for the blurred (CSF processed) L*a*b* from the original image and the CSF blurred L*a*b* from the watermarked image. [0164] The output of the Calculate Channel Difference module identifies error metrics. The error metrics can be used to identify image areas likely to include high visibility due to the inserted digital watermark signal. We sometimes refer to this output as an “error map”. Typically, the lower the error, the less visible the watermark is at a particular area, image blocks or even down to a signal pixel. [0165] The visibility mask and the error map can be cooperatively utilized to guide digital watermarking. For example, watermark signal gain can be varied locally according to the error map, and areas not conducive to receive digital watermark, as identified in the visibility mask, can altogether be avoided or receive a further signal reduction. [0166] One limitation of the FIG. 21 model is that it does not take into account local luminance influences for Contrast Sensitivity Functions (CSF), particularly for the a* and b* chrominance channels. With reference to FIG. 22 , we propose a color visibility model for use with a digital watermark embedder that seeks equal visibility across an image by locally varying watermarking embedding strength based on predicted visibility influenced, e.g., by local image luminance. A CSF for each color channel can be varied spatially depending on the luminance of the local image content. [0167] The luminance content of the original image provides potential masking of changes due to watermarking in chrominance as well as luminance. For example, where a watermark signal comprises mostly high frequency components, the masking potential of the original image is greater at regions with high frequency content. We observe that most high frequency content in a typical host image is in the luminance channel. Thus, the luminance content of the host is the dominant contributor to masking potential for luminance changes and chrominance changes for high frequency components of the watermark signal. [0168] Returning to FIG. 22 , we may add several modules relative to the FIG. 21 system, e.g., “Calculate Local Luminance” and “blur SCALED CSF” modules. The FIG. 22 visibility model system uses separate CSFs for contrast variations in luminance and chrominance (red-green and blue-yellow) channels. The width, characteristics or curve of the CSF in each channel can be scaled or modified depending on the luminance of the local image content. For example, for a given pixel, local luminance in a neighborhood around the pixel can be evaluated to determine a local brightness value. The local brightness value can be used to scale or modified a CSF curve. The neighborhood may include, e.g., 4, 8 or more pixels. In some cases, the CSF is adjusted so that more blurring occurs as the luminance of the local region decreases. The error difference between the contrast of the blurred (or unblurred) original and the blurred marked image can be measured using a color difference metric, e.g., ΔE 76 , ΔE 94 or ΔE 2000 . [0169] With reference to FIG. 23A , one objective may include embedding digital watermarking into images with equal visibility. That is, the image includes watermarking embedded therein at different signal strength values to achieve uniform or equal visibility. During the embedding stage, the visibility model can predict the visibility of the watermark signal and then adjust the embedding strength. The result will be an embedded image with a uniform watermark signal visibility, with the embedding strength varying locally across the image depending on characteristics of the cover image's content. For example, a visibility map generated from the FIG. 22 system is used to reshape (e.g., locally scale according to an error map and/or mask embedding or avoidance areas according to a visibility map) a watermark signal. The original signal is then embedded with the reshaped watermark signal to create an equal visibility embedded (EVE) image. In such a case, the watermark signal locally varies to achieve an overall equal visibility. [0170] Some visibility advantages of EVE vs. uniform strength embedding (USE) are shown in FIG. 23B . The visibility of the USE varies from area to area, as see in the bottom left image. In comparison, when embedding the same image area with EVE (bottom right image), the watermark visibility appears equal. The bottom left and right images represent the same image area highlighted in blue in the upper right image. CONCLUDING REMARKS [0171] Having described and illustrated the principles of the technology with reference to specific implementations, it will be recognized that the technology can be implemented in many other, different, forms. To provide a comprehensive disclosure without unduly lengthening the specification, applicant hereby incorporates by reference each of the above referenced patent documents in its entirety. [0172] The methods, processes, components, apparatus and systems described above may be implemented in hardware, software or a combination of hardware and software. For example, the watermark encoding processes and embedders may be implemented in software, firmware, hardware, combinations of software, firmware and hardware, a programmable computer, electronic processing circuitry, with a processor, parallel processors or other multi-processor configurations, and/or by executing software or instructions with one or more processors or dedicated circuitry. Similarly, watermark data decoding or decoders may be implemented in software, firmware, hardware, combinations of software, firmware and hardware, a programmable computer, electronic processing circuitry, and/or by executing software or instructions with a processor, parallel processors or other multi-processor configurations. [0173] The methods and processes described above (e.g., watermark embedders and detectors) also may be implemented in software programs (e.g., written in C, C++, Visual Basic, Java, Python, Tcl, Perl, Scheme, Ruby, executable binary files, etc.) stored in memory (e.g., a computer readable medium, such as an electronic, optical or magnetic storage device) and executed by a processor (or electronic processing circuitry, hardware, digital circuit, etc.). [0174] While one embodiment discusses inverting the polarity in a second color channel (e.g., a ‘b’ channel), one could also invert the polarity in the first color channel (e.g., an ‘a’ channel) instead. In such a case, the first color channel is then preferably subtracted from the second color channel. [0175] The particular combinations of elements and features in the above-detailed embodiments (including Appendix D) are exemplary only; the interchanging and substitution of these teachings with other teachings in this and the incorporated-by-reference patent documents are also contemplated.

The present disclosure relate generally to image signal processing, color science and signal encoding. One claim recites an apparatus including: an input for obtaining color image data; memory for storing a luminance contrast sensitivity function (CSF 1 ) and a chrominance contrast sensitivity function (CSF 2 ); means for degrading data representing color image data with the CSF 1 and the CSF 2 to predict visibility changes attributable to encoding plural-bit information in the obtained color image data, in which the CSF 1 varies depending on luminance values associated with local regions of the color image data, in which said means for degrading data representing color image data yields results for different image areas within the color image data, and in which the CSF 1 is used for degrading luminance data and the CSF 2 is used for degrading chrominance data; and means for altering the color image data by encoding plural-bit information therein, in which signal embedding strength of the encoding within the different image areas varies based on the results. Of course, other features, combinations and claims are disclosed as well.

FIELD AND BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to signals such as radar signals that are used for range and direction finding and for imaging surfaces and objects and, more particularly, to a class of such signals whose length and bandwidth are parametrized independently. These signals may be used by range and direction finding devices, such as radars and their acoustic equivalents, that have single or multiple transmitters and receivers. Pulsed signals such as radio-frequency (RF) signals and acoustic signals commonly are used for determining the distance and direction to a target. Reflections of the signals from the target are received, and the distance to the target is inferred as the product of the round-trip travel time and the speed of the signals in the medium in which the signals propagate to and from the target. The direction of arrival (DOA) is identified e.g. from differential arrival times at the receivers of a receiver array. Co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/571,693, that is incorporated by reference for all purposes as if fully set forth herein, teaches a method of transmitting acoustic signals from the top of a silo and receiving echoes of the signals from the contents of the silo at the top of the silo to measure the shape of the top of the contents of the silo and so infer the volume of the contents of the silo. FIG. 1 shows one such silo 100 , in cross-section. This application of pulsed signal range and direction finding is complicated by challenges including: (i) The upper surface 104 a or 104 b of the silo contents 102 can be at a variable distance from the acoustic transmitters and receivers 106 . This distance varies in a wide range: from tens of centimeters ( 104 a ) to tens of meters ( 104 b ). This creates the following sub-challenges: i-1: a need for signal-to-noise-ratio (SNR) enhancement of weak arrived reflected pulses. i-2: a need for pulses of different lengths The need for SNR enhancement follows, in addition to the mentioned wide dynamic range of the acoustic paths, from the following issues: (A) Specific silo contents surface geometry and/or specific geometry of silo walls and/or due to kinds of granularity of the silo contents. In particular, if due to specific environmental factors named above the geometrically reflected acoustic ray trajectories miss the receivers and only weak diffuse scattered rays approach the receivers, then the requirement of SNR amplification becomes even more urgent. (B) The noises inside the silo. (ii) In many cases, it is desirable that the transmission of the signal terminate before the process of acquisition of the signal starts at the receiver. Otherwise, the strong transmitted signal leaks into the acoustic receiver as a strong noise added to the possible weak received reflected signal of interest whose parameters are to be measured. This complicates the processing significantly. If transceivers serve both as transmitters and receivers for beamforming, as in U.S. Ser. No. 10/571,693, it also reduces the number of transceivers usable as receivers, since several transceivers will be still used for transmission; it also makes impossible the use of all transceivers for the simultaneous transmission to create a spatially sharp beam. Thus, for these and other technological reasons the separation of the transmission and the reception in time is essential. This results in the demand that the length of the transmitted pulse [equal to the time period of its transmission multiplied by the speed of sound] be slightly shorter than the distance to the upper surface of the silo contents. This constraint is essential to the silo measurements, while it is absent e.g. from “standard” applications such as RF radar where targets such as airplanes, are far away from the rangefinder. (iii) Typically, as shown in FIG. 2 , the transmitted acoustic signal 110 in silo 100 returns back to receivers 106 not as a single pulse but as a sum [or “train”] of multiple reflections 112 , 114 . This multi-path phenomena is also known in musical acoustics as reverberation. It presents challenges to discrimination of different reflections [in particular, for point mapping upon the upper surface of the silo contents]. In particular, it would be desirable to have a short-in-time signal, without long tails or ripples, since the tail or ripple of one reflected signal may mix with another reflected signal and cover or “camouflage” the other reflected signal, thus making discrimination of the two reflected signals problematic or impossible. Thus: good separation of the received pulses in-time [after their pre-processing] is required, for time of arrival (TOA) determination and DOA determination and the output pulses [again, after pre-processing] need to be to be as short as possible in time to achieve good resolution and to have tails with very small peak-to-ripple ratios. This challenge is addressed below by an innovative design of the transmitted pulse, and innovative pulse processing. The term “pre-processing” means the intermediate processing step. In typical prior art general radar or communication systems this includes application of e.g. Matched Filtering (MF) [correlation of the signal pulse with itself, which is an example of pulse compression] or application of other type of filtering which reduces the side-lobes, e.g. mis-matched filtering. (iv) In addition, the transmitted acoustic pulse has to be band-limited. This follows from several reasons. The first reason is related to the transfer functions of the acoustic antenna (for example, a horn antenna) and of the [electro-mechanical] driver of the acoustic transducer, since the transmission in the frequency domain of high attenuation of the total transfer function is a waste of energy and causes warping of the signal shape. The second reason involves the acoustic noise in silos. Typically the noise is expected to be high at the low frequencies [usually less than 1 kHz] and thus the signal spectrum needs to be separated from these areas. Note, that the Doppler effect of the signal frequency shift is not an issue for an acoustic rangefinder in a typical silo due to the slow movement of the material surface and the kilo-Hertz range of the carrier frequency. For example, for 1 cm/sec movement and a 5 kHz carrier, and assuming a speed of sound of 340 m/sec, the frequency shift is about 0.01/340*5000=0.14 Hz, which is negligible. The following notation is used below: (A) The Z-Transform and Sparsity The standard notation for the z-transform of a sequence is used herein. For example, the z-transform of the Barker 5 sequence, [1 1 1 −1 1], is b 5 ( z )=1 +z −1 +z −2 −z −3 +z −4 The notation b 5 (z 30 ) means: b 5 ( z 30 )=1 +z −30 +z −60 −z −90 +z −120 This is the z-transform of a sparse sequence of length 121 with only five non-zero values equidistant from one another. The value 30 is the “sparsity” of the new sequence that has been created from the original sequence [1 1 1 −1 1]. The original Barker 5 sequence has a sparsity of 1. Such original sequences of unit sparsity also are referred to herein as “templates” from which sparse sequences are derived. In this example, b 5 (z) is the template of b 5 (z 30 ). (B) Convolution Several notations are used herein for convolution. All these notations are standard in the signal processing literature. “ ” means convolution. For example, if s1=[1, 2] and s2=[1, 2, 3] then c=s1 [1, 4, 7, 6]. An alternative notation is are c=conv(s1, s2). In the z-transform domain, the z-transform of c is the product of the z-transforms of s1 and s2. (C) Matched Filter MF( . . . ) means a matched filtering operation on a sequence. For example, for a sequence [a b c d e], MF([a b c d e])=[e* d* c* b* a*]; where “*” means conjugation for complex-valued components. For real-valued sequences, MF( . . . ) is equivalent to time-reversal (or index-reversal) of the sequence. The following references provide background for the prior art of ranging pulse construction and processing: [BARKER 1953] Barker, R. H: “Group synchronizing of binary digital system” in Jackson, W, (Ed): Communication theory (Butterworths, London, 1953), pp. 273-287. [BORWEIN 2008] Borwein P., and Mossinghoff M. J., Barker sequences and flat polynomials (with P. Borwein), Number Theory and Polynomials (Bristol, U.K., 2006), J. McKee and C. Smyth, eds., London Math. Soc. Lecture Note Ser. 352, Cambridge Univ. Press, 2008. [CHEN 2002] Chen, R., and Cantrell B: “Highly bandlimited radar signals”, Proceedings of the 2002 IEEE Radar Conference , Long Beach, Calif., Apr. 22-25, 2002, pp. 220-226. [LEVANON 2004] Levanon N., and Mozeson E: Radar Signals, Wiley & Sons, New York, 2004, xiv+411 pp. [LEVANON 2005] Levanon N: “Cross-correlation of long binary signals with longer mismatched filters”, IEE Proc.—Radar, Sonar and Navigation, 152 (6), 372-382, 2005. [NATHANSON 1999] Nathanson F. E., Reilly J. P., cohere M. N.: “Radar Design Principles Signal Processing and the Environment”, 2 nd edition, SciTech Publishing, 1999, 720 pp. Conventional Construction of a Phase-Coded Ranging Pulse In the baseband (“BB”) representation, a phase coded ranging pulse is represented as a weighted sum of time-continuous baseband shapes [or functions] Ψ(t/t b ) which are equally distanced from each other by “bit” time t b [LEVANON 2004, Section 6]: u BB ⁡ ( t ) = ∑ m = 1 M ⁢ ⁢ s m · Ψ BB ⁡ ( t t b - ( m - 1 ) ) ( eq . ⁢ 1 ⁢ ⁢ A ) This signal is a continuous function of time t. The digital realization of the signal is sampled with a periodicity of T s ≦t b . The “signal bit length” L b is the number of samples per bit time, L b =t b /T s , rounded to the nearest integer. The weight [or spreading] sequence, s={s m }, m=1:M, is typically a sequence with good correlation properties. In general, the shape function and the digital sequence may be real or complex valued. The sequence s does not have to be binary; the term “bit” time is thus used for historical reasons, since the first (and still widely used) spreading sequences are the Barker binary codes. The baseband pulse u BB (t) needs to be up-converted at the transmitter to the carrier frequency f c by using standard techniques. It then needs to be down-converted at the receiver. For the specific but very common case of a real-valued spreading sequence s and for real-valued shapes, one may write the transmitted pulse u(t), modulated by a carrier frequency f c in a way similar to (eq. 1A): u ⁡ ( t ) = ∑ m = 1 M ⁢ ⁢ s m · Ψ ⁡ ( t t b - ( m - 1 ) ) ( eq . ⁢ 1 ⁢ ⁢ B ) where the “passband shape” Ψ is Ψ BB multiplied by a sinusoid of frequency f c : Ψ ⁡ ( t t b ) = Ψ BB ⁡ ( t t b ) · sin ⁡ ( 2 ⁢ π ⁢ ⁢ f c ⁢ t + ϕ 0 ) ( eq . ⁢ 1 ⁢ ⁢ C ) and φ 0 is an arbitrary phase. The phase can be chosen, for example, in such a way that Ψ(t/t 0 )=0 at the earliest time t for which Ψ(t/t 0 ) is defined [for example if Ψ(t/t 0 ) starts at t=0, one may choose φ 0 =0]. As described above, the digitally sampled baseband pulse u BB (t) is up-converted to the carrier frequency f c . Alternatively, the passband pulse u(t) is sampled digitally and converted directly to the transmitted analog signal by direct digital-to-analog conversion. The “kernel” (defined below) illustrated in FIG. 5 below is an example of a sampled passband shape created by multiplying a Kaiser window baseband shape by a sinusoid. Shape Functions and Bandwidth Considerations for Ranging Pulses The simplest example of a shape function is the rectangular function, which has support, i.e., is non-zero, only in the interval t=[0,t b ] [LEVANON 2004, Section 6, p. 100]: Ψ BB ⁡ ( t t b ) = rect ⁡ ( t t b ) = { 1 for ⁢ ⁢ 0 ≤ t ≤ t b 0 for ⁢ ⁢ t < 0 ⁢ ⁢ or ⁢ ⁢ t > t b ( eq . ⁢ 2 ⁢ ⁢ A ) This leads to: u BB ⁡ ( t ) = ∑ m = 1 M ⁢ ⁢ s m · rect ⁡ ( t t b - ( m - 1 ) ) The rectangle shape attenuates frequency very poorly. The power spectrum of the pulse behave as a sine function [see NATHANSON 1999, pp. 544, 555]: G ⁡ ( f ) = sin 2 ⁡ ( π ⁢ ⁢ ft b ) ( π ⁢ ⁢ ft b ) 2 Therefore, smoother functions need to be introduced to satisfy the bandwidth constraints. One solution that applies to this problem is described in [LEVANON 2004, section 6.8, pp. 145-155], which cites the original article [CHEN 2002] and presents the shape as a Gaussian-windowed sine function: [LEVANON 2004, p. 151, equation 6.25]: Ψ BB ⁡ ( t t b ) = { sin ⁡ ( π ⁢ t t b ) · exp ⁢ { - 1 2 ⁢ σ 2 ⁢ ( t t b ) 2 } π ⁡ ( t t b ) for ⁢ - 2 ⁢ ⁢ t b ≤ t ≤ 2 ⁢ ⁢ t b 0 for ⁢ ⁢ t < - 2 ⁢ ⁢ t b ⁢ ⁢ or ⁢ ⁢ t > 2 ⁢ ⁢ t b ( eq . ⁢ 2 ⁢ ⁢ B ) In the above references, the parameter σ is suggested to be chosen as σ=0.7. The parameter t b is chosen to satisfy the bandwidth constraints [the spectrum vs. non-dimensional coordinate f−t b is shown in FIG. 6.42 on p. 153 and 6.45 on p. 154. of [LEVANON 2004]]. The above shapes all have time-support, i.e. they are non-zero, upon a [small, typically 1 or 2 or 4] integral number of t b intervals. This means that for the sampled signals, the signal bit length is equal to the length of the sampled shape function sequence for the rectangular shape function of equation (2A) and to one-quarter of the length of the sampled gaussian-windowed sine shape function of equation 2B. Some Known Sequences with Good Correlation Properties A typical ranging pulse is based upon a sequence with good correlation properties [see LEVANON 2004, Chapter 6, Sections 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.7]. For example, the most celebrated ones are the Barker sequences introduced in 1953 by Barker [BARKER 1953]: b3=[1,1,−1] b4A=[1,1,−1,1] b4B=[1,1,1,−1] b5=[1,1,1,−1,1] b7=[1,1,1,−1,−1,1,−1] b11=[1,1,1,−1,−1,−1,1,−1,−1,1,−1] b13=[1,1,1,1,1,−1,−1,1,1,−1,1,−1,1] Each of these sequences has a relatively flat spectrum and also the exceptional property that the peak-to-maximal-ripple-ratio of its auto-correlation is equal to the length of the sequence. This ratio, when calculated in dB, is known in the radar literature as PSL [Peak Sidelobe Level]. For example for b5, this ratio is 5 to 1 [or PSL=10 log 10 (⅕ 2 )≈−14 dB]. The PSLs of the Barker codes are shown in [NATHANSON 1999, Table 12.1, p. 538]. All known Barker codes are listed above. To enlarge the pulse energy the longer pulses, that have more sequence elements, are used. Still, it is assumed that the autocorrelation properties of such sequences are good. One may find discussion of such codes and some examples e.g. in [LEVANON 2004, Chapter 6, Table 6.3 pp. 108-109], where the sidelobe level is shown, while the peak level corresponds to the length of the sequence; see also [NATHANSON 1999, pp. 537-541, especially the Table 12.2 on pp. 540], where also the number of different possible sequences having the same sidelobe level is presented]. Modern mathematical review of generalizations of Barker sequences may be found in [BORWEIN 2008]. In the mathematical literature, the Littlewood polynomials [polynomials with coefficients ±˜1] are discussed. As an example, the following two sequences, representing the Littlewood polynomials with good autocorrelation properties, are listed in [BORWEIN 2008] and are given as: seq20=[1,1,1,1,1,−1,1,−1,−1,−1,1,−1,1,1,−1,−1,−1,1,1,−1] seq25=[1,1,1, −1, −1, −1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1, −1,1, −1,1, −1, −1,1, −1,1,1, −1] Nested Sequences A well-known way to construct longer sequences is to use nested codes [see LEVANON 2004, section 6.1.2, pp. 107-109, and LEVANON 2005]. This method is also known as code concatenation (or combination); if two Barker codes are used, the code is also named Barker-squared, see [NATHANSON 1999, pp. 541-542]. For example, instead of 1's and −1's in the binary code, such as a Barker code or a Littlewood polynomial, one may insert another code. To illustrate this approach let us use Barker b5 as a template, and an arbitrary Barker sequence “b” of length “L”; then one may write a sequence of length L·5: nested_sequence — Lx 5 =[b,b,b,−b,b] Typically, a Barker code is nested inside of another Barker code. As an example, one may use Barker 5 as the “b” sequence, b=b5, and obtain the 5×5 nested Barker code of length 25: nested_sequence — 5×5=[ b 5 ,b 5 ,b 5 ,−b 5 ,b 5] The nested code obtained by nesting Barker b13 into itself, 13×13 is mentioned in the literature; see for example [LEVANON 2005]. An example of a very long code using four combined Barker codes: 5×13×13×13 (with total length 10,985) is mentioned in [NATHANSON 1999, p. 542]. Note that nesting does not improve the peak-to-maximum-ripple ratios in the autocorrelation of the nested code [LEVANON 2004]. For example the auto-correlation of b5 nested into b13 (or vice versa) consists of values {0, 1, 5, 13, 65}, hence the peak to max ripple ratio is equal to 5[65/13=5]. Thus the nested code enlarges the pulse energy but does not improve the correlation properties [the PSL value]. Pulse Processing Pulse compression is achieved by convolution of the received signal with the matched filter of the transmitted signal. This shrinks the long M-element based signal to one energetic main-lobe [which represents the auto-correlation of the shape-function and accumulates the energy of the long pulse] surrounded by side-lobes. For example, if the rectangular shape is used (see eq. 2A) together with the sequence Barker 13, b13, than the well known saw-shape appears as the result of this convolution: it contains one triangular main-lobe and six identical triangular side-lobes to the left and right of the main-lobe. The relation of the peak amplitude of the main-lobe to the peak of each side-lobe is 13/1 as it has to be when the Barker code of length 13 is used [see NATHANSON 1999, FIG. 12.2 on p 536. This example of pulse compression is shown in FIG. 3 ]. Note also that the main-lobe typically becomes wider than the original shape, as a side-effect of the matched filtering. For example, in the above example the triangle of the main-lobe occupies the time interval [−t b ,t b ], whereas the original rectangular shape-function occupies the time interval [0,t b ]. To suppress the side-lobes, mis-matched filtering is introduced [see LEVANON 2004, Section 6.6 pp. 140-142]. For this purpose an especially pre-calculated sequence, “q” of length K is used. This digital sequence is prepared such that the convolution of the original spreading sequence s with the mismatched sequence q, g=s q is close to a “delta function”, i.e., it has one large value (“the peak”) and all other values are small. For example, [LEVANON 2005] demonstrates that a filter that is three times longer than the original Barker 13 [i.e. a mis-matched filter of length 3*13=39] leads to a PSL ratio better than −40 dB (specifically, −43.241 dB). [NATHANSON 1999, Section 12.4 pp. 555-559] mentions that the PSL level can be reduced as low as one desires. For example, a plot for the PSL level vs. mis-matched filter length is shown in [NATHANSON 1999, FIG. 12.10, p. 557] and demonstrates PSL about −55 dB for Barker 13 and a mis-matched filter of length about 63. Using a mis-matched filter leads to some SNR loss, which is relatively small for Barker 13 [tenths of a dB, for example just 0.2 dB according to [LEVANON 2005]]. The SNR loss may be larger for other spreading sequences [NATHANSON 1999, p. 557]. The application of very long mis-matched filters to nested binary codes is discussed in [LEVANON 2005]. For example, a mismatched filter of length 507 is applied to a 13×13 Barker nested code. The length is chosen to be three times the total length of the nested code: 507=3×3×13. The PSL attained is about −40 dB. For the case of rectangular shape functions and nested binary codes, a special mechanism based on several digital signal processors for mismatched filtering is discussed in [NATHANSON 1999, pp. 571-573]. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION According to the present invention there is provided a transmitter including: (a) a pulse shaper for generating an input pulse that is a convolution of a kernel parametrized by a bit length and a spreading sequence parametrized by at least one parameter pair that consists of a spreading length and a sparsity, wherein the bit length and the at least one parameter pair form an ordered set that satisfies at least one condition selected from the set consisting of: (i) a first sparsity is different from the bit length and (ii) if the ordered set includes a plurality of the spreading lengths and the sparsities, then at least one sparsity subsequent to the first sparsity is different from a product of an immediately preceding spreading length and an immediately preceding sparsity; (b) a mechanism for transforming the input pulse to a transmitted pulse; and (c) a transducer for launching the transmitted pulse as a signal propagating in a medium. According to the present invention there is provided a non-contact sensing device, including: (a) a transmitter that includes a pulse shaper for generating an input pulse to be transformed to a transmitted pulse that is launched as a signal that propagates in a medium towards a target, the input pulse being a convolution of a kernel parametrized by a bit length and a spreading sequence parametrized by at least one parameter pair that consists of a spreading length and a sparsity, wherein the bit length and the at least one parameter pair form an ordered set that satisfies at least one condition selected from the set consisting of: (i) a first sparsity is different from the bit length and (ii) if the ordered set includes a plurality of the spreading lengths and the sparsities, then at least one sparsity subsequent to the first sparsity is different from a product of an immediately preceding spreading length and an immediately preceding sparsity; and (b) a receiver that includes: (i) at least one transducer for coupling to the medium to receive a respective reflection of the signal from the target, (ii) for each transducer: (A) a mechanism for transforming the respective received reflection to a respective received representation of the input pulse, and (B) a pulse compressor for deconvolving the spreading sequence from the respective received representation of the input pulse, thereby providing a respective compressed pulse, and (iii) a post-processor for post-processing the at least one compressed pulse. According to the present invention there is provided a method of transmitting a signal into a medium, including the steps of: (a) generating an input pulse that is a convolution of a kernel parametrized by a bit length and a spreading sequence parametrized by at least one parameter pair that consists of a spreading length and a sparsity, wherein the bit length and the at least one parameter pair form an ordered set that satisfies at least one condition selected from the set consisting of: (i) a first sparsity is different from the bit length and (ii) if the ordered set includes a plurality of the spreading lengths and the sparsities, then at least one sparsity subsequent to the first sparsity is different from a product of an immediately preceding spreading length and an immediately preceding sparsity; (b) transforming the input pulse to a transmitted pulse; and (c) launching the transmitted pulse into the medium as the signal. According to the present invention there is provided a method of non-contact sensing of a target, including the steps of: (a) generating an input pulse that is a convolution of a kernel parametrized by a bit length and a spreading sequence parametrized by at least one parameter pair that consists of a spreading length and a sparsity, wherein the bit length and the at least one parameter pair form an ordered set that satisfies at least one condition selected from the set consisting of: (i) a first sparsity is different from the bit length and (ii) if the ordered set includes a plurality of the spreading lengths and the sparsities, then at least one sparsity subsequent to the first sparsity is different from a product of an immediately preceding spreading length and an immediately preceding sparsity; (b) transforming the input pulse to a transmitted pulse; (c) launching the transmitted as a signal propagating in a medium towards the target; (d) receiving at least one reflection of the signal from the target; (e) for each received reflection: (i) transforming the each received reflection to provide a respective received representation of the input pulse, and (ii) compressing the respective received representation of the input pulse by deconvolving the spreading sequence from the respective received representation of the input pulse, thereby providing a respective compressed pulse; and (f) post-processing the at least one compressed pulse. According to the present invention there is provided a transmitter including: (a) a pulse shaper for generating an input pulse that is a convolution of a kernel and an ordered plurality of spreading sequences, wherein at least one spreading sequence subsequent to a first spreading sequence is not a binary sequence; (b) a mechanism for transforming the input pulse to a transmitted pulse; and (c) a transducer for launching the transmitted pulse as a signal propagating in a medium. According to the present invention there is provided a non-contact sensing device, including: (a) a transmitter that includes a pulse shaper for generating an input pulse to be transformed to a transmitted pulse that is launched as a signal that propagates in a medium towards a target, the input pulse being a convolution of a kernel and an ordered plurality of spreading sequences, wherein at least one spreading sequence subsequent to a first spreading sequence is not a binary sequence; and (b) a receiver that includes: (i) at least one transducer for coupling to the medium to receive a respective reflection of the signal from the target, (ii) for each transducer: (A) a mechanism for transforming the respective received reflection to a respective received representation of the input pulse, and (B) a pulse compressor for deconvolving the spreading sequence from the respective received representation of the input pulse, thereby providing a respective compressed pulse, and (iii) a post-processor for post-processing the at least one compressed pulse. According to the present invention there is provided a method of transmitting a signal into a medium, including the steps of: (a) generating an input pulse that is a convolution of a kernel and an ordered plurality of spreading sequences, wherein at least one spreading sequence subsequent to a first spreading sequence is not a binary sequence; (b) transforming the input pulse to a transmitted pulse; and (c) launching the transmitted pulse into the medium as the signal. According to the present invention there is provided a method of non-contact sensing of a target, including the steps of: (a) generating an input pulse that is a convolution of a kernel and an ordered plurality of spreading sequences, wherein at least one spreading sequence subsequent to a first spreading sequence is not a binary sequence; (b) transforming the input pulse to a transmitted pulse; (c) launching the transmitted pulse as a signal propagating in a medium towards the target; (d) receiving at least one reflection of the signal from the target; (e) for each received reflection: (i) transforming the each received reflection to a respective received representation of the input pulse, and (ii) compressing the respective received representation of the input pulse by deconvolving the spreading sequence from the respective received representation of the input pulse, thereby providing a respective compressed pulse; and (g) post-processing the at least one compressed pulse. According to the present invention there is provided a method of transmitting a signal into a medium, including the steps of: (a) selecting a desired length of an input pulse; (b) selecting a kernel and a spreading sequence, such that when the kernel is convolved with the spreading sequence without nesting the kernel in the spreading sequence, an output of the convolution is the input pulse having the desired length; (c) generating the input pulse; (d) transforming the input pulse into a transmitted pulse; and (e) launching the transmitted pulse into the medium as the signal. According to the present invention there is provided a method of transmitting a signal into a medium, comprising the steps of: (a) generating an input pulse by convolving a kernel with a spreading sequence that is selected so that a length by which the input pulse exceeds a length of the kernel is not determined by the length of the kernel; (b) transforming the input pulse into a transmitted pulse; and (c) launching the transmitted pulse into the medium as the signal. A first basic transmitter of the present invention includes a pulse shaper, a transformation mechanism and a transducer. The pulse shaper generates an input pulse (either a baseband pulse or a passband pulse) by convolving a kernel with a spreading sequence. The kernel is parametrized by a bit length. The spreading sequence is parametrized by one or more pairs (preferably two or more pairs) of a spreading length and a sparsity. The bit length and the spreading sequence parameter pair(s) are an ordered set: bit length, first spreading length, first sparsity, second spreading length (if present), second sparsity (if present), etc. As described below, there are some prior art input pulses that can be generated in this manner. These prior art input pulses are excluded from the scope of the appended claims by requiring that the first sparsity be different from the bit length and/or (if there are two or more spreading sequence parameter pairs) that the second or subsequent sparsity be different from the product of the immediately preceding spreading length and the immediately preceding sparsity. The transformation mechanism transforms the input pulse to a transmitted pulse. If the input pulse is a passband pulse then the transformation mechanism includes a digital-to-analog converter. If the input pulse is a baseband pulse then the transformation mechanism includes a modulator for modulating a carrier wave with the baseband pulse. The transducer launches the transmitted pulse as a signal propagating in a medium that supports such propagation. Preferably, the spreading sequence is a convolution of a plurality of spreading functions, with each spreading function being parametrized by a respective spreading sequence parameter pair. For example, if the spreading sequence is the inverse z-transform of the spreading filter product b 5 (z 25 )b 13 (z 129 ) discussed below, the first spreading function, the inverse z-transform of b 5 (z 25 ), is parametrized by a spreading length of 5 and a sparsity of 25, and the second spreading function, the inverse z-transform of b 13 (z 129 ), is parametrized by a spreading length of 13 and a sparsity of 129. Note that this spreading filter product, and hence the associated spreading sequence, satisfies the condition that the second sparsity be different from the product of the first spreading length and the first sparsity: 5×25=125≠129. Most preferably, the pulse shaper generates the input pulse by a plurality of convolutions equal in number to the plurality of spreading functions. The first convolution is of the kernel with the first spreading function. Each subsequent convolution is of the output of the immediately preceding convolution with the next spreading function. For example, if the spreading sequence is the inverse z-transform of the spreading filter product b 5 (z 25 )b 13 (z 129 ) the first convolution is of the kernel with the inverse-z-transform of b 5 (z 25 ) and the second convolution is of the output of the first convolution with the inverse z-transform of b 13 (z 129 ). In some embodiments, the signal is an electronic signal. In other embodiments, the signal is an acoustic signal. A first basic non-contact sensing device of the present invention includes a transmitter and a receiver. The transmitter includes at least the pulse shaper as described above for generating an input pulse to be transformed to a transmitted pulse that is launched as a signal towards a target via a medium in which the signal propagates. The receiver includes one or more transducers with associated respective transformation mechanisms and pulse compressors and a post-processor. The transducer(s) is/are for coupling to the medium to receive (a) (respective) reflection(s) of the signal from the target. Each demodulator demodulates its received reflection to provide a received representation of the input pulse. Each pulse compressor deconvolves the spreading sequence from its representation of the input pulse to provide a compressed pulse. The post-processor post-processes the compressed pulse(s). Depending on how the device is configured, the post processing could include obtaining (a) travel time(s) from the transmitter to the transducer(s) via the target and inferring a range to the target from the travel time(s); and additionally or alternatively obtaining a direction of arrival of the received reflection(s). If, as is preferred, the spreading sequence is a convolution of a plurality of spreading functions, with each spreading function being parametrized by a respective parameter pair, then each pulse compressor deconvolves the spreading sequence from its representation of the input pulse by a plurality of deconvolutions equal in number to the plurality of spreading functions. The first deconvolution is of the last spreading function from the representation of the input pulse. Each subsequent deconvolution is of the preceding spreading function from the output of the immediately preceding deconvolution. Most preferably, each deconvolution is effected using a respective key whose sparsity is equal to the sparsity of the spreading sequence being deconvolved. Such sparse deconvolutions are highly efficient. In some embodiments, the signal is an electronic signal. In other embodiments, the signal is an acoustic signal. In some embodiments, the pulse compressor(s) use(s) (a) matched filter(s) to deconvolve the spreading sequence from the representation(s) of the input pulse. In other embodiments, the pulse compressor(s) use(s) (a) mismatched filter(s) to deconvolve the spreading sequence from the representation(s) of the input pulse. A first method of transmitting a signal into a medium includes generating an input pulse as described above in the context of the first basic transmitter of the present invention, transforming the input pulse to a transmitted pulse, and launching the transmitted pulse into the medium as the signal. A first method of non-contact sensing of a target performs the first method of transmitting a signal to launch the signal towards the target. Then the method receives one or more reflections of the signal from the target. The received reflection(s) is/are transformed to (a) (corresponding) received representation(s) of the input pulse. The representation(s) of the input pulse is/are compressed, by deconvolving the spreading sequence from the representation(s) of the input pulse, to provide (a) compressed pulse(s). The compressed pulse(s) are post-processed to obtain a range to the target and/or a direction of arrival of the reflection(s) from the target. A second basic transmitter of the present invention also includes a pulse shaper, a transformation mechanism and a transducer. The pulse shaper generates an input pulse by convolving a kernel with an ordered plurality of spreading sequences. As described below, there are some prior art input pulses that can be generated in this manner. These prior art input pulses are excluded from the scope of the appended claims by requiring that at least one of the spreading sequences subsequent to the first spreading sequence be non-binary. In the prior art, such convolution of spreading sequences is successive nesting of the first spreading sequence in the second spreading sequence, of the nested first and second spreading sequences in the third spreading sequence, etc., and such nesting of a source sequence in a target sequence is defined only for a binary target sequence. A “binary” sequence is a sequence, all of whose members take on one of only two values. Usually these values are “−1” and “1”. The transformation mechanism transforms the input pulse to a transmitted pulse. If the input pulse is a passband pulse then the transformation mechanism includes a digital-to-analog converter. If the input pulse is a baseband pulse then the transformation mechanism includes a modulator for modulating a carrier wave with the baseband pulse. The transducer launches the transmitted pulse as a signal propagating in a medium that supports such propagation. A second basic non-contact sensing device of the present invention includes the pulse shaper of the second basic transmitter of the present invention, and otherwise is identical to the first basic non-contact sensing device of the present invention. A second method of transmitting a signal into a medium includes generating an input pulse as described above in the context of the second basic transmitter of the present invention, transforming the input pulse to a transmitted pulse, and launching the transmitted pulse into the medium as the signal. A second method of non-contact sensing of a target performs the second method of transmitting a signal to launch the signal towards the target, and subsequently is identical to the first method of non-contact sensing of the target. As described below, the non-contact sensing devices of the present invention could be, for example, radar remote sensing devices, acoustic remote sensing devices, medical ultrasound devices or seismic exploration devices. Such medical ultrasound devices are “non-contact” sensing devices in the sense that the transducers of the devices are coupled to the skin of a patient whereas the targets of the sensing are organs and tissues that are not in contact with the skin of the patient. Normally, a non-contact sensing device of the present invention that measures DOA includes a plurality of transmitters and/or receivers so that DOA can be determined by standard methods such as beamforming. The first method of transmitting a signal into a medium is a special case of a more general method, in which a desired length of an input pulse is selected and then a kernel and a spreading sequence are selected, such that when the kernel is convolved with the spreading sequence without nesting the kernel in the spreading sequence, the output of the convolution is the input pulse that has the desired length. In the context of the first method of transmitting a signal into a medium, changing the sparsities of the spreading sequences changes the length of the input pulse. The input pulse is generated and transformed into a transmitted pulse that is launched into the medium as the signal. Preferably, the spreading sequence is parametrized by one or more sparsities. From another point of view, this method generates an input pulse of a desired length by convolving a kernel with a spreading sequence that is selected so that the length by which the input pulse exceeds the length of the kernel is not determined by the length of the kernel, as it would be if the convolution merely nested the kernel in the spreading sequence. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Various embodiments are herein described, by way of example only, with reference to the accompanying drawings, wherein: FIGS. 1 and 2 illustrate the transmission of acoustic signals inside a silo. FIG. 3 shows the results of pulse compression of the Barker 13 code by matched filtering; FIG. 4 is an overview of multi-layer signal construction and processing; FIG. 5 is an example of a kernel; FIGS. 6 and 7 show pulse construction by convolving the kernel of FIG. 5 with sparse sequences constructed from Barker 5 with a sparsity of 25 and from Barker 13 with a sparsity of 129; FIGS. 8-10 illustrate deconvolutional compression of the pulse constructed in FIGS. 3-5 ; FIGS. 11 and 12 show pulse construction by convolving the kernel of FIG. 5 with sparse sequences constructed from Barker 5 with a sparsity of 7 and from Barker 13 with a sparsity of 41; FIGS. 13 and 14 show systems of the present invention for measuring a range to a target in a propagation medium. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The principles and operation of ranging and direction-finding signals according to the present invention may be better understood with reference to the drawings and the accompanying description. Referring again to the drawings, the principle of multi-layer signal construction and processing is shown in FIG. 4 . The present invention uses multi-layer signal construction with an arbitrary number N of layers, including the specific cases of N=1 [only one layer], N=2 [two layers], N=3 etc. A particular important case of just two layers is what is shown in FIG. 4 . The following discussion focuses on digital version of the signal. This is possible due to the frequency range of acoustic range and direction finders such as are used in U.S. Ser. No. 10/571,693. The acoustic signals typically occupy the frequency range of several kilohertz; hence digital oversampling can be easily applied. Such oversampling may be performed at frequencies of tens of kilohertz. General Discussion The ranging and direction finding pulse construction and processing of the present invention first is described in general terms/language. The precise mathematical description and comparison to the prior art techniques follows below. Transmitter Processing 0 th layer. use a short-in-time kernel (the term “kernel” is defined below in the Mathematical Description section) that satisfies the bandwidth restrictions. 1 st layer. convolve the kernel with a spreading sequence that is either itself a convolution of several spreading functions or just one short or long spreading function to increase the SNR. The case of several spreading functions is a “multi-layered” design. Every spreading function has its own spreading factor, which can be small or large. Spreading factors govern the efficiency of the design as well as the total signal length in time. First Receiver Processing: Deconvolution Remove all the spreading functions by using de-convolution filters: this increases the SNR. These filters also are called keys herein, since they open the spreading functions. To not increase the noise, the keys are scaled to have unit norm for their total convolution. The spreading factor of a key is exactly the same as of its corresponding spreading function. This processing results in obtaining back the original kernel (thus short in-time) having enlarged SNR and flanked by some small ripples. The ripples may be diminished to any value by using longer keys, if desired. Second Receiver Processing: Kernel Post-Processing The recovered kernel can be further post-processed. For example, one of the possible ways includes standard. Matched Filtering (having the best SNR, but not the best resolution), filtering using a Wiener filter, or application of a filter that filters out the noise frequency in the silo, or any other possible means. The post-processing can be done also in many ways which are well-known in the art and so need not be elaborated here. This post-processing is usually aimed at estimation of TOA [Time of Arrival] and/or DOA [Direction of Arrival] of the pulse. Methods for DOA or TOA estimation are well-known in the art and so are not elaborated here. For example, U.S. Ser. No. 10/571,693 uses beamforming. Mathematical Description and Comparison with Prior Art Construction of the Transmitted Signal The signal is constructed by convolving a kernel whose z-transform is a kernel shape S(z) and several cascaded spreading functions (N functions) whose z-transforms are spreading filters F k (z D k ), each of which has its own sparsity D k . In the z-transform domain, this convolution is multiplication: sig ( z )= S ( z )· F 1 ( z D 1 )· F 2 ( z D 2 )· . . . · F N ( z D N )  (eq. 3.1) The signal, if desired, can be back-scaled to unit amplitude before the final D/A [Digital to Analog] conversion and amplification. Scaling [e.g. to unit amplitude] may be performed at the final stage [leading to the smallest quantization error], as follows: scaled_sig ⁡ [ n ] = sig ⁡ [ n ] max ⁡ (  sig  ) ( eq . ⁢ 3.2 ) (in the time domain) for every time sample “n”, or at any cascade stage, depending upon the specific realization. The kernel has to be as short in time as possible to deliver good resolution in time. The kernel length is only limited by the bandwidth constraint requirements of the (acoustic) hardware [since short-in-time signals are wide in frequency]. The shortness in time of the kernel also significantly improves the ability to recognize (and also not to miss) the target point reflection by reducing the interference between reflected signals. The spreading filters F k (z D k ) can be based upon any digital sequence. Such a sequence may be any real-valued or complex-valued sequence. As a particular case, such a sequence can be binary and in particular may be based on Barker sequences or on other sequences with coefficients ±1 (e.g. the Littlewood polynomials). The spreading filters and the sparsities D k govern the total length of the signal and the pulse energy. The convolution of the kernel with the spreading sequence can be performed in many ways. For example: (i) directly: The kernel is convolved with the entire multi-layer spreading sequence, which typically is long (its length is equal to the total pulse length minus the kernel length plus one) and has an irregular sparse structure (different numbers of zeros between successive non-zero elements). (ii) layer by layer, convolving the output of each layer except the last layer with the next spreading function. This approach uses only short and sparse spreading functions to perform the convolutions and thus is computationally efficient. For example, in FIGS. 5-7 below this approach is used to create a pulse with 1703 samples by using a kernel of length 55 and two sparse functions, one with five non-zero elements and the other with thirteen non-zero elements. The output of the first layer is relatively short, having a length of only 155 samples. This makes the convolution of the output of the first layer with the second spreading function (which has a very large sparsity of 129 and only thirteen non-zero elements) especially efficient. In that example, the layers are applied in order of increasing sparsity. It also is possible to perform an exhaustive search to find the most computationally efficient layer order. Note that the number of possible designs for N layers is N! For a typical design of two layers there are just two variants to compare. With three layers there are six variants to compare. Note the difference of the signal construction of the present invention from the conventional signal construction. As an example, observe the single layer construction. In the prior art design, the separation of the “bits” [or the spreading coefficients s m ] and the shape of the kernel are governed by just one and thus the same parameter, t b . Typically, t b corresponds to length of the shape as it is observed for the rectangular shape of (eq. 2A), or corresponds to the time interval from the peak value to the first zero-crossing as for the Gaussian-windowed sine function of (eq. 2B). For non-rectangular shapes and/or non-binary spreading sequences the usage of the same parameter for the spreading coefficients separation and for the shape function may lead to non-optimal energy of the resulting constructed signal. Thus the sparsity set {D 1 , . . . , D n } [or the single parameter D 1 , in the simplest one-layer case] may be used [as parameters or degrees-of-freedom] for energy maximization of the constructed signal. The sparsity set {D 1 , . . . , D N } also governs the total length of the signal. The analytical relation for the pulse length is given by (eq. A2) of Appendix A. This is a very important property and it addresses challenge i-2 above, the need of pulses of different lengths for acoustic ranging and direction finding pulses, in particular in silo applications. Recall that this requirement follows from the fact that the upper surface of the silo contents is dynamic and may change its distance from the ceiling of the silo during the silo operation from several tens of centimeters to several tens of meters and back. Energy maximization of the signal can be also done under signal length constraint. Signal energy maximization subject to signal length constraint can be done by several methods, including an exhaustive search over sparsities. In the prior art, the parameter of the kernel implicitly defines the bandwidth of the kernel, for example G ⁡ ( f ) = sin 2 ⁡ ( π ⁢ ⁢ ft b ) ( π ⁢ ⁢ ft b ) 2 for the rectangular pulse kernel of (eq. 2A), or for the sharper spectrum of the kernel of (eq. 2B), just as this parameter defines the time-spacing between the spreading coefficients. In contrast, the design of the present invention has the advantage of making no connection between the spectrum kernel requirements and the sparsities: the kernel shape has to be chosen to satisfy the frequency constraints, while the sparsities are degrees of freedom that satisfy other requirements for the pulse, such as those mentioned above. Note that if the spreading filters are chosen to have good autocorrelation properties, this usually implies that their spectra are relatively flat, and thus they preserve the same flatness for any value of the sparsities. This also simplifies the pulse design procedure, since it allows designing the kernel and the spreading filters separately. Comparison of the Signal Design of the Present Invention with the Prior Art The innovative method of using sparse spreading filters that is presented herein is considerably more general than the nested or concatenated Barker or other binary codes of the Prior Art. The method presented herein also includes these codes as special cases. First, the nesting of the prior art essentially implies the usage of binary sequences, for although a binary sequence may be “nested” into other binary sequence; the nesting of a sequence into a non-binary sequence is not defined, while in the signal construction of the present invention any arbitrary [and thus not necessarily binary] sequence may be used for the spreading filters. Second, the nesting operation demands an exact rigid set of sparsity parameters with no overlapping allowed. Contrary to this rigidity, the signal construction of the present invention may use any set of sparsity parameters. Thus, while the conventional pulse construction uses nesting, the present invention uses sparse convolution, which is considerably more general and can be applied to any type of sequence and places no restrictions upon the sizes of the used sequences. The following example demonstrates that the nested codes are a particular case of sparse spreading filters. Consider Barker 5 and Barker 13. The nesting of Barker 5 into Barker 13 also may be done by convolution, or by z-transform, as: nested_code — 5×13( z )= b 5 ( z ) b 13 ( z 5 )[the length is 5×13=65] In general, to nest a binary sequence whose z-transform is a(z) in another binary sequence whose z-transform is b(z), sparse convolution may be used, as follows: nested — axb ( z )= a ( z ) b ( z L a ) Here, L a is the length of the sequence whose z-transform is a(z). In the above example, a(z) is Barker 5 and L a =5. Note that the length of the nested construction above is given by the product of the lengths of its components: if L b is the length of the sequence whose z-transform is b(z) then the length of the sequence whose z-transform is nested_axb(z) is L a L b . Consider, now, as an example, the nesting of a rectangular kernel that consists of D consecutive 1's. The kernel shape is S ⁡ ( z ) = rec ⁡ ( z , D ) = 1 + … + z - ( D - 1 ) = ∑ k = 0 D - 1 ⁢ ⁢ z k The sparsity D must be inserted into the nested code to construct the sparse nested code F ( z )=sparse_nested_code( z )=nested_code — 5×13( z D )= b 5 ( z D ) b 13 ( z 5D ) Hence, the spreading filters for this nested Barker code are F 1 (z)=b 5 (z) and F 2 (z)=b 13 (z) and the signal is constructed in the z-transform domain as sig ( z )= rec ( z,D )· F 1 ( z D )· F 2 ( z 5·D ) The length of the corresponding time sequence is D×5×13 samples. A general code may be written as: sig ( z )= S ( z,D )· F ( z )= rec ( z,D )· b 5 ( z D 1 )· b 13 ( z D 2 ) This general code has parameters {D, D 1 , D 2 } and is much richer than the nested code that has only one parameter, D. The spreading sequences of the present invention represent sparse nested sequences only for a very specific relationship of the sparsities: 5D 1 =D 2 for sparse b 5 to be nested into sparse b 13 or 13D 1 =D 2 for sparse b 13 to be nested into sparse b 5 . For example, the spreading filter product b 5 (z 25 )b 13 (z 129 ) does not represent a sparse nested code. Even in the cases where the sparsity parameters of the sparse filters are related such that sparse convolution [when applied to binary sequences] brings the same result as the nested code, the pulse construction of the present invention still has the sparsity of the sparse nested code [e.g. D 1 in the example b 5 (z D 1 )b 13 (z 5·D 1 )] independent of the kernel length that is used [e.g., D in the above example]. This thus allows optimization for total pulse length and/or pulse energy by varying this parameter, as a degree of freedom. This is an essentially new element which was not present in the prior art. Also recall that in the prior art, changing “t b ” [or the bit length L b =t b /T s ] simultaneously changes the spectrum of the signal, which may be undesirable or even prohibited for some applications. The appended claims explicitly exclude the special prior art cases from their scope. These prior art cases are described as signals constructed from convolution of a kernel (rectangular or non-rectangular), parametrized by the bit length parameter L b , with a sparse spreading sequence whose sparsity is equal to L b . As an example of a non-rectangular kernel the Gaussian-windowed sine function of equation 2B has a length equal to 4·L b since it has support [−2t b ,2t b ] but its bit length is L b . For example, the signal constructed by nesting a rectangular kernel of length L b into Barker 5, sig ( z )= rec ( z,L b ) b 5 ( z L b ) is excluded. Concerning the multi-stage signal construction, the prior art is restricted to nesting of a rectangular kernel of length L b into sparse (with resulting sparsity L b ) nested binary sequences. For example, sparse nesting of Barker 5 into Barker 13, convolved with a rectangular pulse of length L b , sig ( z )= rec ( z,L b )· b 5 ( z L b ) b 13 ( z 5·L b ) is excluded. First Receiver Processing: Deconvolution of the Layers The received signal, rx_sig(z) in the z-transform domain, is processed with the de-convolution filters K k (z D k ), which also are called keys herein. Each key has its own sparsity which equals, and so corresponds exactly to, the sparsity of the corresponding spreading filter. The resulting deconvolved signal, in the z-transform domain, is: dsig ( z )= rx — sig ( z )· K 1 ( z D 1 )· K 2 ( z D 2 )· . . . · K N ( z D N )  (eq. 3.3) In this relation, K m (z) is a [non-sparse] mis-matched filter for the [non-sparse] spreading filter F m (z). This mis-matched filter serves as a template. From Appendix B, it follows that a sparse spreading filter, K m (z D m ) with any sparsity D m , is the mis-matched filter for F m (z D m ). This explains equation (eq. 3.1). Denoting the length of the template for the mis-matched filter as L m =length( F m ( z )) then the sparse mis-matched filter has length length( F m ( z D m ))=1+( L m −1)· D m For sparsities of 100 or more this leads to very long filters [see also the example below]. However, despite their extremely long lengths, these filters have small numbers (L m ) of non-zero coefficients. Thus the sparsity leads to high computational efficiency, when the filter is applied. The storage of such filters is also very, convenient, since only the template of length L m has to be stored. Many scalings are possible. The following is one of them: one may assume that these filters are scaled in such a way as to result in no amplification of the white noise: norm ( K 1 ( z D 1 )· K 2 ( z D 2 )· . . . · K N ( z D N )=1  (eq. 3.4) After the de-convolution by the keys, the resulting dsig(z) is very close to the original scaled kernel shape S(z). This means that relative to S(z), disig(z) is scaled, shifted in time by some delay and has some insignificant small ripples around it. dsig(z) has increased SNR [relative to rx_sig(z)]. (see Appendix 13 for discussion of delay and gain calculations). As an example, consider a non-nested pair of sparse spreading filters b 5 (z 25 )b 13 (z 129 ) used for pulse construction. To de-convolve these spreading filters we use the following pair of Keys: K 5 (z 25 )K 13 (z 129 ), where K 5 (z) is the mismatched filter to b 5 (z) and K 13 (z) is the mismatched filter to b 13 (z). Assume, just as an example, that the filter K 5 (z) has 24 elements and that the filter K 13 (z) has 42 elements, to obtain a PSL level of about −40 dB. The construction of the mis-matched filters is known in the prior art and so need not be elaborated here. Total length of the mis-matched filter is prohibitive if the mis-matched filter has to be directly calculated and processed: (23*25+41*129)+1=5865 elements. Note also that such large filters may demand very large resolution in bits. However, a filter with only 42 non-zero elements has to be applied first [the application of K 13 (z 129 ) and a filter with only 24 non-zero elements has to be applied after it [the application of K 5 (z 25 ). This indeed gives a very effective sparse layer-by-layer de-convolution. Second Receiver Processing: Kernel Post-Processing As mentioned above, the resulting dsig(z) corresponds to the original scaled kernel shape S(z) at some total delay D [see (eq. C2)] flanked by some negligible ripples [see (eq. C1)]. The next step is the processing of the kernel. This step may be performed in many different ways and which are not elaborated herein. The kernel processing is a separate art. What is important here, is that any known or developed method may be applied now to the kernel processing. The problem of pulse processing thus is split by the present invention into two steps: the first is the de-convolution of the long ranging pulse by using sparse key filters, resulting in a short-in-time kernel with an enlarged SNR, and the second step is the further processing of this kernel. Just as an example, linear processing can be chosen. Linear processing is represented in the z-transform domain by a multiplication of dsig(z) from the first step by some filter M(z): out( z )= dsig ( z )· M ( z )  (eq. 3.5A) Here, for example, one may use the matched filter of the kernel shape as an option for the filter M(z): M ( z )=MF[ S ( z )]]  (eq. 3.5B) One may also use conventional Weiner filtering. The filtering operation may be done in the time domain by time-convolution, or in the z-transform domain by multiplication, as it is known to those skilled in digital signal processing. While the matched filtering or the Wiener filtering are well-known established techniques, the innovation here is that these filtering operations are applied to just the recovered kernel and not to the whole received signal. Among other advantages, the is present partitioning between, the deconvolution of the spreading filters and the deconvolution of the kernel avoids the use of the long mismatched filters of [LEVANON 2005] that are mentioned in the Field and Background section. The filter M(z) can also incorporate knowledge about the noise distribution in the acoustic environment [e.g. in the silo] to filter out the most dominant noise frequencies [e.g. low frequencies in the silo environment]. EXAMPLES For the kernel shown in FIG. 5 , a two-layered design, based upon the two spreading functions sparse Barker 5 sequence with a sparsity of 25 and sparse Baker 13 sequence with a sparsity of 129, is presented. These two spreading functions have, respectively, only five and thirteen non-zero elements. This makes the layered convolution pulse construction very efficient. The corresponding spreading filters are F 1 =b 5 (z 25 ) and F 2 =b 13 (z 129 ). The first layer of pulse construction represents convolution of the kernel with the sparse spreading filter F 1 and is shown in FIG. 6 . The second layer represents convolution of the first layer with the sparse spreading filter F 2 and is shown in FIG. 7 . Note that at every pulse construction stage the amplitude is scaled to have unit absolute maximal value. Denote the length as “L” samples, energy as “E” [the sum of the squares of the amplitudes], and power as “P”, P=E/L. The signal is scaled to the maximal unit amplitude at every stage. Then for this example: 0 th stage: the kernel alone: L=55, E=11.582, P=0.21 1 st stage, layer 1: L=155 samples, E=54.617, P=0.35 2 nd stage, layer 2: L=1703 samples, E=710.03, P=0.417 The maximal power of any sine-modulated shape [having its maximal amplitude limited to 1] is P=0.5, which represents the upper limit for the power. In this example, both the energy of the pulse and the power of the pulse increase at every stage of the pulse design. The first stage of the receiver processing including two layers of de-convolution for this two-stage design is further shown in FIGS. 8 and 9 . The resulting kernel is shown in FIG. 10 . This Kernel is identical [up to the scaling due to increased gain] to the initial Kernel flanked by some small ripples. Another example is based upon the kernel of FIG. 5 but using shorter sparse spreading sequences. The corresponding spreading filters are F 1 =b 5 (z 7 ) and F 2 =b 13 (z 41 ). The first stage of pulse construction is shown in FIG. 11 , and the second stage is shown in FIG. 12. The final pulse length is given by (eq. B2): L=55+4*7+12*41, which leads to L=575. The pulse constructed in this manner is shorter than the pulse of FIG. 7 . This is achieved by using smaller values of the sparsity parameters: 7 and 41 instead of 25 and 129. System FIG. 13 illustrates a range and direction finding system 40 of the present invention. System 40 includes a transmitter 10 and a receiver 20 . Transmitter 10 in turn includes a pulse shaper 12 , a modulator 14 and a transducer 16 . Receiver 20 in turn includes a transducer 22 , a demodulator 24 , a pulse compressor 26 and a post-processor 28 . Pulse shaper 12 generates a baseband pulse from a kernel as described above. Modulator 14 modulates a carrier wave with the baseband pulse. Transducer 16 launches the modulated carrier wave, into a medium 30 that supports propagation of the carrier wave, as a transmitted signal 34 , towards a target 32 . Transmitted signal 34 is reflected from target 32 as a reflected signal 36 that is received by transducer 22 . Demodulator 24 demodulates the received reflection to provide a received representation of the baseband pulse. What is demodulated by demodulator 24 is only a representation of the baseband pulse because it is not identical to the baseband pulse, having been distorted e.g. by propagation noise in medium 30 . Pulse compressor 26 compresses the representation of the baseband pulse by deconvolution as described above. The pulse compression provides a compressed pulse that is a time-shifted representation of the original kernel. Post-processor 28 applies post-processing as described above to the compressed pulse and infers the range to target 32 as one-half of the product of the round-trip travel time of signals 34 and 36 and the propagation speed of signals 34 and 36 in medium 30 . System 40 as drawn is, strictly speaking, a ranging system, not a range and direction finding system. A true ranging and direction finding system would include several transmitters 10 and/or several receivers 20 , and the post-processing would include DOA determination, for example by beamforming, as in U.S. Ser. No. 10/571,693. In radar applications, signals 34 and 36 are radio-frequency electromagnetic signals, medium 30 typically is free space, and transducers 16 and 22 are antennas. In applications such as lidar that use optical frequencies, signals 34 and 36 are optical-frequency electromagnetic signals, medium 30 typically is free space, transducer 16 typically is a laser or a light-emitting diode, and transducer 22 is a photodetector. In acoustic ranging applications, signals 34 and 36 are acoustic signals, medium 30 typically is a gas such as air or a liquid such as water or a mixture thereof such as a foam, transducer 16 is a speaker and transducer 22 is a microphone. In medical ultrasound applications, signals 34 and 36 are ultrasound signals, medium 30 is biological tissue, and transducers 16 and 22 typically are piezoelectric transducers. In seismic exploration, signals 34 and 36 are seismic signals, medium 30 is the Earth, transducer 16 typically is a seismic vibrator and transducer 18 is a geophone. FIG. 14 illustrates another range and direction finding system 80 of the present invention. System 80 includes a transmitter 50 and a receiver 60 . Transmitter 50 in turn includes a pulse shaper 52 , a digital-to-analog converter 54 and a transducer 56 . Receiver 60 includes a transducer 62 , an analog-to-digital converter 64 . a pulse compressor 66 and a post-processor 68 . Pulse shaper 52 generates a passband pulse from a kernel as described above. Digital-to-analog converter 54 converts the passband pulse to an analog transmitted pulse. Transducer 56 launches the transmitted pulse into a medium 70 as a transmitted signal 74 toward a target 72 . Like medium 30 , medium 70 supports propagation of signal 74 . Signal 74 is reflected from target 72 as a reflected signal 76 that is received by transducer 62 . Analog-to-digital converter 64 converts the received reflected signal to a digital received representation of the passband pulse. Similar to the output of demodulator 24 of system 40 , the output of analog-to-digital converter 64 is only a representation of the passband pulse because it is not identical to the passband pulse, having been distorted e.g. by propagation noise in medium 70 . Pulse compressor 66 compresses the representation of the passband pulse by deconvolution as described above. The pulse compression provides a compressed pulse that is a time-shifted representation of the original kernel. Post-processor 68 applies post-processing as described above to the compressed pulse and infers the range to target 72 as one-half of the product of the round-trip travel time of signals 74 and 76 and the propagation speed of signals 74 and 76 in medium 70 . System 80 as drawn is, strictly speaking, a ranging system, not a range and direction finding system. A true ranging and direction finding system would include several transmitters 50 and/or several receivers 60 , and the post-processing would include DOA determination, for example by beamforming, as in U.S. Ser. No. 10/571,693. Concluding Remarks One important feature of the input pulse of the present invention is that the extend to which the length of the input pulse (in time, or in distance after multiplying the length in time units by the propagation speed (e.g. the speed of light for radar pulses) or in numbers of samples) exceeds the length of the kernel is not determined by the length of the kernel. This is in contrast to the prior art, in which nesting the kernel in a spreading sequence necessarily produces an input pulse whose length is an integral multiple of the length of the kernel. (eq. A2) in Appendix A below gives the length L of the input pulse in terms of the length L 0 of the kernel and the lengths L i and sparsities D i , i=1, . . . , k) of k spreading sequences. The extent to which L exceeds L 0 is determined by the L i and the D i , parameters that clearly are independent of L 0 . While the invention has been described with respect to a limited number of embodiments, it will be appreciated that many variations, modifications and other applications of the invention may be made. Therefore, the claimed invention as recited in the claims that follow is not limited to the embodiments described herein. APPENDIX A: CONSIDERATIONS OF TOTAL PULSE LENGTH The length of the pulse given by (eq. 3.1) and constructed by N convolutions is: L =length( S )+length( F 1 ( z D 1 ))+ . . . +length( F N ( z D N ))− N Denoting the length of the templates [i.e. the spreading filters having unit sparsity D=1]: L 0 =length( S ), L k =length( F k ( z ))  (eq. A1) and since length( F k ( z D k k ))=1+( L k −1)· D k to the following is obtained: L=L 0 +( L 1 −1)· D 1 + . . . +( L k −1)· D k   (eq. A2) For example, for a kernel of length 55 samples and for any spreading functions having templates of length 5 and 13, the pulse length is: L=55+4*D 1 +12*D 2 . The length in samples can be further re-calculated to the length of the pulse in meters. Denoting the speed of wave propagation as “c” and the sampling rate as “F s ”, L meters = c F s ⁢ L samples ( eq . ⁢ A ⁢ ⁢ 3 ) If the ranging target is the contents of a silo and the minimal distance to the upper surface of the contents of the silo is R [meters], then the signal length has to be twice this value because the signal has to go forth and back. This leads to the constraint: L samples < 2 ⁢ F s c ⁢ R ( eq . ⁢ A ⁢ ⁢ 4 ) which in turn leads to the constraint for the pulse design: L 0 + ( L 1 - 1 ) · D 1 + … + ( L k - 1 ) · D k < 2 ⁢ F s c ⁢ R ( eq . ⁢ A ⁢ ⁢ 5 ) Just as an example, for the speed of sound being about 340 m/s and the digital sampling rate of 41,000 Hz, which is close to the sampling rate used for compact disks, L samples is less than (2*41000/340)*R, or, approximately, L samples <241*R. Hence for a distance to the upper surface of the silo contents of about 0.4 meters the maximal possible length is about 96 samples, while for a distance of 10 meters the maximal possible length is about 2410 samples. Finally, note that the two pulses [one longer and one shorter], presented in the above two-layer construction example, and having 1703 samples and 575 samples, may be applied to the case of the target surface being at a distance [or for surfaces situated farther than this distance] of 1703/41000*340/2=7.06 meters and 575/41000*340/2=2.4 meters, while the kernel of length 55 samples corresponds to a distance of 55/41000*340/2=0.23 meters. APPENDIX B: MISMATCHED FILTER FOR A SPARSE FILTER The convolution of two filters in the time domain is exactly represented in the z-transform domain by multiplication of two corresponding polynomials. Assume that for F(z) we know [from the prior art] how to construct K(z) such that P ( z )= F ( z )· K ( z ) has a delta-like behavior, i.e. its inverse z-transform has one large coefficient and all the other coefficients are small. Then, by change of variables z to z D another polynomial is created: P ( z D )= F ( z D )· K ( z D ) that has exactly the same non-zero coefficients [in addition to many newly emerged zero coefficients] and therefore the new polynomial has exactly the same MAX to PEAK ratio, i.e., the same PSL as the first polynomial. Therefore, if K(z) is the mismatched filter for F(z), then K(z D ) is the mismatched filter of the same quality [i.e. having the same PSL] for F(z D ) for any value of D. APPENDIX C: CALCULATION OF THE TOTAL DELAY AND THE PROCESSING GAIN To calculate the total delay, assume that the templates (thus with unit sparsity) behave as (“s.r.” means small [insignificant] ripples): F 1 ( z )· K 1 ( z )≈ G 1 z −d 1 +s.r., . . . , F N ( z )· K N ( z )≈ G N z −d N +s.r.   (eq. C1) Then the sparse de-convolution for the pulse constructed by (eq. 3.1) is: dsig ( z )= rx — sig ( z )· K 1 ( z D 1 )· K 2 ( z D 2 )· . . . · K N ( z D N ) which is (eq. 3.3). Assuming that the received signal rx_sig(z)=A·sig(z)+noise, and ignoring small ripples of the mismatched filters as well as ignoring the noise term as not relevant for delay calculations, gives [after grouping the sparse spreading filters with the corresponding keys]: dsig ( z )≈ A·S ( z )·{ F 1 ( z D 1 )· K 1 ( z D 1 )}· . . . ·{ F N ( z D N )· K N ( z D N )} Finally, applying (eq. C1) gives: dsig ⁡ ( z ) ≈ A · S ⁡ ( z ) · G 1 ⁢ z - d 1 · D 1 · … · G N ⁢ z - d N · D N = A · ( ∏ k = 1 N ⁢ ⁢ G k ) · S ⁡ ( z ) · z - ∑ k = 1 N ⁢ ⁢ d k · D k This corresponds to the delayed original kernel shape with the new gain. The total delay is calculated as D _total=deconvolution_delay=Σ k=1 N d k ·D k   (eq. C2) and the gain increase is equal to the product of the deconvolution gains: Processing_gain_in_dB=20·log 10 (Π k=1 N G k )  (eq. C3) Recall that the mismatched filters are to be scaled to not amplify the white noise after their joint application, i.e. according to (eq. 3.4).

To generate a pulse for ranging, a kernel is convolved with a spreading sequence. The spreading sequence is parametrized by one or more ordered (length, sparsity) pairs, such that the first sparsity differs from the bit length of the kernel and/or a subsequent sparsity differs from the product of the immediately preceding length and the immediately preceding sparsity. Alternatively, a kernel is convolved with an ordered plurality of spreading sequences, all but the first of which may be non-binary. The pulse is launched towards a target. The reflection from the target is transformed to a received reflection, compressed by deconvolution of the spreading sequence, and post-processed to provide a range to the target and/or a direction of arrival from the target.

This is a Continuation in Part of application Ser. No. 09/846,719 filed May 1, 2001 now U.S. Pat. No. 6,484,902. The entire contents of application Ser. No. 09/846,719 is incorporated herein. This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Serial No. 60/200,920, filed May 1, 2000. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to methods and apparatus for material handling, and more particularly, for agitating and/or dispensing materials in a predetermined manner. In the manufacture of products, it is often necessary to dispense and sort items, such as components used in assemblies or subassemblies, in some ordered manner, such that those items can then be used in subsequent manufacturing processes. These items might be delivered into containers, onto a conveyor belt, or directly to another machine. In other applications, it may be desirable to dispense and sort bulk granular or particulate materials. For the purposes herein, such components or other materials are collectively referred to for simplicity purposes generally as “items,” “products,” or “product.” In certain applications, it may be necessary to not only deliver items in batches of an approximate predetermined quantity, but also to orient those items as they are dispensed such that those items may be more easily manipulated by machines, such as perhaps robots, or by workers, for subsequent use. It may also be desirable to dispense the items into another feeding device, the first such dispensing device then essentially taking on the role of a pre-feeder. Further, if the items are of a mixed nature, for example having two or more different components in a batch, it may be necessary to differentiate and separate the items into groups of their own kind during the dispensing process. Other problems may arise in dispensing items, particularly in a production environment. Such items may become entangled with one another, and thus frustrate dispensing of such items in a controlled manner. Also, depending on the product being dispensed, static electricity may build up such that the product clings to the hopper or other container in which the product is held. Moisture can also cause a problem with such product by increasing the likelihood of adhesion of the items in groups. Further, mechanical agitation or vibration of the items, such as is found in certain conventional dispensing devices, could potentially damage delicate items prior to being dispensed for subsequent use. A dispenser may also be used for dispensing parts or components for certain manufacturing processing steps, such as de-flashing, cleaning, drying, counting, visual inspection, random selection, testing, chemical treatment, painting, coating, labeling, recycling, crushing, etc. Various material handling devices have been patented. U.S. Pat. No. 4,118,074, issued to Solt, discloses a pulsed air activated conveyor for transporting bulk material. U.S. Pat. No. 4,848,974, issued to Wayt, discloses a system for the fluidized conveyance of flat articles, such as lids or bottoms for cans. U.S. Pat. No. 4,182,586, issued to Lenhart also discloses an air operated material handler, wherein jets of air are used to separate and align bulk storage items such as containers. U.S. Pat. No. 4,578,001, issued to Ochs et al., discloses an air conveyor hopper having air nozzles positioned on a rotating feed disc for engaging and carrying items. While the foregoing designs are known, there still exists a need for improved methods and apparatus to perform mixing and dispensing of product. AIR PULSE FEEDER SUPPLEMENT TO THE BACKGROUND Teoh et al. In U.S. Pat. No. 6,116,822 discloses the use of a vertical jet of air into a plurality of parts in order to agitate the parts and break up their bridge over a dispensing aperture. This jet of air, however is not described, illustrated, nor configured to take advantage of Bernoulli's principle by which the rapid motion of air might create a vacuum that could draw into the parts hopper a volume of air greater than that supplied by the jet itself. The closed nature of the connection between hopper and channel leading to the pick up location prohibit the free flow of ambient air necessary to effect such an amplification of air flow. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is, therefore, an object of the present invention to provide a dispensing system for dispensing products. Another object of the present invention is to provide a method of dispensing products. Another object of the present invention is to provide a method and apparatus for detangling products. Yet another object of the present invention is to provide a method and apparatus for orienting products. A still further object of the present invention is to provide a method and apparatus for detangling and orienting products. A further object of the present invention is to provide a method and apparatus for sorting products. A still further object of the present invention is to provide a method and apparatus for mixing products. Generally, the present invention includes a dispensing apparatus for dispensing items from a plurality of items and comprises a container having a support surface for supporting the plurality of items, the container having an upper portion and an opening in the upper portion for receiving the plurality of the items. The container also has an open passageway in a lower portion thereof for dispensing items from the container. At least one pressurized fluid outlet is provided for delivering a pulse of pressurized fluid through the open passageway into the container of sufficient pressure to lift the plurality of items above the support surface, and at least one guide surface is provided for directing at least one of the plurality of items through the open passageway subsequent to the delivery of the pulse of pressurized fluid. More specifically, the present invention includes an apparatus and methods for dispensing and/or mixing a variety of products on a predetermined or automated basis. The system uses pressurized fluid and a controller such as a programmable logic controller (“PLC”), microprocessor, or the like, to mix and/or dispense product upon application of compressed fluid pulses to the product. Products are “fluidized” by the pulse of compressed fluid provided to the hopper, the compressed fluid preferably being a compressed gas such as air, although other gases or fluids, and in particular, inert gases could be used, depending on the specific application. The present invention allows for products such as small components, parts, or particles to be dispensed from a batch contained in a compartment or hopper. Such products may be. dispensed to containers, various types of conveyances, or other dispensers, feeders, magazines, cartridges, or another machine for further processing. The pulse application of compressed air temporarily lifts and levitates the items in the hopper, while simultaneously blanketing them in the flow of air. Upon termination of the pulse, the items again drop, due to force of gravity, into the hopper, but due to the lifting and levitation of the items caused by the pulse, one or more items may be reoriented such that as the pulse flow ceases, such items are properly orientated to pass through a dispensing door or opening, such as a slot, in a lower portion of the hopper. The remaining items in the hopper, by their nature, may again become entangled or otherwise contact one another as they fall into place in the hopper after the pulse flow, such that such items bridge the dispensing slot to thereby prevent the remaining products from passing therethrough. An analogous example of how the present invention operates is the shaking of the salt shaker in order to release salt on a food item. In certain instances, inverting the salt shaker will allow the flow of granular salt through tiny openings in the salt shaker. However, over time, the salt within the salt shaker may bridge the openings thereby preventing further flow of salt. This requires the salt shaker to again be either shaken, or reverted to its normal position and then reinverted in order to once again begin flow of the salt. Products dispensed as a result of the pulse flow, or “blast,” are generally dispensed in a row which, if a conveyance such as a conveyor belt is used, could be oriented to be transverse to the direction of travel of the conveyor belt, or, in line with the conveyor belt travel to allow for a more continuous line of products to be provided on the conveyor belt. Control may be maintained over the dispensing rate and distribution of products being dispensed and this allows for an approximate predetermined quantity of products to be dispensed with each pulse of pressurized fluid, in a manner which may be independent of actual pulse frequency. The pulses can be programmed to be made infrequently, in a series of intermittent predetermined sequences, or continuously with the frequency of hundred, or perhaps a thousand or more, pulses per minute. Further, the present invention can provide dispensing in synchronism with the movement and speed of other machines in response to signals of one or more sensors which may be provided on the present dispensing system, and, the system can be configured to dispense products and parts of similar shape and size oriented in a predetermined direction. SUPPLEMENT TO THE SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The objectives of this invention include providing a method and apparatus for mixing, untangling, orienting, separating, dispensing, and feeding items from a plurality of items to some receiving apparatus, mechanism, or container. This application gives additional emphasis and makes additional claims to important aspects of the invention. Specifically, much of the effectiveness of this invention comes from it's power to generate a vacuum that draws into the container, through the open passageway at the bottom of the container, significant volumes of pulsed fluid. The fluid brought in by vacuum is normally the main mover of the plurality of items. This use of pulsed vacuum to draw in pulsed fluid through the dispensing aperture is a distinguishing feature for this invention over the prior art. The present invention includes an apparatus comprised of a container with a support surface, an opening in the upper portion for receiving items, a passageway in the lower portion for dispensing items, a guide surface to direct items into the passageway, a means for generating pulses of vacuum that draw pulses of air (or other fluid) into the container through the open passageway, and sufficient volume of available air outside the passageway and outside the container to fill the vacuum generated inside the container. The pulses of fluid serve to lift and separate items immediately above and around the passageway. In many cases the items in the immediate area of the passageway and beyond are fluidized. There is a natural tendency for items thus lifted and separated to “flow” out the passageway upon termination of the pulse, as the air forced in and expanded by the sudden vacuum is now released to collapse and return to the lower pressure area created outside the container by the abrupt departure of the air from outside the container to the inside. This means that items inside the container might exit faster than if they were dependent upon gravity alone. The retreating air is forcing them along. It also means the items are less likely to immediately re-jam since the natural vacuums created by the moving fluid tend to align the items with the path the air takes upon it's retreat out the passageway. There is also a tendency for items thus buffered with air to be better protected from damage than if vibration or other direct contact with some more rigid impetus moved them. This application describes a variety of means to generate pulses of vacuum that in turn draw pulses of air (or other fluid) into the container through the passageway. These include the use of pulses of pressurized air into the container through the passageway, near the open passageway and in a second container, which extends into the lower portion of the primary container as well as other approaches. The use of thin sheets of pressurized air as provided by air knives and the use of laminar flow of air against supporting surfaces and guide surfaces further enhance the effectiveness of these pulses. When using vacuum pulses farther removed from the passageway it becomes important, during those pulses; to close the top opening in the container designed for supplying items. Otherwise, the power of the vacuum to draw air in through the passageway at the bottom of the container could be greatly diminished. The invention teaches varying the size of the passageway. This can be especially helpful when dealing with more than a single configuration of items over time. The invention teaches the inclusion of another container within the main container. Such a container can be used to block the area directly above the passageway from a large portion of the items in the main container. This can reduce the pressure on the items immediately above the passageway. This in turn reduces the necessary volume of air and level of pressure required to achieve satisfactory lift and separation of items to be dispensed at any given time. Such a container may also be configured to supply pulses of vacuum in the immediate area of the passageway. The invention teaches the associated use of means to orient items to be dispensed and the associated use of means to separate various configurations of items. The invention teaches the use of air funnels to enhance the effect of pulses of vacuum for moving the maximum volume of air into the container through the passageway. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The foregoing, as well as other objects of the present invention, will be further apparent from the following detailed description of the preferred embodiment of the invention, when taken together with the accompanying specification and the drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is a perspective view of the dispensing system constructed in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 2 is a partial perspective view of a dispensing system constructed in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 3 is a side elevational view of a dispensing system constructed in accordance with the present invention, wherein the dispensing slot is in a dosed configuration; FIG. 4 is a side elevational view of the dispensing system shown in FIG. 3, with the dispensing slot in an open position; FIG. 5 is a perspective view of an air knife constructed in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 6 is a sectional view taken along lines 6 — 6 of FIG. 5; FIG. 7 is an exploded view of an air knife constructed in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 8 is a schematic view of a dispensing system constructed in accordance with the present invention, wherein products to be dispensed are shown being held in a hopper; FIG. 9 is a sectional view taken along lines 9 — 9 of FIG. 3; FIGS. 10A-10F illustrate capsules, beans, tablets, electronic chips, fuses, and capacitors, respectively, all of which may be dispensed using the dispensing system of the present invention; FIG. 11A is a simplified plan view of a dispensing system constructed in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 11B is a simplified front elevational view of the dispensing system shown in FIG. 11A; and FIG. 11C is a simplified right side elevational view of the dispensing system illustrated in FIG. 11 A. SUPPLEMENT TO THE BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The foregoing, as well as other objects of the present invention, will be further apparent from the following description of the drawings and preferred embodiments of the invention, when taken together with the accompanying specifications and the drawings including all the information from the original application included herein, in which: FIG. 12 is a cross section of a preferred embodiment of said invention illustrating a source for pulsed fluid outside the container that generates pulses of vacuum thereby drawing into the container ambient fluid from outside the container. The figure illustrates one configuration of an air funnel below the container to enhance the efficiency of the vacuum. It also shows sections of a guide surface and support surface configured to help align parts. FIGS. 13-A and 13 -B illustrate parts being lifted and separated during pulses of vacuum and parts flowing down and out the dispensing aperture between pulses. FIG. 14 is a cross section of a preferred embodiment of said invention illustrating a sealed top to the container with a removable lid. This cross section also illustrates pressurized fluids entering the container from within the lower portion of the container as a means for generating pulses of vacuum. FIG. 15 is a cross section of a preferred embodiment of said invention illustrating an interchangeable part used to vary the size and shape of the open passageway by blocking part of the opening. This figure also illustrates delivery of pulses of vacuum through a second container within the main container (hopper) thereby drawing into the container ambient fluid from outside the container through the lower opening. In this case the vacuum source is not shown. FIG. 16 is a cross section of a preferred embodiment of said invention illustrating the use of an interchangeable part to replace the open passageway itself in another size. FIG. 17 . is a cross section of a preferred embodiment of said invention with interchangeable exit apparatus. Several examples of exit apparatus are shown. FIG. 18 . shows two sections of a preferred embodiment of the invention illustrating one way to use the invention as a separator. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT The accompanying drawings and the description which follows set forth this invention in its preferred embodiment. However, it is contemplated that persons generally familiar with material handling systems and methods will be able to apply the novel characteristics of the structures illustrated and described herein in other contexts by modification of certain details. Accordingly, the drawings and description are not to be taken as restrictive on the scope of this invention, but are to be understood as broad and general teachings. Referring now to the drawings in detail, wherein like reference characters represent like elements or features throughout the various views, the mixing and dispensing system of the present invention is indicated generally in the figures by reference character 10 , such system 10 being suitable for practicing of the methods of the present invention. As generally shown in FIGS. 1 and 11 A- 11 C, the dispensing system includes a generally V-shaped hopper, generally H, mounted on a base structure, generally 12 . Brackets 14 are attached to the base and carry journal rods 18 which are received in bores 19 of air knives, generally K Air knives K are carried for sliding movement on rods 18 , in a manner to be discussed in more detail below. Fixedly connected to the air knives K are end walls 20 , 22 of hopper H. Hopper H has four walls, end walls 20 , 22 forming two of those walls, and side walls 24 , 26 forming the remaining two walls. End walls 20 , 22 flare outwardly from one another, and the lower portions of the end walls 20 , 22 meet at the apex 30 of the hopper H, when the hopper H is in a “closed” position, as shown in FIG. 3 . When the hopper H is in a “dispensing” position, as shown in FIG. 4, the. end walls 20 , 22 are separated from one another to form a dispensing slot, generally S, for dispensing products, generally P, from the compartment, or interior portion, generally 34 , of the hopper H. Both end walls 20 , 22 may be moveable laterally with respect to one another, or only one end wall may be moveable, with the other end wall being fixed. The side walls 24 , 26 , which are generally triangularly-shaped, are configured for generally vertical movement with respect to the end walls 20 , 22 , end walls 20 , 22 having elongated slots 38 for receipt of bolts 40 of side walls 24 , 26 . Movement of the side walls 24 , 26 is accomplished by fluid actuators, generally A, such as pneumatic actuators, operating from a compressed air supply (not shown). It is to be understood, however, that other types of actuators could be used, such as solenoids, motors, spring mechanisms, etc., if desired, to open a dispensing slot in the lower portion of hopper H. Actuation of the actuators A is accomplished using conventional valving techniques and also includes the use of a programmable logic controller (PLC) (not shown) or other controller, such a microprocessor. Compression springs 44 are provided on rods 18 in order to force air knives K, end walls 20 , 22 to a normally closed position, wherein the dispensing slot S is closed. Activation of the actuators A forces side walls 24 , 26 upwardly or downwardly (as discussed in more detail below), which in turn forces one or more end walls 20 , 22 and corresponding air knives K inwardly or outwardly, respectively, as such are connected to end walls 20 , 22 . Upon deactivation of the supply of pressurized air to actuators A, compression springs 44 force air knives K back towards one another, and compression springs 54 likewise, force actuators A to their centered, “home,” position to force side walls 24 , 26 upwardly to thereby close dispensing slot S. Pressurized air is provided to actuators A via hoses 52 A, 52 B, and pressurized air is also intermittently provided to inlets 53 of air knives K through hoses 50 for pulsing purposes. As shown in FIG. 9, a hinged cover 60 is provided for selectively covering the opening 62 of hopper H, such cover including filter material, generally 64 , carried with grate 66 , for allowing air to pass upwardly therethrough, while also preventing product from being expelled upwardly from hopper H during the pulses of compressed air and also for preventing contaminants from entering hopper H and contaminating the products contained therein. Preferably, filter material overlaps the upper portion of side walls 24 , 26 somewhat to accommodate the upward and downward movements of the side walls. FIG. 2 illustrates cover 60 in an open position exposing interior portion 34 of hopper H. Cover 60 is connected to hopper H via hinge, generally 61 , as shown in FIGS. 3, 4 , and 10 . The opening and closing of dispensing slot S is performed using a unique system. An elongated bar 66 is attached to each side wall 24 , 26 , such as by welding. Thus, bar 66 moves upwardly and downwardly with side walls 24 , 26 . Cam followers 68 are carried in cam follower supports 69 , which are fixedly attached to each end wall 20 , 22 . Cam followers 68 are allowed to freely rotate with respect to cam supports 69 and ride upon a camming surface 81 of bar 70 which is carried for sliding movement with respect to the bar 66 . In other words, camming bar 70 may shift from side to side, as shown by arrow 71 in FIG. 4 . Fixedly attached to camming bar 70 are brackets 72 to which actuator A is attached. Actuator A is preferably a double action cylinder having a rod 73 extending therethrough with a central piston number 74 . The cylinder portion 75 of actuator A is fixedly attached to brackets 72 , and the ends of rod 73 are each fixedly attached to bar 66 through use of shoulder bolts 76 , which act as guides within slots 77 provided on each end of camming bar 70 . Compression springs 54 normally urge cylinder portion 75 of actuator A to a central position, substantially equal distantly spaced between rod ends 78 , when actuator A is not pressurized. Upon pressurization of actuator A, the cylinder portion 75 of actuator A may move to one side or the other, since the ends 78 of rod 73 are fixed to bar 66 . This shifting from side to side of cylinder 75 causes a corresponding shifting of cam bar 70 . Detents 78 are provided on cam bar 70 and are used to open and close dispensing slot S through interaction of cam follower 68 therewith. For example, as shown in FIG. 3, cam followers 68 are resting within detents 78 . In this configuration, the dispensing slot S is closed. However, as shown in FIG. 4, cam bar 70 has been shifted to the left, through introduction of pressurized air through hose 52 B, which forces cam follower 68 upwardly out of detents 78 . This causes a corresponding downward movement of side plates 24 , 26 , as shown by arrow 79 , against the force of compression springs 44 , which consequently forces the ends 90 of end walls 20 , 22 and air knives K apart. This opens dispensing slot S to allow product P to be dispensed therefrom. It is to be noted that ordinarily, the force of compression springs 54 act through end walls 20 , 22 to force side walls 24 , 26 upwardly, and that the downward movement of side walls 24 , 26 in opening dispensing slot is performed against the force of springs 54 . As shown in FIG. 4 introduction of air into air hose 52 B would cause the leftward movement of cam bar 70 , as shown by arrow 71 , to open dispensing slot S. However, if air is bled from hose 52 B, springs 54 would effectively force cylinder 75 to the centermost position, such that cam followers 68 again are received in detents 78 . This would in turn, force side walls 24 , 26 upwardly, and the compression action of springs 44 would force air knives K, and end walls 20 , 22 together, to thereby close dispensing slot S. Alternately, compressed air could be introduced to hose 52 A to shift cylinder 75 to the right to open dispensing slot S. Note that the width of the dispensing slot can be changed by changing the location of the detents 78 in camming bar 70 . Camming bar 70 may include an additional camming surface 80 opposite camming surface 81 , with detents 82 having different relative positions with respect to detents 78 . This allows the same camming bar 70 to be used, by flipping it over, to yield a different width for dispensing slot S. FIGS. 4, 6 , and 8 also illustrate dispensing passageway, or opening, S in an open configuration. Note that end walls 20 , 22 has been moved apart by the downward movement of side walls 24 , 26 , which in essence “pry” end walls 20 , 22 apart in order to create dispensing slot S. Note that side wall 24 has moved downwardly such that the lower tip thereof extends beyond the bottom edge 90 of end walls 20 , 22 . FIG. 1 shows product P, which could be capsules, electronic chips, etc. which have been deposited on the conveyor belt 94 . Note in this example that the elongated dispensing slot S extends parallel to the direction of travel of the conveyor belt 94 . Therefore, the product P is deposited in a generally continuous line on the conveyor belt 94 . In other applications, however, the conveyor belt could run transverse to the dispensing slot such that the product is deposited in spaced apart, transversely extending rows across the width of the conveyor belt. FIGS. 5-7 illustrate air knives K in detail. The assembly is held together with screws 96 and includes an air knife plate 98 , and a shim, or orifice plate, generally 100 , having a cut-out portion which defines the gap 101 through which air flows from the air knife K. FIG. 8 illustrates product P such as electronic chips, capsules, etc. held in the hopper H when the dispensing slot S is open. This could be a configuration of the product P between pulses of pressurized air or other fluid. Note how the individual items, in conjunction with other items, serve to bridge the dispensing opening S to prevent other items from falling through the opening S. Upon a blast of pressurized air through the air knives K, however, such items would be lifted and levitated and agitated such that when such subsequent blast ends, the product will again fall downwardly, and this time the items which are properly oriented fit through the slot opening (which is of predetermined width and length), will fall through the opening. FIGS. 10A through 10F illustrate a brief sampling of typical items which could be dispensed using dispensing system 10 . Such items include capsules, as shown in FIG. 10A, beans as shown in FIG. 10B, tablets, shown in FIG. 10C, electronic chips, shown in FIG. 10D, fuses, shown in FIG. 10E, and capacitors, shown in FIG. 10 F. By virtue of the blasts of air provided by the present invention, items which could be prone to entanglement, such as the electronic chips (FIG. 10D) and capacitors (FIG. 10F) could become separated and untangled from one another. With respect to mixing of items, the present invention could differentiate capsules shown in FIG. 10 A and tablets shown in FIG. 10C, if both were carried with the hopper, by simply varying the opening of the dispensing slot such that it would only dispense items the thickness of the tablets. Thus, assuming the capsules were a different thickness, the capsules would remain in the hopper, while the tablets would continue to be dispensed upon application of the blasts of compressed air, thereby effectively sorting the capsules and the tablets. FIG. 11A illustrates hopper H, and also dispensing slot S in an open configuration. FIG. 11B illustrates the positioning of air knives K beneath hopper H, and FIG. 11C illustrates the hopper H with the dispensing slot S in an open position. In operation, product, such as small parts, components, or other items are placed within the compartment 34 of hopper H. An ordinary. switch (not shown) is activated such that the PLC energizes a conventional solenoid valve (not shown) causing it to open and deliver compressed air from a compressed air source (not shown) to the hoses 52 A, 52 B connected to actuators A. Although not shown, such compressed air could be conditioned by passing the air through a dehumidifier or humidifier (if necessary), air filter, and pressure regulator prior to entering actuators A Movement of the cylinder 74 on rod 68 extending from the actuators A causes a change in the variable geometry of the hopper H, by moving one or more end walls 20 , 22 outwardly with respect to the other. The selective movement of the actuators A also causes side walls 24 , 26 to move downwardly to force a separation between side walls 20 , 20 and the air knives K to separate and form dispensing slot S, which is of a venturi shape, at the bottom of the hopper H. As the dispensing slot S becomes open, the PLC activates a conventional quick response valve (not shown) causing it to open for a predetermined number of milliseconds. Compressed air passes through the valve and then enters chamber 110 located in and extending the substantial length of each air knife K. The compressed air then accelerates through elongated thin orifice 101 , on the order of 0.002-0.006 inches, preferably, and through an outlet 114 provided in each air knife K. The resulting pressurized air flow exhibits laminar flow characteristics such that the air flow exhausted from the outlet generally stays attached to the curved forward surfaces 116 of the air knives K, as shown by arrows 118 , due to the Coanda effect, which thus causes the air flow to change direction as it flows upwardly. The air flow continues upwardly into the hopper H and tends to follow the surfaces of the outwardly-flared end walls 20 , 22 before eventually becoming turbulent. As the accelerated and expanding air emitted from the air knives K blasts into the hopper H, entangled and bridged items lodged in and blocking the dispensing opening S are disbursed by the force of the blast. The air flow quickly becomes turbulent and is completely diffused, while passing through the interstitial spaces between the items in the hopper. The initial burst of air causes the items in the hopper to become essentially fluidized, and, accordingly, the air generally coats the items with a thin layer of protective air. The effect of the blast of air, which begins as a laminar flow and then becomes turbulent, causes a separation and mixing of the contents of the hopper. Should items come into contact with each other, this contact would potentially be of reduced force, due to the blanket of air surrounding such items. When the pulse of air ends, the upward momentum of the parts is overcome by gravity, and the ambient barometric pressure fills the partial vacuum created by the sudden expansion of the product caused by the pulses of air. This is believed to essentially defluidize the items as they fall down to the open dispensing slot S, and it is also believed that the descent of the product is accelerated by the sudden contraction of air into the area of relative vacuum created by the expansion of the items. The items nearest to the bottom of the hopper H arrive first at the dispensing slot S. Since such items are now spread apart and relatively fluidized, they tend to align themselves with the narrow opening of the dispensing slot, thereby forming a row. Flowing on a thin layer of protective air, the items flow out generally unimpeded through the dispensing slot S between the air knives, and on to some form of conveyance, or into a bin, further dispensing device, machine, etc. in a suitable condition to facilitate proper orientation for subsequent use. The items that remain in the hopper H tend to congregate and entangle in the base of the hopper thereby forming bridges across the dispensing opening S and becoming lodged there. The “pile” or other conglomeration of the product is thus generally reestablished, as such of the pulse items are no longer fluidized, since the air movement of the pulse has ended. Further, the weight of the upper portion of the pile compresses the bottom layer of items bridging the dispensing opening, thereby holding such bridging items in place and blocking the opening. This condition remains until another pulse of air occurs. Beginning with the activation of the quick response valve, this same scenario takes place again, with the exception of the dispensing opening S, which remains open until the desired number of items are dispensed, or the hopper is empty. At this point, the PLC deactivates the solenoid valve controlling air flow to the actuators A, and air is bled off from the pneumatic actuators using conventional bleed-off valves or other relief fittings (not shown). This allows compression springs 54 located on the rods 73 to cause actuators A to return to their home position. This causes side walls 24 , 26 to move upwardly, and allows the air knives K and end walls 20 , 22 to be forced together by compression springs 44 . The movement of the end walls 20 , 22 and the air knives K together reestablishes the hopper H back to its original shape and geometry,. with the dispensing opening S closed. The present invention is particularly suited for processing components or parts with traits that cause problems for conventional feeders, since the present invention uses different methods and applies additional principles of physics and aerodynamics. Conventional feeders may force components to move in a way which is harmful to the component, whereas the present invention, by suspending product in air, tends to reduce the possibility of product damage. The present invention does not force items through a restriction while they are in a pile and entangled with one another. Instead, the items are lifted, separated, fluidized, mixed, and untangled and then allowed to align themselves naturally with a relatively narrow and controlled dispensing opening. The dispensing system of the present invention can also be used with mixed batches in order to separate desired products from other products which may have been inadvertently left in the hopper. Also, components which may be prone to sticking together due to static electricity or because of moisture are more easily managed due to the blasts of air which continually move, separate and agitate the products. In determining the appropriate width of the dispensing opening, such width is preferably narrower than the longer dimension of the items which must pass therethrough. This allows for better control over the items, by aligning their narrowest dimension with that of the dispensing opening each time they are pulsed with air. Preferably, the hopper is of modular design with the end walls and/or side walls being readily exchangeable to permit providing a hopper of a different height, and/or width, if necessary. The outward incline of end walls 20 , 22 , which can be varied depending on the particular application, provides guide surfaces for product towards dispensing slot S. This would necessitate a corresponding change of the triangular shaped side walls 24 , 26 to accommodate the changed incline of end walls 20 , 22 . Further, the dispensing system should find applicability as a retrofit to existing machines requiring dispensing of product because of its versatile and readily variable modular design. A preferred range for the angle between end walls 20 , 22 is between 60 and 90 degrees. The present invention may be used for dispensing and/or mixing a wide variety of materials and components. In certain applications, component sizes may range from approximately {fraction (1/64)}th of an inch to ⅝th of an inch across their shortest dimension, with {fraction (1/32)}nd of an inch to ½ inch being typical. However, it is to be understood that these dimensions are for illustrative purposes, and the present invention could be sized to accommodate materials with smaller or larger dimensions, depending on the particular application. In certain applications mixing or agitation of product may be desired, even if dispensing of the product is not needed at that time. In such an event, dispensing slot S could simply remain only partially open, to prevent dispensing of the product, while pulsing the product with compressed air or other fluid. For extremely small product P, such as granular material, fine powder, etc., a limitation may be reached based on the correlation of density, shape, texture, and the resulting aerodynamic drag of such material. For example, particles which are too small and light, such as fine powder, may float in the air when subjected to the pulsed fluid blasts of the present invention. Another limitation as to size involves parts or components which may be too large and too heavy, as a practical matter, because such parts would require a relatively large amount of compressed fluid to be used to lift and agitate such parts during the dispensing operation. Also, the use of such large amounts of pressurized fluid or compressed air could also present noise problems. It is to be understood, however, that the present invention could be used for such large products in situations where the dispensing abilities of the present invention outweigh such concerns. The maximum applicability of the present invention would typically lie with components which range between small, dense items and relatively large volume items which are of less density. Further, components having surface configurations which are readily engageable by a fluid flow would be better suited for the present invention than would be spherical items, such as ball bearings. However, if small ball bearings, approximating the size of BBs, could be dispensed if such ball bearings were mixed with non-spherical items, such as oblong shaped parts. The present invention finds particular use in dispensing and/or mixing items that are subject to damage or abrasion which may result from rubbing or impact forces of conventional dispensing devices. The present dispensing system is also desirable for components which may, from time to time, become mixed with other types of components. Further, the present invention finds use with components which need to be fed rapidly in large numbers or fed continuously at a constant and specific rate, or fed periodically, or in a series of intermittent patterns, or in unison with other process. Further, the present dispensing system can be used for components which are to be dispensed spaced apart from one another, for example, along a moveable conveyor belt, or for components which need to be dispensed aligned in a continuous row or file, or alternately, aligned in a series or rows or ranks. Components which are wet or which carry lubricating oils, or which tend to stick to each other when combined together, may be dispensed by the present dispensing system, as could also components which are required to be maintained or lubricated while in contact with one another in a batch configuration. Moreover, the present invention is suitable for components that are subject to static electric clinging, and finally, for general purpose components having no special or unique needs or requirements. EXAMPLES It is anticipated that the present invention may be used to dispense and/or mix a variety of materials, products and components, including but not limited to, the items listed below: A. Electrical parts, such as fuses, capacitors, resistors, connectors, chips, microprocessors, etc. B. Medicines or vitamins, such as pills, tablets, capsules, gel caps, etc. C. Small mechanical parts, such as screws, washers, rivets, bolts, gears, bushings, nuts, pins, etc. D. Diced foods, or foods shaped as small objects, such as candies, beans, cereals, macaroni, pasta, etc. E. Pelletized or granular foods, such as those fed to farm animals, zoo animals, pets, etc. F. Pelletized or granular chemicals, such as fertilizers, cleaning supplies, explosives, etc. G. Agricultural products, such as rice, wheat, grains, oats, seeds, berries, nuts, etc. H. Plastic parts, such as media, buttons, fittings, caps, spacers, toy parts, etc. I. Rubber parts, such as O-rings, grommets, seals, gaskets, erasers, etc. From the foregoing, it can be seen that the present invention provides a versatile system for dispensing and/or mixing a variety of materials and items through its ability to cause a strong aerodynamic effect upon such items. Through adjustment of the geometries of the hopper, the pulse frequency and duration, the dispensing opening, fluid pressure, flow rates, directions of the pressurized fluid flow, and timing and sequencing of the fluid flow blasts, the dispensing and mixing characteristics of the present invention can be varied, as desired. Moreover, by virtue of the design of the present invention, a precise and exacting adjustment may not be necessary in order to nevertheless maintain adequate control of the dispensing of products. To accommodate products of particular dimensions, the geometric shape, dimensional ratios, etc. of end walls 20 , 22 and side walls 24 , 26 of the hopper can be varied to obtain the desired width for accommodating such products. Further, the width of the dispensing outlet can readily be varied depending on component size, as can the pulse frequency, duration, and pressure of the fluid used to lift and agitate products in the hopper. More specifically, pressurized fluid volumetric flow rates could be varied simply by varying the diameter of the compressed air supply lines 50 , and the blast or “spray” pattern of the pressurized fluid to which the products are subjected can be readily varied by changing the width of the air knives outlets 114 or simply the orifice plate 100 . Also, although not shown, sensors could be provided to detect various parameters of dispensing system 10 , and such sensors connected to a PLC for controlling operation of system 10 in response to the output of such sensors. While preferred embodiments of the invention have been described using specific terms, such description is for present illustrative purposes only, and it is to be understood that changes and variations to such embodiments, including but not limited to the substitution of equivalent features or parts, and the reversal of various features thereof, may be practiced by those of ordinary skill in the art without departing from the spirit or scope of the following claims. SUPPLEMENT TO THE DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Referring now to the drawings in detail, wherein like reference characters represent like elements or features throughout the various views, the mixing and dispensing system of the present invention is indicated generally by “ 10 ”. Referring now to FIG. 12; pulses of pressurized fluid 252 , are emitted from the chamber 110 through a narrow opening whose size is determined by the spacer 100 . Due to the Coanda effect, the fluid tends to remain close to the surface as that surface turns upward into the container H. The container H serves as a hopper to hold parts P for processing. In this figure one surface 210 is indicated as a guide surface. The other surface 220 is indicated as a support surface. In this particular configuration, however, both surfaces serve as both support and guide surfaces. “V” shaped, parallel groves 211 in guide surface 210 help to align parts P as they move downward against the guide surface. Parallel fins 221 are perpendicular to support surface 220 . The fins 221 help to align parts P as they move downward against the support surface. Sections a-A and b-B of surfaces 210 and 220 respectively, show these surface configurations from another view. As is consistent with Bernoulli's principle, the pulses of pressurized fluid create a vacuum which in turn draws into the container H pulses of ambient fluids 260 from outside the hopper up through the opening S in the lower portion of the container. The drawing power of the pressurized fluid is enhanced by air funnel 240 . The opening 0 in the top of the container allows for the addition of parts P into the hopper for processing. The opening S in the lower portion of the container also serves as dispensing aperture for parts as is illustrated in other figures. Referring now to FIGS. 13-A; the illustration shows the lower portion of a preferred embodiment of the present invention. Pulses of pressurized fluid 252 are emitted from the chamber 110 through a narrow opening whose size is determined by the spacer 100 . Due to the Coanda effect, the fluid tends to remain close to the surface as that surface turns upward into the container. The container serves as a hopper to hold parts P for processing. In this figure one surface 210 is indicated as a guide surface. The other surface 220 is indicated as a support surface. In this particular configuration, however, both surfaces serve as both support and guide surfaces. As is consistent with Bernoulli's principle, these pulses of pressurized fluid create a vacuum which in turn draws into the container H pulses of ambient fluids 260 from outside the hopper up through the opening S in the lower portion of the container. The drawing power of the pressurized fluid is enhanced by air funnel 240 . The upward pulse of fluid lifts and separates parts P as indicated in FIG. 13-A by the space between parts and the arrows flowing upward between parts. FIG. 13-B shows the same parts P as the pulse ends, the fluid “collapses” and begins to retreat through open passageway S. The parts not only fall, but also are also swept along by and buffered by the retreating fluid 261 . The parts tend to align themselves with the flow of fluid and so pass through the open passageway faster, with less product damage, and in larger quantities than would be normal for parts that were simply dropped or shaken to give them impetus to pass through the open passageway S. This downward flow of fluid and parts is indicated by the generally lower position of parts P and the downward arrows 261 between and around the parts. This downward flow may be ended by the equalization of pressure within and without the container, by bridging of the parts over the open passageway S, and/or by the next upward pulse of fluid through open passageway S. Referring now to FIG. 14; pulses of pressurized fluid 252 are emitted from the chamber 256 through a narrow opening inside the lower portion of hopper H. Due to the Coanda effect, the fluid tends to remain close to the surface as that surface turns upward within hopper H. In this figure one surface 210 is indicated as a guide surface. The other surface 220 is indicated as a support surface. In this particular configuration, however, both surfaces serve as both support and guide surfaces. As is consistent with Bernoulli's principle, these pulses of pressurized fluid create a vacuum which in turn draws into the hopper pulses of ambient fluids 260 through opening S from outside the hopper. The opening O in the top of the container allows for the addition of parts, shown in other figures, into the hopper for processing. The removable lid 235 for the opening O allows for the opening O to be closed or opened as desired. The opening S in the lower portion of the container also serves as dispensing aperture for parts as is illustrated in other figures. The parts are lifted and separated by these vacuum pulses and subsequently flow out the dispensing aperture S between pulses the same as illustrated in other figures. FIG. 15 . presents a preferred embodiment of invention 10 and illustrates the use of an interchangeable (drop in) part 270 used to block part of the established open passageway S. By changing the size and/or shape of the open passageway in this simple manner, it may be unnecessary to have additional whole dispenser machines when changing items or when it is desired to separate items of a smaller size from standard items. In many instances the changes in opening size and shape that are possible with such a simple device as this can also serve to orient items as they exit the container. This figure also illustrates a second container 230 within the hopper. When the main container H is loaded with parts P as illustrated in other figures, the second container 230 blocks the area directly above the passageway from a large portion of the parts. This reduces the pressure on the items immediately above the passageway. This in turn reduces the necessary volume of air and level of pressure required to achieve satisfactory lift and separation of items to be dispensed at any given time. The second container 230 supplies vacuum pulses near the lower aperture. The second container 230 is sealed to a conduit 269 in its upper portion. Pulses of vacuum 268 are supplied from another source at the opposite end (not shown) of the conduit. This in turn draws pulses of fluid 260 from outside the container through the opening S as reduced in size by the interchangeable part 270 . The air funnel 240 enhances the efficiency of this influx of fluid 260 . The opening S in the lower portion of the container also serves as dispensing aperture for parts as is illustrated in other figures. The parts are lifted and separated by these vacuum pulses and subsequently flow out the dispensing aperture S between pulses the same as illustrated in other figures. FIG. 16 . illustrates a preferred embodiment 10 of this invention. In this case no air funnel 240 is shown, though it might well be added to enhance the influx of fluid. An interchangeable device 275 is shown as a replacement for that section of the container defining the opening S. In this case the interchangeable element 275 provides a smaller opening. Other such interchangeable elements might provide larger openings, subdivide the opening into multiple openings or change the shape of the opening. This is similar in function to the “drop in”, interchangeable element 270 shown in FIG. 15 . As described, however, 270 adds material to the existing apparatus and would therefore never increase the size of the opening. The design of such interchangeable elements will directly affect the flow of fluids and the flow of parts in the overall apparatus 10 . A second container 230 is shown within the hopper H. When the main container H is loaded with parts P as illustrated in other figures, the second container 230 blocks the area directly above the passageway from a large portion of the parts. This reduces the pressure on the items immediately above the passageway. This in turn reduces the necessary volume of air and level of pressure required to achieve satisfactory lift and separation of items to be dispensed at any given time. The second container 230 supplies vacuum pulses near the lower aperture. The second container 230 is sealed to a conduit 269 in its upper portion. Pulses of vacuum 268 are supplied from another source at the opposite end (not shown) of the conduit. This in turn draws pulses of fluid 260 from outside the container through the opening S as modified by the interchangeable part 275 . These pulses will then effect movement and flow of parts from hopper H as described and illustrated in other Figures. FIG. 17 illustrates a preferred embodiment 10 of this invention incorporating an interchangeable exit apparatus 280 . Such an exit apparatus may be located within the open passageway S or below the open passageway as illustrated here. Example variations of this exit apparatus 280 -A, 280 -B, 280 -C and 280 -D are also illustrated. These interchangeable parts of various configurations can serve multiple functions. Some configurations of exit apparatus may simply vary by size, as is the case between 280 -A and 280 -B. This shift in size may serve to accommodate the dispensing of different sized items when they are processed through the apparatus at different times. This shift may also be used to separate items of different sizes when they are processed in the apparatus at the same time. In another case 28 b-A might be used with rectangular solids as well as more rounded items when a range of item orientations are acceptable. But, 280 -C might be preferred with rectangular solids when a more restricted orientation of parts is required. 280 -D shows an alternative in which the upper opening of the exit apparatus is round and could accept round or rectangular solids of appropriate size. In this case, however, the profile of the exit apparatus changes as it progresses downward. This allows the exit container to further orient a generally rectangular solid as it passes through and out of the exit apparatus. Many variations of size and-shape are possible and will be useful depending upon the parts themselves and subsequent operations involving those parts. This figure also shows a second container 230 within the main container H. When the main container H is loaded with parts P as illustrated in other figures, the second container 230 blocks the area directly above the passageway from a large portion of the parts. This reduces the pressure on the items immediately above the passageway. This in turn reduces the necessary volume of air and level of pressure required to achieve satisfactory lift and separation of items to be dispensed at any given time. FIG. 18 . shows two views (section a—a and section b—b) of a preferred embodiment 10 of the invention used as a separator. A pre-feeder 245 supplies the hopper H with two configurations of a plurality of items P at one end of the trough shaped container H. Pulses of pressurized fluid 252 are emitted from a pressurized chamber 110 , which extends the length of hopper H through a gap that is also the length of hopper H. Spacer 100 determines the width of the gap. The open passageway S is sized to allow only the smaller of the items (the white ones) to pass through while the larger items (the shaded ones) remain in the hopper. The hopper has a slight decline leading away from the prefeeder toward two receptacles 310 and 320 at the opposite end of the hopper. As the items P are repeatedly lifted, separated and then flow downward toward the open passageway S the smaller items pass through the open passageway onto a conveyor C while the larger items are moved farther and farther down the hopper and eventually into receptacle 310 . The conveyor C carries the smaller articles to receptacle 320 . The angle of decline, the length of the trough, the volume of items being pre-feed to the hopper and variations in the pulses of pressurized fluid all affect the effectiveness of separating out the smaller parts before the larger parts are delivered into receiving apparatus 310 . These figures illustrate many features of preferred embodiments independently of one another in some cases and in limited combinations in other cases. Such figures are intended to illustrate various features, but are not intended to limit the combinations of various features with one other. In fact, it is anticipated that variations in combinations of features will be normal in order to meet the needs of various manufacturing operations. In similar fashion, there are many unillustrated features that will be obvious to those of ordinary skill in the art based on the descriptions and claims made here. They include, but are not limited to, (1) vacuum pumps and other sources of vacuum pulses, (2) inlets for vacuum pulses into the container at places other than the lower portion of the container, (3) combination of the various features of this invention with other systems such as physical vibrations, sonic vibrations, magnetic, pneumatic and hydraulic pressure, etc. Preferred embodiments of the invention have been described using specific terms. Such description is for present illustrative purposes only. It is to be understood that changes and variations to such embodiments may be practiced by those of ordinary skill in the art without departing from the spirit or scope of the following claims. Such variations may include, but are not limited to, the substitution of equivalent features or parts and the reversal of various features thereof.

A dispensing system that includes an apparatus comprised of a container with a support surface, an opening in the upper portion for receiving items, a passageway in the lower portion for dispensing items, a guide surface to direct items into the passageway, a means for generating pulses of vacuum that draw pulses of air (or other fluid) into the container through the open passageway, and sufficient volume of available air (or other fluid) outside the passageway and outside the container to fill the vacuum generated inside the container. A preferred method of generating the vacuum pulses is injecting pulses of high-pressure fluid in thin sheets into the container through the open passageway with laminar flow against the support or guide surfaces. Items are lifted and separated by the influx of fluid. Upon termination of pulses, the volume inside the container collapses and items, carried by and buffered by exiting fluid, pass through the open passageway often at speeds in excess of those that would be generated by gravity alone.

REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/153,053, filed Nov. 17, 1993, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,504,316 which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 07/868,401, filed Apr. 14, 1992, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,280,165, which in turn is a division of application Ser. No. 07/520,464, filed May 8, 1990, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,168,149. This application is also related to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/294,438, filed Aug. 23, 1994, which is a continuation of Ser. No. 08/037,143, filed Mar. 29, 1993 now abandoned, which is a division of Ser. No. 07/715,267, filed Jun. 14, 1991, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,235,167. This application is also related to Ser. No. 08,271,729, filed, Jul. 7, 1994, which is a continuation of Ser. No. 07/981,448, filed Nov. 25, 1992, now abandoned. This application is also related to Ser. No. 08/028,107, filed Mar. 8, 1993. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The invention generally relates to a scanner module for use in an optical scanner, for example, a bar code scanner. 2. Description of the Related Art A typical optical scanner (for example a bar code scanner) has a light source, preferably a laser light source, and means for directing the laser beam onto a symbol (for example a bar code) to be read. On route to the symbol, the laser beam is generally directed onto, and reflected off, a light reflecting mirror of a scanning component. The scanning component causes oscillation of the mirror, so causing the laser beam repetitively to scan the symbol. Light reflected from the symbol is collected by the scanner and detected by a detector such as a photodiode. Decode circuitry and/or a microprocessor algorithm is provided to enable the reflected light to be decoded, thereby recovering the data which is recorded by the bar code symbol. Scanners of this general type have been disclosed, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,251,798; 4,360,798; 4,369,361; 4,387,297; 4,593,186; 4,496,831; 4,409,470; 4,808,804; 4,816,661; 4,816,660; and 4,871,904, all of which patents have been assigned to the same assignee as the present invention, and all of which are hereby incorporated by reference. In recent years, it has become more common for bar code scanners to have within them a distinct scanner module containing all the necessary mechanical and optical elements needed to create the scanning of the laser beam and to deal with the incoming reflected beam from the bar code that is being scanned. Using a separate scanner module, within the housing of the bar code scanner, facilitates a modular approach to design and manufacture, thereby keeping costs down, improving reliability, and facilitating the transfer of scanning technology to a variety of scanner housings. A typical prior art scanner module is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,930,848, to Knowles. There are a large number of known ways of mounting a mirror within the scanning component to cause the necessary scanning motion of the laser beam. Some provide for oscillation in only a single direction, so that the scanning laser beam traces out a single path across the bar code being scanned. Others provide two dimensional scanning patterns, such as for example raster patterns or patterns of greater complexity. Examples of scanning components allowing two dimensional scanning are shown in U.S. Pat. No. 5,280,165, and in European Patent Application 540,781. Both of these are assigned to the same assignee as the present invention, and are hereby incorporated by reference. As optical scanning systems have become more complex, and as the demand for smaller size and lower power consumption has increased, shock protection for the scanner modules has become more difficult. These highly efficient scan engines, with both resonant and nonresonant scanning elements are difficult to protect because the scanning element must be free to move for scanning but must be protected in the event of a shock (for example if the user drops the bar code scanner within which the scanner module is incorporated). Also, as sizes are reduced manufacturing tolerances begin to have more significant impacts on costs. Furthermore, it becomes more difficult to achieve accurate optical alignment during assembly and to maintain that optical alignment during the life of the product. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Objects of the Invention It is a general object of the invention at least to alleviate the problems of the prior art. It is an additional object to provide a scanner module in which the scanning element is protected against shock. It is a further object to provide a scanner module of increased compactness. It is a further object to provide a robust, compact scanner module having reduced manufacturing/assembly costs. FEATURES OF THE INVENTION According to an aspect of the present invention there is provided a scan module for use in a scanner for reading indicia having parts of differing light reflectivity, the scan module comprising: a) a frame; b) a scanning component mounted to the frame for oscillatory motion, the scanning component including an optical element for directing light in a scanning pattern across an indicia to be read, the scanning component having an aperture therein; c) an anti-shock member, passing through the aperture in the scanning component, the anti-shock member being smaller in cross section than the size of the aperture, thereby providing clearance for the scanning component to oscillate in use, but preventing excessive movement of the scanning component with respect to the frame in the event that the module is subjected to a mechanical shock. According to a further aspect of the invention there is providing a method of assembling a scan module for use in a scanner for reading indicia having parts of differing reflectivity, the scan module comprising: a frame; a scanning component to be mounted to the frame for oscillatory motion, the scanning component including an optical element for directing light in a scanning pattern across an indicia to be read, the scanning component having an aperture therein; and an anti-shock pin having a first head portion, a second head portion, and a waist portion having a smaller cross section than the first and second head portions; the method comprising: the following steps: a) positioning the scanning component adjacent to the frame; b) partially inserting the pin into the frame so that the second head portion passes through the aperture and extends from the aperture into a correspondingly-shaped bore in the frame, thereby aligning the scanning component with respect to the frame; c) securing the scanning component to the frame; and d) continuing insertion of the pin into the frame so that the waist portion of the pin becomes located within the aperture, thereby providing clearance for the scanning component to oscillate in use, but preventing excessive movement of the scanning component with respect to the frame in the event that the module is subjected to a mechanical shock. According to a further aspect of the invention there is provided a scan module for use in a scanner for reading indicia having parts of differing light reflectivity, the scan module comprising: a) a frame; b) a scanning component comprising a bracket mounted to the frame by flexible support means for oscillatory motion, the bracket carrying an optical element for directing light in a scanning pattern across an indicia to be read; c) an electromagnetic coil mounted to the frame; d) magnet means secured to the bracket adjacent the coil; and e) the bracket further including a counterweight portion balancing the mass of the optical element at the flexible support means, the counterweight portion at least partially overlying the coil. According to yet a further aspect of the invention there is provided a scan module for use in a scanner for reading indicia having parts of differing light reflectivity, the scan module comprising: a) a frame; b) a scanning component comprising a main bracket mounted to the frame by flexible support means for oscillatory motion, the main bracket carrying an optical element for directing light in a scanning pattern across an indicia to be read, the main bracket having an aperture therein; c) an electromagnetic coil mounted to the frame; d) magnet means, secured to the bracket adjacent to the coil; e) the bracket further including a counterweight portion balancing the mass of the optical element at the flexible support means, the counterweight portion at least partially overlying the coil; and f) an anti-shock member passing through the aperture in the main bracket, the member being smaller in cross section than the size of the aperture, thereby providing clearance for the scanning component to oscillate in use, but preventing excessive movement of the scanning component with respect to the claim in the event that the module is subjected to a mechanical shock. Preferably, the scanning component comprises a main bracket (for example of a beryllium copper alloy) which includes a pair of hanging brackets by which the main bracket is secured to the frame. Each hanging bracket has attached to it a thin strip of a polyester film, the strip being secured at one end to the hanging bracket and at the other end to the frame. The main bracket therefore hangs from the frame on the strips. The strips can flex, allowing the main bracket to oscillate. The main bracket desirably carries an optical element, such as a mirror, for directing light onto onto it in a scanning pattern across the indicia to be read. The mirror may be secured to the main bracket by a further flexure, allowing the mirror to oscillate independently of the main bracket. If the flexure supporting the mirror and the strips are arranged to flex in mutually perpendicular directions, two dimensional scanning patterns (such as raster patterns) can be produced. The strips may be protected from mechanical shock by first and second anti-shock pins which pass through apertures in the hanging brackets. The diameter of the central portions of the pins is slightly smaller than the diameter of the apertures, thereby allowing the main bracket to oscillate in use. However, if a shock is applied to the scan module, the pins prevent excessive movement of the main bracket, and hence prevent over-stressing of the strips. Each anti-shock pin may include an enlarged head portion, which is of substantially the same size and shape in cross section as the aperture in the respective hanging bracket. This allows the main bracket to be accurately positioned with respect to the frame during assembly of the scan module, when the pin is in a partially-inserted position. Once the position has been accurately determined, the main bracket may be secured to the frame, and the pins fully inserted. The invention may be carried into practice in a number of ways, and one specific embodiment will now be described, by way of example, with reference to the accompanying drawings. The novel features which are considered as characteristic of the invention are set forth in particular in the appended claims. The preferred features of the invention, however, both as to its construction and its method of operation, together with additional objects and advantages thereof, will best be understood from the following description, when read in conjunction with the drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is an exploded perspective view of a scanner module embodying the present invention; FIG. 2 is a partially assembled view of the scanner module of FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is a fully assembled view of the scanner module of FIG. 1; FIG. 4 is a view from below of the scanner module of FIG. 1; FIG. 5 shows, schematically, details of the scanning mechanism; and FIG. 6 shows the range of oscillation of the scanning element. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Reference will be made, first of all, to FIGS. 5 and 6 which show, schematically, details of the scanning arrangement. Following a description of these figures, reference will then be made to FIGS. 1 to 4 which show how the preferred scanning arrangement of FIGS. 5 and 6 may be incorporated into a scanning module. The scanning arrangement 170 shown in FIG. 5 comprises an electromagnetic coil 172 having a central opening into which partially extends a permanent magnet 174. The coil 172 is rigidly secured to a support member (not shown), and the magnet 174 is resiliently coupled to the same support by means of an arm 176. A U-shaped spring 178 is attached to the magnet 174 at one end, and the opposite end of the spring supports an optical element, preferably a reflector 180. Electrical leads (not shown) carry an energizing current or drive signal to the coil 172. The reflector 180 will oscillate in response to such electromagnet coil signal so as to scan in one or two dimensions, selectively. The spring 178 may be made of any suitable flexible materials, such as a leaf spring, a flexible metal coil or a flat bar having sufficient flexibility properties, and may be of a material such as a beryllium-copper alloy. The reflector 180 is positioned between a laser beam source and lens assembly 182 and a target (not shown in FIG. 5). Between the reflector 180 and source 182 is a collector 184 having an 181 opening through which a light beam emitted by the laser source 182 may pass to the reflector 180. The collector is oriented so as to direct incoming light, reflected by reflector 180 and then collector 184, to a photodetector 186. An important aspect of the embodiment of FIG. 5 is that the mass of reflector 180 is considerably less than the mass of permanent magnet 174. The mass of the mirror is selected to be less than about one-fifth the mass of the magnet, and the angle of vibration of the mirror as shown in FIG. 6, a diagram derived by computer simulation, is about seven times that of the permanent magnet. The reflector 180 is capable of 2-D scanning. As described in copending application Ser. No. 07/943,232, filed on Sep. 10, 1992, the U-shaped spring 178 is formed of a plastic material, such as Mylar or Kapton. The arms of the U-shaped spring 178 and the planar spring 176 may be arranged to vibrate in planes which are orthogonal to each other. Mylar is a registered trademark of E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Co., Inc. for polyester material. Oscillatory forces applied to permanent magnet 174 by the electromagnetic coil 172 can initiate desired vibrations in both of the springs 178 and 176 by carefully selecting drive signals applied to various terminals of the coil, as discussed in the copending application. Because of the different frequency vibration characteristics of the two springs 178 and 176, each spring will oscillate only at its natural vibration frequency. Hence, when the electromagnetic coil 172 is driven by a signal having high and low frequency components, the U-shaped spring 178 will vibrate at a frequency in the high range of frequencies, and the planar spring 176 will vibrate at a frequency in the low range of frequencies. A feature of the embodiment of FIG. 5 is that the laser beam emitted by source 182 impinges the reflector 180 at an angle that is orthogonal to the axis of rotation of the reflector. Hence, the system avoids droop in the 2-D scan pattern that tends to arise when the angle of incidence of the laser beam is non-orthogonal to the reflective surface. Another feature of FIG. 5 is in the folded or "retro" configuration shown, with the laser beam source 182 off axis from that of the beam directed from the reflector 180 to the target. The detector field of view follows the laser path to the target by way of collector 184. The folded configuration shown is made possible by opening 181 in the collector. The retro configuration enables the scanning mechanism to be considerably more compact than heretofore possible. Reference should now be made to FIGS. 1 to 4, which illustrate the preferred scanner module within which the scanning arrangement of FIGS. 5 and 6 may be incorporated. For ease of reference, parts of the module already described with reference to FIGS. 5 and 6 will be given the same reference numerals. As may best be seen in the exploded view of FIG. 1, the preferred scanner module consists of two separate sections: a chassis element 10 and a scan element 12. In FIG. 1, these two sections are shown in exploded form, prior to their securement together during the assembly process. As is best seen in FIGS. 3 and 4, the chassis element 10 comprises a chassis 14 which carries the coil 172. The coil 172 is secured to a rear wall 16 of the chassis. At respective ends of the rear wall there are first and second forwardly-extending side supports 18, 20. The forward end of the side support 18 is provided with a vertical slot 22 (FIG. 3) into which is placed (FIG. 4) the collecting mirror 184 previously referred to. The forward part of the other side support 20 is provided with a larger vertical slot or cavity 24 (FIG. 3) into which the photodiode assembly 186 (FIG. 4) fits. The features of the scan element 12 (which is during assembly secured to the chassis element 10) is best seen from a comparison of FIGS. 1, 2 and 4. The scan element comprises a beryllium-copper bracket generally shown at 26 having a vertical mounting portion 28 in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the coil 172. The upper part of the mounting portion is formed with two rearwardly-pointing prongs 30, 32 (not visible in FIG. 4). Secured to the mounting portion 28 is the spring 178, previously mentioned with reference to FIG. 5, which carries the mirror 180. On either side of the prongs 30, 32, the upper edge of the mounting portion 28 is bent backwardly to form first and second hanging brackets (34, 36, best seen in FIGS. 1 and 2). Screwed to these hanging brackets are respective first and second sheets of Mylar film 38, only one of which is visible in FIGS. 1 to 3. At the top of the Mylar sheets are secured respective hangers 40, 42. The scanner module is assembled by bringing the scan element 12 up to the chassis element 10 and using screws 44, 46 to attach the hangers 40, 42 to respective bosses 48, 50 on the chassis side supports 18, 20. The relative positioning of the chassis element and the scan element, just prior to their securement together by the screws 44, 46 is shown most clearly in FIG. 2. It will be appreciated that once the scanner module has been assembled, as described, the entire weight of the scan element, including the mirror 180, is supported by the hangers 40, 42 and the sheets of Mylar film 36, 38. The entire scan element is accordingly free to rock back and forth about a horizontal axis perpendicular to the axis of the coil 172 as the Mylar film flexes. The operation of the device will now be described, with reference to FIG. 4. A laser beam, emanating from the laser beam source and lens assembly 182, passes through the hole 181 in the collector 184, and impinges upon the mirror 180 from which it is reflected via a window 52 to a bar code symbol to be read (not shown). Energization of the coil 172 causes oscillation of the mirror 180 in two directions: a first direction due to flexing of the spring 178 and a second direction due to flexing of the Mylar film 38. By appropriate control of the coil, a variety of scanning patterns can be produced, for example a raster pattern or other types of two-dimensional pattern. Light reflected back from the bar code symbol passes back through the window 52, impinges on the mirror 180, and is reflected to the collector 184. The collector concentrates the light and reflects it back to the photo detector 186. Decoding circuitry and/or a microprocessor (not shown) then decode the signals received by the photo detector 186, to determine the data represented by the bar code. It might be thought that because the entire weight of the scan element 12 is taken by the Mylar film 38, the system is likely to be very vulnerable to shocks, for example if the user accidentally knocks or even drops the bar code scanner within which the module is contained. However, provision has been made for that contingency by way of an anti-shock feature which will now be described. First, as may be seen in FIGS. 2 and 3, the lower end of the hanging bracket 34 is located within a channel 54 formed in the side support 18 of the chassis. As the Mylar film 38 flexes, the hanging bracket 34 moves back and forth within the channel 54. The Mylar film 38 is prevented from over-flexing by the walls of the channel 54 which act as stops. A similar arrangement (not visible in the drawings) is provided on the other side. A second level of protection is provided by alignment pins 56, 58, best seen in FIG. 1. Each pin comprises a threaded rear head portion 60, a reduced diameter smooth waist portion 62, and a smooth forward head portion 64. In its operational position, shown in FIG. 3, the waist portion 62 of the pin passes through a hole 68 in the hanging bracket 34, with the forward head portion 64 being received within a correspondingly-sized blind bore 70 within one side of the channel 54. The rear head portion 60 of the pin is screwed into and held in place by a threaded bore 66 which opens at its forward end into the channel 54 and at its rearward end into the rear surface of the rear wall 16. There is a similar arrangement on the other side (not shown) for the second alignment pin 58. The diameter of the waist portion 62 of the pin is some 0.02 inches smaller than the diameter of the hole 68 in the hanging bracket. This provides sufficient tolerance for the Mylar to flex slightly during normal operation of the device. However, if the module is dropped the presence of the pin prevents over-stressing and perhaps breaking of the Mylar. The alignment pins have a further function of assisting accurate positioning of the scan element 12 with respect to the chassis during assembly. During assembly, the scan element is brought up into approximately the correct position, and the alignment pins are then inserted as shown in FIG. 2. At this point, the forward head portion 64 is a tight tolerance sliding fit both within the hole 68 in the hanging bracket and in the blind bore 70. This aligns the scan element to the pins and hence to the chassis. The scan element is then secured to the chassis, as previously described, using the screws 44, 46. The hangers 40, 42 provide a certain amount of adjustability or tolerance in positioning, thereby ensuring that the scan element can be attached to the chassis at the position defined by the alignment pins. The pins are then fully screwed into the threaded bores 66 until the end of the pin is flush with the rear face 16 of the chassis. At this point, as is shown in FIG. 3, the forward head portion of the pin has been received within the bore 70, and the waist portion has moved up to its final position within the hole 68 of the hanging bracket. It will be understood that each of the elements described above, or any two or more together, may also find a useful application in other types of constructions differing from those described. While the invention has been illustrated and described as embodied in a particular scanner module arrangement, it is not intended to be limited to the details shown, since various modifications and structural changes may be made without departing in any way from the spirit of the present invention. Without further analysis, the foregoing will so fully reveal the gist of the present invention that others can, by applying current knowledge, readily adapt it for various applications without omitting features that, from the stand point of prior art, fairly constitute essential characteristics of the generic or specific aspects of this invention and, therefore, such adaptations should and are intended to be comprehended within the meaning and range of equivalence of the following claims.

A scanner module for use in a bar code reader has a scanning mirror which is mounted to a bracket by way of leaf-spring, allowing the mirror to oscillate in one direction. The bracket is hung from a stationary chassis by means of two strips of mylar film, allowing the entire bracket to oscillate in the perpendicular direction, thereby providing two dimensional oscillation of the mirror and raster scanning of a light beam reflected from the mirror. The mylar sheets are protected against mechanical shock by pins which pass through holes in the bracket. The pins are slightly smaller than the holes, allowing sufficient clearance for movement of the bracket during normal operation, but preventing too much stress being placed upon the mylar films if the module is dropped. The pins also provide accurate alignment of the bracket with respect to the chassis.

RELATED APPLICATIONS This is a continuation in part application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/878,805, filed Jun. 28, 2004 now U.S. Pat. No. 7,332,408, titled “ISOLATION TRENCHES FOR MEMORY DEVICES,” which application is commonly assigned, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. TECHNICAL FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates generally to memory devices and in particular the present invention relates to isolation trenches for memory devices. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Memory devices are typically provided as internal storage areas in computers. The term memory identifies data storage that comes in the form of integrated circuit chips. In general, memory devices contain an array of memory cells for storing data, and row and column decoder circuits coupled to the array of memory cells for accessing the array of memory cells in response to an external address. One type of memory is a non-volatile memory known as flash memory. A flash memory is a type of EEPROM (electrically-erasable programmable read-only memory) that can be erased and reprogrammed in blocks. Many modern personal computers (PCs) have their BIOS stored on a flash memory chip so that it can easily be updated if necessary. Such a BIOS is sometimes called a flash BIOS. Flash memory is also popular in wireless electronic devices because it enables the manufacturer to support new communication protocols as they become standardized and to provide the ability to remotely upgrade the device for enhanced features. A typical flash memory comprises a memory array that includes a large number of memory cells arranged in row and column fashion. Each of the memory cells includes a floating-gate field-effect transistor capable of holding a charge. The cells are usually grouped into blocks. Each of the cells within a block can be electrically programmed on an individual basis by charging the floating gate. The charge can be removed from the floating gate by a block erase operation. The data in a cell is determined by the presence or absence of the charge on the floating gate. Memory devices are typically formed on semiconductor substrates using semiconductor fabrication methods. The array of memory cells is disposed on the substrate. Isolation trenches formed in the substrate within the array and filled with a dielectric, e.g., shallow trench isolation (STI), provide voltage isolation on the memory array by acting to prevent extraneous current flow through the substrate between the memory cells. The isolation trenches are often filled using a physical deposition process, e.g., with high-density plasma (HDP) oxides. However, the spacing requirements for flash memory arrays often require the isolation trenches to have relatively narrow widths, resulting in large aspect (or trench-depth-to-trench-width) ratios. The large aspect ratios often cause voids to form within the dielectric while filling these trenches using physical sputtering processes. Filling the trenches with spin-on-dielectrics (SODs) can reduce the formation of voids within the dielectric during filling. However, spin-on-dielectrics usually have to be cured (or annealed) after they are disposed within the trenches, e.g., using a steam-oxidation process that can result in unwanted oxidation of the substrate and of layers of the memory cells overlying the substrate. To protect against such oxidation, the trenches can be lined with a nitride liner prior to filling the trenches with a spin-on-dielectric. One problem with nitride liners is that they can store trapped charges that can adversely affect the reliability of the memory cells and thus the memory device. For the reasons stated above, and for other reasons stated below which will become apparent to those skilled in the art upon reading and understanding the present specification, there is a need in the art for alternatives to existing trench-fill methods. SUMMARY The above-mentioned problems with filling isolation trenches and other problems are addressed by the present invention and will be understood by reading and studying the following specification. For one embodiment, the invention provides a method of forming a portion of an integrated circuit device contained on a semiconductor substrate. The method includes removing a portion of the substrate to define an isolation trench and forming a first dielectric layer on exposed surfaces of the substrate in the trench. Forming a second dielectric layer on at least the first dielectric layer, where the second dielectric layer contains a different dielectric material than the first dielectric layer is included in the method. The method includes depositing a third dielectric layer to fill the trench, removing an upper portion of the third dielectric layer from the trench and leaving a lower portion covering a portion of the second dielectric layer, and oxidizing the lower portion of the third dielectric layer after removing the upper portion. Removing an exposed portion of the second dielectric layer from the trench, thereby exposing a portion of the first dielectric layer is included in the method, as is forming a fourth dielectric layer in the trench covering the exposed portion of the first dielectric layer. For another embodiment, the invention provides a method of forming a portion of an integrated circuit device contained on a semiconductor substrate. The method includes removing a portion of the substrate to define an isolation trench and forming a first dielectric layer on exposed surfaces of the substrate in the trench. Forming a second dielectric layer on at least the first dielectric layer, where the second dielectric layer contains a different dielectric material than the first dielectric layer is included in the method. The method includes partially filling the trench with a silicon rich oxide material, oxidizing the silicon rich oxide material, causing surplus silicon of the silicon rich oxide material to form silicon oxide. Removing an exposed portion of the second dielectric layer from the trench, thereby exposing a portion of the first dielectric layer is included in the method, as is forming a third dielectric layer in the trench covering the exposed portion of the first dielectric layer. Further embodiments of the invention include methods and apparatus of varying scope. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a simplified block diagram of a memory system, according to an embodiment of the invention. FIGS. 2A-2H are cross-sectional views of a portion of a memory device during various stages of fabrication, according to another embodiment of the invention. FIG. 3 is a cross-sectional view of a portion of a memory device during a stage of fabrication, according to yet another embodiment of the invention. FIGS. 4A-4E are cross-sectional views of a portion of a memory device during various stages of fabrication, according to still another embodiment of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION In the following detailed description of the invention, reference is made to the accompanying drawings that form a part hereof, and in which is shown, by way of illustration, specific embodiments in which the invention may be practiced. In the drawings, like numerals describe substantially similar components throughout the several views. These embodiments are described in sufficient detail to enable those skilled in the art to practice the invention. Other embodiments may be utilized and structural, logical, and electrical changes may be made without departing from the scope of the present invention. The term wafer or substrate used in the following description includes any base semiconductor structure. Both are to be understood as including silicon-on-sapphire (SOS) technology, silicon-on-insulator (SOI) technology, thin film transistor (TFT) technology, doped and undoped semiconductors, epitaxial layers of a silicon supported by a base semiconductor structure, as well as other semiconductor structures well known to one skilled in the art. Furthermore, when reference is made to a wafer or substrate in the following description, previous process steps may have been utilized to form regions/junctions in the base semiconductor structure, and terms wafer or substrate include the underlying layers containing such regions/junctions. The following detailed description is, therefore, not to be taken in a limiting sense, and the scope of the present invention is defined only by the appended claims and equivalents thereof. FIG. 1 is a simplified block diagram of a memory system 100 , according to an embodiment of the invention. Memory system 100 includes an integrated circuit memory device 102 , such as a flash memory device, e.g., a NAND or NOR memory device, a DRAM, an SDRAM, etc., that includes an array of memory cells 104 and a region peripheral to memory array 104 that includes an address decoder 106 , row access circuitry 108 , column access circuitry 110 , control circuitry 112 , Input/Output (I/O) circuitry 114 , and an address buffer 116 . The row access circuitry 108 and column access circuitry 110 may include high-voltage circuitry, such as high-voltage pumps. Memory system 100 includes an external microprocessor 120 , or memory controller, electrically connected to memory device 102 for memory accessing as part of an electronic system. The memory device 102 receives control signals from the processor 120 over a control link 122 . The memory cells are used to store data that are accessed via a data (DQ) link 124 . Address signals are received via an address link 126 that are decoded at address decoder 106 to access the memory array 104 . Address buffer circuit 116 latches the address signals. The memory cells are accessed in response to the control signals and the address signals. It will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that additional circuitry and control signals can be provided, and that the memory device of FIG. 1 has been simplified to help focus on the invention. The memory array 104 includes memory cells arranged in row and column fashion. For one embodiment, the memory cells are flash memory cells that include a floating-gate field-effect transistor capable of holding a charge. The cells may be grouped into blocks. Each of the cells within a block can be electrically programmed on an individual basis by charging the floating gate. The charge can be removed from the floating gate by a block erase operation. For one embodiment, memory array 104 is a NOR flash memory array. A control gate of each memory cell of a row of the array is connected to a word line, and a drain region of each memory cell of a column of the array is connected to a bit line. The memory array for NOR flash memory devices is accessed by row access circuitry, such as the row access circuitry 108 of memory device 102 , activating a row of floating gate memory cells by selecting the word line connected to their control gates. The row of selected memory cells then place their data values on the column bit lines by flowing a differing current, depending upon their programmed states, from a connected source line to the connected column bit lines. For another embodiment, memory array 104 is a NAND flash memory array also arranged such that the control gate of each memory cell of a row of the array is connected to a word line. However, each memory cell is not directly connected to a column bit line by its drain region. Instead, the memory cells of the array are arranged together in strings (often termed NAND strings), e.g., of 32 each, with the memory cells connected together in series, source to drain, between a source line and a column bit line. The memory array for NAND flash memory devices is then accessed by row access circuitry, such as the row access circuitry 108 of memory device 102 , activating a row of memory cells by selecting the word line connected to a control gate of a memory cell. In addition, the word lines connected to the control gates of unselected memory cells of each string are driven to operate the unselected memory cells of each string as pass transistors, so that they pass current in a manner that is unrestricted by their stored data values. Current then flows from the source line to the column bit line through each series connected string, restricted only by the selected memory cells of each string. This places the current-encoded data values of the row of selected memory cells on the column bit lines. FIGS. 2A-2H are cross-sectional views of a portion of a memory device, such as a portion of the memory device 102 , during various stages of fabrication, according to another embodiment of the invention. FIG. 2A depicts the portion of the memory device after several processing steps have occurred. Formation of the structure depicted in FIG. 2A is well known and will not be detailed herein. In general, the structure of FIG. 2A is formed by forming a first dielectric layer 202 on a substrate 200 , e.g., of silicon or the like. For one embodiment, the first dielectric layer 202 is a gate dielectric layer (or tunnel dielectric layer), such as a tunnel oxide layer. A conductive layer 204 , e.g., a layer of doped polysilicon, is formed on the first dielectric layer 202 , and a hard mask layer 206 is formed on the conductive layer 204 . The mask layer 206 can be a second dielectric layer, such as a nitride layer, e.g., a silicon nitride (Si 3 N 4 ) layer. Trenches 210 are subsequently formed through the mask layer 206 , the conductive layer 204 , and the first dielectric layer 202 and extend into substrate 200 . This can be accomplished by patterning the mask layer 206 and etching. A third dielectric layer 212 may then be formed on portions of the substrate 200 exposed by the trenches 210 so as to line the portion of trenches 210 formed in substrate 200 . A fourth dielectric layer 220 , such as a nitride layer, e.g., a silicon nitride layer, is formed on the structure of FIG. 2A in FIG. 2B , such as by blanket deposition, and acts as an oxidation barrier layer for one embodiment. Specifically, the fourth dielectric layer 220 is formed on an upper surface of mask layer 206 and on portions of the mask layer 206 , the conductive layer 204 , and the first dielectric layer 202 through which trenches 210 pass. The fourth dielectric layer 220 is also formed on the third dielectric layer 212 . In this way, the fourth dielectric layer 220 lines trenches 210 . For one embodiment, the third dielectric layer 212 acts to provide adhesion between substrate 200 and the fourth dielectric layer 220 and acts as a stress release layer for relieving stresses that would otherwise form between substrate 200 and the fourth dielectric layer 220 . For another embodiment, the third dielectric layer 212 is a pad oxide layer and can be a thermal oxide layer. For another embodiment, the third dielectric layer 212 is, for example, a layer of deposited silicon dioxide (SiO 2 ). A fifth dielectric layer 230 is deposited within each of the trenches 210 on the fourth dielectric layer 220 in FIG. 2C to either fill or partially fill trenches 210 . For one embodiment, the fifth dielectric layer 230 is spin-on dielectric (SOD) material, such as a spin-on glass, hydrogen silsesquioxane (HSQ), hexamethyldisiloxane, polysilazane, octamethyltrisiloxane, etc. The fifth dielectric layer 230 is then cured (or annealed), e.g., using a steam-oxidation process, if necessary. For one embodiment, the fourth dielectric layer 204 acts to prevent oxidation of the substrate 200 and the conductive layer 204 during curing. For one embodiment, the fifth dielectric layer 230 is formed as shown in FIG. 3 . Each of the trenches 210 is partially filled with a silicon-rich oxide material 330 . The silicon-rich oxide material 330 is then oxidized, e.g., using a steam oxidation process, causing the surplus silicon to form silicon oxide that expands. The expansion of the silicon oxide acts to exert a compressive stress on adjacent silicon, which has been shown to improve carrier mobility and thus transistor gain control. For one embodiment, the expansion is achieved when the silicon-rich oxide material 330 has a molar ratio of silicon to oxygen within a range of about 1:1 to about 2:1. For another embodiment, the ratio may be adjusted, dependent upon on the steam and temperature conditions used for the steam oxidation, in order to obtain a desired degree of expansion or resulting compressive stress. In FIG. 2D , a portion of the fifth dielectric layer 230 is removed, such as by etching in an etch-back process, so that an upper surface of the fifth dielectric layer 230 is recessed within the respective trenches 210 , e.g., below an upper surface of substrate 200 , exposing a portion of the fourth dielectric layer 220 lining each of trenches 210 . For embodiments where fifth dielectric layer 230 is a polysilazane-based SOD material, the etch-back process for removing the portion of the fifth dielectric layer 230 includes using a mixture of deionized water and ammonium hydroxide, at a temperature in the range from about 20° C. to about 90° C., preferably at about 55° C. For other embodiments where the fifth dielectric layer 230 is spin-on dielectric (SOD) material, e.g., polysilazane, the fifth dielectric layer 230 is cured, e.g., using the steam-oxidation process, after the removal of the portion of the fifth dielectric layer 230 , i.e., is performed for the structure of FIG. 2D . A portion of the fourth dielectric layer 220 is selectively removed in FIG. 2E , e.g., using a controlled wet etch, to a level of the upper surface of the fifth dielectric layer 230 such that a remaining portion of the fourth dielectric layer 220 is interposed between the fifth dielectric layer 230 and the third dielectric layer 212 . That is, the fourth dielectric layer 220 is removed from an upper surface of the mask layer 206 , and the exposed portion of the fourth dielectric layer 220 located within each of trenches 210 is removed. This exposes the upper surface of the mask layer 206 , the portions of the mask layer 206 , the conductive layer 204 , and the first dielectric layer 202 through which trenches 210 pass, and a portion of the third dielectric layer 212 lying between the upper surface of substrate 200 and the upper surface of the fifth dielectric layer. The remaining portions of the fourth dielectric layer 220 and the fifth dielectric layer 230 form a first dielectric plug 232 that fills a lower portion of trenches 210 , as shown in FIG. 2E , having an upper surface that is recessed below the upper surface of the substrate 200 . For another embodiment, the fourth dielectric layer 220 is removed to a level of an upper surface of the oxidized silicon-rich oxide material 330 of FIG. 3 to form a plug similar to first dielectric plug 232 (not shown in FIG. 3 ). In FIG. 2F , a sixth dielectric layer 240 is blanket deposited over the structure of FIG. 2E and fills an unfilled portion of each of trenches 210 . Specifically, the sixth dielectric layer 240 is deposited on the exposed upper surface of the mask layer 206 , on the exposed portions of the mask layer 206 , the conductive layer 204 , and the first dielectric layer 202 through which trenches 210 pass, on the portion of the third dielectric layer 212 lying between the upper surface of substrate 200 and the upper surface of the fifth dielectric layer, and on the first dielectric plug 232 . For one embodiment, the sixth dielectric layer 240 is of a high-density-plasma (HDP) dielectric material, such as a high-density-plasma (HDP) oxide. Note that the first dielectric plugs 232 reduce the remaining depths of trenches 210 and thus their aspect ratios for the deposition of the sixth dielectric layer 240 . The reduced aspect ratios of trenches 210 act to reduce the formation of voids when depositing the sixth dielectric layer 240 within the unfilled portions of trenches 210 . For another embodiment, in a similar fashion, the sixth dielectric layer 240 is formed over the structure of FIG. 3 after the removal of the fourth dielectric layer 220 to the level of an upper surface of the oxidized silicon-rich oxide material 330 (not shown in FIG. 3 ). A portion of the sixth dielectric layer 240 is removed from the structure of FIG. 2F in FIG. 2G , e.g., using chemical mechanical polishing (CMP). That is, the sixth dielectric layer 240 is removed so that the upper surface of the mask layer 206 is exposed and so that an upper surface of the sixth dielectric layer 240 within each of trenches 210 is substantially flush with the upper surface of the mask layer 206 . Note that the portion of the sixth dielectric layer 240 within each of the trenches 210 forms a second dielectric plug 242 that passes through the mask layer 206 , the conductive layer 204 , the first conductive layer 202 , extends into the substrate 200 , and terminates at the first conductive plug 232 . The third dielectric layer 212 is interposed between the portion of the second dielectric plug 242 and the substrate 200 and the first dielectric plug 232 and the substrate 200 . Note that a structure similar to that of FIG. 2H may be formed from the structure of FIG. 3 after the removal of the fourth dielectric layer 220 and the formation of sixth dielectric layer 240 , with the oxidized silicon-rich oxide material 330 replacing the fifth dielectric layer 230 . Note that the fourth dielectric layer 220 is located in the lower portion of each of trenches 210 and thus away from the layers disposed on the upper surface of substrate 200 that can be used to form memory cells. This acts to reduce problems associated with the fourth dielectric layer 220 storing trapped charges, especially when the fourth dielectric layer 220 is of nitride, that can adversely affect the reliability of the memory cells and thus the memory device. Mask 206 is subsequently removed to expose the conductive layer 204 . A seventh dielectric layer 250 , e.g., such as a layer of silicon oxide, a nitride, an oxynitride, an oxide-nitride-oxide (ONO) layer, etc., is then formed on the exposed conductive layer 204 . A conductive layer 260 , such as a doped polysilicon layer, a metal layer, e.g., refractory metal layer, a metal containing layer, e.g., a metal silicide layer, or the like, is formed on the seventh dielectric layer 250 , as shown in FIG. 2H . The conductive layer 260 may include one or more conductive materials or conductive layers, a metal or metal containing layer disposed on a polysilicon layer, etc. For another embodiment, conductive layers 204 and 260 respectively form a floating gate and a control gate (or word line) of memory cells of a memory array, such as memory array 104 of FIG. 1 , and the seventh dielectric layer 250 forms an intergate dielectric layer that separates the floating gate and the control gate. Source/drain regions are also formed in a portion of substrate 200 not shown in FIG. 2G as a part of the memory array. For one embodiment, conductive layer 204 is extended to improve the coupling of the floating gate. The trenches 210 filled with dielectric materials, as described above, act to prevent extraneous current flow through the substrate between the memory cells. The components located in the region peripheral to memory array 104 of FIG. 1 (hereinafter the periphery) are also formed on the substrate 200 . For one embodiment the periphery may include address decoder 106 , row access circuitry 108 , column access circuitry 110 , control circuitry 112 , Input/Output (I/O) circuitry 114 , and address buffer 116 of memory device 102 , as shown in FIG. 1 . For another embodiment, the row access circuitry 108 and column access circuitry 110 may include high-voltage circuitry, such as high-voltage pumps. For some embodiments, the periphery includes passive elements, such as capacitors, and active elements, such as transistors, e.g., field-effect transistors. For some embodiments, a memory array and a periphery are formed overlying the substrate 200 , as shown in FIGS. 4A through 4E at different stages of fabrication, according to another embodiment of the invention. The structure of FIG. 4A , for one embodiment, is formed essentially as described for FIGS. 2A-2B . That is, the first dielectric layer 202 , the conductive layer 204 , and the mask layer 206 are formed overlying substrate 200 ; trenches 210 are formed through the mask layer 206 , the conductive layer 204 , and the first dielectric layer 202 such that trenches 210 extend into substrate 200 ; the portion of trenches 210 extending into substrate 200 is lined with the third dielectric layer 212 ; and the fourth dielectric layer 220 is formed overlying the first dielectric layer 202 , the conductive layer 204 , the mask layer 206 , and the third dielectric layer 212 . For one embodiment, the trenches 210 in the periphery are deeper and/or wider than the trenches 210 in the array and thus have a larger volume than the trenches 210 in the array, as shown in FIG. 4A . The fifth dielectric layer 230 is deposited overlying the structure of FIG. 4A in FIG. 4B so that dielectric material of the fifth dielectric layer 230 overfills trenches 210 . For the embodiment where the trenches 210 in the periphery have a larger volume than those in the array, more dielectric material is required to fill the trenches 210 of the periphery. Therefore, the trenches 210 of the array are filled more quickly than the trenches 210 of the periphery, and continued deposition of the dielectric material of the fifth dielectric layer 230 overfills the trenches 210 of the periphery. This, coupled with the fluid properties of the dielectric material, causes a step 410 to form in the fifth dielectric layer 230 between the array and the periphery, as shown in FIG. 4B . In FIG. 4C , a portion of the fifth dielectric layer 230 is removed, e.g., by CMP, so that step 410 is removed and an upper surface of the fifth dielectric layer 230 is substantially level, i.e., so that the upper surface of the fifth dielectric layer 230 in the periphery and the upper surface of the fifth dielectric layer 230 in the array are substantially co-planer. For one embodiment, the removal of the fifth dielectric layer 230 proceeds until an upper surface of the fifth dielectric layer 230 is substantially flush with an upper surface of the fourth dielectric layer 220 , as shown in FIG. 4C . For another embodiment, the removal proceeds until the fifth dielectric layer 230 is substantially level and overlies the upper surface of the fourth dielectric layer 220 (not shown). In FIG. 4D , the fifth dielectric layer 230 is recessed within the respective trenches 210 , e.g., using an etch-back process, as described above in conjunction with FIG. 2D . Note further that leveling the fifth dielectric layer 230 prior to recessing the fifth dielectric layer 230 within the respective trenches 210 acts so that the fifth dielectric layer 230 is recessed to substantially the same level below the first dielectric layer 202 within the array and periphery trenches. Subsequently, for one embodiment, the process proceeds as described above for FIGS. 2E-2H to form the structure of FIG. 4E . That is, a portion of the fourth dielectric layer 220 is selectively removed to a level of the upper surface of the fifth dielectric layer 230 ; the sixth dielectric layer 240 is formed to fill the remaining portion of the trenches 210 ; the hard mask layer 206 is removed; and the seventh dielectric layer 250 and the conductive layer 260 are formed overlying conductive layer 204 . In the array, the gate stacks comprising first dielectric layer 202 , the conductive layer 204 , the seventh dielectric layer 250 , and the conductive layer 260 each form a floating-gate transistor 275 that acts as a memory cell of the array. Each of the gate stacks comprising first dielectric layer 202 , the conductive layer 204 , the seventh dielectric layer 250 , and the conductive layer 260 in the periphery forms a field-effect transistor 280 . For some embodiments, the conductive layer 204 and the conductive layer 260 of each field-effect transistor 280 may be strapped (or shorted) together so that the shorted together conductive layers form the control gate of that field-effect transistor 280 . For another embodiment, the conductive layers 204 and 260 are not shorted together, and the conductive layer 204 forms the control gate of the field-effect transistors 280 . Note that field-effect transistors 280 , for one embodiment, form a portion of the logic of row access circuitry 108 and/or column access circuitry 110 of the memory device 102 of FIG. 1 for accessing rows and columns of the memory array 104 . CONCLUSION Although specific embodiments have been illustrated and described herein, it will be appreciated by those of ordinary skill in the art that any arrangement that is calculated to achieve the same purpose may be substituted for the specific embodiments shown. Many adaptations of the invention will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art. Accordingly, this application is intended to cover any adaptations or variations of the invention. It is manifestly intended that this invention be limited only by the following claims and equivalents thereof.

A method includes removing a portion of a substrate to define an isolation trench; forming a first dielectric layer on exposed surfaces of the substrate in the trench; forming a second dielectric layer on at least the first dielectric layer, the second dielectric layer containing a different dielectric material than the first dielectric layer; depositing a third dielectric layer to fill the trench; removing an upper portion of the third dielectric layer from the trench and leaving a lower portion covering a portion of the second dielectric layer; oxidizing the lower portion of the third dielectric layer after removing the upper portion; removing an exposed portion of the second dielectric layer from the trench, thereby exposing a portion of the first dielectric layer; and forming a fourth dielectric layer in the trench covering the exposed portion of the first dielectric layer.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/985,533, filed on Nov. 5, 2007. The disclosure of the above application is incorporated herein by reference. FIELD The present disclosure relates to torque estimation and control, and more particularly to coordinating cylinder fueling and spark timing in torque estimation and control. BACKGROUND The background description provided herein is for the purpose of generally presenting the context of the disclosure. Work of the presently named inventors, to the extent it is described in this background section, as well as aspects of the description that may not otherwise qualify as prior art at the time of filing, are neither expressly nor impliedly admitted as prior art against the present disclosure. Torque model data is often gathered on a dynamometer with all cylinders of an engine being fueled. However, some engines now use partial cylinder deactivation to reduce pumping losses and increase fuel economy. For example, four cylinders out of an eight cylinder engine may be deactivated to reduce pumping losses. In addition, some engines may deactivate all cylinders of the engine during deceleration, which reduces fuel usage. In addition, the pumping losses and rubbing friction of the engine with all cylinders deactivated may create a negative torque (braking torque) that helps to slow the vehicle. To accommodate these types of engines, adjustments may be made for torque estimation and control to account for the number of cylinders that are actually being fueled. The torque produced by the activated (fueled) cylinders may be referred to as indicated torque or cylinder torque. Flywheel torque may be determined by subtracting rubbing friction, pumping losses, and accessory loads from the indicated torque. Therefore, in one approach to estimating torque with partial cylinder deactivation, the indicated torque is multiplied by a fraction of cylinders being fueled to determine a fractional indicated torque. The fraction is the number of cylinders being fueled divided by the total number of cylinders. Rubbing friction, pumping losses, and accessory loads can be subtracted from the fractional indicated torque to estimate an average torque at the flywheel (brake torque) for partial cylinder deactivation. SUMMARY An engine control system comprises a torque control module and a fueling control module. The torque control module selectively generates a deactivation signal for a first cylinder of a plurality of cylinders of an engine based on a torque request. The fueling control module halts fuel delivery to the first cylinder based on the deactivation signal. The torque control module increases a spark advance of the engine at a first time after the fueling control module halts fuel injection for the first cylinder. The first time corresponds to an initial time combustion fails to occur in the first cylinder because fuel delivery has been halted. Further areas of applicability of the present disclosure will become apparent from the detailed description provided hereinafter. It should be understood that the detailed description and specific examples are intended for purposes of illustration only and are not intended to limit the scope of the disclosure. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The present disclosure will become more fully understood from the detailed description and the accompanying drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 is a graphical depiction of a decreasing torque request and corresponding cylinder deactivation and spark advance for an exemplary 4-cylinder engine; FIG. 2 is a graphical depiction of cylinder event timing in an exemplary V8 engine; FIG. 3 is a functional block diagram of an exemplary engine system; FIG. 4 is a functional block diagram of an exemplary engine control system; FIG. 5 is a functional block diagram of elements of the exemplary engine control system of FIG. 4 ; and FIG. 6 is a flowchart that depicts exemplary steps performed by the elements shown in FIG. 5 to coordinate cylinder deactivation and spark advance. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The following description is merely exemplary in nature and is in no way intended to limit the disclosure, its application, or uses. For purposes of clarity, the same reference numbers will be used in the drawings to identify similar elements. As used herein, the phrase at least one of A, B, and C should be construed to mean a logical (A or B or C), using a non-exclusive logical or. It should be understood that steps within a method may be executed in different order without altering the principles of the present disclosure. As used herein, the term module refers to an Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC), an electronic circuit, a processor (shared, dedicated, or group) and memory that execute one or more software or firmware programs, a combinational logic circuit, and/or other suitable components that provide the described functionality. In an internal combustion engine, fuel and spark are relatively fast actuators. The term fast is used in contrast to air flow (which may be measured as air per cylinder), which changes slowly as the throttle valve opens or closes. Removing fuel from one or more cylinders (deactivating the cylinders) and decreasing (retarding) the spark advance can both be used to achieve fast changes in brake torque. When controlling an internal combustion engine, a rapid transition to minimum torque may be requested. The minimum torque the engine can produce with all cylinders on is limited by the minimum amount of air flow needed to maintain adequate combustion in all cylinders. To reduce the torque of the engine even further, cylinders are deactivated. A minimum torque request may be made when the vehicle is decelerating, such as when the driver has removed their foot from the accelerator pedal. Minimum torque may be especially helpful for engine braking when traveling on downgrades. A smooth transition to minimum engine off torque can also be used when shutting down the engine, such as in a hybrid application. For example, in a hybrid application, the engine may be powered down when the vehicle comes to a stop. Rapid torque reductions may also be used to prevent engine flare when the clutch pedal of a manual transmission is depressed. Cylinders can be individually turned off for a step-wise reduction in torque. However, abrupt changes in torque may be transmitted through the frame and perceived as a noise, vibration, or harshness issue. To create a smooth torque ramp, cylinder deactivation can be combined with changes in spark advance to produce a smooth torque reduction without points of discontinuity. In order to achieve this smooth response, spark advance is closely synchronized with cylinder deactivation. Instead of experiencing an abrupt torque reduction when a cylinder is deactivated, the ignition system can advance the spark at the same time that the cylinder is deactivated. The increased spark advance offsets the torque reduction from the cylinder deactivation. The spark advance can then be ramped to a lower value. At this time, the next cylinder can be turned off, with another corresponding increase in spark advance. This can be repeated for each cylinder, with the spark advance smoothing the transitions when cylinders are deactivated. A similar scheme can be used for smoothing increasing torque as cylinders are reactivated. For example, this may be used when the internal combustion engine in a hybrid application is restarted or when a driver once again depresses the accelerator pedal on a downgrade. An example of a strategy where spark advance offsets large decreases in torque from cylinder deactivation is shown in FIG. 1 . FIG. 1 also depicts the difference between when a cylinder is commanded to be deactivated and when the cylinder actually is deactivated. Because of the close coupling between cylinder deactivation and spark advance, FIG. 1 shows how spark advance is affected by the delay in actual cylinder deactivation. In addition to the coordination between spark advance and cylinder deactivation for torque control, coordination is also useful for torque estimation. Torque estimation is used to control engine parameters, and may be used by a hybrid controller to determine current or future torque requested from an electric motor. If the torque estimation function receives notice of a cylinder being deactivated without receiving notice of the corresponding increase in spark advance, torque estimation may erroneously estimate a negative spike in torque. Therefore, when control is able to provide cylinder deactivation information at the same time as the corresponding spark advance, torque estimation may be able to incorporate the combined effects of both changes. FIG. 2 shows an exemplary cylinder firing diagram for a V8 engine, which illustrates why there may be a delay between a cylinder deactivation command and actual cylinder deactivation. FIG. 3 depicts an engine system where fuel control is coordinated with spark control. FIG. 4 depicts exemplary components of an engine control module of the engine system. FIG. 5 depicts in greater detail certain components that are used to coordinate fueling and spark advance for the exemplary engine system. FIG. 6 depicts exemplary control steps used in determining and applying coordinated fueling and spark advance parameters. Referring now to FIG. 1 , a graphical depiction of a decreasing torque request, cylinder deactivation, and spark advance for an exemplary 4-cylinder engine is presented. The torque request begins at a minimum air torque, which is −10 Nm in this example. The minimum air torque represents the torque produced when all cylinders are fueled and the minimum amount of air for proper combustion is provided to the cylinders. The torque ramp then decreases until the minimum engine off torque is reached, which is −30 Nm in this example. At the minimum engine off torque, no fuel is provided to the cylinders and therefore no torque is being generated. Negative torque is created by friction in the engine, and may also be created by pumping losses resulting from the pistons drawing in, compressing, and expelling air. Also indicated are the approximate average torques of the engine with 3, 2, and 1 cylinders activated, which are −15 Nm, −20 Nm and −25 Nm, respectively. At time t 1 , the number of cylinders is instructed to reduce from four to three. After a delay 10 , the number of cylinders actually activated decreases from four to three. At time t 2 , the number of cylinders instructed to be activated is decreased from three to two. After a delay 20 , the actual number of cylinders activated decreases from three to two. As seen in FIG. 1 , delays, such as delay 10 and delay 20 , are not necessarily equal. This will be explained below with respect to FIG. 2 . FIG. 1 also shows an uncoordinated spark advance, where the spark advance is set based upon the instructed number of activated cylinders. Therefore, at time t 1 , the uncoordinated spark advance increases to offset the decrease in torque caused by the cylinder reduction. However, because the cylinder was not actually deactivated until after the delay 10 , the increase in the uncoordinated spark advance would cause a spike in engine torque. The spark advance then ramps to a minimum level, where the next cylinder can be deactivated. The minimum level may represent the lowest spark advance that will still result in stable combustion. A coordinated spark advance is shown, which increases spark advance at times when the number of cylinders being fueled actually decreases. A graph of torque estimation (not shown) based on coordinated spark and fuel control will be fairly smooth. This is because torque estimation receives the decreased number of cylinders as spark control provides torque estimation with the newly updated spark advance. By contrast, a graph of torque estimation (also not shown) corresponding to the uncoordinated spark advance would have downward torque spikes as each cylinder was deactivated. Referring now to FIG. 2 , a graphical depiction of cylinder event timing in an exemplary V8 engine is presented. At the top of FIG. 2 is a square wave indicating teeth on a crankshaft wheel. The X axis represents crankshaft angle, and is shown between 0 and 720 degrees because cylinders fire every two crankshaft revolutions. The 8 cylinders are labeled with letters, from A to H. There are two gaps shown in the crankshaft teeth, one at top dead center (TDC) of cylinder D, and one at TDC of cylinder H. These gaps may be used for synchronizing the crankshaft signal. The time when the piston is at its topmost position, which is the point at which the air/fuel mixture is most compressed, is referred to as TDC. A portion of the crankshaft period on the right of FIG. 2 is repeated on the left of FIG. 2 . This explains why TDC of cylinder H appears at both the left and the right. Ignition timing control may occur at a defined time for each cylinder. For example only, these events may be defined at 72° or 73.5° before TDC of each cylinder. Timelines of the four strokes (intake, compression, power and exhaust) are shown for each cylinder. The cylinders are arranged in firing order from top to bottom, A to H. The physical cylinder number is indicated at the left of each timeline. The end of the intake stroke for a cylinder may be defined as the time when the corresponding intake valve closes. The fuel boundary represents the last time at which fuel released from the fuel injectors will make it into the combustion chamber in that intake stroke. Normally, this will be slightly before the end of the intake stroke. For applications where fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber, the fuel boundary may be at or after the end of the intake stroke. After the fuel boundary, the fuel injector corresponding to the cylinder can begin spraying fuel for the next intake stroke. The fuel injector may spray fuel during the exhaust stroke so that a fuel-air mixture will be ready when the intake valve opens. Fuel may be sprayed earlier, such as in the compression or power strokes, to allow for more mixing of air and fuel and/or to allow for more time in which to inject a greater amount of fuel. Because of the long period during which fuel may be sprayed, deactivating fuel to a cylinder may be done at the fuel boundaries. Therefore, when a request to deactivate cylinder 1 is received, the fuel injector for cylinder 1 is not deactivated until the next fuel boundary is reached. If the request is received slightly after a fuel boundary, nearly two crankshaft revolutions will occur before the fuel boundary is again reached. Even after the fuel injector is disabled following the fuel boundary, the combustion chamber will already contain the previously sprayed fuel. The compression, power, and exhaust strokes therefore operate with the fuel that was previously injected. When the next intake stroke is reached, there is little or no fuel, as the fuel injector has been disabled for the last four strokes. At this point, the combustion chamber contains only air. The compression stroke then compresses the air in the cylinder, and during the power stroke, no fuel-air mixture is present to ignite. This is the time at which the reduced torque from deactivating the cylinder is actually realized. As seen in the example timing diagram of FIG. 2 , cylinder 8 fires before cylinder 1 would have fired, while cylinder 2 fires after cylinder 1 would have fired. The spark can be advanced starting with either the firing of cylinder 8 or the firing of cylinder 2 . In four-cylinder applications, there may not be enough time to advance the spark for the cylinder firing before cylinder 1 . In such cases, the spark will be advanced for the cylinder firing after cylinder 1 . The spark advance can then be gradually reduced by following the torque command through the use of a torque model until the next cylinder is deactivated. The variable delay in FIG. 1 can now be understood. If a cylinder deactivation request is received immediately after the fuel boundary for that cylinder, two crankshaft revolutions will pass before the fuel injector for that cylinder can be disabled. In the next two crankshaft revolutions, the fuel previously sprayed is combusted and exhausted. The following intake and compression strokes operate on air that does not have injected fuel. At the power stroke, one crankshaft revolution after the intake stroke, there is no air/fuel mixture to ignite, and the average torque of the engine is therefore reduced. On the other hand, if a cylinder deactivation request is received immediately before a fuel boundary, when the fuel boundary is reached, the fuel injector for that cylinder will be disabled. Then, after two crankshaft revolutions, the intake stroke draws in air, and after one more crankshaft revolution, the air mixture is not ignited. Therefore, the variable delay shown in FIG. 1 may vary between three and five crankshaft revolutions. Referring now to FIG. 3 , a functional block diagram of an exemplary engine system 100 is presented. The engine system 100 includes an engine 102 that combusts an air/fuel mixture to produce drive torque for a vehicle based on a driver input module 104 . Air is drawn into an intake manifold 110 through a throttle valve 112 . An engine control module (ECM) 114 commands a throttle actuator module 116 to regulate opening of the throttle valve 112 to control the amount of air drawn into the intake manifold 110 . Air from the intake manifold 110 is drawn into cylinders of the engine 102 . While the engine 102 may include multiple cylinders, for illustration purposes, a single representative cylinder 118 is shown. For example only, the engine 102 may include 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, and/or 12 cylinders. The ECM 114 may instruct a cylinder actuator module 120 to selectively deactivate some of the cylinders to improve fuel economy. Air from the intake manifold 110 is drawn into the cylinder 118 through an intake valve 122 . The ECM 114 controls the amount of fuel injected by a fuel injection system 124 to achieve a desired air/fuel ratio. The fuel injection system 124 may inject fuel into the intake manifold 110 at a central location or may inject fuel into the intake manifold 110 at multiple locations, such as near the intake valve of each of the cylinders. Alternatively, the fuel injection system 124 may inject fuel directly into the cylinders. The cylinder actuator module 120 may control to which cylinders the fuel injection system 124 injects fuel. The injected fuel mixes with the air and creates the air/fuel mixture in the cylinder 118 . A piston (not shown) within the cylinder 118 compresses the air/fuel mixture. Based upon a signal from the ECM 114 , a spark actuator module 126 energizes a spark plug 128 in the cylinder 118 , which ignites the air/fuel mixture. The timing of the spark may be specified relative to TDC. The combustion of the air/fuel mixture drives the piston down, thereby driving a rotating crankshaft (not shown). The piston then begins moving up again and expels the byproducts of combustion through an exhaust valve 130 . The byproducts of combustion are exhausted from the vehicle via an exhaust system 134 . The intake valve 122 may be controlled by an intake camshaft 140 , while the exhaust valve 130 may be controlled by an exhaust camshaft 142 . In various implementations, multiple intake camshafts may control multiple intake valves per cylinder and/or may control the intake valves of multiple banks of cylinders. Similarly, multiple exhaust camshafts may control multiple exhaust valves per cylinder and/or may control exhaust valves for multiple banks of cylinders. The cylinder actuator module 120 may deactivate cylinders by halting provision of fuel and spark and/or disabling their exhaust and/or intake valves. The time at which the intake valve 122 is opened may be varied with respect to piston TDC by an intake cam phaser 148 . The time at which the exhaust valve 130 is opened may be varied with respect to piston TDC by an exhaust cam phaser 150 . A phaser actuator module 158 controls the intake cam phaser 148 and the exhaust cam phaser 150 based on signals from the ECM 114 . The engine system 100 may include a boost device that provides pressurized air to the intake manifold 110 . For example, FIG. 1 depicts a turbocharger 160 . The turbocharger 160 is powered by exhaust gases flowing through the exhaust system 134 , and provides a compressed air charge to the intake manifold 110 . The turbocharger 160 may compress air before the air reaches the intake manifold 110 . A wastegate 164 may allow exhaust gas to bypass the turbocharger 160 , thereby reducing the turbocharger's output (or boost). The ECM 114 controls the turbocharger 160 via a boost actuator module 162 . The boost actuator module 162 may modulate the boost of the turbocharger 160 by controlling the position of the wastegate 164 . An intercooler (not shown) may dissipate some of the compressed air charge's heat, which is generated by air being compressed and may by the air's proximity to the exhaust system 134 . Alternate engine systems may include a supercharger that provides compressed air to the intake manifold 110 and is driven by the crankshaft. The engine system 100 may include an exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) valve 170 , which selectively redirects exhaust gas back to the intake manifold 110 . In various implementations, the EGR valve 170 may be located after the turbocharger 160 . The engine system 100 may measure the speed of the crankshaft in revolutions per minute (RPM) using an RPM sensor 180 . The temperature of the engine coolant may be measured using an engine coolant temperature (ECT) sensor 182 . The ECT sensor 182 may be located within the engine 102 or at other locations where the coolant is circulated, such as a radiator (not shown). The pressure within the intake manifold 110 may be measured using a manifold absolute pressure (MAP) sensor 184 . In various implementations, engine vacuum, which is the difference between ambient air pressure and the pressure within the intake manifold 110 , may be measured. The mass of air flowing into the intake manifold 110 may be measured using a mass air flow (MAF) sensor 186 . In various implementations, the MAF sensor 186 may be located in a housing with the throttle valve 112 . The throttle actuator module 116 may monitor the position of the throttle valve 112 using one or more throttle position sensors (TPS) 190 . The ambient temperature of air being drawn into the engine system 100 may be measured using an intake air temperature (IAT) sensor 192 . The ECM 114 may use signals from the sensors to make control decisions for the engine system 100 . The ECM 114 may communicate with a transmission control module 194 to coordinate shifting gears in a transmission (not shown). For example, the ECM 114 may reduce torque during a gear shift. The ECM 114 may communicate with a hybrid control module 196 to coordinate operation of the engine 102 and an electric motor 198 . The electric motor 198 may also function as a generator, and may be used to produce electrical energy for use by vehicle electrical systems and/or for storage in a battery. In various implementations, the ECM 114 , the transmission control module 194 , and the hybrid control module 196 may be integrated into one or more modules. To abstractly refer to the various control mechanisms of the engine 102 , each system that varies an engine parameter may be referred to as an actuator. For example, the throttle actuator module 116 can change the blade position, and therefore the opening area, of the throttle valve 112 . The throttle actuator module 116 can therefore be referred to as an actuator, and the throttle opening area can be referred to as an actuator position or actuator value. Similarly, the spark actuator module 126 can be referred to as an actuator, while the corresponding actuator position may be the amount of spark advance. Other actuators may include the boost actuator module 162 , the EGR valve 170 , the phaser actuator module 158 , the fuel injection system 124 , and the cylinder actuator module 120 . The term actuator position with respect to these actuators may correspond to boost pressure, EGR valve opening, intake and exhaust cam phaser angles, air/fuel ratio, and number of cylinders activated, respectively. Referring now to FIG. 4 , a functional block diagram of an exemplary engine control system is presented. An engine control module (ECM) 300 includes an axle torque arbitration module 304 . The axle torque arbitration module 304 arbitrates between driver inputs from the driver input module 104 and other axle torque requests. For example, driver inputs may include accelerator pedal position. Other axle torque requests may include a torque reduction requested during wheel slip by a traction control system and torque requests to control speed from a cruise control system. Torque requests may include target torque values as well as ramp requests, such as a request to ramp torque down to the minimum engine off torque or ramp torque up from the minimum engine off torque. Axle torque requests may also include requests from an adaptive cruise control module, which may vary a torque request to maintain a predetermined following distance. Axle torque requests may also include torque increases due to negative wheel slip, such as where a tire of the vehicle slips with respect to the road surface when the torque produced by the engine is negative. Axle torque requests may also include brake torque management requests and torque requests intended to prevent vehicle over-speed conditions. Brake torque management requests may reduce engine torque to ensure that engine torque does not exceed the ability of the brakes to hold the vehicle when the vehicle is stopped. Axle torque requests may also be made by body stability control systems. Axle torque requests may further include engine cutoff requests, such as may be generated when a critical fault is detected. The axle torque arbitration module 304 outputs a predicted torque and an immediate torque. The predicted torque is the amount of torque that will be required in the future to meet the driver's torque request and/or speed requests. The immediate torque is the amount of currently required to meet temporary torque requests, such as torque reductions when shifting gears or when traction control senses wheel slippage. The immediate torque may be achieved by engine actuators that respond quickly, while slower engine actuators may be targeted to achieve the predicted torque. For example, a spark actuator may be able to quickly change spark advance, while cam phaser or throttle actuators may be slower to respond because of air transport delays in the intake manifold. The axle torque arbitration module 304 outputs the predicted torque and the immediate torque to a propulsion torque arbitration module 308 . In various implementations, the axle torque arbitration module 304 may output the predicted torque and immediate torque to a hybrid optimization module 312 . The hybrid optimization module 312 determines how much torque should be produced by the engine and how much torque should be produced by the electric motor 198 . The hybrid optimization module 312 then outputs modified predicted and immediate torque values to the propulsion torque arbitration module 308 . In various implementations, the hybrid optimization module 312 may be implemented in the hybrid control module 196 of FIG. 1 . The predicted and immediate torques received by the propulsion torque arbitration module 308 are converted from the axle torque domain (at the wheels) into the propulsion torque domain (at the crankshaft). This conversion may occur before, after, or in place of the hybrid optimization module 312 . The propulsion torque arbitration module 308 arbitrates between the converted predicted and immediate torque and other propulsion torque requests. Propulsion torque requests may include torque reductions for engine over-speed protection, torque increases for stall prevention, and torque reductions requested by the transmission control module 194 to accommodate gear shifts. Propulsion torque requests may also include torque requests from a speed control module, which may control engine speed during idle and coastdown, such as when the driver removes their foot from the accelerator pedal. Propulsion torque requests may also include a clutch fuel cutoff, which may reduce engine torque when the driver depresses the clutch pedal in a manual transmission vehicle. Various torque reserves may also be provided to the propulsion torque arbitration module 306 to allow for fast realization of those torque values should they be needed. For example, a reserve may be applied to allow for air conditioning compressor turn-on and/or for power steering pump torque demands. A catalyst light-off or cold start emissions process may directly vary spark advance for an engine. A corresponding propulsion torque request may be made to balance out the change in spark advance. In addition, the air-fuel ratio of the engine and/or the mass air flow of the engine may be varied, such as by diagnostic intrusive equivalence ratio testing and/or new engine purging. Corresponding propulsion torque requests may be made to offset these changes. Propulsion torque requests may also include a shutoff request, which may be initiated by detection of a critical fault. For example, critical faults may include vehicle theft detection, stuck starter motor detection, electronic throttle control problems, and unexpected torque increases. In various implementations, various requests, such as shutoff requests, may not be arbitrated. For example only, shutoff requests may always win arbitration or may override arbitration altogether. The propulsion torque arbitration module 306 may still receive these requests so that, for example, appropriate data can be fed back to other torque requesters. For example, all other torque requestors may be informed that they have lost arbitration. An actuation mode module 314 receives the predicted torque and the immediate torque from the propulsion torque arbitration module 306 . Based upon a mode setting, the actuation mode module 314 determines how the predicted and immediate torques will be achieved. For example, changing the throttle valve 112 allows for a wide range of torque control. However, opening and closing the throttle valve 112 is relatively slow. Disabling cylinders provides for a wide range of torque control, but may produce drivability and emissions concerns. Changing spark advance is relatively fast, but does not provide much range of control. In addition, the amount of control possible with spark (spark capacity) changes as the amount of air entering the cylinder 118 changes. According to the present disclosure, the throttle valve 112 may be closed just enough so that the desired immediate torque can be achieved by retarding the spark as far as possible. This provides for rapid resumption of the previous torque, as the spark can be quickly returned to its calibrated timing. In this way, the use of relatively slowly-responding throttle valve corrections is minimized by using the quickly-responding spark retard as much as possible. The approach the actuation mode module 314 takes in meeting the immediate torque request is determined by a mode setting. The mode setting provided to the actuation mode module 314 may include an indication of modes including an inactive mode, a pleasible mode, a maximum range mode, and an auto actuation mode. In the inactive mode, the actuation mode module 314 may ignore the immediate torque request. For example, the actuation mode module 314 may output the predicted torque to a predicted torque control module 316 . The predicted torque control module 316 converts the predicted torque to desired actuator positions for slow actuators. For example, the predicted torque control module 316 may control desired manifold absolute pressure (MAP), desired throttle area, and/or desired air per cylinder (APC). An immediate torque control module 320 determines desired actuator positions for fast actuators, such as desired spark advance. The actuation mode module 314 may instruct the immediate torque control module 320 to set the spark advance to a calibrated value, which achieves the maximum possible torque for a given airflow. In the inactive mode, the immediate torque request does not therefore reduce the amount of torque produced or cause the spark advance to deviate from calibrated values. In the pleasible mode, the actuation mode module 314 may attempt to achieve the immediate torque request using only spark retard. This may mean that if the desired torque reduction is greater than the spark reserve capacity (amount of torque reduction achievable by spark retard), the torque reduction will not be achieved. The actuation mode module 314 may therefore output the predicted torque to the predicted torque control module 316 for conversion to a desired throttle area. The actuation mode module 314 may output the immediate torque request to the immediate torque control module 320 , which will retard the spark as much as possible to attempt to achieve the immediate torque. In the maximum range mode, the actuation mode module 314 may instruct the cylinder actuator module 120 to turn off one or more cylinders to achieve the immediate torque request. The actuation mode module 314 may use spark retard for the remainder of the torque reduction by outputting the immediate torque request to the immediate torque control module 320 . If there is not enough spark reserve capacity, the actuation mode module 314 may reduce the predicted torque request going to the predicted torque control module 316 . In the auto actuation mode, the actuation mode module 314 may decrease the predicted torque request output to the predicted torque control module 316 . The predicted torque may be reduced only so far as is necessary to allow the immediate torque control module 320 to achieve the immediate torque request using spark retard. The immediate torque control module 320 receives an estimated torque from a torque estimation module 324 and sets spark advance using the spark actuator module 126 to achieve the desired immediate torque. The estimated torque may represent the amount of torque that could immediately be produced by setting the spark advance to a calibrated value. When the spark advance is set to the calibrated value, the resulting torque (maintaining the current APC) may be as close to mean best torque (MBT) as possible. MBT refers to the maximum torque that is generated for a given APC as spark advance is increased while using high-octane fuel. The spark advance at which this maximum torque occurs may be referred to as MBT spark. The torque at the calibrated value may be less than the torque at MBT spark because of, for example, fuel quality and environmental factors. The immediate torque control module 320 can demand a smaller spark advance than the calibrated spark advance in order to reduce the estimated torque of the engine to the immediate torque request. The immediate torque control module 320 may also decrease the number of cylinders activated via the cylinder actuation module 120 . The cylinder actuator module 120 then reports the actual number of activated cylinders to the immediate torque control module 320 and the torque estimation module 324 . When the number of activated cylinders changes, the cylinder actuator module 120 may report this change to the immediate torque control module 320 before reporting the change to the torque estimation module 324 . In this way, the torque estimation module 324 receives the changed number of cylinders at the same time as the updated spark advance from the immediate torque control module 320 . The torque estimation module may estimate an actual torque that is currently being generated at the current APC and the current spark advance. The predicted torque control module 316 receives the estimated torque and may also receive a measured mass air flow (MAF) signal and an engine speed signal, referred to as a revolutions per minute (RPM) signal. The predicted torque control module 316 may generate a desired manifold absolute pressure (MAP) signal, which is output to a boost scheduling module 328 . The boost scheduling module 328 uses the desired MAP signal to control the boost actuator module 162 . The boost actuator module 162 then controls a turbocharger or a supercharger. The predicted torque control module 316 may generate a desired area signal, which is output to the throttle actuator module 116 . The throttle actuator module 116 then regulates the throttle valve 112 to produce the desired throttle area. The predicted torque control module 316 may use the estimated torque and/or the MAF signal in order to perform closed loop control, such as closed loop control of the desired area signal. The predicted torque control module 316 may also generate a desired air per cylinder (APC) signal, which is output to a phaser scheduling module 332 . Based on the desired APC signal and the RPM signal, the phaser scheduling module 332 commands the intake and/or exhaust cam phasers 148 and 150 to calibrated values using the phaser actuator module 158 . The torque estimation module 324 may use current intake and exhaust cam phaser angles along with the MAF signal to determine the estimated torque. The current intake and exhaust cam phaser angles may be measured values. Further discussion of torque estimation can be found in commonly assigned U.S. Pat. No. 6,704,638 entitled “Torque Estimator for Engine RPM and Torque Control,” the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Referring now to FIG. 5 , a functional block diagram of selected elements of the exemplary engine control system of FIG. 4 is presented. A torque ramp module 402 provides a ramping axle torque request to the axle torque arbitration module 304 of the ECM 300 . The torque ramp module 402 may request an increasing or decreasing torque ramp from the axle torque arbitration module 304 . For example only, this torque ramp may be in response to the driver removing their foot from the accelerator pedal or a hybrid engine controller instructing the engine to shut down, for example. The immediate torque control module 320 receives an immediate torque request via the hybrid optimization module 312 , propulsion torque arbitration module 308 , and the actuation mode module 314 . The immediate torque request may include the torque ramp from the axle torque arbitration module 304 . The immediate torque control module 320 produces a desired spark advance for the spark actuator module 126 based on the number of cylinders that are activated. The immediate torque control module 320 also outputs the desired number of activated cylinders to the cylinder actuator module 120 . The cylinder actuator module 120 includes a fueling control module 410 , a firing sequence dectection module 412 , and a cylinder power determination module 414 . The fueling control module 410 instructs the fuel injection system 124 as to which cylinders should receive fuel. The firing sequence detection module 412 determines which of the four strokes each cylinder is currently performing, which may be determined from a number of degrees of rotation of the crankshaft of the engine. The firing sequence detection module 412 may receive a signal for each degree of rotation of the crankshaft or after every predetermined number of degrees of the crankshaft. The firing sequence detection module 412 may also receive signals indicating the angular position of the crankshaft after a larger number of degrees of rotation. For example only, the firing sequence detection module 412 may receive a signal at each cylinder firing event. For example only, in a V8, cylinder firing events may occur every 90 degrees of crankshaft rotation. The firing sequence detection module 412 outputs cylinder event information to the fueling control module 410 and to the cylinder power determination module 414 . When the fueling control module 410 receives a decreased desired number of cylinders from the immediate torque control module 320 , the fueling control module 410 waits for the next fuel boundary. The fueling control module 410 may deactivate a predetermined cylinder, or may deactivate the cylinder whose fuel boundary next occurs. Once the fuel boundary occurs, the fueling control module 410 instructs the fuel injection system 124 to stop providing fuel to that cylinder. The fueling control module 410 informs the cylinder power determination module 414 when each cylinder is deactivated. The fueling control module 410 may wait until the next intake cycle of the recently deactivated cylinder before indicating to the cylinder power determination module 414 that fueling of the cylinder has been stopped. The cylinder power determination module 414 outputs the number of activated cylinders to the immediate torque control module 320 . The cylinder power determination module 414 may wait to output the reduced number of activated cylinders until it is time to determine a new spark advance. This new spark advance is generated to offset the reduction in torque realized at the time the now-deactivated cylinder fails to fire. For example, the new spark advance may be used for the cylinder that fires before or the cylinder that fires after the now-deactivated cylinder. The cylinder power determination module 414 may send the reduced number of activated cylinders to the torque estimation module 324 after or when the new spark advance is generated. In this way, the torque estimation module 324 receives the reduced number of activated cylinders along with the corresponding increased spark advance. This may prevent the torque estimation module 324 from estimating a torque glitch, where an abrupt drop in torque caused by the cylinder deactivation is then offset by an increased spark advance. The estimated torque may be provided to the immediate torque control module 320 and to other modules, such as the hybrid optimization module 312 shown in FIG. 4 . Referring now to FIG. 6 , a flowchart depicts exemplary steps performed by the elements shown in FIG. 5 to coordinate cylinder deactivation and spark advance. When a decreasing torque ramp to engine off minimum torque is requested by the torque ramp module 402 and received by the immediate torque control module 320 , control begins in step 502 . In step 502 , control initializes a variable NumCylinders to the total number of cylinders in the engine. Control continues in step 504 , where NumCylinders is reported to spark control (the immediate torque control module 320 ) and torque estimation (the torque estimation module 324 ). Control continues in step 506 , where control determines whether NumCylinders is equal to zero. If so, all cylinders are off and control ends; otherwise, control continues in step 507 . In step 507 , control ramps the spark advance to a minimum value. For example only, the minimum value may be the minimum spark advance available where stable combustion is maintained. In step 508 , control instructs cylinder X to be deactivated. Cylinder X, which is the next cylinder to be deactivated, may be chosen so that cylinders with adjacent firing times are not deactivated consecutively. For example, in the V8 timing diagram of FIG. 2 , cylinders 3 or 4 may be deactivated after cylinder 1 . Deactivating cylinder 2 after cylinder 1 may result in added vibration, as six cylinders will fire followed by a gap where two cylinders do not fire. Control continues in step 510 , where control waits until the fuel boundary of Cylinder X is reached. As described in FIG. 2 , this may require up to two crankshaft revolutions. Control continues in step 512 , where fuel is disabled for Cylinder X. Control continues in step 514 , where control waits for two crankshaft revolutions. At this point, cylinder X has finished an intake stroke where no fuel was sprayed. Control then continues in step 516 , where NumCylinders is decremented. Control then continues in step 518 , where NumCylinders is reported to spark control. Control continues in step 520 , where spark control advances the spark for a cylinder that fires adjacently to when cylinder X would have fired if it contained an air-fuel mixture. This adjacent cylinder may be the cylinder that would fire immediately before cylinder X or the cylinder that would fire immediately after cylinder X. The spark will remain advanced for future cylinder firing, although the spark advance will decrease to continue the decrease in torque ramp. The spark advance of step 520 may be an abrupt, discontinuous jump, while the spark advance otherwise follows a continuous downward contour that follows the downward ramp of the torque request. Control continues in step 522 , where NumCylinders is reported to torque estimation. Torque estimation will now have received the advance spark timing, which combined with the reduced NumCylinders, will allow the torque estimation to accurately estimate engine torque. Control then returns to step 506 . When only a single cylinder change in deactivation is requested, steps 508 to 522 may be performed, without placing them in a loop that deactivates all cylinders. The steps of FIG. 6 can be easily adapted to achieve an increasing torque ramp. In such a case, the spark advance would be reduced as a cylinder is activated. In various implementations, such as a port fuel injection engine, an array of Boolean flags may be defined, one for each cylinder. The flag corresponding to a cylinder is updated at the end of the cylinder's intake stroke. The flag is set to true if the cylinder had been fueled during its last intake stroke. The array can be summed to determine the number of cylinders that were fueled during their last intake stroke. This count may be placed into a circular buffer, which is updated and read on a cylinder synchronous basis. The circular buffer introduces a delay, which may be measured in terms of cylinder events, from the end of the intake stroke until the time at which a spark change would be necessary to account for that cylinder's fueling change. In various implementations, the delay may be from the intake stroke until an event that is used to schedule spark. The delay may be reduced to account for time used in switching domains from cylinder synchronous to time-based, which is the domain in which the torque control operates, and back to cylinder synchronous, which is the domain in which spark control operates. The delayed cylinder count is referred to as the powered count. This is the count that can be used in the cylinder fraction term for spark control. To coordinate this cylinder fraction term with torque estimation, the cylinder fraction term may be saved from its time domain calculation into another variable at the time when the cylinder synchronous spark scheduling event occurs. This ensures that the time domain determination is able to be used by the time domain spark torque controller and then be consumed by the spark advance controller. Those skilled in the art can now appreciate from the foregoing description that the broad teachings of the disclosure can be implemented in a variety of forms. Therefore, while this disclosure includes particular examples, the true scope of the disclosure should not be so limited since other modifications will become apparent to the skilled practitioner upon a study of the drawings, the specification, and the following claims.

An engine control system comprises a torque control module and a fueling control module. The torque control module selectively generates a deactivation signal for a first cylinder of a plurality of cylinders of an engine based on a torque request. The fueling control module halts fuel delivery to the first cylinder based on the deactivation signal. The torque control module increases a spark advance of the engine at a first time after the fueling control module halts fuel injection for the first cylinder. The first time corresponds to an initial time combustion fails to occur in the first cylinder because fuel delivery has been halted.

TECHNICAL FIELD This invention relates to light-sensitive compositions useful for defining patterns on substrates by photolithography, particularly to new photoresist compositions especially useful in microlithographic applications where it is desirable to form microscopically-sized patterns which exhibit exceptional resistance to plasma etching. The present invention also relates to precursor compositions used to form the photoresist compositions and methods for forming, the precursor compositions and the photoresist compositions. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Semiconductor devices such as integrated circuits, solid state sensors and flat panel displays are produced by microlithographic processes in which a photoresist is used to form a desired feature pattern on a device substrate. Light is passed through a patterned mask onto the photoresist layer which has been coated onto the device substrate. A chemical change occurs in the light-struck areas of the photoresist, causing the affected regions to become either more soluble or less soluble in a chemical developer. Treating the exposed photoresist with the developer etches a positive or negative image, respectively, into the photoresist layer. The resulting pattern serves as a contact mask for selectively modifying those regions of the substrate which are not protected by the pattern. These modifications may include, for example, etching, ion implantation, and deposition of a dissimilar material. Plasma etching processes are being used increasingly to transfer photoresist patterns into device substrates or underlying layers. It is important that the photoresist pattern does not erode excessively during the plasma etching process, otherwise, the precise pattern will not be transferred into the underlying layer. For example, if the photoresist is removed by the etching process before the underlying layer has been fully etched, then the feature size will begin to increase as the etching process proceeds since the photoresist is no longer protecting the area of the substrate which it once covered. Because of the precision required in etching this is disadvantageous. Plasma etching processes for organic layers such as color filters used in solid state color sensors and flat panel displays require photoresist materials with exceptional resistance to oxygen plasma etching. Conventional photoresists cannot be used effectively since they are primarily mixtures of organic compounds and resins which are etched more rapidly than the color layers. Silicon-containing photoresists and silylated photoresist products have been developed to provide greater etch selectivity when patterning organic layers by oxygen plasma etchinig. Such compositions have been described, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 5,250,395 issued to Allen et al. and by F. Coopmans and B. Rola in Proceedings of the SPIE, Vol. 631, p. 34 (1986). During the etching process, the silicon components in the photoresist are rapidly converted to silicon dioxide which resists further etching. The in-situ formed silicon dioxide layer then becomes the mask for etching the underlying organic layer. Although oxygen is normally the principal plasma etchant for organic layers, it may be admixed with various fluorinated gases such as NF 3 , C 2 F 6 , HCF 3 , and CF 4 to aid in the removal of inorganic residues arising from metallic species. The inorganic residues are often present, for example, in color filter layers. Since, silicon dioxide is readily etched by fluorine-containing plasma etchants, silicon-containing photoresists cannot be used effectively in plasma etching processes where fluorine-containing gases are present. For color filter applications, it is also desirable that the plasma etch-resistant photoresist be left in place as a permanent part of the device structure after the etching process has been completed. To function suitably in this respect, the remaining photoresist material must be continuous, homogeneous, highly adherent, and optically clear so that it does not reduce the transmissivity of the color filter assembly. Silicon-containing photoresists often exhibit poor optical clarity after plasma etching or high temperature thermal treatments which are usually applied to color filter layers. This problem is especially prevalent with silylated phenolic photoresists since the phenolic components form highly colored species when heated to above approximately 125° C. There are other microlithographic applications where it is also desirable to leave a processed photoresist layer in place as a permanent device structure. For example, thin barium titanate and lead zirconate titanate layers are needed as ferroelectrics in advanced memory devices. Presently, these complex metal oxides must be deposited by chemical vapor deposition and then patterned in separate plasma etching processes. Considerable time and expense could be saved if the materials could be applied in a photosensitive precursor form by spin coating and then directly patterned by a photolithographic process, after which the patterned layer would be calcined in air to form the desired metal oxide device features. Accordingly, there is a need for a photoresist material with greater plasma etching resistance in processes utilizing oxygen and/or fluorinated gases as the etchant species. At the same time, there is a need for a photoresist which is convertible to a permanent metal oxide layer with chemical, thermal, electrical, and optical properties useful for device application and whose properties can be controlled by adjusting the composition of the photoresist. The photoresist should further possess high resolution patterning capabilities and be easily integrated into modern microlithographic processing schemes. We have now discovered that all of these requirements surprisingly can be met with a photoresist composition containing an addition polymerizable organotitanium polymer as the principal constituent. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a reaction showing the formation of an example organotitanium polymer; FIG. 2 shows the crosslinking reaction that occurs when the polymer is applied onto the substrate and exposed to radiation which induces addition polymerization; FIG. 3 shows a table which displays a variation of photoresist plasma etching resistance with baking conditions; and, FIG. 4 is a continuation of the table of FIG. 3 . SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is a principle object of the present invention to provide a photoresist composition with improved resistance to plasma etching processes which utilize oxygen and/or fluorine-containing gases, as well as noble gases, as the etchant species, with oxygen and fluorine preferred. It is a further objective to provide a photoresist composition which exhibits the following desirable properties in addition to improved plasma etching resistance: a) good coating quality and feature coverage when applied by spin coating onto electronic substrates; b) high sensitivity to ultraviolet, electron beam, and x-ray exposing radiation; c) facile image development in aqueous alkaline developers; d) good pre-cure adhesion to polymer, metal, and semiconductor materials; e) high resolution, i.e., feature sizes of approximately 1 micron or smaller should be readily obtainable; and, f) curable to a continuous, homogeneous, and, if desired, optically clear (>90% transmissivity at 400-700 nm wavelengths for 0.25 micron film thickness) metal oxide layer having good adhesion to underlying device structures. Lastly, it is an objective of this invention to provide a method for using the photoresist composition in a microlithographic process as a plasma etch-resistant masking layer or a permanent device structure. The improved photoresist composition is comprised principally of: a) an addition polymerizable organotitanium polymer or copolymer, b) a photopolymerization initiator or initiator system, and c) a solvent vehicle. The photoresist composition is preferably coated onto a substrate by any of a variety of means, with spin coating preferred, and then dried to obtain a uniform, defect-free layer, which is then exposed to ultraviolet radiation through a patterned mask to generate a latent image. The exposed photoresist is etched in an alkaline aqueous solution or an aqueous chelate solution. having a pH greater than 10, to leave a negative-tone image of the mask in the layer. The patterned structure is baked in air and/or exposed to an oxygen-containing plasma to partially or fully convert the photoresist material into a titanium-containing metal oxide layer with high plasma etching resistance. The resulting metal oxide layer may be used as a mask for modifying underlying, layers by plasma etching, implantation, deposition, or other processes. Depending on its final physical and chemical properties, it may be left in place as a permanent device structure after the processing sequence has been completed. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The improved photoresist composition of the present invention is preferably comprised of: a) an addition polymerizable organotitanium polymer or copolymer prepared by reacting a poly(alkyltitanate) or poly(alkyltitanate-co-alkylmetallate) with an alcohol, carboxylic acid, beta-diketone, beta-ketoester, or alpha-hydroxy carboxylic acid, acid salt, or ester having at least one ethylenically unsaturated double bond capable of addition polymerization, wherein the copolymerized alkylmetallate moiety is selected from the group consisting of —(RO)Al—O—, —(RO) 2 Zr—O—, —(R′) 2 Si—O—, —(R′)(RO)Si—O—, and —(RO) 2 Si—O—, and where R and R′ are monovalent organic radicals; b) a free radical-generating, photopolymerization initiator or initiator system; c) a solvent vehicle suitable for obtaining high quality thin films on device substrates by spin casting. The composition may additionally contain one or both of the following constituents: d) an addition polymerizable co-monomer having at least one ethylenically unsaturated double bond, wherein the co-monomer may contain a covalently bonded metal; and, e) a soluble metallic compound which is stable in the presence of the other photoresist ingredients. It will be apparent to those skilled in the art that the organotitanium polymer or copolymer used in the title invention, and which upon heat treatment forms a metal oxide composition, is inherently capable of addition polymerization by virtue of the ethylenically unsaturated double bonds present within its structure. Therefore, it is expected that the organotitanium polymer or copolymer could be used alone in solution or in combination with some, but not necessarily all, of the above-mentioned constituents to prepare coatings which can be patterned by selective exposure to ionizing radiation, assuming such radiation is capable of inducing addition polymerization in the coating. For example, the improved photoresist composition may be exposed to an electron beam or x-ray source to form a negative-tone image in a manner analogous to exposure to ultraviolet light. In such instances, the inclusion of a free radical-generating photopolymerization initiator or initiator system may not be necessary for patterning since the high energy radiation can induce crosslinking in the exposed areas of the coating. Components Of Composition a. Addition Polymerizable Organotitanium Polymer Organotitanium polymers suitable for use in the new photoresist composition include the reaction products of poly(alkyltitanates) and poly(alkyltitanates-co-alkylmetallates) with addition polymerizable alcohols, carboxylic acids, beta-diketones, beta-ketoesters, and alpha-hydroxy carboxylic acids, acid salts, and esters. For example, poly(n-butyl titanate) can be reacted with 2-hydroxyethyl acrylate to form the following polymeric titanate ester (1) which is capable of addition polymerization: —[Ti(OR a ) x (OBu) y —O] n —  (1) where R a =—CH 2 —CH 2 —O—CO—CA=CH 2 , Bu=—CH 2 —CH 2 CH 2 —CH 3 , x+y=2, x=0.1-2.0, A=—H or —CH 3 , and n>2. Poly(alkyltitanates) can also be reacted with acrylic acid or other addition polymerizable carboxylic acids to produce polymeric titanium acylates useful in the present invention. The reaction of poly(in-butyltitaniate) with acrylic acid, for example, results in the following polymeric product (2) which is capable of addition polymerization: —[Ti(OR b ) x (OBu) y —O] n —  (2) where R b =—O—CO—CA=CH 2 , Bu=—CH 2 —CH 2 —CH 2 —CH 3 , x+y=2, x=0.1-2.0, A=—H or —CH 3 , and n>2. Similarly, poly(alkyltitanates) can be reacted with beta-diketones, beta-ketoesters, and alpha-hydroxy carboxylic acids, acid salts, and esters containing addition polymerizable groups to produce polymeric titanium chelates useful in the present invention. For example, the reaction of poly(n-butyltitanate) with 2-acetoacetoxyethyl methacrylate, a beta-ketoester, results in the following, polymeric product (3) which is capable of addition polymerization: where R c =—CH 2 —CH 2 —O—CO—C(CH 3 )=CH 2 Bu=—CH 2 —CH 2 —CH 2 —CH 3 , x+y=2, x=0.1-2.0, and n>2. The reaction of poly(n-butyltitanate) with an addition polymerizable alpha-hydroxy carboxylic acid salt also yields a polymeric titanium chelate (4) useful in the present invention, for example: where B + =(H 3 C) 2 NH + —R—CO—CA=CH 2 , R=—CH 2 —CH 2 —CH 2 —NH— or —CH 2 —CH 2 —O—, Bu=—CH 2 —CH 2 —CH 2 —CH 3 , x+y=2, x=0.1-2.0, A=—H or —CH 3 , and n>2. An example of how the organotitanium polymer is formed is shown in FIG. 1 . It will be apparent to those skilled in the art that useful addition polymerizable organotitanium polymers can also be prepared by reacting poly(alkyltitanates) with other known titanium chelants which have been functionalized to enable free radical-initiated polymerization. It will be further apparent that functionally equivalent, addition polymerizable organotitanium polymers can be prepared in principle by reacting, for examples titanate orthoesters having at least one ethylenically unsaturated double bond with a limited amount of water to form a soluble polymeric condensation product. Lastly, it is inferred that addition polymerizable organometallic polymers useful for the present invention can be prepared similarly from copolymers of alkyltitanates with alkylsilicates (siloxanes) and other alkylmetallates, notably those of aluminum, zirconium, cerium, niobium, and tantalum. b. Photopolymerization Initiators or Initiator Systems All known free radical initiators or initiator systems which operate effectively at 200-500 nm exposing wavelengths can be substantially employed as the photopolymerization initiator or initiator system for the present invention. The free radical initiator decomposes upon exposure to ultraviolet light, forming a species which has an unpaired electron or is capable of extracting a proton from another molecule so that the latter carries an unpaired electron. The free radical thus formed adds readily to an unsaturated double bond, especially acrylate-type double bonds, to generate a new free radical which then reacts with another double bond-containing molecule, and so on, creating a polymer chain in the process. The polymer-forming process is called addition polymerization. Examples of suitable initiators and initiator systems include: 1) trihalomethyl-substituted triazines such as p-methoxy phenyl-2,4-bis(trichloromethyl)-s-triazine; 2) trihalomethyl-substituted oxadiazoles such as 2-(p-butoxy styryl) chloromethyl-1,3,4-oxadiazole; 3) imidazole derivatives such as 2-(2′-chlorophenyl)-4,5-diphenylimidazole dimer (with a proton donor such as mercaptobenzimidazole); 4) hexaaryl biimidazoles such as 2,2′-bis(o-chlorophenyl) 4,4′,5,5′-tetraphenylbiimidazole; 5) benzoin alkyl ethers such as benzoin isopropyl ether; 6) anthraquinone derivatives such as 2-ethylanthraquinone; 7) benzanthrones; 8) benzophenones such as Michler's ketone; 9) acetophenones such as 2,2-diethoxy-2-phenylacetophenone; 10) thioxanthones such as 2-isopropylthioxanthone; 11) benzoic acid ester derivatives such as octyl p-dimethyl aminobenzoate; 12) acridines such as 9-phenylacridine; 13) phenazines such as 9,10-dimethylbenzphenazine; and, 14) titanium derivatives such as bis(cyclopentadienyl)-bis(2,6-difluoro-3-(pyl-1-yl) titanium. These photopolymerization initiators may be used alone or in admixture. An example would be combining 2-isopropylthioxanthone with octyl p-dimethylaminobenzoate. c. Solvent Vehicle and Additives Suitable solvents for the new photoresist composition include alcohols, esters, glymes, ethers, glycol ether, ketones and their admixtures which boil in the range 70°-180° C. Especially preferred solvents include 1-methoxy-2-propanol (PGME), 2-butoxyethanol, cyclohexanone, 2-heptanone, ethyl 3-ethoxypropionate, propylene glycol methyl ether acetate, and other common photoresist solvents. Solvent systems containing an alcohol, such as PGME, are preferred for obtaining improved hydrolytic stability of the photoresist composition. Solvents such as ethyl acetoacetate and ethyl lactate may be used in the photoresist composition provided they do not cause side reactions with the photosensitive organotitanium polymer. The photoresist composition may be augmented with small amounts (up to 20 wt. % of total solvents) of high boiling solvents such as N-methylpyrrolidone, gamma-butyrolactone, and tetrahydrofurfuryl alcohol to improve the solubility of the coating components, provided the solvents do not cause coating quality problems. Surface tension modifiers such as 3M Company's FLUORADO® FC-171 or FC-430 fluorinated surfactants may be added at low levels (approximately 1000 parts per million) to optimize coating quality without affecting the lithographic properties of the photoresist. d. Co-monomers Co-monomers having at least one ethylenically unsaturated double bond capable of addition polymerization may be added to the photoresist composition to improve the photospeed, resolution, or physical and chemical properties of the photoresist layer. Preferred comonomers carry multiple acrylate groups which participate in the addition polymerization process described above in the initiation and initiator systems. From the standpoint of the polymerization, co-monomers are indistinguishable from the (meth)acrylate groups on the organotitanium polymer. The comonomer can serve many purposes for example: 1) it can modify film properties from what would be obtained with the organotitanium polymer only, e.g., it can make the product softer or harder, 2) it can increased the photospeed by providing a higher concentration of polymerizable groups in the coating, or 3) it can change the development properties of the coating by making it more or less soluble in basic developer. Examples of suitable comonomers include mono- and polyfunctional (meth)acrylate esters such as 2-hydroxyethyl (meth)acrylate; ethylene glycol dimethacrylate, pentaerythritol triacrylate, and tetraacrylate; dipentaerythritol pentaacrylate and hexaacrylate; polyester (meth)acrylates obtained bv reacting (meth)acrylic acid with polyester prepolymers; urethane (meth)acrylates; epoxy (meth)acrylates prepared by reacting (meth)acrylic acid with epoxy resins such as bisphenol-A type epoxy resins, bisphenol-F type epoxy resins, and novolak-type epoxy resins; and, tris(2-acryloyloxyethyl) isocyanurate. Suitable co-monomers also include acrylic-functional metal complexes prepared, for example, by tranesterifying titanium or zirconium alkoxides with 2-hydroxyethyl acrylate or a chelating organic moiety. The use of such metal-containing, co-monomers is advantageous for maintaining high metal content in the photoresist composition. e. Non-Photopolymerizable Metallic Compounds Non-photopolymerizable metallic compounds may be added to the photoresist composition to increase metal content or obtain complex metal oxide compositions from the processed photoresist layer. Suitable compounds include soluble metal carboxylates, metal alkoxides, metal hydroxides, metal chelates, and simple metal salts such as metal chlorides or nitrates. The amount and type of metal compounds which can be added are governed by 1) their solubility in the liquid photoresist as well as in the dried photoresist layer (an added metal compound should not crystallize in the dried film); 2) their overall effect on the lithographic properties of the photoresist; and, 3) their reactivity with the other photoresist components. It is especially important that added metal compounds do not cause precipitation of the organotitanium polymer or reduce its polymerizability through unwanted side reactions. f. Other Compounds Non-reactive organic compounds may be added to the photoresist composition to modify the properties of the photoresist layer. For example, solvent-soluble dyes can be added to the composition to prepare a patternable, permanently colored layer for light-filtering applications. Pigments can also be dispersed in the photoresist to obtain a directly patternable colored product. The ability to add these materials depends on their compatibility with the other photoresist components and their impact on the lithographic properties of the coating. Method of Preparation a. Preparation of Photopolymerizable Organotitanium Polymer The addition polymerizable organotitanium polymer is preferably prepared by reacting in solution a poly(alkyltitanate) or poly(alkyltitanate-co-alkylmetallate) with a stoichiometric excess of an alcohol, carboxylic acid, beta-diketone, beta-ketoester, or alpha-hydroxy carboxylic acid, acid salt, or ester having at least one ethylenically unsaturated double bond capable of addition polymerization. The ester substituents on the starting polymer are substituted by the polymerizable reactants to form the final photosensitive product. The solution may be heated to about 70° C. for several hours to increase the rate and yield of the substitution reaction. By-product alcohol may be removed continuously from the reactor by vacuum distillation to drive the reaction to completion. b. Formulation of Photoresist The addition polymerizable organotitanium polymer, photopolymerization initiator(s), and, if present, co-monomers, and non-photopolymerizable metallic and organic compounds are combined by stirring in a portion of the solvent system and then diluted with additional portions of the solvent system until the desired total solids level is obtained. A total solids level of 30 wt. % is typically required in the solution to achieve a film thickness of 500-2500 Å when it is spin coated at 1000-5000 rpm for 30-90 seconds and then dried at approximately 100° C. Prior to the final dilution, the photoresist solution or its components may be treated, for example, by ion exchange processes to remove metal ion contamination. Preferred compositional ranges (expressed in wt. % based on total solids content) for each of the photoresist components are summarized in the table below: Component Useful Range % Preferred Range % addition polmerizable 15-90  40-80 organotitanium polymer or copolymer photoinitiator or photoinitiator 1-20 10-15 system co-monomers 0-80  0-50 non-photopolymerizable 0-60  0-40 metallic and organic compounds or pigments Method of Use The improved photoresist composition can be used effectively on most ceramic, metal, polymer, and semiconductor substrates including, for example, glass, sapphire, aluminum nitride, crystalline and polycrystalline silicon, silicon dioxide, silicon (oxy)nitride, aluminum, aluminum/silicon alloys, copper, platinum, tungsten, and organic layers such as color filters and polyimide coatings. The photoresist is coated onto the substrate by any of a variety of means including spin coating, roller coating, blade coating, meniscus or slot coating, and spray coating. Spin coatings, however, is most preferred with the photoresist applied by spin coating at 500-5000 rpm for 30-90 seconds. Spinning speeds of 1000-4000 rpm are especially preferred for obtaining uniform, defect-free coatings on 6″ and 8″ semiconductor substrates. The spin-coated film is dried typically at 80-120° C. for 30-120 seconds on a hot plate or equivalent baking unit prior to exposure. The photoresist is preferably applied at a film thickness of 0.05-1.00 micron (as-spun) and, more typically, to a film thickness of 0.10-0.50 micron by adjusting both the total solids level of the photoresist and the spinning speed and time to give the desired layer thickness. While the before mentioned thicknesses are preferred, the photoresists can be applied to a thickness of several microns if desired, assuming a sufficient level of polymer solids can be supported in the photoresist solution. Film thickness can be increased by increasing solids content, reducing the spinning speed, and formulating the resist with faster-drying solvents. A latent image is formed in the photoresist layer by exposing it to ultraviolet radiation through a mask. An exposure dose of 10-1000 mJ/cm 2 is typically applied to the photoresist to define the latent image. Alternatively, regions of the photoresist layer may be exposed to electron beam or x-ray radiation to form a latent negative-tone image. An example of the radiation-induced crosslinking reation that occurs in the exposed areas is shown in FIG. 2 . The exposed photoresist layer is developed in aqueous alkali or an aqueous chelant solution to form the final pattern. For use as a plasma etching mask, the patterned photoresist is converted to an etch-resistant metal oxide layer by one of two techniques. In the first, it is baked in air at 150°-300° C. for 15-60 minutes to decompose the organic components and leave a predominantly inorganic layer which is etch-resistant. The processed photoresist layer can then be used as a mask for plasma etching an underlying layer with oxygen or a fluorinated gas species. In the second method, the patterned photoresist is applied and patterned over an organic layer such as a color filter. The two-layer structure is placed directly in a plasma etching environment where oxygen is the principal etching species. (Prior thermal decomposition is not required). Tlhe photoresist layer is partially converted to a metal oxide film during the initial portion of the process and then serves as an etching mask for the organic layer. It is becoming popular to planarize surface topography during( the construction of integrated circuits in order to reduce photoresist thickness variations across the substrate and thereby enhance feature size control. In such instances, a relatively thick organic layer may be applied over the device features to form a planar surface. A thin photoresist is then applied onto the structure and used to pattern the organic planarizing layer by oxygen plasma etching. The remaining photoresist and the planarizing layer form a composite mask, or bilayer photoresist system, for etching or otherwise modifying the substrate. The new photoresist can be used very effectively in such processes because of its combined resistance to oxygen- and fluorinie-containing plasma etching processes. The use of the new photoresist in a bilayer configuration essentially follows the process described above for patterning an organic color filter. After the planarizing layer has been cleared by oxygen plasma etching, a fluorinated etchant may be introduced to etch the substrate. Unlike silicon-containing, bilayer photoresists which erode under these conditions, the new photoresist shows less degradation, which helps to maintain better edge acuity on the photoresist features throughout the etching process. This in turn reduces negative etch biasing caused by lateral erosion of the bilayer photoresist features. Once these modifications have been completed, the bilayer photoresist structure is lifted off by dissolving, the organic planarizing layer from beneath the metal oxide mask. The device substrate is then ready for another processing cycle. When used to deposit permanent metal oxide device features, the photoresist is applied onto the device substrate, patterned, and then heated in air to form an metal oxide layer. The metal oxide may be calcined at high temperatures (>300° C.) to obtain a densified polycrystalline structure which has physical properties more suitable for device applications. EXAMPLES Example 1 A photorcsist composition corresponding to the present invention was prepared and used to pattern a color filter layer by a plasma etchings process. a. Preparation of Photopolymerizable Organotitanium Polymer Fifteen (15) parts by weight of poly(n-butyltitanate) obtained from Geleste Corporation were combined with 20 parts by weight of 2-hydroxyethyl acrylate (2-HEA) in a closed container and heated for approximately one hour to cause substitution of the titanate ester groups by 2-HEA. The resulting solution was used to prepare the photoresist composition described below. b. Photoresist Formulation A photoresist composition was prepared by combining 25.9 g of the above polymer solution, with 1.0 g of 2-isopropyl-9H-thioxanthen-9-one, and 3.0 g octyl p-dimethylaminobenzoate in 70.1 g propylene glycol methyl ether to form a solution containing 29.9 wt. % total solids. c. Patterning Trials on Silicon The photoresist composition was spin coated onto silicon wafers at 3000 rpm for 60 sec and then dried at 100° C. for 60 see on a hot plate to obtain 1600 Å-thick film specimens. The coated specimens were exposed to a broadband ultraviolet light source through a contact mask to form a latent negative image in the photoresist film. An exposure dose of 100 mJ/cm 2 was applied. The exposed specimens were developed for 5-10 seconds in 0.26 N tetramethylammonium hydroxide solution to form sharply defined, isolated, and dense features as small as 1 micron in width. The smallest features were retained at all points across the substrate, indicating that the photoresist had excellent adhesion to the silicon substrate. Patterned specimens were placed individually in a March plasma etclhilng system and exposed to an oxygen-rich plasma for periods ranging from 1-60 minutes. Comparison of film thickness before and after exposure to the plasma showed that the starting film thickness of 1600 Å quickly decreased to 1100 Å, after which no further change was observed regardless of the etching time. The results clearly indicated that the organic components of the photoresist were rapidly removed by the oxygen plasma, leaving a titania layer which resisted further etching. d. Pattern Transfer into an Organic Color Layer The patterning process with the photoresist composition was repeated with the photoresist film now applied onto a substrate which had been previously coated with a 1.5 micron-thick polyimide color filter containing solvent-soluble organic dyes. (The color filter was baked at 230° C. for 1 hour prior to applying the photoresist.) Microscopic inspection of the photoresist layer immediately after patterning showed that two-micron and larger-sized features were retained across the substrate during the development process. The specimen was placed in a March plasma etching system and exposed to a plasma comprised of 90% O 2 and 10% CF 4 . After a 10-minute etch, the color filter was cleanly removed from those areas not protected by the photoresist. The photoresist remained uniformly intact on the color features at all points on the specimen. Example 2 A photoresist composition corresponding to the present invention was prepared from an organotitanium polymer formed by the reaction of poly(n-butyltitanate) and an addition photopolymerizable beta-ketoester. The polymer showed improved solution stability in comparison to the organotitanium polymer used in Example 1. a. Preparation of Photopolymerizable Organotitanium Polymer In a 250 ml, oven-dried, round bottom flask fitted with a drying tube 29.67 g of poly(n-butyltitanate), containing a calculated 0.282 moles of reactive n-butyl ester groups, were combined with 66.32 g of 2-methacryloxyethyl acetoacetate (MEAA). The solution was stirred at room temperature for about 20 minutes and then immersed in an oil bath for 24 hours at 70-80° C. to cause substitution of the titanate ester groups by MEAA. Thie resulting polymer solution was used to prepare the photoresist composition described in section (b) below. A second preparation of the same polymer was placed in a 50° C. oven for two weeks to determine its stability against gellation. The gold-yellow polymer solution exhibited a kinematic viscosity of 19.62 Centistokes at the beginning of the period. After two weeks at 50° C. the color of the solution was unchanged and its viscosity had decreased to 18.18 Centistokes (−7.3%), indicating the solution possessed excellent stability. When a solution of the photopolymerizable organotitanium polymer used in Example 1 was aged similarly, it gelled within 24 hours. b. Photoresist Formulation A photoresist composition was prepared by combining 26.0 g of the above polymer solution, 1.0 g of 2-isopropyl-9H-thioxanthen-9-one, and 3.0 g octyl p-dimethylaminiobenzoate in 74.1 g propylene glycol methyl ether. The solution was stirred for 1 hr at room temperature and then passed through a 0.2 μm endpoint filter to remove particulates prior to spin coating. c. Patterning Trails on Silicon The photoresist composition was spin coated onto silicon wafers at 3000 rpm for 60 sec and then dried at 100° C. for 60 sec on a hot plate to obtain 1500 Å-thick film specimens. The coated specimenis were exposed to a broadband ultraviolet light source through a contact mask to form a latent negative image in the photoresist film. An exposure dose of approximately 300 mJ/cm 2 was applied. The exposed specimens were developed for about 5 minutes in dilute potassium carbonate solution to form sharply defined, isolated, and dense features as small as 1 micron in width. The smallest features were retained at all points across the substrate, indicating that the photoresist had excellent adhesion to the silicon substrate. d. Testing of Plasma Etching Resistance The ability of the photoresists to withstand plasma etching in 90% O 2 /10% CF 4 was evaluated after applying various heat treatments (bakes) to the photoresists. It was expected that plasma etching resistance would improve as baking temperature and/or time increased since more of the easily etchable carbonaceous material would be removed from the photoresist layer prior to plasma etching by the heat treatment. The resistance of the photoresist to plasma etching in pure oxygen was determined at the same time. The results of the evaluations are summarized in Table 1. The data in Table 1 indicated that the film thickness of the photoresist layer was highly dependent on the bake process applied to the layer prior to plasma etching. As bake temperature and time increased, more of the carbonaceous components were outgassed from the film, causing pre-etch film thickness to progressively decrease. Heat treatment of the photoresist layer improved resistance to O 2 /CF 4 etching as evidenced by the fact that post-etch photoresist thickness increased as bake temperature and time increased. The photoresist layer was highly resistant to plasma etching in pure oxygen regardless of the manner of heat treatment.

A composition is derived from an addition polymerizable organotitanium polymer which upon exposure to an oxygen plasma or baking in air, is converted to titanium dioxide (titania) or is converted to a mixed, titanium-containing metal oxide. The metal oxide formed in situ imparts etch-resistant action to a patterned photoresist layer. The composition may also be directly deposited and patterned into permanent metal oxide device features by a photolithographic process.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0001] 1. Field of the Invention [0002] The invention relates to cryptography and, more particularly, to a system and method for facilitating cryptographic applications. [0003] 2. Description of the Prior Art [0004] Key Agreement Protocols [0005] It is sometimes desirable for individuals to be able to communicate with each other in a way in which third parties are unable to listen to the communication. A simple way for these individuals to communicate is to have the communications themselves proceed in private. For example if party A and party B desire to communicate in a way which will not be heard by party C, A and B can simply meet at a designated location unknown to C. Similarly, A and B can set up a designated communication line between them which excludes C. Such communication lines are expensive and inconvenient especially if A and B are geographically far apart from one another. [0006] A first approach to facilitating private communications between A and B is to give A and B a secret key that may be used to encrypt and/or decrypt messages sent between A and B. If C does not know what the key is, it may be very difficult for C to both get a hold of a message sent between A and B and try to understand it. However, giving A and B such a key is also cumbersome, expensive and time consuming. Issues to be addressed include secretly transmitting such a key to A and B and generating a new key each time two individuals need to communicate. Also, if C does ascertain the secret key, then all communications between A and B can be decrypted and read by C. [0007] Another approach for facilitating private communications between A and B is to assign A and B secret mathematical functions ƒ a ,ƒ b respectively. The functions ƒ a and ƒ b are chosen from a set of functions, S, all of whose elements are designed so as to be commutative: applying ƒ a followed by ƒ b yields the same result as applying ƒ b followed by ƒ a (i.e., given an element x, ƒ a (ƒ b (x))=ƒ b (ƒ a (x))). Assuming the element x is known by both A and B, A can then send ƒ a (x) to B, and B can send ƒ b (x) to A over public channels. The secret key that can be evaluated and shared by both A and B is then, ƒ a (ƒ b (x))=ƒ b (ƒ a (x)). To insure that the system is secure (from an adversary C who knows x and can listen to all communication between A and B) it is necessary that the functions ƒ a and ƒ b satisfy the following property: given the value ƒ a (x) (respectively ƒ b (x)) it is computationally difficult to determine the function ƒ a (respectively ƒ b ). This is called the general Diffie-Hellman key agreement protocol. [0008] Many specific instances of the general Diffie-Hellman protocol for sending secure communications between A and B are known in the prior art (see Alfred J. Menezes, Paul C. van Oorschot, and Scott A. Vanstone, “Handbook of Applied Cryptography,” CRC Press (1997)). They all differ by their choice of the set of functions. The original Diffie-Hellman key agreement protocol is an example of the above described techniques (see W. Diffie and M. E. Hellman, “New directions in cryptography,” IEEE Transaction on Information Theory, vol. IT 22 (November 1976), pp. 644-654). Using an algorithm like the one first introduced by Diffie-Hellman, parties A and B can obtain a common shared secret by communicating over a public channel. The security of the system, in this instance, rests on the computational difficulty of computing discrete logarithms in the multiplicative group of the finite field. In more general cases the security is based on the notion of a one-way function. A function ƒ from a set X to a set Y is termed one-way if ƒ(x) is easy to compute for all xεX but for essentially all elements y it is computationally difficult to find xεX such that ƒ(x)=y. To date a diverse array of mathematical techniques (including geometric and algebraic ones), have been used to create systems for secure communication whose security is based on one-way functions. [0009] A problem with some of the prior art algorithms, is that most of them rely on a cost-risk analysis when generating the one-way function. That is, in order to produce a more complex and more difficult to determine secret key, each party would need to spend more time in generating such a key and may need to invest in more expensive devices. With rapidly evolving technologies, implementing the current algorithms in a cryptographically secure manner is becoming difficult. Furthermore, there are instances of resource limited devices where current algorithms are difficult to implement. Thus, there is a need in the art for a system and method which can produce a secure key relatively quickly and without employing expensive devices. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0010] An aspect of the invention is a method for securing communications from a user. The method comprises selecting a first monoid, selecting a second monoid and selecting a function, the function being a monoid homomorphism that maps the first monoid to the second monoid. The method further comprises selecting a group, selecting an action of the group on the first monoid, and determining a semi-direct product of the first monoid and the group to produce a third monoid. The method further comprises selecting a first and second submonoid of the third monoid, a pair of the first and second submonoids satisfying a criterion, the first submonoid being defined by a first set of generators, wherein the criterion satisfies a property determined by the function, a structure of the first and second monoids, and the action. The method still further comprises selecting a plurality of generators of the first set of generators to produce a private key. [0011] Another aspect of the invention is a method for securing communications from a user. The method comprises receiving a first submonoid, the first submonoid being produced by selecting a first monoid, selecting a second monoid, selecting a function, the function being a monoid homomorphism that maps the first monoid to the second monoid, selecting a group, selecting an action of the group on the first monoid, determining a semi-direct product of the first monoid and the group to produce a third monoid, selecting a first and second submonoid of the third monoid, the pair of the first and second submonoids satisfying a criterion, the first submonoid being defined by a first set of generators, the criterion satisfying a property determined by the function, a structure of the first and second monoids, and the action. The method further comprising selecting a plurality of generators of the first set of generators to produce a private key. The method still further comprising applying the second component of an identity on a non-group component of a first generator of the private key to produce a result, wherein the identity comprises a first component, the first component being an identity of the second monoid, and the identity comprises a second component, the second component being an identity of the group. The method still further comprising applying the function to the result to produce a first modified result, multiplying the first component of the identity by the modified result to produce a first further modified result, multiplying the second component of the identity with a group component of the first generator to produce a first still further modified result, and combining the first further modified result with the first still further modified result to produce a public key. [0012] Still another aspect of the invention is a method for securing communications among two users. The method comprises selecting a first monoid, selecting a second monoid, and selecting a function, the function being a monoid homomorphism that maps the first monoid to the second monoid. The method further comprising selecting a group, selecting an action of the group on the first monoid, and determining a first semi-direct product of the first monoid and the group to produce a third monoid. The method still further comprising selecting a first and second submonoid of the third monoid, a pair of the first and second submonoids satisfying a criterion, the first submonoid being defined by a first set of generators, the second submonoid being defined by a second set of generators, the criterion satisfying a property determined by the function, a structure of the first and second monoids, and the action. The method further comprising at a first user, receiving the first submonoid, selecting a plurality of generators of the first set of generators to produce a first private key, and applying the second component of an identity on a non-group component of a first generator of the first private key to produce a first result, wherein the identity comprises a first component, the first component being an identity of the second monoid, and the identity comprises a second component, the second component being an identity of the group. The method further comprising at the first user applying the function to the first result to produce a first modified result, multiplying the first component of the identity by the modified result to produce a first further modified result, multiplying the second component of the identity with a group component of the first generator of the first private key to produce a first still further modified result, and combining the first further modified result with the first still further modified result to produce a first public key. The method still further comprising at the first user a. applying a group component of the first public key on a non-group component of a second generator of the first private key to produce a second result, b. applying the function to the second result to produce a second modified result, c. multiplying a non-group component of the first public key by the second modified result to produce a second further modified result, d. multiplying the group component of the first public key with a group component of the second generator of the private key to produce second still further modified result; and e. combining the first further modified result with the second still further modified result to produce a second public key. The method further comprising at a second user receiving the second submonoid, selecting a plurality of generators of the second set of generators to produce a second private key, applying the second component of the identity on a non-group component of a first generator of the second private key to produce a third result, applying the function to the third result to produce a third modified result, multiplying the first component of the identity by the third modified result to produce a third further modified result, multiplying the second component of the identity with a group component of the first generator of the second private key to produce a third still further modified result, and combining the third further modified result with the third still further modified result to produce a third public key. The method still further comprising at the second user f. applying a group component of the third public key on a non-group component of a second generator of the second private key to produce a fourth result, g. applying the function to the fourth result to produce a fourth modified result, h. multiplying a non-group component of the third public key by the fourth modified result to produce a fourth further modified result, i. multiplying the group component of the third public key with a group component of the second generator of the second private key to produce a fourth still further modified result; and j. combining the fourth further modified result with the fourth still further modified result to produce a fourth public key. [0013] Yet still another aspect of the invention is a transmitter comprising a memory including a first submonoid, the first submonoid being produced by selecting a first monoid, selecting a second monoid, selecting a function, the function being a monoid homomorphism that maps the first monoid to the second monoid, selecting a group, selecting an action of the group on the first monoid; determining a semi-direct product of the first monoid and the group to produce a third monoid, selecting a first and second submonoid of the third monoid, the pair of the first and second submonoids satisfying a criterion, the first submonoid being defined by a first set of generators; the criterion satisfying a property determined by the function, a structure of the first and second monoids, and the action. The transmitter further comprising a processor wherein the processor is effective to select a plurality of generators of the first set of generators to produce a private key. The processor is further effective to apply the second component of an identity on a non-group component of a first generator of the private key to produce a result, wherein the identity comprises a first component, the first component being an identity of the second monoid, and the identity comprises a second component, the second component being an identity of the group. The processor is further effective to apply the function to the result to produce a first modified result. The processor is effective to multiply the first component of the identity by the modified result to produce a first further modified result. The processor is effective to multiply the second component of the identity with a group component of the first generator to produce a first still further modified result; and the processor is effective to combine the first further modified result with the first still further modified result to produce a first public key. The processor is effective to a. apply a group component of the first public key on a non-group component of a second generator of the private key to produce a second result, b. apply the function to the second result to produce a second modified result, c. multiply a non-group component of the first public key by the second modified result to produce a second further modified result, d. multiply the group component of the first public key with a group component of the second generator of the private key to produce second still further modified result, and e. combine the first further modified result with the second still further modified result to produce a second public key. [0014] Still another aspect of the invention is a system for securing communications between users. The system comprises a communications center, the communications center effective to select a first monoid, select a second monoid, select a function, the function being a monoid homomorphism that maps the first monoid to the second monoid, select a group, and select an action of the group on the first monoid. The communications center further effective to determine a first semi-direct product of the first monoid and the group to produce a third monoid; and select a first and second submonoid of the third monoid, a pair of the first and second submonoids satisfying a criterion, the first submonoid being defined by a first set of generators, the second submonoid being defined by a second set of generators, the criterion satisfying a property determined by the function, a structure of the first and second monoids, and the action. The system further comprising a first transmitter comprising a memory including the first submonoid and a first processor. The first processor effective to select a plurality of generators of the first set of generators to produce a first private key and apply the second component of an identity on a non-group component of a first generator of the first private key to produce a first result, wherein the identity comprises a first component, the first component being an identity of the second monoid, and the identity comprises a second component, the second component being an identity of the group. The first processor further effective to apply the function to the first result to produce a first modified result, multiply the first component of the identity by the modified result to produce a first further modified result, multiply the second component of the identity with a group component of the first generator to produce a first still further modified result and combine the first further modified result with the first still further modified result to produce a first public key. The first processor is further effective to a. apply a group component of the first public key on a non-group component of a second generator of the private key to produce a second result, b. apply the function to the second result to produce a second modified result, c. multiply a non-group component of the first public key by the second modified result to produce a second further modified result, d. multiply the group component of the first public key with a group component of the second generator of the first private key to produce second still further modified result; and e. combine the first further modified result with the second still further modified result to produce a second public key. The system further comprises a second transmitter comprising a memory including the second submonoid and a second processor. The second processor effective to select a plurality of generators of the second set of generators to produce a second private key, apply the second component of the identity on a non-group component of a first generator of the second private key to produce a third result, apply the function to the third result to produce a third modified result, and multiply the first component of the identity by the third modified result to produce a third further modified result. The second processor further effective to multiply the second component of the identity with a group component of the second generator to produce a third still further modified result and combine the third further modified result with the third still further modified result to produce a third public key. The second processor is further effective to f. apply a group component of the third public key on a non-group component of a second generator of the second private key to produce a fourth result, g. apply the function to the fourth result to produce a fourth modified result, h. multiply a non-group component of the first public key by the fourth modified result to produce a fourth further modified result, i. multiply the group component of the third public key with a group component of the second generator of the second private key to produce fourth still further modified result and j. combine the fourth further modified result with the fourth still further modified result to produce a fourth public key. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0015] FIG. 1 is a system diagram illustrating a Π-Function module in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. [0016] FIG. 2 is a system diagram illustrating a S-Action module in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. [0017] FIG. 3 is a system diagram illustrating an E-Function module in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. [0018] FIG. 4 is a system diagram illustrating the operation of an E-Function iterator module in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. [0019] FIG. 5 is another system diagram illustrating the operation of an E-Function iterator module in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. [0020] FIG. 6 is a system diagram illustrating a system for determining a pair of E-commuting monoids in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. [0021] FIG. 7 is a system diagram illustrating a system for determining a private key in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. [0022] FIG. 8 is a system diagram illustrating a system for determining a public key in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. [0023] FIG. 9 is a system diagram illustrating a system for determining a common agreed upon secret key in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. [0024] FIG. 10 is a flow diagram illustrating a method for determining a common agreed upon secret key and transmitting a message using that secret key in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. [0025] FIG. 11 is a system diagram illustrating a system for determining a secret key in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT [0026] The present invention introduces an algorithmically efficient one-way function. The algorithm is both rapidly computable and computationally hard to reverse. An overview in accordance with the invention is provided in FIG. 10 . Parties Alice and Bob are each in possesion of a database from which they form their respective private keys (Boxes 101 and 102 ). They then proceed to produce their respective public keys based on their respective private keys by applying an algorithm in accordance with the invention (Boxes 103 and 104 ). Alice and Bob each have access to a respective transmitter and receiver. Alice and Bob use their respective transmitter and receiver to exchange their public keys. By exchanging these public keys they are each in a position to obtain a common agreed upon secret key by letting the received public key act on the respective user's private keys (Boxes 105 and 106 ). Once the shared secret key has been obtained, Alice can then encrypt a plaintext message, produce an encrypted message (Box 107 ), send the encrypted message (Box 108 ) to Bob, who can then decrypt the encrypted message (Box 109 ) to obtain Alice's plaintext message (Box 107 ). [0027] Let M, N denote monoids and let S denote a group which acts on M on the left. Given an element sεS, and an element mεM, we denote the result of s acting on m by s m. The semidirect product of M and S, M S is defined to be the monoid whose underlying set is M×S and whose internal binary operation [0000] :( M×S )×( M×S )→ M×S [0000] is given by [0000] :(( m 1 ,s 1 ),( m 2 ,s 2 ))→( m 1 · s 1 m 2 s 1 s 2 ). [0000] Furthermore, we let N×S denote the direct product. [0028] An algebraic eraser is specified by a 6-tuple (M S, N, Π, E, A, B) where M S and N are as above, A, B are user submonoids of M, Π is an easily computable monoid homomorphism Π:M→N, [0000] E is a function [0000] E :( N×S )×( M S )→ N×S [0000] given by [0000] E (( n,s ),( m 1 ,s 1 ))=( n Π( s m 1 ), ss 1 ), [0000] and A, B are submonoids of M S such that for all (a, s a )εA, (b, s b )εB [0000] E ((Π( a ), s a ),( b,s b ))= E ((Π( b ), s b ),( a,s a )). [0000] Two submonoids satisfying the above identity are termed E-Commuting. [0029] An action of S on M does not induce an action of S on N, and given knowledge of the elements [0000] ( n,s ), E (( n,s ),( m 1 ,s 1 ))ε N×S [0000] it is very difficult to obtain the element (m 1 ,s 1 )εM S. The action of the element sεS has been effectively erased by the algebraic eraser. A benefit lies in the efficiency of the computation of the function Π and the iterative nature of the method and apparatus for the computation of the function E. [0030] A preferred embodiment of an apparatus to perform an algebraic key agreement protocol based on the algebraic eraser, is depicted in FIGS. 1 through 11 , and begins with an apparatus to compute the function Π. The Π-Function module 13 is responsive to the data from the Π-Function module library 11 , and the input element mεM from 12. The Π-Function module 13 computes the element Π(m)εN. [0031] In general a group S is said to act (on the left) on a monoid M provided there is a homomorphism from S to the endomorphisms of M which satisfies certain properties. Given sεS and mεM, the element s maps m to a new element in M, denoted s m. The required properties are [0000] s ( m 1 m 2 )= s m 1 s m 2 , 1 m=m, s 1 s 2 m= s 1 ( s 2 m ) [0000] Referring to FIG. 2 , S-Action module 23 is responsive to the inputs sεS 21 and mεM 22 , and computes the image of m under the action of s yielding s m as output. [0032] An apparatus to compute the function E is depicted in FIG. 3 . The E-Function module 36 is responsive to the inputs (n,s) 31 and (m,s) 34 . Given an ordered list (x,y) of two elements x, y, the first component projection of (x,y) outputs the first component x on the list. Similarly, the second component projection outputs the second component y. The input (n,s), 31 , is sent to the second component projection module, 32 and the input (m 1 ,s 1 ) is likewise sent to a first component projection module, 33 . The resulting elements of S and M of the first and second component modules 32 , 33 are then forwarded to the S-Action module 23 , yielding the element s m 1 εM. This resulting element s m 1 is forwarded to the Π-Function module, 13 , which outputs the element Π( s m 1 ). The E-Function multiplier, 35 , is responsive to the input (n,s), 31 , the element Π( s m 1 )εN, and the result of the input (m 1 ,s 1 ), 34 , being entered into the second component projection module, 32 . The E-Function multiplier outputs the element (nΠ( s m 1 ), ss 1 )εN×S which is also the output of the E-Function module 36 . [0033] The semi-direct product of M and S, denoted M S, is defined to be the monoid whose underlying set is the direct product M×S and whose binary operation is given by [0000] ( m 1 ,s 1 )·( m 2 ,s 2 )=( m 1 · s 1 m 2 ,s 2 ). [0000] It is noted that given an element (n,s)εN×S and two elements (m 1 ,s 1 ), (m 2 ,s 2 )εM S, that [0000] E (( n,s ),(( m 1 ,s 1 )·( m 2 ,s 2 )))= E ( E (( n,s ),( m 1 ,s 1 )),( m 2 ,s 2 )). [0000] Hence computing the E-Function iteratively increases the system's efficiency and speed. [0034] FIG. 4 depicts an apparatus which may be used in performing the above computation. An E-Function Iterator module 42 is responsive to the input (n,s), 31 , and to the input (m 1 ,s 1 ), (m 2 ,s 2 ), . . . , (m k ,s k ) , 41 , and outputs [0000] ( n )Π( s m 1 )Π( ss 1 m 2 ) . . . Π( ss 1 . . . s k m k ), ss 1 . . . s k ). [0035] A more detailed apparatus of the E-Function Iterator module 42 , is depicted in FIG. 5 , begins with the input (n,s) 31 being sent to the E-Function module 36 . In addition, an input (m 1 ,s 1 ), (m 2 ,s 2 ), . . . , (m k ,s k ) , 41 , is sent to the choose t th component module, 53 , which is a module initialized at the value t=1 and repeatedly incremented by the increment t module, 54 . The t th component of the input (m 1 ,s 1 ), (m 2 ,s 2 ), . . . , (m k ,s k ) is precisely (m t ,s t ) which is the output of 53 and sent to the E-Function module 36 . Furthermore the value of t is sent to the decision box 55 which also receives the value of the E-Function (iterated t−1 times up to that point). The decision box 55 determines if t=k, at which point the computation stops, otherwise, the output of decision box 55 becomes input 31 to the E-Function module 36 to be used as the new first component of E together with the incoming entry from choose t th component module 53 . The final value arrived at is given by [0000] ( n ·Π( s m 1 )Π( ss 1 m 2 ) . . . Π( ss 1 1 . . . s k-1 m k ), ss k )=( n ·Π(( s m 1 )( ss 1 m 2 ) . . . ( ss 1 . . . s k-1 m k )), ss 1 . . . s k ). [0036] Recall that two submonoids A, B are said to be E-Commuting provided [0000] E ((Π( a ), s a ),( b,s b ))= E ((Π( b ), s b ),( a,s a )) [0000] holds for all (a,s a )εA, (b,s b )εB. FIG. 6 illustrates an apparatus which may be used in choosing a pair of E-Commuting monoids, A, B which may be utilized in the invention. A monoid is specified by a generating set, i.e., a subset of elements of the monoid which have the property that every element of the monoid can be expressed as a product of some of these generators (in some order, with repetitions allowed). The Semidirect Product Producer 60 is responsive to the monoid M and the group S and produces the monoid M S. The monoid M S, together with the monoid N and the function Π are sent to the E-Commuting Monoid Producer 63 , whose output is sent to the Pairs of E-Commuting Monoid Library 64 . A Pseudorandom Number Generator 61 produces a random number α, a Chooser 62 then accesses the α th element of the Pairs of E-Commuting Monoid Library 63 and outputs the pair of E-Commuting monoids A 1 , B 1 which are forwarded to Alice and Bob, respectively. Additionally the pair A 1 , B 1 is forwarded to the User Submonoid Generator Database 65. [0037] With the apparatuses for computing the S-Action, the functions Π and E specified, and each users submonoid in place, the algebraic eraser key agreement protocol can now be detailed. If the E-commuting monoids A 1 , B 1 , are privately assigned to Alice and Bob, then the invention functions, for example, as a symmetric cryptosystem. If the monoid M S possesses a large library of pairs of E-Commuting submonoids which are recursively enumerable and whose internal algebraic structure is hidden then the invention can function, for example, as an asymmetric cryptosystem. [0038] FIG. 7 illustrates a mechanism which may be used in enabling a user to generate a private key. Focusing on Alice (Bob case is analogous) a second Pseudorandom Number Generator 72 responsive to the input α*, 71 , creates a list of integers e 1 , e 2 , . . . , e α * where each e i is generated in such a way that e i ≦number of generators of (A 1 ). The Sequence Encoder 73 is responsive to the list e 1 , e 2 , . . . , e α * and the User Submonoid Generator database 65 , is responsive to the submonoid A 1 . The Sequence Encoder 73 produces the list of the user generators (m e 1 ,s e 1 ), (m e 1 ,s e 1 ), . . . , (m e α *,s e α *) out of the generating set of A 1 . The Private Key Generator 74 is responsive to Encoder 73 and produces the user private key [0000] M A = ( m e 1 ,s e 1 ),( m e 2 ,s e 2 ), . . . , ( m e α *,s e α *) [0000] which is sent to a memory 75 . It should be observed that the product of the elements, denoted (M A ,s A ), [0000] ( M A , s A ) = ( m e 1 , s e 1 ) · ( m e 2 , s e 2 )   …   ( m e α * , s e α * ) = ( ( m e 1 )  ( m e 2 s 1 )   …   ( m e α * s 1   …   s α * - 1 ) , s e 1   …   s e α * ) [0000] is an element of the submonoid A 1 ⊂ M S, but need not be computed explicitly for key agreement. [0039] Now that Alice and Bob have chosen their respective user private keys, FIG. 8 depicts the apparatus which may be used in computing the user public keys. The E-Function Iterator module 42 is responsive to the input (m e 1 ,s e 1 ), (m e 2 ,s e 2 ), . . . , (m e α *s e α *) , 81 and the element [0000] (1 N ,1 S )=(identity N ,identity S )ε N×S, [0000] which is the identity of the monoid N in the first component and the identity of S in the second component. The E-Function Iterator module 42 produces the User Public Key [0000] ( N A , s A ) = E  ( ( 1 N , 1 S ) , ( M A , s A ) ) = ( ( Π  ( m e 1 )  Π  ( m e 2 s 1 )   …   Π  ( m e α * s 1   …   s α * - 1 ) , s e 1   …   s e α * ) = ( Π  ( ( m e 1 )  ( m e 2 s 1 )   …   ( m e α * s 1   …   s α * - 1 ) ) , s e 1   …   s e α * ) = ( Π  ( M A ) , s A ) , [0000] which is sent to memory 83 . [0040] At this point Alice has the public key (N A ,s A ) and private key <m A >, Bob has public key (N B ,s B ) and private key <m B >, and they are now in a position to utilize the apparatus depicted in FIG. 9 to obtain a common agreed upon secret key. Alice transmits her public key (N A ,s A ) input 91 via the transmitter/receiver 93 , and likewise Bob transmits his public key (N B ,s B ) input 92 via the transmitter/receiver 94 . The received public keys together with the each users private keys are then forwarded to the respective E-Function Iterator modules 42 a , 42 b , to yield [0000] ( N B Π( s B M A ), s B s A )= E (( N B ,s B ),( M A ,s A ))= E ((Π( m B ), s B ),( M A ,s A )) [0000] ( N A Π( s A M B ), s A s B )= E (( N A ,s A ),( M B ,s B ))= E ((Π( M A ), s A ),( M B ,s B )). [0000] Since (M A ,s A ) and (M B ,s B ) are contained in the submonoids A 1 , B 1 respectively, the original assumptions regarding the structure of the algebraic eraser imply that the above elements of N×S are equal and can serve as the common agreed upon secret key, 97 . [0041] The above key agreement protocol can be enhanced by combining it with the Diffie-Hellman protocol described in the prior art. One such combination is given as follows. Referring to FIG. 8 , replace input 82 by the element (K A ,identity S ) (for Alice) and (K B ,identity S ) (for Bob) where K A , K B εN are additional private keys chosen so that they commute. The public keys for Alice and Bob are, E((K A ,identity S ), (M A ,s A )), E((K B ,identity S ), (M B ,s B )), respectively. In this variation of the key agreement protocol, the common agreed upon secret key is given by [0000] E (( K A K B ·Π( M B ), s B ),( M A ,s A ))= E (( K B K A ·Π( M A ), s A ),( M B ,s B )). [0042] Referring now to FIG. 11 , there is shown a system 1130 which could be used in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. System 1130 includes a first transmitter/receiver 1102 a and a second transmitter/receiver 1102 b . Transmitters/receivers 1102 a and 1102 b could be, for example, readers and tags in an RF-ID system. Transmitters/receivers 1102 and 1102 b may, for example, generate information, receive information, or modulate received information to transmit other information. [0043] Transmitter/receiver 1102 a includes a memory 1104 a , a processor 1110 a , an action module 1112 a , a Π-Function module 1108 a an E-function multiplier 1106 a and an antenna 1114 a . Similarly, transmitter/receiver 1102 b includes a memory 1104 b , a processor 1110 b , an action module 1112 b , a H-Function module 1108 b , an E-function multiplier 1106 b and an antenna 1114 b . Action modules 1112 a and 1112 b could be, for example, S-action module 23 discussed above. Π-Function modules 1108 a and 1108 b could be, for example, Π-Function module 13 discussed above. E-Function multipliers 1106 a and 1106 b could be E-Function multipliers 35 as described above. [0044] Memories 1104 a and 1104 b each include monoids N and M, group S and function Π which all could be determined using, for example, the algorithms discussed above. Memory 1104 a further includes a submonoid A and memory 1104 b further includes a submonoid B. Submonoids A and B may be determined as discussed above. For example, a semi-direct product of S and M may be determined. A and B may then be E-commuting submonoids of this semi-direct product. Monoids M and N, group S, function Π and submonoids A and B may all be determined by a communications center 1132 in communication with a database 1134 . Communications center 1132 may forward monoids M and N, group S, function Π and sub-monoids A and B to transmitter/receivers 1102 a , 1102 b using, for example an antenna 1136 . Alternatively, monoids M and N, group S, function Π and submonoids A and B, may be stored in memories 1104 a , 1104 of transmitter/receives 1102 a , 1102 b respectively, when the respective devices are manufactured. [0045] In operation, processors 1110 a and 1110 b each select generators of monoids A and B, respectively. The selection could be, for example, through the use a pseudo-random number generators 1120 a , 1120 b . Processor 1110 a then orders the generators to produce a private key 1118 a for transmitter/receiver 1102 a. [0046] Processor 1110 a then forwards private key 1118 a and an identity element 122 a to action module 1112 a , Π-Function module 1108 a and E-Function multiplier 1106 a to produce a public key 1122 a for transmitter/receiver 1102 a . Identity element 1122 a includes a first component which is the identity of monoid N and a second component which is the identity of group S. The process through action module 1112 a , Π-Function module 1108 a and E-Function multiplier 1106 a may be performed iteratively for each generator in private key 1118 a. [0047] Similarly, processor 1110 b orders generators of monoid B to produce a private key 1118 b for transmitter/receiver 1102 b . Processor 1110 b then forwards private key 1118 b and an identity element 1122 b to action module 1112 b , Π-Function module 1108 b and E-Function multiplier 1106 b to produce a public key 1122 b for transmitter/receiver 1102 b . Identity element 1122 b includes a first component which is the identity monoid N and a second component which is the identity of group S. The process through action module 1112 b , Π-Function module 1108 b and E-Function multiplier 1106 b may be performed iteratively for each generator in private key 1118 b. [0048] Transmitter/receivers 1102 a and 1102 b exchange their respective public keys 1122 a , 1122 b using antennas 1114 a and 1114 b respectively over a communication link 1128 . Once the pub-lic keys 1122 a , 1122 b are received, a secret key may be ascertained. Focusing on transmitter/receiver 1102 a , for example, public key 1122 b from transmitter/receiver 1102 b is input to action module 1112 a , Π-function module 1108 a and E-Function multiplier 1106 a along with private key 1118 a . Action module 1112 a , Π-Function module 1108 a , and E-Function multiplier 1106 a may operate on these inputs iteratively for each generator in the private key from transmitter/receiver 1102 a , to produce a secret key 1124 . A similar operation is performed at transmitter/receiver 1102 b . The secret key 1124 may be then be used by transmitter/receivers 1102 a and 1102 b to communicate securely. [0049] While the invention has been described and illustrated in connection with preferred embodiments, many variations and modifications as will be evident to those skilled in this art may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention, and the invention is thus not to be limited to the precise details of methodology or construction set forth above as such variations and modification are intended to be included within the scope of the invention. Example [0050] An instance of the algebraic eraser and its associated key agreement protocol can be obtained in the case where the monoid M is chosen to be the set of L×L matrices whose entries are rational functions with integral coefficients in the variables {t 1 , t 2 , . . . , t κ }, i.e., the entries take [0000] C ij  ( t 1 , t 2 , …  , t k ) D ij  ( t 1 , t 2 , …  , t k ) [0000] where 1≦i,j≦κ, and C ij ,D ij are polynomials. The group S is chosen to be the symmetric group on κ symbols, denoted S κ . The action of the elements of sεS κ on the set of variables {t 1 , t 2 , . . . , t κ }, given by [0000] s:t i t s(i) , [0000] can be extended to an action of the monoid M in a natural manner. Given an element of M, input 22 , (see FIG. 2 ) of the form [0000] [ C ij  ( t 1 , t 2 , …  , t k ) D ij  ( t 1 , t 2 , …  , t k ) ] 1 ≤ i , j ≤ k [0000] and an element sεS κ , input 21 , the result of the S κ -Action module 23 is the element of M given by [0000] s  [ C ij  ( t 1 , t 2 , …  , t k ) D ij  ( t 1 , t 2 , …  , t k ) ] 1 ≤ i , j ≤ k = [ C ij  ( t s  ( 1 ) , t s  ( 2 ) , …  , t s  ( k ) ) D ij  ( t s  ( 1 ) , t s  ( 2 ) , …  , t s  ( k ) ) ] 1 ≤ i , j ≤ k . [0051] Having specified the monoid M and the action of a group S on M, we fix a prime p and let the monoid N be the set of L×L matrices whose entries are integers mod p. Then to define the homomorphism Π a set of integers (τ 1 , τ 2 , . . . , τ κ )(mod p), is chosen and is stored in the Π-Function module Library 11 . Given an element of M, Input 12 , the Π-Function module produces the element of N given by [0000] [ C ij  ( τ 1 , τ 2 , …  , τ k )   mod   p D ij  ( τ 1 , τ 2 , …  , τ k )   mod   p ] 1 ≤ i , j ≤ k . [0000] It is tacitly assumed that [0000] D ij (τ 1 ,τ 2 , . . . , τ κ )≢0(mod p ), [0000] which can always be arranged by appropriate selection of (τ 1 , τ 2 , . . . , τ κ ) for the situation at hand. [0052] With the above choices in place the E-Function 13 takes the form, [0000] E  ( ( [ d ij ] , s ) , ( [ C ij  ( t 1 , t 2 , …  , t k ) D ij  ( t 1 , t 2 , …  , t k ) ] , s 1 ) ) = ( [ d ij ] · [ C ij  ( τ s  ( 1 ) , τ s  ( 2 ) , …  , τ s  ( k ) )   mod   p D ij  ( τ s  ( 1 ) , τ s  ( 2 ) , …  , τ s  ( k ) )   mod   p ] , s   …  1 ) . [0000] The E-Function Iterator module 42 may be evaluated via the apparatus in FIG. 5 . [0053] A method for creating the library of pairs of E-Commuting monoids will now be specified. Each monoid in such a pair will be presented as a list of generators each of which is contained in M S. A feature of the method is that the internal algebraic structure of the pairs of E-Commuting monoids is difficult to determine from the publicly announced list of generators. Choose two sets X, Y of elements of M, and two sets U, V of elements of where the following properties hold: [0000] xy=yx [0000] uv=vu [0000] v x =x [0000] u y=y, [0000] for all xεX, yεY and uεU, vεV. There are many such choices for the sets X, Y, U, V. In fact, the number of choices also grows exponentially with L. [0054] One method to specifically choose the sets X, Y, U, V is given as follows. Partition the set {t 1 , t 2 , . . . , t κ } into two disjoint subsets T 1 ,T 2 where T i ={t i 1 , t i 2 , . . . , t i κ } for i=1, 2. Correspondingly, there will exist two distinct subgroups U, V of S κ , where an element of U permutes the variables in T 1 and fixes the variables in T 2 , and similarly an element of V permutes the variables in T 2 and fixes the variables in T 1 . Observe that every element uεU commutes with every element vεV. Next choose positive integers l 1 and l 2 such that L=l 1 +l 2 +1. The matrices in X are chosen to be of the form [0000] ( 0 ⋮ 0 0 … 0 1 0 … 0 0 1 ⋮ ⋱ 0 1 )   [0000] where l 1 is an l 1 ×l 1 matrix whose entries are rational functions in the variables T 1 . All nonspecified entries the above matrix are equal to 0. Similarly, the matrices in Y are chosen to be of the form [0000] ( 1 0 ⋱ ⋮ 1 0 0 … 0 1 0 … 0 0 ⋮ 0 )   [0000] where l 2 is an l 2 ×l 2 matrix whose entries are rational functions in the variables T 2 . It is clear that the above choices of matrices commute, and that an element uεU acts trivially on each matrix in Y, and an element vεV acts trivially on each matrix in X. [0055] With this done choose an invertible element (z,w)εM S. There are many such choices for (z,w), and in fact, the number of such choices grows exponentially with L. One can now define the submonoids as [0000] A ={( z,w )·( x,u )·( z,w ) −1 |xεX,uεU}, [0000] B ={( z,w )·( y,v )·( z,w ) −1 |yεY,vεV}. [0000] It is readily verifiable that A, B are E-Commuting monoids. Note that the search for (z,w) is more difficult than a standard conjugacy search problem because the conjugated elements are unknown. [0056] In the key agreement protocol, there are two users, Alice and Bob, each of whom has a public and a private key. The users proceed with a public exchange, after which each is in a position to obtain common agreed upon secret key which can then be used for further cryptographic applications. The key agreement protocol begins in this example with each user, Alice and Bob, being assigned a user submonoid A 1 , and B 1 , respectively, from a pair in the E-Commuting Monoid Library, 63 . Each user, Alice and Bob, proceeds to choose a private key which is the output of a respective Private Key Generator 74 . Each user public key is then computed by directing the user private key, input 81 to the E-Function Iterator module 42 , along with the input 82 . The E-Function Iterator module 42 allows the users to compute their respective public keys in a novel and rapid fashion. The computations involved are 8-bit modular arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) and 8-bit string search and replacement. These computations can be achieved at low cost and high efficiency. [0057] Finally, the public keys are exchanged via the transmitter/receivers 93 , 94 . The results of this exchange, along with the users private keys, are sent to the E-Function Iterator module 42 a , 42 b , which outputs the common agreed upon secret key 97 .

A system and method for generating a secret key to facilitate secure communications between users. A first and second and a function between the two monoids are selected, the function being a monoid homomorphism. A group and a group action of the group on the first monoid is selected. Each user is assigned a submonoid of the first monoid so that these submonoids satisfy a special symmetry property determined by the function, a structure of the first and second monoids, and the action of the group. A multiplication of an element in the second monoid and an element in the first monoid is obtained by combining the group action and the monoid homomorphism. First and second users choose private keys which are sequences of elements in their respective submonoids. A first result is obtained by multiplying an identity element by the first element of the sequence in a respective submonoid. Starting with the first result, each element of the user's private key may be iteratively multiplied by the previous result to produce a public key. Public keys are exchanged between first and second users. Each user's private key may be iteratively multiplied by the other user's public key to produce a secret key. Secure communication may then occur between the first and second user using the secret key.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed to processes for ink jet printing. More specifically, the present invention is directed to ink jet printing processes employing an improved ink composition. One embodiment of the present invention is directed to a thermal ink jet printing process which comprises (a) incorporating into a thermal ink jet printer an ink composition comprising water, a dye, and pigment particles having an average particle diameter of from about 0.001 micron to about 10 microns, said pigment particles being present in the ink in an amount of less than 0.1 percent by weight; and (b) causing droplets of the ink to be ejected in an imagewise pattern onto a recording medium by selectively heating the ink in the printer in an imagewise pattern, thereby generating images on the recording medium. Ink jet printing systems generally are of two types: continuous stream and drop-on-demand. In continuous stream ink jet systems, ink is emitted in a continuous stream under pressure through at least one orifice or nozzle. Multiple orifices or nozzles also can be used to increase imaging speed and throughput. The stream is ejected out of orifices and perturbed, causing it to break up into droplets at a fixed distance from the orifice. At the break-up point, the electrically charged ink droplets are passed through an applied electrode which is controlled and switched on and off in accordance with digital data signals. Charged ink droplets are passed through a controllable electric field which adjusts the trajectory of each droplet in order to direct it to either a gutter for ink deletion and recirculation or a specific location on a recording medium to create images. The image creation is controlled by electronic signals. In drop-on-demand systems, a droplet is ejected from an orifice directly to a position on a recording medium by pressure created by, for example, a piezoelectric device, an acoustic device, or a thermal process controlled in accordance with digital data signals. An ink droplet is not generated and ejected through the nozzles of an imaging device unless it is needed to be placed on the recording medium. Since drop-on-demand systems require no ink recovery, charging, or deflection operations, the system is simpler than the continuous stream type. There are three types of drop-on-demand ink jet systems. One type of drop-on-demand system has an ink filled channel or passageway having a nozzle on one end and a regulated piezoelectric transducer near the other end to produce pressure pulses. The relatively large size of the transducer prevents close spacing of the nozzles necessary for high resolution printing, and physical limitations of the transducer result in low ink drop velocity. Low drop velocity may seriously diminish tolerances for drop velocity variation and directionality, thus impacting the system's ability to produce high quality copies, and also decreases printing speed. Drop-on-demand systems which use piezoelectric devices to eject the ink droplets also suffer the disadvantage of a low resolution. A second type of drop-on-demand ink jet device is known as acoustic ink printing which can be operated at high frequency and high resolution. The printing utilizes a focused acoustic beam formed with a spherical lens illuminated by a plane wave of sound created by a piezoelectric transducer. The focused acoustic beam reflected from a surface exerts a pressure on the surface of the liquid, resulting in ejection of small droplets of ink onto an imaging substrate. Aqueous inks can be used in this system. The third type of drop-on-demand system is known as thermal ink jet, or bubble jet, and produces high velocity droplets and allows very close spacing of nozzles. The major components of this type of drop-on-demand system are an ink filled channel having a nozzle on one end and a heat generating resistor near the nozzle. Printing signals representing digital information generate an electric current pulse in a resistive layer (resistor) within each ink passageway near the orifice or nozzle, causing the ink in the immediate vicinity of the resistor to be heated up periodically. Momentary heating of the ink leads to its evaporation almost instantaneously with the creation of a bubble. The ink at the orifice is forced out of the orifice as a propelled droplet at high speed as the bubble expands. When the hydrodynamic motion of the ink stops after discontinuous heating followed by cooling, the subsequent ink emitting process is ready to start all over again. With the introduction of a droplet ejection system based upon thermally generated bubbles, commonly referred to as the "bubble jet" system, the drop-on-demand ink jet printers provide simpler, lower cost devices than their continuous stream counterparts, and yet have substantially the same high speed printing capability. The operating sequence of the bubble jet system begins with a current pulse through the resistive layer in the ink filled channel, the resistive layer being in close proximity to the orifice or nozzle for that channel. Heat is transferred from the resistor to the ink. The ink becomes superheated far above its normal boiling point, and for water based ink, finally reaches the critical temperature for bubble nucleation and formation of around 280° C. and above. Once nucleated and expanded, the bubble or water vapor thermally isolates the ink from the heater and no further heat can be applied to the ink. This bubble expands rapidly due to pressure increase upon heating until all the heat stored in the ink in excess of the normal boiling point diffuses away or is used to convert liquid to vapor, which removes heat due to heat of vaporization. The expansion of the bubble forces a droplet of ink out of the nozzle located either directly above or on the side of a heater, and once the excess heat is removed with diminishing pressure, the bubble collapses on the resistor. At this point, the resistor is no longer being heated because the current pulse has been terminated and, concurrently with the bubble collapse, the droplet is propelled at a high speed in a direction towards a recording medium. Subsequently, the ink channel refills by capillary action and is ready for the next repeating thermal ink jet process. This entire bubble formation and collapse sequence occurs in about 30 microseconds. The heater can be reheated to eject ink out of the channel after 100 to 2,000 microseconds minimum dwell time and to enable the channel to be refilled with ink without causing any dynamic refilling problem. Thermal ink jet processes are well known and are described in, for example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,601,777, 4,251,824, 4,410,899, 4,412,224, and 4,532,530, the disclosures of each of which are totally incorporated herein by reference. Ink jet inks containing pigment particles as colorants are known. For example, in Dunn, "Waterproof Carbon Black Ink for Ink Jet Printing," Xerox Disclosure Journal, Vol. 4, No. 1 (1979), a waterproof colloidal carbon black ink for ink jet printing is disclosed. The ink is prepared by incorporating a water-resistant acrylic polymer binder into an ink jet ink, such that the ink composition comprises about 9 percent by weight of carbon black, about 2 percent by weight of an anionic polymer-type dispersing agent, about 5 percent by weight of polyethylene glycol, about 8 percent by weight of Carboset 514H, and about 76 percent by weight of ammoniated distilled water. Sufficient ammonium hydroxide is added to the ink to adjust the pH to 8.5. According to the article, this ink composition is particularly suited to ink jets run in a continuous mode. U.S. Pat. No. 4,597,794 (Ohta et al.), the disclosure of which is totally incorporated herein by reference, discloses an ink jet recording process which comprises forming droplets of an ink and recording on an image receiving material by using the droplets, wherein the ink is prepared by dispersing fine particles of a pigment into an aqueous dispersion medium containing a polymer having both a hydrophilic and a hydrophobic construction portion. The hydrophilic portion constitutes a polymer of monomers having mainly additively polymerizable vinyl groups, into which hydrophilic construction portions such as carboxylic acid groups, sulfonic acid groups, sulfate groups, and the like are introduced. Pigment particle size may be from several microns to several hundred microns. The ink compositions disclosed may also include additives such as surfactants, salts, resins, and dyes. U.S. Pat. No. 3,705,043 (Zabiak) discloses an ink suitable for jet printing which comprises a high infrared absorbing coloring component and a humectant in the form of an aliphatic polyol, alkyl ether derivatives of aliphatic polyols, and mixtures thereof in aqueous media. The infrared absorber component may be a high infrared absorptive water soluble dye, a solution of water dispersed carbon blacks, or mixtures thereof. U.S. Pat. No. 3,687,887 (Zabiak) discloses an ink jet ink having application onto a film base which comprises an aqueous system containing 1 to 5 percent by weight of a dissolved styrene-maleic anhydride resin, 3 to 20 percent by weight of glycol ethers, and up to 4 percent by weight of carbon black in suspension or 1 to 4 percent of orthochromatic dyes in solution, or both, plus additives such as tinting dyes. Example 1 of this patent discloses a general ink formulation containing carbon black and a glycol ether, which may be an ethylene glycol type ether. Japanese Patent 59-93765 discloses a recording liquid for ink jet printers. The ink disclosed therein is designed for dissolution stability at temperatures above 250° C. to prevent damage to the ink jet head, and comprises a dye, a solvent such as water, an organic solvent, an optional surface tension controller, a viscosity controller, and other additives. An amount of C.I. Food Black 2 is used as the colorant, and is present in the liquid in an amount of 0.5 to 15 percent by weight. U.S. Pat. No. 4,273,847 (Lennon et al.) discloses a printing ink comprising particles of small size, each having a body portion consisting of a fusible resin with a colorant dispersed therein and an electrically conductive material, which may be carbon particles, situated substantially entirely on the surface of the body portion and comprising 5 to 10 percent of the weight of the ink. The disclosed ink is suitable for use in pulsed electrical printing. U.S. Pat. No. 4,530,961 (Nguyen et al.) discloses an aqueous dispersion of carbon black grafted with hydrophilic monomers of alkali or ammonium carboxylate bearing polyacrylates, which suspension may be used for manufacturing ink jet inks. The dispersion has a viscosity of about 2 to about 30 centipoise for a carbon black content of about 1 to 15 percent by weight. This composition may also contain surfactants, wetting agents, dyes, mold inhibitors, oxygen absorbers, buffering agents, pH controlling agents, and viscosity controlling agents. Carbon black particles contained in the composition are of a size that permits them to pass easily through 1 to 50 micron mesh filters. U.S. Pat. No. 4,877,451 (Winnik et al.), the disclosure of which is totally incorporated herein by reference, discloses ink jet ink compositions comprising water, a solvent, and a plurality of colored particles comprising hydrophilic porous silica particles to the surfaces of which dyes are covalently bonded through silane coupling agents. U.S. Pat. No. 5,139,574 (Winnik et al.), the disclosure of which is totally incorporated herein by reference, discloses an ink composition which comprises an aqueous liquid vehicle, a water-soluble dye, and particles of a block copolymer of the formula ABA, wherein A represents a hydrophilic segment and B represents a hydrophobic segment, said ABA particles having an average diameter of about 300 Angstroms or less. The ink is particularly suitable for use in ink jet printing systems, especially thermal ink jet printing systems. U.S. Pat. No. 5,145,518 (Winnik et al.), the disclosure of which is totally incorporated herein by reference, discloses an ink composition which comprises an aqueous liquid vehicle and particles of an average diameter of 100 nanometers or less which comprise micelles of block copolymers of the formula ABA, wherein A represents a hydrophilic segment and B represents a hydrophobic segment, and wherein dye molecules are covalently attached to the micelles, said dye molecules being detectable when exposed to radiation outside the visible wavelength range. Optionally, silica is precipitated within the micelles. In a specific embodiment, the dye molecules are substantially colorless. In another specific embodiment, the ink also contains a colorant detectable in the visible wavelength range. U.S. Pat. No. 5,281,261 (Lin), the disclosure of which is totally incorporated herein by reference, discloses an ink composition comprising an aqueous liquid vehicle and pigment particles having attached to the surfaces thereof a polymerized vinyl aromatic salt. U.S. Pat. No. 5,221,332 (Kohlmeier), the disclosure of which is totally incorporated herein by reference, discloses an ink composition which comprises an aqueous liquid vehicle, a colorant, and silica particles in an amount of from about 0.5 to about 5 percent by weight. U.S. Pat. No. 4,836,852 (Knirsch et al.), the disclosure of which is totally incorporated herein by reference, discloses an ink formed by a solution of a direct dye in a mixture of water and glycol wetting agents, to which a pigment which is finely ground to particles of dimension of not more than 1000 Angstroms is added in dispersion, in a concentration of between 0.1 and 2 percent. The pigment particles serve to anchor the gaseous nuclei of gases which are dissolved in the ink for the purpose of stabilizing the boiling point of the ink. The ink is particularly suited to an ink jet printer of the type in which expulsion of the droplets is produced by causing instantaneous vaporization of a portion of ink in a nozzle. U.S. Pat. No. 5,106,417 (Hauser et al.), the disclosure of which is totally incorporated herein by reference, discloses aqueous, low viscosity, stable printing ink compositions suitable for drop-on-demand ink jet printing containing specific selected amounts of a solid pigment preparation, a water-soluble organic solvent, a humectant and water so that the compositions resist clogging ink jet nozzles and give prints of excellent image resolution which are resistant to water and migration. U.S. Pat. No. 5,085,698 (Ma et al.), the disclosure of which is totally incorporated herein by reference, discloses a pigmented ink for ink jet printers which comprises an aqueous carrier medium, and pigment particles dispersed in an AB or BAB block copolymer having a hydrophilic segment and a segment that links to the pigment. The A block and the 13 block(s) have molecular weights of at least 300. These inks give images having good print quality, water and smear resistance, lightfastness, and storage stability. U.S. Pat. No. 5,026,427 (Mitchell et al.), the disclosure of which is totally incorporated herein by reference, discloses a process for the preparation of pigmented ink jet inks comprising: (a) mixing at least one pigment and at least one pigment dispersant in a dispersant medium to form a pigmented ink mixture wherein pigment is present in an amount up to 60% by weight based on the total weight of the mixture; (b) deflocculating the pigmented ink mixture by passing the pigmented ink mixture through at least a plurality of nozzles within a liquid jet interaction chamber at a liquid pressure of at least 1,000 psi to produce a substantially uniform dispersion of pigment particles in the dispersant medium. While known compositions and processes are suitable for their intended purposes, a need remains for ink compositions particularly suitable for use in thermal ink jet printing processes. In addition, there is a need for ink compositions which, when employed in thermal ink jet printing processes, exhibit increased drop size, drop mass, and drop volume. Further, there is a need for ink compositions which, when employed in thermal ink jet printing processes, exhibit uniform drop speed over varying frequencies. Additionally, a need remains for ink compositions which, when employed in thermal ink jet printing processes, exhibit high ink drop velocity or short transit time. There is also a need for ink compositions which, when employed in thermal ink jet printing processes, exhibit a high jetting momentum, which is beneficial for printhead maintenance to clear clogging in the jet nozzles. In addition, there is a need for ink compositions which, when employed in thermal ink jet printing processes, exhibit large spot size and excellent optical density. Further, a need remains for ink compositions which, when employed in thermal ink jet printing processes, exhibit reduced misdirectionality of drops, thereby improving accuracy of ink placement on the recording medium. There is also a need for ink compositions which, when employed in thermal ink jet printing processes, exhibit improved print quality as a result of increased ink drop velocity. Additionally, there is a need for ink compositions which, when employed in thermal ink jet printing processes, exhibit stable long-term drop velocity and steady transit time. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is an object of the present invention to provide ink jet compositions and processes with the above advantages. It is another object of the present invention to provide ink compositions particularly suitable for use in thermal ink jet printing processes. It is yet another object of the present invention to provide ink compositions which, when employed in thermal ink jet printing processes, exhibit increased drop size, drop mass, and drop volume. It is still another object of the present invention to provide ink compositions which, when employed in thermal ink jet printing processes, exhibit uniform drop speed over varying frequencies. Another object of the present invention is to provide ink compositions which, when employed in thermal ink jet printing processes, exhibit high ink drop velocity or short transit time. Yet another object of the present invention is to provide ink compositions which, when employed in thermal ink jet printing processes, exhibit a high jetting momentum, which is beneficial for printhead maintenance to clear clogging in the jet nozzles. Still another object of the present invention is to provide ink compositions which, when employed in thermal ink jet printing processes, exhibit large spot size and excellent optical density. It is another object of the present invention to provide ink compositions which, when employed in thermal ink jet printing processes, exhibit reduced misdirectionality of drops, thereby improving accuracy of ink placement on the recording medium. It is yet another object of the present invention to provide ink compositions which, when employed in thermal ink jet printing processes, exhibit improved print quality as a result of increased ink drop velocity. It is still another object of the present invention to provide ink compositions which, when employed in thermal ink jet printing processes, exhibit stable long-term drop velocity and steady transit time. These and other objects of the present invention (or specific embodiments thereof) can be achieved by providing a thermal ink jet printing process which comprises (a) incorporating into a thermal ink jet printer an ink composition comprising water, a dye, and pigment particles having an average particle diameter of from about 0.001 micron to about 10 microns, said pigment particles being present in the ink in an amount of less than 0.1 percent by weight; and (b) causing droplets of the ink to be ejected in an imagewise pattern onto a recording medium by selectively heating the ink in the printer in an imagewise pattern, thereby generating images on the recording medium. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING Illustrated schematically in FIG. 1 are test results showing transit time as a function of the number of drops jetted for an ink of the present invention when jetted from a thermal ink jet printhead. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The liquid vehicle of the inks employed in the present invention can consist solely of water, or it can comprise a mixture of water and a water soluble or water miscible organic component, which typically functions as a humectant. Examples of suitable organic components include ethylene glycol, propylene glycol, diethylene glycol, glycerine, dipropylene glycol, polyethylene glycols, polypropylene glycols, trimethylolpropane, amides, including N,N-dimethylformamide and other aliphatic amides, cyclic amides such as N-methylpyrrolidone and 1-cyclohexyl-2-pyrrolidone and the like, as well as aromatic amides, ethers, including dialkyl glycolethers and monoalkyl glycolethers, as well as amine derivatives such as morpholine, trimethylamine, triethylamine, dibutylamine, N,N-bis(3-aminopropyl) ethylenediamine, dialkylamines, piperidine, pyridine, and the like, carboxylic acids and their salts, esters, alcohols, including 1-propanol, 1-butanol, benzyl alcohol, phenol derivatives, and the like, organosulfides, organosulfoxides, including dimethyl sulfoxide, dialkylsulfoxides, sulfones, diarkylsulfones, sulofane, and the like, alcohol derivatives, hydroxyether derivatives such as carbitols (including 2-(2-butoxyethoxy)ethanol, 2-(2-ethoxyethoxy)ethanol, 2-(2-methoxyethoxy)ethanol, 2-(2-propoxyethoxy)ethanol), propylene glycol monomethyl ether, propylene glycol monoethyl ether, propylene glycol monobutyl ether, and the like, cellusolves, such as 2-butoxyethanol and 2-pentoxyethanol, amino alcohols, including diethanolamine, triethanolamine, and the like, ketones, polyelectrolytes, urea derivatives, and other water soluble or water miscible materials, as well as mixtures thereof. When mixtures of water and water soluble or miscible organic components are selected as the liquid vehicle, the water to organic ratio typically ranges from about 100:0 to about 40:60, and preferably from about 97:3 to about 50:50. The non-water component of the liquid vehicle generally serves as a humectant which has a boiling point usually higher than that of water (100° C.). In the ink compositions for the present invention, the liquid vehicle is typically present in an amount of from about 80 to about 99.9 percent by weight of the ink, and preferably from about 90 to about 99 percent by weight of the ink, although the amount can be outside these ranges. The ink composition also contains a dye colorant. Any suitable dye or mixture of dyes compatible with the ink liquid vehicle can be used, with water soluble anionic dyes and cationic dyes being preferred. Examples of suitable dyes include Food dyes such as Food Black No. 1, Food Black No. 2, Food Red No. 40, Food Blue No. 1, Food Yellow No. 7, and the like, FD & C dyes, Acid Black dyes (No. 1, 7, 9, 24, 26, 48, 52, 58, 60, 61,63, 92, 107, 109, 118, 119, 131, 140, 155, 156, 172, 194, and the like), Acid Red dyes (No. 1, 8, 32, 35, 37, 52, 57, 92, 115, 119, 154, 249, 254, 256, and the like), Acid Blue dyes (No. 1, 7, 9, 25, 40, 45, 62, 78, 80, 92, 102, 104, 113, 117, 127, 158, 175, 183, 193, 209, and the like), Acid Yellow dyes (No. 3, 7, 17, 19, 23, 25, 29, 38, 42, 49, 59, 61, 72, 73, 114, 128, 151, and the like), Direct Black dyes (No. 4, 14, 17, 22, 27, 38, 51, 112, 117, 154, 168, and the like), Direct Blue dyes (No. 1, 6, 8, 14, 15, 25, 71, 76, 78, 80, 86, 90, 106, 108, 123, 163, 165, 199, 226, and the like), Direct Red dyes (No. 1, 2, 16, 23, 24, 28, 39, 62, 72, 236, and the like), Direct Yellow dyes (No. 4, 11, 12, 27, 28, 33, 34, 39, 50, 58, 86, 100, 106, 107, 118, 127, 132, 142, 157, and the like), anthraquinone dyes, monoazo dyes, disazo dyes, phthalocyanine derivatives, including various phthalocyanine sulfonate salts, aza [18] annulenes, formazan copper complexes, triphenodioxazines, Bernacid Red 2BMN; Pontamine Brilliant Bond Blue A; Pontamine; Caro direct Turquoise FBL Supra Conc. (Direct Blue 199), available from Carolina Color and Chemical; Special Fast Turquoise 8GL Liquid (Direct Blue 86), available from Mobay Chemical; Intrabond Liquid Turquoise GLL (Direct Blue 86), available from Crompton and Knowles; Cibracron Brilliant Red 38-A (Reactive Red 4), available from Aldrich Chemical; Drimarene Brilliant Red X-2B (Reactive Red 56), available from Pylam, Inc.; Levafix Brilliant Red E- 4B, available from Mobay Chemical; Levafix Brilliant Red E-6BA, available from Mobay Chemical; Procion Red H8B (Reactive Red 31), available from ICI America; Pylam Certified D&C Red #28 (Acid Red 92), available from Pylam; Direct Brilliant Pink B Ground Crude, available from Crompton & Knowles; Cartasol Yellow GTF Presscake, available from Sandoz, Inc.; Tartrazine Extra Conc. (FD&C Yellow #5, Acid Yellow 23), available from Sandoz; Carodirect Yellow RL (Direct Yellow 86), available from Carolina Color and Chemical; Cartasol Yellow GTF Liquid Special 110, available from Sandoz, Inc.; D&C Yellow #10 (Acid Yellow 3), available from Tricon; Yellow Shade 16948, available from Tricon, Basacid Black X34, available from BASF, Carta Black 2GT, available from Sandoz, Inc.; Neozapon Red 492 (BASF); Orasol Red G (Ciba-Geigy); Direct Brilliant Pink B (Crompton-Knolls); Aizen Spilon Red C-BH (Hodogaya Chemical Company); Kayanol Red 3BL (Nippon Kayaku Company); Levanol Brilliant Red 3BW (Mobay Chemical Company); Levaderm Lemon Yellow (Mobay Chemical Company); Spirit Fast Yellow 3G; Aizen Spilon Yellow C-GNH (Hodogaya Chemical Company); Sirius Supra Yellow GD 167; Cartasol Brilliant Yellow 4GF (Sandoz); Pergasol Yellow CGP (Ciba-Geigy); Orasol Black RL (Ciba-Geigy); Orasol Black RLP (Ciba-Geigy); Savinyl Black RLS (Sandoz); Dermacarbon 2GT (Sandoz); Pyrazol Black BG (ICI); Morfast Black Conc A (Morton-Thiokol); Diazol Black RN Quad (ICI); Orasol Blue GN (Ciba-Geigy); Savinyl Blue GLS (Sandoz); Luxol Blue MBSN (Morton-Thiokol); Sevron Blue 5GMF (ICI); Basacid Blue 750 (BASF); Bernacid Red, available from Berncolors, Poughkeepsie, N.Y.; Pontamine Brilliant Bond Blue; Berncolor A. Y. 34; Telon Fast Yellow 4GL-175; BASF Basacid Black SE 0228; the Pro-Jet® series of dyes available from ICI, including Pro-Jet® Yellow I (Direct Yellow 86), Pro-Jet® Magenta I (Acid Red 249), Pro-Jet® Cyan I (Direct Blue 199), Pro-Jet® Black I (Direct Black 168), Pro-Jet® Yellow 1-G (Direct Yellow 132), Aminyl Brilliant Red F-B, available from Sumitomo Chemical Company (Japan), the Duasyn® line of "salt-free" dyes available from Hoechst, such as Duasyn® Direct Black HEF-SF (Direct Black 168), Duasyn® Black RL-SF (Reactive Black 31), Duasyn® Direct Yellow 6G-SF VP216 (Direct Yellow 157), Duasyn® Brilliant Yellow GL-SF VP220 (Reactive Yellow 37), Duasyn® Acid Yellow XX-SF LP413 (Acid Yellow 23), Duasyn® Brilliant Red F3B-SF VP218 (Reactive Red 180), Duasyn® Rhodamine B-SF VP353 (Acid Red 52), Duasyn® Direct Turquoise Blue FRL-SF VP368 (Direct Blue 199), Duasyn® Acid Blue AE-SF VP344 (Acid Blue 9), various Reactive dyes, including Reactive Black dyes, Reactive Blue dyes, Reactive Red dyes, Reactive Yellow dyes, and the like, as well as mixtures thereof. The dye is present in the ink composition in any effective amount, typically from about 0.5 to about 15 percent by weight, and preferably from about 1 to about 10 percent by weight, and more preferably from about 1 to about 6 percent by weight, although the amount can be outside of these ranges. Also contained in the ink composition of the present invention are pigment particles. The pigment can be of any desired color, such as black, cyan, magenta, yellow, red, blue, green, brown, or the like, as well as mixtures thereof. Preferably, the color of the pigment particles either is similar to or the same as the color of the selected dye, or does not interfere with or impair the desired color of the final ink. Examples of suitable pigments include various carbon blacks such as channel black, furnace black, lamp black, Raven®5250, Raven®5750, Raven®3500 and other similar carbon black products available from Columbia Company, Regal®330, Black Pearl® L, Black Pearl®1300, and other similar carbon black products available from Cabot Company, Degussa carbon blacks such as Color Black® series, Special Black® series, Printtex® series and Derussol® carbon black dispersions available from Degussa Company, Hostafine® series such as Hostafine® Yellow GR (Pigment 13), Hostafine® Yellow (Pigment 83), Hostafine® Red FRLL (Pigment Red 9), Hostafine® Rubine F6B (Pigment 184 ), Hostafine® Blue 2G (Pigment Blue 15:3), Hostafine® Black T (Pigment Black 7), and Hostafine® Black TS (Pigment Black 7), available from Hoechst Celanese Corporation, Normandy Magenta RD-2400 (Paul Uhlich), Paliogen Violet 5100 (BASF), Paliogen Violet 5890 (BASF), Permanent Violet VT2645 (Paul Uhlich), Heliogen Green L8730 (BASF), Argyle Green XP-111-S (Paul Uhlich), Brilliant Green Toner GR 0991 (Paul Uhlich), Heliogen Blue L6900, L7020 (BASF), Heliogen Blue D6840, D7080 (BASF), Sudan Blue OS (BASF), PV Fast Blue B2G01 (American Hoechst), Irgalite Blue BCA (Ciba-Geigy), Paliogen Blue 6470 (BASF), Sudan III (Matheson, Coleman, Bell), Sudan II (Matheson, Coleman, Bell), Sudan IV (Matheson, Coleman, Bell), Sudan Orange G (Aldrich), Sudan Orange 220 (BASF), Paliogen Orange 3040 (BASF), Ortho Orange OR 2673 (Paul Uhlich), Paliogen Yellow 152, 1560 (BASF), Lithol Fast Yellow 0991K (BASF), Paliotol Yellow 1840 (BASF), Novoperm Yellow FG 1 (Hoechst), Permanent Yellow YE 0305 (Paul Uhlich), Lumogen Yellow D0790 (BASF), Suco-Gelb L1250 (BASF), Suco-Yellow D1355 (BASF), Hostaperm Pink E (American Hoechst), Fanal Pink D4830 (BASF), Cinquasia Magenta (DuPont), Lithol Scarlet D3700 (BASF), Toluidine Red (Aldrich), Scarlet for Thermoplast NSD PS PA (Ugine Kuhlmann of Canada), E. D. Toluidine Red (Aldrich), Lithol Rubine Toner (Paul Uhlich), Lithol Scarlet 4440 (BASF), Bon Red C (Dominion Color Company), Royal Brilliant Red RD-8192 (Paul Uhlich), Oracet Pink RF (Ciba-Geigy), Paliogen Red 3871K (BASF), Paliogen Red 3340 (BASF), and Lithol Fast Scarlet L4300 (BASF). Other pigments can also be selected. Particularly preferred pigment particles are nonmutagenic and nontoxic carbon black particles with a polyaromatic hydrocarbon content of less than about 1 part per million. The pigment particles may be used in their commercially available forms, such as stabilized aqueous pigment dispersions, and need not be treated or modified with dispersing agents or other materials. However, if desired, a dispersing agent, dispersant, surfactant, or wetting agent can also be employed to modify the pigment dispersions further to enhance the colloidal stability of the pigment in the ink. If a pigment is not previously treated by a dispersing agent or by chemical bonding with a component (chemically modified or grafted pigment) which is hydrophilic for effectively dispersing the pigment in an aqueous system, such as a sulfonic acid salt, a phosphoric acid salt, a carboxylic acid salt, or the like, as described in, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,281,261, the disclosure of which is totally incorporated herein by reference, treatment of the pigment with a dispersing agent may be needed for the pigment particles to be dispersed effectively in an aqueous ink system without settling or coagulation. A pigment dispersion can be prepared by, for example, treating pigment particles with a particle size reduction process which utilizes ball milling, homogenization, sonification, or a combination thereof in the presence of water and, if desired, at least one dispersing agent. The dispersing agent or agents can be nonionic, anionic, cationic, or amphoteric, or a combination thereof. Suitable dispersing agents, surfactants, and wetting agents include Igepal® series surfactants, alkyl or dialkyl phenoxy poly(ethyleneoxy)ethanol derivatives including Igepal® CA630, Igepal® CA-720, Igepal® CO-720, Igepal® CO-890, Igepal® CA-897, Igepal® CO-970, Igepal®DM-970, all available from Rhone-Poulenc Company, copolymers of naphthalene sulfonic salts and formaldehyde, including Daxad® 11, Daxad® 11 KLS, Daxad® 19, Daxad® 19K, and the like, all available from W. R. Grace & Company, the Lomar® series (including Lomar® D and the like), available from Diamond Shamrock Corporation, the Tamol series (including Tamol® SN and the like), available from Rohm and Haas Company, the Triton® series (including Triton® X-100, Triton® X-102, Triton® X-114, Triton® CF 21, Triton® CF 10, and the like), all available from Rohm and Haas Company, Duponol® ME Dry, Duponol® WN, Merpol® RA, Merpol® SE, Merpol® SH, Merpol® A, Zelec® NK, and the like, all available from E. I. Du Pont de Nemours & Company, the Tergitol® series, available from Union Carbide Company, the Surfynol® series (GA, TG, 465H, CT-136, and the like), available from Air Products and Chemicals Co., copolymers of styrene and maleic acid salts, such as those available from Alco Chemical Inc., polyacrylate derivatives, copolymers of acrylic monomers or methacrylic monomers and their salts, polystyrenesulfonate salts, and the like, as well as mixtures thereof. The dispersing agent is typically present in an amount of from about 0.1 to about 150 percent by weight of the pigment, and preferably from about 1 to about 100 percent by weight of the pigment, although the amount can be outside these ranges. The pigment particles typically have an average particle diameter of from about 0.001 micron (1 nanometer) to about 10 microns, preferably from about 0.01 micron (10 nanometers) to about 3 microns, although the particle size can be outside this range. Reduction of pigment particle size can be achieved by various processes, such as ball milling, roll milling, paintshaking, mechanical attrition, microfluidization in a liquid jet interaction chamber at a high liquid pressure, sonification, precipitation, acid pasting, and the like. It is preferred to reduce the size of the pigment particles in the presence of water and a dispersing agent for the preparation of a pigment dispersion. The pigment particles treated with the dispersing agent form a stable colloidal pigment dispersion. The pigment dispersion can then be used to prepare a pigmented ink in an aqueous medium comprising a liquid vehicle, the pigment dispersion, and any additional desired ink additives. If necessary, additional steps of centrifugation and filtration can be carried out to assure the maintainenance of good pigment particle size in the ink after mixing the ink ingredients together. The ink or the pigment dispersion (higher pigment concentration) can then be admixed with a dye. The pigment particles can be added to an ink jet ink which comprises water, a dye, an optional humectant, an optional biocide, an optional pH buffer agent, an optional chelating agent, an optional penetrant or drying accelerating agent for decreasing drying time, an optional antioxidant, an optional anticlogging agent, and an optional monomeric or polymeric additive with thorough mixing. If necessary, a filtration process can be carried out to remove large or unstable pigment particles. Alternatively, pigment particles which are prepared by a chemical modification method or a grafting technique for providing needed hydrophilicity can also be employed. These modified or grafted pigment particles usually comprise a copolymer or polymer which contains either an ionizable component in water or a water miscible component to provide good colloidal stability in an aqueous ink. The pigment particles are present in the ink in an amount of less than about 0.1 percent by weight of the ink, preferably from about 1 part per billion (0.0000001 percent) by weight to about 900 parts per million (0.09 percent) by weight, and more preferably from about 1 part per billion (0.0000001 percent) by weight to about 750 parts per million (0.075 percent) by weight of the ink. Polymeric additives can also be added to the inks of the present invention to enhance the viscosity of the ink composition and provide any other desired functions. Water soluble polymers such as Gum Arabic, polyacrylate salts, polymethacrylate salts, polyvinyl alcohols, polyethylene oxides, poyethylene glycols, polypropylene glycols, hydroxypropylcellulose, hydroxyethylcellulose, polyvinylpyrrolidinone, polyvinylether, starch, polyacrylamide, copolymers of naphthalene sulfonate salts and formaldehyde, polysaccharides, and the like are particularly useful for stabilizing pigment particles in a water based liquid vehicle such as water or a mixture of water and a water soluble organic component. Polymeric additives, if present, can be present in the ink composition of the present invention in any effective amount, typically from 0 to about 5 percent by weight of the ink, and preferably from about 0.001 to about 3 percent by weight of the ink, although the amount can be outside these ranges. Other optional additives to the ink composition of the present invention include biocides, such as Dowicil® 150, 200, and 75, Omidines® (Olin Company), benzoate salts, sorbate salts, and the like, typically present in an amount of from about 0.0001 to about 4 percent by weight, and preferably from about 0.01 to about 2.0 percent by weight, although the amount can be outside these ranges, antioxidants, including derivatives of phenols such as BHT, 2,6-di-t-butylphenol, and the like, tocopherol derivatives such as Vitamin E and the like, aromatic amines, alkyl and aromatic sulfides, and the like, typically present in an amount of from 0 to about 10 percent by weight, and preferably from 0 to about 5 percent by weight, although the amount can be outside these ranges, pH controlling agents, including acids such as acetic acid, phosphoric acid, boric acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, hydrochloric acid, and the like, bases such as potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, lithium hydroxide, ammonium hydroxide, trimethylamine, ethanolamine, morpholine, triethanolamine, diethanolamine, and the like, phosphate salts, carboxylate salts, sulfite salts, amine salts, and the like, typically present in an amount of from 0 to about 10 percent by weight, and preferably from about 0.001 to about 5 percent by weight, although the amount can be outside these ranges, drying accelerating agents, such as sodium lauryl sulfate, N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide, cyclohexylpyrrolidinone, butylcarbitol, benzyl alcohol, polyglycol ethers, and the like, typically present in an amount of from about 0.001 to about 25 percent by weight, and preferably from about 0.01 to about 3 percent by weight, although the amount can be outside these ranges, surface tension modifiers, including surfactants such as sodium lauryl sulfate, sodium dodecyl sulfate, sodium octyl sulfate, Igepal® CO-630, Igepal® CO-530, Igepal® CA-630, Igepal® CA-530, and the like, typically present in an amount of from 0 to about 10 percent by weight, and preferably from 0 to about 5 percent by weight, although the amount can be outside these ranges, ink penetrants, such as alcohols, including isopropanol, butyl alcohol, and the like, sodium lauryl sulfate, esters, ketones, polyethylene glycol ether derivatives, N-methylpyrrolidone, and the like, typically present in an amount of from about 0.001 to about 15 percent by weight, and preferably from about 0.001 to about 10 percent by weight, although the amount can be outside these ranges, chelating agents, including EDTA (ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid), HEEDTA (N-(hydroxyethyl) ethylenediaminetriacetate), NTA (nitriloacetate), DTPA (diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid), and the like, as well as their salts, typically present in an amount of from about 0.001 to about 5 percent by weight, and preferably from about 0.001 to about 2 percent by weight, although the amount can be outside these ranges, and additives for improving waterfastness and lightfastness, such as polyethyleneimine, ethylene and propylene oxide modified polyethyleneimine, and the like, typically present in an amount of from 0 to about 10 percent by weight, and preferably from 0 to about 5 percent by weight, although the amount can be outside these ranges. The viscosity of the ink typically is from about 1 to about 10 centipoise (measured at 25° C.) and preferably is less than about 4 centipoise, although the viscosity can be outside these ranges. The ink jet inks of the present invention can be formulated to have either slow drying or fast drying characteristics on plain papers. The slow drying inks typically have a drying time greater than about 1 second, whereas the fast drying inks typically have a drying time of less than about 1 second. The surface tension of an ink of the present invention typically has a range of from about 26 to about 72 dynes per centimeter at 23° C., although the surface tension can be outside this range. The surface tension of a slow drying ink at 23° C. typically is equal to or greater than about 45 dynes per centimeter, and the surface tension of a fast drying ink at 23° C. typically is lower than about 45 dynes per centimeter. During the printing process, a heating means, such as a heated platen, a heated drum, a heated belt, a heated lamp, a microwave dryer, or the like can be used, if desired, to heat the recording medium (substrate or sheet) at any desired printing stages such as before printing, during printing, after printing, or some combination thereof to increase ink drying rates and to avoid ink smearing and intercolor bleeding. The recording medium usually is a plain paper, a coated paper, or an ink jet transparency, although other media can also be employed. Generally, it is preferred to formulate the inks of the present invention to exhibit a reasonable level of resistivity or conductivity. Highly conductive ink jet inks can cause unwanted or premature heater damage, corrosion, ink instability, and nozzle clogging in a printhead. For these reasons, the resistivity of the inks of the present invention is preferably greater than about 142.86 Ohm-cm at room temperature. The conductivity of the ink containing a small amount of pigment particles is preferred to be less than about 7000 microMho/cm (or 0.007000 (Ohm-cm) -1 ) at room temperature. Inks of the present invention can be prepared by any process suitable for preparing aqueous inks. An ink of the present invention can be prepared by thoroughly admixing water, an optional organic component (e.g. humectant), a pigment or pigment dispersion, an optional dispersant, an optional biocide, and any other desired optional additives. It is preferred, but not necessary, to prepare two inks of identical composition except that one contains a pigment and one contains a dye. The addition of a small amount of pigmented ink to the dye-based ink will not cause a significant change in the overall composition of the dye-based ink (except for a small change in the dye concentration) in the modification process. Also, in this way pigment particles in the pigmented ink will not experience a colloidal shock or instability when they are added to the dye-based ink of similar composition. The pigmented ink can be added slowly to the dye-based ink in the desired relative amounts with thorough mixing and stirring until a uniform ink composition results (typically about 30 minutes, although the mixing/stirring time can be either greater or less than this period). While not required, the ink ingredients can be heated during mixing or stirring if desired. Subsequent to mixing and stirring, the ink composition can be used either with or without filtration. The process of the present invention can be employed with a wide variety of recording media, including plain papers such as Xerox® 4024 papers, including Ashdown 4024 DP, Cortland 4024 DP, Champion 4024 DP, Xerox® 4024 D.P. green, Xerox® 4024 D.P. pink, Xerox® 4024 D.P yellow, and the like, Xerox® 4200 papers, Xerox® 10 series paper, Xerox® Imaging Series LX paper, canary ruled paper, ruled notebook paper, bond paper such as Gilbert 25 percent cotton bond paper, Gilbert 100 percent cotton bond paper, and Strathmore bond paper, recycled papers, silica coated papers such as Sharp Company silica coated paper, JuJo® paper, glossy papers, and the like, transparency materials such as Xerox® 3R3351 ink jet transparencies, Tetronix ink jet transparencies, Arkright ink jet transparencies, Hewlett-Packard ink jet transparencies, and the like, fabrics, textile products, plastics, polymeric films, inorganic substrates such as metals and wood, and the like. The jetting performance of the ink jet inks of the present invention were tested with either a 300 SPI (300 dpi) or 400 SPI (400 dpi) printhead with a 3 microsecond pulse length at a frequency of 1 KHz. The operating voltage for the printhead was held in a range of from 30 to 50 volts. The operating voltage generally was about 10 percent over the threshold voltage (minimum voltage needed to cause ejection of an ink droplet) of the printhead and the exact operating voltage used for the printhead in each instance depended on the ink and the type of printhead used. Ink drop mass (related to drop volume), transit time for a drop of ink travelling to a distance of 0.5 mm (related to drop velocity), and jetting stability were measured. The ink drop mass was determined by measuring the weight of collected ink divided by the number of drops of ink jetted. Ink velocity was calculated from the transit time data with the following formula (0.0005 meter/transit time). Thus, for an ink with a transit time of 50 microseconds, the ink drop velocity is 10 meters per second. A fast ink drop velocity (or short transit time over a fixed distance) usually results in accurate placement of the ink on a recording medium or substrate and a reduced directionality problem. A jetted ink with a large momentum (mass times velocity) enables easier removal of a solid or a viscous liquid plug near the orifice of an ink jet printhead, thus improving jetting efficiency and avoiding missing jets or misdirectionality problems. A large drop mass or drop volume of the jetted ink tends to produce a large spot on a recording medium to give high optical density and good image quality. For ink jet printing with a resolution of 300 SPI, a drop mass of about 140±20 nanograms per drop may be desired for a black ink to enable good optical density on a plain paper. The ink of the present invention comprises a small amount of pigment particles well dispersed in an ink jet ink containing a dye. The pigment particles can be deposited uniformly onto a heater of a printhead and improve the nucleation, evaporation, and bubble formation of the ink ingredients, particularly the water (B.P.=100° C.), during thermal ink jet printing processes. The ink of the present invention exhibits an increase in drop mass (drop volume), drop velocity (short transit time), and long-term jetting stability for ink velocity (or transit time) compared to dye-based inks of similar composition but containing no pigment particles. As a result, the ink of the present invention enables proper placement on the recording medium with large spot size and very good optical density, and reduces misdirectionarity problems. Furthermore, upon jetting, the ink of the present invention possesses a large momentum, which can facilitate the removal of possible ink clogging near the nozzles of the printhead, and thus improves printhead maintenance efficiency. Also, long-term jetting stability (drop velocity, drop mass, and the like) are improved for the inks of the present invention, and the inks allow a printhead to function properly over a long period of time with good jetting performance. The inks of the present invention can, if desired, be employed in a thermal ink jet printhead comprising multiple heaters and nozzles (for example, 48 jets, 128 jets, 192 jets, 256 jets, or the like) for printing on a recording medium with good image resolution of, for example, from 200 to 800 spots per inch. The multiple jet printheads can also be butted together in a series to form a printhead (full-width array printhead) capable of printing the ink imagewise on a recording medium at a faster speed than conventional (e.g. linewise printing) printheads. Specific embodiments of the invention will now be described in detail. These examples are intended to be illustrative, and the invention is not limited to the materials, conditions, or process parameters set forth in these embodiments. All parts and percentages are by weight unless otherwise indicated. EXAMPLE I (COMPARATIVE) A black ink was prepared by admixing BASF X-34 dye (40.32 grams dye concentrate containing 12.096 grams dye solids), ethylene glycol (70.0 grams), isopropanol (12.35 grams), Dowicil 200 biocide (0.35 gram), and distilled water (226.98 grams). The pH of the ink was adjusted to 7.0. The ink was then filtered through 5.0 and 1.2 micron filters. The surface tension of the ink was 48.8 dynes per centimeter and the viscosity of the ink at room temperature was 2.0 centipoises. The conductivity of the ink at room temperature was 0.0035 (ohm-cm)- 1 . EXAMPLE II A carbon black pigment dispersion was prepared by adding Raven® 5250 carbon black (60 grams), Lomar® D solution (15 grams of Lomar® D in 60 grams of water), and distilled water (175 grams) to an attritor (O1 size from Union process Inc.) containing 1500 grams of stainless steel shots and milling for 30 minutes. After removing most of the carbon black dispersion from the attritor, additional water was added to the attritor in three portions (3×25 grams of distilled water) with mixing to repeatedly extract more carbon black dispersion from the attritor. All carbon black dispersions were combined to form a homogeneous pigment dispersion (353.76 grams, 16.86 percent by weight carbon black). A carbon black ink was then prepared by thorough admixing of the above carbon black dispersion (74.14 grams), distilled water (116.8 grams), Dowicil 200 (0.25 gram), isopropanol (8.75 grams), and ethylene glycol (50.0 grams). The mixture was adjusted to pH=7.8, sonified, and centrifuged (7000 RPM). Liquid carbon black ink was then separated from unsuspended solid residue and filtered through a series of filters with pore sizes of 5.0 microns, 3.0 microns, and 1.2 microns. The resulting ink contained about 4.3 percent by weight carbon black with a particle size of less than 1.2 microns. The surface tension and viscosity of the ink at room temperature was dynes per centimeter and the viscosity at room temperature was 2.22 centipoises. The conductivity of the ink was 0.0050 (ohm-cm)- 1 . EXAMPLE III Several inks were prepared comprising a dye and different concentrations of pigment particles. Different amounts of the dye-based ink (Example I) and the pigmented ink (Example II) were weighed and thoroughly mixed to yield ink jet inks containing a) 0.025 percent by weight carbon black (Example IIIA); b) 0.05 percent by weight carbon black (Example IIIB); c) 0.075 percent by weight carbon black (Example IIIC); d) 0.09997 percent by weight carbon black (Example IIID); and e) 0.04 percent by weight carbon black (Example IIIE). All of the inks in Example III (A to E) were of similar composition except for the level of pigment concentration. All of the inks exhibited surface tensions in the range of 48.5 to 50.1 dynes per centimeter at room temperature, viscosities of from 2.0 to 2.3 centipoises at room temperature, and conductivities of less than 0.0045 (Ohm-cm)- 1 The transit times for ink droplets to travel a distance of 0.5 millimeter were 80 microseconds or more for the unmodified ink (Example I) and 58 microseconds or less for the modified inks (Examples IIIA, B, C, D, and E). These results demonstrate that the modified inks jetted at a higher velocity than the unmodified ink. Further data for the unmodified and modified inks is provided in Table I, showing increased drop mass data of modified dye inks containing pigment particles. Ink IIIE was also used in the long-term jetting stability test (Example V). ______________________________________ amount of amount of pigmented ink dye-based ink % by wt. drop mass of Example II of Example I pigment (nanogramsInk (grams) (grams) in ink per drop)______________________________________I 0.0 60.0 0 94-115IIIA 0.350 59.65 0.025 148IIIB 0.702 59.36 0.050 149IIIC 1.048 58.96 0.075 155IIID 1.390 58.61 0.0999 156______________________________________ Testing printhead was 300 SPI operated at 38 volts with a 3 microsecond pulse length at room temperature. EXAMPLE IV Additional inks were prepared by admixing the ink of Example I with the ink of Example II in varying amounts to yield inks containing a) 25 ppm carbon black (0.0025 percent by weight, Example IVA); b) 50 ppm carbon black (0.0050 percent by weight, Example IVB); and c) 100 ppm carbon black (0.0100 percent by weight, Example IVC). All of the inks exhibited conductivities of less than 0.0045 (Ohm-cm)- 1 . A 300 SPI printhead was employed for the jetting test to measure the average drop mass per drop of ink. All of the inks (Examples IV A, B, and C) exhibited larger drop mass than the ink of Example I. Some of the results are shown below in Table II, showing the effect of a small amount of pigment particles on drop mass in dye-based inks. ______________________________________ pigment drop mass increase in drop concentration (nanograms mass (nanogramsInk (ppm) per drop) per drop)______________________________________I 0 96 0IVA 25 102 8IVB 50 107 11IVC 100 120 24______________________________________ EXAMPLE V The inks of Example I and Example IIIE were tested for long-term jetting stability with a 400 SPI printhead which was operated at 41 volts with a 3 microsecond pulse length. The results are shown in FIG. I, which shows transit time data (time for a travelling distance of 0.5 millimeters) as a function of number of jetting drops for the ink of Example (containing no pigment particles) and Example IIIE (containing 0.04% pigment particles). As the data in FIG. I indicate, the ink according to the present invention exhibits better long-term jetting stability and drop velocity (steady and shorter transit time with faster drop velocity) compared to the ink of Example I for up to at least 1×1 7 pulses. In addition, the ink of the present invention also yielded larger ink drop mass or drop volume than the ink of Example I. EXAMPLE VI A pigment dispersion was prepared as described in Example II except Lomar D (an anionic dispersant, 15 grams) was replaced with Igepal CO-890 (a nonionic dispersant, 18 grams). The fabricated pigment dispersion (361 grams) contained 15.39 percent by weight carbon black. A pigmented ink was then prepared by thoroughly admixing the pigment dispersion (97.53 grams), distilled water (131.67 grams), ethylene glycol (60.0 grams), Dowicil 200 (0.3 gram), and isopropanol (10.5 grams) with sonification. The ink mixture was adjusted to pH=7.37 and centrifuged at a speed of 10,000 RPM, followed by filtration with a series of filters with sizes of 5.0 microns, 3.0 microns, and 0.65 micron to yield a pigmented ink containing 20 percent by weight ethylene glycol, 3.5 percent by weight isopropanol, 4.02 percent by weight carbon black pigment particles, 0.1 percent by weight Dowicil 200, and distilled water (balance). EXAMPLE VII An ink was prepared by admixing the dye-based ink of Example I (99.004 grams) and the pigmented ink of Example VI (0.996 gram) to yield an ink containing 0.04 percent by weight carbon black pigment. The ink had the following physical properties at room temperature (23° C.): pH=7.48, viscosity=2.3 centipoises, conductivity=0.0040 (Ohm-cm)- 1 , and surface tension 47.2 dynes per centimeter. The ink was tested with a 300 SPI thermal ink jet printhead and exhibited a drop mass of 145 nanograms per drop, compared to a drop mass of 94 nanograms per drop for the ink of Example I. EXAMPLE VIII A pigmented ink was prepared by thoroughly admixing Hostafine Black TS black pigment (obtained from Hoechst Celanese Corporation, 45.45 grams), ethylene glycol (60.0 grams), isopropanol (10.5 grams), Dowicil 200 (0.3 grams), and distilled water (183.75 grams). The ink was adjusted for pH, centrifuged, and filtered with 5.0 micron, 1.2 micron, and 0.65 micron membrane filters. The pigmented ink thus prepared contained 6.0 percent by weight solids. The aforementioned pigmented ink (0.523 gram) was added to the dye-based ink of Example I (99.497 grams) with thorough mixing to yield an ink containing 0.0314 percent by weight solids (including carbon black and dispersing agent). The ink thus prepared exhibited the following physical properties: surface tension=47.2 dynes per centimeter, pH=7.48, conductivity=4100 (microOhm-cm)- 1 , and viscosity=2.3 centipoises. The ink had a drop mass of 104 nanograms per drop, which is larger than the drop mass of the ink of Example I (94 nanograms per drop). EXAMPLE IX The dye-based ink of Example I (79.25 grams) was admixed with the pigmented ink of Example II (0.744 gram) to yield an ink containing 0.04 percent by weight pigment particles. The ink thus prepared (60 grams) was placed in an ink cartridge with a 128 jet printhead, polyester felts, a scavenger consisting of polyurethane foam and a polyester microfilter, a heat sink, and necessary electrical connections. After priming, the cartridge was tested on a test fixture and showed that the ink produced an average drop mass of 148 nanograms per drop (average of 128 jets). The ink cartridge containing the ink was placed in an ink jet printer (Texas Instruments MicroMarc) for printing tests. The ink was printed on several plain papers and yielded excellent print quality with high optical density and accurate ink placement with no poor directionality. The accomplishment of high optical density on plain papers indicates that the modified ink was jetted with an adequate ink drop volume (or drop mass) and spot size for complete pixel coverage. High ink drop velocity (or short transit time) allowed an accurate ink placement on the recording media. The average spot size on the Xerox® Image Series Smooth paper was about 130 microns. The optical density data of the ink on different plain papers are listed below: Xerox® Image Series LX paper: O.D.=1.31; Xerox® Image Series Smooth: O.D.=1.26; Gilbert Bond paper: O.D.=1.33; and Neenah Classic Laid paper: O.D.=1.28. Other embodiments and modifications of the present invention may occur to those skilled in the art subsequent to a review of the information presented herein; these embodiments and modifications, as well as equivalents thereof, are also included within the scope of this invention.

Disclosed is a thermal ink jet printing process which comprises (a) incorporating into a thermal ink jet printer an ink composition comprising water, a dye, and pigment particles having an average particle diameter of from about 0.001 micron to about 10 microns, said pigment particles being present in the ink in an amount of less than 0.1 percent by weight; and (b) causing droplets of the ink to be ejected in an imagewise pattern onto a recording medium by selectively heating the ink in the printer in an imagewise pattern, thereby generating images on the recording medium. The disclosed ink is capable of producing a large drop mass, high ink velocity, good directionality, and high quality images on plain papers with excellent long-term jetting stability.

[0001] This patent application is a continuation-in-part of co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/183,107, filed Jun. 26, 2002, titled METHOD OF FILLING DISPENSING CARTRIDGES, which is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/908,420, titled DISPENSING CARTRIDGES HAVING COLLAPSIBLE PACKAGES FOR USE IN CAULKING GUNS, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,464,112, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/391,798, filed Sep. 9, 1999, titled PACKAGING FOR MULTI-COMPONENT MATERIALS AND METHODS OF MAKING THE SAME, abandoned. FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0002] The present invention is related to self contained cartridges containing chemicals for use in conventional caulking guns, and more particular, the present invention relates to small, single-use, hand-held packaging for the containment and delivery of viscous, pasty reactive chemicals (primarily of the 2-component type, but also comprising 1-component reactive types) that are frequently used as adhesives, sealants, potting compounds, anchoring pastes, etc. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0003] Both 1-component and multi-component (but preponderantly, 2-component) chemistries, which include adhesives, sealants, potting compounds, anchoring pastes, and the like (represented by such chemistries as epoxies, polyurethanes, polysulfides, acrylics, silicones, polyesters, etc.), are used throughout the world for bonding, sealing, encapsulating, anchoring and coating many different items in construction, manufacturing, aerospace, medical, transportation, consumer and other market areas. With 2-component chemistries, the two reactive materials are maintained separate from one another and unmixed until just prior to use. To use 2-component chemistries, the components are often mixed in a separate container and applied either using an automatic dispenser or manually. Alternatively, one frequently uses a specialized or custom dispenser having parallel cartridges to dispense the 2-component chemistries with the mixing being accomplished by a static mixer inside the dispensing nozzle. [0004] Despite the inconvenience of having to mix 2-component chemistries or purchase specialty components prior to use, the industry considers 2-component chemistries superior in performance and prefers using 2-component chemistries in most applications. Generally, the industry prefers 2-component chemistries because they frequently have better physical and chemical properties than 1-component chemistries. However, while 2-component chemistries are currently and widely used in certain industries (both from bulk containers and from pre-loaded specialized packaging), such use has been restricted to using relatively expensive and relatively specialized application or dispensing equipment. Therefore, there is a need to provide a reactive-chemical dispensing cartridge packaging, which could be used for both 1-component or multi-component chemistries, that is capable of use in common, standard, inexpensive caulking guns of the type generally found in hardware stores, home centers, paint stores and the like. [0005] It has been recognized previously by such inventors as, for example, Creighton (U.S. Pat. No. 3,323,682), Maziarz (U.S. Pat. No. 5,535,922) and Konuma (U.S. Pat. No. 5,593,066) that it would be advantageous to have a package that permitted the dispensing of 2-component chemistries from common, standard caulking guns, so that all users in all markets could take advantage of the high performance provided by such 2-component chemistries, while enjoying the low cost and ready availability of such standard dispensing equipment. Yet, none of the prior invention disclosures disclose a package design that is: uncomplicated to use by the applicator, technically feasible to manufacture (especially regarding the factory-filling of such containers with high viscosity, pasty materials), sufficiently rugged in its resistance to damage before use, economically viable overall, suitable for dispensing even high viscosity sealants or adhesives, easily recyclable, or comprehensively practical enough to be introduced into or gain acceptance by commercial markets. [0006] Creighton, for instance, discloses no practical design, feasible method of manufacturing, or reasonable method of factory-filling his package with adhesives or sealants (and, consequently, this design has never been commercialized). The Maziarz design, while having found some commercial success, requires the use of a separate rigid adapter to permit the primary all-rigid package to be used in a standard caulking gun, and the maximum volume of material that can be placed into this primary package is only about ¼ to ½ the volume normally possible from packages typically used in such dispensing equipment (and the package cannot be readily recycled). The Konuma design also requires the use of a separate rigid adapter in order to be usable in a standard, common caulking gun. Also, the Konuma design involves a primary collapsible-film package that is much more prone to damage during transport, storage, adapter-insertion or use than typical rigid cartridges that are widely used in standard, common caulking guns. [0007] One commercial package and product currently being sold in Europe (by Artur Fischer (UK) Ltd.—named “FIP 300 SF”) has a 2-part “sausage” or “chub”, sealed at each end with a strong metal clip, inserted into a rigid plastic caulking cartridge that can be installed in a common, standard caulking gun. Before use, the user pulls one end of the collapsible sausage, with a metal clip attached to it, through the treaded cartridge outlet port and cuts the metal clip is cut off with a knife—thus opening the sausage for dispensing. Then, the user screws a nozzle on the threaded outlet a, with the nozzle typically having a static mixer inside, and mixes/dispenses the 2-component, low viscosity, polyester anchoring mortar. [0008] Several problems exist with this design. First, because the plastic film of the sausage is pulled into and left inside the narrow outlet of the cartridge, the wad of plastic film bunched up inside the outlet port can greatly restrict the flow of the chemical components during dispensing—which may only be a moderate problem if the viscosity of the fluids is very low (as in the case of this commercial “FIP 300 SF” product), but can be a great problem if the product viscosity is high and the product is pasty. Second, it is possible for the chemical components to contact and foul portions of the interior of the rigid cartridge either during dispensing or during spent-sausage removal from the rigid cartridge—making cartridge reuse or recycling very problematic or impossible, and messy in either case. Third, the rigid cartridge has several avenues of gaseous fluid communication between the outside atmosphere and the interior of the package that could partly endanger the shelf life of certain reactive sealants or adhesives during prolonged storage. [0009] It is important to note that many previous inventors have described and, in some cases, commercialized 2-component specialized packaging that is suitable for use only in specialized, relatively expensive dispensing equipment, but not suitable for use in common, standard and inexpensive caulking guns. The commercial market place and the patent literature are replete with many instances of such inventions. Examples of such designs can be found in the works of Blette (U.S. Pat. No. 5,386,928), Sauer (U.S. Pat. No. 5,897,028), Koga (U.S. Pat. No. 6,019,251), Camm (U.S. Pat. No. 5,918,770), Vidal (U.S. Pat. No. 6,047,861), Anderson (U.S. Pat. No. 4,366,919), Penn (U.S. Pat. No. 4,846,373), Schiltz (U.S. Pat. No. 5,566,860), Giannuzzi (U.S. Pat. No. 5,184,757), etc. The present invention, however, permits the use of such reactive materials in simple, affordable and readily available caulking guns, so that virtually everyone, in all industries, can enjoy the benefits of said reactive materials at a low overall cost. [0010] Notably, previous attempts at creating a practical 2-component package for this use have not addressed the need to be able to factory-fill, in a practical manner, such packaging with high viscosity, pasty adhesives and sealants. Either this issue has not been dealt with at all in previously disclosed designs, or, when addressed, the methods outlined or implied have not been feasible. For instance, Keller (U.S. Pat. No. 5,647,510) describes a device that has some similarities to the present invention, but Keller's design calls for the collapsible-film pouches within the device to be attached to one or more relatively small diameter dispensing nozzles that cannot be practically used for filling the pouches causing the pouches to be filled from the rear of said pouches (i.e., at the piston end)—as virtually all previous designers appear to have done, with such a filling approach not being readily or easily accomplished in a practical way. (Notice, in the context of this application, collapsible-film pouches and collapsible packages are generally used interchangeably). In particular, filling pouches from the rear and non-attached end can cause pinching, a crimping of the pouches, which inhibits the dispensing of the chemicals contained in the pouches. Furthermore, by filling the pouches from the rear, it is difficult, if not impossible, to completely fill the pouches with chemicals to fully use the possible volume. [0011] Keller is a useful example of problems associated with conventional methods for filling chemicals in collapsible-film package (and possible explains why none have been successfully commercialized). For example, by filling the package from the rear (which is conventional and exemplified by Keller), the pouch must be held or gripped at the package edge. The gripping to effectuate a filling procedure can damage or weaken the film at the edge and make the edge prone to failure. Further, when filling the packages external to a cartridge body (again conventional and exemplified by Keller and the other cited prior art), they are susceptible to bulging along the length. [0012] When the package bulges, it becomes difficult to insert the bulging package in the cartridge body without damaging the package. Even assuming the package was filled without damaging the edges, and inserted in the cartridge body without damaging the package, sealing the open end of the package (i.e., the end that was filled) is problematic at best. In particular, gathering the open end of the package to seal the package with a traditional clip would likely cause voids or unused space, which is not efficient. Alternatively, using a seal, such as a heat seal, runs the risk of fouling the sealing surface with the chemicals and causing a weaker seal. Finally, and specific to the Keller disclosure, the plunger is not removable from the rear end of the cartridge body (see sealing ring and lips in Keller FIGS. 1, 2 , 5 , 6 , and 7 ). Thus, the packages in Keller must be filled external to the cartridge body and then inserted in the body, which exemplifies the methods of conventional devices. [0013] If the issue of efficiently filling such packages at the factory is not adequately addressed (and the factory-filling of such high viscosity, pasty materials as adhesives and sealants into hand-held, collapsible-film packaging is far more difficult than the factory-filling of low-viscosity, thin fluids), then it becomes difficult or impossible to economically produce such a package/product combination. [0014] Moreover, the Keller device is not designed as a totally self-contained, integrated package, to be used in a common caulking gun; and, rather than recycling the main rigid cartridge body as taught below in the present invention, Keller's disclosed design calls for his rigid housing to be very stoutly built and aims at the repeated re-use of the stout, rigid housing by inserting fresh, collapsible-film pouches—which are relatively much more fragile and subject to damage, compared to integrated, mostly-rigid containers—into them in the field after the previously-used pouches have been emptied. [0015] It is well known in the trade that 1-component, all-rigid, all-plastic polyethylene caulking cartridges typically used to contain many or most sealant and adhesive chemistries (and dispensed using common, standard caulking guns) are not currently used to contain 1-component, reactive, moisture-curable polyurethane sealants or adhesives. The reason is that such all-plastic containers do not provide sufficient moisture vapor permeability resistance to prevent premature and rapid curing of highly moisture sensitive polyurethanes during storage. Yet, because of the unsurpassed weather and damage resistance (as well as low cost) afforded by such rigid all-plastic containers (compared to the paperboard/aluminum foil cartridges most commonly used for such polyurethanes today), it would be advantageous to use such rigid, plastic containers for such products. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0016] To attain the advantages of and in accordance with the purpose of the present invention, as embodied and broadly described herein, a method for filing cartridges for use with a conventional caulking gun include securing a collapsible package to the cartridge and applying pressure to an internal space of the collapsible package to expand the package. Drawing a vacuum on the cartridge to reduce pressure in the cartridge and removing the pressure applied to the internal space. The reduced pressure maintains the package in an expanded state. The package is filled and the vacuum released to increase the pressure in the cartridge. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0017] The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate some preferred embodiments of the invention and, together with the description, explain the goals, advantages and principles of the invention. In the drawings, [0018] FIG. 1 shows one embodiment of a conventional caulking cartridge (prior art); [0019] FIG. 2 shows another embodiment of a conventional caulking cartridge (prior art); [0020] FIG. 3 shows an embodiment of a conventional caulking gun designed for use with cartridge 1 and 4 (prior art); [0021] FIG. 4 shows an embodiment of a conventional collapsible-film package used to contain reactive sealants or adhesives (prior art); [0022] FIG. 5 shows an embodiment of a conventional industrial bulk-caulking gun designed for use with the collapsible-film package 11 (prior art); [0023] FIG. 6 shows industrial bulk-caulking gun 14 having collapsible-film package 11 insert without the manifold 15 (prior art); [0024] FIGS. 7 -A to 7 -D show a conventional method of filling cartridge 1 and 4 (prior art); [0025] FIGS. 8 -A to 8 -M show a show a method of filling a cartridge in accordance with the present invention; [0026] FIGS. 9 -A to 9 -B show an embodiment of a cartridge in accordance with the present invention; [0027] FIGS. 10 -A to 10 -B show another embodiment of a cartridge in accordance with the present invention; [0028] FIGS. 11 -A to 11 -C show still another embodiment of a cartridge in accordance with the present invention; [0029] FIGS. 12 -A to 12 -B show still another embodiment of a cartridge in accordance with the present invention; [0030] FIGS. 13 -A to 13 -B show still another embodiment of a cartridge in accordance with the present invention; [0031] FIG. 14 shows a variant of the inside wall configuration shown in FIG. 11 -A; [0032] FIG. 15 shows an embodiment of a plunger in accordance with the present invention; [0033] FIGS. 16 -A to 16 -C show a method of using plunger 119 in accordance with the present invention; [0034] FIG. 17 shows another embodiment of a plunger in accordance with the present invention; [0035] FIGS. 18 -A to 18 -C show a method of using plunger 129 in accordance with the present invention; [0036] FIG. 19 -A shows still another embodiment of a plunger in accordance with the present invention; [0037] FIG. 19 -B shows a cross-sectional, perspective view of a cartridge usable with plunger 139 in accordance with the present invention; [0038] FIGS. 19 -C 1 to 19 -C 2 show plunger 139 and cartridge 140 ; [0039] FIGS. 19 -D 1 to 19 -D 2 show the 139 and cartridge 140 ; [0040] FIGS. 20 -A and 20 -B show pouches 152 and 153 , and inner tube wall grooves 148 in more detail; [0041] FIG. 21 shows still another embodiment of a plunger in accordance with the present invention; and [0042] FIGS. 22 -A to 22 -C shows a method of venting in accordance with the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0043] FIG. 1 shows a conventional caulking cartridge 1 . Caulking cartridge 1 includes a rigid cartridge body 3 , an integral nozzle 2 , and a plunger (not specifically shown). The plunger is slidably coupled to the rigid cartridge body 3 on the end opposite the integral nozzle 2 . Caulking cartridge 1 is a standard, common all-rigid caulking cartridge that is widely used throughout the world for containing and dispensing 1-component chemistries. Chemicals contained within cartridge 1 would be in direct contact with the inside walls of cartridge body 3 . [0044] FIG. 2 shows another conventional caulking cartridge 4 . Caulking cartridge 4 includes a rigid cartridge body 6 and a non-integral nozzle 5 . Rigid cartridge body 6 has a threaded nub 9 at one end and a plunger (not shown) at the other end. Non-integral nozzle 5 has matching threads 8 . Typically, non-integral nozzle 5 is attached to caulking cartridge 4 by an attachment piece 7 . Caulking cartridge 4 also is widely used throughout the world for containing and dispensing 1-component chemistries. Again, chemicals contained within cartridge 4 would be in direct contact with the inside walls of cartridge body 6 . [0045] While cartridges 1 and 4 are generally shown to have a cylindrical shape, other geometries are equally possible. Typically, however, conventional caulking guns, explained below, are designed to receive substantially cylindrical cartridges. [0046] FIG. 3 shows a typical conventional caulking gun 10 . Conventional caulking gun 10 has a push-plate 10 a , a push-rod 10 b , and a trigger 10 c . Conventional caulking gun 10 currently is considered the most widely available and most reasonably priced caulking dispenser known. Users have used caulking gun 10 for over half a century, and it is currently considered the preferred means of dispensing 1-component chemistries. [0047] Conventional caulking cartridge 1 is used with conventional caulking gun 10 by inserting cartridge 1 into an associated cavity (not specifically labeled) in caulking gun 10 such that nozzle 2 protrudes out of a slot (also not specifically labeled) in caulking gun 10 opposite the push-plate 10 a . To use caulking gun 10 and cartridge 1 after the cartridge is inserted into caulking gun 10 , a user “pulls” trigger 10 c . Pulling trigger 10 c causes push-rod 10 b to apply pressure to push-plate 10 a . Push-plate 10 a , in-turn, applies pressure to the plunger (not shown) in rigid cartridge body 3 causing the plunger to move towards the nozzle 2 . The movement of the plunger towards the nozzle causes the 1-component chemicals to be dispensed out of nozzle 2 . [0048] Using conventional caulking cartridge 4 is similar to using caulking cartridge 1 except that a user typically must perform two additional steps. First, nub 9 typically has a cap, cover or plug that prevents inadvertent discharge of the chemicals and to protect the chemicals from the environment. Thus, the user must remove the cap, cover or plug. After removing the cap, cover or plug, the user then connects nozzle 5 to nub 9 by screwing nozzle 5 on nub 9 . Once nozzle 5 is attached to nub 9 , the operation of conventional cartridge 4 is identical to conventional cartridge 1 . [0049] One disadvantage of conventional caulking cartridges 1 and 4 is that the chemicals contained in the cartridge are in direct contact with the inside surfaces of the caulking bodies 3 and 6 as well as the nozzles 2 and 5 . By being in direct contact with the bodies and nozzles, the chemicals foul the bodies and nozzles making their reuse or recyclability difficult, if not impossible. [0050] Another disadvantage of conventional cartridges 1 and 4 is that, typically, the bodies 3 and 6 do not provide sufficient isolation from the environment. Thus, conventional cartridges are normally used only for non-reactive chemistries, if the cartridges are made of only plastic. [0051] FIG. 4 shows a prior art collapsible package 11 for 1-component chemistries. Collapsible package 11 is generally known in the art as a “sausage” or “chub.” Collapsible package 11 has a collapsible wall 12 that is, typically, sealed at each end with a mechanical sealing device 13 . Mechanical sealing device 13 is typically a metal or plastic clip. While collapsible package 11 is shown to be generally cylindrical, other geometries are possible. While collapsible package 11 can be used to contain non-reactive chemistries, the collapsible package 11 is typically moisture impervious, thus allowing collapsible package 11 to contain reactive chemistries also (typically reactive chemicals are ones that react when exposed to humidity in the air). Moreover, mechanical sealing device 13 could be replaced by other sealing means, such as, heat seals. [0052] FIGS. 5 and 6 show a specialized, or industrial, caulking gun 14 . Industrial caulking gun 14 has an end manifold 15 and a rigid barrel 16 . Industrial caulking gun 14 also has a push-plate/plunger, push-rod and trigger (none of which are specifically labeled in the drawing). The push-plate/plunger, push-rod and trigger are arranged and function in a manner similar to conventional caulking gun 10 , described above. End manifold 15 is removable (i.e., either threaded or bayonet fitting) so that collapsible package 11 may be inserted into the barrel 16 of the industrial caulking gun 14 . Notice that unlike conventional caulking gun 10 , which has an open cavity to receive rigid cartridges 1 or 4 , the barrel 16 of industrial caulking gun 14 completely surrounds the collapsible package 11 . Because rigid barrel 16 completely surrounds collapsible package 11 , collapsible package 11 does not need to provide its own rigidity. [0053] Collapsible package 11 has been known in the trade for many years, and offers the benefits of providing good shelf stability for the contained chemicals, low package cost, and minimal packaging waste (both in weight and volume). However, such packages cannot be used in standard, common caulking guns without special adapters because the collapsible-film of the packages would burst without being well supported by a surrounding cylindrical rigid structure, such as, for example, barrel 16 . [0054] In operation, a user would remove end manifold 15 from industrial caulking gun 14 and insert collapsible package 11 . The user would then remove clip 13 nearest the outlet of the gun, or otherwise puncture collapsible package 11 , and insert package 11 in barrel 16 . Normally clip 13 is removed with a knife. End manifold 15 would then be placed back in industrial caulking gun 14 . With the manifold in place, and the clip 13 removed, pulling the trigger will cause the chemicals contained in collapsible package 11 to be extruded from the barrel 16 through the nozzle associated with end manifold 15 . The actual operation of industrial gun 14 is similar to the operation of conventional caulking gun 10 . [0055] In normal operation, the collapsible film of the sausage folds up like an accordion as it is progressively squeezed by the action of the push-plate and push-rod (not shown) of the industrial caulking gun 14 . Once the contents of the collapsible package 11 are dispensed, the substantially or completely empty collapsed package 11 and remaining clip 13 are removed and disposed. Industrial caulking gun 14 would then be ready to dispense another collapsible package 11 . Notice, end manifold 15 and barrel 16 may become partially fouled during use and may require cleaning prior to the next use of industrial caulking gun 14 . [0056] Generally, collapsible packages for use in the industrial caulking guns 16 contain only 1-component chemistries. Although at least one inventor, Blette, for example, has described a 2-component package designed for use in such single-barreled industrial caulking guns 16 , even though no such 2-component package as designed by Blette appears to have ever been commercialized. [0057] FIGS. 7 -A to 7 -D show the conventional, normal and universally used method of filling standard, rigid caulking cartridges 1 ( FIG. 1 ) using a filling nozzle 17 . While FIGS. 7 -A to 7 -D show filling a rigid cartridge 1 , the method of filling rigid cartridge 4 would be identical. Conventionally, filling nozzle 17 is designed with as wide a diameter opening as is possible to facilitate the flow of high-viscosity, pasty chemistries using low fluid pressures. As shown in FIG. 7 -A, a large-diameter factory filling nozzle 17 is inserted into inlet 21 (obviously, caulking cartridge 1 has the plunger removed) into rigid cartridge body 3 to the opposite end of rigid cartridge body 3 to allow for “bottom-up” filling. The industry uses bottom-up filling because if filling nozzle 17 remained at inlet 21 , the high-viscosity, pasty chemicals would not readily flow to the nozzle end of caulking cartridge 1 causing either large pockets of trapped air in the filling or cartridge overflow. [0058] The bottom-up approach to factory-filling has proven itself as the preferred method in the adhesives and sealants industry over many years. [0059] In FIG. 7 -A the inlet 21 of the all-rigid cartridge 1 is usually positioned directly underneath the factory filling nozzle 17 , which typically has a large inside diameter of 1.25″, or more (so that the high viscosity, pasty sealant or adhesive will flow as easily as possible through said nozzle, at high speed, and at low pressure). FIG. 7 -B shows, in a partial cut-away view, an outlet 18 of the factory-filling nozzle 17 being near the interior bottom 19 of the cartridge 1 . Whether the cartridge 1 , the factory-filling nozzle 17 , or both are moved in relation to each other is largely irrelevant to the fill operation. Generally, however, the filling nozzle 17 moves relative to a stationary cartridge. [0060] After positioning outlet 18 of the filling nozzle 17 near the interior bottom 19 of the cartridge 1 , the user can commence filling the cartridge 1 with chemicals. As mentioned above, outlet 18 is placed near the interior bottom 19 (toward the nozzle end) of cartridge 1 because the high viscosity of such pasty materials does not readily allow said materials to easily or quickly flow to the bottom of such containers on their own, and filling the cartridge is facilitated by placing the chemicals there during the filling. Moreover, when filling begins at this position, the adhesive or sealant has the opportunity to displace whatever vapor (usually air) may be in the container prior to the commencement of the filling process, and largely prevent the vapor from being trapped in the container with the sealant or adhesive during factory filling. [0061] FIG. 7 -C shows, in a partial cut-away view, the outlet 18 of the filling nozzle 17 having been partially raised up from the interior bottom 19 of the cartridge 1 , having left behind a partial deposit of chemical 20 . FIG. 7 -D shows the completion of the filling cycle, with the outlet 18 of the filling nozzle 17 having cleared the inlet 21 of the cartridge 1 , leaving behind a complete deposit of high viscosity, pasty chemical 20 in the rigid cartridge 1 . With the completion of this filling cycle, a plunger (not shown) is typically inserted into the inlet 21 of the cartridge 1 , and becomes fully ready for use. [0062] This process is called, in the trade, “bottom-up” filling, and is used for many sizes of hand-held packages, up to as large a container as a 29 fl. oz. cartridge. Notice, the arrows in the diagram show the relative movement of filling nozzle 17 with respect to the caulking cartridge 1 . [0063] Collapsible packages 11 are formed and filled substantially simultaneously. In particular, collapsible packages 11 , or sausages and chubs, are formed and filled using highly specialized and expensive equipment. Generally, to make a chub, a filling nozzle (similar to nozzle 17 in FIGS. 7 -A to 7 -D) is placed in a heat-sealing unit. The heat-sealing unit uses a “bishop's collar” to form the chub by converting a flat sheet of high barrier collapsible film into an open ended cylindrical tube that has a heat-seal formed down a seam on the side of the tube. The chub has one end of the tube closed, typically with a metal clip, and the fill nozzle is inserted into the other end of the chub up to the closed end. The fill procedure is generally the same as described above, but must be carefully controlled because of the needed back-pressure balance of the collapsible package and the tight overall sequential timing required. [0064] As can be determined from the above descriptions, conventional plastic cartridges have an advantage over chubs in that it is easier to fill such conventional cartridges with chemicals and much less expensive equipment can be used. Chubs, however, have an advantage over conventional plastic cartridges in that they provide better isolation between the chemicals within the chub and the environment (due to films being used that include aluminum foil and other high-barrier materials). Therefore, it would be desirous to develop a cartridge that contained the filling advantage of conventional cartridges with the isolation advantage of the chub (with the a collapsible package also ultimately being permanently protected by the surrounding substantially rigid cartridge). [0065] FIGS. 8 -A to 8 -G show one embodiment of a new and novel overall package design that permits the factory-filling of cartridges comprised of rigid plastic elements and collapsible packages with high-viscosity, pasty chemicals, that combines the filling and durability advantage of conventional cartridges and the isolation advantages of the chub. For example, the collapsible packages are positioned within the surrounding substantially rigid shell of the cartridge and filled using a conventional fill method. Further, the cartridge design of the present invention allows the collapsible package to be filled (using large diameter fill nozzles) in a bottom-up manner analogous to, but opposite from the method proven for many years in the trade. Such a reversal in filling methods is totally new, unique and novel—and requires the package design of the present invention to allow such a filling method to be used. [0066] FIG. 8 -A shows, in cross-section, one preferred dispensing cartridge 22 having at least one collapsible package in accordance with the present invention. Dispensing cartridge 22 has a collapsible inner package 22 A and a substantially rigid cartridge body 24 . As used in this application, substantially rigid means sufficiently rigid to resist outward movement of the collapsible package when the contents of the collapsible package are being dispensed and sufficiently rigid to substantially maintain its shape when a vacuum is drawn, as explained below. Furthermore, while the embodiments of cartridges described herein generally disclose a cylindrical shape, other geometries are equally possible. The collapsible package 22 A includes an open end 27 formed by a retaining collar 28 , and a closed end opposite the open end (not specifically labeled). The retaining collar 28 has a collar edge 30 . The closed end can be sealed using any conventional means, but it is an industry-accepted practice to use a metal clip as shown. The substantially rigid cartridge body 24 includes an inlet 23 having a perimeter edge 29 , which corresponds to collar edge 30 , and a plunger end 25 . The loading of a non-inflated, pre-fabricated, collapsible package 22 A (as, for example, in the recyclable 1-component embodiment of the present invention that is described below) into the nozzle-end opening 23 of the main, rigid cartridge body 24 , is accomplished by inserting collapsible package 22 A into the substantially rigid cartridge body 24 . Notice, unlike the Keller device, the collapsible package 22 A has a relatively large diameter open end 27 to permit easy, fast, and low pressure factory filling from this end of the cartridge. [0067] Preferably, the retaining collar 28 is internal to the collapsible package 22 A. Moreover, it is preferable to heat-seal collapsible package 22 A to retaining collar 28 such that collapsible package 22 A covers collar edge 30 . As shown in FIG. 8 -B, and as will be explained in greater detail in conjunction with other embodiments of the present invention, when collapsible package 22 A is inserted into the substantially rigid cartridge body 24 , the collar edge 30 of retaining collar 28 abuts the corresponding perimeter edge 29 of the substantially rigid cartridge body 24 . As shown, collar edge 30 and perimeter edge 29 have a tapered shape to facilitate the forming of a mechanical seal; however, the edges could have other shapes, such as, for example square, round, curved, elliptical, notched, or others. [0068] As will be explained in more detail below, when a nozzle, or some type of manifold, is threaded on the substantially rigid cartridge body 24 , the pressure from threading the nozzle will cause edges 30 and 29 to form a tighter mechanical seal. The mechanical seal, in conjunction with the heat seal, inhibits the collapsible package 22 A from moving further down the bore of the cartridge body 24 toward the plunger end 25 of the substantially rigid cartridge body 24 . Of course, it is possible to use the mechanical seal or the heat seal alone; however, it is preferred to use both seals. Furthermore, while it is preferable to have tapered edges to form a mechanical seal, the mechanical seal could be formed by a “tight” friction fit between the retaining collar 28 and the inside surface of the substantially rigid cartridge body 24 . While not preferred, in the event a mechanical seal is not used, retaining collar 28 could be external to the collapsible package 22 A and the leading edge of collapsible package 22 A could be heat sealed to the inner surface (not labeled) of the retaining collar 28 . [0069] FIG. 8 -C shows cartridge 22 with a lubricating means 24 a . Lubricating means 24 a can be one or more tubules with jets as shown, manual swabbing, a bath, or any equivalent means of leaving a lubricating residue on either the collapsible package 22 A, inner surface of substantially rigid cartridge body 24 , or both. In particular, FIG. 8 -C shows during, or immediately after, the insertion of the collapsible package 22 A into the substantially rigid cartridge body 24 , the exterior surfaces of collapsible package 22 A and interior surface of substantially rigid body 24 that will experience some frictional resistance, from either a plunger (not shown in FIG. 8 -C) or the inner side wall of substantially rigid cartridge 24 are treated with a lubricant 24 a , like graphite, talc, or light mineral oil, etc., to facilitate the sliding of the plunger over said internal surfaces so as to encourage the film of the pouch to collapse like an accordion rather than getting pinched or torn by the plunger or inner side wall during its sliding travel down the bore of the cartridge. [0070] FIGS. 8 -D and 8 -E show cartridge 22 with collapsible package 22 A inserted into substantially rigid cartridge body 24 . Further, the plunger end 25 , without the plunger, of the substantially rigid cartridge body 24 is coupled to a vacuum fixture 26 . The vacuum fixture 26 would be coupled to, for example, a vacuum pump, not shown, such that when the vacuum pump is activated, it pulls a vacuum on the internal space at the plunger-end 25 of the substantially rigid cartridge body 24 . [0071] Pulling a vacuum on the plunger-end 25 causes the collapsible package 22 A to “reverse inflate,” which expands the pouch and pulls it forcefully toward the plunger end 25 of the cartridge (as shown in FIG. 8 -F). When said “reverse inflation” occurs, the collapsible package 22 A of the cartridge 22 becomes relatively rigid and opens up to its greatest extent, with said “reverse inflation” greatly reducing or eliminating any creases, twists or folds in the collapsible film that might otherwise occur. When the collapsible package 22 A is thus “reverse inflated” from the plunger end, it becomes open and capable of receiving from the nozzle end whatever chemical may be placed in it from the nozzle end. The level of vacuum required to effect the necessary “reverse inflation” of the collapsible package 22 A will vary from about 2 inches Hg to about 24 inches Hg, depending on the stiffness of the collapsible material (which is, in turn, largely dictated by the chemical-containment requirements of the particular sealants or adhesives to be packaged). It has been found, however, that to completely reverse inflate the packages is difficult. Thus, it is preferable to apply pressure to the interior of the package 22 A to inflate the collapsible package. The inflation reduces or eliminates creases, twists, etc. Once inflated, a vacuum can be pulled to hold the collapsible in the inflated position. The applied pressure can than be removed, which leave the collapsible package in the aforementioned reverse inflated position and filing can proceed as described. [0072] FIG. 8 -G shows factory filling nozzle 17 positioned over the nozzle end opening 23 of the “reverse inflated” collapsible package 22 A, which is, in turn, positioned within the main rigid cartridge body 24 . At this point, the bottom-up filling process sequence begins. The directional arrow shows the direction in which the filling nozzle 17 will travel from this initial position in relation to cartridge 22 . As noted above, the cartridge itself could, to equal effect, be the item that moves, rather than the nozzle. Alternatively, the nozzle 17 and the cartridge could accomplish the relative movement by both moving. [0073] FIG. 8 -H shows the nozzle outlet 18 positioned near the interior bottom 31 of the “reverse inflated” collapsible package 22 A, just before depositing any chemicals. By starting the filling operation at this position, the pasty chemical 20 displaces most or all of the vapor (usually air) within collapsible package 22 A. Moreover, the high viscosity, pasty chemical 20 can be placed at the very bottom of the pouch assembly inhibiting the formation of vapor voids and overflow. Without such a placement, and because of the high viscosity of such materials, it would be difficult to properly fill collapsible package 22 A with pasty chemicals. [0074] FIG. 8 -I shows a partially filled cartridge 22 . In particular, during the filling operation, nozzle 17 is (in accord with the arrow shown) traveling in the direction toward the cartridge inlet 37 (in FIG. 8 -I, which corresponds to inlet 23 of FIG. 8 -A). While moving “up” from the interior bottom 31 , nozzle 17 leaves behind a partial deposit of chemical 20 . [0075] FIGS. 8 -J and 8 -K show the completion of the filling cycle. After filling, collapsible package 22 A of cartridge 22 is completely, or substantially completely, filled with chemical 20 . To protect the chemical 20 from the environment, a film seal 32 can be placed over inlet 23 (or 37 ) of the substantially rigid cartridge body 24 . Seal 32 can be a foil-laminated patch that is heat-sealed to patch receiving lip 33 of inlet 23 , but seal 32 could be any equivalent device including, without limitation, a plug, a cap, plastic seal, etc. Alternatively, seal 32 could be attached to collar 28 instead of a patch receiving lip 33 of inlet 23 . Seal 32 could be placed prior to removing the vacuum on the plunger end 25 of the cartridge 22 . This helps to prevent spillage or leakage out of inlet 23 when the vacuum on the back end of the cartridge 22 is removed. [0076] When the collapsible package is filled in this way, it substantially conforms to the interior surfaces of the substantially rigid cartridge body 24 . By substantially conforming to the interior surfaces of the substantially rigid cartridge body 24 , the collapsible package 22 A receives the support required to resist the pressure developed within the cartridge 22 during the dispensing operation to avoid failure or rupture of the collapsible package 22 A. In particular, when installed in the conventional caulking gun 10 ( FIG. 3 ) and when the trigger 10 c is pulled causing push-rod 10 b and push-plate 10 a to apply pressure on the plunger of the cartridge 22 , the interior surface of substantially rigid cartridge body 24 prevents the collapsible package 22 A from expanding and rupturing, and instead causes the chemical 20 to be dispensed. [0077] FIGS. 8 -L and 8 -M show additional components to cartridge 22 . As shown in FIG. 8 -L, the vacuum fixture 26 is vented and removed from the plunger end 25 of substantially rigid cartridge body 24 . FIG. 8 -L also shows a cartridge manifold 34 being positioned (per the arrow shown) over inlet 23 of the substantially rigid cartridge body 24 . A manifold retaining collar 35 (in FIG. 8 -M) is then placed on the inlet 23 of the substantially rigid cartridge body 24 . Manifold retaining collar 35 overlaps a portion of manifold 34 when being attached to inlet 23 to hold manifold 34 in place. Also, manifold retaining collar mates to the substantially rigid cartridge body 24 via a threaded connection, not labeled, but other connections, such as a bayonet fitting, are possible. Instead of placing seal 32 over the inlet 23 of the substantially rigid cartridge body 24 , the seal 32 could be placed over the manifold inlet (or outlet depending on the perspective). If seal 32 was placed over the manifold inlet (not labeled) of manifold 34 , manifold retaining collar 35 could be permanently fixed, such as by a weld, to substantially rigid cartridge body 24 because you would not need to remove the manifold 34 to remove seal 32 . However, permanently fixing manifold retaining collar 35 substantially reduces the ability to reuse a majority of the parts associated with cartridge 22 . Also, FIG. 8 -M shows a plunger 36 is slidably inserted into the plunger end 25 of the main rigid cartridge body 24 . [0078] It is the unique, novel and functional cartridge design that makes this unique and novel factory filling process possible, necessary and useful. [0079] FIG. 9 -A shows the main components of another embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 9 -A shows perspective/cross sectional view of a dispensing cartridge 38 . Unlike the embodiments described above with respect to FIG. 8 which had one collapsible package 22 A, cartridge 38 has multiple collapsible packages 42 a and 42 b . Note that while cartridge 38 is shown with two collapsible packages 42 a and 42 b , more collapsible packages are possible. Also, while the example shows a double “D-shape” for the collapsible packages 42 a and 42 b and the other pieces of cartridge 38 , the “D-shape” is exemplary and other shapes are equally possible. Along with the collapsible packages 42 a and 42 b , dispensing cartridge 38 also has a substantially rigid cartridge body 39 , package retaining collars 44 a and 44 b , a plunger 40 , a manifold 48 , and a manifold retaining collar 49 . Generally, plunger 40 , manifold 48 , and manifold retaining collar 49 are added to the cartridge 38 after collapsible packages 42 a and 42 b are filled, however, cartridge 38 could be sold as an empty container without chemicals initially contained therein. [0080] In more detail, collapsible packages 42 a and 42 b are shown in the “reverse inflated” or full position. In this position, the ends of collapsible packages 42 a and 42 b towards the plunger 40 are closed by seals 45 a . Conventionally, seals 45 a are metal or plastic clips or clamps. Alternatively, seals 45 a could be replaced by other sealing means, such as film-to-film heat sealing. The other end of collapsible packages 42 a and 42 b are attached to package retaining collars 44 a and 44 b . Package retaining collars 44 a and 44 b can have barbed teeth 51 along an outer surface, which will be explained further below. Referring specifically to collapsible package 42 a , a leading edge 43 a of collapsible package 42 a is heat-sealed to an outer tapered edge (not labeled) of package retaining collar 44 a . While this example uses a heat-seal to seal the collapsible package to the retaining collar, other means of sealing are acceptable, such as induction welding, hot air fusing, thermal impulse, ultrasonics, adhesives, etc. Collapsible package 42 b is formed in an identical manner to that of collapsible package 42 a and will not be further described. Collapsible packages 42 a and 42 b have package openings that are relatively as large as possible to facilitate fill operations by permitting large diameter fill nozzles to be inserted. [0081] Substantially rigid cartridge body 39 has openings defined by a perimeter edge 46 of substantially rigid cartridge body 39 , and internal edges 47 of a dividing septum 53 . Generally, the openings defined by perimeter edge 46 and internal edges 47 will match the shapes formed by the package retaining collars 44 a and 44 b . In this case, the shapes are back-to-back “D” shapes of equal sizes. Other shapes are equally possible depending on the chemistries contained in the collapsible packages. Preferably, the substantially rigid cartridge package has threaded portion 50 , which will be explained further below. [0082] Manifold 48 includes a nub 54 with threads 56 , a manifold outlet septum 41 , a manifold retaining collar 49 , and mating lip 52 . Nub 54 and manifold outlet septum 41 form passageways 55 . Passageways 55 form the same shape as package retaining collars 44 a and 44 b , and perimeter edge 46 and internal edges 47 ; however, the passageways 55 do not need to be the same shape. Not labeled, manifold 48 can have a shoulder around the perimeter on which a corresponding shoulder of manifold retaining collar can rest. Manifold retaining collar 49 has threads that correspond to threads 50 of substantially rigid cartridge body 39 . [0083] Once the collapsible packages 42 a and 42 b are fabricated, with the fabrication preferably occurring outside of the substantially rigid cartridge body 39 , they are inserted into the substantially rigid cartridge body 39 through the opening defined by perimeter edge 46 and internal edges 47 , which are at the end of the substantially rigid cartridge body 39 opposite the plunger 40 , and typically filled, using a fill operation generally similar to the fill operation described above in FIG. 8 . In this example, one collapsible package is placed on each side of the dividing septum 53 . [0084] When the collapsible packages 42 a and 42 b are inserted into the substantially rigid cartridge body, the D-shaped package retaining collars 44 a and 44 b form a mechanical seal by abutting and mating with the correspondingly tapered perimeter edge 46 of the substantially rigid cartridge body 39 and the tapered inner leading edges 47 of the dividing septum 53 . Because the leading edges 43 a and 43 b of the collapsible packages 42 a and 42 b were coupled to the outer tapered edges of the package retaining collars 44 a and 44 b , the mating of the various tapered edges sandwiches the collapsible packages 42 a and 42 b between the rigid mating parts forming the mechanical seal. [0085] The sandwiching of the film between these two tapered and mated surfaces in this manner gives the collapsible packages more support and sealing strength than that provided from just the heat-seal to the package retaining collars 44 a and 44 b . The seals, for example the heat-seal and the mechanical seal, help inhibit the collapsible package from moving down the bore of the substantially rigid cartridge body during fill operations. Moreover, as shown best in FIG. 9 -B, once the manifold 48 and the threaded manifold retaining collar 49 are installed, as shown in the illustration, the pressure supplied to the areas of the sandwiched packages by the action of the retaining collar being screwed onto the male threads 50 of the substantially rigid cartridge body 39 provides an additional mechanical clamping action around the entire perimeter edge 46 and internal edges 47 , reducing the risk of failure of the packages in this area. [0086] As described above, the pouch-retaining collars 44 a and 44 b are, but do not need to be, equipped with barbed teeth 51 that engage mating lip 52 molded into the corresponding regions of the manifold 48 , with the teeth 51 and the lip 52 snapping into one another as the manifold 48 is pressed onto the package retaining collars 44 a and 44 b to lock the collapsible packages 42 a and 42 b to the manifold 48 so that, when the package-user disassembles the cartridge to recycle most of the dispensing cartridge 38 , the fouled elements of the package that contain small amounts of chemical residue will be kept together for disposal and to prevent a mess. Notice, manifold 48 is not typically attached until after the filling operation. Other variations of such an interlocking method are also possible, with such interlocking variations also being within the scope of the present invention. In addition, gaskets (not shown) may also be installed to further seal the junction between the manifold and the retaining collars. Furthermore, instead of screwing the manifold retaining collar to the cartridge body, the manifold may be coupled to the substantially rigid cartridge body using a bayonet mount or other suitable means. [0087] As shown in FIG. 9 -A, the substantially rigid cartridge body 39 can have a “jog” 39 a at the bottom of an inside wall 39 b . The jog 39 a of the inside walls 39 b provides a mechanical stop for the slidably advancing plunger 40 . Further, the wall of the substantially rigid cartridge body 39 below jog 39 a has a greater wall thickness to provide an additional mass of plastic material at this point in the substantially rigid cartridge body 39 to support the presence of the male threads 50 and keep the manifold retaining collar 49 from protruding beyond the outer lines of the said main rigid cartridge body (which would otherwise subject it to more exposure to damage). Other types of mechanical stops could also be used. [0088] The dividing septum 53 , with inner leading edges 47 on either side, can be a molded integral part of the substantially rigid cartridge body 39 , although it could also be manufactured separately and mated to the substantially rigid cartridge body 39 . The manifold outlet septum 41 engages and aligns with the dividing septum 53 so that each passageway 55 is in fluid communication with the corresponding chemical in one of the collapsible packages 42 a and 42 b . Thus, the chemicals remain separate until they exit the passageway 55 into a nozzle (not shown), which can contain a static mixing unit. [0089] The plunger 40 can be a conventional plunger or an embodiment of a plunger that is described below. [0090] The nub 54 that protrudes from the center of the outer face of the manifold 48 contains male threads 56 that engage a correspondingly female-threaded disposable nozzle (not shown) that has contained within it a static mixer for properly blending the two components from the cartridge just prior to application. Located within the nub 54 are the two passageways 55 that are in fluid communication with the pouch assemblies 42 a and 42 b , directing the contents of the cartridge to the nozzle and the static mixer (not shown). Prior to use and during storage, the outlet openings of the nub 54 are closed with a plastic/metal-foil-laminated patch (not shown) that can be heat sealed to the perimeter of said outlet openings (with other closing methods also being possible), with the heat-sealed patch being removable before the cartridge is used. Notice that while it is preferable to have nub 54 be coupled to the nozzle by a threaded connection, other connections are possible, such as for example, a bayonet mount or other suitable means. [0091] The components of this embodiment that are easily recyclable are: the substantially rigid cartridge body 39 , the cartridge plunger 40 , and the threaded manifold retaining collar 49 , which components constitute the majority of the weight of the empty cartridge. The rest of the components of the cartridge 38 , including the collapsible packages 42 a and 42 b and the manifold 48 , will not be recyclable (at least not without some form of cleaning), and can be disposed of after the contents of the cartridge are dispensed. [0092] FIG. 9 -B shows the identical components of FIG. 9 -A, except that in this illustration the components are assembled. [0093] FIG. 10 -A shows another embodiment of the invention, highlighting the nozzle-end of the cartridge 57 (with the plunger-end portion of this version being identical to the embodiment shown in FIG. 9 -A and FIG. 9 -B). In many respects, the cartridge 57 is similar to the cartridge 38 , and such similarities will not be re-explained. In fact, the assembly is identical to cartridge 38 except that the leading edges 59 of the collapsible packages 58 a and 58 b are coupled to the perimeter edge 60 and the internal edges (not specifically labeled) of the dividing septum 66 instead of to package retaining collars. By coupling the collapsible packages 58 a and 58 b to perimeter edge 60 and the internal edges, the package retaining collars can be eliminated from the design. [0094] Then, once the two respective chemical components are deposited within the collapsible packages 58 a and 58 b , the manifold 63 is lowered into place so that the tapered bottom edges 64 of the manifold 63 are abutted and mated to the corresponding interior tapered leading edges 60 of the substantially rigid cartridge body 62 . Then, once the threaded manifold retaining collar 65 is screwed onto the threaded end 61 of the substantially rigid cartridge body 62 , with the leading edges 59 of the collapsible packages 58 a and 58 b clamped between the mechanical seal formed by the mating tapered surfaces, the leading edges become mechanically supported around their entire perimeter, thus reducing the risk of failure of the film at this critical point. Moreover, once the clamping operation has been completed, it is then possible to cause the film to be sealed to both rigid surfaces 60 and 64 , by heat sealing ultrasonic sealing, induction heating, thermal impulse or other means, to more positively effect a total seal at this junction. The septum 66 shown can be an integral part of the substantially rigid cartridge body 62 and both parts can be monolithically injection molded together when initially created. Alternatively, the septum 66 and the substantially rigid cartridge body 62 could be made separately. If made separate, septum 66 needs to be attached to the substantially rigid cartridge body 62 . The attachment could be via glue, adhesives, heat sealing, snapping in place, latches, etc. The septum 66 is generally identical to the septum 53 shown in FIG. 9 -A and FIG. 9 -B. [0095] In this embodiment, only the manifold retaining collar is readily recyclable. [0096] FIG. 10 -B shows the identical components of FIG. 10 -A, except that in this illustration the components are assembled. [0097] FIG. 11 -A shows another embodiment of the present invention. In particular, FIG. 11 -A shows a perspective cross-sectional view of dispensing cartridge 67 . Similarly to dispensing cartridges 38 and 57 , cartridge 67 has a plurality of collapsible packages 69 and 70 , a substantially rigid cartridge body 68 , a plunger 92 , a manifold 83 , and a manifold retaining collar 84 . Unlike dispensing cartridges 38 and 57 , however, cartridge 67 has concentric outer collapsible package 69 and inner collapsible package 70 instead of, for example, side-by-side collapsible packages 42 a and 42 b . Thus, cartridge 67 also has a concentric septum 82 . Concentric septum 82 can be a separate piece or molded to manifold 83 . As will be explained further below, substantially rigid main body 68 , plunger 92 and manifold retaining collar 84 are recyclable (which components represent the vast majority of the weight of the empty container), with the remainder typically being discarded as waste, but capable of being reused if cleaned. Further, while cartridge 67 is shown with two concentric packages, more concentric packages could be used depending on the chemistries desired. [0098] Outer collapsible package 69 has a leading edge 71 defining a central opening 78 , and an outer package retaining collar 73 . Further, outer collapsible package has an end opposite central opening 78 that is closed with seal 80 . Seal 80 is shown to be a conventional metal or plastic clamp or clip, but seal 80 could be any type of seal, such as a heat seal. Outer package retaining collar 73 has an outer perimeter edge 72 , an inner perimeter edge 79 , and optionally has collar support ribs 75 b . Preferably, leading edge 71 is heat sealed to the outer perimeter edge 72 of the outer package retaining collar 73 . Outer perimeter edge 72 and inner perimeter edge 79 can have tapered edges. Further, outer package retaining collar 73 can have barbed lips or grooves 88 , which use will be explained further below. [0099] Inner collapsible package 70 has a leading edge 74 , which also defines an opening (not labeled), and an inner package retaining collar 77 . Further, inner collapsible package 70 has an end opposite the opening (not labeled) that is closed with seal 80 . Seal 80 , conventionally is a metal or plastic clamp or clip, but seal 80 could be any type of seal, such as a heat seal. Inner package retaining collar 77 has an outer perimeter edge 76 , preferably tapered. Inner package retaining collar 77 can have barbed lips or grooves 88 also, which use will be explained further below. Preferably, leading edge 74 is heat sealed to the outer perimeter edge 76 of the inner package retaining collar 77 . Notice, while inner collapsible package 70 and outer collapsible package 69 are shown closed with a single seal 80 , outer collapsible package 69 and inner collapsible package 70 could have a separate seal as a matter of design choice. [0100] Inner collapsible package 70 , with the leading edge 74 heat sealed to the outer perimeter edge 76 , is inserted into the central opening 78 of the outer collapsible package 69 . When inserted, the tapered outer perimeter edge 76 of the inner package retaining collar 77 mates with the corresponding tapered inner perimeter edge 79 of the outer package retaining collar 73 . Thus, forming the concentric inner and outer collapsible packages 70 and 69 . [0101] The mating of perimeter edge 76 and inner perimeter edge 79 sandwiches the leading edge 74 of the inner collapsible package 70 . Leading edge 74 can be sealed to inner perimeter edge 79 via heat sealing, ultrasonic sealing, induction heating, glues, adhesives, or other equivalent methods of sealing generally known in the art. The sandwiching of the leading edge 74 forms a mechanical seal to provide a clamping effect that gives mechanical support to the leading edge 74 of the inner collapsible package 70 . If leading edge 74 is heat sealed to either perimeter edge 76 or inner perimeter edge 79 , the heat seal provides support for the inner collapsible package 70 . [0102] Substantially rigid cartridge body 68 includes leading edge 81 and threads 91 . When the inner and outer collapsible packages 70 and 69 are inserted in the substantially rigid cartridge body 68 , a tapered portion of leading edge 81 forms a mechanical seal by abutting the corresponding tapered portion of outer perimeter edge 72 or outer package retaining collar 73 . The leading edge 71 of outer collapsible package 69 is sandwiched between outer perimeter edge 72 of the outer collapsible package and inner leading edge 81 of the substantially rigid cartridge body 68 . The sandwiching provides a clamping effect that provides additional mechanical support to the outer collapsible package 69 . [0103] Once the concentric inner and outer collapsible packages 70 and 69 are filled with chemicals, then a patch (not shown) can be sealed to a patch-receiving lip 85 of the inner package retaining collar 77 to provide enhanced isolation for the chemical contained within the inner collapsible package 70 . The patch could be a plastic or foil laminate, or adhesives, a cap, a plug, etc. The patch provides separation between the chemical contained in the inner collapsible package 70 and the environment as well as the chemical contained in the outer collapsible package 69 . The patch would be ruptured, punctured, or removed by the user prior to attempting to dispense the cartridge contents. If one of the chemistries contained in the concentric inner and outer collapsible packages 70 and 69 is more reactive to the environment then the more sensitive of the chemicals could be placed within the inner collapsible package 70 such that the outer collapsible package 69 (along with the patch sealed to the patch receiving lip 85 ), and the chemical in the outer collapsible package 69 , would provide additional isolation from the environment. While not specifically shown, a separate patch could be provided over the outer package retaining collar 73 , also. Alternatively, one patch could be provided over both the outer package retaining collar 73 and the inner package retaining collar 77 . [0104] Concentric septum 82 has septum alignment ribs 75 a and a barbed groove or lip 87 . Barbed groove or lip 87 corresponds to the barbed lip or groove 86 of the inner package retaining collar 77 . Concentric septum 82 has an opening that defines an inner passageway (not labeled). Concentric septum 82 is connected to the inner package retaining collar 77 by snapping barbed groove 87 into barbed lip 86 . Alternative connection means, such as snaps, glues and adhesives, are possible instead of the barbed groove and lip. Moreover, gaskets, such as “O-rings,” may be placed at the interlocking interface. While not necessary, aligning alignment ribs 75 a with outer package retaining collar ribs 75 b decreases resistance to the flowing of the chemicals during dispensing. [0105] Manifold 83 fits over concentric septum 82 . Of course, it is possible to design manifold 83 and concentric septum 82 as a single unit; however, for clarity, they have been shown as separate components. Manifold 83 has a barbed lip or groove 89 and a nub 90 . Nub 90 has threads and a nub opening. The nub opening is of a larger diameter than the concentric septum opening and the space between the nub opening and the septum opening defines an outer passageway (not labeled). Barbed lip 89 can couple with the corresponding lip or groove 88 in the outer package retaining collar 73 . The coupling between lips 89 and 88 can be eliminated, or accomplished in a number of different ways, such as pegs and holes, glues, tapes, etc. [0106] The manifold retaining collar 84 fits over manifold 83 and couples to the threads 91 on the substantially rigid cartridge body 68 . Other means of attachment are possible, such as a friction fitting, glues, heat seals. Also, while not labeled, it is possible to provide matching shoulders on manifold 83 and manifold retaining collar 84 . [0107] While sealing the chemicals was explained above, it is possible to replace the seals on, for example patch receiving lip 85 with a seal over the opening defined by the nub 90 , or use patches at both locations for enhanced sealing. [0108] During dispensing, the chemical in the inner collapsible package 70 moves to the outlet through the inner passageway defined by the concentric septum 83 . The chemical in the outer collapsible package 69 moves to the outlet by moving around ribs 75 a and 75 b and through the passageway defined by the space between the nub 90 of manifold 83 and the concentric septum 82 . The concentric septum unit 82 provides a barrier between the chemical from the inner collapsible package 70 and the chemical from the outer collapsible package 69 until they emerge at the outlet and enter the dispensing nozzle (not shown) and the static mixer (not shown, but which is normally contained within the dispensing nozzle). [0109] Several joints, abutments, and mating surfaces have been identified above. Each of these “mechanical seals” can include a gasket, such as an “O-ring” or adhesive. Also, the above identified locking mechanisms using barbed lips or grooves, which can be removed or accomplished by alternative means, can be useful for disassembling the cartridge 67 for recycling the major parts of the cartridge after use. [0110] Couplings defined above by threaded connections or friction fittings could also be accomplished by other devices, such as, metal bands or spin-welded plastic rings. [0111] The plunger 92 is slidably inserted into the rear of the main rigid cartridge body 68 . Other embodiments of plunger 92 are possible, some of which are explained further below. [0112] The outlet end of the nub 90 can be sealed (via ultrasonics, induction weld sealing or other means) with a peelably removable plastic/aluminum-foil patch (not shown), or the outlet opening of the nub 90 can be sealed in other common alternative ways to isolate the contents of the cartridge from the outside atmosphere until the user opens the package to dispense the contents of the container. [0113] FIG. 11 -B, FIG. 11 -C show the same components as shown in FIG. 11 -A, except in cross-sectional, assembled views to more clearly show the relationship of the described components. [0114] FIG. 12 -A shows the nozzle-end of another embodiment of a dispensing cartridge. In particular, FIG. 12 -A shows a collapsible package 94 having a leading edge 93 , a retaining collar 96 with a perimeter edge 95 , a substantially rigid cartridge body 97 having a leading edge 99 and threads 102 , a manifold 100 having a nub 103 and a passageway 104 , and a manifold retaining collar 101 . [0115] Retaining collar 96 is placed internal to leading edge 93 of collapsible package 94 . Leading edge 93 is sealed to the perimeter edge 95 using ultrasonic bonding, thermal bonding, thermal impulse bonding, induction-welding, glues, tapes, bands, or other methods, to form a collapsible package assembly 98 . [0116] Just like the embodiment described in FIGS. 8 -A to 8 -M, this embodiment is specifically designed for 1-component chemistries that are reactive to the environment, such as moisture-cured polyurethanes (in particular), polysulfides and some silicones that currently cannot be packaged in conventional all-plastic rigid caulking cartridges successfully because the moisture-vapor transmission rate (MVTR) through the plastic side-walls of such packages is too high to prevent the reactive chemistries from curing in the package after factory-filling and during storage. In particular, the plastic used for such conventional cartridges is polyethylene or polypropylene, because of their low cost and ease of injection molding or extrusion, among other reasons. The present invention provides an external, substantially rigid package, using such plastics as polyethylene or polypropylene, but provides an improved MVTR to conventional packages because of the use of the internal collapsible package that can be composed of, for example, aluminum foil, aluminum foil laminated within a plastic film sandwich, plastics with high resistance to moisture vapor transport. These packages make it possible to contain environmentally reactive chemistries with its major external substantially rigid components made of plastic. [0117] To reiterate, the package assembly 98 is inserted into the substantially rigid cartridge body 97 from the nozzle end such that the tapered outer perimeter 95 of the package retaining collar 96 abuts and mates with the corresponding tapered leading edge 99 of the substantially rigid cartridge body 97 , with the leading edge 93 of the collapsible package 94 being clamped between the two said rigid plastic components. This mechanical clamping action further supports and strengthens the ability of the collapsible film at this juncture to resist failure when pressure builds within the cartridge during dispensing or filling. [0118] After the collapsible package 94 is filled with chemical, manifold retaining collar 101 is threaded to manifold 100 using threads 102 assist the clamping in a manner similar to that described in the previous embodiments. Similar to the embodiment described in FIGS. 8 . FIG. 12 -A shows an embodiment that has no septum within the outlet channel 104 of the nub 103 . The septum is generally unnecessary for 1-component chemistries because the chemistry does not need to be mixed via a static mixer on the nozzle (neither shown); however, it is possible to have a septum in the outlet channel as a matter of design choice. For example, if a septum was integral to manifold 100 , the manifold 100 could be manufactured in a manner similar to manifold 48 ( FIG. 9 -A), which may have some manufacturing advantages. [0119] The components that are easily recyclable in this embodiment are the main rigid cartridge body 97 , the plunger (not shown), and the threaded manifold retaining collar 101 . [0120] FIG. 12 -B shows the components of FIG. 12 -A assembled. [0121] FIG. 13 -A shows the nozzle end of another embodiment of the present invention in an exploded, cross-sectional view. FIG. 13 -A shows a 1-component chemistry cartridge similar to the embodiment shown in FIG. 12 -A. In particular, the cartridge in FIG. 13 -A includes a collapsible package 106 with a leading edge 105 , a substantially rigid cartridge body with a leading edge 107 , a manifold 110 with a leading edge 109 , and a manifold retaining collar. Unlike the embodiment shown in FIG. 12 -A, this embodiment does not include a package retaining collar. Thus, instead of bonding, or sealing, leading edge 105 of collapsible package 106 to a retaining collar, leading edge 105 is bonded either directly to leading edge 107 of the substantially rigid cartridge body 108 , to leading edge 109 of manifold 110 , or both. Of course, leading edge 105 does not necessarily have to be bonded to either leading edge 107 or 109 . Once again, the bond could be formed using any known technique such as, ultrasonic bonding, thermal-impulse bonding, induction welding, etc. [0122] If the leading edge 105 of the collapsible package 106 is bonded to the leading edge 107 of substantially rigid cartridge body 108 , then the manifold retaining collar 111 is easily recyclable. If the leading edge 105 is not bonded to leading edge 107 , then the substantially rigid cartridge body is also easily recyclable. [0123] FIG. 13 -B is identical to FIG. 13 -A, except that it shows the nozzle-end of this embodiment assembled. [0124] FIG. 14 shows a quarter cross-sectional view of the nozzle-end of a variation from the substantially rigid cartridge body described above. In this design, an interior sidewall 112 of the substantially rigid cartridge body 113 does not have an interior mechanical stop, such as the mechanical stop 38 a in FIG. 9 -A. Such a smooth continuity of the interior sidewall in the longitudinal direction, up to the bottom 118 of a collapsible package retaining collar 117 , of the interior of the said main rigid cartridge body can permit further travel of the plunger (not shown) down the bore of the tube than otherwise, and can permit more of the contents of the pouches to be dispensed as a result. However, in so doing, the outer circumferential surface 114 of the threaded manifold retaining collar 115 would typically protrude beyond the outer circumferential surface 116 of the main rigid cartridge body 113 and make the said threaded manifold retaining collar somewhat more prone to damage during transport and handling. Either design or similar designs are within the scope of the present invention. [0125] FIG. 14 also best shows the mechanical seal that has been referred to throughout the application. Because the mechanical seals are generally similar, only one is described. In particular, FIG. 14 shows a mechanical seal 118 A being formed by the leading edge of substantially rigid cartridge body 113 and the leading edge of the collapsible package retaining collar 117 . While this mechanical seal is shown by two mating tapered surfaces, the mechanical seal could be formed by flat surfaces, squared off surfaces, rounded surfaces, ribbed surfaces, off-set surfaces. Moreover, it would be possible to design a collapsible package retaining collar 117 to fit completely within substantially rigid cartridge body 113 such that the mechanical seal 118 A is minimal or non-existing. Hence, unlike Keller's design, the present invention can provide continuous mechanical seals for all pouches in all configurations. [0126] FIG. 15 shows an embodiment of a plunger 119 in accordance with the present invention. The plunger 119 is typically a molded plastic, but could be metallic or some equivalent. Plunger 119 is used to transfer pressure applied to trigger 10 c ( FIG. 3 ) to the collapsible package(s) such that the chemicals are dispensed from the cartridge. Plunger 119 includes a plunger outer surface 121 with alignment grooves 120 a and 120 b , a leading face 122 with lobes 123 a and 123 b . While plunger 119 is designed for the equal volumetric side-by-side collapsible packages 42 a and 42 b ( FIG. 9 -A), the plunger 119 could be used with other configurations of collapsible packages, including non-equal volumetric side-by-side collapsible packages. Further, plunger 119 could be used with single collapsible packages and/or concentric collapsible packages; however, after dispensing the chemicals in these packages, the section on leading face 122 between lobes 123 a and 123 b would likely still contain un-dispensed chemicals. Thus, a plunger for one component chemistries would likely be designed with one or no lobes. [0127] Alignment grooves 120 a and 120 b in outer surface 121 are designed to help maintain plunger 119 in proper alignment with the collapsible packages to facilitate complete dispensing of the chemicals contained in each of, in this embodiment, two collapsible packages. Alignment grooves 120 a and 120 b are shown as generally “V-shaped” grooves; however, the grooves could be rounded, such as a “U-shaped”, or square or some other shape. Moreover, while two alignment grooves are shown, more or less could be used as a matter of design choice. Further, the grooves do not need to have 180 degrees separation, but could be placed closer together. Further, instead of alignment grooves, plunger 119 could have alignment rails or lips. [0128] The alignment grooves 120 a and 120 b engage correspondingly shaped rails 127 a and 127 b (shown in FIG. 16 -A) located internally within a substantially rigid cartridge body 126 (also, shown in FIG. 16 -A). While not shown, alignment grooves 120 a and 120 b and corresponding rails 127 a and 127 b could have a shoulder or lips to form interlocking channels to assist in maintaining proper alignment. [0129] The leading face 122 of the plunger 119 (as used herein, leading face means the surface of the plunger in contact with the collapsible packages instead of the surface in contact with, for example, the push-plate 10 a , FIG. 3 ) is composed of raised lobes 123 a and 123 b (with the lobes shown being designed for the side-by-side cartridge embodiments described in FIG. 9 -A and FIG. 10 -A) whose transverse lobe centers 124 positionally correspond with the transverse centers of the cartridge pouches, whether side-by-side or concentric, and whose purpose is to compress the pouches against the manifold end of the cartridge at the very end of the dispensing cycle to assist in ejecting as much chemical from the cartridges as possible. In order for this function to occur properly, the raised dispensing lobes 123 a and 123 b are kept in proper alignment with the transverse centers of the collapsible packages. Further, (by use of such alignment rails) the plunger 119 can be prevented from running into obstacles such as the dividing septum 53 of FIG. 9 -A. [0130] In this embodiment, the alignment grooves 120 a and 120 b of the plunger 119 assist in proper positioning of the plunger 119 when it is first slidably coupled to a substantially rigid cartridge body. Further, the alignment grooves of the plunger 119 help prevent the plunger 119 from rotating while it is slidably forced down the longitudinal bore of the substantially rigid cartridge body by, for example, the push-plate 10 a of a conventional caulking gun 10 ( FIG. 3 ). Although the example shown in FIG. 15 is for the side-by-side pouch embodiments described above in FIGS. 9 -A and 10 -A, a correspondingly similar plunger, with concentric annular lobes, would be used for the concentric pouch embodiment described above in FIG. 11 -A. [0131] FIGS. 16 -A, 16 -B and 16 -C illustrate the plunger 119 of FIG. 15 with a substantially rigid cartridge body 126 . Substantially rigid cartridge body 126 has a plunger opening 125 , a nozzle end 128 , and the rails 127 a and 127 b . Rails 127 a and 127 can be integrally molded to run longitudinally from plunger opening 125 to an end opposite the plunger opening 125 . Alternatively, rails 127 a and 127 b could be separate metal or plastic pieces. Also, rails 127 a and 127 b could be intermittent rails or continuous rails. [0132] As shown in FIG. 16 -A, when plunger 119 is to be inserted into the plunger opening 125 , plunger 119 is arranged such that alignment grooves 120 a and 120 b engage rails 127 a and 127 b . It is apparent that in this illustration the leading face 122 of the plunger 119 , with its dispensing lobes 123 a and 123 b (in FIG. 15 ), cannot be seen from this view angle, but it can be appreciated that the previously-described dispensing lobes 123 a and 123 b are generally aligned with the corresponding collapsible packages (not shown), which would already be positioned within the substantially rigid cartridge body 126 . [0133] FIG. 16 -B shows the plunger 119 having been slidably inserted into the plunger opening 125 and partially slid down the bore of substantially rigid cartridge body 126 . FIG. 16 -C shows the plunger 119 further traveling down the bore of the substantially rigid cartridge body 126 toward the nozzle end 128 of the container, and is being kept in transverse positional alignment with the progressively collapsing packages ahead of it. Then, as the plunger 119 arrives at the nozzle end 128 , the alignment of the dispensing lobes 123 a and 123 b (not shown in FIG. 16 -C) facilitates ejecting the chemicals contained in the collapsible package(s). [0134] To further facilitate ejection of the chemicals, the plunger 119 can have a tight interference fit within the substantially rigid cartridge body 126 from the plunger opening 125 to the nozzle end 128 . However, a tight interference fit may inhibit the venting of any gas (usually air) trapped within the void regions between the inside surfaces of the main rigid cartridge body 126 and outer surfaces of the collapsible packages (not shown). While such a tight fit can aid in extending the shelf stability of the chemicals within the cartridge during storage or non-use, it can also lead to problems associated with vapor locking the plunger or pressurizing the trapped gas that may exist within the cartridge during dispensing. Pressure generated within the cartridge during dispensing, not only makes it difficult to dispense any chemicals, but could also cause chemicals to flow from the nozzle during pauses in or after completion of the dispensing operation. [0135] FIG. 17 shows another embodiment of a plunger 129 that can, optionally, incorporate the alignment grooves shown in the plunger 119 ( FIG. 15 ). Plunger 129 includes a plurality of grooves, or ripples, 132 having a trough 132 a and a peak 132 b . Grooves 132 could be an undulating “V-shape,” “U-shape,” square, rounded, notched, or equivalent shapes. Also, while grooves 132 are shown to be uniformly shaped and placed on plunger 129 , the actual groove shape placement is largely a matter or aesthetic design. In this example, grooves 137 a and 137 b are designated as alignment grooves as shown by their slightly larger “V-shape.” The alignment grooves do not need to be larger than the other grooves, nor do they have to be the same shape as the other grooves. [0136] Also shown in FIG. 17 is a substantially rigid cartridge body 131 . Substantially rigid cartridge body 131 has an open end 130 , a nozzle end 136 , an upper inner surface 133 extending over a portion 134 of substantially rigid cartridge body 131 and a lower inner surface 135 below upper inner surface 133 . Upper inner surface 133 has grooves, or ripples, having a trough 133 a and a peak 133 b . Generally, trough 132 a and peak 132 b correspond to trough 133 a and peak 133 b , such that when plunger 129 is inserted into the open end 130 of substantially rigid cartridge body 131 , troughs 132 a and peaks 132 b , and troughs 133 a and peaks 133 b form an interference fit that assists in isolating the inside of substantially rigid cartridge body 131 from the outside environment. Generally, the portion 134 over which the inner surface 133 exists can be very small, such as from slightly greater than 0 inches, to very great, such as the full length of the inside of the substantially rigid cartridge body 131 (in this case, the lower inner surface 135 would not exist). However, ranges of about 0.10 inches to 1.50 inches are more useful. Lower inner surface 135 is generally, but not necessarily, smooth. [0137] As shown in phantom, substantially rigid cartridge body 131 can have alignment rails 138 a and 138 b . Alignment rails 138 a and 138 b are used with alignment grooves 137 a and 137 b in a manner similar to the one described above. Further, plunger 129 could have the shape and lobes as the plunger 119 described above. [0138] As will be shown more fully in describing FIGS. 18 -A to 18 -C, plunger 129 provides the added benefit of venting whatever trapped air might be inside the cartridge during the dispensing operation. Moreover, plunger 129 reduces the amount of force required by the user to overcome frictional resistance of the interference fit of the plunger within the main rigid cartridge body as the said plunger is driven down the bore of the said cartridge. Plunger 129 is adaptable to be used with any cartridge described herein. [0139] Plunger 129 is shown in various stages of travel down the bore of substantially rigid cartridge body 131 in FIGS. 18 -A to 18 -C. FIG. 18 -A shows plunger 129 just prior to insertion in substantially rigid cartridge body 131 . FIG. 18 -B shows plunger 129 just after insertion in substantially rigid cartridge body 131 with some travel down the bore. It becomes apparent, in FIG. 18 -B, that after the plunger 129 is inserted into the open end 130 of substantially rigid cartridge body 131 the tight interference fit reduces gaseous fluid communication between the outside atmosphere and the interior of the cartridge. The reduction in gaseous fluid communication helps to further provide protection for the chemicals within the dispensing cartridge. Then, as shown in FIG. 18 -C, as the plunger 129 is slid past the upper inner surface 133 to lower inner surface 135 of the interior of the substantially rigid cartridge body 131 , with only the plunger ripple peaks 132 b coming into frictional contact with the lower inner surface 135 , then the grooves 132 provide a means of gaseous fluid communication between the interior of the substantially rigid cartridge body 131 and the outside atmosphere, thus relieving any undesirable air pressure that might develop during the emptying of the pouches within the cartridge. By relieving said air pressure, it is then possible to minimize or eliminate the possibility that pressurized air within the main rigid cartridge body, developed during dispensing, could lead to undesirable after-flow of the sealant or adhesive from the nozzle during pauses in the dispensing operation. Second, by contacting the lower inner surface 135 of the substantially rigid cartridge body 131 with only the plunger ripple peaks 132 b , the total contact surface area is reduced. Because the contact area between the two said surfaces is reduced, it can be appreciated that the total force required to overcome the frictional resistance is reduced also. Thus, making it easier for the user to dispense the product. [0140] FIG. 19 -A shows another embodiment of a plunger 139 . Plunger 139 is designed to be used with a correspondingly designed substantially rigid cartridge body 140 , as shown in FIG. 19 -B. Substantially rigid cartridge body 140 has an upper inner surface 141 a and a lower inner surface 141 b (Note: For clarity, FIG. 19 -B shows a cross sectional view of a cartridge without any pouches being present). Plunger 139 includes a leading face 142 , perimeter ribs 143 , a rear edge 144 , protrusions 145 , and alignment grooves 146 a and 146 b. [0141] In this example, the leading face 142 of the plunger 139 is uniformly concave in shape, which is one of many suitable shapes for the 1-component version of the present invention. The concavity of the plunger leading face 142 helps to fold the collapsible film of the pouch away from the wall of the cartridge and direct it toward the center of the plunger face and away from the edge of the plunger face, thus minimizing the possibility of pinching the pouch film between the edge of the plunger and the wall of the cartridge. Perimeter ribs 143 , which are for convenience shown equally shaped and placed around the circumference of the plunger, are, in a longitudinal direction, flush with rear edge 144 of the plunger, but have protrusions 145 that extend slightly beyond the plunger leading face 142 . Also shown in this view of the plunger 139 are the optional V-shaped alignment grooves 146 a and 146 b (shown larger for convenience), which operate in a manner described above in other embodiments of the present invention. [0142] Upper inner surface 141 a and lower inner surface 141 b are described with transverse sectional views taken along the substantially rigid cartridge body 140 at A-A′ and B-B′ in FIG. 19 -B, as shown in FIG. 19 -C 1 and FIG. 19 -C 2 and FIGS. 19 -D 1 and 19 -D 2 , respectively. [0143] As shown in FIGS. 19 -C 1 and 19 -C 2 , the shape of both the interior surface of the cartridge in the upper inner surface 141 a of said cartridge body and the shape of the plunger 139 can be seen in their frictional-fit orientation to one another. The gray shaded area is a transverse cross-sectional view of the plunger 139 , while the unshaded area is a transverse cross-sectional view of the 141 a region of the cartridge body 140 . The ribs 143 of the plunger fit tightly into the corresponding grooves 147 of the upper inner surface 141 a of the said cartridge body. From this view, it can be appreciated that the plunger 139 slidably fits into the upper inner surface 141 a the substantially rigid cartridge body 140 tightly in order to provide a barrier to gaseous fluid communication between the outside atmosphere and the interior of the cartridge body. [0144] Then, if a transverse view is taken of substantially rigid cartridge body 140 at B-B′ in FIG. 19 -B, as shown in FIG. 19 -D 1 and FIG. 19 -D 2 , the shape of both the lower inner surface 141 b of the substantially rigid cartridge body 140 and the shape of the plunger 139 can be seen in orientation to one another. The gray shaded area is a transverse cross-sectional view of the plunger 139 , and the unshaded area is a transverse cross-sectional view of the lower inner surface 141 b . From this view, it can be seen that the rectangular grooves 148 of the lower inner surface 141 b are designed so that an interference fit does not exist between grooves 148 and ribs 143 . Consequently, channels 149 develop around the ribs 143 as the plunger is slidably moved from upper inner surface 141 a to lower inner surface 141 b during dispensing by the user. With the channels providing a means of fluid communication between the interior or the substantially rigid cartridge body 140 and the environment. The fluid communication allows the escape of any trapped and pressurized air within the cartridge during dispensing, and the possibility of unwanted product after-flow from the nozzle during pauses in use is greatly reduced or eliminated. [0145] Moreover, some additional advantages can be appreciated from the interaction of plunger 139 and cartridge body 140 . First, as the said plunger travels from upper inner surface 141 a to lower inner surface 141 b the total surface contact area between the plunger and the cartridge interior is reduced, thus reducing the force required by the user to cause the plunger to slidably move down the bore of the cartridge. Second, because the peaks 150 of the ribs 143 and the protrusions 145 of the plunger 139 contact the bottoms 148 a of the rectangular grooves 148 of the lower inner surface 141 b of the substantially rigid cartridge body, it can be seen that the protrusions 145 can slide underneath the collapsible packages, which lie against the tops 148 b of the rectangular grooves of the inside wall of the cartridge, during travel down the bore of the cartridge to gather it up, collapse it like an accordion, and avoid it being pinched between the said plunger and said cartridge body. Also, the protrusions 145 can act as a mechanical stop for the plunger 139 when it reaches the bottom or nozzle end of substantially rigid cartridge body 140 . [0146] In FIG. 20 -A and FIG. 20 -B (which would be cross-sectional views of the lower inner surface of a substantially rigid cartridge body similar to the cross-sectional views of the lower inner surface 141 b of the cartridge body 140 in FIGS. 19 -D 1 and 19 -D 2 ), the position of the collapsible package 153 (in this representative case, twin side-by-side pouches 152 a and 152 b ) is shown with respect to the rectangular grooves 148 described in FIG. 19 -D 1 and FIG. 19 -D 2 . It can be appreciated from these illustrations that because the collapsible package 153 does not touch the bottoms 148 a of the grooves 148 , the protrusions 145 of the plunger 139 (of FIG. 19 -C) that do slidably contact the bottoms of the rectangular grooves, can readily slide underneath the said collapsible film and scoop it up to avoid it being pinched between the said plunger and said cartridge wall. [0147] FIG. 21 shows a perspective view of a plunger that incorporates the rib feature of FIG. 19 -A with the concentric lobe feature as described in the text concerning FIG. 15 , which would be appropriate for use in the embodiment shown in, for example, FIG. 11 -A. In this example, the five dispensing lobes 154 illustrate how such lobes are to be configured for the best ejection possible of chemicals from a concentric inner and outer collapsible package design as described in FIG. 11 -A. It can be appreciated that all the plungers can be used with various embodiments of the cartridge. [0148] FIGS. 22 -A, 22 -B and 22 -C show, in sequence, another embodiment of the present invention capable of venting the inside of substantially rigid cartridge body 156 to the environment. In particular, a sidewall 155 of the substantially rigid cartridge body 156 has one or more vent passageways, or holes, 157 that can provide a means of gaseous fluid communication between the outside atmosphere and the interior regions of the cartridge. In FIG. 22 -A the holes 157 can be seen covered by a transparent strip of adhesive sealing tape 158 . Other devices can reduce fluid communication trough holes 157 . These other device could be, for example, metal bands, plastic or metal plugs or caps, elastic bands, etc. Tape 158 seals holes 157 to assist in protecting the chemicals internal to the cartridge from the atmosphere. In FIG. 22 -B the sealing tape 158 is shown being removed from the sidewall 155 and uncovering holes 157 . Typically, hole 157 would be uncovered just before a dispensing nozzle (not shown) is attached to the nub 159 and is placed into a common caulking gun, such as gun 10 ( FIG. 3 ). FIG. 22 -C shows complete removal of tape 158 exposing holes 157 to fully provide their venting function as the plunger (not shown) is slidably driven down the interior bore of the cartridge body 156 . The sealing tape 158 , of course, can be opaque (rather than transparent, as shown) and can be composed of different materials, such as aluminum-foil laminated with plastic film, in order to achieve appropriate levels of barrier properties. Also, the said vent holes, which can number from one to ten, or more, can be located in different positions along the length and circumference of the said cartridge body to equal effect. For example, one hole 157 could be located towards the nozzle as shown, one hole 157 could be located towards the middle of the cartridge, and one hole 157 could be located towards the plunger end of the cartridge. Further, the tape 158 (or other sealing device) could be re-attachable to facilitate partial dispensing of the chemicals. [0149] While the invention has been particularly shown and described with reference to some embodiments thereof, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that various other changes in the form and details may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention.

A method of filling a collapsible package in a cartridge for use with a caulking gun is provided. The method comprises pressurizing an internal space of a collapsible package to expand the package. Drawing a vacuum external to the collapsible package and removing the positive internal pressure. The vacuum maintains the package in an expanded state. A nozzle is then inserted into the collapsible package to reverse fill the package with a vicious material.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a method of renewing water service pipe as well as to an apparatus used in carrying out a part of the method wherein a coating is applied to the inner surface of the water service pipe. 2. Description of the Prior Art With years of use, rust, scales and other contaminants are generated and stick to the inner peripheral surface of pipes. This buildup effectively reduces the diameter of the pipe, resulting in increased flow resistance to the water flow with a consequent reduction of the flow rate as well as various inconveniences resulting from the reduced flow rate. To overcome the above problems, it becomes necessary to periodically either replace the water supply pipe or renew the pipe by removing rust, scales and other contaminants attaching to the inner surface of the water service pipe. However, replacement of the water service pipe entails extensive long-term construction, as well as great expense to municipalities and, therefore, must be carefully planned. For this reason, in most cases, effective yet simple renewal of pipes at relatively low cost would prove very useful. Yet, even when pipes are renewed, it is very important that the renewal be completed in a short time period because the construction inherently necessitates a suspension of the water service supply, as well as the disruption of traffic around the site. For these reasons, there is an increasing demand for the development of a method which can effect a perfect renewal of the water pipe quickly and which can prevent the recurrence of rusting, scaling and contamination of the inner surface of the pipe for many years, once the pipe has been treated. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is, therefore, an object of the invention to reduce the period required for renewing water pipe. It is another object of the invention to make it possible to thoroughly remove rust, scales, and other contaminants adhering to the inner surface of a water service pipe previously in use, so as to perfectly renew the latter. It is yet another object of the invention to coat the inner surface of a previously constructed pipe which has been freed from rust, scale and other contaminants with an anti-rust synthetic resinous paint, so as to prevent the generation and adherance of rust, scales and contaminants to the inner wall of the pipe for a long time. It is yet a further object of the invention to provide an apparatus capable of mixing a dual component synthetic resinous liquidus paint, which comprises a main liquid and a hardening liquid which harden rapidly, when mixed with each other immediately before application, by swiftly atomizing the mixed paint onto the inner surface of the pipe, thereby ensuring the formation of a thin and uniform coating of the paint on the latter. It is another object of the invention to provide an apparatus capable of effectively mixing the main liquid and the hardening liquid of the dual component liquidus paint without employing electric driving power. It is yet another object of the invention to provide a compact and a simple apparatus for coating the inner surface of a pipe, which affords easy removal of hardened residual paint attaching to the inside of the apparatus, and an easy cleaning of the inside of the pipe, as well as an easy inspection and replacement of the air motor at the site. It is a further object of the invention to provide an apparatus, for coating the inner surface of the pipe, which can be inserted into and moved through even bent and curved pipes, so as to ensure a complete coating in a simple manner not only for straight pipes but for bent and curved pipes as well. In fulfilling the above objects, a method of renewing a pipe section having fluid flowing therethrough has now been developed which comprises stopping the fluid flow through the said section. A scrubbing element is then inserted into one end of the section. This element is advanced from one end of the section to the other end thereof while it, at the same time, ejects a cleaning fluid from the scrubbing element to clean the inside of the section of materials adhering thereto. The section is then scraped to remove materials adhering to the inside of the section which were not removed by the scrubbing element. The materials removed during the scrubbing and scraping steps are flushed from the inside of the section and the section is dried by inducing a flow of air through the section. The inside of the section is painted by passing a painting device through the inside of the section to apply a mixture of paint and hardening liquid to the inside of the section. In a preferred embodiment of the invention, the scrubbing element is a jet nozzle and the method of the invention comprises advancing the jet nozzle through the pipe by means of the reaction force generated when pressurized water is forced through the jet nozzle. In yet another preferred embodiment of the invention the section is dried by creating a suction within the section to induce the flow of air therethrough. This suction is preferably created by providing a hollow suction pipe having an opening of diverging inner cross-section such that the suction pipe has an end of greater inner cross-section. The suction pipe further comprises means for introducing pressurized liquid around the periphery of the end of lesser cross-section. The end of greater inner cross-section is placed in fluid communication with the inside of the pipe section and pressurized liquid is passed past the end of lesser inner cross-section of the suction pipe to create a suction within the section. A most preferred feature of the invention is the use of heated air to dry the pipe section. The objects of the invention are further fulfilled by the apparatus of the invention which may be used to coat the inner surface of a pipe. The apparatus comprises: a casing; an air driven motor arranged within the casing; an air passage formed in the casing for introducing air into the casing to drive the motor; a cowling shaft projecting from a first end of the casing, the shaft being adapted to be rotated by the air driven motor; a cap shaped cowling having a base wall and a peripheral wall, said peripheral wall comprising a plurality of apertures, and cowling being attached to said cowling shaft to rotate with said shaft; a paint passage having an inlet and outlet, extending the length of said casing, said outlet opening onto said first end of said casing; and a paint nozzle connected to said end of said paint passage opening onto said first end of said casing to receive paint passing therethrough, said paint nozzle comprising at least one nozzle orifice facing and spaced from the interior of said peripheral wall of said cowling. In a preferred embodiment, the apparatus further comprises a mixing device connected to the inlet portion of the paint passage. This mixing device is adapted to mix paint and hardening liquid fed to the device to form a mixture of the two prior to introducing the mixture into the paint passage. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 illustrates scrubbing the inner surface of a pipe with the scrubbing element of the invention; FIG. 2 illustrates scraping the inner surface of the pipe with a scraping element; FIG. 3 illustrates cleaning the inner surface of the pipe with a mop; FIG. 4 illustrates air drying the inside of the pipe; FIG. 5 illustrates coating the inside of the pipe with a paint mixture; FIG. 6 is a longitudinal cross-sectional view of a scrubbing element used in FIG. 1; FIG. 7 is a partially cut-away side elevational view of a scraping body used in FIG. 2; FIG. 8 is a perspective view of an alternative type of brush head for use instead of the scraping body shown in FIG. 7; FIG. 9 is a longitudinal cross-sectional view of the device used in FIG. 4 to dry the pipe; FIG. 10 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line I--I of FIG. 9; FIG. 11 is a top view of the painting apparatus shown in FIG. 5; FIG. 12 is a partially cut-away enlarged top view of the painting apparatus shown in FIG. 11; FIG. 13 is a partially cut-away side elevational view of the apparatus shown in FIG. 11; FIG. 14 is a side view of a painting device shown in FIG. 11, with its housing portion in cross-section; FIG. 15 illustrates a mixing device for the painting apparatus; FIG. 16 is a longitudinal cross-sectional view of a connector coupling; FIG. 17 is an enlarged cross-sectional view taken along the line II--II of FIG. 14; FIG. 18 is a sectional view taken along the line III--III of FIG. 17; FIG. 19 is a sectional view taken along the line IV--IV of FIG. 17; FIG. 20 is an exploded sectional view of the painting device in its disassembled state; FIG. 21 is a sectional view taken along the line V--V of FIG. 20; FIG. 22 is a cross-sectional view along the line VI--VI of FIG. 20; and FIG. 23 is an longitudinal cross-sectional view of a bearing and a portion surrounding the bearing and the cowling shaft of the painting device arranged for assembly. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS To renew and clean a water service pipe, which has already been in use, the water supply to the water service area around the pipe to be renewed is first shut off. As may be seen from FIG. 1, the ground in which the water service pipe A is buried is then bored at intervals of about 100 m or the like, as illustrated at B, so as to expose the water service pipe A at each of the bores B. At each bore, a suitable length of the pipe such as 60 cm., for example, is cut away. As a result, the already-constructed water service pipe A is cut into sections, each having a length of about 100 m. Lengths of 100 m for the pipe sections are not meant to be exclusive of other segment lengths, and the water service pipe A can be cut at intervals other than 100 m, depending on the piping arrangement, state of the road and other conditions. After cutting the pipe A into sections of, for example, 100 m length as explained above, a guide roller 100 is attached to one end opening of the pipe section A which is to be renewed first. A scrubbing element 101 is then inserted into the pipe section A, guided by the guide roller 100. As shown in FIG. 6, the scrubbing element 101 has a bullet-like head section 102 and a cylindrical body section 104 connected to the rear end portion of the head-section through a neck section 103. A suitable number of jet nozzle ports 105 are regularly distributed around the circumference of the neck section 103, and are directed obliquely rearwardly and radially outwardly relative to the front of the element. An adapter 107 fixed to the end of water supply tube 106 is screwed into the body section 104 of scrubbing element 101, thus connecting water supply tube 106 to scrubbing element 101. When the size of the scrubbing element is relatively small, the screwing engagement of the adapter 107 and the body section 104 of the scrubbing element 101 is made in a manner as shown in FIG. 6, i.e., by direct engagement of these members through a thread formed on the outer periphery of adapter 107 with a thread formed on the inner periphery of the body section 104, as shown at 108. The size of the scrubber body 101 will be a function of the diameter of the pipe A to be renewed. Thus, for the renewal of a pipe A having a large diameter, it will be necessary to use a large-sized and heavy scrubbing element. When a large-sized scrubbing element 101 is used, the connection between the body section 104 and the water supply tube 106 is made through the engagement of the adapter 107 at the end of the water supply tube 106 with an adapter nut which is itself rotatably secured to the body section 104 in a water-tight manner. In this arrangement, the scrubbing body 101 is attached to the water supply tube 106 by simply rotating the nut. The water supply tube 106 is made of a material having the appropriate flexibility and strength, and is connected at its end to a water pressurizing apparatus C. As pressurized water is supplied from the water pressurizing apparatus C, through the water supply tube 106, to the scrubbing element 101, the scrubbing element 101 is self-propelled by the reaction of the pressurized water being jetted obliquely rearwardly through the jet nozzle ports 105, and moves ahead through the pipe A. During the forward movement of the scrubbing body 101, incrustations, scales and other contaminants on the inner wall of the pipe A are parted from the latter, due to the pressure exerted by the body of the scrubbing element 101 which is itself moving ahead, and due to the violent jet of water being jetted from the nozzle ports 105. The freed rusts, scales and other contaminants are then washed or flushed away from the pipe A, by the rearward flow of the water. The water pressurizing apparatus may be mounted on an automobile or like vehicle for easy movement, while the water supply pipe 106 is wound around a rotary drum 110 (FIG. 1) so that it unwinds with the forward movement of the scrubbing element 101. The water to be supplied may be picked up from any suitable source closest to the site. The scrubbing step performed by the scrubbing element may be carried out repeatedly, as required, depending on the extent of buildup and incrustation on the inside of pipe A. The scrubbing body 101 can be returned to the starting position by simply rewinding the rotary drum 110, and then restarting the process from that position. It will be seen that there is no damage to the pipe or joint by removed contaminants because the rust, scales and contaminants on the pipe wall are crushed into fine particles due to the impact pressure imparted by the scrubbing element and by the application of the jetted high pressure water, and are then conveniently washed away from the inside of the pipe A. The liquid may conveniently wash the removed materials into a ditch as illustrated in FIG. 1. Additionally, since the scrubbing element is self-propelled through the pipe A by the reaction of the high pressure water jetted therefrom through the nozzle ports, it is not necessary to provide a specific means for moving the element such as a towing rope. Therefore, the work of inserting the towing means into the pipe and other associated works, which have in the past been necessary may be eliminated with the process of the invention, thus minimizing the time required for the scrubbing. Although most of the rust, scales and other contaminants on the pipe wall may be removed by the foregoing scrubbing step, specific substances and strongly adhering materials may still remain along the pipe wall even after scrubbing. If the inner pipe wall is subsequently coated while these substances and materials remain on the pipe wall, these substances would soon cause peeling of the paint coating. Therefore, it is necessary to completely remove adhering materials in advance of the coating step. To this end, a scraping step may be performed subsequent to the above scrubbing step, to smooth the inner surface of the pipe, by scraping off residual substances and materials. This is done by towing and moving a scraping element 111 along the inner wall of the pipe as shown in FIG. 2. The scraping element 111 comprises a turbine 112 and a brush head 113 adapted to be rotated by the turbine 112. As shown in FIG. 7, the turbine 112 has a housing 131. A bearing 131 supports a rotor shaft 130a formed unitarily with the housing 131. A guide ring 132 for guiding the pressurized water is fixed to the inner periphery of the housing 131. The rotor shaft 130a is rotatably secured to the center of the guide ring 132 through a roller bearing 133. An impeller 135 is fixed to the rotor shaft 130a by means of a key 134, and is positioned just in front of the guide ring 132. The guide ring 132 is fixed to the housing 131 by means of a cap 136 which is screwed into the rear end portion of the housing 131. A plurality of inclined grooves 137 are formed in the outer peripheral surface of the guide ring 132, for directing pressurized water which is introduced into the housing through the hose 106. On the other hand, a plurality of water receiving grooves 138 are formed to extend substantially at right angle to guide grooves 137. Turbine shaft 130 comprises rotor shaft 130a carrying impeller 135 and, rotatably supported in the turbine 112, a flexible shaft 130b screwed to the end of the rotor shaft 130a and a rod 130c screwed to the end of flexible shaft 130b. Flexible shaft 130b comprises, for example, a coiled steel wire of appropriate length having nuts 139 and 140 welded to its two ends. Brush head 113 is detachably secured to rod 130c. The brush head 113 may be a steel wire brush as shown in FIG. 7, or may comprise a governor blade as shown in FIG. 8, and has a diameter substantially equal to or slightly smaller than the diameter of the pipe to be renewed. Once the scrubbing element 101 has been moved from the one end opening of the pipe section A where it was inserted to the other end of the pipe section, the scrubber element 101 is detached from the water supply tube 106, and the turbine 112 is then coupled to the adapter 107 of the water supply tube 106. Then, while supplying highly pressurized water from the water pressurizer C to the water supply tube 106, the rotary drum 110 is rotated to retract the tube, thereby towing the scraping element 111 through the pipe section A. Consequently, the pressurized water supplied to the scraping element 111 through the water supply tube 106 causes the rotation of the turbine 112, to thereby rotatably drive the brush head 113 with contact of the latter with the inner peripheral wall of the pipe section A. Consequently, contaminants still sticking to the wall of the pipe section A are scraped and the wall surface is smoothed. The contaminants scraped off the wall are conveniently washed away by the water discharged into the pipe section A. Subsequent to this scraping step, the scraping element 111 is detached from the water supply and the scrubbing element 101 may again be attached to water supply tube 106. The scrubbing element 101 is then self-driven and run along the inner wall of the pipe section A, as is the case of the aforementioned scrubbing step, so as to rinse the inside of the pipe section A and to completely wash away any residual contaminants. Then, if necessary, the inner surface of the pipe section A is wiped and cleaned. This wiping can be carried out making use of a suitable cleaning means, such as a sponge, mop or the like. Thus, when the scrubbing element 101 has reached the far end opening of the pipe section at the end of the rinsing step, the scrubbing element 101 may be detached from the water supply tube 106 and a mop 114 may then be connected to the latter instead. The water supply tube 106 is then retracted, while stopping the water supply, so as to pull the mop 114 along the wall of the pipe section A, to thereby wipe and clean the inner surface of the pipe section A. As shown in FIG. 3, the mop 114 is not secured to the water supply tube 106, but is secured instead to a wire rope 115 adapted to be pulled by a winch D. After completion of this wiping and cleaning step, the inner surface of the pipe has been substantially cleaned and no contaminants are left on the surface. The wiping and cleaning step is optional and may be dispensed with. Where the wiping and cleaning step is carried out, the drying step is carried out with the wire rope 115 left in the pipe section A. To the contrary, when wiping and cleaning are not performed, a wire rope is connected to the scrubber body 101 which has been moved to the other end opening of the pipe section, so that the wire rope may extend through the latter. In both cases, the drying step is performed with a wire rope left in and extending through the pipe section A. Drying is performed by an apparatus E illustrated in FIG. 4. The apparatus E comprises flexible hose 117 having at its intermediate section a nozzle body 116 for jetting high pressure water, and a water pressurizer C connected to the nozzle body 116 through the water supply pipe 106 for supplying the nozzle body 116 with highly pressurized water. The water pressurizer C and the water supply pipe 106 used in the previous step (FIG. 2) may be used as the pressurizer and the pipe in the drying step. As will be seen from FIG. 9, the nozzle body 116 for jetting highly pressurized water comprises suction pipe 120, which may be made of metal provided with outwardly diverging passage 118 and having ends of lesser and greater inner cross-section, as well as a nozzle tube 121 screwed to the suction pipe 120 having a diverging cross-section 119. At the central portion of the nozzle body 116, a restriction 122 is provided which is surrounded by annular passage 123. The annular passage 123 communicates with the passage 119 formed in the nozzle tube 121 through a plurality of jet nozzle ports 124 which are suitably circumferentially distributed. The water supply pipe 106 leading from the water pressurizer C is detachably connected to a connecting passage 125 which in turn communicates with the annular passage 123. The nozzle ports 124 are formed at an inclination to the axis of the passage 119 so that their extensions do not intersect at a point ahead of these nozzle ports (FIG. 10). Therefore, a rotary component of force is imparted to the water jetted from the nozzle ports 124 so as to increase the velocity of the water flowing in the passage 119, thereby obtaining a higher vacuum, i.e., sucking force at the suction pipe 120. Flexible hoses 117' and 117 of suitable lengths are connected to the suction side end and the nozzle side end of the nozzle body 116 respectively. As shown in FIG. 4, in use, hose 117' is connected to one end opening of the pipe section A in the bore B', while hose 117 is extended into a suitable water disposal line such as a gutter in the vicinity of the site. After connecting the water supply pipe 106, which may be the one which was used in the previous scrubbing step, to the connection pipe 125 of the nozzle body 116, highly pressurized water of about 250 Kg/cm 2 is fed into the annular passage 123 through the water supply pipe 106 and the connecting pipe 125. The pressurized water forcibly fed to the annular passage is vigorously jetted from the passage 119 through the nozzle ports 125 such that a rotational component of force is imparted to the water thereby increasing its velocity. The jetted water is finally led to the end of the hose 117 and discharged therefrom. As the water flows through the passage 119 at a high velocity, a vacuum is generated in passages 118 and 119 of the nozzle body 116, so that air is violently induced through pipe section A (FIG. 4), flexible tube 117' and then through the suction pipe 120. Consequently, a flow of air is caused in the pipe section A, so as to fully evaporate the water and moisture adhering to the inner wall of the pipe section A. The time required for the drying may be very substantially shortened by connecting the end of a hose 126 of an air heater G to the other end opening A' of the pipe section A, so as to feed hot air into the pipe section A as shown in FIG. 4. In this embodiment of the invention, it is not always necessary to connect the hose 126 of the air heater G to the pipe section A. Thus, a sufficient shortening of the drying time may be obtained simply by placing the end of the hose 126 in the bore B. Also it is to be noted that the use of the air heater G is not indispensable, and that drying can be completed in a reasonable period of time, by solely inducing ambient unheated air. It is noteworthy that the time required for drying the inside of the pipe section is shortened by inducing air through the pipe section in the described manner. More specifically, by simultaneously feeding hot air to the bore B, by placing the end of the hose 126 of the air heater G in the bore B, and the induction of air by the operation of the apparatus E having the nozzle body 116, so as to forcibly induce the mixture of heated and unheated air through the pipe, the time required for completely drying the inside of the pipe which is usually about 2 hours can be shortened to about 10 to 15 minutes, when air having a temperature of about 20° C. to about 50° C. is used. In summer, when temperatures are warmer (about 30° C. or more) the air is already warm and supplemental heating is unnecessary. As may be seen from FIG. 5, after drying, the inner surface of the pipe section is next coated with an anti-rust plastic paint from a source H, to prevent renewed generation and adherence of rust, scales and other contanimants. Painting is performed with a painting device and a mixer 36. The anti-rust plastic paint may advantageously comprise a mixture of a main liquid which is an epoxy resin and a hardening liquid. The liquids are atomized, after having been mixed with each other, and applied to the inner surface of the pipe section by means of a painting apparatus which will now be described. Although a wide variety of paints and hardening materials may be used, the preferred paint composition comprises, by weight, about 90.0% epoxy resin, 9.9% titanium oxide, and 0.1% silica. The preferred hardening material comprises, by weight, about 60.0% modified amine adduct, 27.9% calcium carbonate, 12.0% barium sulfate, and 0.1% carbon black. As shown in FIG. 11 the painting apparatus H has a painting device K comprising an air motor 10 (FIG. 18); a paint supply device J adapted to supply the painting device K with the paint, a pressurized air supplying device C adapted to supply the painter K with pressurized air, and a towing device adapted to tow the painting device K. The painting device K comprises a casing 1 of a small length and a small diameter (FIGS. 18 and 19). As may be seen from FIG. 20, a motor chamber 2 is formed at the center of the casing 1, so as to open in the front wall of the latter. The motor chamber 2 has an inlet and an outlet both of which are in communication with a passage 3 for pressurized air, which is formed to open into the rear wall of the casing 1. A paint passage 4 is formed in the casing 1 to extend axially through the latter. The paint passage 4 is provided therein with a stirring element 5 which comprises a plurality of plate-like pieces arranged in series in a staggered manner such that the front edge of a piece lies at a predetermined angle to the rear edge of the adjacent piece (FIG. 17). As seen from FIG. 14, a mixing case 36 is connected to the rear end of the casing 1, through a flexible wire 35, while a cover 6 is fastened to the front side of the casing 1 by means of screws 7 (FIG. 19). FIG. 22 illustrates that the cover 6 has a bore 8 formed coaxially with the motor chamber to receive the rotary shaft, as well as a nozzle connection port 9 (FIG. 20) which is formed coaxially with the paint passage 4. A mixing chamber 37 is formed in the mixing case 36. The mixing chamber 37 has an inlet port opening in the rear wall of the mixing case 36 and an outlet port opening in the front wall of the mixing case 36. Besides the mixing chamber, a passage 38 for pressurized air is formed to extend axially through the mixing case 36. The outlet port of the mixing chamber 37 is connected to the inlet port of the paint passage 4 of the casing 1, while the outlet port of the passage 38 for pressurized air is connected to the inlet port of the passage 3 for pressurized air of the casing 1, respectively, through flexible tubes 39 and 39'. The mixing chamber 37 is formed to have a diameter much larger than those of the inlet and outlet ports. Stirring elements (not shown) similar to that disposed in the paint passage 4 of the casing 1 are provided in the inlet and outlet passages of the mixing chamber 37. A tridentate or "Y" coupling 70 (FIG. 15) is screwed at its one end into the inlet port of the mixing chamber 37 of the mixing case 36. The other two ends of the "Y" coupling 70 are connected to a main liquid supply pipe 48 and a hardening liquid supply pipe 49, respectively, of the paint supply device. At the same time, the inlet port of the passage 38 for pressurized air is connected to the end of a hose 60 of the pressurized air supplying device C (FIG. 11). These connections are made through respective joints M which are designed to allow disconnection in a simple manner. More specifically, as shown in FIG. 16 the joints M comprise female members 71 and male members 72. The female members 71 of these joints are secured to the two end openings of the tridentate coupling or "Y" connector 70 which is screwed into the mixing case 36, as well as to the inlet port of the pressurized air passage 60 of the mixing case 38. The male members 72 of the joints M are secured to the main liquid supply pipe 48 and the hardening liquid supply pipe 49 of the paint supply device J, as well as to the air hose 60 of the pressurized air supply device C. The mixing case 36 is connected to the paint supply device J and to the pressurized air supply device C, by inserting the male members 72 into the corresponding female members 71. Bores 73 are formed in the periphery of the female member 71, so as to receive rings 74. As the rings 74 are pressed by a press ring 75, they move radially inwardly to project from the inner peripheral wall of the female member 71, and become fitted in a groove 76 formed on the outer periphery of the male member 72, thereby securing the male and the female members to each other. The press ring 75 has an annular shape, and is fitted around the female member 71 so that it is free to move in the axial direction relative to the latter. The press ring 75 is normally biased by means of a spring 77 to a position where it presses the rings 74 into the groove 76 of the male member 72. To disconnect the male and the female members (72, 71) from each other, the press ring 75 is simply displaced in the axial direction, against the force of the spring 77, so as to free the ring 74 from the groove 76. Valves 79 and 80 are arranged in the female and male members 71 and 72 respectively. These valves are adapted to open when the female and male members 71 and 72 are coupled with each other, and to close when the members are disconnected from one another. As illustrated in FIGS. 18 and 19 an air motor 10 housed in the motor chamber 2 of the casing 1 has a cylinder 12, a rotor 13, and blades 14. The air motor 10, when arranged in the motor chamber 2, divides the pressurized air passage 3 into a suction side section 3a and an exhaust side section 3b. The pressurized air introduced into the passage 3 is caused to flow through the cylinder casing 11 of the air motor 10 and ventilation ports 15, 15', 16, 16' of the cylinder 12, toward the outlet port, so as to be exhausted from the latter. The air flowing in the described manner collides with the blades 14, so as to impart a torque to the latter, thereby causing high speed rotation of the motor shaft 17 of the rotor. Use of an air motor 10 as the driving means is preferred to use of complicated accessories and members such as electric wirings and is less troublesome to operate. Furthermore, the adoption of the air motor contributes, in combination with the separate arrangement of the mixing device from the casing, to minimizing the size of the painting device K. This effect of minimizing the size of the painting device K provides a remarkable advantage, because it affords smooth passage of the painting device even through the bent and curved portion of the pipe. The motor shaft 17 extends into the bore 8 formed in the cover 6 of the casing 1. The air motor 10 is screwed to the cover 6 and to the bottom of the motor chamber, at portions 18 and 19, respectively. Therefore, the air motor 10 can be dismounted from the motor chamber 2, by removing the screws 7 and then unscrewing the air motor at portions 18 and 19. Thus, when the motor is found to malfunction in any way during testing it may be easily and swiftly replaced with a spare motor. Consequently, the pipe renewal work is entirely free of problems relating to the time consuming repair and replacement of the motor, as well as failures attributable to trouble with the air motor in the course of renewing the pipe. This, of course, ensures faster renewal of the pipe as well as easier maintanence of the motor after the work. FIGS. 18 and 19 further illustrate a cowling 20 having a peripheral wall and a bottom wall. A shaft-receiving bore 21 is formed at the center of the bottom wall and the cowling shaft 22 is inserted in this bore and fixed thereto. A number of small apertures 23 are uniformly distributed and formed in the peripheral wall of the cowling 20. The end of the cowling shaft is threaded at 24 and is engaged by two nuts 25 and 26 so as to cramp the bottom of the cowling 20 therebetween, thereby fixing the cowling shaft 22 to the cowling 20. The cowling shaft 22 is connected at its rear end to the motor shaft 17 of the air motor 10. Both shafts 17 and 22 are provided with clutches 27 which engage with a grooved sleeve 27'. Turning now to FIGS. 20 to 23, a bearing 28 is press-fitted to an intermediate portion of the cowling shaft 22, through which the latter is rotatably carried by a support sleeve 29 which also plays the role of a cover. A nut 26 located at the inside of the cowling 20 is received by a bore 30 in the support sleeve 29. The support sleeve 29 is screwed to the cover 6 at a portion 31 (FIG. 19). Therefore, the cowling shaft 22 can easily be taken apart by first removing the nut 25 and the washer 25', removing the cowling 20, and then unscrewing the support sleeve 29 from the cover 6. This arrangement allows the simple removal of any paint which has penetrated the inside of the painting device during the operation of the latter and hardened onto the wall of the same, after the use of the device. A spraying nozzle 32 comprises a closed small pipe having a plurality of nozzle orifices 33 in its wall, arranged in a row extending in the axial direction of the small pipe (FIG. 19). The spraying nozzle 32 is screwed at its base portion to a nozzle attaching bore 9 of the cover 6 of the casing, so that it extends into the cowling 20. The nozzle orifices 33 are preferably oriented so as to face in the general direction of rotation of the peripheral wall of the cowling 20, although they are spaced from the inner peripheral wall. By orienting the orifices 33 so that paint is thrown out in a direction which coincides with the rotation of the cowling, the paint is sprayed over the entire inner surface of the pipe. As seen in FIG. 18, a support system 34 comprising at least three resilient legs is secured to the outer peripheral surfaces of the casing 1 and the mixing casing 36, evenly spaced along the circumference of the casing. Each resilient leg is secured at its rear end to the rear end portion of the casing 1, while the front end thereof extends obliquely outwardly toward the front side end of the casing 1. The angle of divergence of all the resilient legs is preferably equal. In the above embodiment, the painting device K has a mixing device comprising a mixing case 36 having an inner mixing chamber 37 designed for a better mixing of the main liquid and the hardening liquid with each other. Instead of the above stated mixing device, it is also possible to use another type of mixing arrangement (not shown) comprising a flexible tube of a suitable length having stirring elements therein. In the latter case, one end of the flexible tube is connected to the inlet port of the paint passage of the casing, while the other end of the flexible tube is connected to the outlet of a tridentate coupling fed by two separate inlets. Needless to say, in this embodiment the wire rope for connecting the casing to the mixing device may be dispensed with, and the air hose of the pressurized air supplying device may be directly connected to the inlet port of the pressurized air passage of the casing. Furthermore, the pressurized air passage 3 of the casing 1 or passage 38 of the mixing case 36 of the painting device K is preferably provided with a cleaning means 81 such as an air filter. Such a cleaning means is effective not only for removing fine dust and other contaminants suspended in the pressurized air so as to protect the air motor 10 from these dusts and contaminants, but also for preventing attachment of dust and contaminants, which are carried by the air exhausted from the air motor 10, onto the unpainted inner wall of the pipe section A, thereby eliminating a cause of early peeling of the paint. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 14, the cleaning means 81 is located in the vicinity of the outlet port of the pressurized air passage 38 of the mising case. However, as was pointed out above, this is not the only possible location of the cleaning means 81, and the cleaning means 81 may instead be arranged in the pressurized air passage 3 of the casing 1, as well as at the suction side of the same. The cleaning device provided at the exhaust side would be effective to take up the oil content which has been blown off from the air motor 10, thus ensuring secure adherance of the paint onto the inner surface of the pipe section A. Reference is now made to FIGS. 11 to 13, showing the paint supply device C. The paint used in the process of the invention is a bicomponent liquidus synthetic resinous paint comprising a main paint liquid and a hardening liquid which hardens when the two liquids are mixed with each other. The main liquid and the hardening liquid are reserved in separate liquid tanks 42 and 43, respectively. The liquid tanks 42 and 43 are provided with stirring means 46 and 46', respectively. In each case the stirring means comprise a stirring blade (only blade 45 is shown) adapted to be driven by a motor (44 for tank 42 and 44' for tank 43). The main liquid and the hardening liquid are sucked from respective liquid tanks 42 and 43 by airless pumps 47 and 47', respectively and fed to respective paint supplying pipes 48 and 49 which are flexible hoses connected at their one end to the liquid tanks 42 and 43 through the airless pumps 47 and 47' and at their other ends to the painting device K. A rotary drum 50 is interposed at intermediate portions of the paint supplying pipes 48 and 49. More specifically, as shown in FIG. 13, the rotary drum 50 has a hollow shaft 51. From respective ends of the shaft 51, and extending through the latter are paint tubes 53 and 54. These paint tubes lead up to the peripheral surface of a drum body portion 52 (FIG. 12). At the same time, an air tube 55 is extended through one end of the shaft 51 and then through the latter, so as to lead up to the periphery of the drum body portion 52. The paint supply pipes 53' and 54' are connected to the paint tubes 53 and 54 which are wound around the drum body portion 52. The shaft 51 of the rotary drum 50 is rotatably supported by bearings, so that the rotary drum 50 can be freely rotated as the paint supply pipes 53' and 54' are pulled, to thereby optionally pay off the paint supply pipes 53' and 54'. The above mentioned shaft 51 is associated with a shaft 57 which is adapted to be driven by a motor 56, so as to rotate in response to the rotation of the shaft 57. This arrangement constitutes towing means T for towing the painting device K. Rotation of the rotary drum 50 caused by actuation of the motor 56 occurs in a direction which retracts or rewinds the paint supply pipes 53' and 54'. A clutch mechanism 58 interposed between the shaft 51 of the rotary drum 50 and the shaft 57 is adapted to disengage the shaft 51 from the shaft 57, when the rotary drum is rotated so as to pay off the wound supply pipes. The pressurized air supply device C comprises an air compressor 59 and an air hose 60 connected to the compressor. The air hose 60' is wound around the rotary drum 50 along its intermediate portion, as is the case of the paint supply pipes 53' and 54'. Namely, the air tube 55 in the shaft 51 of the rotary drum 50 is interposed in the intermediate portion of the air hose 60. The paint supply device J, pressurized air supplying device C and the towing device T are all mounted on a vehicle 61 (FIG. 11), for easy transportation to and installation at the destined site. In FIGS. 11 and 12, reference numerals 62 and 63 denote hoses for recirculating the main liquid and the hardening liquid for maintaining the flowing condition of these liquids even when they are not being supplied to the painting device K. As illustrated in FIG. 16, female members 71 are capable of engaging the male members 72 of joints M secured to the paint supply pipes 53' and 54'. Immediately after the completion of the painting, the painting device K is detached from the paint supply pipes 53' and 54', and the recirculation hoses 62 and 63 are connected to the paint supply pipes 53' and 54' instead. Since the recirculation hoses 62,63 are connected to the liquid tanks 42,43, the main liquid and the hardening liquid are kept in the flowing condition. The coating of the inner surface of a pipe section A is carried out by means of painting apparatus H in the following manner. At first, the painting device K is connected to the end of the wire rope which has been previously passed through the pipe section A. As the wire rope is pulled, the painting device K is brought to the other end opening of the pipe section A. The painting device K is thus placed at the other end opening of the pipe section A, with its cowling 20 directed toward the opening. Then, the wire rope is disconnected from the painting device K. Then, simultaneously with a supply of pressurized air from the pressurized air supplying device C, the main and hardening liquids are fed under pressure to the painting device K. Consequently, the main and hardening liquids are mixed with each other and sprayed from the spray nozzle 32. At the same time, the air motor 10 which is energized by the pressurized air rotates the cowling 20 at high speed. Paint sprayed from the spray nozzle is atomized through the small apertures 23 of the cowling. The centrifugal force caused by the high speed rotation of the cowling 20 scatters the paint onto the inner surface of the pipe section A. During this atomization of the paint, the painting device K is moved along the wall of the pipe section A, by means of the towing means T. As a result, the painting device K is gradually moved back to the end of the pipe section A through which it has been inserted into the pipe section A, by rewinding the paint supply pipes 53' and 54' as well as the air hose 60' by rotation of the rotary drum 50 in a direction which rewinds the pipes. The inner surface of the pipe section A is coated with the paint, in the course of the return movement of the painting device K. Thus, when the travel of the painting device K from one to the other end of the pipe section A has been completed, the entire inner surface of the pipe section A will be coated with anti-rust synthetic resinous paint. As a result of the improved coating of the inner surface of the pipe which occurs during the painting step, the repeated generation of rust, scales and the attachment of other contaminants to the inner wall of the pipe section A is prevented for a longer period, thereby extending the life of the pipe which results in substantially less maintenance and a longer useful life. These results will be of great benefit to municipalities which are routinely faced with overhauling their existing piping systems. After the coating has completely dried, the cut out pipe section A is suitably connected to the adjacent pipe section, and the bore B is refilled, to complete the renewal of the water service pipe in accordance with the method of the invention. The drying of the coating may be performed in the same way as that performed for drying the inner surface of the pipe after the rinsing step. It will be seen that, when the drying method described for the drying subsequent to the rinsing is applied to the drying of the coating, the drying time can conveniently be shortened by more than several hours. Although the method and apparatus of the invention has been described with reference to particular scrubbers, scrapers, process materials and the like, it is to be understood that the scope of the invention should not be construed as being limited only to what has been specifically disclosed. Instead, the invention is limited only by the scope of the claims.

A method of cleaning and renewing sections of pipe is disclosed wherein the flow of fluid through the pipe is shut off and a scrubbing element is inserted into one end of the pipe. The scrubbing element is advanced through the pipe while at the same time ejecting a cleaning fluid to clean the inside of the pipe section. The inner surface of the section is then scraped to remove materials adhering to the inside of the section which were not previously removed. The removed materials are then flushed from the inside of the section and the section is dried. The inside of the section is then painted by passing a painting device through the section which applies a mixture of paint and hardening liquid to the inside of the pipe. A device is also disclosed for coating the inner surface of a pipe which comprises a casing, an air motor and a cowling operatively connected to the motor for scattering coating liquid fed to the device. The apparatus may further comprise a mixing device for mixing coating liquids prior to applying them to the inner surface of the pipe.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This continuation application claims priority to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/634,698 filed 13 Sep. 2012, which claims priority to International Patent Application No. PCT/US2011/028366 filed 14 Mar. 2011, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application Nos. 61/314,044, filed 15 Mar. 2010, 61/316,277, filed 22 Mar. 2010, and 61/320,502, filed 2 Apr. 2010, all hereby incorporated by reference in each entireties. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of Invention The present invention relates to 3D glasses. The present invention also relates to the provision/distribution, ownership, collection, accounting, and management of commodities, particularly rental goods such as 3D glasses, to a venue for use and return for washing/reconditioning, etc. The invention also relates to washing glasses utilized in theater operations and in particular 3D viewing glasses including spectral separation glasses, polarized glasses, and/or shutter glasses that are re-used by theater audiences after washing. The invention is yet further related to the use of RFID integrated into 3D glasses and utilized for, for example, management, analysis, and costing practices. The present invention also relates to rental systems for glasses or other items and devices/processes utilized in or outside the rental system, such as glasses washing apparatus and particularly racks for transport, storage, distribution, and/or washing of the glasses. The invention also relates to washing glasses utilized in theater operations and in particular 3D viewing glasses including spectral separation glasses, polarized glasses, and/or shutter glasses that are re-used by theater audiences after washing. 2. Description of Related Art Theater operators showing specialized shows such as 3D cinema have provided audiences with viewing glasses for observation of special effects. In 3D cinema the 3D effect is generally caused by projecting left and right images onto a screen and utilizing glasses to “separate” the images such that the left eye only/mainly views left images and the right eye only/mainly views right images. Techniques for separation may include spectral separation (for example, each eye receives an RGB image, but left eye's RGB image is derived from different portions of the red, green, and blue spectrum compared to the right eye's RGB image). Other forms of separation include polarization (each eye receives an image of a specific polarization), and shutters for each eye that open and close when a corresponding left or right image is being displayed. Some of the glasses are inexpensive to construct (e.g., made cardboard/plastic frames and plastic/mylar lenses), and are known as disposable glasses. While the quality of the disposable glasses is sufficient to view 3D effects, they are generally not suitable for washing and/or re-use. In the best case, after use, disposable glasses are introduced into a re-cycling process, or they are discarded. Other premium viewing systems include glasses, and particularly lenses, constructed from harder materials that may be re-used in an environmentally friendly manner after washing. And, washing and re-use of glasses over time may be less expensive than distributing new disposable glasses after each viewing. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present inventors have realized the need to track and maintain records for use of commodities such as 3D glasses in a rental or other models of operation. For example, 3D glasses having an RFID tag (e.g., embedded in one or more temples) are rented to theater or other venue operators. The glasses may be shipped to a venue for distribution to patrons and collected from patrons in the trays. Inventory and other measures may be implemented by RFID scanning while the glasses are in the trays (e.g., upon delivery to a theater, on collection from the theater, upon inspection at the 3D rental company, etc). Data gathered from RFID scanning and inspections allows the rental company to properly allocate rental costs to the various venues based on shrinkage which includes, for example, extraordinary wear of the glasses, breakage, theft, etc., which is attributable and traceable to the specific venues. The theater or venue may also independently scan the trays upon delivery and pick-up to maintain their own records. In one embodiment, the present invention provides a pair of glasses configured for viewing 3D images and having an RFID tag. The glasses may further comprise an auxiliary antenna that boosts a range in which the RFID tag may be scanned. The auxiliary antenna may be part of (or integrated into) more than one frame member of the glasses. For example, the auxiliary antenna may be attached to or embedded in a temple of the glasses. The glasses may further comprise an anti-shoplifting device. The RFID tag may be embedded in a first temple of a frame of the glasses, and the anti-shoplifting device may be embedded in one of a same and/or second temple of the frame of the glasses. In other embodiments, the invention may be a system for monitoring usage of 3D rental glasses, comprising, for example, a plurality of 3D glasses each having an RFID tag, and a delivery, collection, and washing infrastructure configured to deliver the 3D glasses to a 3D venue for use by patrons of the 3D venue, collect used 3D glasses from the 3D venue, wash the 3D glasses, wherein the delivery, collection, and washing performed by the infrastructure is done with the aid of scanning the RFID tags of the glasses for inventory control and efficiency metrics. In one embodiment, the efficiency metrics includes data necessary to calculate a shrinkage factor attributable to a particular 3D venue. In another embodiment, scanning of the RFID tags occurs at least at delivery and collection of the glasses. In another embodiment, scanning of the RFID tags occurs at least at delivery, collection, and upon inspection of the glasses performed either before or after washing. In various embodiments, a shrinkage factor is billed back to the 3D venue. The shrinkage factor may be utilized to maintain a steady profit margin of a vendor implementing the system. Preferably, the system is implemented by a vendor having an existing relationship that includes delivery of goods and/or services to the 3D venue. In other embodiments, a plurality of storage and washing racks may be configured to hold at least a portion of the plurality of 3D glasses. Each of the washing and storage racks may include an RFID device associated with the rack. In various embodiments, at least one scan of the glasses comprises a scan where the RFID of the rack can be associated with each glasses pair in that rack. A 3D venue according to an embodiment of the present invention may include scanners configured to locate a pair of glasses inside the 3D venue. In various embodiments, scanning of glasses may be performed upon inspection of the glasses for quality. An electronic database may be configured to track usage, including identification of 3D venue, inspections, and employee handling of each pair of 3D glasses. The invention may also be embodied as a method, comprising the steps of, delivering a set of pairs of 3D glasses each having RFID tags to a 3D venue, electronically and wirelessly scanning RFID tags of each pair of 3D glasses delivered to the 3D venue, collecting pairs of 3D glasses from the 3D venue, wirelessly and electronically scanning RFID tags of each pair of 3D glasses collected from the 3D venue, and using the delivery and collection scans of the glasses RFID tags to determine billing for use of the 3D glasses by the 3d venue. The billing may include, for example, a standard rental rate plus a shrinkage factor attributable to the 3D venue. The present inventors have also realized the need to provide an efficient glasses rental model and for more efficient washing of glasses that are re-used in the normal course of theater operations. In one embodiment, the present invention provides a washing rack specifically adapted to securely hold stacked pairs of viewing glasses in manner that creates a hollow column of opposing pairs of viewing glasses. The columns may be oriented vertically, horizontally, or another orientation. In another embodiment, the glasses are stacked in opposition, but are offset. The washing rack may be constructed in various ways, but preferably includes support members positioned so as to allow the glasses to be stacked efficiently. In one embodiment, the support structures may include an outer frame for maintaining position of the glass frames/arms and one or more securing points to prevent movement of the glasses. In various embodiments, the washing rack performs “double duty,” operating not only as an efficient washing device, but also as a space saving storage device, and as a mechanism for distribution and/or collection of glasses to/from theater patrons. In one embodiment, the washing rack includes handles for easy transport of the washing rack to/from a washing machine and to/from storage, and to/from distribution/collection points as dictated by theater operation processes. In various embodiments, the washing rack may configured such that stacked glasses are set into the washing rack in a folded configuration (e.g., the frame arms are folded and the glasses are stacked vertically). Such a configuration allows for easier (faster) loading and unloading of the rack. In various embodiments, the washing rack includes stacking points which are guides or other support members that interlock or otherwise aid in stacking of multiple racks that are placed in a washing machine, or in a storage area. While the washing rack is suitable for use in any standard washing machine that can accept the rack's dimensions and structures, in various embodiments the washing rack may be specifically configured for one or more particular washing machines. In one embodiments, the support and securing members are positioned such that the hollow columns surrounded by opposing pairs of stacked glasses are centered over water jets and/or extending arm water sprayers that may, for example, extend up into the hollow column during a wash cycle and spray wash toward the glasses frames and lenses (cleaning the interior surfaces of the glasses). In some embodiments, such extending arm sprayers may be positioned between columns and spray in a generally opposite direction (cleaning the exterior surfaces of the glasses). The present invention includes a method of washing glasses including stacking the glasses in opposite directions. The stacking operation may include, for example, a step of engaging the frames of the glasses in a positioning and/or a securing mechanism(s) of a glasses washing rack. The position of the glasses stacks may be in relation to washing apparatus such as nozzles, spigots, and/or moving sprayers in a washing machine to which the glasses washing rack is to be installed. The method may further include the step of stacking multiple glasses washing racks in a same washing machine. The method may also include steps such as removing the stacked glasses from the glasses washing rack and distributing them to one or more theater patrons and/or collecting the glasses from a theater patron prior to stacking the glasses in the glasses washing rack. The method may further include the steps of stacking a plurality of glasses washing racks in a washing machine, engaging stacking means between the plural glasses washing racks, and removing the glasses washing racks from the washing machine and placing them in a storage area. In one embodiment, the present invention comprises a theater operation process, comprising a distribution process where glasses stored in a washing rack are distributed to theater patrons, a collection process where the glasses are collected from the theater patrons and re-loaded into the a glasses washing rack, a washing process where the re-loaded glasses washing rack is placed in a washing machine and the glasses are washed. A storage process may also be utilized to place the glasses washing rack in a storage area until needed for a subsequent theater presentation/show. Portions of both the device, method, and other embodiments may be conveniently implemented in programming on a general purpose computer, or networked computers, and the results may be displayed on an output device connected to any of the general purpose, networked computers, or transmitted to a remote device for output or display. In addition, any components of the present invention represented in a computer program, data sequences, and/or control signals may be embodied as an electronic signal broadcast (or transmitted) at any frequency in any medium including, but not limited to, wireless broadcasts, and transmissions over copper wire(s), fiber optic cable(s), and co-ax cable(s), etc. The present inventors have also realized the need to provide more efficient washing of glasses that are re-used in the normal course of theater operations. In one embodiment, the present invention provides a washing rack specifically adapted to securely hold stacked pairs of viewing glasses in manner that creates a hollow column of opposing pairs of viewing glasses. The columns may be oriented vertically, horizontally, or another orientation. In another embodiment, the glasses are stacked in opposition, but are offset. The washing rack may be constructed in various ways, but preferably includes support members positioned so as to allow the glasses to be stacked efficiently. In one embodiment, the support structures may include an outer frame for maintaining position of the glass frames/arms and one or more securing points to prevent movement of the glasses. In various embodiments, the washing rack performs “double duty,” operating not only as an efficient washing device, but also as a space saving storage device, and as a mechanism for distribution and/or collection of glasses to/from theater patrons. In one embodiment, the washing rack includes handles for easy transport of the washing rack to/from a washing machine and to/from storage, and to/from distribution/collection points as dictated by theater operation processes. In various embodiments, the washing rack includes stacking points which are guides or other support members that interlock or otherwise aid in stacking of multiple racks that are placed in a washing machine, or in a storage area. A dust cover (e.g., lightweight plastic cover or drape) may be utilized to cover the racks while in storage (e.g., between shows) or transit (e.g., from washing machine to distribution area, or during shipment such as from a commercial washing vendor to a theater or other venue) which helps prevent dust from collecting on the lenses of the glasses. While the washing rack is suitable for use in any standard washing machine that can accept the rack's dimensions and structures, in various embodiments the washing rack may be specifically configured for one or more particular washing machines. In one embodiments, the support and securing members are positioned such that the hollow columns surrounded by opposing pairs of stacked glasses are centered over water jets and/or extending arm water sprayers that may, for example, extend up into the hollow column during a wash cycle and spray wash toward the glasses frames and lenses (cleaning the interior surfaces of the glasses). In some embodiments, such extending arm sprayers may be positioned between columns and spray in a generally opposite direction (cleaning the exterior surfaces of the glasses). The present invention includes a method of washing glasses including stacking the glasses in opposite directions. The stacking operation may include, for example, a step of engaging the frames of the glasses in a positioning and/or a securing mechanism(s) of a glasses washing rack. The position of the glasses stacks may be in relation to washing apparatus such as nozzles, spigots, and/or moving sprayers in a washing machine to which the glasses washing rack is to be installed. The method may further include the step of stacking multiple glasses washing racks in a same washing machine. The method may also include steps such as removing the stacked glasses from the glasses washing rack and distributing them to one or more theater patrons and/or collecting the glasses from a theater patron prior to stacking the glasses in the glasses washing rack. The method may further include the steps of stacking a plurality of glasses washing racks in a washing machine, engaging stacking means between the plural glasses washing racks, and removing the glasses washing racks from the washing machine and placing them in a storage area. In one embodiment, the present invention comprises a theater operation process, comprising a distribution process where glasses stored in a washing rack are distributed to theater patrons, a collection process where the glasses are collected from the theater patrons and re-loaded into the a glasses washing rack, a washing process where the re-loaded glasses washing rack is placed in a washing machine and the glasses are washed. A storage process may also be utilized to place the glasses washing rack in a storage area until needed for a subsequent theater presentation/show. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS A more complete appreciation of the invention and many of the attendant advantages thereof will be readily obtained as the same becomes better understood by reference to the following detailed description when considered in connection with the accompanying drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 is a drawing of a pair of 3D glasses with a Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) tag embedded according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is an illustration of a tray containing 3D glasses and a scanning device according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3 is a flowchart of a process utilizing 3D glasses with embedded RFID tags according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 4 is a graph illustrating a cost analysis/targets for 3D glasses rental operations according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 5A-5D are multi-view drawings of 3D glasses with RFID illustrating antenna placement installation options according to embodiments of the present invention; FIG. 6 is a drawing illustrating antenna placement options according to embodiments of the present invention; FIG. 7 is a drawing of a washing/storage rack according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 8A-8C are 3 view drawings of a washing/storage rack loaded with stacked and nested 3D glasses according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 9 is a drawing of a washing/storage rack according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 10 is a drawing of a pair of stacked washing/storage racks according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 11 is a drawing of a front view of the stacked washing/storage racks of FIG. 10 according to the present invention; FIG. 12 is a drawing of a side view of the stacked washing/storage racks of FIG. 10 according to the present invention; FIG. 13 is an exemplary process for distributing, collecting, washing, and storing 3D glasses in a theater operation according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 14A-14D are drawing views of yet another washing/storage rack (tray) design according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 15A-15D are drawing views of a rack according to another embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 16A-16C are drawing views of the rack according to FIGS. 15A-15D stacked with another rack according to the present invention; FIGS. 17A-17D is a drawing of the rack according to FIGS. 15A-15D loaded with glasses according to an embodiment of the present invention. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Referring now to the drawings, wherein like reference numerals designate identical or corresponding parts, and more particularly to FIG. 1 thereof, there is illustrated a drawing of a pair of 3D glasses 100 with a Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) tag 101 embedded according to an embodiment of the present invention. The 3D glasses may be constructed such that the RFID tag 101 is maintained in a cut-out area of a left temple 104 of the glasses. The tag may be secured to the cut-out area (or, in other embodiments, other portions of the glasses, e.g., nose piece/frame 105 , right temple 108 , etc) via adhesives or other attachment mechanisms. The RFID tag may be further secured via a cover (e.g., cover 103 ), and may include a ridge (or grooves) 102 to engage either the RFID tag or matching portions of the cut-out area. In other embodiments, the RFID tag is molded directly into or on a surface of the glasses. In yet other embodiments, the RFID is attached to the exterior of the frame of the glasses. In yet further embodiments, the RFID tag constitutes a portion of the frame of the glasses (e.g., rather than being, for example, molded into a temple of the glasses, the RFID tag is the temple, or a portion of the temple, of the glasses. While RFID is specifically discussed, it should be understood that other electronic or wireless mechanisms may be substituted for the RFID tag(s) of the invention along with other related equipment (e.g., scanners) associated with the electronic and/or wireless devices so chosen. It is also assumed that the reader has a basic understanding of 3D glasses, such as 3D glasses 100 , which are utilized by theaters and other venues, and that the lenses 106 (left) and 107 (right) are specific to the type of projections utilized (e.g., polarization based, spectral separation, etc.), and the advantages (environmentally and cost savings) that occur by re-use of the glasses. Right temple 108 may also have embedded an anti-shoplifting device (e.g., a device based on acousto-magnetic technology). In one embodiment, the RFID tag and anti-shoplifting devices are combined and/or embedded in a same area of the glasses frame. As explained in more detail below, the invention, and particularly the 3D glasses with embedded RFID tag embodiment, will establish or enable one or more methods for data collection used in other aspects and/or embodiments of the invention. For example, the invention allows for embodiments that include metric collection such as customer usage data, glasses quality, date of manufacture, as well as ticketing and re-collection of glasses from theater patrons. The invention is advantageous in the Rental Model of 3D glasses in that it allows accurate measurements of usage that could enable alternate revenue generating methods including, but not limited to, exhibitor per-glasses licensing, leasing, and distribution. The rental model is explained in Healy et al., U.S. Provisional Patent application 61/316,277, entitled “METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR 3D GLASSES RENTAL SYSTEMS,” the contents of which are incorporated herein in their entirety for all purposes. Data gathered from embedded RFID tags (RFID chips) may be used to forecast replenishment stock due to deterioration of the glasses with use and washing. Data gathered may also be used to highlight theaters with abnormally high failures for follow up corrective action, including increased charges. Quality Assurance procedures or methods may use the data to address field problems, issue corrective action and recover costs from suppliers, as appropriate. FIG. 2 is an illustration of a tray 200 containing 3D glasses and a scanning device (scanner) 210 according to an embodiment of the present invention. The invention or portions thereof may be practiced on individual glasses, in a fully or partially loaded tray, boxed glasses, or glasses in bins, among other possibilities. Preferably, the scanning device is an RFID scanner and operates to takes an inventory of the glasses via acquisition of the RFID tag embedded in each pair of glasses. The scanner may be handheld or mounted in an appropriate scanning location. Multiple scanning devices may be mounted at various points in any process flow. For example, scanners may be mounted at a loading dock, a doorway, at the lift gate of a truck (or loading area of any vehicle designated to transport the trays and/or glasses), at an entrance to a washing area or washing machine, inspection area, etc. RFID tags may also be used on the trays themselves to track inventory of trays. In one embodiment, scans of glasses loaded in trays populates a database that includes a tray id (or group of tray ids) associated with each pair of glasses scanned. Data from these scans may be utilized, for example, to identify trays that might carry a higher glasses damage rate and may help identify defective trays. In addition, such scans may also be linked to employees who process or transport the trays and thereby identify employees who may need to be counseled on tray handling or other aspects of the business. FIG. 3 is a flowchart of a process 300 utilizing 3D glasses with embedded RFID tags according to an embodiment of the present invention. At step 310 , a tray of glasses (e.g., washed glasses) are scanned. The glasses are loaded into a tray that may be similar to tray 200 , but other trays and/or packaging may be utilized. The glasses are then shipped to a venue, such as a theater (step 320 ). A vendor that delivers the glasses to the theater or other venue may be a same vendor that services other items at the theater such as, for example, replenishment of refreshment supplies, a servicer of vending or gaming machines (e.g., coin-op pinball, electronic games, snacks, etc), or other such service that has an existing infrastructure for delivery to the theaters. The vendor that performs washing and accounting of the glasses may be the same as performs the shipment or make work in conjunction with the shipping vendor. After delivery, the glasses are distributed from the racks to theater patrons who then use the glasses to view a show or presentation. After use, the glasses are collected and placed back into the trays. Preferably, the glasses are collected by having the patrons put them into the trays (or collected in a bin or other collections device and then placed in the tray by a theater employee or by an employee of the vendor/service company picking up the used glasses). After loading the trays, the glasses are returned to a service depot (vendor's location) for inventory and/or testing/evaluation (e.g., steps 330 & 340 ). Inventory and notes of condition/test results are made in conjunction with a scan of the RFID tags in each pair of glasses (scan 335 ). Inventory includes determining if all of the glasses delivered to the theater were returned. Notes include indications of the type of wear or damage that may have occurred to individual or specific groups of glasses. The glasses are sent for cleaning, which may be performed, for example, by any of the processes noted in the above referenced patent application and/or Healy et al., U.S. Patent Application 61/314,044, entitled “3D GLASSES WASHING AND STORAGE RACK,” the contents of which are incorporated herein in their entirety for all purposes. If the glasses are re-usable (e.g., pass quality testing (step 350 )), they are made available for re-use. As noted in the flow chart, scanning may occur on cleaned glasses in trays (e.g., as part of step 310 ), prior to shipment. Alternatively, with appropriate data connections, scanning may occur during shipment (e.g., while in a delivery truck), at the time of delivery to theaters, or at theaters. The examples provided by process 3000 being exemplary. In addition, the process may be modified in content or order of steps, but preferably scans are made at a convenient time to assure inventory control and note shrinkage and or other QA issues that occur with any particular pair of glasses or sets of glasses. FIG. 4 is a graph illustrating a cost analysis/targets 400 for 3D glasses rental operations according to an embodiment of the present invention. For exemplary purposes, the graph shows a relatively flat Vendor Profitability, which provides a price where a vendor providing 3D glasses to theaters will remain profitable absent higher than projected (i.e., the vendor profitability point includes normal wear & tear shrinkage). As shrinkage increases, the cost of the shrinkage is billed back to the theaters that cause the shrinkage which allows the vendor to maintain the same level of profitability. The causation of the shrinkage is determined by evaluation and inventory controls set in place using the RFID scanning. Along these same lines, the process 300 may be modified to include any of the following: A vendor or partner would scan the serial number of every pair of clean 3D glasses being shipped to a theater and automatically reconcile used (dirty) 3D glasses being received back from the theater for washing. This would eliminate the need to manually count product exiting and entering the cleaning facility and would allow for automatic billing, especially for product shrinkage. Data gathered may be utilized by the vendor to predict over/under shrinkage rates thus triggering increased or decreases in orders for new glasses. Optimizing the 3D glasses supply chain. Data gathered may be used for information gathering on the 3D glasses usage by theater, theater chain, region, state, city, country, geographical region, etc. This information could highlight areas where shrinkage is particularly high or low and allow the vendor to dynamically adjust prices to ensure profitability and competitive edge. It would also provide the vendor an opportunity to target installations with marketing campaigns to lower shrinkage (utilizing an environmental story for example) if shrinkage rates were impacting our business. Data gathered may also be used to predict usage patterns for movies from particular directors, studios or distributors, and account for the effects of seasons or weather, thus assisting the Operations team in planning up coming events, such as some of the recent block buster 3D titles. Data gathered may also be used to support a business model where a vendor or partner provides a sliding cost scale for theaters, by automatically rewarding theaters with low shrinkage and billing those with high shrinkage—see FIG. 4 , for example. In one embodiment higher shrinkage theaters would pay more per pair of glasses rented. In another embodiment a higher price is paid by each theater with a rebate given back to the theaters that increases with lower shrinkage. There is also an inherent incentive for each theater manager to keep shrinkage low. As theaters roll up their 3D rental finance numbers to their corporate office, theaters with high shrinkage would have higher operating costs which may trigger their corporate office to investigate, setting internal theater targets for their managers. This would benefit the vendor through lower stock replenishment rates. This would be an automated process for the vendor or partner, keeping costs down, and minimizing inventory Linear equations may be utilized to determine shrinkage costs per theater. For example, the formula: Y− (0.1) X= 0.60; where Y=theater cost, and X=shrinkage rate may be used for a minimum profit margin of $0.60. For example, a theater cost of $0.60 occurs with zero shrinkage, and a theater cost of $0.85 occurs if shrinkage is 25%. Actual numbers for minimal profit margin and cost of shrinkage may take any form and may be adjusted based on different designs and quality of the glasses, washing equipment, chemicals, etc. Rather than calculating profit, the data gathered may also be use to reduce inventory levels to the minimum required for full service to theaters under contract for rental glasses. The entire process and results of the invention helps maintain a positive environmental effect over disposable glasses by lowering the number of glasses needed to a minimum, thus reducing manufacturing, transportation, lower damage means less glasses going to landfill. There are inexpensive scanners on the market today that can scan approx 800 RFID tags in about 2-3 seconds. This could be an in-line incoming and outgoing process. Data gather could also be used to identify anomalies in product performance. For example, if the data showed an abnormally high failure rate in the field, say 3D glasses frames were braking, we could correlate 3D glasses serial numbers and potentially identify a quality or reliability issue with a batch and look to recover cost from the 3D glasses manufacturer. Functionalities could be added to help improving theater management. For example, collecting data on actual occupied seats per screen at a multi-screen theater or issuing monetary credits to the 3D glasses so that it could be used by patrons to purchase concessions before, during and after each show. FIGS. 5A-5D are multi-view drawings of 3D glasses with RFID illustrating antenna placement installation options according to embodiments of the present invention. For example, possible antenna surfaces include either left or right temples, and lens frames. FIG. 6 is a drawing illustrating antenna design options according to embodiments of the present invention. Antenna placement could be in any of the noted locations or any combination of locations, including a same location as where the RFID chip is embedded, or the location of RFID embedding and another frame member of the glasses, or all frame members of the glasses. Preferable locations include the right temple (e.g., see conductor 630 on right temple or frame), lens frames (e.g., see conductor 630 imbedded/insert molded (for example) in glasses frame), and left temple (e.g., see conductor 640 which could be part of left temple). For antenna conductors that may straddle frame parts, a conductive hinge between the frame parts may also form part of the conductor (e.g., a hinge between a temple part of the frame and lens area of the frame may be utilized to connect conductors in the temple with conductors in the lens area of the frame). Regardless of location, the antenna/conductor interfaces or provides for the transmission of signals to/from RFID chip 610 . In one embodiment the conductor, or antenna, has greater gain than normally utilized with RFID or similar wireless devices, extending the range at which glasses may be scanned. Such an improvement may be utilized to allow tracking of glasses within a theater, or other use monitoring. In one embodiment, scanners in the theater may locate general seating locations (or exact depending on accuracy). In the event complaints are received on viewing quality, the patrons seating location along with the glasses utilized may be logged and utilized for follow-up review related to either the glasses or other theater operations. Although the present invention has been described herein with reference to 3D glasses and particularly a rental model for 3D glasses, the devices and processes of the present invention may be applied to other rentable items having similar qualities. In describing preferred embodiments of the present invention illustrated in the drawings, specific terminology is employed for the sake of clarity. However, the present invention is not intended to be limited to the specific terminology so selected, and it is to be understood that each specific element includes all technical equivalents which operate in a similar manner. For example, when describing an RFID tag, any other equivalent device, such as a wireless ID transmitter, or other device having an equivalent function or capability, whether or not listed herein, may be substituted therewith. Furthermore, the inventors recognize that newly developed technologies not now known may also be substituted for the described parts and still not depart from the scope of the present invention. All other described items, including, but not limited to RFIDs, scanners, anti-shoplifting devices, trays, delivery methods, accounting methods or practices, other rental models, etc should also be considered in light of any and all available equivalents. Portions of the present invention may be conveniently implemented using a conventional general purpose or a specialized digital computer or microprocessor programmed according to the teachings of the present disclosure, as will be apparent to those skilled in the computer art. Appropriate software coding can readily be prepared by skilled programmers based on the teachings of the present disclosure, as will be apparent to those skilled in the software art. The invention may also be implemented by the preparation of application specific integrated circuits or by interconnecting an appropriate network of conventional component circuits, as will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art based on the present disclosure. The present invention includes a computer program product which is a storage medium (media) having instructions stored thereon/in which can be used to control, or cause, a computer to perform any of the processes of the present invention. The storage medium can include, but is not limited to, any type of disk including floppy disks, mini disks (MD's), optical discs, DVD, HD-DVD, Blue-ray, CD-ROMS, CD or DVD RW+/−, micro-drive, and magneto-optical disks, ROMs, RAMs, EPROMs, EEPROMs, DRAMs, VRAMs, flash memory devices (including flash cards, memory sticks), magnetic or optical cards, SIM cards, MEMS, nanosystems (including molecular memory ICs), RAID devices, remote data storage/archive/warehousing, or any type of media or device suitable for storing instructions and/or data. Stored on any one of the computer readable medium (media), the present invention includes software for controlling both the hardware of the general purpose/specialized computer or microprocessor, and for enabling the computer or microprocessor to interact with a human user or other mechanism utilizing the results of the present invention. Such software may include, but is not limited to, device drivers, operating systems, and user applications. Ultimately, such computer readable media further includes software for performing the present invention, as described above. Included in the programming (software) of the general/specialized computer or microprocessor are software modules for implementing the teachings of the present invention, including, but not limited to, capturing IDs of devices for inventory, capturing and placing data related to 3D glasses, trays, and usage thereof in a database and analyzing the data to identify usage trends, shrinkage, and other data related to the efficiency or quality of the devices, particularly as it relates to 3D glasses and their quality for 3D viewing and continued re-use, and the display, storage, or communication of results according to the processes of the present invention. The present invention may suitably comprise, consist of, or consist essentially of, any of element (the various parts or features of the invention and their equivalents as described herein). Further, the present invention illustratively disclosed herein may be practiced in the absence of any element, whether or not specifically disclosed herein. Obviously, numerous modifications and variations of the present invention are possible in light of the above teachings. It is therefore to be understood that within the scope of claims to be included in a subsequently filed utility patent application, the invention may be practiced otherwise than as specifically described herein. Referring again to the drawings, and more particularly to FIG. 7 thereof, there is illustrated a glasses storage and washing rack B 100 according to an embodiment of the present invention. The storage and washing rack B 100 includes features that enable more efficient washing, drying, storage, distribution, and collection of glasses. The storage and washing rack includes mechanisms to hold glasses in place via a tray slide-on/slide-off design. Preferably, the glasses stacked and nested into each other increasing the number of glasses per tray over existing glass washing trays. The glasses are held vertically in position to maximize both washing and drying capability and are positioned so that excess water is easily wiped away (either manually or via automated mechanisms). An interlocking design for washing and stacking of trays is also provided. Part number B 110 (1) name: handles, left (B 110 A) and right (B 110 B) (2) function: (a) to hand carry the rack; (b) to lock the upper rack in position horizontally and vertically for stacking (in conjunction with the two bottom parallel welded support rods—B 111 A, B 111 B). (3) structural description: ¼″ diameter stainless steel rod formed into a left and right handle as part of a frame which supports two formed ¼″ diameter stainless steel welded support rods on the bottom parallel to the handles (B 111 A, B 111 B) and two formed ¼″ diameter stainless steel welded support rods on top perpendicular to the handles (B 115 A, B 115 B). (4) Other devices that may be utilized: This rack is designed to work with a commercial dishwasher with an automatic detergent, rinse agent and sanitizer dispenser and an in-line water heater. Part number B 112 A, B 112 B, B 113 A, B 114 B (1) name: glasses stack support rod. (2) function: (a) to position and support the individual stacks of glasses and welded glasses positioning structures (B 114 , B 116 ). (b) to position and support three stacks of glasses welded in position as a subassembly onto the rack frame. Two subassemblies are welded to the frame (left subassembly: B 112 A, B 112 B, right subassembly B 113 A, B 113 B) as shown parallel to the handles (B 110 A, B 110 B). (3) structural description: straight ¼″ diameter stainless steel rods 19.5″ long. Part number B 114 A, B 114 B is a glasses stack temple support frame. The glasses temple support frame positions the glasses in the stack by holding a part of the frames (e.g., the temple area, inside frame front where temples connect to frame front, or other locations) of the glasses in conjunction with the nose support rods (B 116 A, B 116 B). Each glasses stack has a left (B 114 A- 116 A) and right (B 114 B- 116 B) side where glasses are interleaved as they are stacked. The glasses temple support frame may provide support for another rack stacked on top by creating a support frame perpendicular to the nose support rod of the rack stacked on top of the support frame which prevents the stacked rack from touching or damaging the stack of glasses below the support frame. The glasses temple support frame may be constructed, for example, as a frame welded from 3/16″ diameter stainless steel rod formed to provide a left and right glasses stack support structure with a left and right side. Part number B 116 A, B 116 B illustrate glasses stack nose support rods. The nose support rods position the glasses in the stack by holding the nose area of the glasses in conjunction with the temple support frame (B 114 A, B 114 B) and support a rack when stacked on top of another rack for washing, drying, storage, etc. by providing a support rod perpendicular to the temple support frame (B 114 A, B 114 B) of the lower rack. Each rack may have, for example, as illustrated, 12 support points (2 per each glasses stack temple support frame). The nose support rods may be formed from ½″ diameter stainless steel rod welded in position onto the glasses stack support rods, in, for example, 3 places per subassembly (left B 112 A, B 112 B and right B 113 A, B 113 B) for a total of 6 per rack. When welded into position, the glasses stack nose support rod provides approximately a ½″ gap between the nose support rod and the temple support frame on each side which allows loading and stacking of the glasses. The sizing of the gap may vary, for example, depending on a design of the glasses. Among the other advantages and features described herein, the present invention provides for more efficient operation of theaters equipped with re-usable glasses that are washed between uses. Various embodiments provide for a reduced number of trays needed per theater deployment and a lower initial investment cost for the theatres. Increased storage and washing capacities (e.g., by increasing the number of 3D glasses that can be held per tray and thereby increases the number of glasses washed per cycle). The invention is environmentally more friendly that current systems by using less energy, less chemicals, less water, less employee time needed for washing (the invention is easier to load and unload compared to existing systems). The invention reduces the amount of storage area that is needed between movies. The invention is more efficient and does a better job of washing than current systems. By maintaining the glass lenses in a vertically oriented position, less spotting occurs from washing operations. Removal of excess water is facilitated not only by maintaining the glasses oriented for easy wiping, but also the glasses are held securely allowing employees to shake the trays to dislodge larger amounts of residual water and then wipe down if/as necessary. Manufacturing of the invention is also environmentally friendly compared to existing systems, as the trays according to the present invention require less welding, less grinding, less materials (e.g., steel wire), and that less trays are needed, less shipping and packaging to fully equip a theater (or an outsource washing company). FIGS. 8A-8C are 3 view drawings of a washing/storage rack loaded with stacked and nested 3D glasses according to an embodiment of the present invention. A top view B 210 illustrates the glasses held vertically and stacked into columns. Each pair of glasses is held between a nose support and temple support member. In each column, a first stack of glasses is held by a first set of nose and temple support members and a second stack of glasses are held by a second set of nose and temple support members for each column. The first and second stacks of glasses are held facing opposite directions forming the illustrated columns. Front view B 220 illustrates one side of three different columns. The lenses of each column are held vertically (improving run-off which reduces spotting and improving access and efficiency of any wide drying that may be necessary or desirable while the glasses are in the rack). Side view B 230 illustrates nesting and interlocking that also improves the efficiency of the rack according to the present invention. The frames of the glasses are nested as the temples of one stack fit within the temples of another stack. The frames of the glasses are interlocked as the temples of one frame fit inside the temples of a second frame whose temples fit inside the first frame. Such interlocking is further facilitated by interlocking at a curvature of the glass frames temples. FIG. 9 is a drawing of a washing/storage rack according to another embodiment of the present invention. In this embodiment the nose frame members are a single wire having a bend which facilitates fitting the glasses into the gap between the nose frame member and temple frame support member. The temple support member B 314 may specified, for example, as ø4.76 [0.19] SS304 6-PL WELDED 30-PL. Handle B 315 may be more sturdily constructed by, for example, as ø6.35 [0.25] SS304 15-PL WELDED 29 PL. FIG. 10 is a drawing of a pair of stacked washing/storage racks according to an embodiment of the present invention. In this manner, the racks/trays provide a highly efficient storage system whose capacity is easily varied by adding or removing racks. The efficiency of the stacked racks is also utilized in washing machine where the stacks are simply stacked as loaded into the machine or washing conveyor, or may be pre-stacked and loaded as a unit of N racks at the same time. FIG. 11 is a drawing of a front view of the stacked washing/storage racks of FIG. 10 according to the present invention. Each washing/storage rack (or tray) has handles B 510 and support rails B 511 . As shown, the handles B 510 of the bottom tray interlock with support rails B 511 of the upper tray. Interlocking of the racks provides support and security when the trays are stacked in storage, when washing, during shipment or other transport, and/or when distributing/collecting glasses. Other configuration including special additional parts may be utilized to facilitate interlocking of the trays, but preferably the interlocking is accomplished through the orientation of existing frame members, as shown here in exemplary form, to reduce parts and complexity. FIG. 12 provides a side view of the stacked washing/storage racks of FIG. 10 according to the present invention. FIG. 13 is an exemplary process for distributing, collecting, washing, and storing 3D glasses in a theater operation according to an embodiment of the present invention. The process can be a continuous loop. At step B 710 Distribute Glasses From Washing/Storage Rack(s), glasses in a washing/storage rack are distributed to patrons/customers of, for example, a 3D theater. The glasses in the rack may be positioned, for example, behind a sales counter of the theater or at a distribution/collection point in/near the theater. At step B 720 , the theater patron utilizes the glasses to watch a feature film or other presentation. Other than theaters and feature films, the system may also be implemented for teleconferencing, viewing remote unmanned activities (planet or space exploration, UAVs, etc), or other activities, sporting events in large stadiums with screens capable of displaying 3D (e.g. NFL's new Dallas Cowboys stadium) or NBA's newer arenas, airliners equipped with appropriate displays, or other activities. At step B 730 , the theater patrons (or other user) return the glasses to a collection point where they are loaded into a washing/storage rack. The glasses remain in the washing storage rack through transport, washing, drying, and/or storage until re-utilized as needed (e.g., steps B 740 -B 770 , leading back to distribution, step B 710 ). The washing, drying, and/or storage necessary may be implemented entirely within the theater or other activity operations. Alternatively, washing of the glasses may be performed by an outside contractor that either picks up glasses or receives them via shipment (e.g., FED-EX/UPS, etc.). The glasses remain in the storage/washing rack throughout shipment, washing, and re-delivery (as needed) to the theater or other activities operation. Storing the glasses may be transitory storage such as, for example, storage between shows or waiting for washing, and/or longer term storage at a theater or in a warehouse (e.g., washing contractors warehouse, wholesale distribution warehouse, vendor's showroom or stockroom, etc.). In yet another embodiment, the glasses are provided to the theater/venue on a rental model where, for example, the glasses are not owned by the venue, but are rented as needed. The rental model could, for example, follow a similar process flow as illustrated by FIG. 13 but the theater/venue would pay per use/wash of the glasses. In such a model, the theater would not have the expense of purchasing the glasses. In the various rental, contractor, and/or theater operations models, the glasses remain in the storage/washing rack throughout shipment, washing, and re-delivery (as needed) to the theater or other activities operation. Storing the glasses may be transitory storage such as, for example, storage between shows or waiting for washing, and/or longer term storage at a theater or in a warehouse (e.g., washing contractors warehouse, wholesale distribution warehouse, vendor's showroom or stockroom, etc.). FIGS. 14A-14D are drawing views of yet another washing/storage rack (tray) design according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIGS. 15A-15D are drawing views of a rack B 900 according to another embodiment of the present invention, including the perspective view, a side view B 910 , a front view B 920 , and a top view B 930 . The support members for holding glasses are arranged so that the glasses are stacked vertically in a folded position. The support members are arranged such that the stacks of glasses are close together. As shown, a nose support rod and a temple support frame are utilized for each stack. This embodiment has advantages in packing and distribution in that the frame arms are not interlocked which allows for more efficient packing and potentially distribution. In one embodiment, the rental model is implemented by an existing theater service organization (e.g., popcorn, candy, film distribution entities) that currently have storage and transportation networks to theaters and would be ideally positioned to pick up and carry a glasses rental model or business plan. This embodiment is also better suited for contractor and rental models according to the present invention. FIGS. 16A-16C are drawing views of the rack according to FIGS. 15A-15D stacked with another rack according to the present invention. As shown in a perspective view B 1000 , side view B 1010 and front view B 1020 , a top portion of a first frame of a rack fits or interlocks with a bottom portion of another similar rack. FIGS. 17A-17D are drawing views of the rack according to FIGS. 15A-15D loaded with glasses as would be utilized in a 3D rental model or other embodiments of the present invention. A perspective view B 1100 , side view B 1110 , top view B 1115 , and a front view B 1120 illustrate the placement of stacked folded glasses (e.g., stacked folded glasses column B 1105 ). The lenses of the folded glasses are vertically oriented. The washing storage racks provided as described herein and their equivalents have many advantages. Among others, the rack design allows the glasses frames to overlap for space efficient packing which allows high density and efficient washing, drying and storage. The rack design may also be more packing and distribution friendly, for example, by stacking the glasses in a folded position. The rack is stackable for efficient washing, drying and storage. The rack design allows nearly vertical orientation of the lenses for efficient washing and drying which also helps to prevent spotting while drying. The rack design allows for shaking water off after washing which improves drying time and further reduces spotting during drying. The rack design allows space between both sides of lenses for air flow to improve drying time with natural ventilation, forced air or cloth dry. The rack and stacked racks are ergonomically designed for loading and handling a maximum number of glasses while maintaining a safe load (in some embodiments, 2 stacked racks are less than 40 lbs which is the maximum load for a commercial dishwasher). The rack design provides a minimal OSHA Horizontal Measurement, and Asymmetric Angle when calculating the OSHA Recommended Weight Limit (RWL) for loading a commercial dishwasher. The rack and stacked rack design also help reduce the OSHA Lifting Frequency factor by allowing a maximum number of glasses to be washed per cycle, thereby reducing the frequency of lifts per minute required between 3D movie presentations. Weight of the racks may be reduced by reducing the gauge of the materials from which the racks are constructed. However, for strength, the outer frame should preferably maintained at a gauge sufficient to handle both picking up two fully loaded racks and sufficient to protect the glasses loaded into the frames during shipment (e.g., cargo shifts and/or dropping during shipment) or when stacked for storage (e.g., ¼″ stainless steel wire). The internal and/or cross-members of the racks make better candidates for smaller gauge weight saving design modifications (e.g., 3/16″ stainless steel wire). Such weight savings are realized, for example, in FIGS. 14 and 15 which illustrate selected components produced from materials of a reduced gauge. The same may be provided in other embodiments described herein and their equivalents. Accordingly, the invention may be embodied in any of the forms described herein, including, but not limited to the following B Series Enumerated Example Embodiments (BEEEs) which describe structure, features, and functionality of some portions of the present invention: BEEE0. A 3D glasses rental model incorporating a glasses washing rack utilized in a theater operation having at least one set of glasses worn by the public on different occasions wherein the glasses washing rack is configured to maintain glasses in a stacked formation in the glasses washing rack while installed and being washed in a washing machine. BEEE1. A glasses washing rack utilized in a theater operation having at least one set of glasses worn by the public on different occasions wherein the glasses washing rack is configured to maintain glasses in a stacked formation in the glasses washing rack while installed and being washed in a washing machine. BEEE2. The glasses washing rack according to BEEE1, wherein the glasses are 3D viewing glasses utilized by a digital cinema theater. BEEE3. The glasses washing rack according to BEEE1, wherein the glasses washing rack is utilized in a process at a cinema theater where glasses are distributed from the rack and collected and stored in the rack where they remain through transport, washing, and storage until needed for re-distribution. BEEE4. The glasses washing rack according to BEEE3, wherein washing in the process is performed by a contractor that services the cinema theater. BEEE5. A glasses washing and storage tray, comprising: a frame; and a first set of support members attached to the frame and configured hold a plurality of glasses on top of each other in a stack. BEEE6. The method according to BEEE5, wherein the rack is designed to allow frames of the glasses to overlap for efficient packing and high density washing, drying, and storage, provide a nearly vertical orientation of the lenses for efficient washing, drying, and spot prevention, secure the glasses so as to allow for shaking water off after washing, provide space between both sides of lenses for air flow to improve drying time with natural ventilation, forced air, and/or cloth dry, provide ergonomically oriented features for loading and handling a maximum number of glasses while maintaining a safe OSHA approved load and rack dimensions. BEEE7. The glasses washing and storage tray according to BEEE5, wherein the first set of support members comprises a first support member positioned to be on an outside of a pair of glasses when installed in the washing and storage tray, and a second support member positioned to be on an inside of the pair of glasses when installed in the washing and storage tray. BEEE8. The glasses washing and storage tray according to BEEE7, wherein the first support member comprises at least one vertical bar configured to contact an outside portion of a frame of a pair of glasses when installed in the washing and storage tray. BEEE9. The glasses according to BEEE8, wherein the second support member comprises at least one vertical bar configured to contact an inside portion of a frame of the pair of glasses when installed in the washing and storage tray. BEEE10. The glasses washing and storage tray according to BEEE9, wherein the outside portion of the frame comprises a nose piece or bridge of the glasses, and the inside portion of the frame comprises at least one of a temple and front frame portion of the glasses. BEEE11. The glasses according to BEEE9, wherein the second support member comprises a left vertical post configured to contact a left side of the glasses when installed and a right vertical post configured to contact a right side of the glasses when installed. BEEE12. The glasses according to BEEE9, wherein the first support member and the second support member form a gap configured to secure glasses when installed in the tray. BEEE13. The glasses according to BEEE12, wherein glasses, when installed in the tray, are stacked on top of each other and secured between the same first and second support members. BEEE14. The glasses according to BEEE13, further comprising a second set of first and second support members positioned in the tray such that when additional glasses are installed in the tray, the installed glasses on the first set of support members and the second set of support members are nested and form a hollow column. BEEE15. The glasses washing and storage tray according to BEEE14, wherein temple portions of the installed glasses are interlocked. BEEE16. A method of 3D glasses management, comprising the steps of: installing a set of 3D glasses in a rack wherein the glasses are stacked on top of each other with lenses of the glasses held vertically in a plurality of stacks; transporting and storing the set of 3D glasses while installed in the rack; and washing the set of 3D glasses while installed in the rack. BEEE17. The method according to BEEE16, wherein the plurality of stacks are arranged in pairs of stacks with glasses in a first stack of the paired stacks facing a first direction and nested with a second stack of the paired stacks facing a second direction and pairs of glasses in the first stack are interlocked with pairs of glasses in the second stack. BEEE18. The method according to BEEE16, wherein the step of washing is performed by a contractor offsite of a venue that utilizes the glasses. BEEE19. The method according to BEEE16, wherein the glasses are intended to remain in the rack at all times except when distributed to a user. BEEE20. A business architecture, comprising: a retrieval component comprising a methodology for retrieving glasses from a 3D venue; a washing component comprising a large scale washing device for loading glasses and washing and sterilizing the glasses; and a delivery component comprising a delivery of washed glasses to a 3D venue. BEEE21. The business architecture according to BEEE20, wherein the retrieval, washing, and delivery components are all performed while the glasses are loaded into a washing/storage rack. BEEE22. The business architecture according to BEEE18, wherein the washing/storage rack comprises frame members positioned to secure the glasses in a plurality of nested interlocked stacks. BEEE23. The business architecture according to BEEE18, wherein the washing/storage rack comprises frame members positioned to secure the glasses in a plurality of non-nested, non-interlocked stacks each pair of glasses folded with lenses held in vertical orientation. BEEE23. The business architecture according to BEEE18, wherein the washing/storage rack comprises frame members positioned to secure the glasses in a plurality of non-nested, non-interlocked stacks each pair of glasses folded with lenses held in vertical orientation, wherein internal components of the rack are constructed of smaller gauge material compared to main frame members of the rack. In various embodiments, the washing rack configurations described herein may be utilized, amongst other possibilities, in theater/3D venue operations, by a contractor servicing a theater/3D venue, and/or in a rental model where a theater/3D venue rents glasses (e.g., on a per use basis). Thus, the present invention provides a method, device, business architectures and more for stacking, securing, storing, and glasses, and particularly 3D glasses. The invention saves cost and is greener than current washing racks in that the efficiency of washing, amount of glasses washed per load etc. are increased reducing energy costs, the new racks are easier to load increasing employee efficiency, and the racks are less costly to manufacture. Accordingly, the invention has excellent utilitarian value for 3D cinema operators who seek to increase efficiency and reduce costs. The rack provides space for mounting glasses nested in opposite directions and stacked in a rack that is secure, and the racks themselves are stackable. In describing preferred and exemplary embodiments of the present invention as may also be illustrated in the drawings, specific terminology is employed for the sake of clarity. However, the present invention is not intended to be limited to the specific terminology so selected, and it is to be understood that each specific element includes all technical equivalents which operate in a similar manner. For example, when describing a frame member, any other equivalent device, such as an arm, extension, brace, bar, or other device having an equivalent function or capability, whether or not listed herein, may be substituted therewith. Furthermore, the inventors recognize that newly developed technologies not now known may also be substituted for the described parts and still not depart from the scope of the present invention. All other described items, including, but not limited to trays, interlocking mechanisms, nesting, tray stacking, process operations including any of distribution, collection, washing, transport and/or storage of glasses and racks, etc should also be considered in light of any and all available equivalents. The present invention may suitably comprise, consist of, or consist essentially of, any of element (the various parts or features of the invention, and their equivalents as described herein. Further, the present invention illustratively disclosed herein may be practiced in the absence of any element, whether or not specifically disclosed herein. Obviously, numerous modifications and variations of the present invention are possible in light of the above teachings. And again, it is therefore to be understood that within the scope of the appended claims, the invention may be practiced otherwise than as specifically described herein. The present invention includes a business model or architecture that includes a retrieval component for retrieving glasses from a 3D venue, a washing component comprising a large scale washing device for loading glasses and washing and sterilizing the glasses, and a delivery component comprising a delivery of washed glasses to a 3D venue. The business model may be based on a rental arrangement wherein the glasses are owned by a rental company and rented to the 3D venue. The retrieving, washing, and delivery components may be, for example, handled entirely by the rental or leasing company which then bills the venue based on how many pairs of glasses are utilized. As noted above, a dust cover may be utilized to help prevent dust from collecting on lenses of the glasses while stored (or during transport) in the racks. The rack is also useful as part of a shipping system with boxes and/or containers, where the racks securely hold glasses and are stacked inside a shipping box and/or loaded into a container. Such shipping may be, for example, the shipment of new glasses from manufacturing to a distributor or venue, and/or shipment between remote washing facilities and a venue. In one embodiment, the glasses are shipped in stacked racks that may be individually dust covered (or covered as a group) and loaded into re-useable shipping boxes. The shipping boxes may then be loaded into a container, trucks or other transport mechanisms. Preferably, the shipping boxes contain support mechanisms positioned to directly abut and support the larger (and stronger) frame members of the racks. Accordingly, the invention may be embodied in any of the forms described herein, including, but not limited to the following C series Enumerated Example Embodiments (CEEEs) which describe structure, features, and functionality of some portions of the present invention: CEEE1. A glasses washing rack utilized in a theater operation having at least one set of glasses worn by the public on different occasions wherein the glasses washing rack is configured to maintain glasses in a stacked formation in the glasses washing rack while installed and being washed in a washing machine. CEEE2. The glasses washing rack according to CEEE1, wherein the glasses are 3D viewing glasses utilized by a digital cinema theater. CEEE3. The glasses washing rack according to CEEE1, wherein the glasses washing rack is utilized in a process at a cinema theater where glasses are distributed from the rack and collected and stored in the rack where they remain through transport, washing, and storage until needed for re-distribution. CEEE4. The glasses washing rack according to CEEE3, wherein washing in the process is performed by a contractor that services the cinema theater. CEEE5. A glasses washing and storage tray, comprising: a frame; and a first set of support members attached to the frame and configured hold a plurality of glasses on top of each other in a stack. CEEE6. The method according to CEEE5, wherein the rack is designed to allow frames of the glasses to overlap for efficient packing and high density washing, drying, and storage, provide a nearly vertical orientation of the lenses for efficient washing, drying, and spot prevention, secure the glasses so as to allow for shaking water off after washing, provide space between both sides of lenses for air flow to improve drying time with natural ventilation, forced air, and/or cloth dry, provide ergonomically oriented features for loading and handling a maximum number of glasses while maintaining a safe OSHA approved load and rack dimensions. CEEE7. The glasses washing and storage tray according to CEEE5, wherein the first set of support members comprises a first support member positioned to be on an outside of a pair of glasses when installed in the washing and storage tray, and a second support member positioned to be on an inside of the pair of glasses when installed in the washing and storage tray. CEEE8. The glasses washing and storage tray according to CEEE7, wherein the first support member comprises at least one vertical bar configured to contact an outside portion of a frame of a pair of glasses when installed in the washing and storage tray. CEEE9. The glasses according to CEEE8, wherein the second support member comprises at least one vertical bar configured to contact an inside portion of a frame of the pair of glasses when installed in the washing and storage tray. CEEE10. The glasses washing and storage tray according to CEEE9, wherein the outside portion of the frame comprises a nose piece or bridge of the glasses, and the inside portion of the frame comprises at least one of a temple and front frame portion of the glasses. CEEE11. The glasses according to CEEE9, wherein the second support member comprises a left vertical post configured to contact a left side of the glasses when installed and a right vertical post configured to contact a right side of the glasses when installed. CEEE12. The glasses according to CEEE9, wherein the first support member and the second support member form a gap configured to secure glasses when installed in the tray. CEEE13. The glasses according to CEEE12, wherein glasses, when installed in the tray, are stacked on top of each other and secured between the same first and second support members. CEEE14. The glasses according to CEEE13, further comprising a second set of first and second support members positioned in the tray such that when additional glasses are installed in the tray, the installed glasses on the first set of support members and the second set of support members are nested and form a hollow column. CEEE15. The glasses washing and storage tray according to CEEE14, wherein temple portions of the installed glasses are interlocked. CEEE16. A method of 3D glasses management, comprising the steps of: installing a set of 3D glasses in a rack wherein the glasses are stacked on top of each other with lenses of the glasses held vertically in a plurality of stacks; transporting and storing the set of 3D glasses while installed in the rack; and washing the set of 3D glasses while installed in the rack. CEEE17. The method according to CEEE16, wherein the plurality of stacks are arranged in pairs of stacks with glasses in a first stack of the paired stacks facing a first direction and nested with a second stack of the paired stacks facing a second direction and pairs of glasses in the first stack are interlocked with pairs of glasses in the second stack. CEEE18. The method according to CEEE16, wherein the step of washing is performed by a contractor offsite of a venue that utilizes the glasses. CEEE19. The method according to CEEE16, wherein the glasses are intended to remain in the rack at all times except when distributed to a user. CEEE20. A business architecture, comprising: a retrieval component comprising a methodology for retrieving glasses from a 3D venue; a washing component comprising a large scale washing device for loading glasses and washing and sterilizing the glasses; and a delivery component comprising a delivery of washed glasses to a 3D venue. CEEE21. The business architecture according to CEEE20, wherein the retrieval, washing, and delivery components are all performed while the glasses are loaded into a washing/storage rack. CEEE22. The business architecture according to CEEE18, wherein the washing/storage rack comprises frame members positioned to secure the glasses in a plurality of nested interlocked stacks. Thus, the present invention provides a method, device, business architectures and more for stacking, securing, storing, and glasses, and particularly 3D glasses. The invention saves cost and is greener than current washing racks in that the efficiency of washing, amount of glasses washed per load etc. are increased reducing energy costs, the new racks are easier to load increasing employee efficiency, and the racks are less costly to manufacture. Accordingly, the invention has excellent utilitarian value for 3D cinema operators who seek to increase efficiency and reduce costs. The rack provides space for mounting glasses nested in opposite directions and stacked in a rack that is secure, and the racks themselves are stackable. In describing preferred and exemplary embodiments of the present invention as may also be illustrated in the drawings, specific terminology is employed for the sake of clarity. However, the present invention is not intended to be limited to the specific terminology so selected, and it is to be understood that each specific element includes all technical equivalents which operate in a similar manner. For example, when describing a frame member, any other equivalent device, such as an arm, extension, brace, bar, or other device having an equivalent function or capability, whether or not listed herein, may be substituted therewith. Furthermore, the inventors recognize that newly developed technologies not now known may also be substituted for the described parts and still not depart from the scope of the present invention. All other described items, including, but not limited to trays, interlocking mechanisms, nesting, tray stacking, process operations including any of distribution, collection, washing, transport and/or storage of glasses and racks, etc should also be considered in light of any and all available equivalents. The present invention may suitably comprise, consist of, or consist essentially of, any element (the various parts or features of the invention, and their equivalents as described herein). Further, the present invention illustratively disclosed herein may be practiced in the absence of any element, whether or not specifically disclosed herein. Obviously, numerous modifications and variations of the present invention are possible in light of the above teachings. It is therefore to be understood that within the scope of the appended claims, the invention may be practiced otherwise than as specifically described herein.

3D glasses having an RFID tag (embedded in one or more temples) are rented to theater or other venue operators. The glasses are shipped to a venue for distribution to patrons and collected from patrons in the trays. Inventory and other measures are implemented by RFID scanning while the glasses are in the trays (e.g., upon delivery to a theater, on collection from the theater, upon inspection at the 3D rental company, etc). Data gathered from RFID scanning and inspections allows the rental company to properly allocate rental costs to various venues based on shrinkage which includes, for example, extraordinary wear of the glasses, breakage or theft, which is attributable and traceable to the specific venues. The theater or venue may also independently scan the trays upon delivery and pick-up to maintain their own records. The invention includes 3D glasses with RFID, a washing rack, and rental systems.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to the deposition of a thin film and specifically to semiconductor thin film processing. Deposition is one of the basic fabrication processes of modern semiconductor device structures. Deposition techniques includes Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD, or sputtering), and Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) and numerous variations of CVD such as pulsed CVD, sequential CVD or Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD). PVD process uses a high vacuum apparatus and generated plasma that sputters atoms or clusters of atoms toward the surface of the wafer substrates. PVD is a line of sight deposition process that is more difficult to achieve conform film deposition over complex topography such as deposition of a thin and uniform liner or barrier layer over the small trench or via of 0.13 μm or less, especially with high aspect ratio greater than 4:1. CVD method is different from PVD method. In CVD, a gas or vapor mixture is flowed over the wafer surface at an elevated temperature. Reactions then take place at the hot surface where deposition takes place. The basic characteristic of CVD process is the reaction at the substrate of all the precursors vapors together. The reaction often requires the presence of an energy source such as thermal energy (in the form of resistive heated substrate, or radiative heating), or plasma energy (in the form of plasma excitation). Temperature of the wafer surface is an important factor in CVD deposition, because the deposition depends on the reaction of the precursors and affects the uniformity of deposition over the large wafer surface. CVD typically requires high temperature for deposition which may not be compatible with other processes in the semiconductor process. CVD at lower temperature tends to produce low quality films in term of uniformity and impurities. The reactions can be further promoted by plasma energy in plasma enhanced CVD process, or by photon energy in rapid thermal CVD process. CVD technology has been used in semiconductor processing for a long time, and its characteristics are well known with a variety of precursors available. However, CVD process needs major improvements to meet modern technology requirements of new materials and more stringent film qualities and properties. Variations of CVD include pulse CVD or sequential CVD. In pulse or sequential CVD, the chemical vapors or the supplied energies such as plasma energy, thermal energy, laser energy are pulsed instead of continuous as in CVD process. The major advantages of pulse CVD is the high effects of the transient state resulted from the on-off status of the precursors or the energies, and the reduced amount of precursors or energies due to the pulsed mode. Reduced energy is desirable which can be accomplished in pulsed mode since it leads to less substrate damage such as the case of plasma processing for thin gate oxide. Reduced precursor is desirable which can be accomplished in pulsed mode for specific applications such as epitaxial deposition where the precursors need to react with the substrate in an arrangement to extend the single crystal nature of the substrate. There are no purging steps in pulsed CVD since cross contaminations or gas phase reactions are not a concern, and the purpose of the pulsing of the precursors or energies is to obtain the desired film characteristics. Pulsed CVD can be used for create gradient deposition such as U.S. Pat. No. 5,102,694 of Taylor et al. Taylor discloses a pulsed deposition process in which the precursors are periodically reduced to create a gradient of composition in the deposited films. Taylor's pulsed CVD relies only on the changing of the first set of precursors to vary the film compositions. Pulsed CVD can be used to modulate the precursors flow such as U.S. Pat. No. 5,242,530, titled “Pulsed gas plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition of silicon”, of Batey et al. Batey discloses a pulsed deposition process in which the precursor silane is modulated during a steady flow of plasma hydrogen. The pulsing of silane creates a sequence of deposition and without the silane pulses, the steady plasma hydrogen cleans and prepare the deposited surface. Pulsed CVD can be used to pulse the plasma energy needed for the deposition process such as U.S. Pat. No. 5,344,792, titled “Pulsed plasma enhanced CVD of metal silicide conductive films such as TiSi 2 ”, of Sandhu et al. Sandhu discloses a pulsed deposition process in which the precursors are introduced into a process chamber, then the plasma energy is introduced in pulsed mode to optimize the deposition conditions. U.S. Pat. No. 5,985,375, titled “Method for pulsed plasma enhanced vapor deposition”, of Donohoe et al. discloses a similar pulsed CVD process with the plasma energy in pulsed mode but with a power-modulated energy waveform. The pulsing of the plasma energy allows the deposition of a metal film with desired characteristics. U.S. Pat. No. 6,200,651, titled “Method of chemical vapor deposition in a vacuum plasma processor responsive to a pulsed microwave source”, of Roche et al. discloses a pulsed CVD process with an electron cyclotron resonance plasma having repetitive pulsed microwave field to optimize the deposited films. U.S. Pat. No. 6,451,390, titled “Deposition of TEOS oxide using pulsed RF plasma”, of Goto et al. discloses a TEOS oxide deposition process using a pulsed RF plasma to control the deposition rate of silicon dioxide. The pulsing feature offers the optimization of the deposit films through the transient state instead of the steady state. Pulsing of plasma during nitridation process of gate oxide shows less damage than continuous plasma nitridation process because of higher interaction due to plasma transient state and less damage due to shorter plasma time. Pulsed CVD can be used to pulse the precursors needed for the deposition process such as U.S. Pat. No. 6,306,211, titled “Method for growing semiconductor film and method for fabricating semiconductor devices”, of Takahashi et al. Takahashi discloses a pulsed CVD process to deposit epitaxial film of Si x Ge y C z . Epitaxial deposition requires a single crystal substrate, and the deposited film extends the single crystal nature of the substrate, different from CVD poly crystal or amorphous film deposition. To extend the single crystal nature of the substrate, the deposited precursors need to bond with the substrate at specific lattice sites, therefore a reduced precursor flow is highly desirable in epitaxial deposition to allow the precursors enough time to rearrange into the correct lattice sites. The process includes a continuous flow of hydrogen to dilute the precursors to be introduced. Then sequential pulses of silicon-based precursor, germanium-based precursor and carbon-based precursor are introduced to deposit an epitaxial film of Si x Ge y C z . To deposit epitaxial film, little amounts of precursors are needed, and this can be accomplished by short pulses (order of micro seconds) and further diluted in high flow of hydrogen. Takahashi discloses that the pulses of the precursors are not overlapped, but is silent on the separation of these pulses. The objective of Takahashi pulsed CVD is to deposit compound films, therefore the separation of these precursors is not relevant. Pulsed CVD as described by Takahashi et al. to deposit epitaxial film of Si x Ge y C z , does not allow deposition of high coverage or conformal film on a non-flat substrate, such as in a via or trench for interconnects in semiconductor devices. The objective of Takahashi pulsed CVD is to deposit epitaxial films with sufficiently planar surface as observed by Takahashi et al., without mentioning of possible deposition on trenches or vias. ALD is another variation of CVD using chemical vapor for deposition. In ALD, various vapors are injected into the chamber in alternating and separated sequences. For example, a first precursor vapor is delivered into the chamber to be adsorbed on the substrate, then the first vapor is turned off and evacuated from the chamber. Another precursor vapor is then delivered into the chamber to react with the adsorbed molecules on the substrate to form a desired film. Then this vapor is turned off and evacuated from the chamber. This sequence is repeated for many cycles until the deposited film reaches the desired thickness. There are numerous variations of ALD processes, but the ALD processes all share two common characteristics: sequentially precursor vapors flow and self-limiting thickness per cycle. The sequential precursor flow and evacuation characteristic offers the elimination of gas phase reaction commonly associated with CVD process. The self-limiting thickness per cycle characteristic offers the excellent surface coverage, because the total film thickness does not depend on precursor flow, nor on process time. The total film thickness depends only on the number of cycles. The ALD process then is not sensitive to the substrate temperature. The maximum thickness per cycle of ALD process is one monolayer because of the self limiting feature that the substrate surface is saturated with the first precursor. The first precursor can adsorb on the substrate, or the first precursor can have some reaction at the substrate, but the first precursor also saturate the substrate surface and the surface is terminated with a first precursor ligand. The throughput of ALD process depends on how fast a cycle is, and therefore a small chamber volume is critical. Furthermore, the fast switching of the precursor valves is desirable to allow a high throughput. A typical ALD cycle is a few seconds long, therefore the precursor pulses are in order of second. Precursor depletion effect can be severe for this short process time. U.S. Pat. No. 5,916,365 to Sherman entitled “Sequential chemical vapor deposition” provides for sequential chemical vapor deposition (ALD) by a sequence of chamber evacuating, adsorption of the first precursor onto the substrate, then another chamber evacuation, then a second radical precursor to react with the adsorbed precursor on the substrate surface, and a third chamber evacuation. The Sherman process produces sub-monolayers per cycle due to adsorption. The process cycle can be repeated to grow the desired thickness of film. Sherman discloses an ALD process in which the first precursor process flow is self-limiting, meaning no matter how long the process is, the adsorption thickness cannot changed. U.S. Pat. No. 6,015,590 to Suntola et al., entitled “Method for growing thin films” discloses an ALD process which completely separates the precursors. Suntola process is an improved ALD process (called ALE by Suntola) meaning the deposition is achieved through the saturation of precursors on the substrate surface and the subsequent reaction with the reactants. The advantage of Suntola process is the complete separation of precursors, with a better than 99% purging between pulses of precursors to prevent cross reactions. U.S. Pat. No. 6,200,893, and its divisions (U.S. Pat. No. 6,451,695, U.S. Pat. No. 6,475,910, U.S. patent publication 2001/0002280, U.S. patent publication 2002/0192954, U.S. patent publication 2002/0197864) to Sneh entitled “Radical-assisted sequential CVD” discusses a method for ALD deposition. Sneh sequence process is a variation of ALD process. Sneh discloses a deposition step for the first precursor introduction, but the deposition of Sneh is self limiting because of the surface saturation with ligands. In fact, in U.S. Pat. No. 6,475,910, Sneh discloses a method to extend the thickness of the first precursor introduction step. The disclosure discloses another ALD process to sequential precursor flows to increase the thickness of the first precursor introduction step. In a way, this is similar to a nested loop, where the thickness of the first precursor flow step of an ALD process can be increased by another ALD process. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides a hybrid deposition process of CVD and ALD, called NanoLayer Deposition (NLD). A co-pending application “Nanolayer thick film processing system and method” of the same authors, Ser. No. 09/954,244, filed Sep. 10, 2001 and published Mar. 13, 2003, Pub. No. 20030049375 A1, has been disclosed and is hereby incorporated by reference. In one aspect of the invention, the present invention method to deposit a thin film on a substrate comprises the steps of: a. introducing a first plurality of precursors to deposit a thin film on a substrate, the deposition process being not self limiting; b. purging the first precursors; and c. introducing a second plurality of precursors to modify the deposited thin film, the second plurality of precursors having at least one precursor different from the first plurality of precursors. The deposition step in the present invention is not self limiting and is a function of substrate temperature and process time. This first step is similar to a CVD process using a first set of precursors. Then the first set of precursors is turned off and purged and a second set of precursors is introduced. The purpose of the purging step is to avoid the possible interaction between the two sets of precursors. Therefore the purging can be accomplished by a pumping step to evacuate the existing precursors in the process chamber. The characteristic of the pumping step is the reduction in chamber pressure to evacuate all gases and vapors. The purging can also be accomplished by a replacement step by using a non reacting gas such as nitrogen or inert gas to push all the precursors out of the process chamber. The characteristic of the replacement step is the maintaining of chamber pressure, with the precursor turned off and the purge gas turned on. A combination of these two steps can be use in the purging step, such as a pumping step followed by a nitrogen or argon replacement step. The second set of precursors modifies the already deposited film characteristics. The second set of precursors can treat the deposited film such as a modification of film composition, a doping or a removal of impurities from the deposited film. The second set of precursors can also deposit another layer on the deposited film. The additional layer can react with the existing layer to form a compound layer, or can have minimum reaction to form a nanolaminate film. The deposition step is preferably a disordered film deposition, in contrast to an ordered film deposition as in an epitaxial film. Deposition conditions for disordered film deposition are much simpler to achieve with less initial surface preparation and less special considerations relating to the order of the deposited films. In ordered film deposition like epitaxial film deposition, small amount of precursors is typically used to allow the precursors the needed time to arrange themselves on the surface to form crystalline film. For that purpose, pulsed CVD is highly suited for epitaxial film deposition. The epitaxial deposition also requires a buffer layer to ensure a continuous lattice growth, especially with a dis-similar lattice structure of the substrate and the deposited film. The present NLD method to deposit a film differs markedly from CVD method with a sequential process and with the introduction of the second set of precursors. The present NLD method differs from pulse or sequential CVD with a purging step and with the introduction of the second set of precursors. The introduction of the second set of precursors after purging the first precursors in a cyclic sequential process allows the modification of the deposited film in a manner not possible in CVD and pulse and sequential CVD methods. The pulsed CVD processes employing the pulsing of precursors to modify the composition such as gradient of the deposited films differ from the present invention NLD process because of the lacking of the second set of precursors to modify the properties of the deposited films. The pulsed CVD processes employing the pulsing of deposition precursors in the presence of plasma precursors to modify the deposited film characteristics such as a smoother surface differ from the present invention differs from the present invention NLD process because of the lack of the purging step between the pulses, and because the plasma precursors are present throughout the deposition time. This pulsed CVD process allows the mixture of the continuous plasma precursors and the deposition precursors. Instead, the NLD process offers a purging step between the two sets of precursors to avoid cross contamination, to avoid possible gas phase reaction and to prepare the process chamber for different processes. For example, the purging step clear out the precursor such as an MOCVD precursor before turning on the plasma because the plasma is difficult to strike with the presence of a vapor. The pulsed CVD processes employing the pulsing of plasma energy to modify the deposited film characteristics such as smoother film, different deposition rate, less damage to the deposited films differ from the present invention NLD process because of the lacking of the second set of precursors to modify the properties of the deposited films and the lacking of the purging step between the pulses. The pulsing feature offers the optimization of the deposit films through the transient state instead of the steady state, and therefore differ significantly with the present invention NLD method of using the second set of precursors to modify the deposited film characteristics. The pulsed CVD processes employing the pulsing of deposition precursors to form epitaxial film differ from the present invention NLD process because of the lacking of the purging step between the precursors pulses. The purging step allows the use of incompatible precursors due to the separation effect of the purging step. The difference between pulsed CVD and NLD also includes the conceptual purpose of the two methods. The objective of pulsed CVD is to employ a suitable set of precursors and conditions to deposit the desired films, while the objective of NLD is to deposit a film, even an undesired film, and to provide a modification and treatment step to convert the undesired film into a desired film. Instead of finding a way to deposit a film with all the desired characteristics as in CVD or pulsed CVD, NLD finds a way to treat or modify an existing film to achieve a film with the desired characteristics. Further, recognizing that treating and modifying an existing is difficult when the thickness is large, NLD offers a cyclic process of depositing and treating or modifying, so that the treatment process is performed on very thin film and to achieve a thicker film. The present NLD method to deposit a film also differs markedly from ALD method with a non self-limiting deposition step. The deposition step in the present invention NLD method is a function of substrate temperature and process time. The deposition/adsorption step in ALD method is a self-limiting step based on the saturation of precursor ligands on the substrate surface. Once the surface is saturated, the deposition/adsorption in ALD method stops and any excess precursor vapors have no further effect on the saturated surface. In other words, the deposition/adsorption step of ALD method is independent of time after reaching saturation. The ALD method also has less dependent on substrate temperature than CVD or NLD methods. Therefore the present invention NLD method has many distinct differences from ALD method. In other aspect of the invention, the method of deposition further comprises a last purging step after step c. Similar the previous purging step, the last purging step is to remove the second set of precursors from the process chamber, either by evacuation, by replacement, or any combinations. In many applications, the treatment step can only treat a thin film, or the treatment step is much more effective if treating only a thin film, therefore the present invention further comprises a further step of repeating the previous steps until a desired thickness is reached. The last purging step can be optional because its purpose is to prevent possible reaction between the two sets of precursors. In cases that there are minimal reactions between these two sets of precursors, the last purging step can be eliminated to have a shorter process time and higher throughput. The present invention also provides for the extension to a plurality of other sets of precursors. Another third set of precursors would enhanced the modification of the deposited film at the expense of process complexity and lower throughput. Another two sets of precursors would create a multilayer thin film or a nanolaminate film. The present invention NLD process can be performed in any process chamber such as a standard CVD process chamber or an ALD small volume, fast switching valve process chamber. The chamber wall can be cold wall, or warm wall, or hot wall depending on the desired outputs. The delivery system can be showerhead delivery to provide uniform flow, or a sidewall inlet to provide laminar flow, or a shower ring to offer circular delivery. The precursor delivery can be liquid injection where the liquid precursors are delivered to a heated vaporizer to convert the precursors into vapor form before delivering into the process chamber. The precursor delivery can be vapor draw where the vapor of a liquid precursor is drawn from the liquid precursor container. The precursor delivery can be bubbler where the vapor of the liquid precursor is enhanced with the bubbling feature of a non reactive carrier gas. The steps in the present invention can be any CVD deposition step such as thermal activated CVD, plasma enhanced CVD using parallel plate plasma, or inductive coupled plasma (ICP), or microwave plasma, or remote plasma, or rapid thermal processing using lamp heating. Not only the deposition step can be a deposition step, the treatment step can also be a CVD deposition step to modify the deposited film properties. The treatment step can be a plasma treatment, or a temperature treatment. The plasma treatment can be an energetic species, and can be further enhanced with a bias to give kinetic energy to the energetic species. A strong bias can create reaction such as an ion implantation as in immersion ion implantation technology. In general, a highly energetic species in the treatment step can help in modification the deposited film properties. A bombardment of species can be employed to improve the roughness of the deposited film. A chemical reaction can be employed to remove impurities or to change film compositions and to modify the physical properties such as film density. The present invention method can use any CVD precursors or MOCVD precursors. The deposition step is further enhanced with the second set of precursors to allow film properties that are difficult or impossible with CVD method. The precursors can be thermal activated, plasma activated or RTP activated. The precursors can be hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, ozone, inert gas, water, or inorganic precursors such as NH 3 , SiH 4 , NF 3 , or metal precursors such as TiCl 4 , or organic precursors, or metal organic precursors such as TDMAT, TDEAT, TMEAT, PDMAT, PDEAT. In general, the process temperature of the present invention is lower than the temperature of similar CVD process to obtain the lower deposition rate and better uniformity. A typical process temperature is between 100° C. to 1000° C., depending on the thermal budget of the overall process. Metal interconnect of a semiconductor process requires the process temperature to be less than 500° C., and the new low dielectric constant (low k) interlevel dielectric process requires the process temperature to be less than 400° C., or even 350° C. For device fabrication, the temperature can be higher, up to 600° C. or even 800° C. The process time of the present invention of each step is between the range of msec to many minutes. Shorter process time is desirable, but too short a process time can create many reliability issues such as timing requirements, component requirements. A typical throughput of 10 to 60 wafers per hour is acceptable for semiconductor fabrication. Using about 4 to 20 cycles per film thickness, that translates to about 3 to 90 seconds per step. One aspect of the present invention is the plasma energy. To treat the sidewall surface of a high aspect ratio trench, the plasma is a high density and high pressure plasma. High density plasma can be accomplished with ICP or microwave. High density plasma can also be accomplished with remote plasma. High pressure plasma can be a little harder. High density and high pressure plasma require a high energy in the chamber volume to compensate for the high collision loss due to the presence of many charged and neutral particles. To increase the power delivered to the chamber volume, an ICP power source needs to be close to the chamber volume and contains many inductive segments. These two requirements are difficult to fulfill because as the number of inductive segments increase, they are farther away from the chamber volume due to the size of the inductive segments. The inductive segments are typically a coil for the plasma source and carry a large current, therefore need to be water cooled. Conventional inductive coil has cross section of a square or a circle with a hollow center for water cool flow. The increase of number of inductive coil turns will increase the power, but since the successive turns are farther away from the chamber, the power increase is somewhat reduced, and at a certain distance, the power increase is no longer significant. Our plasma inductive coils is an innovation design and has a ribbon-like cross section with the width is many times larger than the thickness. A co-pending application “Plasma semiconductor processing system and method” of the same authors, Ser. No. 09/898,439, filing date Jul. 5, 2001 has been disclosed. With the thickness of the helical ribbon inductive coil is much less, order of mm as compared to 5 or 10 mm as conventional inductive coil, the inductive coils are much closer to the chamber volume and therefore can deliver a high power to the process chamber, resulting in a high density, high pressure plasma for sidewall structure treatments. The heat removal issue of the helical ribbon is much more significant than the conventional inductive coils, but it is an engineering issue and can be solved. With this new source of plasma, our process chamber pressure can be as high as 1000 milliTorr, and with further improvement, can reach 5 Torr, as compared to the typical process pressure of 10 to 100 milliTorr. As a result, the sidewall treatment of our process can be very good and the result is close to 100% conformality at the sidewall and the top and bottom surface. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a flowchart of a prior art CVD process. FIG. 2 is a flowchart of a prior art pulse CVD process. FIG. 3 is a flowchart of a prior art ALD process. FIG. 4 is a flowchart of the present invention NLD process. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION FIG. 1 shows a flowchart of a prior art CVD process. In step 10 , the precursors are introduced into the process chamber. The precursors are then react at the substrate surface to form a deposited film in step 11 . The conditions for the precursors reaction can include plasma energy, thermal energy, photon energy, laser energy. The deposition characteristics of CVD process is the non self-limiting nature, meaning increase with process time and substrate temperature. FIG. 2 shows a flowchart of a prior art pulse CVD process. In step 20 , the precursors are introduced into the process chamber in pulses. The precursors are then react at the substrate surface to form a deposited film in step 21 . Similar to CVD process, pulse CVD process can incorporate plasma energy, thermal energy, photon energy, laser energy. The pulse CVD process conditions can include precursor pulsing, plasma pulsing, thermal energy pulsing, photon energy pulsing, and laser energy pulsing. The deposition characteristics of pulse CVD process is the repeated CVD deposition process. FIG. 3 shows a flowchart of a prior art ALD process. In step 30 , the precursors are introduced into the process chamber. Then the precursors are purged from the process chamber in step 31 . Another set of precursors is introduced into the process chamber in step 32 . Then this set of precursors is purged from the process chamber in step 33 . This purging step 33 is optional. The sequence can be repeated in step 34 until a desired thickness is reached. The basic characteristics of ALD process is the saturation of precursors in step 31 , meaning the deposition or adsorption of precursors in this step is self limiting, and is sensitive to process time and substrate temperature. The two sets of precursors are react in step 32 after the introduction of the second set of precursors. The purging step 31 is required to separate the two sets of precursors to prevent gas phase reaction and to preserve the surface reaction of ALD process. FIG. 4 shows a flowchart of the present invention NLD process. In step 40 , the precursors are introduced into the process chamber. Then the precursors are purged from the process chamber in step 41 . Another set of precursors is introduced into the process chamber in step 42 . Then this set of precursors is purged from the process chamber in step 43 . This purging step 43 is optional. The sequence can be repeated in step 44 until a desired thickness is reached. The basic characteristics of NLD process is the non self limiting nature of the deposition in step 41 , meaning the deposition of precursors in this step is dependent on process time and substrate temperature. The two sets of precursors are not react with each other in step 42 . Instead, the second set of precursors react with the products of the first set of precursors, resulting after step 40 . The purging step 41 is normally needed to separate the two sets of precursors to prevent gas phase reaction, but may not be required in all cases because NLD process does not depend on the two sets of precursors interacting. The present NLD method to deposit a film differs significantly from CVD method with a sequential process and with the introduction of the second set of precursors. The present NLD method differs from pulse or sequential CVD with a purging step and with the introduction of the second set of precursors. The cyclic sequential deposition using two sets of precursors with a purging step separating these two sets of precursors allows the modification of the deposited film in a manner not possible in CVD and pulse and sequential CVD methods. The following examples discuss the advantages of NLD versus CVD. In saying CVD, it also includes pulse CVD or sequential CVD methods. An example is the surface coverage property of a deposited film. A typical CVD process would run at high temperature and continuously until a film is deposited. The uniformity and surface coverage of the CVD process would depend solely on the reaction mechanism of the chemical precursors and the initial substrate surface. In contrast the present invention NLD method provides a second set of precursors to modify the substrate surface characteristics during the deposition time, effectively allowing a substrate surface similar to the initial surface all the time to prevent surface property changes during the deposition process. NLD method offers an extra controllability to modify the substrate surface during deposition time to improve the surface coverage property of the deposited film. An NLD silicon dioxide deposition using TEOS and oxygen as the first set of precursors and plasma argon or hydrogen or nitrogen as the second set of precursors offers more uniformity and surface coverage at a thin film than CVD process using TEOS/oxygen alone. Similarly, an NLD silicon nitride deposition process using silane/ammonia as a first precursors and plasma argon or hydrogen or nitrogen as the second set of precursors offers more uniformity and surface coverage at a thin film than CVD process using silane/ammonia alone. Another example is the process temperature of a deposited film. The CVD process temperature is determined by the reaction mechanism to provide an acceptable quality film. Lower the process temperature in CVD process could change the deposited film properties such as impurity incorporation due to incomplete reaction, different stoichiometry of the film components. In contrast, the present invention NLD method can run at a lower temperature than CVD method and still offers acceptable quality film due to the ability to modify the deposited film at low temperature to obtain the desired film properties. This is also a distinction of the NLD method from the CVD method where the substrate temperature of the NLD method is lower than the CVD method for the same set of first precursors. Since the deposition step in both NLD and CVD depends on the substrate temperature, a lower substrate temperature would offer a lower deposition rate, and a better controllability of the deposited film such as surface coverage. Another example is the densification of a deposited film. CVD method would deposit a complete film, then subject the whole film to a treatment such as annealing. Since the whole film is thick, the annealing would take a long time, and in some cases, certain limitation of diffusion could prevent the heat treatment to reach the bottom of the deposited film. In contrast, the present invention NLD method offers the cyclic sequential method of depositing and heat treatment of a small fraction of the whole film. The whole film will be deposited a number of time, each time with only a fraction of the thickness. Since the fraction of the thickness is much thinner than the whole film thickness, the heat treatment would be short and effective. The number of cycles can chosen to optimize the film quality or the short process time. Another example is the capability of composition modification of the deposited film such as the carbon removal treatment of a carbon-containing deposited film. CVD method would deposit a complete film containing a certain amount of carbon, then subject the whole film to an energetic species such as plasma hydrogen to react with the carbon to remove the carbon from the deposited film. To reach a thick film, the energy needed for the energetic species would be very high, in many cases impractical and potentially cause damage to the deposited film or the underlying substrate. In contrast, the present invention NLD method offers the cyclic sequential method of depositing and carbon removal treatment of a small fraction of the whole film. Since the film to be treated is much thinner, and can be chosen as thin as one desires, the energy of the energetic species can be low and within the range of practicality, to remove the carbon and not damage the deposited film or the underlying substrate. Another example is the avoidance of gas phase reaction such as the deposition of TiN using TDMAT (tetra dimethyl amine titanium) metal organic precursor with NH 3 . CVD method would impractical since TDMAT would react with NH 3 in gas phase to create particles and roughen the deposited film. A CVD deposition of the whole film using TDMAT and then subjected the deposited film with NH 3 would not be possible to treat the whole film thickness. In contrast, the present invention NLD method offers the cyclic sequential method of depositing using TDMAT and NH 3 treatment of a small fraction of the whole film. With a deposited film thickness of TDMAT of less than a few nanometer (1-2 nm), the treatment of NH 3 would be effective, and only the cyclic sequential method of NLD would be able to provide. Similarly results can be obtained from TDEAT, TMEAT for titanium organic metal precursors, PDMAT, PDEAT for tantalum organic metal precursors, other organic metal precursors such as copper hfac tmvs, inorganic precursors such as copper hfac (I), copper hfac (II), copper iodine, copper chloride, titanium chloride together with plasma treatment of N 2 , H 2 , Ar, He, or NH 3 . Another example is the modification of the property of the deposited film such as the deposition of a oxygen-rich film, a nitrogen-rich film, an oxy-nitride film, or a metal-rich film. To vary the content of any component in a deposited film such as oxygen, CVD method would require the adjustment of all the precursor components. This is not an easy task since the incorporation of a element is not directly proportional to its presence in the precursor vapor form. Many times it is not even possible to modify the resulting film components since CVD is a product of a chemical reaction, and any excess precursors would not participate in the reaction. In contrast, the present invention NLD method offers the cyclic sequential method of depositing and treatment of a small fraction of the whole film. The treatment step is a separate step and can be designed to achieve the desired results. If an oxygen-rich film is desired, a energetic oxygen treatment step such as a plasma oxygen, or an ozone flow, could incorporate more oxygen into the deposited film. The incorporation can be done if the deposited film is thin enough, a condition only available in the present invention NLD method, not CVD. If an nitrogen-rich film is desired, a energetic nitrogen treatment step such as a plasma nitrogen, or an ammonia (NH 3 ) flow, could incorporate more nitrogen into the deposited film. If an oxy-nitride film is desired, a energetic oxygen treatment step could incorporate more oxygen into the deposited film of nitride, or a energetic nitrogen treatment step could incorporate more nitrogen into the deposited film of oxide. Another example is the incorporation of impurity to modify the deposited film property such as copper doped aluminum film, carbon doped silicon dioxide film, fluorine doped silicon dioxide film. For example, the electromigration resistance of pure aluminum is poor, and this resistance is much improved with the incorporation of a small amount of copper, typically of less than a few percents. CVD method would have to invent compatible precursors of aluminum and copper that can deposit a desired mixture. In contrast, the present invention NLD method offers the cyclic sequential method of depositing a fraction of the aluminum film and incorporate copper into the film fraction during the treatment sequence. Since the deposition uses the aluminum precursors and the treatment uses the copper precursors, and these precursors are separately and sequentially introduced into the process chamber, compatibility is not a big issue. Another example is the deposition of multilayer films or nanolaminate films. Nanolaminate films are multilayer films but the different layers can be very thin, sometimes not complete layers, and sometimes even less than a monolayer. A CVD method would be impractical as it requires multiple process chamber and the capability of moving between these chambers without incurring contamination and impurities. In contrast, the present invention NLD method offers the cyclic sequential method of depositing a first layer film, and then deposit a second layer film during the treatment sequence. The first layer could be as thin as one desired, such as a fraction of a monolayer, or as thick as one desired, such as a few nanometer. The present NLD method to deposit a film also differs significantly from ALD method with a non self-limiting deposition step. The deposition step in the present invention NLD method is a function of substrate temperature and process time. The deposition/adsorption step in ALD method is a self-limiting step based on the saturation of precursor ligands on the substrate surface. Once the surface is saturated, the deposition/adsorption in ALD method stops and any excess precursor vapors have no further effect on the saturated surface. In other words, the deposition/adsorption step of ALD method is independent of time after reaching saturation. The ALD method also has less dependent on substrate temperature than CVD or NLD methods. Therefore the present invention NLD method has many distinct differences from ALD method. One example is the non self-limiting feature of the present invention NLD method allows the NLD method to share the precursors of CVD method, in contrast to the inability of ALD method to use CVD precursors. The deposition step of the present invention NLD method is similar to the deposition step of the CVD method, with the possible exception of lower temperature, therefore the NLD method can use all the precursors of the CVD methods, including the newly developed metal organic precursors or organic metal precursors (MOCVD precursors). In contrast, the precursor requirements of ALD are different because of the different deposition mechanisms. ALD precursors must have a self-limiting effect so that the precursor is adsorbed on the substrate, up to a monolayer. Because of this self limiting effect, only one monolayer or a sub-monolayer is deposited per cycle, and additional precursor will not be deposited on the grown layer even when excess precursor or additional time is supplied. The precursor designed for ALD must readily adsorb at bonding site on the deposited surface in a self-limiting mode. Once adsorbed, the precursor must react with the reactant to form the desired film. These requirements are different from CVD, where the precursors arrive at the substrate together and the film is deposited continuously from the reaction of the precursors at the substrate surface. Thus many useful CVD precursors are not viable as ALD precursors and vice versa. And it is not trivial or obvious to select a precursor for the ALD method. Another example is the ease of incorporation of the enhancement of CVD technology such as plasma technology, rapid thermal processing technology. By sharing precursors with CVD, the NLD method also can share all the advancement of CVD without much modification. A plasma deposition step in NLD can be designed and tested quickly because of the available knowledge in CVD method. Another example is the substrate surface preparation. This is a consequence of the different deposition mechanism of NLD and ALD. In ALD, the substrate and substrate preparation are very critical and are a part of the deposition process since different surfaces and surface preparations will lead to different film quality and properties. In contrast, in NLD, similar deposition process occurs with different surface preparations or different surfaces because the basic mechanism is the deposition step, depending only on precursors reaction and the energy supplied, and depending little on the substrate surface. The only dependence of NLD on the substrate surfaces is the nucleation time, since different surfaces have different time for the precursors to nucleate and start depositing. This characteristic is observed in our laboratory when we deposit TiN using NLD process on different substrates, a silicon dioxide substrate, an organic polymer substrate, and a porous dielectric substrate. The TiN films on these 3 different substrates have similar film quality and properties, with only different in thickness, due to the difference in nucleation times on different surfaces. Deposition of epitaxial films also requires intensive preparation of the substrate so that the first layer of atoms deposited would grow epitaxially or in an ordered arrangement from the substrate crystal. NLD process of non-epitaxial film allows conformal deposition or highly uniform coverage of a thin film over the vias and trenches, and especially high aspect ratio structures in semiconductor devices. Another example is the ability to use MOCVD precursors. The MOCVD precursors contain a significant amount of carbon due to its organic content. The present invention NLD process uses MOCVD precursors with ease due to the deposition step using MOCVD precursors and the treatment step to remove any carbon left behind during the deposition step. An effective carbon removal step is the introduction of energetic hydrogen or nitrogen such as plasma hydrogen or nitrogen. In contrast, the use of MOCVD precursors in ALD method would demand significant research, and so far to the best of our knowledge, there is no commercially successful ALD process available using MOCVD precursors. Another example is the non self-limiting feature of the present invention NLD method also allows the NLD method to adjust the thickness of the deposition step, or the treatment step, or both, to achieve a higher thickness per cycle. The ALD method is based on the saturation of ligands on the substrate surface, therefore the thickness per cycle is fixed and cannot be changed. In contrast, the thickness per cycle in the present invention NLD method is a function of process temperature and process time. The optimum thickness for NLD process is the largest thickness per cycle and still able to be treated during the treatment step. An NLD process deposits TiN using TDMAT precursor and plasma nitrogen treatment can have the thickness per cycle any where from sub nanometer to a few nanometers. The ability to vary the thickness per cycle allows the NLD process to use less cycles for the same total film thickness, leading to a faster process time and offering higher throughput than ALD process. Another example is the non self-limiting feature of the present invention NLD method also allows the NLD method to vary the individual thickness of the resulting film, such as a few thicker or thinner layers in the middle of the deposited film, a manner not possible in ALD method. Some applications require a thick film where the film quality is only critical to the interface, the center portion of the film can be deposited with a very high thickness per cycle to increase the throughput while the beginning and the end of the deposition use a much thinner thickness per cycle to satisfy the requirement of a high quality interfaces. This feature is not possible with ALD process where all the cycles having the same thickness per cycle. Another example is the process temperature of a deposited film. The ALD process temperature is largely fixed by the chemical reactions between the ligands of the precursors, and therefore ALD method is insensitive to the substrate temperature. In contrast, the present invention NLD method can run at a slightly higher temperature than ALD to offers the deposition characteristics, meaning a process dependent on process temperature and time. Furthermore, the NLD process can run at a much higher temperature to provide a larger thickness per cycle. The variation in thickness per cycle of NLD process can be accomplished by changing the substrate temperature, where a higher temperature would result in a high deposition rate, leading to a larger thickness per cycle. The change in substrate temperature is probably best accomplished by rapid thermal processing using radiative heat transfer for fast response time. A resistive heated substrate could provide the baseline temperature, and a lamp heating would provide the increase in temperature needed for larger thickness per cycle. Another example is that it is not essential to have a purging step between the deposition and the treatment in the present invention NLD method because it is possible that the precursors in both steps are compatible. In contrast, ALD method requires the purging step between these two steps because of the designed reaction at the substrate surface. The purging step in NLD method helps overall in the cyclic sequential deposition scheme where the incompatibility of the two sets of precursors could cause potential damage. In rare cases where the two sets of precursors are compatible, the purging step is not critical and can be reduced or eliminated to improve the throughput. Another example is the controllability of surface coverage. ALD method has excellent conformality and surface coverage, meaning this method will provide a theoretically perfect coverage of any configuration, as long as there is a pathway to it. But ALD is not capable of turning off this feature, meaning the excellent surface coverage is a characteristics of the ALD method. In contrast, in the present invention NLD, the surface coverage characteristics can be modified. In general, because of the deposition step in NLD is based on CVD, the thinner the thickness per cycle in NLD is, the better the surface coverage is. This degree of control offers NLD an unexpected advantage in porous substrate. ALD deposition on an open-pored porous substrate will travel through all the pores and deposit everywhere, potentially shorting the circuit if the deposited film is conductive. In contrast, NLD method can deliver a very high deposition rate at the beginning of the deposition cycle, effectively sealing off the open pores before starting deposition of a high quality thin film. By turning off the surface coverage feature, the degree of penetration of NLD into the porous material is significantly less than ALD method. Using this scheme, we have demonstrated a less penetration of the deposited film into the porous substrate. With further optimization, we believe that no penetration might be possible. Another example is the flexibility of chamber design. The throughput of ALD is determined by the cycle time due to the independent of the thickness per cycle feature of ALD method. Therefore the chamber design in ALD is highly critical to achieve an acceptable throughput. ALD throughput depends strongly on many issues of chamber design, such as small chamber volume to ensure fast saturation and fast removal of precursors, fast switching valves to ensure quick response time of precursor on-off, uniform precursor delivery to ensure non-depletion effect of precursor. The fast response time requirement of ALD also puts a constraint on the timing requirement such as the synchronization of the precursor flow, the purging steps. In contrast, in the present invention NLD method, the chamber design issues are not any where as critical because of the potential higher thickness per cycle feature, leading to less number of cycles and higher throughput. Therefore a conventional CVD chamber with large volume, slow valve response time is adequate to perform NLD process. The NLD process could benefit from the chamber design of ALD, but NLD has the flexibility of trading some of the throughput for the simplicity of chamber design because the throughput of NLD without any chamber design consideration could be adequate for many applications. The advantage of the flexibility in chamber design is the ease of incorporate high density plasma into NLD process. High density plasma design requires a large chamber volume to equalize the energy of the charged and neutral particles due to high collision, and this requirement constraint contradicts with the small chamber volume requirement of ALD process, but acceptable with NLD process.

A hybrid deposition process of CVD and ALD, called NanoLayer Deposition (NLD) is provided. The nanolayer deposition process is a cyclic sequential deposition process, comprising the first step of introducing a first plurality of precursors to deposit a thin film with the deposition process not self limiting, then a second step of purging the first set of precursors and a third step of introducing a second plurality of precursors to modify the deposited thin film. The deposition step in the NLD process using the first set of precursors is not self limiting and is a function of substrate temperature and process time. The second set of precursors modifies the already deposited film characteristics. The second set of precursors can treat the deposited film such as a modification of film composition, a doping or a removal of impurities from the deposited film. The second set of precursors can also deposit another layer on the deposited film. The additional layer can react with the existing layer to form a compound layer, or can have minimum reaction to form a nanolaminate film.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a bonding structure between electronic device packages. More particularly, the present invention relates to a bump structure that can provide good bonding properties. 2. Description of the Related Art In the fabrication of high-density electronic packages, a means of enhancing the bonding effect between an integrated circuit device and a carrier substrate, thereby increasing the production yield, is always an important research topic. Using liquid crystal display (LCD) as an example, the technique for packaging an LCD has changed from chip-on-board (COB) to tape-automated-bonding (TAB) and then to the current fine pitch chip-on-glass (COG) due to the need for higher image resolution and the demand for a lighter and slimmer electronic product. However, in most conventional packaging process that uses bumps as a means of bonding, the difference in the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) between the chip and the carrier substrate is quite significant. Therefore, after the chip and the carrier substrate are bonded together, warpage often occurs due to CTE mismatch between the chip, the bumps and the carrier substrate. As a result, the bumps are thermally stressed. Moreover, with the ever-increasing level of integration of the integrated circuit, the effects resulting from the thermal stress and the warpage are increasingly significant. One of the major effects includes a drop in the reliability of connection between the chip and the carrier substrate and the subsequent failure to comply with the reliability test. K. Hatada in U.S. Pat. No. 4,749,120 proposed using gold bumps to serve as an electrical connection between a chip and a substrate, and in the meantime, using resin as a bonding agent between the two. However, the Young's modulus of metal is substantially higher than resin. Hence, in the process of joining the chip and the carrier substrate together and curing the resin, considerable contact stress must be applied. In addition, the gold bumps will be subjected to considerable peeling stress after the bonding process so that the gold bumps may peel off from the chip or the carrier substrate. In another method, Y. Tagusa et. al in U.S. Pat. No. 4,963,002 proposed using nickel-plated (nickel) beads or silver particles to achieve electrical connection. Yet, this method is only suitable for bonding a small area. Furthermore, if the silver particles are used in the bonding process, the large Young's modulus of silver may lead to the same bump-peeling problem. In yet another method, Sokolovsky et. al in U.S. Pat. No. 4,916,523 proposed using a unidirectional conductive bonding agent to bond the chip and the carrier substrate together. On the other hand, Brady et. al in U.S. Pat. No. 5,134,460 also proposed a design that involves coating a metallic layer over conductive metal bumps. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Accordingly, at least one objective of the present invention is to provide a method of minimizing the thermal stress problem in an electronic package due to a coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) mismatch. At least another objective of the present invention is to provide a method of resolving bump bonding problem due to Young's modulus problem so that the production yield is increased. To achieve these and other advantages and in accordance with the purpose of the invention, as embodied and broadly described herein, the invention provides a composite bump suitable for disposing on the pad of a substrate. The composite bump includes a compliant body and an outer conductive layer. The coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of the compliant body is between 5 ppm/° C. and 200 ppm/° C. The outer conductive layer covers the compliant body and is electrically connected to the pad. In one embodiment of the present invention, the Young's modulus of the compliant body is between 0.1 GPA to 2.8 Gpa, or between 3.5 Gpa to 20 Gpa, for example. In one embodiment of the present invention, the compliant body is fabricated using polymer material. For example, the compliant body can be fabricated using polyimide or epoxy-based polymer. In one embodiment of the present invention, the composite bump may further include a solder layer disposed on the outer conductive layer, for example. The solder layer is fabricated using lead-tin alloy, for example. In one embodiment of the present invention, the compliant body can have the shape of a block and is disposed on the pad. The surface of the compliant body away from the pad can be a flat surface, a roughened surface or a curve surface. In one embodiment of the present invention, the compliant body may include a plurality of protruding objects, for example. All the protruding objects can be disposed on the pad or on the peripheral region of the pad. However, a portion of the protruding objects may be disposed on the pad while the remaining protruding objects may be disposed on the peripheral region of the pad. In one embodiment of the present invention, the compliant body may further include a substrate conductive layer disposed between the compliant body and the substrate. Furthermore, the outer conductive layer is connected to the substrate conductive layer. The compliant body has a block shape and extends to an area outside the pad. In addition, the surface of the compliant body away from the pad can be a flat surface, a roughened surface or a curve surface and the substrate conductive layer can be fabricated using a metal, for example. Accordingly, the compliant body inside the composite bump in the present invention can provide a buffering effect during the bonding process. Furthermore, the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of the compliant body can be adjusted to match the Young's modulus through design. As a result, the thermal stress is reduced and bonding effect is enhanced. It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary, and are intended to provide further explanation of the invention as claimed. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings are included to provide a further understanding of the invention, and are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification. The drawings illustrate embodiments of the invention and, together with the description, serve to explain the principles of the invention. In the drawings, FIGS. 1A and 1B are schematic cross-sectional views showing a composite bump disposed on a substrate according to one preferred embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2 is a graph showing the relation between the warpage and the coefficient of thermal expansion of a compliant body. FIG. 3 is a graph showing the relation between the contact stress and the coefficient of thermal expansion of a compliant body. FIG. 4 is a graph showing the relation between the warpage and the Young's modulus of a compliant body. FIG. 5 is a graph showing the relation between the contact stress and the Young's modulus of a compliant body. FIG. 6 is a table analyzing the material parameters (including the coefficient of thermal expansion and the Young's modulus) of an integrated compliant body on the bonding effect. FIG. 7 is a schematic cross-sectional view of a hemispherical bump according to the present invention. FIG. 8 is a schematic cross-sectional view of a composite bump with a roughened surface according to the present invention. FIGS. 9 through 11 are schematic cross-sectional views showing a composite bump with different types of protrusion arrangements. FIGS. 12A through 12I are schematic cross-sectional views showing the steps for fabricating a composite bump according to the present invention. FIGS. 13A through 13J are schematic cross-sectional views showing the steps for fabricating a composite bump with a substrate conductive layer according to the present invention. FIGS. 14 through 16 are schematic cross-sectional views showing other composite bumps with a substrate conductive layer according to the present invention. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Reference will now be made in detail to the present preferred embodiments of the invention, examples of which are illustrated in the accompanying drawings. Wherever possible, the same reference numbers are used in the drawings and the description to refer to the same or like parts. The composite bump disclosed in the present invention can be disposed on a chip or any suitably designed carrier substrate such as a circuit board or a flexible tape. In the following embodiments, the generic name ‘substrate’ is used throughout and identical components are labeled with the same numbers. FIGS. 1A and 1B are schematic cross-sectional views showing a composite bump disposed on a substrate according to one preferred embodiment of the present invention. The substrate 30 in FIGS. 1A and 1B has a pad 26 and a protective layer 28 thereon. The pad 26 has a diameter of about 90 μm, for example. The compliant body 32 is disposed on the pad 26 . The compliant body 32 has a thickness between about 5 μm to 25 μm. In the present embodiment, the compliant body 32 is fabricated using polymer material such as polyimide or epoxy-based polymer material, for example. Obviously, in other embodiments of the present invention, other materials having similar properties can be used to fabricate the compliant body 32 . In addition, an outer conductive layer 36 covers the compliant body 32 . The outer conductive layer 36 can be fabricated using a metallic material such as aluminum or nickel, or an alloy such as nickel/gold, chromium/gold, chromium/silver or titanium/platinum. Obviously, the outer conductive layer 36 can also be an adhesion/barrier/conductor composite layer such as a chromium/copper/gold, chromium/nickel/gold, chromium/silver/gold, titanium/platinum/gold, titanium/palladium/gold or titanium/tungsten/silver composite layer. As shown in FIG. 1B , if solder bonding is required, then the outer conductive layer 36 may further include a solder layer 52 such as a lead-tin (PbSn), an indium-gallium (InGa) or an indium-tin (InSn) solder layer. To avoid the thermal stress resulting from a coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) mismatch, the CTE of the compliant body 32 is specially designed. FIG. 2 is a graph showing the relation between the warpage and the coefficient of thermal expansion of the compliant body 32 . FIG. 3 is a graph showing the relation between the contact stress and the coefficient of thermal expansion of the compliant body 32 . As shown in FIGS. 2 and 3 , if a lower degree of warpage is required or a higher contact stress is demanded to enhance the bonding strength, the compliant body 32 has to be fabricated using a material having a smaller CTE. Thus, based on the aforementioned analysis, the CTE of the compliant body 32 in the present invention is set within a preferable range of between 5 ppm/° C. and 200 ppm/° C. to produce the optimum effect. In fact, the preferred range for the CTE should be between 10 ppm/° C. and 150 ppm/° C. In addition, the Young's modulus of the compliant body 32 also has some effect on the bonding effect. Hence, the Young's modulus of the compliant body 32 can be selected to increase the bonding effect and achieve an optimal design. FIG. 4 is a graph showing the relation between the warpage and the Young's modulus of the compliant body 32 . FIG. 5 is a graph showing the relation between the contact stress and the Young's modulus of the compliant body 32 . As observed from FIGS. 4 and 5 , if the amount of warpage needs to be minimized, the compliant body 32 should be fabricated using a material having a small Young's modulus. If the contact stress needs to be higher, the compliant body 32 should be fabricated using a material having a larger Young's modulus. FIG. 6 is a table analyzing the material parameters (including the coefficient of thermal expansion and the Young's modulus) of the compliant body 32 on the bonding effect. With the aforementioned selection of the CTE in the preferred range and due consideration regarding the effect of the Young's modulus of the compliant body 32 on the bonding effect, the Young's modulus of the compliant body 32 is between 0.1 GPa and 2.8 GPa or between 3.5 GPa and 20 GPa. If the Young's modulus of the compliant body 32 is chosen to be between 0.1 GPa and 2.8 GPa, the warpage is lowered although the contact stress is smaller. On the other hand, if the Young's modulus of the compliant body 32 is chosen to be between 3.5 GPa and 20 GPa, the contact stress is increased to enhance bonding strength. Therefore, the present invention permits an amendment for the contact stress through a proper selection of the Young's modulus for the compliant body 32 . Beside the composite bump shown in FIGS. 1A and 1B , the present invention also provide other composite bumps having different shapes and dispositions. FIG. 7 is a schematic cross-sectional view of a hemispherical bump according to the present invention. The surface of the compliant body 32 away from the pad 26 is a curve surface, for example. FIG. 8 is a schematic cross-sectional view of a composite bump with a roughened surface according to the present invention. The surface of the compliant body 32 away from the pad 26 has a roughened surface, for example. FIG. 9 is schematic cross-sectional view of a composite bump having a plurality of protrusions thereon. The compliant body 32 comprises a plurality of protrusions and the protrusions are disposed on the pad 26 . Similarly, FIGS. 10 and 11 are schematic cross-sectional views showing a composite bump with a plurality of protrusions. The protrusions in FIG. 10 are disposed on both the pads 26 and the peripheral region of the pad 26 , but the protrusions in FIG. 11 are disposed on the peripheral region of the pad 26 only. FIGS. 12A through 12I are schematic cross-sectional views showing the steps for fabricating a composite bump according to the present invention. First, as shown in FIG. 12A , a substrate 30 having a pad 26 and a protective layer 28 thereon is provided. The pad 26 has a diameter of about 90 μm, for example. Furthermore, the surface of the pad 26 has been etched and cleaned. As shown in FIG. 12B , a compliant material layer 32 is formed over the substrate 30 . The compliant material layer 32 is fabricated using the aforementioned polymer material, for example. In the present embodiment, the compliant material layer 32 is a non-photosensitive material such as non-photosensitive polyimide or epoxy-based polymer material having a thickness between about 5˜25 μm. As shown in FIG. 12C , a patterned photoresist layer 40 is formed over the compliant material layer 32 above the pad 26 . As shown in FIG. 12D , using the photoresist layer 40 as a mask, the compliant material layer 32 is etched to form a compliant body 32 . The process of etching the compliant material layer 32 to form the compliant body 32 is more thoroughly described in chapter 8 of the book “Polyimides” written by Wilson, Stenzenberger and Hergenrother. As shown in FIG. 12E , the photoresist layer 40 is removed. As shown in FIG. 12F , an outer conductive material layer 36 is formed globally over the substrate 30 . The outer conductive material layer 36 is, for example, a chromium/gold alloy layer comprising a chromium layer with a thickness of about 500 Å and a gold layer with a thickness of about 2000 Å. The outer conductive material layer 36 can also be a single metal layer of aluminum or nickel, or an alloyed layer of nickel/gold, chromium/silver or titanium/platinum. Furthermore, the outer conductive layer material 36 can also be an adhesion/barrier/conductive composite layer including, for example, chromium/copper/gold, chromium/nickel/gold, chromium/silver/gold, titanium/platinum/gold, titanium/palladium/gold or titanium/tungsten/silver. As shown in FIG. 12G , another patterned photoresist layer 40 is formed over the outer conductive material layer 36 . As shown in FIG. 12H , using the photoresist layer 40 as a mask, the outer conductive material layer 36 is etched to form an outer conductive layer 36 . Thereafter, as shown in FIG. 12I , the photoresist layer 40 is removed to produce a composite bump. The composite bump in the aforementioned embodiment can further include a substrate conductive layer 38 (as shown in FIG. 13J ) disposed between the compliant body 32 and the substrate 30 and extended into the peripheral area of the pad 26 above the protective layer 28 . Therefore, the compliant body 32 is able to extend outside the pad 26 and the outer conductive layer 36 covering the compliant body 32 connects with the substrate conductive layer 38 . The substrate conductive layer 38 is fabricated using aluminum, for example. FIGS. 13A through 13J are schematic cross-sectional views showing the steps for fabricating a composite bump with the substrate conductive layer 38 according to the present invention. In the figures, a detailed explanation of previously described components (for example, material, thickness or processing parameters) is omitted in the following, and refers to the previous embodiment when necessary. First, as shown in FIG. 13A , a substrate 30 having a pad 26 and a protective layer 28 thereon is provided. As shown in FIG. 13B , a substrate conductive layer 38 is formed over the substrate 30 . The substrate conductive layer 38 is fabricated using a metallic material including aluminum or other suitable conductive material, for example. Then, as shown in FIGS. 13C˜13I , the steps necessary for fabricating the compliant body 32 and the outer conductive layer 36 as in the previous embodiment are carried out. In the process of etching the conductive material layer 36 as in FIGS. 13H and 13I , the substrate conductive material layer 38 is also etched. After removing the photoresist layer 40 , a composite bump like the one shown in FIG. 13J is formed. The foregoing embodiment disclosed a method that uses non-photosensitive material to fabricate the compliant body. Obviously, the present invention also permits the use of photosensitive material in the fabrication of the compliant body. Since most of the steps have been described in detail in the previous embodiments, a detailed description is not repeated here. In the following, several other types of composite bumps with substrate conductive layer fabricated according to the present invention are also illustrated as shown in FIGS. 14 through 16 . In FIG. 14 , a composite bump having a solder layer 52 formed over the outer conductive pad layer 36 is shown. In FIG. 15 , the surface of the compliant body away from pad 26 is a curve surface. In FIG. 16 , the surface of the compliant body away from the pad 26 is a roughened surface. Since the material, thickness and method of fabrication of the components in the present embodiments are closely related to the aforementioned embodiments, a detailed description is omitted. In summary, the composite bump in the present invention mainly has a compliant body for providing a stress buffering effect. Furthermore, because the coefficient of thermal expansion of the compliant body is chosen to be within a preferred range, thermal stress is significantly relieved to increase the bonding effect. In addition, the Young's modulus of the compliant body can be specially designed to strike a balance between the contact stress and its corresponding peeling stress. Thus, a higher production yield can be obtained. Moreover, the present invention also permits a modification of the shape and disposition of the composite bump to produce an optimum design. It will be apparent to those skilled in the art that various modifications and variations can be made to the structure of the present invention without departing from the scope or spirit of the invention. In view of the foregoing, it is intended that the present invention cover modifications and variations of this invention provided they fall within the scope of the following claims and their equivalents.

A composite bump suitable for disposing on a substrate pad is provided. The composite bump includes a compliant body and an outer conductive layer. The coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of the compliant body is between 5 ppm/° C. and 200 ppm/° C. The outer conductive layer covers the compliant body and is electrically connected to the pad. The compliant body can provide a stress buffering effect for a bonding operation. Furthermore, by setting of the CTE of the compliant body within a preferable range, damages caused by thermal stress are reduced while the bonding effect is enhanced.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a digital filter for use in, for example, filtering of image data or the like. 2. Description of the Prior Art A filter of symmetric coefficients having linear phase characteristic is generally employed as a finite impulse response or FIR digital filter. For the filter coefficients of the FIR digital filter, in general, a value of the coefficient of the central tap is large and values of the coefficients at the ends are small. Therefore, when the filter operations are performed using multipliers of the same input word length while aligning the digits, in the case of the filter operation using a small filter coefficient for an output of the tap at the end, the operation word length of the multiplier cannot be effectively used, so that the operation word length becomes vain. Practically speaking, in the case where a numeric value is expressed by a fixed point method whereby a sign bit is expressed by the MSB and a decimal point appears immediately after the MSB, when the word length of a coefficient h 1 of a large value assumes m bits, the effective word length of a coefficient h 2 of a small value is n bits, which are smaller than the word length of the coefficient h 1 . Thus, (m-n) bits corresponding to the difference between the word lengths of the coefficients h 1 and h 2 become the vain word length. Assuming that the input word length of the multiplier is m bits and an input data x 1 is m bits, the case of multiplying the data x 1 by the coefficients h 1 and h 2 , respectively, will be now considered. In the multiplication of the input data x and the coefficient h 1 of a large value, both word lengths of the input data x 1 and the coefficient h 1 are equal to the input word length of the multiplier, so that the operation word length does not become vain. In the multiplication of the input data x 1 and the coefficient h 2 of a small value, however, the effective word length of the coefficient h.sub. 2 is expressed by n bits smaller than m bits of the input word length of the multiplier, so that (m-n) bits become the vain word length. Consequently, in the case where the output data of the taps which are multiplied by the coefficients in this manner are added the portions of the respective high order bits become the vain word lengths. To prevent such vain word lengths, such constitution that the digits of the outputs of the taps are aligned as mentioned above is not used but another method is considered in the multiplication of the input data x 1 and the coefficient h 2 whereby the coefficient h 2 of a small value is shifted by (m-n) bits to the higher order so as to be increased by 2.sup.(m-n) times and supplied to the multiplier. In this way, by scaling the coefficient h 2 of a small value and supplying it to the multiplier the effective word length of the coefficient becomes long and the multiplication output of the multiplier becomes all effective bits, so that the vain operation word length is eliminated. However, the outputs of the taps which are multiplied by the scaled coefficients- respectively have a drawback such that their .digits are not aligned by the amounts commensurate with the scaling. Therefore, it is necessary upon addition to shift the multiplied outputs of the respective taps by the amounts commensurate with the scaling so as to align their digits and then add those shifted outputs. As described above, by supplying the scaled coefficients as inputs for multiplication, the vain operation word length is eliminated in the case where the FIR digital filter is constituted providing the multipliers of the same word length for the respective taps. However, since the filter coefficients differ for every characteristic of the filter, amounts of scaling of the multipliers also differ for every characteristic of the filter. In the case of realizing the digital filter in which the scaled coefficients are supplied as inputs for multiplication as mentioned above, different hardware must be provided for every characteristic of the digital filter, which is generally constituted by a hard-wired system for processing an image signal or the like, since the addition after the multiplication is accompanied by a bit shifting operation. OBJECTS AND SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is an object of the present invention to provide a digital filter in which hardware are not needed to be changed for every characteristic of the filter. Another object of the invention is to provide a digital filter in which the vain operation word lengths of multipliers are eliminated. According to the present invention, a digital filter comprising, an input terminal provided . with an input digital signal, a delay circuit connected to the input terminal and for producing a plurality of delayed digital signals each having different delay time with respect to the input digital signal, a first circuit for selectively adding the input digital signal and/or the plurality of delayed digital signals to be multiplied with one or more digital coefficient signals of same value so as to produce one or more added digital signals, a circuit for multiplying the one or more respective digital coefficient signals to the one or more added digital signals and/or one or more of the plurality of delayed digital signals, respectively a plurality of multiplied digital signals, a second circuit for adding the plurality of multiplied digital signals so as to produce an output digital signal, and a circuit connected between the delay circuit and a circuit for multiplying and for increasing the one or more added digital signals and/or the one or more of the plurality of delayed digital signals in the value thereof by one or more predetermined numbers of times, whereby the one or more respective digital coefficient signals have inversely proportional values corresponding to the one or more predetermined numbers of times of the values of the one or more added digital signals and/or the one or more of the plurality of delayed digital signals. Further, a digital filter comprising, an input terminal provided with an input digital signal, a plurality of frame delay circuits connected to the input terminal in series, first digital adding circuits selectively connected to the input terminal or respective outputs of the plurality of frame delay circuits at inputs thereof, respectively, a plurality of line delay circuits connected to an output of the first digital adding circuits in series, second digital adding circuits selectively connected to the output of the first digital adding circuits or respective outputs of the plurality of line delay circuits at inputs thereof, respectively, a plurality of sample delay circuits connected to an output of the second digital adding circuits in series, third digital adding circuits selectively connected to the output of the second digital signal adding circuits or respective outputs of the plurality of sample delay circuits at inputs thereof, respectively, a plurality of multiplying circuits connected to outputs of the third digital adding circuits, respectively, and for multiplying a plurality of digital coefficient signals to the output signal of the third digital adding circuit, respectively, a fourth digital adding circuit connected to the outputs of the plurality of multiplying circuits at inputs thereof, respectively, and an output terminal connected to the output of the fourth digital adding circuit. The above and other objects and advantages of the present invention will be more apparent from the following detailed description in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a diagram showing how FIGS. 1A, 1B and 1C are assembled to form a block diagram showing an example of an arrangement of a three-dimensional digital filter; FIG. 2 is a diagram showing how FIGS. 2A and 2B are assembled to form a block diagram showing an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram for use in explanation of one embodiment of the invention; FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram showing an example of filter coefficients of a three-dimensional digital filter; and FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram showing an example of coefficients in one embodiment of the invention. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS One embodiment of the present invention will now be described hereinbelow with reference to the drawings. This embodiment is applied to, for example, filtering of a non-interlaced image data. When the frame is advanced together with the time, it is assumed that the coordinate in the direction of the frame is l, the coordinate in the vertical direction is m, and the coordinate in the horizontal direction is n, and an attention is now paid to a pixel x (l, m, n). When an image data is transmitted through an FIR digital filter having an impulse response within a range of 2L+1 samples in the frame direction, 2M+1 samples in the vertical direction, and 2N+1 samples in the horizontal direction, an output (l, m, n) with respect to the pixel x (l, m, n) from the filter becomes ##EQU1## Where, h (i, j, k) is an impulse response, namely, a filter coefficient of this three-dimensional filter. Since an image signal is generated by a horizontal scan and a vertical scan the pixel x expressed by the coordinate function can be one-dimensionally expressed by a time function as follows. x (l, m, n)=x (lF+mH+n) Where, F is a vertical scan period and H is a horizontal scan period. Therefore, the three-dimensional FIR digital filter for an image signal can be realized by an arrangement shown in FIG. 1. In FIG. 1, frame delay circuits 2 and 3 are cascade connected. An input terminal 1 is connected to one end of the frame delay circuit 2. A junction of the terminal 1 and delay circuit 2 is connected to one end of cascade connected line delay circuits 4 and 5. A junction of the delay circuits 2 and 3 is connected to one end of cascade connected line delay circuits 6 and 7. The other end of the delay circuit 3 is connected to one end of cascade connected line delay circuits 8 and 9. An output at the junction of the input terminal and frame delay circuit 2 is supplied to a sum-of-products circuits which is constituted by: cascade connected sample delay circuits 10 to 13; multipliers 14 to 18 to which outputs of taps of the delay circuits 10 to 13 are supplied; and an adder 19 to which outputs of the multipliers 14 to 18 are supplied. The multipliers 14 to 18 serve to multiply filter coefficients h (1, 1, 2), h (1, 1, 1), h (1, 1, 0), h (1, 1, -1), and h (1, 1, -2), respectively. An output of the line delay circuit 4 is supplied to a sum-of-products circuit which is constituted by: cascade connected sample delay circuits 20 to 23; multipliers 24 to 28 to which outputs of taps of the delay circuits 20 to 23 are supplied; and an adder 29 to which outputs of the multipliers 24 to 28 are supplied. The multipliers 24 to 28 serve to multiply filter coefficients h (1, 0, 2), h (1, 0, 1), h (1, 0, 0), h (1, 0, -1), and h (1, 0, -2), respectively. An output of the line delay circuit 5 is supplied to a sum-of-products circuit which is constituted by: cascade connected sample delay circuits 30 to 33; multipliers 34 to 38 to which outputs of taps of the delay circuits 30 to 33 are supplied; and an adder 39 to which outputs of the multipliers 34 to 38 are supplied. The multipliers 34 to 38 serve to multiply filter coefficients h (1, -1, 2), h (1, -1, 1), h (1, -1, 0), h (1, -1, -1), and h (1, -1, -2), respectively. An output at the junction of the frame delay circuits 2 and 3 is supplied to a sum-of-products circuit which is constituted by: cascade connected sample delay circuits 40 to 43; multipliers 44 to 48 to which outputs of taps of the delay circuits 40 to 43 are supplied; and an adder 49 to which outputs of the multipliers 44 to 48 are supplied. The multipliers 44 to 48 serve to multiply filter coefficients h (0, 1, 2), h (0, 1, 1), h (0, 1, 0), h (0, 1, -1), and h (0, 1, -2), respectively. An output of the line delay circuit 6 is supplied to a sum-of-products circuit which is constituted by: cascade connected sample delay circuits 50 to 53; multipliers 54 to 58 to which outputs of taps of the delay circuits 50 to 53 are supplied; and an adder 59 to which outputs of the multipliers 54 to 58 are supplied. The multipliers 54 to 58 serve to multiply filter coefficients h (0, 0, 2), h (0, 0, 1), h (0, 0, 0), h (0, 0, -1), and h (0, 0, -2), respectively. An output of the line delay circuit 7 is supplied to a sum-of-products circuit which is constituted by: cascade connected sample delay circuits 60 to 63; multipliers 64 to 68 to which outputs of taps of the delay circuits 60 to 63 are supplied; and an adder 69 to which output of the multipliers 64 to 68 are supplied. coefficients h (0, -1, 2), h (0, -1, 1), h (0, -1, 0), h (0, -1, -1), and h (0, -1, -2), respectively. An output of the frame delay circuit 3 is supplied to a sum-of-products circuit which is constituted by: cascade connected sample delay circuits 70 to 73; multipliers 74 to 78 to which outputs of taps of the delay circuits 70 to 73 are supplied; and an adder 79 to which outputs of the multipliers 74 to 78 are supplied. The multipliers 74 to 78 serve to multiply filter coefficients h (-1, 1, 2), h (-1, 1, 1), h (-1, 1, 0), h (-1, 1, -1), and h (-1, 1, -2), respectively. An output of the line delay circuit 8 is supplied to a sum-of-products circuit which is constituted by: cascade connected sample delay circuits 80 to 83; multipliers 84 to 88 to which outputs of taps of the delay circuits 80 to 83 are supplied; and an adder 89 to which outputs of the multipliers 84 to 88 are supplied. The multipliers 84 to 88 serve to multiply filter coefficients h (-1, 0, 2), h (-1, 0, 1), h (-1, 0, 0), h (-1, 0, -1), and h (-1, 0, -2), respectively. An output of the line delay circuit 9 is supplied to a sum-of-products circuit which is constituted by: cascade connected sample delay circuits 90 to 93; multipliers 94 to 98 to which outputs of taps of the delay circuits 90 to 93 are supplied; and an adder 99 to which outputs of the multipliers 94 to 98 are supplied. The multipliers 94 to 98 serve to multiply filter coefficients h (-1, -1, 2), h (-1, -1, 1), h (-1, -1, 0), h (-1, -1, -1), and h (-1, -1, -2), respectively. Outputs of the adders 19, 29, 39, 49, 59, 69, 79, 89, and 99 are supplied to an adder 100. An output terminal 101 is led out from the adder 100 and a filter output is derived from the output terminal 101. In the three-dimensional digital filter which is used for an image signal, a filter of linear phase characteristic is often employed. The filter of the linear phase characteristic is a filter in which impulse responses are symmetrical with regard to the horizontal, vertical, and frame directions, namely, filter coefficients are symmetrical. In FIR filters having such symmetrical filter coefficients, it has been known that the number of multipliers can be reduced by multiplying the filter coefficients after preliminarily adding both data to be multiplied by same filter coefficient. FIG. 2 shows an embodiment of the present invention. This embodiment intends to reduce the number of multipliers by using the symmetrical property of the filter coefficients as mentioned above. In FIG. 2, frame delay circuits 202 and 203 are cascade connected. An input terminal 201 is connected to one end of the delay circuit 202. A digital image signal of, e.g., eight bits is supplied from the input terminal 201. Filter coefficients regarding tap outputs in the frame direction which are derived from the cascade connected delay circuits 202 and 203 are symmetrical. An output of the delay circuit 203 and an output at a junction of the input terminal 201 and delay circuit 202 are therefore supplied to an adder 204 so that the tap outputs in the frame direction to which the same filter coefficient is multiplied are preliminarily added. Line delay circuits 205 and 206 are cascade connected and an output of the adder 204 is supplied to the delay circuit 205. Filter coefficients regarding the tap outputs in the vertical direction which are obtained from the cascade connected delay circuits 205 and 206 are symmetrical. The outputs of the delay circuit 206 and adder 204 are therefore supplied to an adder 207 so that the tap outputs in the vertical direction to which the same filter coefficient is multiplied are preliminarily added. Sample delay circuits 208 to 211 are cascade connected. An output of the adder 207 is supplied to the delay circuit 208. Filter coefficients regarding the tap outputs in the horizontal direction which are obtained from the cascade connected delay circuits 208 to 211 are symmetrical. The outputs of the delay circuit 211 and adder 207 are therefore supplied to an adder 212 and the outputs of the delay circuits 210 and 208 are supplied to an adder 213 so that the outputs to which the same filter coefficient is multiplied are preliminarily added. An output of the adder 212 is supplied to a multiplier 214. An output of the adder 213 is supplied to a multiplier 215. The output of the delay circuit 209 is doubled and supplied to a multiplier 216. In this case, the parallel output of the sample delay circuit 209 may be shifted to the higher order by one bit and supplied to the multiplier or a bit shifter 209a may be separately provided. The multipliers 214, 215, and 216 serve to multiply filter coefficients h (1, 1, 2), h (1, 1, 1), and h (1, 1, 0), respectively. The filter coefficient h (1, 1, 0) is 1/2 of the inherent coefficient. Outputs of the multipliers 214, 215, and 216 are supplied to an adder 217. Sample delay circuits 218 to 221 are cascade connected. The output of the delay circuit 205 is supplied to the delay circuit 218. Filter coefficients regarding the tap outputs in the horizontal direction which are derived from the cascade connected sample delay circuits 218 to 221 are symmetrical. An output of the sample delay circuit 221 and the output of the line delay circuit 205 are therefore supplied to an adder 222, and outputs of the delay circuits 220 and 218 are supplied to an adder 223 so that the outputs to which the same filter coefficient is multiplied are preliminarily added. An output of the adder 222 is doubled and supplied to a multiplier 224. An output of the adder 223 is doubled and supplied to a multiplier 225. The output of the delay circuit 219 is increased by four times and supplied to a multiplier 226. The multipliers 224, 225, and 226 serve to multiply filter coefficients h (1, 0, 2), h (1, 0, 1), and h (1, 0, 0), respectively. The filter coefficients h (1, 0, 2) and h (1, 0, 1) are 1/2 of the inherent coefficients. The filter coefficient h (1, 0, 0) is 1/4 of the inherent coefficient. Outputs of the multipliers 224 to 226 are supplied to an adder 227. In the above case, a process similar to the sample delay circuit 209 may be performed to those outputs, respectively. However, in the case where the output which is obtained at the junction of the line delay circuits 205 and 206 is shifted by one bit to a higher order by a bit shifter 205a and the output of the sample delay circuit 219 is shifted by one bit to a higher order by a bit shifter 219a, a result similar to the above can be derived. Line delay circuits 228 and 229 are cascade connected. The output of the frame delay circuit 202 is supplied to the delay circuit 228. Filter coefficients regarding the tap outputs in the vertical direction which are derived from the cascade connected line delay circuits 228 and 229 are symmetrical. The output of the line delay circuit 229 and the output of the frame delay circuit 202 are therefore supplied to an adder 230 so that the tap outputs in the vertical direction to which the same filter coefficient is multiplied are preliminarily added. Sample delay circuits 231 to 234 are cascade connected. An output of the adder 230 is supplied to the delay circuit 231 Filter coefficients regarding the tap outputs in the horizontal direction which are obtained from the cascade connected delay circuits 231 to 234 are symmetrical. The output of the sample delay circuit 234 and the output of the adder 230 are therefore supplied to an adder 235, and the outputs of the delay circuits 233 and 231 are supplied to an adder 236 so that the outputs to which the same filter coefficient is multiplied are preliminarily added. An output of the adder 235 is doubled and supplied to a multiplier 237. An output of the adder 236 is doubled and supplied to a multiplier 238. The output of the delay circuit 232 is increased by four times and supplied to a multiplier 239. The multipliers 237, 238, and 239 serve to multiply filter coefficients h (0, 1, 2), h (0, 1, 1), and h (0, 1, 0), respectively. The filter coefficients h (0, 1, 2) and h (0, 1, 1) are 1/2 of the inherent coefficients. The filter coefficient h (0, 1, 0) is 1/4 of the inherent coefficient. Outputs of the multipliers 237, 238, and 239 are supplied to an adder 240. In the above case as well, a process similar to the sample delay circuit 209 may be performed to those outputs, respectively. However, in the case where the output which is obtained at the junction of the frame delay circuits 202 and 203 is shifted by one bit to a higher order by a bit shifter 202a at the output of the sample delay circuit 232 is shifted by one bit to a higher order by a bit shifter 232a, a result similar to the above can be derived. Sample delay circuits 241 to 244 are cascade connected. The output of the line delay circuit 228 is supplied to the delay circuit 241. Filter coefficients regarding the tap outputs in the horizontal direction which are derived from the cascade connected sample delay circuits 241 to 244 are symmetrical. The outputs of the sample delay circuit 244 and line delay circuit 228 are therefore supplied to an adder 245. And the outputs of the sample delay circuits 243 and 241 are supplied to an adder 246 so that the outputs to which the same filter coefficient is multiplied are preliminarily added. An output of the adder 245 is increased by four times and supplied to a multiplier 247. An output of the adder 246 is increased .by four times and supplied to a multiplier 248. The output of the sample delay circuit 242 is increased by eight times and supplied to a multiplier 249. The multipliers 247 to 249 serve to multiply filter coefficients h (0, 0, 2), h (0, 0, 1), and h (0, 0, 0), respectively. The filter coefficients h (0, 0, 2) and h (0, 0, 1 ) are 1/4 of the inherent coefficients The filter coefficient h (0, 0, 0) is 1/8 of the inherent coefficient. Outputs of the multipliers 247 to 249 are supplied to an adder 250. In the above case as well, a process similar to the sample delay circuit 209 may be performed to those outputs, respectively. However, in the case where the outputs which are obtained at the junctions of the frame delay circuits 202 and 203 and of the line delay circuits 228 and 229 are shifted by one bit to a higher order by bit shifters 202a and 228a and the output of the sample delay circuit 242 is shifted by one bit to a higher order by a bit shifter 242a, a result similar to the above can be derived. Outputs cf the adders 217, 227, 240, and 250 are supplied to an adder 251. An output terminal 252 is led out from the adder 251. A filter output is taken out from the output terminal 252. As described above, with an arrangement in which data to be multiplied with the same filter coefficient is preliminarily added by using a symmetrical property of the filter coefficients, the input data of the multiplier to multiply the filter coefficient of the central tap among the input data of the multipliers to multiply the filter coefficients is not preliminarily added. Therefore in the conventional apparatus the effective word length is reduced as compared with the other input data. Thus, the effective word lengths of the input data for the filter coefficients have weights as shown in FIG. 3. Namely, for example, when data each consisting of eight bits are added to each other the addition output is increased by one digit and becomes a data of nine bits. In this manner, the word length of the output data of the adder is longer by one bit than the effective word length of the input data. Therefore, assuming that a digital signal of, e.g., eight bits is supplied from the input terminal 201, the effective word lengths of the data which are respectively supplied to the multipliers 214 to 216, 224 to 226, 237 to 239, and 247 to 249 become as shown below. The effective word length of the data which is supplied to the multiplier 214 is increased by three bits and becomes eleven bits since it is supplied through the adders 204, 207, and 212. The effective word length of the data which is supplied to the multiplier 215 is increased by three bits and becomes eleven bits since it is supplied through the adders 204, 207, and 213. The effective word length of the data which is supplied to the multiplier 216 is increased by two bits and becomes ten bits since it is supplied through the adders 204 and 207. The effective word length of the data which is supplied to the multiplier 224 is increased by two bits and becomes ten bits since it is supplied through the adders 204 and 222. The effective word length of the data which is supplied to the multiplier 225 is increased by two bits and becomes ten bits since it is supplied through the adders 204 and 223. The effective word length of the data which is supplied to the multiplier 226 is increaded by one bit and becomes nine bits since it is supplied through the adder 204. The effective word length of the data which is supplied to the multiplier 237 is increased by two bits and becomes ten bits since it is supplied through the adders 230 and 235. The effective word length of the data which is supplied to the multiplier 238 is increased by two bits and becomes ten bits since it is supplied through the adders 230 and 236. The effective word length of the data which is supplied to the multiplier 239 is increased by one bit and becomes nine bits since it is supplied through the adder 230. The effective word length of the data which is supplied to the multiplier 247 is increased by one bit and becomes nine bits since it is supplied through the adder 245. The effective word length of the data which is supplied to the multiplier 248 is increased by one bit and becomes nine bits since it is supplied through the adder 246. The effective word length of the data which is supplied to the multiplier 249 is eight bits since it is not supplied through any adder. As described above, by multiplying the input data of different effective word lengths using the multipliers of the same operation word length in a manner such that the digits of the output data from the multiplier are aligned, the high order bits of the operation word length cannot be effectively used in the case of the input data of a short effective word length. Therefore in the present invention the scaling of the input data is performed thereby to align the MSB of the input data and the MSB of the input for multiplication. In other words, the data which has the weight of the effective word lengh of 1/8 is increased by eight times by shifting it by three bits. The data which has the weight of the effective word length of 1/4 is increased by four times by shifting it by two bits. The data which has the weight of the effective word length of 1/2 is doubled by shifting it by one bit. In this way, the MSB of all input data are aligned. In this embodiment, the multipliers of the same input word length of, e.g., eleven bits are used as the multipliers 214 to 216, 224 to 226, 237 to 239, and 247 to 249. Therefore, the input data of the multiplier 249 is increased by eight times and supplied to the multiplier 249. The input data of the multipliers 226, 239, 247, and 248 are respectively increased by four times and supplied to the multipliers 226, 239, 247, and 248. The input data of the multipliers 216, 226, 225, 237, and 238 are respectively doubled and supplied to the multipliers 216, 224, 225, 237, and 238. In this manner, the effective word lengths of all input data are set to, for example, eleven bits which are equal to the input word length of the multipliers. When the multiplication inputs are scaled and supplied as described above, the digits of the multiplied outputs are not aligned. To correct this, the digits of the multiplication outputs are aligned by reversely scaling the filter coefficients by amounts commensurate with the scaling of the input data. Practically speaking the filter coefficient regarding the data which has the weight of the word length of 1/8 is set to the coefficient of 1/8. The filter coefficient regarding the data which has the weight of the word length of 1/4 is set to the coefficient of 1/4. The filter coefficient regarding the data which has the weight of the word length of 1/2 is set to the coefficient of 1/2. Thus, the digits of the multiplication outputs can be aligned. In this embodiment, the coefficient of the multiplier 249 is 1/8. The coefficients of the multipliers 226, 239, 247, and 248 are decreased 1/4, respectively. The coefficients of the multipliers 216, 224, 225, 237, and 238 are 1/2, respectively. In this way, the digits of the multiplication outputs are aligned. Consequently, the outputs of the multipliers 214 to 216, the outputs of the multipliers 224 to 226, the outputs of the multipliers 237 to 239, and the outputs of the multipliers 247 to 249 are supplied to the adders 217, 227, 240, and 250 without shifting the digits, respectively, and are added. In general, values of the filter coefficients at the ends of the impulse response are small and values of the filter coefficients near the center are large. Since the data of the central tap has a small weight of the word length as input data for the multiplication, by reversely scaling the filter coefficients as mentioned above, the values of the coefficients approach to each other and the word lengths of the coefficients are almost aligned. Consequently, even in the case of the filter coefficient of a small value at the end, the operation word length ca be effectively used without making it vain. FIG. 4 shows an example of filter coefficients of a three-dimensional digital filter. In the case of constituting a filter of filter coefficients shown in FIG. 4 by using this embodiment, the coefficients are scaled in accordance with the weights shown in FIG. 3 and supplied to the multipliers, so that they become coefficients shown in FIG. 5. The coefficients shown in FIG. 5 are coefficients which were multiplied by the weights and thereafter increased by eight times for easy comparison with the filter coefficients shown in FIG. 4. As shown in FIG. 5, values of the coefficients are nearly equal. Therefore, when multipliers of similar input word lengths are used as multipliers to multiply the coefficients, the vain operation word length of the multipliers are not caused. According to the present invention, the values of the coefficients which are supplied to the multipliers to multiply the filter coefficients are almost equalized and the word lengths of the filter coefficients are nearly equalized. Therefore, even in the case of performing the filter operation of the tap of a small filter coefficient as well, the vain operation word length is not caused. Further, there is no need to execute the scaling in accordance with the filter coefficients and the digits of the outputs of the multipliers are coincident. Thus, there is no need to change hardware for every characteristic of the filter. Although the present invention has been shown and described with respect to a preferred embodiment, various change and modification which are obvious to a person skilled in the art to which the invention pertains are deemed to lie within the spirit and scope of the invention.

A digital filter has an input terminal provided with an input digital signal. A delay circuit connected to the input terminal produces a plurality of delayed digital signals each having a different delay time with respect to the input digital signal. A first circuit adds the input digital signal and/or the plurality of delayed digital signals to one or more digital coefficient signals of the same value so as to produce one or more added digital signals. A circuit multiplies the one or more respective digital coefficient signals by the one or more added digital signals and/or one or more of the plurality of delayed digital signals to produce a plurality of multiplied digital signals. A second circuit adds the plurality of multiplied digital signals to produce an output digital signal, and a circuit connected between the delay circuit and a multiplying circuit increases the one or more added digital signals and/or the one or more of the plurality of delayed digital signals by one or more predetermined numbers of times, whereby the one or more respective digital coefficient signals have inversely proportional values corresponding to the one or more predetermined numbers of times of the values of the one or more added digital signals and/or the one or more of the plurality of delayed digital signals.

BACKGROUND In photography, the color of objects in a photographic image is determined by the intrinsic color of the photographed object and the color of the light or lights that illuminated the object. Lights that illuminate an object are tinted by reflecting off of colored items or passing through a medium that filters out other colors. Photographing things underwater usually results in an overall tinted (often bluish or greenish tint) illumination. The amount of light filtered out, and the colors of the light that are filtered out depend on the depth and the contents of the water (e.g., murky, salt, fresh, etc.). Accordingly, objects that are lit by light passing through water appear incorrectly tinted, while the water itself appears correctly tinted (e.g., tinted the color of water). One type of photographic editing, called “color balancing” or “white balancing” attempts to remove some or all of the effects of the specific light color on the photographed object (e.g., to remove a green or blue tint of a photographed person when the person was illuminated by green or light, such as the light underwater). Various image editing programs apply white balancing techniques to remove the effects of tinted light on an image. Without applying a color balancing technique, the colors of items in the water (e.g., people's skin) are tinted by the color of the light that filters through the water. However, when previous color balancing techniques are applied to an image taken underwater, or taken of an underwater scene from above the water, the color corrections result in images that do not look as though they were taken underwater. The previous color balancing techniques do not preserve the color of the water. BRIEF SUMMARY Some embodiments provide an application (e.g., an image organizing and editing application) that receives and edits image data of an underwater scene in a digital image in order to remove undesirable tints from objects in the scene. In some embodiments, colors near the color of the water itself are protected to leave the water looking blue. Removing undesirable tints without removing the tint of the water itself results in images with more realistic coloring of people and objects in the scene, without eliminating the color cues (e.g., blue water) that indicate that the image is a photograph of an underwater scene. Each pixel in an image can be represented in a format that includes three chromatic values (e.g., an RGB format). Alternatively, each image can be represented in a luminance/chrominance color system (e.g., a YIQ or YC b C r color component system) by a luminance value Y and two chrominance values. In some embodiments, an image is converted from one format to the other in order to perform color adjustments in a format best suited for those adjustments. The image editing applications of some embodiments adjust the colors of an image while protecting colors that are close to the color of water in the image by a multi-step process. In some embodiments, the application determines a designated water color for the image. The application performs a gamma adjustment of the image in an RGB format. The application then translates the RGB formatted image into a YIQ formatted image. The application then adjusts the colors in the YIQ formatted image away from the water color. In the course of adjusting the colors in the YIQ format, the application of some embodiments reduces the magnitude of the color adjustment of those pixels with colors close to the designated water color. The application of some embodiments determines a reduction in the magnitude of the color adjustment of some pixel's colors based on a balance setting (e.g., set by a user or set automatically). The application of some embodiments also reduces or increases the color adjustments of all pixels based on an overall strength setting (e.g., set by a user or set automatically). In the applications of some embodiments, the strength setting applies to all pixels, while the balance setting applies only to pixels closer to the color of water than to the complement of the color of water. The application of some embodiments uses an additional factor to dampen the adjustment depending on the luminance of the individual pixel being adjusted. For example, the application of some embodiments applies smaller adjustments to very bright or very dark pixels than to pixels of mid-range brightness. The application of some embodiments, after adjusting the colors in, e.g., a YIQ colorspace, translates the image back into RGB colorspace. The application then applies an inverse gamma adjustment to the image. Adjusting the color of a pixel in a YIQ colorspace, then performing an inverse gamma correction in RGB colorspace can result in a pixel that is brighter or darker than the original pixel. Making the pixel brighter or darker can be an unwanted side effect of the color adjustment and the inverse gamma transformation. Therefore, in order to keep the adjusted color, but undo the unwanted change to the brightness of the pixel, the application of some embodiments converts the adjusted image and the original image into a luminance-chrominance colorspace (e.g., the YIQ colorspace) and replaces the luminance values of the color adjusted, inverse gamma adjusted image with the corresponding luminance values of the original image. Restoring the original luminance levels results in an image in which the colors have been adjusted, but any changes to the luminance levels of the pixels (e.g., resulting from the non-linear nature of gamma adjustments) will be undone. The application then retranslates the color adjusted YIQ image (with the luminance levels restored) into the RGB colorspace. The preceding Summary is intended to serve as a brief introduction to some embodiments of the invention. It is not meant to be an introduction or overview of all inventive subject matter disclosed in this document. The Detailed Description that follows and the Drawings that are referred to in the Detailed Description will further describe the embodiments described in the Summary as well as other embodiments. Accordingly, to understand all the embodiments described by this document, a full review of the Summary, Detailed Description and the Drawings is needed. Moreover, the claimed subject matters are not to be limited by the illustrative details in the Summary, Detailed Description and the Drawings, but rather are to be defined by the appended claims, because the claimed subject matters can be embodied in other specific forms without departing from the spirit of the subject matters. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES The novel features of the invention are set forth in the appended claims. However, for purpose of explanation, several embodiments of the invention are set forth in the following figures. FIG. 1 illustrates the color correction of an underwater image by a program of some embodiments. FIG. 2 illustrates color adjustment of an image with a background color that is a low intensity green color. FIG. 3 conceptually illustrates a process in which an application of some embodiments determines a water color for an underwater image. FIG. 4 conceptually illustrates the determination of some embodiments of a water color for an underwater image. FIG. 5 conceptually illustrates a process of some embodiments for adjusting the colors of an image. FIG. 6 illustrates an image during various stages of a color adjustment process. FIG. 7 conceptually illustrates an example of regions with colors that are closer to an exemplar water color than to its corresponding complement color. FIG. 8 conceptually illustrates the adjustment of a color close to the water color for various balance values. FIG. 9 conceptually illustrates the adjustment of a color close to the complement of the water color for various balance values. FIG. 10 conceptually illustrates the effects of various strength and balance settings on pixel's colors near the water color and near the complement of the water color. FIG. 11 illustrates a graphical representation of the dampening factor of eqs. (12A) and (12B). FIG. 12 conceptually illustrates software architecture of part of an image editing application of some embodiments. FIG. 13 is an example of an architecture of a mobile computing device. FIG. 14 conceptually illustrates another example of an electronic system with which some embodiments of the invention are implemented. DETAILED DESCRIPTION In the following detailed description of the invention, numerous details, examples, and embodiments of the invention are set forth and described. However, it will be clear and apparent to one skilled in the art that the invention is not limited to be identical to the embodiments set forth and that the invention may be practiced without some of the specific details and examples described. It will be clear to one of ordinary skill in the art that various controls depicted in the figures are examples of controls provided for reasons of clarity. Other embodiments may use other controls while remaining within the scope of the present embodiment. For example, a control depicted herein as a hardware control may be provided as a software icon control in some embodiments, or vice versa. Similarly, the embodiments are not limited to using only the various indicators and icons depicted in the figures. A photograph of an underwater scene typically contains areas that are the color of water (e.g., blue areas in the background) and areas that are not the color of water (e.g., the faces of people in the scene). Generally, even the areas that are not the color of water are somewhat tinted blue by the color of the water because the color of the water tints the light that illuminates the scene. In prior art programs, a color balance tool would remove the tinting from the entire scene. However, this had the effect of greatly reducing or removing the blue color from the water visible in the scene (e.g., the water in the background). The color of the background water would then be more neutral (e.g., somewhat gray). In contrast, some embodiments provide an image editing application that removes the tinting from areas that are not close to the color of water, while applying a reduced adjustment (or no adjustment) to areas that have colors close to the color of water. In some embodiments, the application removes the tinting by shifting the colors of the pixels away from a calculated water color (e.g., a color based on the color of areas in the image, set by a user as the color of water, etc.). In performing color adjustments to a photograph of an underwater scene, the application of some embodiments provides a control to determine whether to fully apply this color correction to the areas that are the color of water, or reduce the color correction effects on those areas. FIG. 1 illustrates the color correction of an underwater image by a program of some embodiments. FIG. 1 is shown in three stages 101 - 103 . The several colors of the image 110 in the various stages are represented as various patterns in different areas of the image. Legend 150 provides a color key that associates each pattern with a particular color. In stage 101 , the original image 110 displays an underwater scene of a diver 112 in front of a reef 114 and a blue tinted (i.e., shown as blue in legend 150 ) area 116 of the surface of the water. In stage 101 , the diver 112 is shown with skin tinted blue by the ambient light of the scene. The areas of the reef that aren't dark are predominantly a darker blue than the water, with pink highlights 118 (shown in the pattern identified by legend 150 as pink in stage 101 to contrast with the stronger red color of highlights 118 in later stages). Stage 102 includes an interface of an image editing application 120 , with controls 122 , which include horizontal arrows 124 and vertical arrows 126 . In this stage, the image editing application 120 has adjusted the colors of the image 110 . In the illustrated embodiment, the setting represented by the arrows 124 and 126 is shown by the brightness of the arrow. For example, when a setting is maximized in a particular direction (e.g., to the right) the control arrow in that direction is set to white, while the control arrow in the opposite direction is set to black. One of ordinary skill in the art will understand that other embodiments use other indicators of the state of the setting (e.g., sliders, etc.) and that some embodiments do not display an overt indicator of the setting. Here, the control 122 is set with the horizontal control arrows 124 set all the way to the right (i.e., the right arrow is white and the left arrow is black) and the vertical control arrows 126 set all the way at the top. In this embodiment, this setting of the horizontal arrows 124 commands the application to preserve colors near the color of the water, while adjusting the colors of the image. The setting of the vertical arrows 126 commands the application to set the strength of the color adjustments to maximum (within the limitations imposed by the color adjustment system of the application 120 ). The diver 112 in the image 110 has colors that are mostly different from the color of water. Accordingly, the application has shifted the colors of the diver (e.g., skin tones) away from the blue tinted colors of the original image. The shift makes the diver 112 stand out, with more vibrant skin tones than the previous blue tinted skin tones. The red highlights 118 in the reef 114 also stand out more clearly in stage 102 with a more vibrant red color. The blue areas of the image remain blue because the controls 122 are set to preserve colors near the color of the water. In stage 103 , the vertical arrows 126 of controls 122 are still set to maximum. However, the horizontal arrows are set all the way to the left (i.e., the left arrow is white and the right arrow is black), commanding the image editing application 120 not to protect colors near the color of the water while adjusting the colors of the image. Therefore, in contrast to the image 110 in stage 102 , in stage 103 the image editing application 120 has adjusted the colors of the image 110 without protecting the color of the water. Accordingly, the colors of the reef 114 and the area 116 have been adjusted to redder colors (i.e., purple for reef 114 and red for area 116 as shown in legend 150 ). In some embodiments, the color of the water is determined from an average value of the colors of a set of pixels in the image (e.g., the pixels in a user selected area, an automatically selected area, or all the pixels in the image). The average color of the water is usually a color with blue as the predominant color component (i.e., the water has a bluish tint). However, in some underwater images, the background color has a greenish tint rather than a bluish tint. A green tint to the water may be undesirable as compared to blue. Accordingly, in some embodiments, the application adjusts the image from green toward a more neutral color. Some embodiments perform color adjustments in a YIQ colorspace. In the YIQ colorspace, the −I −Q direction is the direction of green. Therefore, the application shifts the image in the opposite color direction from green (i.e., +I +Q, toward magenta). In FIG. 1 , the average color of image 110 is an intense blue. The application shifted the water color slightly toward +I and +Q, but the effect was small relative to the intensity of the color of the background and the direction of the color shift was not directly away from the blue direction in colorspace. Therefore, the background remained blue. As mentioned above, in some underwater images, the average color has a greenish tint rather than a bluish tint. Furthermore, in some images the tint is slight rather than intense. The color adjuster changes the colors of such images more visibly as the small shift toward +I and +Q is relatively larger compared to the original color intensity and is directly opposed to the original color (green, with a value of −I and −Q). FIG. 2 illustrates color adjustment of an image 200 with a background color that is a low intensity green color. The figure is shown in three stages 201 - 203 with legend 250 . Legend 250 provides a color key that associates each pattern with a particular color. In stage 201 , the original image 200 has a greenish tint. In stage 202 , the horizontal arrows 124 are set all the way to the right (i.e., the right arrow is white and the left arrow is black). Therefore, the image editing application 120 has adjusted the colors of the image while protecting the pixels that have colors close to the color of the water (as adjusted by the shift away from green). Accordingly, the sand 220 in image 200 in stage 202 is a beige color rather than the greenish color of stage 201 . In stage 203 , the horizontal arrows 124 are set all the way to the left (i.e., the left arrow is white and the right arrow is black). Therefore, image editing application 120 has adjusted the colors of the image while not protecting the pixels that have colors close to the color of the water (as adjusted by the shift away from green). Accordingly, the colors of the image including the sand have been significantly shifted toward magenta (away from green) and the image 200 as a whole, in stage 203 , has a magenta tint (e.g., the sand 220 has turned pink). The shift in color of the background sand 220 from stage 201 to stage 202 is more significant than the shift in color of the blue tinted water surface 116 in stages 101 and 102 of FIG. 1 because of the shift of the whole image in the +I and +Q direction. The shift is also more significant because of the lower starting intensity of the greenish tint of the background sand 220 in FIG. 2 as compared to the blue tint of the surface 116 in FIG. 1 . Section I, below, describes color adjustments of some embodiments. Then section II describes a software architecture of some embodiments. Section III describes a mobile device on which image editing applications of some embodiments run. Section IV describes another computing device on which the image editing applications of some embodiments run. I. Color Adjustment A. Calculating Water Color The application of some embodiments determines a “water color” based on a modified average of the color of the pixels in an area of the image. This method of determining the color of water in an image is based on an assumption that the colors of the image would average out to a neutral gray unless there were some tint to all the colors of the image caused by the light that illuminated the scene captured in the image. The light in an underwater scene is filtered through the water and is tinted a blue to green color by the water. Accordingly, the average colors of the pixels in the image represent an initial value of the color of the water. The average color is then modified for aesthetic reasons. This modified average is referred to herein as the “color of water” or the “water color”. The applications of some embodiments translate the modified average into a different color space and selectively move the colors of the image away from the determined color of water. In some embodiments, the area used to determine the water color is an area selected by a user. In other embodiments, the area used is determined automatically by the application (e.g., the entire area of the image). In some embodiments, the average is determined in an RGB colorspace and then modified and converted to a YIQ colorspace. The color of the water is then used to adjust the colors of the image. FIG. 3 conceptually illustrates a process 300 in which an application of some embodiments determines a water color for an underwater image. FIG. 3 will be described with respect to FIG. 4 . FIG. 4 conceptually illustrates the effects of process 300 through five stages 401 - 405 . The process 300 determines (at 305 ) an average value of the color component values of the pixels in an image. That is, one average value is determined for red, another for blue, and a third for green. In some embodiments, the average is the arithmetic mean of the values. In some embodiments, the R, G, and B values are scaled from 0 to 1 before the averages are determined. In some embodiments, the values are determined mathematically and no visible graph is displayed. In FIG. 4 , stage 401 , the red (R ave ), green (G ave ), and blue (B ave ) average color values are displayed on a 3-axis graph 410 as point 415 . The process 300 then determines (at 310 ) whether the average pixel color is too dark. When the average pixel color is too dark (e.g., the sum of the average R, G, and B values is below a particular threshold) then the process 300 rescales (at 315 ) the average color values. In some embodiments, the threshold is ½ of the maximum possible value for one color component and therefore ⅙ of the maximum possible value of the sums of the color component values. In some embodiments, the R, G, and B values are rescaled with eq. (1A)-(1C) if the sum of the averages is below the threshold. However, the average values in such embodiments are not rescaled if the sum of the averages is at or above the threshold. R water =(−4*( R ave +G ave +B ave )+3)* R ave   (1A) G water =(−4*( R ave +G ave +B ave )+3)* G ave   (1B) B water =(−4*( R ave +G ave +B ave )+3)* B ave   (1C) In eq. (1A)-(1C): R water is the scaled value of the average R value of the pixels in the selected area. R ave is the actual average R value of the pixels in the selected area. G water is the scaled value of the average G value of the pixels in the selected area. G ave is the actual average G value of the pixels in the selected area. B water is the scaled value of the average B value of the pixels in the selected area. B ave is the actual average B value of the pixels in the selected area. In FIG. 4 , in stage 401 , the sum of the R, G, and B values of the selected area of the image are below the threshold. Accordingly, in stage 402 , the rescaled values (R water , G water , and B water ) are shown on the 3-axis graph 420 as point 425 . Point 425 has slightly larger R, G, and B values than R ave , G ave , and B ave of stage 401 . When the process 300 (of FIG. 3 ) determines (at 310 ) that the average color is not too dark, the process 300 skips operation 315 and moves on to operation 320 . The applications of some embodiments make color adjustments of the image in a YIQ colorspace. Therefore, the process 300 of FIG. 3 further translates (at 320 ) the water color into the YIQ colorspace in order to maintain consistency with an image which has been translated into YIQ colorspace. In some embodiments, the color adjustments are made to the chromatic components (I and Q) but not to the Y component. Accordingly the graphs in stages 403 - 405 of FIG. 4 show only I and Q axes. In stage 403 , the 2-axis graph 430 shows the I and Q values, represented by point 435 , translated from the R, G, and B values, represented by point 425 , from graph 420 of stage 402 . In some embodiments, one or both of the I and Q values are calculated in a non-traditional, non-linear manner. For example, the applications of some embodiments use eqs. (2A) and (2B) to calculate the I and Q values. I= 0.596 R− 0.2755 G− 0.321 B   (2A) Q= 0.212 R 0.5 −0.523 G 0.5 +0.311 B 0.5   (2B) In eqs. (2A)-(2B), R is the rescaled value of R ave . G is the rescaled value of G ave . B is the rescaled value of B ave . One of ordinary skill in the art will recognize eq. (2A) as a slightly modified version of the standard conversion function from RGB to I. Eq. (2B) is also a slightly modified conversion, but with a gamma correction (using a gamma value of 0.5) applied to the RGB values before using the RGB values to calculate the Q value. In other embodiments, different gamma adjustments (e.g., ¼, ⅛, or 1/16) are made to the R, G, and B values used to calculate I, Q, or both. As described above with respect to FIG. 2 , a green tinge to an image may be considered undesirable. Accordingly, in some embodiments, the colors of the image are adjusted away from green. The process 300 of FIG. 3 performs this adjustment by shifting (at 325 ) the water color toward the −I, −Q direction (i.e., toward green). The application of some embodiments shifts the image colors away from the color of water. Therefore, when the application adjusts the water color toward green the result is a shift of the post-adjustment image colors away from green. Graph 440 in stage 404 of FIG. 4 illustrates such a shift. The shifted water color value, represented by point 445 , has moved toward the lower left (green) corner of graph 440 relative to the converted I-Q values, represented by point 435 of the water color in graph 430 in stage 403 . Some embodiments perform both the conversion to YIQ values and the shift of the water color toward green in one mathematical step. That is, in some embodiments, the conversions from RGB to YIQ values are performed using eqs. (3A)-(3B), which include a slight shift toward −Q and −I. I= 0.596 R− 0.2755 G− 0.321 B− 0.05  (3A) Q= 0.212 R 0.5 −0.523 G 0.5 +0.311 B 0.5 −0.05  (3B) In eqs. (2A)-(2B), R is the rescaled value of R ave . G is the rescaled value of G ave . B is the rescaled value of B ave . In some embodiments, if the calculated Q value is too negative (e.g., more than a threshold distance below zero) the I value is decreased. The process 300 of FIG. 3 determines (at 330 ) whether the Q value is too negative (e.g., less than a threshold negative value such as −0.1). When the Q value is too negative, the process 300 decreases (at 335 ) the color value's I component. When the Q value is not too negative, the process 300 ends without changing the I value. In some embodiments, the process 300 uses eq. (4A) to adjust the I value and eq. (4B) if the Q value is not too negative. if Q<− 0.1 then I adj =I+ 2( Q+ 0.1)  (4A) if Q>− 0.1 then I adj =I   (4B) In eqs. (4A) and (4B), I is the unadjusted I value and I adj is the I value after adjustment (or after adjustment is determined to be unnecessary). Graph 450 in stage 405 of FIG. 4 shows the I and Q values, represented by point 455 , after such an adjustment. The process 300 of FIG. 3 then ends. In some embodiments, the above described calculations and adjustments are used to automatically determine a color of water for an image. In some embodiments, either as an alternative option or instead of the automatic calculation, the image editing application provides a set of controls that allows a user to determine a color to use as the water color. B. Adjusting Image Colors Given a water color as a basis for color adjustments to the pixel of an image, the image editing application of some embodiments is able to adjust the colors while protecting the colors of the image. The applications of some embodiments include settings to determine the strength of the color adjustment and the balance between protecting and not protecting colors near the color of water. FIG. 5 conceptually illustrates a process 500 of some embodiments for adjusting the colors of an image (e.g., an image taken underwater). The process 500 is described with references to FIGS. 4 and 6-11 . FIGS. 6-11 are described below as they become relevant to the process 500 . The process 500 determines (at 505 ) a water color of an image (e.g., as described with respect to FIG. 4 , above). The application of some embodiments uses the determined water color to adjust the colors of the image. The process 500 performs (at 510 ) a gamma adjustment on the image. FIG. 6 illustrates an image during various stages of a color adjustment process. The figure includes versions of the image before and after an initial gamma adjustment and a later inverse gamma adjustment. The gamma adjustment of some embodiments is performed by raising each component value of a pixel to a low power (e.g., ¼, ⅙, or ⅛). In some embodiments, the component values are between 0 and 1 inclusive, with 1 being the brightest and 0 being the dimmest. Raising the component values to a power less than 1 increases the component values and, therefore, brightens the pixels. The first two stages 601 and 602 of FIG. 6 show such a gamma adjustment. In stage 601 , an original image 610 is shown. In stage 602 , a gamma adjusted image 620 is shown. The gamma adjusted image 620 is lighter than the original image because a gamma adjustment by a low power increases each of the R, G, and B color values between 0 and 1. In the figure, the lightening of the image as a result of the gamma adjustment from stage 601 to stage 602 is represented by a reduction in the density of the patterns representing various colors in the image. In the gamma adjusted image, the color contrast of pixels with very low color component values is expanded (and the component value increased), while the color contrast of pixels with higher color component values is compressed (and concentrated near the top of the scale). The color adjustments between stages 602 and 603 are more complex and will be described with respect to operations 515 - 545 of FIG. 5 . In FIG. 6 , the color adjustment from stage 602 to stage 603 is represented by a change of patterns in the image. Stages 603 to 604 illustrate a gamma adjustment of the color adjusted image 630 . The gamma adjustment is the inverse operation of the original gamma adjustment of the image 610 . The inverse gamma adjustment of some embodiments applies an exponent of greater than 1 to the color values of each pixel. In some embodiments, the component values are between 0 and 1 inclusive, with 1 being the brightest and 0 being the dimmest. Raising the component values to a power greater than 1 decreases the component values and, therefore, darkens the pixels. In FIG. 6 , the darkening of the image as a result of the gamma adjustment from stage 603 to stage 604 is represented by a reduction in the density of the patterns representing various colors in the image. After the initial gamma adjustment of the image, the process 500 of FIG. 5 then converts (at 515 ) the image into a YIQ colorspace. In some embodiments, the water color conversion and the image conversion are done into some other colorspace with at least one luminance value and two chrominance values (e.g., YUV colorspace, etc.). The process 500 receives (at 520 ) a balance setting that determines how much to protect colors near the determined water color from color adjustments and a strength setting that provides an overall strength for the color adjustment. In some embodiments, the process determines the balance and/or strength settings automatically. In other embodiments, the process receives the balance and/or strength settings from a user. The process 500 then selects (at 525 ) a pixel of the image. The process 500 determines (at 530 ) whether the color of the selected pixel is closer to the previously determined water color or to the complement of the water color. In some embodiments, the determination is made using eqs. (5A)-(5B). waterchroma=(( I−I water ) 2 +( Q−Q water ) 2 ) 0.5   (5A) antichroma=(( I+I water ) 2 +( Q+Q water ) 2 ) 0.5   (5B) In eqs. (5A) and (5B), I water represents the I component of the determined color of the water. Q water represents the Q component of the determined color of the water. I represents the I component of the pixel's color. Q represents the Q component of the pixel's color. Waterchroma represents the distance (in colorspace) of the chromatic components of the pixel (e.g., I and Q) from the chromatic components of the water color. Antichroma represents the distance (in colorspace) of the chromatic components of the pixel (e.g., I and Q) from the chromatic components of the complement of the water color. When antichroma is smaller than waterchroma, the pixel chromatic components are closer to the complement of the water color than to the water color. When waterchroma is smaller than antichroma, the pixel chromatic components are closer to the water color than to the complement of the water color. FIG. 7 conceptually illustrates an example of regions that have colors closer to an exemplar water color than to its corresponding complement color. In this figure, graph 700 displays water color 710 , complement 720 of the water color, and line 730 . Water color 710 represents the I and Q values of the determined water color. Complement 720 represents the I and Q values of the complementary color from the water color. Line 730 represents all the colors that are equidistant from both the water color 710 and the complement 720 . The applications of some embodiments adjust the colors of pixels on both sides of the line 730 and on the line 730 . However, when the applications of some embodiments determine magnitudes for the color adjustments of pixels with colors on the water color 710 side of the line 730 , these magnitudes are affected by the balance setting. In contrast, when these applications determine magnitudes for the color adjustments of pixels with colors on the complement 720 side of the line 730 or on the line 730 , these magnitudes are not affected by the balance setting. When the process 500 of FIG. 5 determines (at 530 ) that the pixel's color is closer to the water color than to the complement of the water color, the process 500 adjusts (at 535 ) the pixel's color based on the proximity of the pixel's color to the water color and/or the pixel's color's proximity to the complement of the water color. In some embodiments, when the balance is set fully to protect the water color, the magnitude of the color adjustment will be based on the distance of the pixel's color from the water color, but not on the distance from the pixel's color to the complement of the water color. In contrast, when the balance is set fully to not protect the water color, the magnitude of the color adjustment will not be based on the distance of the pixel's color from the water color, but will be based on the distance from the pixel's color to the complement of the water color. When the balance setting is between the extremes, the magnitude of the color adjustment is based on a weighted average of the distance of the pixel's color to each of the water color and the complement of the water color. The process of some embodiments uses eqs. (6) and (7) to provide a multiplier for the adjustment. chroma=waterchroma*balance+(1−balance)*antichroma  (6) shift=chroma 2 *strength  (7) In eq. (6), waterchroma is the distance from the pixel's color to the water color. Antichroma is the distance from the pixel's color to the complement of the water color. Balance determines the weight for a weighted average of waterchroma and antichroma. In eqs. (6) and (7) chroma is the weighted average of the waterchroma and antichroma values. In eq. (7), shift is a multiplier used in the color adjustment of the pixel. Strength determines an overall strength of the color adjustment (the effects of the strength setting are shown in FIG. 10 , described below). Once the multiplier has been determined, some embodiments use eqs. (8A) and (8B) to determine the adjusted color values for the pixel. I adj =I−I water *shift  (8A) Q adj =Q−Q water *shift  (8B) In eqs. (8A) and (8B), I water represents the I component of the determined color of the water. Q water represents the Q component of the determined color of the water. I represents the I component of the pixel's color. Q represents the Q component of the pixel's color. I adj is the I component of the adjusted pixel's color. Q adj is the Q component of the adjusted pixel's color. FIG. 8 conceptually illustrates the adjustment of a color close to the water color for various balance values. The figure includes multiple graphs 801 - 806 , which will be individually described. In some embodiments, the graphs are conceptual of the calculations being performed and no such graph is actually displayed to the user. Graph 801 shows the location in I-Q space of the color of water 810 (e.g., as determined by the process described with respect to FIG. 4 ) and the complement 812 of the color of water. In some embodiments, the complement of the water color is determined by reversing the sign of the I and Q values of the water color. In some embodiments, the complement of the water color is not directly calculated and is represented in calculations by, e.g., adding the component values of the water color rather than subtracting the component values of the complement of the water color. Graph 802 shows an exemplar starting pixel's color 820 , waterchroma distance 822 , and antichroma distance 824 . Waterchroma distance 822 is smaller than antichroma distance 824 ; therefore a balance setting will affect the color adjustment of this starting pixel's color 820 . Graph 803 shows the direction 830 of the complement of the water color. In some embodiments, the color adjustments of each pixel's color are in that direction 830 . Graphs 804 , 805 , and 806 show the color adjustment of the starting pixel's color 820 to ending pixel's colors 840 , 850 , and 860 , respectively. For graph 804 , the balance setting 842 is 1. Therefore, the adjusted pixel's color depends on the (small) distance from the starting pixel's color 820 to the water color 810 and not on the (large) distance from the starting pixel's color 820 to the complement 812 of the water color. Accordingly, the adjustment is small when the balance is high. For graph 805 , the balance setting 852 is 0.5. Therefore, the adjusted pixel's color depends equally on the (small) distance from the starting pixel's color 820 to the water color 810 and on the (large) distance from the starting pixel's color 820 to the complement 812 of the water color. Accordingly, the adjustment is intermediate when the balance is intermediate. For graph 806 , the balance setting 862 is 0. Therefore, the adjusted pixel's color does not depend on the (small) distance from the starting pixel's color 820 to the water color 810 , but does depend on the (large) distance from the starting pixel's color 820 to the complement 812 of the water color. Accordingly, the adjustment is large when the balance is low. When the process 500 of FIG. 5 determines (at 530 ) that the pixel's color is farther from the water color than the complement of the water color, the process 500 adjusts (at 540 ) the pixel's color based on the proximity of the pixel's color to the complement of the water color. In some embodiments, the balance setting does not affect the adjustment of such pixels. The process of some embodiments uses eqs. (9) and (10) to provide a multiplier for the adjustment. chroma=antichroma  (9) shift=chroma 2 *strength  (10) In eq. (9), antichroma is the distance from the pixel's color to the complement of the water color. In eqs. (9) and (10) chroma is equal to the antichroma value. In eq. (10), shift is a multiplier used in the color adjustment of the pixel. Strength determines an overall strength of the color adjustment (the effects of the strength setting are shown in FIG. 10 , described below). Once the multiplier has been determined, some embodiments use the same eqs. (8A) and (8B) to determine the adjusted color values for a pixel closer to the complement as is used to determine the adjusted color value for a pixel closer to the water color. I adj =I−I water *shift  (8A) Q adj =Q−Q water *shift  (8B) In eqs. (8A) and (8B), I water represents the I component of the determined color of the water. Q water represents the Q component of the determined color of the water. I represents the I component of the pixel's color. Q represents the Q component of the pixel's color. I adj is the I component of the adjusted pixel's color. Q adj is the Q component of the adjusted pixel's color. FIG. 9 conceptually illustrates the adjustment of a color close to the complement of the water color for various balance values in some embodiments. The balance values in such embodiments have no effect because the pixel's color is closer to the complement of the water color than to the water color (e.g., because equations (9) and (10), which does not depend on the balance value are used to calculate the shift value, rather than equations (6) and (7), which do depend on the balance value). In FIG. 9 multiple balance values are shown to demonstrate the effects (or lack thereof) of various balance values on a pixel with a color closer to the complement of water color. The lack of effect in FIG. 9 contrasts with the effects (in FIG. 8 ) of the same set of balance values on a pixel color that is closer to the water color than to the complement of the water color. FIG. 9 includes multiple graphs 901 - 906 , which will be individually described. In some embodiments, the graphs are conceptual of the calculations being performed and no such graph is actually displayed to the user. Graph 901 shows the location in I-Q space of the color of water 910 (e.g., as determined by the process described with respect to FIG. 4 ) and the complement 912 of the color of water. In some embodiments, the complement of the water color is determined by reversing the sign of the I and Q values of the water color. In some embodiments, the complement of the water color is not directly calculated and is represented in calculations by, e.g., adding the component values of the water color rather than subtracting the component values of the complement of the water color. Graph 902 shows an exemplar starting pixel's color 920 , waterchroma distance 922 , and antichroma distance 924 . Waterchroma distance 922 is larger than antichroma distance 924 ; therefore a balance setting will not affect the color adjustment of this starting pixel's color 920 . Graph 903 shows the direction 930 of the complement 912 of the water color. In some embodiments, the color adjustments of each pixel's color are in that direction 930 . Graphs 904 , 905 , and 906 show the color adjustment of the starting pixel's color 920 to ending pixel's colors 940 , 950 , and 960 , respectively. For graph 904 , the balance setting 942 is 1. For graph 905 , the balance setting 952 is 0.5. For graph 906 , the balance setting 962 is 0. However, the adjusted pixel's color does not depend on the balance value and therefore is identical regardless of the balance setting. The magnitude of the adjustment is small because the distance from the complement 912 of the water color is small. In some embodiments, regardless of whether a pixel is closer to the water color or closer to the complement of the water color, the strength setting affects the magnitude of the color adjustment. FIG. 10 conceptually illustrates the effects of various strength and balance settings on pixel's colors near the water color and near the complement of the water color. The figure includes graphs 1001 - 1006 . Each graph includes two starting color points 1010 and 1012 . Color point 1010 is close to a water color (not shown). Color point 1012 is close to the complement (not shown) of the water color. In graphs 1001 - 1004 , the colors represented by the starting color points 1010 and 1012 change depending on the location of the starting color points, the balance setting, and the strength setting. Graph 1001 shows the adjustments of the color points 1010 and 1012 when the strength is set to 1 (at the highest strength available) and the balance is set to 1 (highest level of protection for colors closer to the water color than the complement of the water color). Regardless of the balance setting, the adjustment of the color point 1012 is determined by its proximity to the complement of the water color. The color point 1012 is close to the complement (not shown) of the water color, therefore the adjustment is small. In some embodiments, the small adjustment of the colors close to the complement of the water color reduces the incidence of oversaturation of the adjusted colors. Under the illustrated balance setting, the adjustment of the color point 1010 is determined by its proximity to the water color. The color point 1010 is close to the water color (not shown), therefore the adjustment is small. In some embodiments, the small adjustment of the colors close to the water color allows the image to maintain water colors in those areas that were already a color close to the water color (e.g., the water). However, in those areas that are colors other than the water color, but are tinted by the effects of the water on the lighting of the scene, the color adjustment is greater. In contrast to graph 1001 , graph 1002 shows the adjustments of the color points 1010 and 1012 when the strength is set to 1 (at the highest strength available) and the balance is set to 0 (no protection for colors closer to the water color than the complement of the water color). As mentioned above, regardless of the balance setting, the adjustment of the color point 1012 is determined by its proximity to the complement of the water color. The color point 1012 is close to the complement (not shown) of the water color, therefore the adjustment is small. Under the illustrated balance setting, the adjustment of the color point 1010 is also determined by its proximity to the complement of the water color. The color point 1010 is far from the complement of the water color (not shown), therefore the adjustment is large. In some embodiments, a large adjustment of the colors close to the water color prevents the image from maintaining water colors in those areas that (in the original image) are already a color close to the water color (e.g., the water in the image). Therefore, the colors close to the water color shift even more than the colors near the complement of the water color. In graphs 1003 and 1004 , the balance settings are the same as for graphs 1001 and 1002 respectively, but the strength settings are half (0.5) of what they are in graphs 1001 and 1002 . Accordingly, all adjustments are reduced to half of what they are in the corresponding graphs 1001 and 1002 . Finally, in graphs 1005 and 1006 , the strength settings are reduced to zero. Therefore the adjustments are also reduced to zero regardless of the proximity of the color points 1010 and 1012 to the water color or the complement of the water color. In some embodiments, the strength setting is determined automatically. In some such embodiments, the applications use eq. (11) to determine an automatic setting for the strength. In some embodiments, the automatic setting is provided as a default setting and the application provides a control (e.g., a slider or a pair of arrows) that allows the user to change the strength setting. strength=(4*( I water *I water +Q water *Q water )) −1   (11) In eq. (11), I water represents the I component of the determined color of the water. Q water represents the Q component of the determined color of the water. Strength represents the automatically determined strength setting. In the previously described factors relating to color adjustment, the luminance value of the pixels being adjusted has not been a factor. However, in some embodiments, the process 500 of FIG. 5 sometimes adjusts (at 535 or 540 ) the colors of pixels that are either very bright, or very dark. In some cases, large color changes in dark areas or bright areas of an image are undesirable. For example, it is undesirable to turn the shadows or highlights of an image (e.g., blacks, bubbles, specular reflections, etc.) to the complement of the water color (e.g., pink). Accordingly, the process 500 of some embodiments reduces the magnitude of the color adjustment based on the luminance (e.g., Y component value) of the pixel that the process 500 is adjusting. In some embodiments, eqs. (12A), (12B), (13A), and (13B) are used to reduce the magnitude of the adjustment. If Y< 0.9 then damp= Y   (12A) If Y> 0.9 then damp=9−9* Y   (12B) I adj =I−I water *shift*damp  (13A) Q adj =Q−Q water *shift*damp  (13B) In eqs. (12A), (12B), (13A), and (13B), damp is an additional factor that reduces the magnitude of color adjustments. Y is the luminance of the pixel. I water represents the I component of the determined color of the water. Q water represents the Q component of the determined color of the water. I represents the I component of the pixel's color. Q represents the Q component of the pixel's color. I adj is the I component of the adjusted pixel's color. Q adj is the Q component of the adjusted pixel's color. FIG. 11 illustrates a graphical representation of the dampening factor of eqs. (12A) and (12B). The figure includes graph 1100 which shows a plot of luminance value vs. dampening factor. When the luminance of a pixel is low, the adjustment amount is multiplied by a small number. When the luminance of a pixel is higher, but under 0.9 the adjustment amount is increased. When the luminance of the pixel is at 0.9, the adjustment amount is at a maximum. When the luminance of the pixel is greater than 0.9, the adjustment amount decreases rapidly with luminance level until, at a luminance of 1, the adjustment is canceled entirely. Eqs. (12A) and (12B) represent a specific dampening function of some embodiments. However, one of ordinary skill in the art will understand that in other embodiments, other dampening functions are used. While in still other embodiments, no dampening function is used. After the pixel is color adjusted (at 535 or 540 ), the process 500 of FIG. 5 then determines (at 545 ) whether the most recently adjusted pixel was the last pixel in the image to be adjusted. When the pixel was not the last pixel in the image, the process 500 returns to operation 525 to select another pixel for adjustment. When the pixel was the last pixel to be adjusted, the process 500 converts (at 550 ) the image from the colorspace in which the adjustment was performed (e.g., the YIQ colorspace) to the RGB color space. The process 500 then applies (at 555 ) a gamma adjustment that is the inverse of the previous gamma adjustment (e.g., if the component values were previously raised to the power of ⅛ then in this operation they are raised to the power of 8). In some embodiments, in order to ensure that the sequence of gamma correction-color correction-inverse gamma correction does not change the luminance levels of any of the pixels in the image, the process 500 restores (at 560 ) the original luminance values of the image by translating both the image that has been gamma adjusted, color adjusted, and inverse gamma adjusted and the uncorrected image (i.e., without gamma corrections and color adjustments applied) into YIQ colorspace. The process 500 replaces the Y component values of each of the pixels in the adjusted image with the Y component values of the corresponding pixels in the unadjusted image. The process 500 then ends. II. Software Architecture FIG. 12 conceptually illustrates software architecture 1200 of part of an image editing application of some embodiments. The figure illustrates the part of the architecture that is concerned with adjusting the colors of an underwater image. One of ordinary skill in the art will understand that the image editing applications of some embodiments include other modules not covered in this figure. The figure includes color calculator 1210 , underwater image adjuster 1220 , user interface 1230 , and image storage 1240 . The color calculator 1210 of some embodiments performs the calculations that determine a color of water. The color calculator 1210 of some embodiments retrieves an image from image storage 1240 and uses equations (1A)-(4B) to calculate a color of water for the image. In some embodiments, the color calculator 1210 calculates I and Q components of a color of water in a YIQ colorspace. In some embodiments, the color calculator 1210 also determines a complement of the color of water. The color calculator then sends the color of water to the underwater image adjuster 1220 . The underwater image adjuster 1220 of some embodiments uses the calculated color of water (e.g., received from color calculator 1210 ) and strength and balance settings (e.g., received from the user interface 1230 ) to determine adjusted color values for each pixel in an image (e.g., received from image storage 1240 ). In some embodiments, the underwater image adjuster 1220 uses equations (5A)-(13B) to determine an adjusted color for each pixel. The underwater image adjuster 1220 of some embodiments then stores the adjusted image in the image storage 1240 . The user interface 1230 of some embodiments receives a balance and strength setting from a user and passes the balance and strength settings to the underwater image adjuster. In some embodiments, the user interface 1230 presents the user with controls such as controls 122 of FIG. 1 and determines the strength and balance settings based on a user's manipulation of the controls 122 . The image storage 1240 of some embodiments stores an original image (e.g., provided by a user) which can then be modified by the underwater image adjuster 1220 and/or other image adjustment modules (not shown) of the image editing application. In some embodiments, the image storage 1240 stores both the original image and the adjusted image separately (e.g., so that a user can undo an adjustment). The software architecture diagram of FIG. 12 is provided to conceptually illustrate some embodiments. One of ordinary skill in the art will realize that some embodiments use different modular setups that may combine multiple functions into one module though the figure shows multiple modules, and/or may split up functions that the figure ascribes to a single module into multiple modules, and/or may recombine the split up functions in various modules. Furthermore different connections may be made among these modules. For example, in some embodiments the color calculator 1210 and the underwater image adjuster 1220 are combined into a single module. III. Mobile Device The image organizing, editing, and viewing applications of some embodiments operate on mobile devices, such as smartphones (e.g., iPhones®) and tablets (e.g., iPads®). FIG. 13 is an example of an architecture 1300 of such a mobile computing device. Examples of mobile computing devices include smartphones, tablets, laptops, etc. As shown, the mobile computing device 1300 includes one or more processing units 1305 , a memory interface 1310 and a peripherals interface 1315 . The peripherals interface 1315 is coupled to various sensors and subsystems, including a camera subsystem 1320 , a wireless communication subsystem(s) 1325 , an audio subsystem 1330 , an I/O subsystem 1335 , etc. The peripherals interface 1315 enables communication between the processing units 1305 and various peripherals. For example, an orientation sensor 1345 (e.g., a gyroscope) and an acceleration sensor 1350 (e.g., an accelerometer) is coupled to the peripherals interface 1315 to facilitate orientation and acceleration functions. The camera subsystem 1320 is coupled to one or more optical sensors 1340 (e.g., a charged coupled device (CCD) optical sensor, a complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) optical sensor, etc.). The camera subsystem 1320 coupled with the optical sensors 1340 facilitates camera functions, such as image and/or video data capturing. The wireless communication subsystem 1325 serves to facilitate communication functions. In some embodiments, the wireless communication subsystem 1325 includes radio frequency receivers and transmitters, and optical receivers and transmitters (not shown in FIG. 13 ). These receivers and transmitters of some embodiments are implemented to operate over one or more communication networks such as a GSM network, a Wi-Fi network, a Bluetooth network, etc. The audio subsystem 1330 is coupled to a speaker to output audio (e.g., to output voice navigation instructions). Additionally, the audio subsystem 1330 is coupled to a microphone to facilitate voice-enabled functions, such as voice recognition (e.g., for searching), digital recording, etc. The I/O subsystem 1335 involves the transfer between input/output peripheral devices, such as a display, a touch screen, etc., and the data bus of the processing units 1305 through the peripherals interface 1315 . The I/O subsystem 1335 includes a touch-screen controller 1355 and other input controllers 1360 to facilitate the transfer between input/output peripheral devices and the data bus of the processing units 1305 . As shown, the touch-screen controller 1355 is coupled to a touch screen 1365 . The touch-screen controller 1355 detects contact and movement on the touch screen 1365 using any of multiple touch sensitivity technologies. The other input controllers 1360 are coupled to other input/control devices, such as one or more buttons. Some embodiments include a near-touch sensitive screen and a corresponding controller that can detect near-touch interactions instead of or in addition to touch interactions. The memory interface 1310 is coupled to memory 1370 . In some embodiments, the memory 1370 includes volatile memory (e.g., high-speed random access memory), non-volatile memory (e.g., flash memory), a combination of volatile and non-volatile memory, and/or any other type of memory. As illustrated in FIG. 13 , the memory 1370 stores an operating system (OS) 1372 . The OS 1372 includes instructions for handling basic system services and for performing hardware dependent tasks. The memory 1370 also includes communication instructions 1374 to facilitate communicating with one or more additional devices; graphical user interface instructions 1376 to facilitate graphic user interface processing; image processing instructions 1378 to facilitate image-related processing and functions; input processing instructions 1380 to facilitate input-related (e.g., touch input) processes and functions; audio processing instructions 1382 to facilitate audio-related processes and functions; and camera instructions 1384 to facilitate camera-related processes and functions. The instructions described above are merely exemplary and the memory 1370 includes additional and/or other instructions in some embodiments. For instance, the memory for a smartphone may include phone instructions to facilitate phone-related processes and functions. Additionally, the memory may include instructions for an image organizing, editing, and viewing application. The above-identified instructions need not be implemented as separate software programs or modules. Various functions of the mobile computing device can be implemented in hardware and/or in software, including in one or more signal processing and/or application specific integrated circuits. While the components illustrated in FIG. 13 are shown as separate components, one of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that two or more components may be integrated into one or more integrated circuits. In addition, two or more components may be coupled together by one or more communication buses or signal lines. Also, while many of the functions have been described as being performed by one component, one of ordinary skill in the art will realize that the functions described with respect to FIG. 13 may be split into two or more integrated circuits. IV. Computer System FIG. 14 conceptually illustrates another example of an electronic system 1400 with which some embodiments of the invention are implemented. The electronic system 1400 may be a computer (e.g., a desktop computer, personal computer, tablet computer, etc.), phone, PDA, or any other sort of electronic or computing device. Such an electronic system includes various types of computer readable media and interfaces for various other types of computer readable media. Electronic system 1400 includes a bus 1405 , processing unit(s) 1410 , a graphics processing unit (GPU) 1415 , a system memory 1420 , a network 1425 , a read-only memory 1430 , a permanent storage device 1435 , input devices 1440 , and output devices 1445 . The bus 1405 collectively represents all system, peripheral, and chipset buses that communicatively connect the numerous internal devices of the electronic system 1400 . For instance, the bus 1405 communicatively connects the processing unit(s) 1410 with the read-only memory 1430 , the GPU 1415 , the system memory 1420 , and the permanent storage device 1435 . From these various memory units, the processing unit(s) 1410 retrieves instructions to execute and data to process in order to execute the processes of the invention. The processing unit(s) may be a single processor or a multi-core processor in different embodiments. Some instructions are passed to and executed by the GPU 1415 . The GPU 1415 can offload various computations or complement the image processing provided by the processing unit(s) 1410 . The read-only-memory (ROM) 1430 stores static data and instructions that are needed by the processing unit(s) 1410 and other modules of the electronic system. The permanent storage device 1435 , on the other hand, is a read-and-write memory device. This device is a non-volatile memory unit that stores instructions and data even when the electronic system 1400 is off. Some embodiments of the invention use a mass-storage device (such as a magnetic or optical disk and its corresponding disk drive) as the permanent storage device 1435 . Other embodiments use a removable storage device (such as a floppy disk, flash memory device, etc., and its corresponding drive) as the permanent storage device. Like the permanent storage device 1435 , the system memory 1420 is a read-and-write memory device. However, unlike storage device 1435 , the system memory 1420 is a volatile read-and-write memory, such a random access memory. The system memory 1420 stores some of the instructions and data that the processor needs at runtime. In some embodiments, the invention's processes are stored in the system memory 1420 , the permanent storage device 1435 , and/or the read-only memory 1430 . For example, the various memory units include instructions for processing multimedia clips in accordance with some embodiments. From these various memory units, the processing unit(s) 1410 retrieves instructions to execute and data to process in order to execute the processes of some embodiments. The bus 1405 also connects to the input and output devices 1440 and 1445 . The input devices 1440 enable the user to communicate information and select commands to the electronic system. The input devices 1440 include alphanumeric keyboards and pointing devices (also called “cursor control devices”), cameras (e.g., webcams), microphones or similar devices for receiving voice commands, etc. The output devices 1445 display images generated by the electronic system or otherwise output data. The output devices 1445 include printers and display devices, such as cathode ray tubes (CRT) or liquid crystal displays (LCD), as well as speakers or similar audio output devices. Some embodiments include devices such as a touchscreen that function as both input and output devices. Finally, as shown in FIG. 14 , bus 1405 also couples electronic system 1400 to a network 1425 through a network adapter (not shown). In this manner, the computer can be a part of a network of computers (such as a local area network (“LAN”), a wide area network (“WAN”), or an Intranet, or a network of networks, such as the Internet. Any or all components of electronic system 1400 may be used in conjunction with the invention. Some embodiments include electronic components, such as microprocessors, storage and memory that store computer program instructions in a machine-readable or computer-readable medium (alternatively referred to as computer-readable storage media, machine-readable media, or machine-readable storage media). Some examples of such computer-readable media include RAM, ROM, read-only compact discs (CD-ROM), recordable compact discs (CD-R), rewritable compact discs (CD-RW), read-only digital versatile discs (e.g., DVD-ROM, dual-layer DVD-ROM), a variety of recordable/rewritable DVDs (e.g., DVD-RAM, DVD-RW, DVD+RW, etc.), flash memory (e.g., SD cards, mini-SD cards, micro-SD cards, etc.), magnetic and/or solid state hard drives, read-only and recordable Blu-Ray® discs, ultra density optical discs, any other optical or magnetic media, and floppy disks. The computer-readable media may store a computer program that is executable by at least one processing unit and includes sets of instructions for performing various operations. Examples of computer programs or computer code include machine code, such as is produced by a compiler, and files including higher-level code that are executed by a computer, an electronic component, or a microprocessor using an interpreter. While the above discussion primarily refers to microprocessor or multi-core processors that execute software, some embodiments are performed by one or more integrated circuits, such as application specific integrated circuits (ASICs) or field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs). In some embodiments, such integrated circuits execute instructions that are stored on the circuit itself. In addition, some embodiments execute software stored in programmable logic devices (PLDs), ROM, or RAM devices. As used in this specification and any claims of this application, the terms “computer”, “server”, “processor”, and “memory” all refer to electronic or other technological devices. These terms exclude people or groups of people. For the purposes of the specification, the terms display or displaying means displaying on an electronic device. As used in this specification and any claims of this application, the terms “computer readable medium,” “computer readable media,” and “machine readable medium” are entirely restricted to tangible, physical objects that store information in a form that is readable by a computer. These terms exclude any wireless signals, wired download signals, and any other ephemeral signals. While various processes described herein are shown with operations in a particular order, one of ordinary skill in the art will understand that in some embodiments the orders of operations will be different. For example in the process 500 of FIG. 5 , the calculation of the water color is shown as taking place before the gamma adjustment of the image, but in other embodiments, the order may be reversed, or the operations may even run in parallel. While various operations are described herein as taking place in specific colorspaces (e.g., RGB colorspace or YIQ colorspace) one of ordinary skill in the art will understand that comparable operations can be performed in other colorspaces in some embodiments. For example, the application of some embodiments perform color adjustments in a YUV colorspace or a YC b C r colorspace instead of a YIQ colorspace. One of ordinary skill in the art will understand that the invention is not to be limited by the foregoing illustrative details, but rather is to be defined by the appended claims.

A system and method that receives and edits image data of an underwater scene in a digital image in order to remove undesirable tints from objects in the scene. In some embodiments, colors near the color of the water itself are protected to leave the water looking blue. Removing undesirable tints without removing the tint of the water itself results in images with more realistic coloring of people and objects in the scene, without eliminating the color cues (e.g., blue water) that indicate that the image is a photograph of an underwater scene.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION [0001] This application claims priority in U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/467,911, entitled “Turbine Valve Control System and Method”, naming as inventor Nathan Todd. Miller, which was filed on May 5, 2003, and which is incorporated by reference herein. TECHNICAL FIELD [0002] The present invention pertains to fuel delivery valves. More particularly, the present invention relates to fuel metering valves and control systems that regulate delivery of fuel to a turbine engine. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0003] Liquid and gas fuel metering valves have been used for a number of industrial turbine engine applications. For example, liquid fuel metering valves have been used in numerous marine applications. [0004] In another case, gas fuel metering valves have been coupled with industrial turbine engines. For example, VG Series gas fuel metering valves such as the VG1.5, sold by Precision Engine Controls Corporation of San Diego, Calif., assignee of the present invention, have a balanced design with a single moving part. However, the gas flow path that extends through such valves deviates substantially from a linear flow path, requiring fuel to transit laterally around 90° lateral corners which reduces efficiency and performance. [0005] Applications for such fuel metering valves are present in the power industry for generating electrical power with gas turbine engines, for implementation on offshore oil rigs for power generation, on turbine engines in marine applications such as on hovercraft, and in the pipeline industry for related gas turbine engine applications requiring precise fuel metering. [0006] Many fuel metering techniques require the use of a Coriolis flow meter in combination with a metering valve. However, these flow meters are very expensive and cost-prohibitive, which restricts their adoption for many applications and uses. [0007] Accordingly, improvements are needed to increase controllable flow accuracy and efficiency from a fuel metering valve to a gas turbine engine, and to reduce cost of implementation. Additionally, improvements are needed in order to easily reconfigure a fuel metering valve to optimize the accuracy and efficiency of fuel delivery over varying ranges of supply pressure. Even furthermore, improvements are needed in the manner in which a fuel metering valve is controlled in order to deliver a desired flow rate of fuel without requiring the utilization of a separate flow meter which can significantly increase cost and complexity. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0008] A gas turbine valve control system is provided for a gas turbine valve with a displacement sensor for detecting position of the valve, an upstream pressure sensor, an upstream temperature sensor, and a downstream pressure sensor. Sonic and subsonic flow equations are selectively used to determine valve position that achieves a desired fuel mass flow rate for the valve. [0009] According to one aspect, a turbine valve control system is provided. The turbine valve control system includes a variable flow metering device, a first sensor, a second sensor, a third sensor, a fourth sensor, memory, and processing circuitry. The variable flow metering device is capable of meeting a plurality of predetermined mass flow rates by varying positioning of the flow metering device. The first sensor is configured for detecting variable positioning of the flow metering device and generating a first output signal that is a function of the positioning of the flow metering device. The second sensor is configured for detecting fluid pressure upstream of the flow metering device and generating a second output signal that is a function of the detected upstream fluid pressure. The third sensor is configured for detecting fluid pressure downstream of the flow metering device and generating a third output signal that is a function of the detected downstream fluid pressure. The fourth sensor is configured for detecting temperature upstream of the flow metering device and generating a fourth output signal that is a function of the detected temperature. The memory includes first computer program code for calculating a combined coefficient of discharge times area that gives a desired flow for a given valve position, upstream pressure, downstream pressure, and temperature for subsonic flow. The memory also includes second computer program code for calculating a combined coefficient of discharge times area that gives a desired flow for a given valve position, upstream pressure, and temperature for sonic flow. The processing circuitry is configured to receive the signals, determine whether the flow is subsonic or sonic, and implement a corresponding one of the first and second computer program codes to calculate a combined coefficient of discharge times area that will generate a desired mass flow rate for the flow metering device. [0010] According to another aspect, a method is provided for measuring gas flow rate into a gas turbine engine. The method includes: providing an adjustable position valve having a known coefficient of discharge and flow area for meeting a predetermined mass flow rate at each position of the valve; sensing position of the valve; sensing pressure upstream of the valve; sensing pressure downstream of the valve; sensing temperature upstream of the valve; determining whether flow through the valve is subsonic or sonic; based on whether the flow is determined to be subsonic or sonic, calculating a coefficient of discharge times area for the valve that provides a desired flow rate through the valve; and positioning the valve to a new position that achieves the calculated coefficient of discharge times area for the valve. [0011] According to yet another aspect, a turbine valve control system is provided. The turbine valve control system includes means for realizing any of a plurality of predetermined mass flow rates; means for detecting position of the flow metering device and generating a first output signal that is a function of the positioning of the flow metering device; means for detecting fluid pressure upstream of the flow metering device and generating a second output signal that is a function of the detected upstream fluid pressure; means for detecting fluid pressure downstream of the flow metering device and generating a third output signal that is a function of the detected downstream fluid pressure; means for detecting temperature upstream of the flow metering device and generating a fourth output signal that is a function of the detected temperature; means for determining a combined coefficient of discharge times area that gives a desired flow for a given valve position, upstream pressure, downstream pressure, and temperature for subsonic flow and second calculating means for calculating a combined coefficient of discharge times area that gives a desired flow for a given valve position, upstream pressure, and temperature for sonic flow; and means for determining whether flow is subsonic or sonic, and configured to implement a corresponding one of the first and second computer program codes to calculate a combined coefficient of discharge times area that will generate a desired mass flow rate for the flow metering device. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0012] Preferred embodiments of the invention are described below with reference to the following accompanying drawings. [0013] FIG. 1 is an isometric view of a metering valve provided in an application environment for delivering fuel at a controlled rate to a gas turbine engine, according to one aspect of the invention; [0014] FIG. 2 is an exploded isometric view of the metering valve illustrated in FIG. 1 depicting assembly and placement of internal components; [0015] FIG. 3 is a partial breakaway isometric view of the metering valve of FIGS. 1-2 , with the metering valve positioned upside down and viewed relative to an outlet end; [0016] FIG. 4 is a vertical centerline sectional view taken through the center of the machine illustrating the internal construction of the metering valve. [0017] FIG. 5 is a schematic block diagram for the electronics and control system for the metering valve of FIGS. 1-4 . [0018] FIG. 6 is a state machine diagram for the metering valve of FIGS. 1-5 . [0019] FIG. 7 is a proportional-integral-differential (PID) loop control diagram for controlling the metering valve of FIGS. 1-5 . [0020] FIG. 8 is a flowchart illustrating steps in a proportional-integral-differential (PID) loop control algorithm for controlling the metering valve of FIGS. 1-5 . [0021] FIG. 9 is a flowchart illustrating steps in a flow measurement algorithm for measuring flow through the metering valve of FIGS. 1-5 . [0022] FIG. 10 is a flowchart illustrating steps in a flow control algorithm for controlling flow through the metering valve of FIGS. 1-5 . [0023] FIG. 11 is a pair of flowcharts illustrating steps for an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) interrupt and foreground operations for ADC input conditioning for the digital signal processor (DSP) of the control system for the metering valve of FIGS. 1-5 . DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS [0024] This disclosure of the invention is submitted in furtherance of the constitutional purposes of the U.S. Patent Laws “to promote the progress of science and useful arts” (Article 1, Section 8). [0025] Reference will now be made to a preferred embodiment of Applicants' invention. An exemplary implementation is described below and depicted with reference to the drawings comprising a fuel metering valve and control system for delivering fuel to industrial gas turbine engines. A first embodiment is shown and described below in a configuration with reference generally to FIGS. 1-11 . While the invention is described by way of a preferred embodiment, it is understood that the description is not intended to limit the invention to this embodiment, but is intended to cover alternatives, equivalents, and modifications which may be broader than this embodiment such as are defined within the scope of the appended claims. [0026] In an effort to prevent obscuring the invention at hand, only details germane to implementing the invention will be described in great detail, with presently understood peripheral details being incorporated by reference, as needed, as being presently understood in the art. [0027] A metering valve implementing a valve control system and method of the present invention is described with reference to FIGS. 1-11 and is identified by reference numeral 10 . Such a metering valve 10 is particularly suited for use with industrial gas turbine engines. Construction and operation of physical components for this exemplary valve are described below with reference to FIGS. 1-4 . Further details of the exemplary valve are disclosed in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/429,092 entitled “Gas Turbine Metering Valve”, naming the inventors as E. Joseph Mares, Nathan Todd Miller, and Mark Robert Huebscher, filed on May 3, 2003, and herein incorporated by reference. A description of the control system for the metering valve and operation are provided with reference to FIGS. 5-11 . [0000] A. Valve Construction [0028] As described below and also as previously incorporated by reference, metering valve 10 comprises a single exemplary metering valve capable of benefiting from control system features of the present invention. However, it is understood that a valve control system and method are provided by the present invention capable of being incorporated in any of a number of flow control devices, including any of a number of presently known control valve constructions that form alternative configurations to metering valve 10 of FIGS. 1-4 . Metering valve 10 of FIGS. 1-4 provides but one exemplary implementation, and it is envisioned that other implementations can benefit from the present control system and method as described below in greater detail. [0029] As shown in FIG. 1 , metering valve 10 is configured to provide flow control, contamination resistance, and precision control over a wide flow range and within a relatively compact package size. The metering valve is also configured with a control system for use with high-performance, low-emissions, industrial gas turbines that require more than just reliable fuel control in order to optimize gas turbine engine functionality. Such applications demand stable, fast, and accurate fuel flow control for a variety of supply pressures and gases. [0030] In order to achieve this result, metering valve 10 is configured with a valve housing 11 that is formed by an electronics enclosure assembly 12 and a valve body assembly 14 that are secured together by fasteners (see hollow bolts 204 and 206 in FIG. 4 ). According to one construction, housing 11 is formed from 6061-T6 aluminum alloy. Additionally, housing assembly 11 includes various O-ring seals 178 , 180 , 182 , 184 and 186 , as shown in FIGS. 3 and 4 . Metering valve 10 is mated in sealed engagement with an inlet supply pipe 16 and an outlet supply pipe 18 to deliver fuel from inlet supply pipe 16 in a metered and precisely controlled manner out through outlet supply 18 to a turbine engine (not shown) where it is combusted. Inlet supply pipe 16 is secured with fasteners (not shown) through a mounting end plate at a flow inlet 20 , whereas outlet supply pipe 18 is affixed to metering valve 10 via an end plate 42 using similar threaded fasteners, such as individual hex head bolts 40 . Outlet supply pipe 18 is secured in sealing engagement with a flow outlet 22 of metering valve 10 . [0031] It is understood that inlet supply pipe 16 has an end plate that is similar to end plate 42 of outlet supply pipe 18 , and is secured with fasteners similar to threaded bolts 40 which are received within threaded bores 44 of an outlet end plate 28 . In the case of flow inlet 20 , inlet supply pipe 16 secures with threaded fasteners using a similar end plate within threaded bores. It is further understood that each end plate includes a circumferential groove that extends about the respective flow inlet or outlet into which an O-ring is received for sealing and mating engagement between the respective end plate and an orifice plate assembly 52 (in the case of outlet supply pipe 18 ) and a corresponding circumferential portion of inlet end plate 26 (in the case of inlet supply pipe 16 ). [0032] Valve body assembly 14 includes a cylindrical valve housing 24 to which inlet end plate 26 and outlet end plate 28 are each affixed at opposite ends using a plurality of threaded, high-strength steel, double hex bolts (or fasteners) 38 . Fasteners 38 are preferably equally spaced apart about the circumference of each end plate 26 and 28 . A corresponding end portion at each end of valve housing 24 includes complementary, corresponding threaded bores 86 configured to receive fasteners 38 . Each end plate 26 and 28 includes a plurality of bores (not shown) that extend completely through the end plate, and are sized to receive each fastener 38 therethrough for threaded engagement within valve housing 24 , such as into a respective, threaded aperture 86 . [0033] Electronics enclosure assembly 12 includes an electronics housing 30 which is fastened to valve housing 24 using hollow bolts 204 and 206 (as shown in FIG. 4 ) and a plurality of threaded cap screws (or fasteners) not shown. A cover 32 is affixed atop electronics housing 30 for encasing electronics 33 therein, including electronics that accurately control flow rate through metering valve 10 . More particularly, a plurality of threaded cap screws (or fasteners) 36 are used to secure cover 32 atop electronics housing 30 . Similarly, each cap screw 36 is passed through a through-bore within cover 32 and into a threaded bore 104 within a topmost edge of electronics housing 30 where such fasteners are threadingly received to retain cover 32 atop electronics housing 30 . [0034] Electronics housing 30 also includes a conduit hole 34 through which a turbine engine explosion-proof conduit is passed therethrough. Conduit hole 34 comprises a ¾″ NPT thread. As shown in FIG. 3 , an explosion-proof conduit fitting (or union) 35 is threaded into hole 34 . More particularly, an explosion-proof wire harness or conduit is passed through conduit hole 34 and fitting 35 , after which fitting 35 is potted with a sealing cement and filler so as to make conduit hole 34 explosion proof and sealed as the conduit passes therethrough. One form of sealing cement for use in fitting 35 comprises Kwik Cement, sold by Appleton Electric Company, 1701 West Wellington Avenue, Chicago, Ill. 60657. One form of explosion-proof conduit fitting comprises a UNY or UNF union, also sold by Appleton Electric Company, 1701 West Wellington Avenue, Chicago, Ill. 60657. [0035] Electronics housing 30 of metering valve 10 is constructed as an explosion-proof housing having flame paths. U.S. Pat. No. 6,392,322 to Mares, et al, issued May 21, 2002 and assigned to the present assignee, teaches one suitable technique for providing flame paths in an explosion-proof housing. Such construction techniques are also used herein in order to achieve an explosion-proof electronics housing 30 that is suitable for use in a potentially explosive user environment. [0036] Also shown in FIG. 1 , a metal name plate 46 is secured atop cover 32 using a plurality of threaded drive screws 48 . Product information for metering valve 10 is then printed on or etched into name plate 46 . Furthermore, a threaded ground hole 50 is also provided within a side wall of electronics housing 30 into which a threaded fastener and a ground strap can be attached thereto for grounding the housing of metering valve 10 . Preferably, ground hole 50 does not pass completely through the side wall of electronics housing 30 . [0037] According to FIG. 2 , metering valve 10 is shown in an exploded view to further facilitate understanding of the construction and operation of components contained therein. More particularly, metering valve 10 provides a stable, fast and accurate fuel flow control system extending over a range of supply pressures and gases. Because of the particular design of metering valve 10 , a flow-through design is provided that is capable of automatically compensating for variations in pressure and temperature in order to provide precise fuel flow required for specific gas turbine conditions under which the turbine and valve must operate. The electronics assembly includes a determination of fuel flow measurement based on valve feedback derived from pressure, temperature and displacement sensors in the valve, as discussed below. The valve is programmable for flow versus demand and complete closed-loop fuel control is made possible when using particular interface features. Accordingly, metering valve 10 is capable of being programmable for flow versus demand. [0038] Metering valve 10 provides a smooth flow-through design by way of an orifice plate assembly 52 that is carried in outlet end plate 28 by way of a female threaded bore 74 (see FIG. 2 ) including a female threaded portion. An axial mover 56 comprising a linear motor 58 supports and moves a central cylindrical flow tube 60 toward and away from orifice plate assembly 52 in order to regulate flow through the orifice plate assembly 52 . By moving flow tube 60 into engagement with a seal 82 on orifice plate assembly 52 (see FIG. 3 ), flow is completely stopped at orifice plate assembly 52 , and flow outlet 22 is completely closed. By actuating linear motor 58 to move flow tube 60 towards an upstream position away from orifice plate assembly 52 , an annular gap 136 (see FIG. 3 ) is formed between the downstream end of flow tube 60 and seal 82 of orifice plate assembly 52 . [0039] In operation, the flow rate of fuel can be controlled by precisely positioning flow tube 60 relative to orifice plate assembly 52 . The relative position of the downstream end of flow tube 60 and orifice plate assembly 52 can be varied by accurately positioning flow tube 60 relative thereto. Additionally, flow is tailored based upon the specific axial and radial geometry provided on a flow diverter 78 of orifice plate assembly 52 . Flow diverter 78 extends upstream and within flow tube 60 so as to vary the dimension of the annular gap 136 (see FIG. 3 ) formed therebetween for various positions of the downstream end of flow tube 60 relative to orifice plate assembly 52 . [0040] As shown in FIG. 2 , orifice plate assembly 52 comprises a cylindrical orifice plate 76 that includes three crescent-shaped flow apertures 84 that are spaced radially about orifice plate 76 . According to such construction, orifice plate 76 comprises a spider in which three flow apertures 84 are provided between the spokes of such spider. Orifice plate 76 includes a plurality of male threads adjacent an upstream edge that mate in threading engagement within a threaded bore 74 of outlet end plate 28 . A radial outermost portion of orifice plate 76 is received within a complementary bore 72 of outlet end plate 28 . According to one construction, orifice plate 76 is made from Nitronic™ 50, a version of 316 stainless steel (SS). [0041] One desirable feature of the present metering valve is provided by the ability to replace flow diverter 78 with an alternative flow diverter having a different axial profile by removing threaded fastener 80 which retains flow diverter 78 onto orifice plate 76 . Subsequently, a new, alternatively constructed flow diverter can be mounted upstream and onto orifice plate 76 by re-inserting threaded fastener 80 and threading such flow diverter into engagement therewith. Hence, sensitivity of metering valve 10 can be optimized for different ranges of flow rates by substituting in an optional flow diverter having a desired shape. [0042] Linear motor 58 of FIG. 2 includes a motor housing 70 from which a pair of solenoid wires 66 and 68 extends for connection with corresponding electronics 33 within electronics enclosure assembly 12 . A circumferential shoulder 62 is rigidly secured to a location on flow tube 60 . Shoulder 62 helps retain an armature 64 at a precise location along flow tube 60 . Linear motor 58 , in assembly, is received within an internal bore 100 of valve housing 24 . [0043] In assembly, the double hex bolts 38 extend through outlet end plate 28 and into complementary, corresponding threaded apertures 86 at a downstream end of valve housing 24 . Similarly, double hex bolts 38 extend through corresponding apertures in inlet end plate 26 and into threaded apertures in an upstream end of valve housing 24 (similar to threaded apertures 86 provided at a downstream end of valve housing 24 , but not shown). [0044] Inlet end plate 26 , as shown in FIG. 2 , is likewise affixed to an upstream end of valve housing 24 using a plurality of threaded double hex bolts 38 . Inlet end plate 26 is configured to support a displacement sensor 88 , an inlet temperature sensor 94 , and an inlet pressure sensor 96 . According to one construction, displacement sensor 88 comprises a linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) 90 that is carried by an LVDT support plate 92 . According to one construction, temperature inlet sensor 94 comprises a thermistor. Similarly, an outlet pressure sensor 98 is carried on an inner surface of outlet end plate 28 . [0045] According to one suitable construction, LVDT 90 is a model MHR Schaevitz LVDT sensor sold by Measurement Specialties, Inc. (MSI), 710 Route 46 East, Ste. 206, Fairfield, N.J. 07004. Similarly, temperature inlet sensor 94 comprises a Model H-025-08-1 (Part No. 10K3D612) thermistor sold by BetaTHERM of Shrewsbury, Mass., and headquartered in Galway, Ireland. Furthermore, pressure sensors 96 and 98 each comprise a Model 85 Ultra Stable™ stainless steel pressure sensor manufactured and sold by Measurement Specialties, Inc. (MSI), 710 Route 46 East, Ste. 206, Fairfield, N.J. 07004. [0046] FIG. 2 also illustrates the detailed construction and assembly of electronics enclosure assembly 12 which is secured atop valve body assembly 14 to form a valve housing assembly 11 . As shown in FIGS. 2 and 4 , electronics housing 30 is configured to form a substantially rectangular electronics cavity 102 within assembly 12 . An electronics package 101 is physically attached to a bottom surface of electronics cavity 102 using four threaded fasteners 110 that are threaded into engagement with female threads provided within corresponding standoffs 118 that are threaded into the bottom surface of electronics cavity 102 . [0047] More particularly, electronics package 101 includes a motor driver printed circuit (PC) board 112 and a digital logic printed circuit (PC) board 116 . Boards 112 and 116 are carried in spaced-apart relation using a plurality of tubular spacers 114 that are placed in coincidence within apertures at each of the four corners of each board 112 and 116 and configured to receive threaded fasteners 110 therethrough and into standoffs 118 . Standoffs 118 are first secured within threaded female apertures within a bottom surface of electronics cavity 102 . Standoffs 118 further include female threads sized to receive fasteners 110 at a topmost end for securing electronics package 101 within electronics cavity 102 . Board 112 includes a pair of customer connectors 120 and 122 which will be discussed in greater detail below. Electronics 33 are provided on boards 112 and 116 . Processing circuitry 126 is provided on boards 112 and 116 . Additionally, a pair of powered diode wires 128 and 130 are provided. [0048] Upon mounting electronics package 101 within electronics cavity 102 , cover 32 is then secured atop housing 30 using a plurality of threaded cap screws 36 which are received through respective clearance through-bores 132 and cover 32 . To facilitate sealing engagement of cover 32 to housing 30 , an O-ring seal 108 is provided within a complementary receiving groove on the bottom of cover 32 positioned to mate with a top sealing surface 106 provided on housing 30 inboard of threaded bores 104 that receive threaded portions of cap screws 36 , in assembly. [0049] To complete assembly, product name plate 46 , including product and manufacturing information printed or embossed thereon, is affixed atop cover 32 using a plurality of drive screws 48 that pass through holes 54 in plate 46 for threaded securement within corresponding threaded holes 55 provided in corresponding locations of cover 32 . [0050] Upon assembly, metering valve 10 of FIG. 2 is configured to receive fuel into flow inlet 20 , meter such fuel by axially positioning flow tube 60 relative to seal 82 and flow diverter 78 of orifice plate assembly 52 , and deliver fuel at a desired rate to a gas turbine engine via three flow apertures 84 that provide flow outlet 22 . The fuel can be gas or liquid. Optionally, the metering valve can be used to deliver a mixture of fuel and air. [0051] According to FIG. 3 , a flow tube assembly 134 within metering valve 10 provides for precision fuel flow control over a wide flow range and within a very compact package size through axial displacement of flow tube 60 relative to seal 82 and flow diverter 78 of orifice plate assembly 52 . By properly energizing wire windings 176 of motor winding assembly 172 , electromagnetic force (EMF) lines of flux attract an armature 64 of flow tube assembly 134 towards a pole piece 162 . By adjusting the duty cycle to wire windings 176 , the position of armature 64 (as well as tube 60 ) can be varied such that a frustoconical portion of armature 64 is moved closer towards pole piece 162 , thereby compressing coil spring 142 . When windings 176 are not energized, coil spring 142 drives flow tube 60 into sealing engagement with seal 82 of orifice plate assembly 52 , thereby completely shutting off flow through metering valve 10 . [0052] As shown in FIG. 3 , armature 64 has a frustoconical portion that is shaped in complementary relation with pole piece 162 such that maximum attraction of pole piece 162 brings pole piece 162 into proximate nesting relation with the complementary frustoconical portion of armature 64 , thereby moving flow tube 60 away from seal 82 so as to impart a maximum open dimension for flow gap 136 . According to one design, flow gap 136 has a maximum value of one-quarter inch. [0053] According to one construction, motor winding assembly 172 comprises a bobbin case 174 about which a 17-gauge wire is wound so as to provide wire windings 176 . Motor winding assembly 172 , when energized, generates electromagnetic force (EMF) lines of flux that attract armature 64 and compress spring 142 as wire windings 176 receive an adjusted level of current using a current control loop so as to adjust a duty cycle therethrough. The presence of wire windings 176 between motor housing 70 and pole piece 162 cooperates with armature 64 so as to provide appropriate lines of flux to attract the armature 64 to pole piece 162 . [0054] In order to determine the relative position of flow tube 60 and the width of circumferential flow gap 136 , a displacement sensor 88 in the form of LVDT 90 detects the position of flow tube 60 relative to inlet end plate 26 in valve housing 24 . Such relative displacement corresponds with the displacement of flow tube 60 relative to orifice plate 76 which corresponds with the dimension of flow gap 136 . Accordingly, fuel is precisely delivered at a desired flow rate by way of flow inlet 20 to flow tube 60 and out through three flow apertures 84 that are provided through orifice plate 76 , as flow tube 60 is spaced away a desired distance from seal 82 via actuation of linear motor 58 corresponding with a specific duty cycle being delivered to wire windings 176 . [0055] As shown in FIG. 3 , LVDT 90 comprises a mechanically actuated core 166 that is carried by support plate 92 in fixed relation with flow tube 60 . Accordingly, movement of flow tube 60 can be detected by movement of plate 92 and core 166 relative to coils within a cylindrical coil assembly (or transformer) 168 . Movement of the mechanically actuated core 166 relative to assembly 168 changes reluctance of a flux path between a primary coil and a secondary coil of assembly 168 , thereby generating an output signal related to displacement of flow tube 60 . It is further understood that circuitry is provided for interfacing with LVDT sensor 90 within circuitry provided in electronics package 101 (of FIG. 2 ). [0056] As shown in FIG. 3 , in operation, displacement sensor 88 is configured to detect axial positioning of flow tube 60 relative to a central flow body provided by flow diverter 78 and seal 82 of orifice plate assembly 52 . Fuel which is received upstream via flow inlet 20 passes downstream through flow tube 60 , out and around circumferential flow gap 136 , and out through three arcuate, circumferentially spaced-apart flow apertures 84 within orifice plate 76 . Fuel leaving through flow apertures 84 thereby provide for flow outlet 22 . Subsequently, the precisely metered fuel is delivered to an outlet supply pipe, such as outlet supply pipe 18 depicted in FIG. 1 . [0057] According to FIG. 3 , flow diverter 78 is shaped such that the shape can determine the outlet characteristics, such as flow resolution, provided between flow tube 60 , flow diverter 78 , and seal 82 as fuel is delivered through flow apertures 84 into flow outlet 22 . A threaded fastener 80 , along with a lock washer, is received within an enlarged, recessed bore and a clearance bore in orifice plate 76 , and into a threaded bore that is provided within flow diverter 78 . Securement of threaded fastener 80 into the threaded bore retains flow diverter 78 onto orifice plate 76 . An elevated shoulder is provided in flow diverter 78 and sized sufficiently to securely retain seal 82 in sealing engagement between flow diverter 78 and orifice plate 76 as fastener 80 is secured into flow diverter 78 . Such construction enables a user to easily clean the valve and to change the shape of flow diverter 78 . For example, an alternatively-shaped flow diverter can be substituted for flow diverter 78 . [0058] As shown in FIG. 3 , flow tube 60 is carried for axial movement by linear motor 58 in slidable and sealing engagement at the input end and the output end with inlet end plate 26 and outlet end plate 28 of valve body assembly 14 , respectively. More particularly, a dynamic seal 152 is provided adjacent the downstream end of flow tube 60 , as shown in FIGS. 3 and 4 . According to one construction, dynamic seal 152 is formed from a filled polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). Adjacent and upstream of seal 152 , a circumferential bearing 154 is provided. According to one construction, bearing 154 comprises a Rulon™ J bearing. Bearing 154 facilitates axial fore and aft movement of flow tube 60 relative to outlet end plate 28 ; whereas seal 152 provides a sliding seal along the downstream end of flow tube 60 relative to outlet end plate 28 . [0059] Similarly, FIG. 3 further illustrates the seal and support components provided for flow tube 60 relative to inlet end plate 26 . More particularly, a wiper seal 156 is provided adjacent an upstream end of flow tube 60 so as to provide a wiping seal between flow tube 60 and inlet end plate 26 . Additionally, a dynamic seal 158 is provided downstream of wiper seal 156 to further facilitate a dynamic seal between flow tube 60 and inlet end plate 26 . Furthermore, a circumferential bearing 160 is provided downstream of dynamic seal 158 , between flow tube 60 and inlet end plate 26 . Bearing 160 provides a sliding bearing surface to facilitate axial fore and aft motion of flow tube 60 relative to inlet end plate 26 . According to one construction, dynamic seal 158 comprises a filled polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). According to one such construction, bearing 160 also comprises a Rulon™ J bearing. [0060] As shown in FIG. 3 , coil spring 142 is received within a cylindrical groove 170 . Once flow tube 60 is moved to a maximum open-valve position for the metering valve, support plate 92 compresses spring 142 within cylindrical groove 170 to a maximum compressive position. Corresponding with such position, displacement sensor 88 , here LVDT 90 , detects such maximum open position by way of core 166 being displaced maximally within cylindrical coil assembly (or transformer) 168 . When the flow tube is moved to a closed position for the valve assembly, plate 92 moves in a downstream direction as the motor is de-energized, thereby enabling coil spring 142 to drive flow tube 60 to a downstream position as plate 92 (which is circumferentially affixed to flow tube 60 ) pushes flow tube 60 into sealing and seating engagement with seal 82 at an opposite end. Hence, coil spring 142 ensures closure of the valve assembly when the linear motor is not energized. Hence, further benefit is provided in that the valve is closed when power is lost to the drive motor. [0061] As shown in FIGS. 3 and 4 , armature 64 has a cylindrical outermost portion that is contiguous with a frustoconical portion. However, a downstream end of armature 64 is undercut, as shown in FIGS. 3 and 4 . Armature 64 , as shown in FIG. 4 , has female threads 202 that enable threaded engagement of armature 64 onto flow tube 60 via complementary, corresponding male threads 203 that are provided on flow tube 60 . A circumferential shoulder 62 on flow tube 60 provides an affixation stop point for securing armature 64 in threaded engagement at a fixed location along flow tube 60 , as shown in FIG. 4 . [0062] Additionally, a circumferential groove 140 is provided on the radial outermost portion of armature 64 (see FIG. 4 ) into which an O-ring 139 is first provided and on top of which a seal ring 138 is further provided. As shown in FIGS. 3 and 4 , seal ring 138 forms a sliding piston-type seal with a bore 69 provided in motor housing 70 . Armature 64 is further secured, after threading, onto flow tube 60 at a fixed position using threaded set screw 165 that is received within a threaded set screw hole 164 of armature 64 . Set screw 165 is threaded into screw hole 164 until set screw 165 engages with an outer surface of flow tube 60 , thereby fixing armature 64 at a desired location on flow tube 60 . [0063] The provision of seal ring 138 along cylindrical bore 69 provides a further advantage to the present metering valve. According to one construction, seal ring 138 is made of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). More particularly, seal ring 138 provides dampening of flow tube 60 as seal ring 138 and bore 69 cooperate to partition a pair of sealed air chambers 215 and 216 (see FIGS. 3 and 4 ) downstream and upstream of seal ring 138 , respectively. As shown in FIG. 4 , movement of armature 64 and seal ring 138 within cylindrical bore 69 provides compression and evacuation on respective opposite sides of seal ring 138 as armature 64 moves so as to change the relative volumes of air chambers 215 and 216 . Such action imparts dampening to sudden motions of flow tube 60 within the metering valve which imparts benefits and stability to fuel flow control by the valve. [0064] FIGS. 2 and 4 illustrate the provision of a temperature sensor in the form of a thermistor 94 which is provided adjacent an inlet (or upstream) end of flow tube 60 for measuring inlet temperature of fuel into flow tube 60 of metering valve 10 . As shown in FIGS. 2 and 4 , thermistor 94 is threaded for mounting into a threaded bore 250 provided in inlet end plate 26 . As shown in FIG. 4 , threaded bore 250 is in fluid communication with a temperature port 244 that communicates with an upstream end of flow tube 60 for detecting upstream temperature at flow tube 60 . To facilitate manufacturing of temperature port 244 , an enlarged port 246 is provided with a threaded female portion for receiving a threaded plug 148 . Plug 148 is used to seal the radial outer end of threaded port 246 and to further facilitate cleaning and maintenance of port 244 . [0065] In addition to illustrating the position of thermistor 94 and temperature port 244 , FIGS. 2, 3 and 4 further illustrate the positioning of an inlet pressure sensor 96 (see FIGS. 2, 3 and 4 ) and an outlet pressure sensor 98 (see FIGS. 2 and 4 ). The resulting detected temperature from thermistor 94 and pressures from pressure sensors 96 and 98 are utilized to calculate fuel flow delivery rates through metering valve 10 for both subsonic and sonic flow conditions. [0066] Inlet pressure sensor 96 is received within a threaded bore 150 which communicates via the pressure port 144 with flow inlet 20 . Pressure port 144 is formed similar to temperature port 244 wherein an enlarged threaded port 146 is first formed and in which a threaded plug 148 is provided to seal threaded port 146 and pressure port 144 after construction. [0067] Similarly, outlet pressure sensor 98 is threaded into a similar threaded bore 350 which communicates with a pressure port 344 . An enlarged threaded port 346 is used to facilitate construction of pressure port 344 , after which another threaded plug 148 is threaded into sealing engagement therein. [0068] In operation, temperature port 244 enables thermistor 94 to detect inlet temperature of fuel at flow inlet 20 . Likewise, pressure port 144 enables inlet pressure sensor 96 to detect pressure of fuel at flow inlet 20 . Finally, pressure port 344 enables outlet pressure sensor 98 to detect downstream pressure adjacent flow outlet 22 , or adjacent to the downstream end of flow tube 60 . [0069] FIG. 4 illustrates the physical attachment of electronics enclosure assembly 12 to valve body assembly 14 . More particularly, a pair of hollow bolts 204 and 206 are used to secure electronics enclosure assembly 12 to valve body assembly 14 . Additionally, hollow bolts 204 and 206 facilitate the passage of wiring from sensors 94 , 96 and 98 to electronics package 101 within electronics enclosure assembly 12 . More particularly, wires 208 and 209 pass through hollow bolt 204 ; whereas wires 210 and solenoid wires 66 and 68 pass through hollow bolt 206 . Each bolt 204 and 206 includes a circumferential outer groove 213 in which a helicoil lock 212 is provided to lock each bolt 204 and 206 into the respective threaded surfaces provided in valve housing 24 . [0070] Also shown in FIG. 4 , a threaded fastener 214 is used to secure motor housing 70 together with pole piece 162 . Two other threaded fasteners (not shown) are equally spaced circumferentially from threaded fastener 214 shown in FIG. 4 . [0071] As shown in FIGS. 1-4 , metering valve 10 uses onboard sensors and digital electronics to automatically measure and control mass flow of fuel over a wide range of temperatures and pressures, as described below with reference to FIGS. 5-11 . The actual fuel flow can be determined with onboard electronics based on feedback signals from sensors in the valve. The metering valve also uses integrated, 24-volt DC (VDC) digital electronics that contain additional inputs and outputs for allowing programmable flow control, closed-loop turbine control, and an array of other options. Analog interfaces are provided within the electronics housing which are user configurable as 4-20 mA (current) or 0-5 VDC (voltage). Real-time health and data monitoring of the metering valve can also be implemented through an isolated RS-232/RS-485 serial interface that enables a user to see mass flow, inlet and outlet pressures, gas temperature and diagnostics. [0072] The flow tube construction for the metering valve is balanced. Additionally, the flow-through construction is self-cleaning. Even furthermore, the only moving part present within the valve is the moving core that is driven by a direct acting solenoid comprising the armature and flow tube. As a result, prior art techniques of utilizing pneumatics or hydraulics for actuating a valve are eliminated, and their concomitant tendency to leak and break down is eliminated from the design. A fail-safe closing spring along with an easy-to-clean soft seat provides a positive, leak-tight shutoff which further enhances the contamination-resistant design of the metering valve. [0073] Under experimental tests, it has been determined that the present metering valve design results in improved flow performance because of its smooth, flow-through design. The metering valve has been found to have a 200:1 turn-down ratio and a plus or minus one percent linearity, making such metering valve ideal for use with 1-10 megawatt gas turbines. Even furthermore, the electronics on the metering valve enable a user to program a maximum flow rate and relatively easily achieve such result by way of the incorporated sensors. [0000] B. Control System Stem and Method [0074] Details of the valve control system and method of the present invention are disclosed below with reference to FIGS. 5-11 . The control system uses both sonic and subsonic flow equations to control an exemplary turbine fuel metering valve (of FIGS. 1-4 ) in order to meet a mass fuel flow that matches a desired demand for a particular turbine engine. Such subsonic and sonic flow equations are implemented using a microcontroller such that the microcontroller can adjust valve fuel flow to match a flow control setpoint. The sensors previously described for measuring flow tube displacement, upstream pressure, downstream pressure, and upstream temperature provide data that is used as input values to the respective flow equations in order to determine valve fuel flow that matches a setpoint value. [0075] FIG. 5 illustrates electronics 33 forming an electronics system 218 that is provided within the electronics closure assembly of the metering valve described with reference to FIGS. 1-4 . More particularly, electronics 33 cooperates to provide a control system for the metering valve which includes a 24-volt DC (VDC) electronic power supply line 220 . Power supply line 220 delivers a supply of 24 VDC nominal (16V to 32V) input power with a reverse voltage protection. A four-amp (A) maximum power supply current is provided at 16 volts (V), or 64 watts. [0076] Analog inputs 222 are also provided to electronics 33 . The analog inputs 222 form part of an analog interface, in combination with analog outputs 234 . Analog inputs 222 comprise software selectable inputs ranging from zero to 20 mA, and zero to 5 volts DC, or variations thereof. The analog outputs 234 comprise software selectable outputs that range from minus 20 to 20 mA, and minus 5 to 5 volts DC, or variations thereof. A first communication port 224 and a second communication port 226 each include communication links that are coupled with an isolated, 16-bit RS-232/RS485 serial communications interface 272 by way of isolation circuitry 260 . Serial communication interface 272 is provided on digital signal processor (DSP) 256 . Isolation circuitry 260 provides 500 volt AC (714 Vdc) isolation between the case and signal wires provided by communications ports 224 and 226 . [0077] A fuel inlet 228 provides fuel to metering valve 10 and a fuel outlet 238 delivers the metered fuel in response to operation of electronics 33 which serve to regulate operation of metering valve 10 by operation of solenoid 172 . As shown in FIG. 5 , metering valve 10 is shown in a simplified schematic form, separated from solenoid 172 . However, it is understood that the associated mechanical components are provided together. Simplified representations of fuel inlet 228 , fuel outlet 238 , and metering valve 10 are depicted herein in order to show their relationship relative to the accompanying electronics 33 . [0078] Discrete outputs 230 and discrete inputs 232 are provided in association with isolation circuitry 258 for communication with an input/output (I/O) interface 274 . Outputs 230 and inputs 232 comprise optional discrete inputs and outputs. Discrete outputs 230 comprise solid state relay outputs. Discrete inputs 232 comprise optocoupler inputs. [0079] A 24-volt DC (VDC) solenoid power supply 236 supplies power to a solenoid driver 267 for driving solenoid 172 . Additionally, power conditioning and isolation circuitry 252 conditions and isolates power from power supply 220 for delivery to signal conditioning circuitry 254 , DSP 256 , and signal conditioning circuitry 262 . [0080] Signal conditioning circuitry 254 conditions input signals for delivery to analog-to-digital (A/D) interface 270 of DSP 256 . Similarly, signal conditioning circuitry 262 serves to condition signals from pulse width modulator (PWM) 276 for delivery to PWM 276 , to analog output 234 , and to displacement sensor 88 (or LVDT 90 ). [0081] Isolation circuitry 266 conditions signals from PWM 276 for delivery to driver 267 . Similarly, isolation circuitry 264 conditions signals from downstream of driver 267 for delivery to signal conditioning circuitry 254 . Solenoid driver 267 is a high current solenoid driver. [0082] As shown in FIG. 5 , an inlet pressure sensor 96 measures upstream pressure, and an inlet temperature sensor 94 measures upstream temperature. Likewise, an outlet pressure sensor 98 measures downstream pressure, relative to metering valve 10 . [0083] DSP 256 is a Model No. TMS320F2810 manufactured by Texas Instruments. DSP 256 has a 32-bit central processing unit (CPU), with 6.67 nanosecond minimum instruction time, 150 MHz clock speed, 64K by 16 Flash memory, 18K by 16 internal SRAM memory, multiple instruction processing (4 level pipeline), and a watchdog timer. [0084] DSP 256 has a 12 bit analog-to-digital converter (ADC) with 16 channels. There are two sample-and-hold blocks and a 2 by 8 channel input multiplexer. There are two asynchronous serial communication interfaces (SCIs), a synchronous serial peripheral interface (SPI), an enhanced controller area network (eCAN), and two event manager modules. [0085] Software and firmware design for the metering valve control system benefits from several software features. First, the valve is configured to be run in multiple modes of operation: a stroke mode, a flow control mode, a flow measurement mode, and a flow limiting mode. Secondly, the processing speed of the DSP (150 MHz) enables fast flow and control calculations. Finally, C/C++ programming language is used for the software which allows for faster software development, provides floating point math functions, and eases software maintenance. [0086] FIG. 6 illustrates software states for the metering valve control system of the present invention. More particularly, a “POWER-UP/RESET” state is configured to initialize the digital signal processor (DSP) and associated peripherals (such as the LVDT, solenoid driver, solenoid, and circuitry). Additionally, this state performs device tests and data integrity tests. Furthermore, this state transitions to the “SETUP” state, but only if a Setup Command is received. [0087] A “RUN” state corresponds with four operating modes: a “Run-Stroke Mode”, a “Run-Flow Measurement Mode”, a “Run-Flow Control Mode”, and a “Run-Flow Limiting Mode”. The “Run-Stroke Mode” corresponds with standard metering valve operation. The “Run-Flow Measurement Mode” corresponds with sensor-based determination of flow using flow equations. The “Run-Flow Control Mode” corresponds with position demand being used to set a desired flow. The “Run-Flow Limiting Mode” corresponds with position demand being used to set desired flow limited by turbine acceleration/deceleration tables. [0088] A “SHUTDOWN” state is entered as a result of critical faults where a selected “RUN” state cannot continue. The “SHUTDOWN” state transitions back to the “RESET” state by way of a power cycle. [0089] A “SETUP” state is configured to set an operating mode for the metering valve to a stroke mode, a flow measurement mode, a flow control mode, or a flow limiting mode. The “SETUP” state also enables the setting of gas parameters for the fuel being delivered by the valve. Additionally, identification information and flow control loop parameters can be set. Finally, a user can exit the “SETUP” state only by using a reset command, according to one implementation. [0090] Several control system interrupts are used on the circuitry and software for the metering valve. More particularly, an ADC interrupt is provided to read all A/D inputs and to serve as a main timer interrupt. An SCI transmit interrupt is provided to transmit RS-232/RS-485 serial data. An SCI receive interrupt is provided to receive RS-232/RS-485 serial data. [0091] System timing is used to handle the ADC interrupt and several tasks. First, the ADC interrupt is executed every 12.5 microseconds at an 80 KHz rate, and serves as a timer interrupt. The ADC interrupt sets event flags to execute foreground tasks, and the execution time is 1.47 microseconds. Secondly, an LVDT position task is executed every 100 microseconds at a 10 KHz rate. The LVDT position task is called by the ADC interrupt, and execution time is 0.63 microseconds. Thirdly, a current control task is executed every 100 microseconds at a 10 KHz rate. The current control task runs in the foreground when the event flag is set, and execution time is 100 microseconds. Fourth, a position control task is executed every 100 microseconds at a 10 KHz rate. The position control task runs in the foreground when an event flag is set, and execution time is 100 microseconds. Fifth, a flow control task is executed every 20 milliseconds at a 50 Hz rate. The flow control task runs in the foreground when an event flag is set. An estimate of the flow measurement execution time is 24 microseconds, and an estimate of the flow control execution time is 12 microseconds. Finally, a temperature task is executed every 819 milliseconds at a 1.2 Hz rate. The temperature task runs in the foreground when an event flag is set, and an estimated execution time is 16 microseconds. [0092] FIGS. 7-11 illustrate logic flow for the control algorithms implemented via the control system for the metering valve of FIGS. 1-5 . More particularly, proportional-integral-differential (PID) control loops include a flow control PID loop, a position control PID loop, and a current control PID loop. Additionally, algorithms include a flow measurement algorithm, a flow control algorithm, and an ADC input conditioning algorithm. [0093] FIG. 7 illustrates the logic flow for the PID loop control. Step “S 1 ” represents the displacement position of the metering tube in the metering valve as measured from the LVDT. Step “S 1 ” provides inputs to Steps “S 2 ” and “S 7 ”. Step “S 2 ” represents the flow measurement equation used to calculate flow corresponding to the detected position from the LVDT. Step “S 3 ” proceeds to Step “S 4 ”. Step “S 3 ” represents 4-20 milliamp demand as a setpoint input. Step “S 4 ” represents a decision diamond that queries whether the desired control is flow control or position control. When flow control is desired, the process proceeds to Step “S 5 ”. When position control is desired, the process proceeds to Step “S 7 ”. In Step “S 5 ”, a flow control equation is implemented, as described below in greater detail with reference to sonic and subsonic flow conditions. After performing Step “S 5 ”, the process proceeds to Step “S 6 ”. [0094] In Step “S 6 ”, a flow control PID loop is implemented. The flow control PID loop controls valve flow, has a setpoint input of 4-20 milliamp (0-5 VDC) demand input, and has a status input in the form of a flow measurement equation for both sonic and subsonic flow conditions. The flow control PID loop provides an input to the position control loop PID of Step “S 7 ”. The flow control PID loop uses fixed point math in order to enhance operating speed. [0095] In Step “S 7 ”, a position control PID loop is implemented in order to control position of the flow tube within the metering valve. The position control PID loop receives one of two setpoint inputs, depending on the operating mode: first, a flow control PID loop output is received for a flow control mode; and second, a 4-20 milliamp demand input is received for a stroke mode. Additionally, a status input is received by the position control PID loop comprising a detected position from the LVDT. The position control PID loop generates an output that provides a solenoid current PID loop input for Step “S 9 ”. The position control PID loop uses fixed point math which enhances speed. After performing Step “S 7 ”, the process proceeds to Step “S 8 ”. [0096] In Step “S 8 ”, solenoid current is sensed. After performing Step “S 8 ”, the process proceeds to Step “S 9 ”. [0097] In Step “S 9 ”, a current control PID loop is implemented in order to manage drive current to the solenoid of the metering valve. The current control PID loop receives a set-point input comprising the position control PID loop output. The current control PID loop also receives a status input comprising a solenoid current sense input signal. The current control PID loop generates an output to the solenoid, represented as Step “S 10 ”. The current control PID loop also used fixed point math in order to maximize speed of operation. [0098] FIG. 8 illustrates a logic flow diagram for implementing a proportional-integral-derivative (PID) loop algorithm for carrying out Steps “S 6 ”, “S 7 ”, and “S 9 ”, of FIG. 7 . More particularly, Steps “S 1 ” through “S 23 ” detail one suitable PID control loop algorithm usable to implement the PID loop functionality of Steps “S 6 ”, “S 7 ”, and “S 9 ” of FIG. 7 . [0099] A proportional integral and derivative (PID) control system is illustrated with reference to FIG. 8 . More particularly, the control process starts with Step “S 1 ”. In Step “S 2 ”, a reverse acting control loop is implemented wherein error equals setpoint minus output status (or measurement). In Step “S 3 ”, SumError equals plus Error. Steps “S 4 ”-“S 9 ” define a proportional band that provides the amount an input would have to change in order to cause output to move from zero to 100%, or vice-versa. [0100] In Step “S 10 ”, an integral term is defined. In Step “S 11 ”, a DeltaOut term is defined. In Step “S 12 ”, a LastOutput term is defined. Furthermore, in Step “S 3 ”, a differential term (Dterm) is defined. [0101] Step “S 14 ” provides a decision tree wherein, if the setpoint equals the last setpoint, the process proceeds to Step “S 15 ”. If not, the process proceeds to Step “S 16 ”. In Step “S 15 ”, the proportional term (Pterm) is defined. In Step “S 16 ”, the proportional term, the differential term, the last setpoint, and the last output are all set to zero. In Step “S 17 ”, a correction is equated with the proportional term, the integral term, and the differential term, which are added together. In Step “S 18 ”, the output is set equal to the output plus a correction as determined in Step “S 17 ”. [0102] Step “S 19 ” defines a decision tree wherein, if output is below a minimum, the process proceeds to Step “S 20 ”. If output is not below a minimum, the process proceeds to Step “S 21 ”. In Step “S 20 ”, output is set equal to a minimum. In Step “S 21 ”, a decision tree queries whether the output is greater than a maximum. If the output is greater than a maximum, the process proceeds to Step “S 22 ”. If not, the process proceeds to Step “S 23 ” and returns to start at Step “S 1 ”. In Step “S 22 ”, the output is set to a maximum value and then proceeds to Step “S 23 ” and returns to start at Step “S 1 ”. [0103] FIG. 9 illustrates a flow measurement algorithm for the flow control system and metering valve described previously. Flow measurement is measured by use of an equation in order to calculate mass flow through an orifice. Flow control and flow measurement algorithm details are provided in a subsequent section, below. As shown in FIG. 1 , flow measurement is implemented at Step “S 1 ”, where it is initiated. After Step “S 1 ”, the process proceeds to Step “S 2 ” wherein particular constants R (gas constant), K (specific heat ratio), sonic tables, and subsonic tables for coefficient discharge times area versus command interpolation tables are provided. After performing Step “S 2 ”, the process proceeds to Step “S 3 ”. In Step “S 3 ”, the determined constants and the coefficient of discharge times area interpolation tables are input into the controller. In summary, Steps “S 1 ” through “S 3 ” provide a setup mode. [0104] Subsequent to performing Step “S 3 ”, the process proceeds to a run mode at Step “S 4 ”. More particularly, Step “S 4 ” entails measuring P1 (upstream pressure), P2 (downstream pressure), and T1 (upstream temperature). After performing Step “S 4 ”, the process proceeds to Step “S 5 ” and Step “S 6 ”. [0105] Step “S 5 ”, valve position is measured using the LVDT. After performing Step “S 5 ”, the process proceeds to Step “S 8 ” and Step “S 10 ”. [0106] In Step “S 6 ”, a pressure ratio of output pressure over input pressure is calculated. After performing Step “S 6 ”, the process proceeds to a decision tree at Step “S 7 ”. In Step “S 7 ”, if a pressure ratio (P2/P1) is less than 0.53, the process proceeds to Step “S 8 ”. If not, the process proceeds to Step “S 10 ”. [0107] In Step “S 8 ”, valve position is converted to a coefficient of discharge times area on a sonic, 43-point coefficient of discharge times area of profile. After performing Step “S 8 ”, the process proceeds to Step “S 9 ”. [0108] In Step “S 9 ”, mass flow is calculated using a sonic flow equation as detailed below. [0109] After performing Step “S 9 ”, the process proceeds to Step “S 12 ”. [0110] In Step “S 12 ”, mass flow is output to a flow proportional-integral-differential (PID) loop, as previously detailed with reference to FIG. 8 . After performing Step “S 12 ”, the process proceeds back to Step “S 4 ”. [0111] In Step “S 10 ”, valve position is converted to a coefficient of discharge times area based on a subsonic, 43-point coefficient of discharge times area of profile. After performing Step “S 10 ”, the process proceeds to Step “S 11 ”. [0112] In Step “S 11 ”, mass flow is calculated using the subsonic flow equations as identified below. After performing Step “S 11 ”, the process proceeds to Step “S 12 ”. [0113] In Step “S 12 ”, mass flow is output to the flow PID loop, as previously described, and the process then returns back to Step “S 4 ”. [0114] FIG. 10 illustrates the process steps for a flow control algorithm usable with the control system metering valve of the present invention. The process starts at Step “S 1 ”. After performing Step “S 1 ”, the process proceeds to Step “S 2 ”. [0115] In Step “S 2 ”, the values for constants R, K, coefficient of discharge times area versus command interpolation tables for sonic and subsonic conditions, are determined. After performing Step “S 2 ”, the process proceeds to Step “S 3 ”. [0116] In Step “S 3 ”, the determined constants and the coefficient of discharge times area interpolation tables are input into the controller for the metering valve. Steps “S 1 ” through Step “S 3 ” provide a setup mode. [0117] Step “S 4 ” initiates a run mode for flow control of the valve. in Step “S 4 ”, upstream pressure, downstream pressure, and upstream temperature are measured. After performing Step “S 4 ”, the process proceeds to Step “S 5 ” and to Step “S 6 ”. [0118] In Step “S 5 ”, flow demand is read. After performing Step “S 5 ”, the process proceeds to Step “S 8 ” and Step “S 9 ”. [0119] In Step “S 6 ”, the pressure ratio of output pressure over input pressure is calculated. After performing Step “S 6 ”, the process proceeds to a decision tree at Step “S 7 ”. If the calculated ratio pressure is less than 0.53, the process proceeds to Step “S 8 ”. If not, the process proceeds to Step “S 9 ”. [0120] In Step “S 8 ”, flow demand is converted to a coefficient of discharge times area based on the sonic flow equations identified below. After performing Step “S 8 ”, the process proceeds to Step “S 10 ”. [0121] In Step “S 10 ”, the coefficient of discharge area is converted to a position demand value based on the sonic coefficient of discharge times area interpolation tables. After performing Step “S 10 ”, the process proceeds to Step “S 12 ”. [0122] In Step “S 9 ”, flow demand is converted to a coefficient of discharge area based on the subsonic flow equation as identified below. After performing Step “S 9 ”, the process proceeds to Step “S 11 ”. [0123] In Step “S 11 ”, the coefficient of discharge times area is converted to a position demand value based on the subsonic coefficient of discharge times area interpolation tables. After performing Step “S 11 ”, the process proceeds to Step “S 12 ”. [0124] In Step “S 12 ”, position demand is output to the flow proportional-integral-differential (PID) loop, as identified in FIG. 8 . After performing Step “S 12 ”, the process proceeds back to Step “S 4 ”. [0125] FIG. 11 illustrates analog to digital converter input conditioning implemented with the control system. More particularly, Step “S 1 ” entails an analog to digital converter (ADC) interrupt with 12.5 microsecond intervals. After performing Step “S 1 ”, the process proceeds to Step “S 2 ”. [0126] In Step “S 2 ”, all 16 ADC input channels are read. After performing Step “S 2 ”, the process proceeds to Step “S 3 ”. [0127] In Step “S 3 ”, each ADC input FIFO buffer is updated, with each having eight elements. After performing Step “S 3 ”, the process proceeds to Step “S 4 ” and returns to normal operation. Steps “S 1 ” through “S 4 ” provide an ADC interrupt. [0128] Also in FIG. 11 , a foreground operation is provided starting with Step “SS 1 ”. After performing Step “SS 1 ”, the process proceeds to Step “SS 2 ”. [0129] In Step “SS 2 ”, an ADC input buffer pointer is incremented from values ranging from zero to 15. After performing Step “SS 2 ”, the process proceeds to Step “SS 3 ”. [0130] In Step “SS 3 ”, the ADC input FIFO buffer is copied to the ADC average buffer. After performing Step “SS 3 ”, the process proceeds to Step “SS 4 ”. [0131] In Step “SS 4 ”, an average value is calculated, except highest and lowest values are excluded. After performing Step “SS 4 ”, the process proceeds to a decision tree at Step “SS 5 ”. If the ADC input is in the range of a 4-20 milliamp input, the process proceeds to the decision of Step “SS 6 ”. If not, the process proceeds to Step “SS 8 ”. [0132] In Step “SS 6 ”, query is raised whether the ADC input is within a hysteresis window. If the ADC input is within a hysteresis window, the process proceeds to Step “SS 7 ” and returns to a normal operation. If not, the process proceeds to Step “SS 8 ”. [0133] In Step “SS 8 ”, a global ADC input value is updated. After performing Step “SS 8 ”, the process proceeds to Step “SS 9 ”. [0134] In Step “SS 9 ”, the process returns to a normal operating mode. [0000] C. Logic Flow Equations [0135] In order to implement flow control, the metering valve meters mass flow of fuel according to demand. More particularly, the demand signal is proportional to flow. For purposes of implementation, 4 milliamps (13,127 counts) is defined as zero mass flow, corresponding with the valve being closed. Additionally, 20 milliamps (65,636 counts) is defined as maximum flow, corresponding with the valve being fully open. The maximum flow is user selected using set-up software prior to installation. According to an optional implementation, if a discrete RUN command is enabled, the valve will begin controlling flow. As the demand increases, the micro-controller determines the flow control set point, converting analog demand to digital count set point. The micro-controller then adjusts valve fuel flow to match the set point. The following flow algorithms are used: [0136] Sonic Flow Conditions: Pup/Pdown≧2 M . = 3600 * Pup * CdA * KGc ZRT * ( 2 K + 1 ) K + 1 2 ⁢ ( K - 1 ) {dot over (M)}=mass flow rate (lbm/hr) Pup=Upstream Pressure (psia) Cd=Coefficient of discharge Z=Compressibility factor R=Gas Constant (ft-lbf/lbm-R) T=Gas Temp (R) K=Specific Heat Ratio (Cp/Cv) A=Metering Area (in{circumflex over ( )}2) Gc = Gravitational ⁢   ⁢ Constant ⁡ ( 32.2 ⁢ ft sec ⁢ . 2 ) [0145] Subsonic Flow Conditions: Pup/Pdown<2 M . = 3600 * CdA * 2 ⁢ KGc R ⁡ ( K - 1 ) * ( Pup T ) * ( Pdown Pup ) 1 K * 1 - ( Pdown Pup ) ( K - 1 K ) {dot over (M)}=mass flow rate (lbm/hr) Cd=Coefficient of discharge A=Metering Area (in{circumflex over ( )}2) K=Specific Heat Ratio (Cp/Cv) Gc = Gravitational ⁢   ⁢ Constant ⁡ ( 32.2 ⁢ ft sec ⁢ . 2 ) Pup=Up stream Pressure (psia) Pdown=Downstream Pressure (psia) T=Gas Temp (R) [0153] Pup, Pdown and T are analog inputs provided to the DSP via on-board upstream and downstream pressure transducers and an upstream gas temperature thermistor. Z, R and K are constants that vary from depending on gas fuel medium. These values shall be set in on board, non-volatile memory (EEPROM). Cd and A are functions of valve position, the product of which forms the “effective” metering area. Therefore, a tabular Cd*A (or CdA) vs. valve position table shall be set in on board, non-volatile memory (EEPROM). [0154] FIG. 12 illustrates one experimental test result for realizing slow demand using the valve and valve control system of FIGS. 1-11 in order to calculate flow as a turbine is ramped up from a starting condition over time with increasing speed to a final idle position (shown on the right hand of the abscissa). Plot 300 illustrates an experimentally determined fuel flow that was measured continuously from startup to idle using a Coriolis meter. Plot 302 illustrates flow that was calculated using the techniques described with reference to FIGS. 1-11 wherein four sensors were used instead of using a flow feedback device in order to calculate flow without using a relatively expensive flow detector. [0155] As shown in FIG. 12 , plot 300 shows a natural frequency for the Coriolis meter slightly later in time than 12:23. The ordinate (or y axis) shows a unit measure (pounds per hour) of fuel delivered. As can be seen from FIG. 12 , plot 302 (the present invention) very closely mirrors the performance of plot 300 which was detected using a relatively expensive Coriolis meter as a flow-measuring device which operates the system as a closed loop. The results of such experimental test indicate close performance for the present flow system and method, while eliminating the relatively expensive addition of a flow-measuring device, such as a relatively expensive Coriolis meter. Furthermore, the Coriolis meter reduced an extraneous artifact that occurred at a natural frequency of the meter, as depicted in FIG. 12 . Such an artifact is undesirable and could affect calculated flow performance. [0156] In compliance with the statute, the invention has been described in language more or less specific as to structural and methodical features. It is to be understood, however, that the invention is not limited to the specific features shown and described, since the means herein disclosed comprise preferred forms of putting the invention into effect. The invention is, therefore, claimed in any of its forms or modifications within the proper scope of the appended claims appropriately interpreted in accordance with the doctrine of equivalents.

A turbine valve control system is provided. The turbine valve control system includes a variable flow metering device, a first sensor, a second sensor, a third sensor, a fourth sensor, memory, and processing circuitry. The variable flow metering device is capable of meeting a plurality of predetermined mass flow rates by varying positioning of the flow metering device. The first sensor is configured for detecting variable positioning of the flow metering device and generating a first output signal that is a function of the positioning of the flow metering device. The second sensor is configured for detecting fluid pressure upstream of the flow metering device and generating a second output signal that is a function of the detected upstream fluid pressure. The third sensor is configured for detecting fluid pressure downstream of the flow metering device and generating a third output signal that is a function of the detected downstream fluid pressure. The fourth sensor is configured for detecting temperature upstream of the flow metering device and generating a fourth output signal that is a function of the detected temperature. The memory includes first computer program code for calculating a combined coefficient of discharge times area that gives a desired flow for a given valve position, upstream pressure, downstream pressure, and temperature for subsonic flow. The memory also includes second computer program code for calculating a combined coefficient of discharge times area that gives a desired flow for a given valve position, upstream pressure, and temperature for sonic flow. The processing circuitry is configured to receive the signals, determine whether the flow is subsonic or sonic, and implement a corresponding one of the first and second computer program codes to calculate a combined coefficient of discharge times area that will generate a desired mass flow rate for the flow metering device. A method is also provided.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO THE RELATED APPLICATION [0001] This application is based upon and claims priority from prior Japanese Patent Application No. 2005-317667 filed on Oct. 31, 2005, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. TECHNICAL FIELD [0002] Illustrative aspects of the present invention relate to a document feeder suited for the double-sided reading of documents. BACKGROUND [0003] In the prior art, in an image reading apparatus which is used in a copier, a scanner, a multi-function apparatus having the functions of the former is known to have an automatic document feeder called the ADF (Auto Document Feeder) for transferring the documents from an input tray through a transfer path to an output tray. There is also known an automatic document feeder for reading a document having its two first and second sides printed. In this device, the document is reversed at its leading end and trailing end by reversible rollers while it is being transferred (for example, see JF-A-8-85649). [0004] FIG. 15 is a typical view of a feed path used in a conventional document feeder capable of reading both sides of a document. As shown in FIG. 15 , a document P placed on a sheet feed tray 100 with the first surface (first page) thereof facing upward is fed to a feed path 102 by a sheet feed roller 101 . In the feed path 102 , the document P is fed to feed rollers 103 which are disposed properly according to cases. When the document P passes through a read position X, the first surface of the document P is read by an image read unit such as a CCD or a CIS. When a sensor detects the trailing end of the document P after the first surface thereof is read, sheet discharge rollers 104 are caused to stop in a state where the sheet discharge rollers 104 nip the vicinity around the trailing end of the document P. [0005] As shown in FIG. 16 , when the sheet discharge rollers 104 are reversed, the document P is fed to a bidirectional feed path 105 . The document P is fed from the bidirectional feed path 105 again to a side upstream of the read position X. As a result, the leading and trailing ends of the document P are reversed. The document P is fed by the feed rollers 103 , and when the document P passes through the read position X, the second surface of the document P is read by the image read unit. When a sensor detects the trailing end of the document P after the second surface of the document P is read, the sheet discharge rollers 104 are again stopped in a state where the trailing end of the document P is nipped. Afterwards, the document P is sent back along the bidirectional feed path 105 . When the document F is moved from the bidirectional feed path 105 again into the feed path 102 , the document P is held in a state where the leading and trailing ends of the document P are reversed once more, that is, the first surface of the document P is opposed to the read position X. The document P is delivered along the feed path 102 and is discharged into a sheet discharge tray 106 with the first surface thereof facing downward. As a result, both the first and second surfaces of the document P are read and the document P is discharged to the sheet discharge tray 106 in the order that the sheets of the document P were supplied to the sheet feet tray 100 . SUMMARY [0006] Aspects of the invention relate to a document feeder which is capable of feeding a document for double-sided reading and capable of discharging a document without damage or jam, even when a size of the document cannot b e applied to the double-sided reading. [0007] Additional aspects of the invention relate to a document feeder including an inlet; an outlet; an input transfer path configured to guide a document during transfer from the inlet passed a scanning point to an end point positioned above the inlet; an intermediate transfer path configured to guide the document during transfer from the end point passed the scanning point to the endpoint again; an output transfer path configured to guide the document during transfer from the end point passed the scanning point to the outlet;a sensor disposed at downstream of the scanning point; and a controller determine whether the document transfer, based on the signal of the sensor. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0008] These and other aspects of the present invention will be made more fully apparent from the following detailed description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: [0009] FIG. 1 is a perspective view of the external structure of an image reading apparatus according to an aspect of the invention; [0010] FIG. 2 is a sectional view of the internal structure of the image reading apparatus; [0011] FIG. 3 is a block diagram of the structure of a control part; [0012] FIG. 4 is a flow chart of the operation of a double-sided image reading mode; [0013] FIG. 5 is a typical view of the image reading operation in the double-sided image reading mode; [0014] FIG. 6 is a typical view of the image reading operation in the double-sided image reading mode; [0015] FIG. 7 is a typical view of the image reading operation in the double-sided image reading mode; [0016] FIG. 8 is a typical view of the image reading operation in the double-sided image reading mode; [0017] FIG. 9 is a typical view of the image reading operation in the double-sided image reading mode; [0018] FIG. 10 is a typical view of the image reading operation in the double-sided image reading mode; [0019] FIG. 11 is a typical view of the image reading operation in the double-sided image reading mode; [0020] FIG. 12 is a flow chart of an operation for judging the feed-direction length of a document; [0021] FIG. 13 is a typical view of an operation for detecting a document using a second front sensor; [0022] FIG. 14 is a typical view of an operation for discharging the document; [0023] FIG. 15 is a typical view of a document feeding operation for reading the images of both sides of a document according to a conventional document feeder; and [0024] FIG. 16 is a typical view of a document feeding operation for reading the images of both sides of a document according to a conventional document feeder. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0025] In the description that follows, various connections are set forth between elements in various overall structures. The reader should understand that those connections in general, and unless specified otherwise, may be direct or indirect and that this specification is not intended to be limiting in this respect. [0026] Various examples of apparatuses in accordance with the invention will be described below with reference to the appended drawings. While the invention is described primarily in terms of “document”, this skilled in the art will appreciate, of course, that aspects and features of the invention may be used in conjunction with a wide variety of feeding systems and methods, including systems and methods for feeding other sheet type materials, such as plastics (e.g., transparencies), fiber materials, metals, flexible sheets, and the like [0027] FIG. 1 shows the configuration of the image reading apparatus 1 according to the illustrative aspect of the invention. FIG. 2 shows the configuration of the main interior portions of the image reading apparatus 1 . The present image reading apparatus 1 can be realized as an image read part which has a scanner function integrated therewith and used to read the image of a document, for example, in a copying machine, a facsimile, a scanner apparatus, and a multi-function device (MFD) having an integrated scanner function. [0028] As shown in FIGS. 1 and 2 , the present image reading apparatus 1 is structured such that a document cover 4 including an ADF 3 functioning as an automatic document feed mechanism is openably and closably mounted on a document placement base member 2 functioning as a flatbed scanner (FBS) through hinges provided on the back surface side (on the rear side in the depictions of the FIGS. 1 and 2 ). The ADF 3 corresponds to a document feeder according to the invention. [0029] An operation panel 5 is disposed on the front side of the document placement base member 2 . The operation panel 5 includes various operation keys 11 and a liquid crystal display part 12 . A user can input a desired instruction using the operation panel 5 . For example, the input of “Start” showing the commencement of reading a document and “Stop” showing the termination of such reading, as well as the choice of a one-sided reading mode or a double-sided reading mode can be carried out using the operation keys 11 . On receiving these given inputs, the image reading apparatus 1 carries out a given operation. The image reading apparatus 1 can also be operated by instructions other than the instructions inputted to the operation panel 5 . The image reading apparatus 1 can also be connected to a computer and thus can be operated by instructions which are transmitted thereto from the computer through a printer driver, a scanner driver, or the like. [0030] As shown in FIG. 2 , on the document placement base member 2 , and more specifically, on the top surface thereof facing the document cover 4 , there are disposed platen glass members 20 , 21 . When the document cover 4 is opened, the platen glass members 20 , 21 are exposed as the top surface of the document placement base member 2 . When the document cover 4 is closed, the whole of the top surface of the document placement base member 2 including the platen glass members 20 , 21 is covered by the document cover 4 . In the interior of the document placement base member 2 , there is incorporated an image read unit 22 in such a manner as to be opposed to the platen glass members 20 , 21 . [0031] The platen glass member 20 is a member on which a document can be placed when the image reading apparatus 1 is used as an FBS. For example, the platen glass member 20 may be composed of a transparent glass plate. In the center of the top surface of the document placement base member 2 , there is formed an opening from which the platen glass member 20 can be exposed, whereby the area of the platen glass member 20 that is exposed from the opening provides a document read area in the FBS. [0032] The platen glass member 21 functions as a read position when the ADF 3 of the image reading apparatus 1 is used, and as an example, may be composed of a transparent glass plate. In the read position of the document placement base member 2 , there is formed an opening from which the platen glass member 21 can be exposed. The platen glass member 21 exposed from the opening is extended in the depth direction of the image reading apparatus 1 correspondingly to the length in the main scanning direction of the image read unit 22 . [0033] A positioning member 23 is interposed between the platen glass members 20 and 21 . The positioning member 23 is a long flat-plate-shaped member which is extended in the depth direction of the image reading apparatus 1 similarly to the platen glass member 21 . When a document is placed onto the platen glass member 20 serving as the document placement surface of the FBS, the positioning member 23 is used as the positioning reference of the document. For this purpose, on the top surface of the positioning member 23 , there are disposed indications for indicating the position of the center as well as the positions of the two ends of various document sizes such as A 4 size and B 5 size. On the top surface of the positioning member 23 , there is further formed a guide surface by which a document passing on the platen glass member 21 by the ADF 3 can be scooped up and deflected and also can be then returned to the ADF 3 . [0034] The image read unit 22 is an image sensor which radiates the light from a light source onto the document through the platen glass members 20 , 21 , gathers the reflected light from the document onto a light receiving element, and converts the light to an electric signal. The image read unit 22 can be formed of, for example, a close-contact type image sensor (CIS) or a charge coupled device (CCD) of a reduction optical system. The image read unit 22 is disposed such that it can be moved back and forth below the platen glass members 20 , 21 by a belt drive mechanism functioning as a scanning mechanism. On receiving the drive force of a carriage motor, the image read unit 22 can be moved back and forth parallelly to the platen glass members 20 , 21 . [0035] The document cover 4 includes the ADF 3 which successively feeds a document from a sheet feed tray 30 (a document placement portion) through a document feed path 32 to a sheet discharge tray 31 (a document discharge portion). In the feed process that is carried out by the ADF 3 , the document passes through the read position on the platen glass member 21 and the images of the document can be read by the image read unit 22 which is located below the platen glass member 21 . [0036] As shown in FIGS. 1 and 2 , on the document cover 4 , there are disposed the sheet feed tray 30 and sheet discharge tray 31 in respective upper and lower stages, with the sheet feed tray 30 being situated in the upper stage. On the sheet feed tray 30 , there can be placed a document the images of which are to be read by the ADF 3 . Two or more sheets of documents are placed onto the sheet feed tray 30 in such a manner that they are piled on top of one another with the first surfaces thereof facing upward and the leading ends thereof in the sheet [0037] feed direction are inserted into the document feed path 32 . The apparatus back surface side of the sheet feed tray 30 is curved downward to thereby form a protection wall 26 . The lower end of the protection wall 26 is connected to the top surface of the document cover 4 . When the document cover 4 is opened with respect to the document placement base member 2 , the protection wall 26 prevents the document on the sheet discharge tray 31 from falling down. Downward from the apparatus front surface side of the sheet feed tray 30 , there is formed a cutaway portion 27 in a part of the body of the ADF 3 . This cutaway portion 27 enhances 5 the visibility of the document from the apparatus front surface side when the document is discharged to the sheet discharge tray 31 . Especially, a document of a small size is generally difficult to see due to the sheet feed tray 30 . The cutaway portion 27 creates a space between the sheet feed tray 30 and sheet discharge tray 31 to thereby be able to enhance the visibility of a document, especially, that of a small-sized document. [0038] The sheet discharge tray 31 is set below the sheet feed tray 30 while being spaced apart from the sheet feed tray 30 in the vertical direction, and the Sheet discharge tray 31 is formed integrally with the top surface of the document cover 4 . Documents with images which have been read and which have been discharged from the ADF 3 are separated from documents existing on the sheet feed tray 30 , and are piled on the sheet discharge tray 31 on top of one another with their first surfaces facing downward. The two side portions 28 of the sheet discharge tray 31 , which are respectively composed of the apparatus front surface side and apparatus back surface side of the sheet discharge tray 31 , are formed as slanting surfaces which gradually rise upwardly toward respective side. When the documents discharged to the sheet discharge tray 31 are to be out therefrom, while holding the documents from above, the documents can be slid along the slanting surfaces of the two side portions 28 and can be taken out, The two side portions 28 facilitate removal of the documents from the sheet discharge tray 31 . [0039] As shown in FIG. 2 , in the interior of the ADF 3 , in order to be able to connect together the sheet feed tray 30 and sheet discharge tray 31 through the read position on the platen glass member 21 , there is formed the document feed path 32 , the longitudinal section view of which has a substantially U-like shape facing sideways. The document feed path 32 is continuously formed by a member, a guide plate, a guide rib and the like respectively constituting the main body of the ADF 3 , in the form of a path having a given width which allows the document to pass therethrough. In this manner, since the sheet feed tray 30 and sheet discharge tray 31 are disposed in the upper and lower stages and also since the document feed path 32 having a sideways facing, substantially U-shaped longitudinal section is formed so as to be able to connect the two trays together, the width of the ADF 3 can be narrowed and thus the size of the ADF 3 can be reduced. [0040] The document feed path 32 is extended from the sheet feed tray 30 toward one end side (in FIG. 2 , toward the left side) of the document cover 4 , and is curved downward in a reversing manner to reach the read position on the platen glass member 21 , and also extended from the read position toward the sheet discharge tray 31 , whereby the longitudinal section view of the document feed path 32 has a substantially U-like shape facing sideways. The document feed path 32 is mainly composed of three portions, an upper portion 32 A and a lower portion 32 C which respectively constitute the straight line portions of the upper and lower stages forming the substantially U-like shape, and a curved portion 32 B curved in such a manner so as to connect the upper and lower portions 32 A and 32 C. The document feed path 32 is used as a common document feed path through which the document can be fed by the ADF 3 not only when the images of one side of the document are read, but also when the images of both sides of the document are read. [0041] The document feed path 32 includes a feed unit for feeding documents existing on the sheet feed tray 30 to the document feed path 32 and a document feed unit for feeding the documents from the sheet feed tray 30 to the sheet discharge tray 31 . In detail, as shown in FIG. 2 , the feed unit is composed of a suction roller 33 and a separation roller 34 respectively provided in the document feed path 32 , whereas the document feed unit is composed of feed rollers 35 A, 35 B, 35 C, 35 D, a sheet discharge roller 36 , and respective pinch rollers 37 to be pressure contacted with the feed rollers 35 A, 35 B, 35 C and 35 D. A drive force is transmitted from a motor 67 (a drive source; see FIG. 6 ) to the respective rollers that constitute the feed unit and the document feed unit. [0042] As shown in FIG. 2 , the suction roller 33 and separation roller 34 are disposed in the neighborhood of the most upstream portion of the document feed path 32 , that is, in the neighborhood of the sheet feed tray 30 . The suction roller 33 is rotatably provided on the leading end portion of an arm 29 having its base end side pivotally supported on a shaft which pivotally supports the separation roller 34 . The separation roller 34 is rotatably provided at a position spaced from the suction roller 33 in the sheet feed direction in such a manner that it is in contact with the opposed surfaces of the document feed path 32 . When the drive force from the motor 67 is transmitted thereto, the suction and separation rollers 33 and 34 can be driven and rotated. The arm 29 can also be moved up and down when the drive force is transmitted thereto from the motor 67 . The suction and separation rollers 33 and 34 have the same diameter and can be rotated at the same peripheral speed. At the opposite position of the separation roller 34 , there is disposed a separation pad which can be pressure contacted with the roller surface of the separation roller 34 to separate the document by means of friction. [0043] The feed rollers 35 A, 35 B, 35 C and 35 D are respectively disposed at different positions in the document feed path 32 . According to the present aspect, the feed roller 35 A is disposed on the immediate downstream sidle of the separation roller 34 , the feed roller 35 B is disposed in the upper portion 32 A of the document feed path 32 , the feed roller 35 C is disposed on the immediate upstream side of the read position in the lower portion 32 C of the document feed path 32 , and the feed roller 35 D is disposed on the immediate downstream side of the read position in the lower portion 32 C of the document feed path 32 . This arrangement is given an example, and the number and arrangement of the feed rollers 35 A, 35 B, 35 C and 35 D can be changed while still maintaining the spirit and scope of the invention. [0044] At the respective opposite positions of the feed rollers 35 A, 35 B, 35 C and 35 D, there are disposed the pinch rollers 37 . The shafts of the pinch rollers 37 are respectively elastically energized by their associated springs, whereby the pinch rollers 37 are respectively pressure contacted with the roller surfaces of the feed rollers 35 A, 35 B, 35 C and 35 D. When the feed rollers 35 A, 3 $B, 35 C and 35 D are rotated, the pinch rollers 37 pressure contacted with these rollers are also rotated to follow the feed rollers. The pinch rollers 37 respectively press the document against the feed rollers 35 A, 35 B, 35 C and 35 D to thereby transmit the rotation forces of the feed rollers 35 A, 35 B, 35 C and 35 D to the document. [0045] The sheet discharge roller 36 is disposed in the neighborhood of the furthest downstream portion of the document feed path 32 , and similar to the feed rollers 35 A, 35 B, 35 C and 35 D, when the drive force from the motor is transmitted to the sheet discharge roller 36 , the sheet discharge roller 36 is driven and rotated. At the opposite position of the sheet discharge roller 36 , there is also disposed a pinch roller 37 , which is elastically energized by a spring and is thereby pressure contacted with the sheet discharge roller 36 . [0046] A bidirectional feed path 39 (a bidirectional feed path) is connected to a connecting position 38 in the lower portion 32 C of the document feed path 32 . The bidirectional feed path 39 is a path which, when reading both sides of the document, reverses the leading and trailing ends of the document with the first surface thereof read at the read position and then feeds again the document from the portion of the document feed path 32 downstream from the read position to the portion of the document feed path 32 upstream from the read position. The bidirectional feed path 39 is extended obliquely upward from the connecting position 38 toward the upper side of the sheet feed tray 30 , and crosses the upper portion 32 A of the document feed path 32 . The document, which has been switchback-fed from a crossing position 40 between the upper portion 32 A and bidirectional feed path 39 , is then returned back to the document feed path 32 . [0047] The terminal end 41 of the bidirectional feed path 39 is opened on the top surface of the ADF 3 . On the side of the sheet feed tray 30 that extends from the terminal end 41 of the bidirectional feed path 39 , there is formed a document support portion 42 in such a manner that it extends from the lower guide surface of the terminal end 41 . The document support portion 42 is used to support the document projected from the terminal end 41 of the bidirectional feed path 39 , and forms the upper cover 6 (see FIG. 1 ) of the ADF 3 on the upper side of the feed roller 33 and separation roller 34 . The upper cover 6 is formed so as to be able to cover the whole of the ADF 3 including the feed roller 33 and separation roller 34 , while being able to be opened and closed. The document support portion 42 , which is formed as a portion of the upper cover 6 , is extended from the terminal end 41 toward the sheet feed tray 30 up to the upstream side of the sheet feed position to which the documents are fed by the sheet feed roller 33 and separation roller 34 . Thanks to this structure, in the double-sided reading operation, a portion of the document which has entered the bidirectional feed path 39 and is projected from the terminal end 41 outwardly from the ADF 3 , can be supported by the document support portion 41 . Also, when the upper cover 6 is opened, the document feed path 32 and bidirectional feed path 39 within the ADF 3 are exposed in part, thereby enabling execution of a maintenance operation such as a jam removing operation. [0048] On the side of the bidirectional feed path 39 that extends to the terminal end 41 from the crossing position 40 , there is disposed a switchback roller 43 . When a drive force is transmitted thereto from the motor 67 , the switchback roller 43 can be driven and rotated in both forward and backward directions (a pulling direction and a returning direction). A pinch roller 44 is arranged at the opposing position of the switchback roller 43 . Because the shaft of the pinch roller 44 is elastically energized by a spring, the pinch roller 44 is pressure contacted with the roller surface of the switchback roller 43 , and as the switchback roller 43 is rotated, the pinch roller 44 is rotated to follow the switchback roller 43 . The pinch roller 44 presses the document against the switchback roller 43 , whereby the rotational force of the switchback roller 43 is transmitted to the document. The switchback roller 43 and pinch roller 44 cooperate together in realizing a bidirectional feed unit which bidirectional feeds the document. p As shown in FIG. 2 , a guide flap 46 and a guide flap 47 which are used to guide a document to a desired feed path are disposed in the crossing position 40 . The guide flap 46 is disposed such that it can be rotated in a given range about a corner portion between the read position side of the document feed path 32 and the connecting position 38 side of the bidirectional feed path 39 in the crossing position 40 . The guide flap 46 is composed of a vane-shaped flat plate and the leading end of the guide flap 46 is projected into the crossing position 40 . In FIG. 2 , there is shown only one guide flap 46 . However, two or more guide flaps 46 may be disposed having the same shape at given intervals in the width direction of the document feed path 32 (in FIG. 2 , in the figure sheet vertical direction, or in the apparatus depth direction), and the two or more guide flaps 46 can be rotated integrally. [0049] The guide flap 46 can be rotated upward in FIG. 2 form the position shown in FIG. 2 . Also, the guide flap 46 , for example, when it is contacted with a guide member provided in the document feed path 32 or in the bidirectional feed path 39 , it is prevented from rotating downward in FIG. 2 from the position shown in FIG. 2 . When the guide flap 46 is held at the position shown in FIG. 2 , in the crossing position 40 , the feed path from the sheet feed tray 30 side (in FIG. 2 , the right side) of the document feed path 32 to the read position side (in FIG. 2 , the left side) is allowed to be continuous, and at the same time, the feed path from the document feed path 32 to the connecting position 38 side (in FIG. 2 , the lower side) of the is closed. Owing to this, a document, which has arrived at the crossing position 40 from the sheet feed tray 30 side of the document feed path 32 , is allowed to advance to the read position side of the document feed path 32 and is prevented from entering the connecting position 38 side of the bidirectional feed path 39 . Also, a document having arrived at the crossing position from the terminal end 41 side (in FIG. 2 , the upper side) is allowed to enter the read position side of the document feed path 32 and is prevented from moving to the connecting position 38 side of the bidirectional feed path 39 . [0050] When the guide flap 46 is rotated, the feed path extending from the connecting position 38 side of the bidirectional feed path 39 to the terminal end 41 side is allowed to be continuous, whereas the feed path extending from the connecting position 38 side of the bidirectional feed path 39 to the read position side of the document feed path 32 is closed. As a result, the document, which has arrived at the crossing position 40 from the connecting position 38 side of the bidirectional feed path 39 , is allowed to advance to the terminal end 41 side of the bidirectional feed path 39 , whereas it is prevented from advancing to the read position side of the document feed path 32 . [0051] The switching of the feed path by the guide flap 46 is achieved by the contact of the document with the guide flap 46 . The guide flap 46 is normally held at the position as shown in FIG. 2 , due to its own weight or due to the energizing force of an elastic member such as a spring. When the document being delivered from the connecting position 38 toward the crossing position 40 along the bidirectional feed path 39 is contacted with the guide flap 46 , the guide flap 46 is rotated in such a manner that it is pushed aside upwardly. On the other hand, the document being delivered from the terminal end 41 side of the bidirectional feed path 39 to the crossing position 40 is contacted with the guide flap 46 , but since the guide flap 46 is prevented from rotating downward, the document is guided by the guide flap 46 to advance to the read position side along the upper portion 32 A of the document feed path 32 . As to the vane shape of the guide flap 46 , there is employed a shape which not only can easily change the position of the guide flap 46 when it is contacted by the document being delivered from the connecting position 38 side of the bidirectional feed path 39 to the crossing position 40 , but also allows the document being delivered from the terminal end 41 side of the bidirectional feed path 39 to the crossing position 40 to be easily guided to the read position side of the document feed path 32 . In this manner, when the guide flap 46 is formed such that it is able to change its position due to the contact of the document with the guide flap 46 , it is not necessary to change the position of the guide flap 46 positively by applying a drive force from the motor 67 , which makes it possible to realize the guide flap 46 with a simple structure. [0052] Now, the guide flap 47 is disposed in such a manner that it can be rotated in a given range about a shaft 49 provided in a corner portion between the sheet feed tray 30 side of the document feed path 32 and the terminal end 41 side of the bidirectional feed path 39 . The guide flap 47 is composed of a flat plate having a vane-like shape, while the leading end of the guide flap 47 is projected into the crossing position 40 . In FIG. 2 , there is shown only one guide flap 47 . However, two or more guide flaps 47 may disposed having the same shape at given intervals in the width direction of the document feed path 32 , the two or more guide flaps 47 capable of being rotated together integrally. [0053] When the guide flap 47 is rotated about the shaft 49 , the position of the guide flap 47 can be changed from the position shown in FIG. 2 . When the guide flap 47 is contacted with, for example, the guide members of the document feed path 32 or bidirectional feed path 39 , the guide flap 47 is prevented from rotating to the right side (in FIG. 2 ) and is also prevented from rotating upward from the position shown in FIG. 2 . When the guide flap 47 is in the position shown in FIG. 2 , not only the feed path extending from the terminal end 41 side of the bidirectional feed path 39 to the read position side of the document feed path 32 is allowed to be continuous, but also the feed path extending from the connecting position 38 side of the bidirectional feed path 39 to the sheet feed tray 30 side of the document feed path 32 is closed. As a result, the document, which has arrived at the crossing position 40 from the terminal end 41 side of the bidirectional feed path 39 , is allowed to advance to the read position side of the document feed path 32 , whereas the document is prevented from advancing to the sheet feed tray 30 side. Also, the document having arrived at the crossing position 40 from the connecting position 38 side of the bidirectional feed path 39 is allowed to advance to the terminal end 41 side of the bidirectional feed path 39 , whereas the document is prevented from advancing to the sheet feed tray 30 side of the document feed path 32 . [0054] On the other hand, when the guide flap 47 is rotated, not only the feed path from the sheet feed tray 30 side of the document feed path 32 to the read position side is allowed to be continuous, but also the feed path from the sheet feed tray 30 side of the document feed path 32 to the terminal end 41 side of the bidirectional feed path 39 is closed. As a result, the document, which has arrived at the crossing position 40 from the sheet feed tray 30 side of the document feed path 32 , is allowed to advance to the read position side of the document feed path 32 but is prevented from advancing to the terminal end 41 side of the bidirectional feed path 39 . [0055] The switching of the feed path by the guide flap 47 is attained by the contact of the document with the guide flap 47 . The guide flap 47 is normally held at at the position as shown in FIG. 2 , due to its own weight or due to the energizing force of an elastic member such as a spring. When the document being delivered from the sheet feed tray 30 side of the document feed path 32 is contacted with the guide flap 47 , the guide flap 47 is rotated in such a manner that it pushed aside to the left side (in FIG. 2 ). On the other hand, even if the document, which has been delivered from the connecting position 38 of the bidirectional feed path 39 to the crossing position 40 , is contacted with the guide flap 47 , because the guide flap 47 is prevented from rotating to the right side from the position as shown in FIG. 2 , the document is guided by the guide flap 47 so as to advance to the terminal end 41 side of the bidirectional feed path 39 . As to the vane shape of the guide flap 47 , there is employed a shape which not only can easily change the position of the guide flap 47 when it is contacted by the document being delivered from the sheet feed tray 30 side of the document feed path 32 to the crossing position 40 , but also allows the document being delivered from the connecting position 38 side of the bidirectional feed path 39 to the crossing position 40 to be easily guided to the crossing position 40 from the connecting position 38 of the bidirectional feed path 39 . In this manner, when the guide flap 47 is formed such that it is able to change its position due to the contact of the document with the guide flap 47 , it is not necessary to change the position of the guide flap 47 positively by applying a drive force from a motor or the like, which makes it possible to realize the guide flap 47 with a simple structure. [0056] As shown in FIG. 2 , a guide flap 50 (guide unit) is disposed in the connecting position 38 . The guide flap 50 can be rotated about a position which intervenes between the document feed path 32 and bidirectional feed path 39 , and when a drive force is transmitted from a motor 67 thereto, the guide flap 50 is rotated downward in FIG. 2 from the position shown in FIG. 2 . The guide flap 50 , for example, when it is contacted with a guide member provided in the document feed path 32 or in the bidirectional feed path 39 , is prevented from rotating upward in FIG. 2 from the position shown in FIG. 2 , and after it is rotated downward in FIG. 2 to a position for guiding the document to the bidirectional feed path 39 , the guide flap 50 is also prevented from rotating further downward in FIG. 2 . When the guide flap 50 is held at the position shown in FIG. 2 , in the connecting position 38 , the feed path from the read position side (in FIG. 2 , the left side) to sheet discharge tray 31 side (in FIG. 2 , the right side) is allowed to be continuous. Owing to, a document, which has passed through the read position, is guided in the connecting position 38 toward the sheet discharge tray 31 along the lower portion 32 C of the document feed path 32 . When the guide flap 50 is rotated downward in FIG. 2 from the position shown in FIG. 2 , the feed path from downstream of the read position of the lower portion 32 C of the document feed path 32 to the bidirectional feed path 39 is allowed to be continuous. Thus, a document having passed through the read position is guided along the connecting position 38 so as to enter the bidirectional feed path 39 . Thus, the guide flap 50 is disposed in such a manner that, in the connecting position 38 , it is able to guide the document to either the document feed path 32 or the bidirectional feed path 39 . In FIG. 2 , there is shown only one guide flap 50 . However, two or more guide flaps 50 may be disposed having the same shape at given intervals in the width direction of the document feed path 32 , while the two or more guide flaps 50 are to be rotated together as an integral body. [0057] As shown in FIG. 2 , two or more sensors which are used to detect the feeding of the document are provided in the document feed path 32 and bidirectional feed path 39 . In detail, in the document feed path 32 , a first front sensor 52 and a second front sensor 53 are disposed respectively on the upstream and downstream sides of the separation roller 34 . A rear sensor 54 is arranged on the upstream side of the read position. A switchback sensor 55 is arranged between the connecting position 38 and crossing position 40 of the bidirectional feed path 39 . These sensors are respectively so called optical sensors which are used to detect the rotational movements of detectors appearing and disappearing in the document feed path 32 or bidirectional feed path 39 in the form of the on/off of the photo-interrupters. Of these sensors, the second front sensor 53 corresponds to a document sensor according to the invention. [0058] When, with the feed-direction leading end of the document in contact with the separation roller 34 , the document is placed on the sheet feed tray 30 , the first front sensor 52 is turned on. According to the on/off of the first front sensor 52 , it can be detected whether the document is placed on the sheet feed tray 30 or not. [0059] The second front sensor 53 disposed just downstream of the separation roller 34 is a sensor which, through its own on/off, can detect the feed-direction length of the document fed to the document feed path 32 . The distance from the second front sensor 53 to the connecting position 38 of the document feed path 32 is longer than the feed-direction length of the document both sides of which can be read by the image reading apparatus 1 . In other words, the second front sensor 53 is disposed at a position spaced from the connecting position 38 of the document feed path 32 toward the feed direction upstream side at least by an amount equivalent to the feed-direction length of the document both sides of which can be read. Therefore, when the feed-direction leading end of the document arrives at a given position upstream in the feed direction of the connecting position 38 of the document feed path 32 , whether the second front sensor 53 detects the feed-direction trailing end side of the document or not can be used to settle whether the length of the document is longer than a given feed-direction length or not. [0060] Whether both sides of a document can be read by the image reading apparatus 1 or not is judged by whether the document can be fed as a double-sided readable document by the ADF 3 or not. In the double-sided reading feed, a document having passed through the read position of the document feed path 32 is guided to the bidirectional feed path 39 and is switchback fed, whereby the document is returned from the crossing position 40 to the upstream side of the read position of the document feed path 32 . When a document having a feed-direction length longer than the feed distance of a loop-shaped route extending from the crossing position 40 of the document feed path 32 through the read position, connecting position 38 and bidirectional feed path 39 in this order again to the crossing position 40 enters the bidirectional feed path 39 from the connecting position 38 of the document feed path 32 and arrives at the crossing position 40 , there is a fear that the feed-direction leading end side of the document can be contacted with the feed-direction trailing end thereof to thereby cause inconveniences such as jammed sheets or damaged documents. Therefore, it is considered that a document having a feed-direction length longer than the above-mentioned loop-shaped feed distance cannot be fed as a double-sided readable document by the ADF 3 . The use of the second front sensor 53 is not always limited to the detection of the feed-direction length of a document. For example, for registration of a document, the second front sensor 53 may be used to detect whether the feed-direction leading end of the document has arrived at the feed roller 35 B or not; that is, the detect signal of the second front sensor 53 may be used together with the rotation amount of the motor 67 to judge whether such leading end has arrived or not. [0061] The rear sensor 54 disposed just upstream of the read position is a sensor which, according to its own on/off, detects the leading and trailing ends of a document being fed along the document feed path 32 . By monitoring the number of rotations of the feed rollers 35 A, 35 B, 35 C and 35 D after detection of the leading or trailing end of the document by the rear sensor 54 through the number of steps of the encoder or motor 67 , it is judged whether the leading or trailing end of the document has arrived at a given position upstream in the feed direction of the read position or connecting position 38 or not. The image reading of the image read unit 22 is controlled according to the detect signal of the rear sensor 54 . When the leading end of the document has arrived at the read position, the image reading is started, and when the trailing end of the document has arrived at the read position, the image reading is ended. Also, the timing for the second front sensor 53 to detect the presence or absence of a document in order to judge the feed-direction length of the document is the time when it is judged according to the detect signal of the rear sensor 54 that the feed-direction leading end of the document has arrived at a given position upstream in the feed direction of the connecting position 38 . [0062] The switchback sensor 55 interposed between the connecting position 38 and crossing position 40 of the bidirectional feed path 39 is a sensor which, according to its own on/off, detects the leading or trailing end of a document being fed along the bidirectional feed path 39 . For example, by monitoring the number of rotations of the feed rollers 35 A, 35 B, 35 C and 35 D. After detection of the leading or trailing end of the document by the switchback sensor 55 through the number of steps of the encoder or motor 67 , it is judged whether the trailing end of the document has passed through the crossing position 40 or not. By arranging the switchback sensor 55 at a position which is relatively near to the switchback roller 43 and exists on the feed-direction upstream side of the switchback roller 43 , the feed precision of the switchback roller 43 can be enhanced further than the case in which the trailing end of the document is monitored according to the detect signal of the rear sensor 54 . [0063] FIG. 3 shows the structure of the control part 60 of the image reading apparatus 1 . The control part 60 is a part which controls not only the ADF 3 , but also the whole operation of the image reading apparatus 1 . The control part 60 , as shown in FIG. 6 , is structured as a microcomputer which is mainly composed of a CPU 61 , a ROM 62 , a RAM 63 , and an electrically erasable and programmable ROM (EEPROM) 64 , while the control part 60 is connected through a bus 65 to an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC) 66 , [0064] In the ROM 62 , programs and the like are stored which are used to control various operations of the image reading apparatus 1 and ADF 3 . The ROM 63 is used as a storage area or an operation area which temporarily stores therein various kinds of data used when the CPU 61 executes the above programs. The EEPROM 64 is a storage area which stores therein various settings and flags to be continuously stored even after the power supply is turned off. CPU 61 , ROM 62 , RAM 63 and EEPROM 64 cooperate together in realizing a drive control unit according to the invention. [0065] The ASIC 66 , according to an instruction from the CPU 61 , generates a phase exciting signal to be electrically applied to the motor 67 , applies this phase exciting signal to the drive circuit 68 of the motor 67 , and electrically applies a drive signal to the motor 67 through the drive circuit 68 , thereby controlling the rotation of the motor 67 . The motor 67 is a motor which, through its rotation in both of the forward and backward directions, can apply a drive force to the suction roller 33 , separation roller 34 , feed rollers 35 A, 35 B, 35 C, 35 D, sheet discharge roller 36 , switchback roller (SB roller) 43 and guide flap 50 . The motor 67 serves as the drive source of the ADF 3 . [0066] The drive circuit 68 is used to drive the motor 67 , and specifically, upon receiving an output from the ASIC 66 , the drive circuit 68 generates an electric signal for rotating the motor 67 . Upon receiving this electric signal, the motor 67 is rotated in a given rotational direction and the rotational force of the motor 67 is transmitted through the respective drive force transmission mechanisms to the suction roller 33 , separation roller 34 , feed rollers 35 A, 35 B, 35 C, 35 D, sheet discharge roller 36 , SB roller 43 , and guide flap 50 , respectively. [0067] An image read unit 22 , which reads the images of a document being fed from the ADF 3 to the read position, is connected to the ASIC 66 . Based on a control program stored in the ROM 62 , the image read unit 22 reads the images of a document. Although not shown, a drive mechanism for reciprocating the image read unit 22 is also operated when an output signal from the ASIC 66 is applied thereto. [0068] The first front sensor 52 , second front sensor 53 , rear sensor 54 and switchback sensor 55 are connected to the ASIC 66 . In response to the on/off of the respective sensors, the CPU 61 , based on the control program stored in the ROM 62 , allows the ASIC 66 to output a given output signal to thereby operate the motor 67 and image read unit 22 . The control part 60 , as described above, when the feed-direction leading end of the document has arrived at a given position upstream in the feed direction of the connecting position 38 of the document feed path 32 , allows the second front sensor 53 to detect the feed-direction rear end side of the document. When the second front sensor 53 is on, the control part 60 judges that the document is present, and when the second front sensor 53 is off, the control part 60 judges that no document is present. Thus, the control part 60 judges whether the document is longer than a given feed-direction length or not, thereby deciding the control of the document feed in the double-sided reading mode. The details of the control will be discussed later in detail. [0069] Now, description will be given below of the image reading operation to be executed by the present image reading apparatus 1 . [0070] The image reading apparatus 1 not only can be used as an FBS but also can use the ADF 3 . However, use of the image reading apparatus 1 as an FBS does not relate to the present invention specially and thus the detailed description thereof is omitted here. When using the ADF 3 , it is considered that the document cover 4 is closed with respect to the document placement base member 2 . The opening and closing of the document cover 4 can be detected by sensors disposed on the document placement base member 2 , and when the document cover 4 is closed, the ADF 3 can be used. A document Gn to be read is placed on the sheet feed tray 30 . The document Gn is placed on the sheet feed tray 30 in a so called face-up manner that the reading surface (first surface) of the document Gn faces upward. Also, the number of documents Gn may be one sheet or two or more sheets. For example, when reading the images of two or more sheets of documents Gn having the same size, the documents Gn are placed on the sheet feed tray 30 in such a manner that the first surface of the first document G 1 faces upward, that is, the documents Gn are superimposed on top of one another in a so called face-up manner. [0071] When a read start instruction is input to the image reading apparatus 1 , the motor 67 is driven, so that the suction roller 33 , separation roller 34 , feed rollers 35 A, 35 B, 35 C, 35 D, sheet discharge roller 36 and switchback roller 43 are driven and rotated at their respective given timings. Also, the arm 29 is lowered down to thereby bring the suction roller 33 into pressure contact with the document G 1 placed on the sheet feed tray 30 . The documents Gn are separated one by one from the remaining documents and are fed into the document feed path 32 , starting from the document G 1 that is placed at the highest position and receives directly the rotation forces of the suction roller 33 and separation roller 34 . The thus fed document Gn is guided by the document feed path 32 and is fed to the read position, where the images of the document Gn are read by the image read unit 22 standing by below the read position. The document Gn, the images of which have been read, is discharged to the sheet discharge tray 31 . In such image reading operation, the feed path of the document Gn when the images of one side of the document Gn are read is different from that when the images of both sides of the document Gn are read. Whether the images of one side of the document On are read or the images of both sides of the document On are read is judged according to a one side reading mode (a one side reading feed mode) or a double-sided reading mode (a double-sided reading feed mode) which have been previously set before the read start instruction is input. The set reading modes are stored in the RAM 63 and are retained there for a given period of time before and after the image reading operation. [0072] Now, FIG. 4 is a flow chart of the operation of the image reading apparatus 1 in the double-sided reading mode. Also, FIGS. 5 to 11 are respectively typical views of the feeding state of the document Gn in the double-sided reading mode. In the drawings, a surface shown by “ 1 ” in the document Gn is a first surface that is read firstly in the double-sided reading operation, whereas a surface shown by “ 2 ” is a second surface to be read later, and the first and second surfaces are completely opposite to each other. [0073] Now, description will be given below of the double-sided reading operation to be executed by the image reading apparatus 1 . When the one side reading mode is set in the image reading apparatus 1 , the document G 1 fed from the sheet feed tray 30 is U-turn fed along the document feed path 32 with its first surface opposite to the read position, whereby the images of only the first surface are read and the document G 1 is then discharged to the sheet discharge tray 31 . Such one side reading operation is a well-known operation and thus the detailed description thereof is omitted here. [0074] Before the document Gn is fed, as shown in FIG. 5 , the guide flap 50 is held at a position which allows the feed path in the connecting position 38 to be continuous from the read position side of the document feed path 32 to the sheet discharge tray 31 side. The guide flap 46 is held at a position which allows the feed path in the crossing position 40 to be continuous from the sheet feed tray 30 side of the document feed path 32 to the read position side. The guide flap 47 is held at a position which allows the feed path in the crossing position 40 to be continuous from the terminal end 41 side of the bidirectional feed path 39 to the read position side of the document feed path 32 . [0075] When a read start instruction input to the image reading apparatus 1 (S 1 ) by depressing a start key, the control part 60 allows the first front sensor 52 to check whether the document Gn is placed on the sheet feed tray 30 or not ( 32 ). When it is judged that the document Gn is not placed on the sheet feed tray 30 (S 2 (N)), the control part 60 makes an error display “no document” on the display portion of the image reading apparatus (S 3 ). When it is judged that the document Gn is placed on the sheet feed tray 30 (S 2 (Y)), the control part 60 drives the motor 67 . [0076] As the motor 67 is driven, a drive force is transmitted to the arm 29 and the arm 29 is thereby lowered down. As a result, the suction roller 33 is pressure contacted with the document Gn placed on the sheet feed tray 30 . Also, the drive force of the motor 67 is transmitted to the suction roller 33 and separation roller 34 , whereby the suction roller 33 and separation roller 34 are rotated in the feed direction and thus the document On is sent into the document feed path 32 . When two or more sheets of documents Gn are placed on the sheet feed tray 30 , there is a possibility that, as a document G 1 existing at the highest position is fed, a document G 2 just below the document G 1 can be fed together with the document G 1 . However, the document G 2 is stopped by a separation pad provided at the opposite position of the separation roller 34 . Thus, the document G 1 is fed to the document feed path 32 (S 4 ). [0077] In the document feed path 32 , a drive force from the motor 67 is transmitted to the feed rollers 35 A, 35 , 35 C, 35 D and sheet discharge roller 36 , whereby these respective rollers are rotated so as to feed the document Gn from the upstream side of the document feed path 32 to the downstream side thereof, that is, in the feed direction. The document G 1 fed from the sheet feed tray 30 to the document feed path 32 is nipped between the feed roller 35 A and pinch roller 37 and thus the rotation force of these rollers is transmitted to the document G 1 , whereby the document G 1 is fed to the crossing position 40 along the document feed path 32 . When the document G 1 is fed to the document feed path 32 , the second front sensor 53 is turned on. [0078] Since the guide flap 47 closes the feed path from the sheet feed tray 30 side of the document feed path 32 to the crossing position 40 , the document G 1 fed to the crossing position 40 is contacted with the guide flap 47 . As shown in FIG. 6 , the guide flap 47 is rotated to the left in FIG. 6 in such a manner that it is pushed aside by the document G 1 being fed along the document teed path 32 . As a result, not only the feed path from the sheet feed tray 30 side of the document feed path 32 to the read position side is allowed to be continuous, but also the feed path to the terminal end 41 side of the bidirectional feed path 39 is closed. Also, the feed path to the connecting position 38 side of the bidirectional feed path 39 is closed by the guide flap 46 . Therefore, the document G 1 having arrived at the crossing position 40 from the sheet feed tray 30 side of the document feed path 32 is guided by the guide flaps 46 and 47 and is thereby fed to the read position side of the document feed path 32 without advancing in either direction of the bidirectional feed path 39 . [0079] As shown in FIG. 7 , the document G 1 is fed in such a manner that it reverses downward along the curved portion 32 B of the document feed path 32 , while the rear sensor 54 detects the feed-direction leading end of the document G 1 and is thereby turned on. Since the feed-direction leading end of the document G 1 arrives at the read position after passage of a given time since it was detected by the rear sensor 54 , the control part 60 , when the rear sensor 54 is turned on and after passage of a given time, allows the image read unit 22 to apply a timing signal for start of reading to the image read unit 22 to operate the image read unit 22 , thereby reading the images of the document G 1 (SS). The document G 1 passes through the read position with its first surface facing the image read unit 22 , so that the images of the first surface of the document G 1 are read by the image read unit 22 . The rear sensor 54 turns off when it detects the feed-direction trailing end of the document G 1 . When the rear sensor 54 turns on, the control part 60 , after passage of a given time, applies a timing signal for end of reading to the image read unit 22 , to thereby end the image reading of the first surface of the document G 1 . Data on the images of the first surface of the document G 1 read by the image read unit 22 are stored in a given area of the RAM 63 . [0080] As shown in FIG. 8 , the feed-direction leading end of the document G 1 , the first surface of which has been read, is guided by the guide flap 50 to advance along the connecting position 38 from the document feed path 32 to the bidirectional feed path 39 , whereby it is switchback-fed (S 6 ). The guide flap 50 , for example, according to the rotation switching of the motor 67 , is varied in position. The switchback sensor 55 detects the feed-direction leading end of the document G 1 which has entered the bidirectional feed path 39 , and is thereby turned on. The switchback roller 43 , to which a drive force has been transmitted from the motor 67 , is rotating in the pull-in direction. [0081] Since the guide flap 46 closes the feed path from the bidirectional feed path 39 to the crossing position 40 , the feed-direction leading end of the document G 1 having entered the bidirectional feed path 39 is contacted with the guide flap 46 when it arrives at the crossing position 40 . The guide flap 46 , as shown in FIG. 13 , is rotated in such a manner that it pushes up the switchback flap 39 onto the feed-direction leading end of the document G 1 to be fed, so that the guide flap 46 changes its position. As a result, the feed path from the connecting position 38 side of the bidirectional feed path 39 to the terminal end 41 side of the bidirectional feed path 39 is allowed to be continuous, and at the same time, the feed path to the read position side of the document feed path 32 is closed. Also, the feed path to the sheet feed tray 30 side of the document feed path 32 is closed by the guide flap 47 . Therefore, the feed-direction leading end of the document G 1 , which has arrived at the crossing position 40 from the connecting position 38 side of the bidirectional feed path 39 , is guided by the guide flaps 46 and 47 and is fed to the bidirectional feed path 39 without advancing to the document feed path 32 . The feed-direction leading end of the document G 1 is nipped between the switchback roller 43 and its associated pinch roller 44 , and is fed to the terminal end 41 side of the bidirectional feed path 39 due to the pull-in-direction rotation of the switchback roller 43 . [0082] As shown in FIG. 9 , after the feed-direction trailing end of the document G 1 has completely entered the terminal end 41 side beyond the crossing position 40 of the bidirectional feed path 39 , the control part 60 switches the rotation of the motor 67 . The switchback sensor 55 detects the feed-direction trailing end of the document G 1 being fed along the bidirectional feed path 39 and is thereby turned off, After passage of a given time, the feed-direction trailing end of the document G 1 passes through the crossing position 40 . Therefore, the control part 60 judges, from the detect signal of the switchback sensor 55 as well as from the counted feed distance or feed time by the feed roller 35 D and switchback roller 43 , that the feed-direction trailing end of the document G 1 has completely entered the terminal end 41 side beyond the crossing position 40 of the bidirectional feed path 39 . Since the document G 1 passes through the crossing position 40 and parts away from the guide flap 46 , the guide flap 46 is rotated downward to return to the crossing position. [0083] When a portion of the document G 1 projects from the terminal end 41 of the bidirectional feed path 39 to the outside of the ADF 3 , the projecting portion of the document G 1 is supported by the document support portion 42 . Also, as the document G 1 passes through the crossing position 40 and parts away from the guide flap 46 , the guide flap 46 is rotated downward. [0084] As shown in FIG. 15 , the document G 1 , which has been returned from the bidirectional feed path 39 , is contacted in the crossing position 40 with the guide flap 46 . The guide flap 46 is prevented from rotating downward. Therefore, the feed path from the terminal end 41 side of the bidirectional feed path 39 to the read position side of the document feed path 32 is allowed to be continuous, and at the same time, the feed path to the connecting position 38 side of the bidirectional feed path 39 is closed. Also, the guide flap 47 closes the feed path to the sheet feed tray 30 side of the document feed path 32 . Thus, the document G 1 is guided by the guide flaps 46 and 47 and is fed from the terminal end 41 side of the bidirectional feed path 39 to the read position side of the document feed path 32 without entering the connecting position 38 side of the bidirectional feed path 39 or the sheet feed tray 30 side of the document feed path 32 . The document G 1 is returned to the upstream side of the read position of the document feed path 32 from the bidirectional feed path 39 , whereby the document G 1 is fed again along the document feed path 32 with the leading and trailing ends thereof reversed when compared with the state where the document G 1 was initially fed along the document feed path 32 . In this manner, the document G 1 is switchback-fed (S 6 ). The document G 1 is thus fed along the document feed path 32 with its second surface facing the read position. [0085] When the feed-direction leading end of the document G 1 is detected by the rear sensor 54 and the present feed-direction leading end arrives at the read position, as shown in FIG. 16 , the control part 60 allows the image read unit 22 to read the images of the second surface of the document G 1 (S 7 ). After the second surface thereof has been read, the feed-direction leading end of the document G 1 is guided by the guide flap 50 and advances in the connecting position 38 from the document feed path 32 to the bidirectional feed path 39 . When the feed-direction trailing end of the document G 1 is detected by the rear sensor 54 and the present trailing end arrives at the read position, the control part 60 ends the image reading of the second surface of the document G 1 by the image read unit 22 . Data on the images of the second surface of the document G 1 read by the image read unit 22 are stored in a given area of the RAM 63 . [0086] The feed-direction leading end of the document G 1 having arrived at the crossing position 40 , similarly to FIG. 13 , pushes up the guide flap 46 to change the guide flap 46 and advances in the crossing position 40 to the terminal end 41 side of the bidirectional feed path 39 . Similarly to FIG. 14 , after the feed-direction trailing end of the document G 1 has completely entered the terminal end 41 side beyond the crossing position 40 of the bidirectional feed path 39 , the control part 60 switches the rotation direction of the motor 67 and rotates the switchback roller 43 in the return direction to thereby return the document G 1 to the crossing position 40 . Similarly to FIG. 15 , the document G 1 having returned from the bidirectional feed path 39 is guided by the guide flaps 46 and 47 and is fed from the terminal end 41 side of the bidirectional feed path 39 to the read position of the document feed path 32 . Therefore, the document G 1 is fed again to the document feed path 32 while the leading and trailing ends thereof are reversed again, that is, in the state where the document G 1 was initially fed to the document feed path 32 (S 8 ). [0087] After then, the document G 1 passes through the read position with its first surface facing the read position is guided by the guide flap 50 to the sheet discharge tray 31 side along the connecting position 38 , and is then discharged by the sheet discharge roller 36 to the sheet discharge tray 31 with its first surface facing downward (S 9 ). When a next document G 2 is set on the sheet feed tray 30 (S 10 (Y)), that is, when the first front sensor 52 is on, the control part 60 rotates the separation roller 34 in the feed direction. As a result, the document G 2 set on the sheet feed tray 30 is fed to the document feed path 32 , and similarly to the above, the images of both sides of the document G 2 are read. When a next document is not present on the sheet feed tray 30 (S 10 (N)), the control part 60 ends the double-sided reading operation. [0088] In the present aspect, description has been given of the double-sided image reading operation by the image reading apparatus 1 , assuming that each document is discharged to the sheet discharge tray 31 in a state where the order of two or more documents Gn placed on the sheet feed tray 30 is maintained. However, when it is not necessary to match the order of the documents Gn placed on the sheet feed tray 30 to the order of the documents Gn discharged to the sheet discharge tray 31 , after the documents Gn are fed with their respective second surfaces facing the read position, without moving the documents Gn back to the bidirectional feed path 39 again, the documents Gn may be fed along the connecting position 38 to the sheet discharge tray 31 side to thereby discharge the documents Gn to the sheet discharge tray 31 . In this case, although the order of the documents Gn in the sheet discharge tray 31 is not maintained, the last bidirectional feeding operation can be saved, thereby being able to shorten the time necessary to read the images of both sides of the documents Gn. [0089] In the double-sided reading operation, the control part 60 checks whether the document Gn fed from the sheet feed tray 30 can be read for both sides thereof or not. Now, description will be given below of the checking method. FIG. 12 is a flow chart of a method for checking whether the document Gn is a document the both sides of which can be read or not. FIG. 13 is a typical view of a state for detecting the feed-direction length of the document G 1 . FIG. 14 is a typical view of a state for discharging the document G 1 both sides of which cannot be read. [0090] As described above, in the double-sided reading operation, the feed-direction leading end of the document G 1 fed from the sheet feed tray 30 to the document feed path 32 is detected by the rear sensor 54 , thereby turning on the rear sensor (S 11 ). When the feed-direction leading end of the document G 1 arrives at the read position, the control part 60 operates the image read unit 22 to thereby read the images of the first surface of the document G 1 (S 12 ). [0091] The feed-direction leading end of the document G 1 having passed through the read position is then fed toward the connecting position 38 . The control part 60 , as shown in FIG. 13 , when the feed-direction leading end of the document G 1 arrives at a given position Y upstream in the feed direction of the connecting position 38 , checks whether the second front sensor 53 detects the feed-direction trailing end of the document G 1 or not, that is, whether the second front sensor 53 is on or off. As described above, the control part 60 , according to the amount of rotation of the motor 67 after the rear sensor 54 detects the feed-direction leading end of the document G 1 and thereby turns on, can check whether the feed-direction leading end of the document G 1 has arrived at the read position or not. Similarly, the control part 60 , after the rear sensor turns on, drives the motor 67 a given number of steps (S 13 ), whereby the control part 60 can judge that the feed-direction leading end of the document G 1 has arrived at the given position Y. [0092] As described above, the distance from the second front sensor 53 to the connecting position 38 of the document feed path 32 is longer than the feed-direction length of a document both sides of which can be read by the image reading apparatus 1 . Therefore, in order that the distance from the second front sensor 53 to the given position Y can be made equivalent to the feed-direction length of the maximum-size document both sides of which can be read by the image reading apparatus 1 , the given position Y can be set arbitrarily upstream in the feed direction of the connecting position 38 . For example, when the maximum-size document both sides of which can be read by the image reading apparatus 1 has an A 4 size in longitudinal feeding, the distance from the second front sensor 53 to the given position Y is 297 mm, and for a legal size in longitudinal feeding, the distance is set for 355 mm. In this manner, the given position Y can be set to the size of the maximum document both sides of which can be read. The maximum size of a document both sides of which can be read by the image reading apparatus can be determined by a loop-shaped feed distance extending from the crossing position 40 of the document feed path 32 through the read position, connecting position 38 and bidirectional feed path 39 to the crossing position 40 . Suppose that a document on having a feed-direction length longer than the loop-shaped feed distance advances from the connecting position 38 of the document feed path 32 into the bidirectional feed path 39 and then arrives at the crossing position 40 , there is a possibility that, the feed-direction leading end side of the document Gn may be contacted with the feed-direction trailing end side of the document Gn to thereby cause jammed sheets or damaged document Gn in the crossing position 40 . Therefore, a document having a feed-direction length shorter than the above-mentioned loop-shaped feed distance is considered as a document which can be fed for double-sided reading by the ADF 3 . [0093] When the feed-direction leading end of the document G 1 arrives at the given position Y, if the second front sensor 53 is off (S 14 (N)), the control part 60 judges that the document G 1 is a document both sides of which can be read. In this case, the control part 60 continues the first surface image reading operation of the document G 1 , and as shown in FIG. 4 , carries out the bidirectional feeding operation, second surface image reading operation, bidirectional feeding operation and sheet discharging operation (S 15 ). [0094] As shown in FIG. 13 , for the document G 1 which is longer than the double-sided readable feed-direction length, when the feed-direction leading end of the document G 1 arrives at the given position Y, the second front sensor 53 turns on (S 14 (Y)). In this case, the control part 60 stops the image reading of the first surface of the document G 1 (S 16 ) and also stops the driving of the motor 67 (S 17 ). Data on the images of the first surface already stored in the RAM 63 are erased. [0095] Next, the control part 60 makes an error display on the liquid crystal display portion 12 of the image reading apparatus 1 . The error display may be given by displaying using a given language, for example, to the effect that the document is longer than the double-sided readable document and also to the effect that a stop key should be depressed to remove the error. This makes it possible for a user to recognize easily that the document G 1 cannot be fed in the double-sided reading feed mode. An error notice according to the invention is not limited to such screen display but other methods can also be employed, provided that they can act on the five senses of the user, for example, an LED may be turned on or an error sound may be generated. [0096] When the stop key is depressed ( 519 (Y)), the control part 60 drives the motor 67 to thereby change the position of the guide flap 50 into an position for guiding the document G 1 to the sheet discharge tray 31 side. As shown in FIG. 14 , the control part 60 drives the feed rollers 35 A˜D and sheet discharge roller 36 to thereby discharge the document G 1 to the sheet discharge tray 31 (S 20 ). As shown in FIG. 13 , since the feed-direction leading end of the document G 1 has not arrived at the connecting position 38 , even when the guide flap 50 is changed in position, the document G 1 is prevented against damage. Also, the document G 1 , when the feeding operation thereof is resumed, can be guided by the guide flap 50 and thus is able to move to the sheet discharge tray 31 side. [0097] The control part 60 , after the document G 1 is discharged to the sheet discharge tray 31 , sets the one side reading feed mode (S 21 ). As described above, in the image reading apparatus 1 , the double-sided reading mode is set before the double-sided image reading operation is started, and the feed mode is retained for a given time even after end of the double-sided reading operation. Suppose that the control part 60 does not set the one side reading mode, even after the document G 1 is discharged to the sheet discharge tray 31 , the double-sided reading mode is retained. Therefore, when the user does not set the one side reading mode in the image reading apparatus 1 but starts the reading of the images of the document G 1 , there is made an error display again, whereby the document G 1 is discharged to the sheet discharge tray 31 . The control part 60 , after the document G 1 is discharged to the sheet discharge tray 31 (S 20 ), sets the one side reading feed mode automatically, thereby being able to prevent the document G 1 from being fed again in the double-sided reading feed mode. [0098] As described above, according to the present image reading apparatus 1 , since the second front sensor 53 is disposed upstream of the connecting position 38 of the document feed path 32 in the feed direction and the feed distance from the second front sensor 53 to the connecting position 38 is longer at least than the feed-direction length of a document Gn both sides of which can be read, before the leading end of the document On fed from the sheet feed tray 30 to the document feed path 32 arrives at the connecting position 38 , based on the detect signal of the second front sensor 53 , the feed-direction length of the document Gn can be judged. This makes it possible to judge, before the document Gn advances into the bidirectional feed path 39 , whether the document Gn being fed is a document both sides of which can be read or not. This can prevent the document On against damage or can prevent the sheets from being jammed. [0099] According to the present aspect, the control part 60 , after the document G 1 is discharged to the sheet discharge tray 31 , sets the one side reading feed mode (S 21 ). However, when a default setting in the image reading apparatus 1 is the one aide reading mode, the control part 60 may execute a default setting after discharge of the document G 1 . Also, according to the present aspect, in order to remove the error display (S 18 ), the stop key is depressed (S 19 ). However, such operation is optional, for example, the control part 60 , after the error display (S 18 ), may immediately discharge the document G 1 (S 20 )

A document feeder includes: an inlet; an outlet; an input transfer path configured to guide a document during transfer from the inlet passed a scanning point to an end point positioned above the inlet; an intermediate transfer path configured to guide the document during transfer from the end point passed the scanning point to the end point again; an output transfer path configured to guide the document during transfer from the end point passed the scanning point to the outlet; a sensor disposed at downstream of the scanning point; and a controller determine whether the document transfer, based on the signal of the sensor.

This is a division of application Ser. No. 845,867, filed Mar, 29, 1986. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Field of the Invention This invention relates to Δ 2 -1,2,4-triazolin-5-one derivatives represented by the general formula (I): ##STR2## (wherein R is a hydrogen atom, a univalent alkali metal atom, an unsubstituted quaternary ammonium salt, a substituted quaternary ammonium salt having at least one C 1 -C 4 alkyl group as a substituent, an unsubstituted-alkyl group having 1 to 6 carbon atoms, a C 1 -C 6 substituted-alkyl group having at least one halogen atom as a substituent, a cycloalkyl group having 3 to 6 carbon atoms, a C 1 -C 3 substituted-alkyl group having a cyano group as a substituent, an alkenyl group having 2 to 6 carbon atoms, an alkynyl group having 2 to 6 carbon atoms, an alkoxyalkyl group having 2 to 6 carbon atoms, an alkylthioalkyl group having 2 to 8 carbon atoms, an alkylsulfinylalkyl group having 2 to 6 carbon atoms, an alkylsulfonylalkyl group having 2 to 6 carbon atoms, an alkoxyalkoxyalkyl group having 3 to 8 carbon atoms, a hydroxycarbonylalkyl group having 2 to 3 carbon atoms, an alkoxycarbonylalkyl group having 3 to 6 carbon atoms, an unsubstituted-benzyl group, a substituted-benzyl group having at least one substituent selected from the group consisting of halogen atoms and alkyl groups having 1 to 3 carbon atoms, or a phenethyl group; R 1 is a haloalkyl group having 2 to 5 carbon atoms; and X is a halogen atom), a process for production thereof, and uses thereof. DESCRIPTION OF THE PRIOR ART The present inventors have found that compound represented by the above general formula (I) are useful as agricultural chemicals, in particular, herbicides. Compounds similar to the compounds of this invention are disclosed in Japanese Patent Kokai (Laid-open) No. Sho 57-181069 (1982), U.S. Pat. No. 4,318,731, U.S. Pat. No. 4,398,943, U.S. Pat. No. 4,404,019, WO85/01637 and WO85/04307. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,318,731 discloses a compound represented by the formula, ##STR3## wherein, R 1 is a C 1 -C 4 alkyl; R 2 is a hydrogen atom, a C 1 -C 4 alkyl group, or a C 2 -C 4 alkenyl group; and X is a hydroxy group, a C 1 -C 4 alkyl group, a C 1 -C 6 alkyloxy group, an alkyloxyalkyloxy group of which two alkyls may be same as or different from each other and each alkyl is of C 1 -C 4 , a C 2 -C 4 alkenyloxy, or an alkyloxycarbonyl-alkyloxy group of which two alkyls may be same as or different from each other and each alkyl is of C 1 -C 4 ; U.S. Pat. No. 4,398,943 discloses a compound represented by the formula, ##STR4## wherein R 1 is an alkyl group; R 2 is an alkynyl group, a halomethyl group, or a haloethyl group; and X is an alkoxy group, an alkenyloxy group, an alkoxy-alkoxy group, an alkynyloxy group, a hydroxy group, a halomethyloxy group, or a haloethyloxy group; and U.S. Pat. No. 4,404,019 discloses a compound represented by the formula, ##STR5## wherein R is a C 1 -C 4 alkyl group, a C 3 -C 4 alkenyl group or a C 3 -C 4 cycloakyl group, X is a chlorine atom or a bromine atom and Y is a hydrogen atom or a C 1 -C 4 alkoxy group, which is useful as a herbicide. Those compounds, however, can not be considered as suitable herbicides from the viewpoints of the dosage and their effects. Furthermore, WO 85/01637 discloses a compound represented by the following formula, ##STR6## in which X 1 and X 2 are independently selected from halogen, haloalkyl, and alkyl; W is oxygen or sulfur; R is a three- to eight-membered ring heterocyclic group of one or two, same or different, ring heteroatoms selected from oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen or an alkyl radical substituted with said heterocyclic group, said heterocyclic group being unsubstituted or substituted with one or more substituents selected from halogen, alkyl, and haloalkyl, or said heterocyclic group being adjoined to a benzene ring at two adjacent ring carbon atoms to form a benzo-heterocycle bicyclic group, said sulfur heteroatom being present in divalent form, S-oxide form, or S-dioxide form; R 1 is alkyl, haloalkyl, cyanoalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, or a group of the formula -alkyl-Y-R 3 ; R 2 is halogen, alkyl, cyanoalkyl, haloalkyl, arylalkyl, or a group of the formula -alkyl-Y-R 3 ; R 3 is alkyl, alkenyl, or alkynyl; and Y is oxygen or S(O) r in which r is 0 to 2; however, the compound disclosed needs a relatively high dosage for the control of the undersirable weeds and does not have sufficient selectivites between the useful crops and the undersible weeds. WO85/04307 discloses also a similar compound represented by the following formula, ##STR7## in which R is a radical selected from 2-propynyl, 1-methylethyl-2-propynyl, methoxymethyl, 2-propenyl, and 1-methyl-2-methoxyethyl. The compound disclosed, however, kills useful crops in addition to weeds if it is used at a relatively high dosage. On the other hand, sufficient controlling effects of weeds can not be expected if it is used at a relatively lower dosage at which it still gives certain but evident damages on the crops. That is, the compound fails to show sufficient selectivities between the useful crops and weeds. Therefore, there is still a strong demand for a herbicide capable of controlling weeds without causing substantial damages on crops at a lower dosage. While, the present inventors have found that the compounds of this invention disclosed in neither those prior arts nor in any literatures can meet such demand. Additionally, the present inventors have found that surprisingly, the compounds of this invention exhibit excellent herbicidal activities in a lower dosage and have lower phytotoxicities as compared with the compounds disclosed in the above-mentioned prior art references, whereby this invention has been accomplished. An object of the present invention is to provide a compound having excellent herbicidal activities and only low phytotoxicities. A further object of the present invention is to provide a herbicidal composition comprising an effective amount of a compound having excellent herbicidal activities and high crop safety represented by said general formula (I), and suitable inert carrier. A further object of the present invention is to provide a herbicidal composition comprising said compound which is very useful not only as a pre-emergence treatment type herbicide, but also as a post-emergence treatment type herbicide for upland crops. A further object of the present invention is to provide a method of treating said compound as herbicide for upland crops. Further objects of the invention will become apparent from the description of the invention which follows. Preferable examples of the substituent R of the compounds represented by the general formula (I) include, for example, hydrogen atom; univalent alkali metal atoms such as Na, K and the like; quaternary ammonium salts of ammonium, mono-, di-, tri- or tetramethylammonium, mono-, di-, tri- or tetraethylammonium, mono-, di-, tri- or tetrapropylammonium, mono-, di-, tri- or tetrabutylammonium, and the like; alkyl groups such as methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, isopropyl, n-butyl, isobutyl, sec-butyl, t-butyl, pentyl, hexyl, and the like; substituted-alkyl groups having halogen atoms as the substituents such as chloromethyl, bromomethyl, chloroethyl, bromoethyl, chloropropyl, bromopropyl, chlorobutyl, bromobutyl, chloropentyl, bromopentyl, chlorohexyl, bromohexyl, and di-, tri- or polyhaloalkyl thereof and the like; cycloalkyl groups such as cyclopropyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, and the like; substituted alkyl groups having a cyano group as the substituent such as cyanomethyl, cyanoethyl, cyanopropyl, and the like; alkenyl groups such as ethenyl, 2-propenyl, 1-methylpropenyl, 1,1-dimethylpropenyl, 2-butenyl, pentenyl, hexenyl, and the like; alkynyl groups such as ethynyl, 2-propynyl, 1-methylpropynyl, 1,1-dimethylpropynyl, 2-butynyl, pentynyl, hexynyl, and the like; alkoxyalkyl groups such as methoxymethyl, ethoxymethyl, propoxymethyl, butoxymethyl, pentyloxymethyl, methoxyethyl, ethoxyethyl, propoxyethyl, butoxyethyl, methoxypropyl, ethoxypropyl, propoxypropyl, methoxybutyl, ethoxybutyl, methoxypentyl, and the like; alkylthioalkyl groups such as methylthiomethyl, ethylthiomethyl, propylthiomethyl, butylthiomethyl, pentylthiomethyl, hexylthiomethyl, heptylthiomethyl, methylthioethyl, ethylthioethyl, propylthioethyl, butylthioethyl, pentylthioethyl, hexylthioethyl, methylthiopropyl, ethylthiopropyl, propylthiopropyl, butylthiopropyl, pentylthiopropyl, methylthiobutyl, ethylthiobutyl, propylthiobutyl, butylthiobutyl, methylthiopentyl, ethylthiopentyl, propylthiopentyl, methylthiohexyl, ethylthiohexyl, methylthioheptyl, and the like; alkylsulfinylalkyl groups such as methylsulfinylmethyl, ethylsulfinylmethyl, propylsulfinylmethyl, butylsulfinylmethyl, pentylsulfinylmethyl, methylsulfinylethyl, ethylsulfinylethyl, propylsulfinylethyl, butylsulfinylethyl, methylsulfinylpropyl, ethylsulfinylpropyl, propylsulfinylpropyl, methylsulfinylbutyl, ethylsulfinylbutyl, methylsulfinylpentyl, and the like; alkylsulfonylalkyl groups such as methylsulfonylmethyl, ethylsulfonylmethyl, propylsulfonylmethyl, butylsulfonylmethyl, pentylsulfonylmethyl, methylsulfonylethyl, ethylsulfonylethyl, propylsulfonylethyl, butylsulfonylethyl, methylsulfonylpropyl, ethylsulfonylpropyl, propylsulfonylpropyl, methylsulfonylbutyl, ethylsulfonylbutyl, methylsulfonylpentyl, and the like; alkoxyalkoxyalkyl groups such as methoxymethoxymethyl, ethoxymethoxymethyl, propoxymethoxymethyl, butoxymethoxymethyl, pentyloxymethoxymethyl, hexyloxymethoxymethyl, methoxyethoxyethyl, ethoxyethoxyethyl, propoxyethoxyethyl, butoxyethoxyethyl, and the like; hydroxycarbonylalkyl groups such as hydroxycarbonylmethyl, hydroxycarbonylethyl, and the like; alkoxycarbonylalkyl groups such as methoxycarbonylmethyl, ethoxycarbonylmethyl, propoxycarbonylmethyl, butoxycarbonylmethyl, methoxycarbonylethyl, ethoxycarbonylethyl, propoxycarbonylethyl, and the like; a benzyl group; substituted benzyl groups such as chlorobenzyl groups having the substituent in the o-, m-or p-position, bromobenzyl groups having the substituent in the o-, m-or p-position, ethylbenzyl groups having the substituent in the o-, m- or p-position, propylbenzyl groups having the substituent in the o-, m-or p-position, and the like; an α-methylbenzyl group; a phenethyl group; etc. As a preferable substituent for R 1 , there can be exemplified haloalkyl groups such as 2-chloro-1,1,2-trifluoroethyl, 1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethyl, 2,2,2-trifluoroethyl, 3-chloropropyl, 3-bromopropyl, 3-fluoropropyl, 2,2-difluoropropyl, 1,1,2,3,3,3-hexafluoropropyl, 4-chlorobutyl, 4-fluorobutyl, 5-chlorobutyl, 5-fluorobutyl, and the like. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS As to a process for producing the compound represented by the general formula (I) of this invention, it can be produced, for example, by the following process: ##STR8## wherein R, R 1 and X have the same meanings as defined above, and Z is a halogen atom. That is to say, the compound of the general formula (I) can be obtained by reacting a compound represented by the general formula (II) with a compound represented by the general formula (III) in the presence of an inert solvent. As the inert solvent used in the reaction of this invention, any one may be used so long as it does not inhibit the progress of such a rection greatly. There can be exemplified, for example, aromatic hydrocarbons such as benzene, toluene, xylene and the like; aliphatic hydrocarbons such as n-hexane, cyclohexane and the like; alcohols such as methanol, ethanol, propanol, glycol and the like; ketones such as acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, cyclohexanone and the like; lower fatty acid esters such as ethyl acetate and the like; ethers such as tetrahydrofuran, dioxane and the like; lower fatty acid amides such as dimethylformamide, dimethylacetamide and the like; water; dimethylsulfoxide; etc. These solvents are used alone or as a mixture thereof. As the base usable in this invention, there can be exemplified, for example, inorganic bases such as sodium carbonate, sodium hydride, potassium carbonate, sodium hydrogencarbonate, potassium hydrogencarbonate, sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, alcoholates of alkali metals and the like; and organic bases such as pyridine, trimethylamine, triethylamine, diethylaniline, 1,8-diazabicyclo-[5,4,0]-7-undecene and the like. The reaction of this invention can be carried out at a temperature properly selected, for example, in the range of 0° C. to 150° C. Although the reaction of the compounds in each reaction path is an equimolar reaction, either of the compounds may be added in a slight excess. The reaction time is selected preferably in the range of 0.5 to 48 hours. After completion of the reaction, the desired compound can be collected by treating the reaction product by a conventional method. The compound of the general formula (I) can be produced also according to the following formulas: ##STR9## wherein R, R 1 and X have the same meanings as defined above, and R 4 is a hydroxyl group or a halogen atom. That is to say, the compound of the general formula (I) can be obtained by reacting a compound represented by the general formula (I-a) with the corresponding alcohol. A compound of the general formula (I) in which R is a lower alkylsulfinylalkyl group or a lower alkylsulfonylalkyl group can be obtained also by oxydizing a compound of the general formula (I) in which R is a lower alkylthioalkyl group by using a suitable oxidizing agent. Typical examples of the compounds of the general formula (I) are as shown in Table 1. General formula (I): ##STR10## TABLE 1__________________________________________________________________________CompoundNo. R R.sup.1 X Physical properties__________________________________________________________________________1 H CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 Cl n.sub.D.sup.24 1.52002 H CF.sub.2 CHClF Cl NMR: δ.sub.TMS.sup.CDCl 3 (ppm) 1.65 (d, 3H), 2.40 (t, 3H), 4.70 (q, 1H), 6.95 (s, 1H), 7.50 (s, 1H), 6.70- 7.80 (m, 1H), 9.00 (s, 1H)3 H CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 F n.sub.D.sup.24 1.50794 H CF.sub.2 CClF F m.p. 107.8° C.5 H CH.sub.2 CF.sub.3 F m.p. 180.9° C.6 Na CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 Cl m.p. 141.8° C.7 Na CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 F m.p. 178.9° C.8 Na CF.sub.2 CHClF F m.p. 145.8° C.9 K CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 Cl m.p. 201.4° C.10 K CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 F m.p. 103.3° C.11 (n-C.sub.4 H.sub.9).sub.2 NH.sub.2 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 Cl m.p. 192.8° C.12 (n-C.sub.4 H.sub.9).sub.2 NH.sub.2 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 F m.p. 171.0° C.13 CH.sub.3 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 Cl n.sub.D.sup.24 1.507214 CH.sub.3 CF.sub.2 CHClF Cl n.sub.D.sup.23 1.526215 CH.sub.3 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 F n.sub.D.sup.23 1.497716 C.sub.2 H.sub.5 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 Cl n.sub.D.sup.23 1.503917 C.sub.2 H.sub.5 CH.sub.2 CF.sub.3 Cl n.sub.D.sup.22 1.515018 C.sub.2 H.sub.5 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 F n.sub.D.sup.24 1.489119 C.sub.2 H.sub.5 CH.sub.2 CF.sub.3 F n.sub.D.sup.19.5 1.503020 C.sub.2 H.sub.5 CF.sub.2 CHClF F n.sub.D.sup.22 1.506221 n-C.sub.3 H.sub.7 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 Cl n.sub.D.sup.23 1.499822 s-C.sub.4 H.sub.9 CF.sub.2 CHClF F n.sub.D.sup.23 1.498523 n-C.sub.6 H.sub.13 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 Cl n.sub.D.sup.23 1.494024 n-C.sub.6 H.sub.13 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 F n.sub.D.sup.26 1.483225 Cl(CH.sub.2).sub.2 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub. 2 Cl n.sub.D.sup.24 1.516126 Cl(CH.sub.2).sub.2 CF.sub.2 CHClF Cl n.sub.D.sup.23 1.525327 Cl(CH.sub.2).sub.2 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 F n.sub.D.sup.18 1.504928 Br(CH.sub.2).sub.2 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 Cl n.sub.D.sup.24 1.522929 Br(CH.sub.2).sub.2 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 F n.sub.D.sup.26 1.509230 Br(CH.sub.2).sub.2 CF.sub.2 CHClF F n.sub.D.sup.23 1.519431 Cl(CH.sub.2).sub.3 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 Cl n.sub.D.sup.24 1.513932 Cl(CH.sub.2).sub.3 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 F m.p. 48.5° C.33 Cl(CH.sub.2).sub.3 CF.sub.2 CHClF F n.sub.D.sup.23 1.510234 Cl(CH.sub.2).sub.3 CH.sub.2 CF.sub.3 F m.p. 89.3° C.35 Br(CH.sub.2).sub.3 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 Cl n.sub.D.sup.24 1.521136 Br(CH.sub.2).sub.3 CF.sub.2 CHClF Cl n.sub.D.sup.23 1.529337 Br(CH.sub.2).sub.3 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 F n.sub.D.sup.26 1.508838 Cl(CH.sub.2).sub.4 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 Cl n.sub.D.sup.24 1.513539 Cl(CH.sub.2 ).sub.4 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 F n.sub.D.sup.18 1.501240 Cl(CH.sub.2).sub.4 CF.sub.2 CHClF F n.sub.D.sup.23 1.508941 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 F m.p. 62.5° C.42 ##STR11## CF.sub.2 CHClF F n.sub.D.sup.22 1.510243 ##STR12## CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 Cl n.sub.D.sup.28 1.505844 ##STR13## CF.sub.2 CHClF Cl n.sub.D.sup.23 1.526845 ##STR14## CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 F n.sub.D.sup.26 1.496546 ##STR15## CH.sub.2 CF.sub.3 F n.sub.D.sup.19.5 1.505947 NCCH.sub.2 CH.sub.2 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 Cl n.sub.D.sup.24 1.507548 NCCH.sub.2 CH.sub.2 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 F m.p. 83.8° C.49 CH.sub.2CHCH.sub.2 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 Cl n.sub.D.sup.28 1.508450 CH.sub.2CHCH.sub. 2 CF.sub.2 CHClF Cl n.sub.D.sup.23 1.526251 CH.sub.2CHCH.sub.2 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 F n.sub.D.sup.26 1.496452 CH.sub.2CHCH.sub.2 CH.sub.2 CF.sub.3 F n.sub.D.sup.19.9 1.512253 CHCCH.sub.2 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 Cl n.sub.D.sup.28 1.512654 CHCCH.sub.2 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 F n.sub.D.sup.23 1.502555 CHCCH.sub.2 CF.sub.2 CHClF F n.sub.D.sup.22 1.513056 CH.sub.3 O(CH.sub.2).sub.2 CF.sub.2 CHClF Cl n.sub.D.sup.23 1.523057 CH.sub.3 O(CH.sub.2).sub.2 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 F n.sub.D.sup.19 1.493958 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.2 O(CH.sub.2).sub.2 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 Cl n.sub.D.sup.28 1.499059 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.2 O(CH.sub.2).sub.2 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 F n.sub.D.sup.26 1.487560 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.2 O(CH.sub.2).sub.2 CF.sub.2 CHClF F n.sub.D.sup.22 1.502261 n-C.sub.4 H.sub.9 O(CH.sub.2).sub.2 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 Cl n.sub.D.sup.28 1.494462 n-C.sub.4 H.sub.9 O(CH.sub.2).sub.2 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 F n.sub.D.sup.23 1.484963 CH.sub.3 S(CH.sub.2).sub.2 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 Cl n.sub.D.sup.24 1.522264 CH.sub.3 S(CH.sub.2).sub.2 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 F n.sub.D.sup.18 1.512865 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.2 S(CH.sub.2).sub.2 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 Cl n.sub.D.sup.24 1.519766 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.2 S(CH.sub.2).sub.2 CF.sub.2 CHClF Cl n.sub.D.sup.23 1.532667 i-C.sub.3 H.sub.7 S(CH.sub.2).sub.2 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 Cl n.sub.D.sup.24 1.514568 i-C.sub.4 H.sub.9 S(CH.sub.2).sub.2 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 F n.sub.D.sup.25 1.502269 C.sub.2 H.sub.5 S(CH.sub.2).sub.3 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 F n.sub.D.sup.25 1.506170 n-C.sub.4 H.sub.9 S(CH.sub.2).sub.3 CF.sub.2 CHClF F n.sub.D.sup.23 1.510371 CH.sub.3 SO(CH.sub.2).sub.2 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 Cl n.sub.D.sup.25 1.519572 i-C.sub. 4 H.sub.9 SO(CH.sub.2).sub.2 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 F n.sub.D.sup.25 1.503873 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.2 SO.sub.2 (CH.sub.2).sub.2 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 Cl n.sub.D.sup.25 1.506174 i-C.sub.4 H.sub.9 SO.sub.2 (CH.sub.2).sub.2 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 F n.sub.D.sup.25 1.502275 C.sub.2 H.sub.5 SO.sub.2 (CH.sub.2).sub.3 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 F m.p. 122.3° C.76 CH.sub.3 O(CH.sub.2).sub.2 O(CH.sub.2).sub.2 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 Cl n.sub.D.sup.28 1.498277 CH.sub.3 O(CH.sub.2).sub.2 O(CH.sub.2).sub.2 CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 F n.sub.D.sup.24 1.488078 CH.sub.3 O(CH.sub.2).sub.2 O(CH.sub.2).sub.2 CF.sub.2 CHClF F n.sub.D.sup.22 1.500579 ##STR16## CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 Cl n.sub.D.sup.19 1.502780 ##STR17## CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 F n.sub.D.sup.23 1.491881 ##STR18## CF.sub.2 CHClF F n.sub.D.sup.23 1.498982 ##STR19## CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 Cl n.sub.D.sup.25 1.532583 ##STR20## CF.sub.2 CHClF Cl n.sub.D.sup.23 1.538984 ##STR21## CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 F m.p. 91.6° C.85 ##STR22## CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 Cl m.p. 119.3° C.86 ##STR23## CH.sub.2 CF.sub.3 Cl n.sub.D.sup.22 1.543387 ##STR24## CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 F n.sub.D.sup.18 1.532988 ##STR25## CF.sub.2 CHClF F n.sub.D.sup.23 1.538689 ##STR26## CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 F n.sub.D.sup.26 1.520090 ##STR27## CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 Cl n.sub.D.sup.25 1.528291 ##STR28## CF.sub.2 CHF.sub.2 F n.sub.D.sup.23 1.5203__________________________________________________________________________ The compound of the general formula (II) can be synthesized by the following reaction path: ##STR29## wherein R 1 , Z and X are as defined above; each of R 2 and R 3 is a lower alkyl group; A is an oxygen atom or a sulfur atom; and Z 1 's which may be the same or different are halogen atoms. In detail, the compound of the general formula (II) can be obtained by reacting a compound represented by the general formula (X) with a compound represented by the general formula (IX) with heating in an inert solvent, either isolating or not isolating the resulting compound represented by the general formula (VIII), subjecting this compound to ring closure reaction in the presence of a base to convert the same into a compound represented by the general formula (VII), reacting said compound (VII) with a halide represented by the general formula (V) or (VI) to obtain a compound represented by the general formula (IV), and reacting said compound (IV) with hydrogen bromide. In producing the compound of the general formula (II) from the compound of the general formula (IV), hydrogen iodide or an alkyl thiolate may be used in place of hydrogen bromide. Examples of this invention are given below not by way of limitation but by way of illustration. EXAMPLE 1 4-(2-Chloro-1,1,2-trifluoroethyl)-1-{[2,4-dichloro-5-(1-methoxycarbonyl)ethoxy]phenyl}-3-methyl-Δ 2 -1,2,4-triazolin-5one (Compound No. 14) ##STR30## In 50 ml of methanol was dissolved 0.62 g (0.011 mole) of KOH, and 3.6 g (0.01 mole) of 4-(2-chloro-1,1,2-trifluoroethyl)-1-(2,4-dichloro-5-hydroxyphenyl)-3-methyl-Δ 2 -1,2,4-triazolin-5-one was added to the resulting solution to be converted into its potassium salt. Then, 1.83 g (0.011 mole) of methyl α-bromopropionate was added, and the resulting mixture was refluxed with heating for 3 hours. After completion of the reaction, the reaction mixture was poured into ice water, and the resulting mixture was extracted with ether, after which the extract was concentrated to obtain 4.0 g of the desired compound: n D 23 1.5262, yield 88.9%. EXAMPLE 2 1-[4-Chloro-5-(1-ethoxycarbonyl)ethoxy-2-fluorophenyl]-3-methyl-4-(1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethyl)-Δ 2 -1,2,4-triazolin-5-one (Compound No. 18) ##STR31## In 150 ml of acetone were suspended 9.0 g (0.026 mole) of 1-(4-chloro-2-fluoro-5-hydroxyphenyl)-3-methyl-4-(1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethyl)-Δ 2 -1,2,4-triazolin-5-one, 7.9 g (0.044 mole) of ethyl α-bromopropionate and 9.0 g of potassium carbonate, and the resulting suspension was refluxed with heating for 2 hours. After completion of the reaction, the reaction suspension was cooled to room temperature. Then, the insoluble materials were removed by filtation, after which the filtrate was concentrated and the residue was purified by column chromatography to obtain 9.22 g of the desired compound. Physical properties: n D 24 1.4891, yield 79.3%. EXAMPLE 3 1-{5-[1-(3-Chloropropoxycarbonyl)ethoxy]-2,4-dichlorophenyl}-3-methyl-4-(1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethyl)-Δ 2 -1,2,4-triazolin-5-one (Compound No. 31) ##STR32## In 40 ml of anhydrous dimethylsulfoxide was dissolved 1.8 g (0.0051 mole) of 1-(2,4-dichloro-5-hydroxyphenyl)-3-methyl-4-(1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethyl)-Δ 2 -1,2,4-triazolin-5-one, and 0.3 g (0.0053 mole) of powdered potassium hydroxide was added to the resulting solution. The mixture thus obtained was stirred for 30 minutes, after which 1.0 g (0.0053 mole) of 3-chloropropyl α-chloropropionate was added, and the reaction was carried out at 80° C. for 4 hours. After completion of the reaction, the reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature and poured into ice water, and the reaction product was extracted therefrom with diethyl ether. The extract was washed with water and dried. Then, the diethyl ether was removed by distillation to obtain 2.3 g of the desired compound: n D 24 1.5139, yield 89%. EXAMPLE 4 1-{4-Chloro-5-[1-(3-chloropropoxycarbonyl)ethoxy]-2-fluorophenyl}-3-methyl-4-(1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethyl)-Δ 2 -1,2,4-triazolin-5-one (Compound No. 32) ##STR33## In 50 ml of N,N-dimethylformamide was suspended 0.52 g (0.0037 mole) of potassium carbonate, and 1.17 g (0.0034 mole) of 1-(4-chloro-2-fluoro-5-hydroxyphenyl)-3-methyl-4-(1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethyl)-Δ 2 -1,2,4-triazolin-5-one was added to the resulting suspension. The resulting mixture was stirred at room temperature for 30 minutes, after which 0.85 g (0.0034 mole) of 3-chloroporpyl α-bromopropionate was added, and the reaction was carried out at 50° C. for 3 hours. After completion of the reaction, the reaction mixture was adjusted to room temperature and poured into ice water, and the reaction product was extracted therefrom with diethyl ether. The extract was washed with water and dried. Then, the diethyl ether was removed by distillation to obtain an oily substance. The oily substance obtained was purified by a silica gel column chromatography (ether : n-hexane=1:2) and allowed to stand at room temperature to obtain 1.36 g of the desired product as crystals: m.p. 48.5° C., yield 82%. EXAMPLE 5 4-(2-Chloro-1,1,2-trifluoroethyl)-1-{2,4-dichloro-5-[1-((2-ethylthio)ethoxycarbonyl)ethoxy]phenyl}3-methyl-Δ 2 -1,2,4-triazolin-5-one (Compound No. 66) ##STR34## In 30 ml of tetrahydrofuran was suspended 0.15 g (0.0037 mole) of 60% NaH, and 1.26 g (0.0034 mole) of 4-(2-chloro-1,1,2-trifluoroethyl)-1-(2,4-dichloro-5-hydroxyphenyl)-3-methyl)-Δ 2 -1,2,4-triazolin-5-one was added to the resulting suspension. The mixture thus obtained was stirred for 30 minutes, after which 0.89 g (0.0037 mole) of (2-ethylthio)ethyl α-bromopropionate was added, and the resulting mixture was refluxed with heating for 5 hours. After completion of the reaction, the reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature and then poured into ice water, and the reaction product was extracted therefrom with diethyl ether. The extract was washed with water and dried. Then, the diethyl ether was removed by distillation, and the residue was purified by dry column chromatography to obtain 1.33 g of the desired compound: n D 23 1.5326, yield 75%. EXAMPLE 6 1-{4-Chloro-5-[1-(4-chlorobenxzyloxycarbonyl)ethoxy]-2-fluorophenyl}-3-methyl-4-(1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethyl)-Δ 2 -1,2,4-triazolin-5-one (Compound No. 87) ##STR35## To 50 ml of methyl ethyl ketone were added 1.75 g (0.0051 mole) of 1-(4-chloro-1-fluoro-5-hydroxyphenyl)-3-methyl-4-(1,1,2,2,-tetrafluoroethyl)-Δ 2 -1,2,4-triazolin-5-one, 1.5 g of potassium carbonate and 1.27 g (5.6 m moles) of 4-chlorobenzyl α-bromopropionate, and the resulting mixture was refluxed with heating for 5 hours. After completion of the reaction, the reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature. Then, the insoluble materials were removed by filtration, and the filtrate was concentrated, after which the residue was purified by dry column chromatography to obtain 1.87 g of the desired compound: n D 18 1.5329, yield 68%. EXAMPLE 7 Sodium 1-{2,4-dichloro-5-[3-methyl-4-(1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethyl)-Δ 2 -1,2,4-triazolin-5-on-1-yl]phenoxy}propionate (Compound No. 6) ##STR36## In 30 ml of methanol was dissolved 4.32 g (0.01 mole) of 1-{2,4-dichloro-5-[1-hydroxycarbonyl)ethyoxy]phenyl}-3-methyl-4-(1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethyl)-Δ 2 1,2,4-triazolin-5-one, and 2 ml of an aqueous solution of 0.4 g (0.01 mole) of NaOH was added to the resulting solution. The solution thus obtained was stirred at room temperature for 30 minutes, after which the solvent was removed by distillation, and the crystals thus obtained were washed with ether and then dried to obtain 4.53 g of the desired compound: m.p. 141.8° C., yield 100%. EXAMPLE 8 1-{2,4-Dichloro-5-[1-(2-methylsulfinyl)ethoxycarbonyl]ethyoxyphenyl}-3-methyl-4-(1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethyl)-Δ 2 -1,2,4-triazolin-5-one (Compound No. 71) ##STR37## In 100 ml of methylene dichloride was dissolved 5.05 g (0.01 mole) of 1-{2,4-dichloro-5-[1-(2-methylthio)ethoxycarbonyl]ethoxyphenyl}-3-methyl-4-(1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethyl)-Δ 2 -1,2,4-triazolin-5-one, and 2.0 g (0.0106 mole) of m-chloroperbenzoic acid was added. The resulting mixture was subjected to reaction at room temperature for 5 hours, after which the reaction mixture was poured into ice water, and the methylene chloride layer was treated by a conventional method to obtain 48 g of the desired compound: n D 25 1.5195, yield 92.1%. The Δ 2 -1,2,4-triazolin-5-one derivatives represented by the general formula (I) of this invention are capable of controlling annual and perennial weeds grown in paddy fields, for example, barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli Beauv., an annual weed of Gramineae family which is a typical strongly injurious weed grown in paddy fields), monochoria (Monochoria vaginalis Presl, a strongly injurious annual weed of Pontederiaceae family grown in paddy fields), smallflower umbrellaplant (Cyperus difformis L., and injurious annual weed of Cyperaceae family grown in paddy fields), water nutgrass Cyperus serotinus Rottb., a typical injurious perennial weed of Cyperaceae family grown in paddy fields, and also grown in swamps and waterways), arrowhead (Sagittaria pygmaea Mig., an injurious perennial weed of Alismataceae family, grown in paddy fields, swamps and ditches), bulrush (Scirpus juncoids Roxb. var Hotarui Ohwi, a perennial weed of Cyperaceae family, grown in paddy fields, swamps and ditches); and annual and perennial weeds grown in upland fields and orchards, for example, wild oats (Avena fatua L., an annual weed of Gramineae family, grown in plains, waste lands and upland fields), mugwort (Artemisia princeps Pamp., a perennial weed of Compositae family, grown in cultivated and uncultivated fields), large crabgrass (Digitaraia adscendcue Henr., an annual weed of Gramineae family which is a typical strongly injurious weed grown in upland fields and orchards), curly dock (Rumex japonicus Houttuyn, a perennial weed of Polygonaceae family, grown in upland fields and on roadsides), umbrella sedge (Cyperus iria L., an annual weed of Cyperaceae family, grown in upland fields and on roadsides), redroot pigweed (Amaranthus varidis L., an annual weed of Amaranthaceae family grown in upland fields, vacant lands and roadsides), and cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium L., an annual weed of Compositae family, strongly injurious to soybeans). Since, the triazolin-5-one derivatives represented by the above general formula (I) exhibit excellent controlling effects against weeds of both pre-and post-emergence stages, they are useful, for example, as herbicides for soil treatment before and after seeding (planting), for soil treatment in the growth period, for foliar treatment before seeding (planting), for foliar treatment in the growth period of useful upland crops such as soybeans, cotton, corns and the like. Furthermore, the compounds of this invention are useful as herbicides applying at the pre-emegence stage and the post-emergence stage of weeds in paddy fields, moreover, they are useful as herbicides to control general weeds grown in for example, mowed fields, paddy fields and upland fields in fallow, ridges between paddy fields, agricultural pathways, waterways, pasture, graveyards, parks, roads, playgrounds, unoccupied areas around buildings, reclaimed lands, railways and forests. Herbicidal treatments of such areas are carried out most effectively and economically when weeds are not emergent but not necessarily be done prior to the emergence of weeds. For applying the compounds of the present invention as herbicides, they are generally formulated, according to conventional procedures for preparing agricultural compositions, into a form convenient to use. That is to say, said compounds are mixed with suitable inert carriers and, if necessary, further mixed with adjuvants, in a suitable ratio, and through dissolution, dispersion, suspension, mechanical mixing, impregnation, adsorption or adhesion, to make to mixture into a suitable form of composition, e.g., suspensions, emulsifiable concentrates, solutions, wettable powders, dusts, granules or tablets. The inert carriers usable in this invention may be either solid or liquid. As materials usable as the solid carriers, there can be examplified, for example, vegetable powders such as soybean flour, cereal flour, wood flour, bark flour, saw dust, powdered tobaco stalks, powdered walnut shell, bran, powdered cellulose, and extraction residues of vegetables; fibrous materials such as paper, corrugated paperboard, and waste cloths; synthetic polymers such as powdered synthetic resins; inorganic or mineral products such as clays (e.g., kaolin, bentonite and acid clay), talc products (e.g., talc and pyrophyllite), silica products [e.g., diatomaceous earth, silica sand, mica and white carbon (a highly dispersed synthetic silicic acid, also called as finely pulverized hydrated silica or hydrated silicic acid, and some commercially available products contain calcium silicate as the major component)], activated carbon, powdered sulfur, pumice, calcined diatomaceous earth, ground brick, fly ash, sand, calcium carbonate, and calcium phosphates; chemical fertilizers such as ammonium sulfate, ammonium phosphates, ammonium nitrate, urea, and ammonium chloride, and farmyard manures. These solid carriers may be used alone or as a mixture thereof. Materials usable as the liquid carriers are selected from those which are solvents for the active ingredients and those which are non-solvnet but can disperse the active ingredients with the aid of adjuvants. They include, for example, the following materials, which may be used alone or as a mixture thereof: water, alcohols (e.g., methanol, ethanol, isopropanol, butanol, and ethylene glycol), ketones (e.g., acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, methyl isobutyl ketone, diisobutyl ketone, and cyclohexanone), ethers (e.g., ethyl ether, dioxane, cellosolves, dipropyl ether, and tetraphydrofuran), aliphatic hydrocarbons (e.g., gasoline and mineral oils), aromatic hydrocarbons (e.g., benzene, toluene, xylene, solvent naphtha, and alkylnaphthalene), halogenated hydrocarbones (e.g., dichloroethane, chlorinated benzenes, chloroform and carbon tetrachloride), esters (e.g., ethyl acetate, dibutyl phthalate, diisopropyl phthanate, and dioctyl phthalate), acid amides (e.g., dimethylformamide, diethylformamide, and dimethylacetamide), and nitriles (e.g., acetonitrile), and dimethyl sulfoxide. As the adjuvants, the following can be examplified. These adjuvants are used depending on purposes. In some cases, two or more of the adjuvants are simultaneously used. In some other cases, no adjuvant is used at all. For the purpose of emulsification, dispersion, solubilization and/or wetting of the active ingredients, there can be used furface active agents, for example, polyoxyethylene alkylaryl ethers, polyoxyethylene alkyl ethers, polyoxyethylene higher fatty acid esters, polyoxyethylene resinates, polyoxyethylene sorbitan monolaurate, polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate, alkylarylsulfonates, naphthalenesulfonic acid condensation products, ligninsulfonates, and higher alcohol sulfate esters. For the purpose of stabilizing the dispersion, tackification and/or agglomeration of the active ingredients, the following materials may be use, for example, casein, gelatin, starch, alginic acid, methylcellulose, carboxymethylcellulose, gum arabic, polyvinyl alcohol, pine root oil, rice bran oil, bentonite and ligninsulfonates. For the purpose of improving the flowability of the solid compositions, it is recommendable to use waxes, stearates, alkyl phosphates, etc. As to peptizers for dispersible compositions, it is also recommendable to use naphthalenesulfonic acid condensation products, condensed phosphates, etc. It is also possible to add anti-foaming agents, for example, a silicone oil. The content of the active ingredients in the herbicidal composition may be adjusted depending on the applications. In general, it is suitably 0.5 to 20% by weight for preparing a powdered or granulated product, and 0.1 to 50% by weight for preparing an emulsifiable concentrate or a wettable powder product. For destroying various weeds, inhibiting their growth, or protecting useful plants from the injury caused by these weeds, the herbicidal composition of the present invention is applied in a weed-destroying dosage or a weed growth inhibiting dosage as such or after being properly diluted with or suspended in water or in other suitable medium, to the soil or the foliage of weeds in the area where the emergence or growth of weeds is undesirable. The amount of the herbicidal composition of the present invention used is varied depending on various factors, for example, the purpose of application, the objective weeds, the emergence or growth state of weeds and crops, the emergence tendency of weeds, weather, environmental conditions, the type of herbicidal formulations, the way of application, the type of the field to be treated, and the time of application and others. When the herbicidal composition of this invention is applied alone as a selective herbicide, it is suitable, for example, to select the dosage of the compound of this invention in the range of 0.1 to 500 g per 10 ares. On the other hand, when the herbicidal composition of this invention is applied together with other herbicides, the dosage of the compound of this invention can be selected in a still smaller dosage range when it is taken into consideration that said composition is often effective in a smaller dosage than when it is used alone. Herbicidal composition of the present invention is especially valuable for the pre-emergence treatment and initial emergence stage treatment of upland fields and for the control of weeds at pre-emergence stage and post-emergence stage in paddy fields. In order to expand both spectrum of controllable weed species and the period of time when effective applications are possible or to reduce the dosage, the herbicidal composition of the present invention can be used in combination with other herbicides, and this usage is within the scope of the present invention. For example, herbicidal composition of the present invention can be used in combination with one or more of the following herbicides: phenoxy fatty acid type herbicides, for example, 2,4-PA (e.g., ethyl (2,4-dichlorophenoxy)acetate), MCP (e.g., ethyl (2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxy)acetate, sodium (2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxy)acetate, and allyl (2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxy)acetate), MCPB (ethyl (2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxy)butyrate), and Diclofop-methyl (methyl 2-[4-(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)phenoxy]propanoate); diphenyl ether type herbicides, for example, NIP (2,4-dichlorophenyl-4'-nitrophenyl ether), CNP (2,4,6-trichlorophenyl-4'-nitrophenyl ether), Chlomethoxynil (2,4-dichlorophenyl-3'-methoxy-4'-nitrophenyl ether), Acifluorgen [5-(2-chloro-α,α,α-trifluoro-p-tolyloxy)-2-nitrobenzoic acid and its salts], and Fluazifop-butyl (butyl (±)-2-[4-[[5-(trifluoromethyl)-2-pyridyl]oxy]phenoxy]propionate); triazine type herbicides, for example, CAT (2-chloro-4,6-bis(ethylamino)-s-triazine), Prometryne (2-methylthio-4,6-bis(isopropylamino)-s-triazine, Simetryne (2-methylthio-4,6-bis(ethylamino)-s-triazine), and Metribuzin (4-amino-6-tert-butyl-3-methylthio-1,2,4-tirazin-5(4H)-one); carbamate type herbicides, for example, Molinate (s-ethyl hexahydro-1H-azepine-1-carbothioate), MCC (methyl N-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)carbamate), IPC (isopropyl N-(3-chlorophenyl)carbamate), and Benthiocarb (s-(4-chlorobenzyl)dimethylthiocarbamate); toluidine type herbicides, for example, Triefluraline (α,α, α-trifluoro-2,6-dinitro-N,N-dipropyl-p-toluidine) and Pendimethaline (N-(1-ethylpropyl)-2,6-dinitro-3,4-xylidine); Acid amide type herbicides, for example, DCPA (3,4-dichloropropionanilide), Butachlor (2-chloro-2',6'-diethyl-N-(butoxymethyl)-acetanilide), Alachlor (2-chloro-2',6'-diethyl-N-(methoxyethyl)acetanilide), Metolachlor (2-chloro-N-(2-ethyl-6-methylphenyl)-N-(2-methoxy-1-methylethyl)acetamide), and Pretilachlor (2-chloro-2',6'-diethyl-N-(2-propoxyethyl)acetanilide); and other types of herbicides, for example, DCMU (3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea), Bentazon (3-isopropyl-(1H)-2,1,3-benzothiazin-4(3H)-one-2,2-dioxide), Pyrazolate (4-(2,4-dichlorobenzoyl)-1,3-dimethylpyrazol-5-yl-p-toluenesulfonate), Pyrazoxyfen (1,3-dimethyl-4-(2,4-dichlorobenzoyl)-5-phenacyloxypyrazol), and MY-71 (4-(2,4-dichloro-3-methylbenzoyl)-1,3-dimethylpyrazol-5-yl-p-toluenesulfonate). Some test examples and preparation examples are given below not by way of limitation but by way of illustration. Test Example 1 Effect on paddy field weeds of pre-emergence stage Pots (1/10,000 - are) ) were filled with soil to simulate a paddy field, and planted with seeds of barnyard grass, monochoria, umbrella plant, and bulrush, and with tubers of arrowhead, respectively, which are all injurious weeds grown in paddy, fields, and the seeds and tubers were conditioned so as to be in preemergence stage. The soil in the pot was treated with each of the active ingredients (the compounds listed in Table 1) formulated to given concentration of liquid, by spraying. After 21 days, the percent control of weed growth compared with that on the untreated plot was observed and the herbicidal activity was determined according to the following criterion: Criterion for determining herbicidal activity ______________________________________Degree of Percent control ofherbicidal weed growthactivity (%)______________________________________5 1004 90-993 80-892 70-791 Less than 70______________________________________ The results obtained are shown in Table 2. TABLE 2__________________________________________________________________________ Amount of active Effect of pre-emergence treatmentCompound ingredient Barnyard UmbrellaNo. g/are grass Monochoria plant Bulrush Arrowhead__________________________________________________________________________1 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 5 5 5 52 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 5 5 5 53 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 54 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 55 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 56 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 57 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 58 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 59 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 510 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 5 5 4 411 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 512 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 4 513 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 514 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 515 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 516 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 517 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 518 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 519 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 520 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 521 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 522 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 523 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 524 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 525 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 526 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 527 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 528 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 529 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 530 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 531 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 5 5 5 532 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 533 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 534 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 535 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 536 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 537 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 538 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 539 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 540 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 541 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 542 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 543 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 544 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 545 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 546 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 547 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 4 548 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 549 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 4 550 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 551 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 552 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 553 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 5 5 5 554 3- 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 555 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 556 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 557 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 558 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 559 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 560 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 561 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 562 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 563 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 5 4 4 564 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 565 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 5 4 4 566 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 567 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 4 4 4 568 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 569 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 570 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 571 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 572 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 573 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 574 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 575 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 576 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 5 5 5 577 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 578 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 579 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 580 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 581 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 582 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 583 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 584 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 585 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 586 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 587 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 588 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 589 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 590 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 591 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 5Compound A 30 5 5 5 5 5 3 3 4 4 3 3Compound B 30 4 5 5 4 5 3 1 4 5 1 3Compound C 3 3 4 4 3 3__________________________________________________________________________ As reference Compound A, Compound 7 (1(2,4-dichloro-5-((1-ethoxycarbonyl)-ethoxy)phenyl)-4-difluoromethyl-3-mthyl-Δ.sup.21,2,4-triazolin-5-one) disclosed in Japanese Patent Koka No. 57181069 (1982) was tested, respectively. .sup.*1 Compound B, Compound No. 62 1[2,4dichloro-5-(1-ethoxycarbonyl)ethoxyphenyl4-ethyl-3-methyl-Δ.su.2 1,2,4triazolin-5-one disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4318731 .sup.*2 Compound C, Compound No. 5 1(2,4-dichloro-5-isopropoxyphenyl)-4-difluoromethyl-3-methyl-Δ.sup.1,2,4-triazolin-5-one disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4398943 Test Example 2 Effect on paddy field weeds of post-emergence stage Pots (1/10,000 - are) were filled with soil to simulate a paddy field and grown with each of injurious weeds of the following leaf age. In addition, young seedings of rice plant (cultivar: "Nihonbare") of the 2.5 leaf age were transplanted to the soil on the day before the treatment with each of the present herbicides, and treated with the herbicides. After 21 days, the herbicidal effect and the degree of crop injury to the rice plant were evaluated by comparing the results with those on the untreated plot. ______________________________________Species of weed tested Leaf age of the weed______________________________________Barnyard grass 1Monochoria 2-3Umbrella plant 1-2Bulrush 2-3Arrowhead 3Water nutgrass 1-2______________________________________ The criterion for judging the degree of crop injury was as follows: H: High (including withering) M: Medium L: Low N: None The criterion for judging the herbicidal activity was the same as in Test Example 1. The results obtained are shown in Table 3. TABLE 3__________________________________________________________________________ Amount of active Effect of Post-emergence treatment CropCompound ingredient Barnyard Mono- Umbrella Arrow- Water injuryNo. g/are grass choria plant Bulrush head nutgrass Rice__________________________________________________________________________1 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 3 5 5 4 4 4 N2 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 4 4 5 N3 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 L4 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 N5 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 L6 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 4 5 5 N7 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 L8 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 L9 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 4 5 5 N10 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 4 4 5 N11 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 N12 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 4 4 4 N13 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 L14 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 4 5 5 L15 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 L16 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 4 5 5 L17 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 L18 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 L19 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 L20 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 L21 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 L22 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 L23 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 L24 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 L25 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 L26 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 4 5 5 L27 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 N28 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 5 4 5 L29 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 4 5 4 N30 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 L31 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 3 5 5 4 5 5 L32 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 L33 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 L34 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 L35 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 5 4 5 L36 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 L37 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 L38 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 4 4 5 L39 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 L40 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 4 5 5 L41 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 4 5 5 L42 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 L43 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 4 5 5 L44 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 4 5 5 N45 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 L46 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 L47 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 4 4 5 N48 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 4 5 5 L49 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 4 5 5 L50 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 4 5 5 N51 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 L52 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 L53 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 L54 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 L55 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 L56 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 4 5 5 N57 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 L58 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 L59 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 L60 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 L61 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 4 5 5 L62 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 4 5 5 N63 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 4 3 5 L64 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 4 5 5 L65 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 4 4 5 L66 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 L67 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 4 4 5 N68 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 4 5 5 L69 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 L70 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 L71 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 4 5 5 N72 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 L73 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 4 5 5 N74 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 L75 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 L76 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 3 5 5 4 4 5 N77 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 L78 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 4 5 5 L79 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 4 5 4 5 5 N80 30 5 5 5 4 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 4 5 5 N81 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 L82 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 4 4 5 L83 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 L84 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 4 4 5 N85 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 L86 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 L87 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 4 L88 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 4 5 5 L89 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 4 5 5 L90 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 4 5 4 5 5 L91 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 4 5 5 LCompound A 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 2 4 4 2 3 2 LCompound B 30 3 3 3 2 3 2 N 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 NCompound C 3 2 4 4 2 3 2 L__________________________________________________________________________ Test Example 3 Effect on upland field weeds of pre-emergence stage Polyethylene vats, having 10×20×5 cm (depth) size, were filled with soil and seeded with oats, barnyard grass, large crabgrass, redroot pigweed, mugwort, curly dock, umbrella sedge and cocklebur, respectively, which were all upland field weeds, and the seeds were covered with soil. The soil was treated with each active ingredient formulated to a given concentration of liquid, by spraying. After 21 days, the herbicidal effect was evaluated by comparing the results with those on the untreated plot. The criterion for judging the herbicidal activity was the same as in Test Example 1. The results obtained are shown in Table 4. TABLE 4__________________________________________________________________________ Amount of Effect of Pre-emergence treatment active LargeCompound ingredient Barnyard crab- Redroot Curly UmbrellaNo. (g/are) Oats grass grass pigweed Mugwort dock sedge Cocklebur__________________________________________________________________________1 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 4 4 5 5 4 5 52 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 43 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 54 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 3 4 5 5 5 4 5 55 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 56 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 57 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 58 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 4 4 5 4 5 4 59 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 510 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 511 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 4 5 5 5 4 5 512 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 513 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 514 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 4 5 5 5 4 5 515 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 516 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 417 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 518 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 519 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 520 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 521 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 522 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 523 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 3 4 5 5 5 4 5 424 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 525 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 426 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 527 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 528 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 3 4 5 5 5 4 5 429 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 530 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 531 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 5 5 5 5 4 5 532 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 533 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 534 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 535 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 4 5 5 5 4 5 536 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 537 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 538 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 3 4 5 5 5 4 5 539 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 540 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 541 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 542 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 543 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 544 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 545 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 546 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 547 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 548 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 549 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 550 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 551 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 552 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 553 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 454 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 555 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 556 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 557 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 558 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 4 559 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 560 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 561 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 562 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 563 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 4 5 5 5 4 5 464 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 565 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 566 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 567 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 468 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 569 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 570 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 571 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 572 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 573 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 574 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 575 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 576 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 477 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 578 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 579 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 4 5 5 5 4 5 580 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 581 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 582 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 583 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 584 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 585 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 5 5 5 5 4 5 586 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 587 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 588 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 589 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 590 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 4 4 5 5 5 4 5 591 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5Compound A 30 2 4 4 5 5 5 5 4 3 1 2 3 5 4 3 4 2Compound B 30 2 2 4 5 5 4 5 3 3 1 1 2 4 3 2 5 1Compound C 3 2 3 3 5 4 3 4 1__________________________________________________________________________ Test Example 4 Effect on upland field weeds of post-emergence stage Polyethylene vats, having 10×20×5 cm (depth) size, were filled with soil and seeded with the injurious weeds shown below and soybean seeds, respectively, and the seeds were covered with soil. The weeds and soybean were cultivated respectively to the following leaf ages and then treated with each active ingredient at a given dosage. After 21 days, the herbicidal effect on the weeds and the degree of corp injury to the soybean were evaluated by comparing the results with those on the untreated plot. ______________________________________Species of test plant Leaf age______________________________________Oats 2Large crabgrass 2Redroot pigweed 1Mugwort 1Curly dock 2Umbrella sedge 1Cocklebur 1Soybean First trifoliate age______________________________________ The criteria for judging the herbicidal activity and crop injury were the same as in Test Examples 1 and 2, respectively. The results obtained are shown in Table 5. TABLE 5__________________________________________________________________________Amount of Herbicidal effect of post-emergence treatment active Large CropCompound ingredient crab- Redroot Mug- Curly Umbrella Cock- injuryNo. (g/are) Oats grass pigweed wort dock sedge lebur Soybean__________________________________________________________________________1 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 3 3 5 5 4 5 4 N2 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 N3 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 N4 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 N5 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 3 4 5 5 4 5 4 N6 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 4 4 5 5 4 5 5 N7 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 4 N8 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 4 N9 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 4 4 5 5 4 5 5 N10 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 4 N11 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 N12 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 4 N13 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 N14 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 N15 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N16 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 N17 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 N18 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 N19 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 N20 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N21 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N22 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 N23 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N24 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 N25 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 N26 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 N27 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N28 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 3 4 5 5 4 5 5 N29 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N30 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N31 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 N32 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N33 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 N34 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N35 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 5 4 5 5 N36 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 N37 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 N38 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 4 5 5 4 5 5 N39 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N40 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 N41 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 N42 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 N43 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N44 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 N45 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 N46 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 N47 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 4 4 5 5 4 5 5 N48 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 N49 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N50 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 N51 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N52 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N53 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N54 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L55 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N56 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 N57 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 N58 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L59 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 N60 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N61 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N62 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 N63 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 4 5 5 4 5 5 N64 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N65 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 N66 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N67 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 4 4 5 5 4 5 5 N68 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 N69 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N70 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 N71 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 3 4 5 5 4 5 5 N72 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 N73 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 N74 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 N75 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 N76 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N77 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N78 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N79 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 N80 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 4 4 5 5 5 4 5 N81 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 N82 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 L 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 N83 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 N84 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N85 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 N86 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 N87 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 5 4 5 5 5 5 5 N88 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 N89 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 N90 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 N91 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 N 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 NCompound 30 3 5 5 5 5 5 4 LA 3 2 3 4 3 3 3 2 LCompound 30 4 2 5 4 4 5 4 NB 3 1 1 3 3 1 1 1 NCompound 3 2 3 4 3 2 3 2 L__________________________________________________________________________ Preparation Example 1 A wettable powder composition was prepared by mixing uniformly and grinding the following ingredients: ______________________________________Compound No. 1 50 PartsMixture of Clay and white 45 Partscarbon (in which clayis contained as the majorcomponent)Polyoxyethylene nonylphenyl 5 Partsether______________________________________ Preparation Example 2 A granular composition was prepared by mixing uniformly and grinding the following ingredients, sufficiently kneading the mixture with a suitable amount of water, and granulating the kneaded mixture: ______________________________________Compound No. 7 5 PartsMixture of bentonite 90 Partsand clayCalcium ligninsulfonate 5 Parts______________________________________ Preparation Example 3 An emulsifiable concentrate was prepared by mixing uniformly the following ingredients: ______________________________________Compound No. 31 50 PartsXylene 40 PartsMixture of polyoxyethylene 10 Partsnonylphenyl ether andcalcium alkylbenzenesulfonate______________________________________

A Δ 2 -1,2,4-triazolin-5-one derivative represented by the following general formula (I), a process for manufacturing thereof, a herbicidal composition comprising it as an active ingredient, and a use of it as a herbicide: ##STR1## wherein R is a hydrogen atom, a univalent alkali metal atom, an unsubstituted quaternary ammonium salt, a substituted quaternary ammonium salt having at least one C 1 -C 4 alkyl group as a substituent, an unsubstituted-alkyl group having 1 to 6 carbon atoms, a C 1 -C 6 substituted-alkyl group having at least one halogen atom as a substituent, a cycloalkyl group having 3 to 6 carbon atoms, a C 1 -C 3 substituted-alkyl group having a cyano group as a substituent, an alkenyl group having 2 to 6 carbon atoms, an alkynyl group having to 2 to 6 carbon atoms, an alkoxyalkyl group having 2 to 6 carbon atoms, an alkylthioalkyl group having to 2 to 8 carbon atoms, an alkylsulfinylalkyl group having 2 to 6 carbon atoms, an alkylsulfonylalkyl group having 2 to 6 carbon atoms, an alkoxyalkoxyalkyl group having 3 to 8 carbon atoms, a hydroxycarbonylalkyl group having 2 to 3 carbon atoms, an alkoxycarbonylalkyl group having 3 to 6 carbon atoms, an unsubstituted-benzyl group, a substituted-benzyl group having at least one substituent selected from the group consisting of halogen atoms and alkyl groups having 1 to 3 carbon atoms, or a phenethyl group; R 1 is a haloalkyl group having 2 to 5 carbon atoms; and X is a halogen atom.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 10/382,467, filed Mar. 6, 2003, now allowed, which claims the benefit of a foreign priority application filed in Japan on Mar. 6, 2002 as Ser. No. 2002-059903, all of which are incorporated by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to techniques for a semiconductor integrated circuit and its driving method. The invention also relates to a light emitting device that has a semiconductor integrated circuit of the present invention in its driving circuit portion and a pixel portion, in particular, an active matrix light emitting device which has a semiconductor integrated circuit of the present invention as a signal line driving circuit in a driving circuit portion, which has a plurality of pixels arranged so as to form a matrix pattern, and which has a switching element and a light emitting element in each of the pixels. 2. Description of the Related Art In recent years, development of light emitting devices using self-luminous light emitting elements has progressed. Making good use of advantages such as high quality image, thinness and lightweightness, such light emitting devices are widely used in display screens of mobile phones and personal computers. In particular, light emitting devices using light emitting elements are characteristic in that they have suitably fast response speed for animated displays, and low voltage and low power consumption driving. Thus, light emitting devices using light emitting elements are expected to be widely used for various purposes, including new-generation mobile telephones and personal digital assistants (PDAs) and are attracting attention as the next-generation displays. An example of a light emitting element is an organic light emitting diode (OLED) with an anode and a cathode, and has a structure in which an organic compounded layer is sandwiched between the aforementioned anode and cathode. The organic compound layer generally has a laminate structure of which is represented by a laminate structure of “hole transport layer, light emitting layer, and electron transport layer”, proposed by Tang, Eastman Kodak Company. In order to make a light emitting element emit light, the semiconductor device which drives the light emitting element is formed of polysilicon (polycrystalline silicon) which has a large ON current. The amount of current that flows into the light emitting element and the luminescence of the light emitting element are in direct proportion to each other, whereby the light emitting element emits light having luminescence in accordance with the amount of current which flows to the organic compound layer. Also, as the semiconductor device that drives the light emitting element, a polysilicon transistor formed of polysilicon is used. However, when displaying a multi-gray scale image using a light emitting device with a light emitting element, a method of driving the device such as an analog gray scale method (analog driving method), or a digital gray scale method (digital driving method) can be given. The difference between the two lies in their methods of controlling the light emitting element in the state of light emission or non-light emission. The former analog gray scale method uses an analog method of controlling the current that flows into the light emitting element thereby obtaining gray scale. The latter digital gray scale method uses a method in which the light emitting element is driven in only two states, an ON state (almost 100% luminescence), and an OFF state (almost 0% luminescence). Further, proposed is a current input method with which it is possible to classify the type of signal that is inputted into the light emitting device using the light emitting element as an example. In this current input method, it is supposed control of the amount of current that flows to the light emitting element is possible without being influenced by the TFT which drives the light emitting element. The current input method is applicable to both the analog gray scale method and the digital gray scale method mentioned above. The current input method is a method where a video signal inputted into a pixel is a current and the luminescence of the light emitting element can be controlled by flowing current according to the inputted video signal (current) into the light emitting element. Next, an example of a circuit construction of a pixel using a current input method and a driving method thereof in light emitting device will be explained with reference to FIG. 14 . In FIG. 14 , a pixel has a signal line 1401 , first to third scanning lines 1402 to 1404 , a power source line 1405 , transistors 1406 to 1409 , a capacitor element 1410 , and light emitting element 1411 . A current source circuit 1412 is provided to the signal line. The transistor 1406 has a gate electrode connected to the first scanning line 1402 . A first electrode of the transistor 1406 is connected to the signal line 1401 whereas its second electrode is connected to a first electrode of the transistor 1407 , a first electrode of the transistor 1408 , and a first electrode of the transistor 1409 . The transistor 1407 has a gate electrode connected to the second scanning line 1403 . A second electrode of the transistor 1407 is connected to a gate electrode of the transistor 1408 . A second electrode of the transistor 1408 is connected to the current line 1405 . The transistor 1409 has a gate electrode connected to the third scanning line 1404 . A second electrode of the transistor 1409 is connected to one of electrodes of the light emitting element 1411 . The capacitor element 1410 is connected between the gate electrode and second electrode of the transistor 1408 to hold the gate-source voltage of the transistor 1408 . The current line 1405 and a cathode of the light emitting element 1411 receive given electric potentials to hold an electric potential difference with each other. Operations from video signal writing to light emission will be described next. First, pulses are inputted to the first scanning line 1402 and the second scanning line 1403 to turn the transistors 1406 and 1407 ON. A signal current flowing in the signal line 1401 at this point is denoted by I data and is supplied from the current source circuit 1412 . Right after the transistor 1406 is turned ON, no electric charges are held in the capacitor element 1410 yet and therefore the transistor 1408 remains OFF. In other words, a current caused by electric charges accumulated already in the capacitor element 1410 alone is flowing at this point. Thereafter, electric charges are gradually accumulated in the capacitor element 1410 to cause a difference in electric potential between the electrodes. As the electric potential difference between the electrodes reaches a threshold Vth of the transistor 1408 , the transistor 1408 is turned ON to generate a current flow. The current flowing into the capacitor element 1410 then is gradually reduced. However, the reduced current does not stop ongoing accumulation of electric charges in the capacitor element 1410 . Accumulation of electric charges in the capacitor element 1410 continues until the electric potential difference between its two electrodes, namely, the gate-source voltage of the transistor 1408 , reaches a given voltage, which is a voltage (V GS ) high enough to cause the current I data to flow in the transistor 1408 . When the accumulation of electric charges is finished, the current I data continues to flow in the transistor 1408 . A signal writing operation is conducted as above. Lastly, the first scanning line 1402 and the second scanning line 1403 stop being selected to turn the transistors 1406 and 1407 OFF. A light emission operation follows next. A pulse is inputted to the third scanning line 1404 to turn the transistor 1409 ON. With the transistor 1408 turned ON by V GS which is written in the preceding operation and kept in the capacitor 1410 , a current flows from the current source line 1405 . This causes the light emitting element 1411 to emit light. If the transistor 1408 is set to operate in a saturation range at this point, a light emission current I EL flowing in the light emitting element 1411 does not deviate from I data even when the source-drain voltage of the transistor 1408 is changed. As described above, the current input method refers to a method in which a drain current whose current value is equal to or in proportion to the signal current value set by the current source circuit 1412 flows between the source and drain of the transistor 1408 and the light emitting element 1411 emits light with a luminance according to the drain current. By employing a current input method pixel as the one described in the above, influence of fluctuation in characteristic between transistors that constitute the pixel can be reduced and a desired current can be supplied to its light emitting element. Other current input method pixel circuits have been reported in U.S. Pat. No. 6,229,506 B1 and JP 2001-147659 A. In a light emitting device employing the current input method, a signal current exactly reflecting a video signal has to be inputted to a pixel. However, when polysilicon transistors are used to build a driving circuit that inputs a signal current to a pixel (the circuit corresponds to the current source circuit 1412 in FIG. 14 ), characteristic fluctuation between the polysilicon transistors leads to fluctuation in signal current and unevenness in an image displayed. The characteristic fluctuation is caused by defects in crystal growth direction and grain boundaries, nonuniformity in thickness of the laminate, and insufficient accuracy in patterning a film. Because of large fluctuation between the polysilicon transistors, it is difficult to generate an accurate signal current and an image displayed will be full of streaks running vertically. In other words, influence of characteristic fluctuation between transistors constituting a driving circuit that inputs a signal current to a pixel has to be reduced in a light emitting device employing the current input method. This means that influence of characteristic fluctuation has to be reduced both in transistors that constitute the driving circuit and in transistors that constitute a pixel. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention has been made in view of the above problems, and an object of the present invention is therefore to provide a semiconductor integrated circuit which reduces influence of transistor characteristic fluctuation between current sources of a current source circuit until the transistor characteristics do not affect the circuit, as well as a method of driving the semiconductor integrated circuit. Another object of the present invention is to provide a light emitting device having a driving circuit portion that has the semiconductor integrated circuit and a pixel portion. Particularly, an object of the present invention is to provide an active matrix light emitting device which has the semiconductor integrated circuit as a signal line driving circuit in a driving circuit portion, which has a plurality of pixels arranged so as to form a matrix pattern, and which has a switching element and a light emitting element in each of the pixels. Another object of the present invention is to provide a light emitting device in which semiconductor elements of a pixel portion and driving circuit portion are composed of polysilicon thin film transistors to integrally form the pixel portion and the driving circuit portion on the same substrate. A current source circuit is composed of one or more current sources. One current source has one or more transistors. A current source that supplies a constant current is called a constant current source. A semiconductor integrated circuit of the present invention is characterized by having signal lines, a current source circuit that outputs a current to be inputted to the signal lines, and means for switching current source circuits connected to the signal lines each time a given period passes (hereinafter simply referred to as switching means. The switching means has a plurality of circuits that have a switching function, and therefore is also called a switching circuit). The switching means of the present invention switches current sources connected to signal lines and accordingly switches currents inputted to the signal lines at given intervals even when there is fluctuation in current outputted from the current source circuit. Therefore, the amount of current flowing into a light emitting element, namely, the luminance, is seemingly evened out over time and display unevenness can be solved. A light emitting device that is not influenced by transistor characteristic fluctuation is thus provided. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS In the accompanying drawings: FIG. 1 is a diagram showing the structure of a semiconductor integrated circuit of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a diagram showing the structure of a semiconductor integrated circuit of the present invention; FIG. 3 is a diagram showing the structure of a semiconductor integrated circuit of the present invention; FIG. 4 is a timing chart of a signal line driving method of the present invention; FIG. 5 is a diagram showing the structure of a semiconductor integrated circuit of the present invention; FIG. 6 is a diagram showing the structure of a semiconductor integrated circuit of the present invention; FIG. 7 is a diagram showing the structure of switching means in a semiconductor integrated circuit of the present invention; FIG. 8 is a diagram showing the structure of a semiconductor integrated circuit of the present invention; FIG. 9 is a diagram showing the structure of a semiconductor integrated circuit of the present invention; FIG. 10 is a diagram showing the structure of a semiconductor integrated circuit of the present invention; FIGS. 11A to 11C are timing charts of a signal line driving method of the present invention; FIGS. 12A and 12B are diagrams showing the structure of a light emitting device of the present invention; FIGS. 13A and 13B are diagrams showing the structure of a semiconductor integrated circuit of the present invention; FIG. 14 is a circuit diagram of a pixel of a light emitting device; and FIGS. 15A to 15H are diagrams showing electronic equipment to which a light emitting device of the present invention is applied. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Embodiment Mode An outline of a semiconductor integrated circuit of the present invention, as a signal line driving circuit, will be described with reference to FIG. 6 . For easy understanding, FIG. 6 focuses on three current sources C(i), C(i+1), and C(i+2) of a current source circuit and on a signal line S(m) for supplying a current to a pixel. As shown in FIG. 6 , the current sources C(i), C(i+1), and C(i +2) are connected to the signal line S(m) through switching means. The present invention is characterized in that the switching means chooses a current to be inputted to the signal line S(m) out of a current I(i), a current I(i+1), and a current I(i+2) from the three current sources C(i) to C(i+2) and switches from one current to another each time a given period passes. The switching means is described next. FIG. 7 shows the structure of the switching means. The current sources C(i), C(i+1), and C(i+2) respectively have characteristics that make the currents I(i), I(i+1), and I(i+2) to flow. The current sources C(i), C(i+1), and C(i+2) are placed such that they can be connected to the signal line S(m) through a switch. A signal is inputted to the switch and, according to the signal, the switch connects the signal line S(m) to one of the current sources C(i), C(i+1), and C(i+2). When the switch establishes a connection with the current source C(i), the current I(i) flows into the signal line S(m). When the switch establishes a connection with the current source C(i+1), the current I(i+1) flows into the signal line S(m). When the switch connects with the current source C(i+2), the current I(i+2) flows into the signal line S(m). In short, the current to be flown into the signal line S(m) is switched among I(i), I(i +1), and I(i+2). The example illustrated by FIGS. 6 and 7 focuses on one signal line and three current sources for easy understanding. However, an actual signal line driving circuit has plural signal lines and current sources as shown in the following embodiments. The switch serving as the switching means in FIG. 7 has a terminal but, in practice, the switching function is provided by an analog switch or like other circuits as shown in the following embodiments. A period for switching within this given period is very short. Therefore, an image displayed seems uniform to the human eye even when there is difference in characteristics between current sources, namely, fluctuation in current supplied from a current source. With the switching means described above, the present invention obtains a semiconductor integrated circuit having a current source circuit which is not influenced by transistor characteristics. This makes it possible to provide a light emitting device which can supply a desired signal current to a light emitting element and which can display an image with no unevenness. To generalize the present invention using a function, the present invention is a semiconductor integrated circuit, comprised of: m signal lines S 1 , S 2 , . . . , and S m ; a current source circuit that has i current sources C 1 , C 2 , . . . , and C i ; and switching means that includes n switching units U 1 , U 2 , . . . , and U n , the circuit characterized in that: the n switching units are each connected to j current sources out of the i current sources; and the M-th signal line S M is connected to the N-th switching unit U N , and the switching unit U N is connected to the F 1 (N)-th current source, the F 2 (N)-th current source, the F 3 (N)-th current source, . . . , and the F j (N)-th current source which satisfy a function F k (x)(k=1˜j, x=1−n). The present invention is a semiconductor integrated circuit, comprised of: m signal lines S 1 , S 2 , . . . , and S m ; a current source circuit that has i current sources C 1 , C 2 , . . . , and C i ; and switching means that includes n switching units U 1 , U 2 , . . . , U n , and the circuit characterized in that: the n switching units are each connected to j current sources out of the i current sources; the M-th signal line S M is connected to the N-th switching unit U N , and the switching unit U N is connected to the F 1 (N)-th current source, the F 2 (N)-th current source, the F 3 (N)-th current source, . . . , and the F j (N)-th current source which satisfy a function F k (x)(k=1˜j, x=1˜n); and the (M−1)-th signal line S M−1 is connected to the (N−1)-th switching unit U N−1 , and the switching unit U N−1 is connected to the F 1 (N−1)-th current source, the F 2 (N−1)-th current source, the F 3 (N−1)-th current source, . . . , and the F j (N−1)-th current source which satisfy the function F k (x). In the present invention, adjacent switching units can share a current source. Using the above function, this is expressed as the current sources satisfying F 3 (N)=F 2 (N+1)=F 1 (N+2) when i=3, for example. In other words, adjacent switching units can share the N-th current source, the (N+1)-th current source, and the (N+2)-th current source. To give another example, current sources satisfy F 5 (N)=F 4 (N+1)=F 3 (N+2)=F 4 (N+3)=F 5 (N+4) when i=5, and adjacent switching units can share the N-th, (N+1)-th, (N+2)-th, (N+3)-th, and (N+4)-th current sources. As described, the present invention allows switching units to share current sources. This eliminates the border between one signal line and its adjacent signal line and makes a uniform current to flow in all signal lines. As a result, no border is formed in any part of the display screen to make it possible to provide a light emitting device with no streaks in a displayed image and no luminance unevenness. The present invention solves characteristic fluctuation among elements used in a semiconductor integrated circuit, and can provide the same effect when the elements whose characteristic fluctuation is to be controlled are transistors other than polysilicon transistors, for example, single crystal silicon transistors. Embodiment 1 In this embodiment, a semiconductor integrated circuit of the present invention is applied to a signal line driving circuit of a driving circuit portion and a specific description is given on a structure and driving method of a current source circuit of the signal line driving circuit. A specific example of the present invention is shown in FIG. 1 . The description given in this embodiment deals with current sources constituted of n-channel transistors. A transistor can take either the n-channel polarity or the p-channel polarity and, commonly, the polarity of a transistor is determined by the polarity of a pixel. When a current flows from a pixel toward a current source circuit, the polarity is desirably the n type. When a current flows from a current source circuit to a pixel, the polarity is desirably the p type. This is because fixing the source electric potential of a transistor is convenient. Shown in FIG. 1 are transistors Tr(i) to Tr(i+5), switching means, and signal lines S(m) to S(m+5). The transistors Tr(i) to Tr(i+5) constitute current sources C(i) to C(i+5), respectively. Gate electrodes of the transistors Tr(i) to Tr(i+5) are connected to a current control line and their source electrodes are connected to V SS . The current value is controlled by the voltage applied to the current control line. The gate electrodes of the transistors Tr(i) to Tr(i+5) here are connected to the same current control line for simplification. However, the transistors may be connected to different current control lines to have different current values by applying different levels of voltage to the current control lines. In this case, different transistors output currents to different destinations and voltages applied to the current control lines have to be switched in accordance with a switch in destination. If the transistors Tr(i) to Tr(i+5) have an identical characteristic, currents I(i) to I(i+5) are equal to one another. In reality, however, characteristic fluctuation among the transistors Tr(i) to Tr(i+5) is large and therefore the currents I(i) to I(i+5) are varied. The switching means of the present invention chooses a current to be inputted to a signal line out of the currents I(i) to I(i+5) and switches from one to another each time a given period passes. Accordingly, a current flowing in a light emitting element is also switched at given intervals. As a result, to the human eye, light emission is evened out over time and unevenness in luminance is reduced. FIG. 2 shows the structure of the switching means having analog switches (also called transfer gates). In FIG. 2 , components identical with those in FIG. 1 are denoted by the same symbols. The circuit is designed such that drain electrodes of the transistors Tr(i) to Tr(i+5) are connected to the signal lines S(m) to S(m+5). However, one signal line can be connected to three current sources. By a switching function, one out of three current sources is chosen for one signal line. For example, when a signal for selecting a terminal 1 is inputted to the switching means, the signal line S(m+1) is connected to the current source C(i), the signal line S(m+2) is connected to the current source C(i+1), and the subsequent signal lines and current sources are connected in a similar fashion. Next, a signal for selecting a terminal 2 is inputted to the switching means to connect the signal line S(m+1) to the current source C(i+1) and the signal line S(m+2) to the current source C(i+2), and the subsequent signal lines and current sources are connected in a similar fashion. Next, a signal for selecting a terminal 3 is inputted to the switching means to connect the signal line S(m+1) to the current source C(i+2) and the signal line S(m+2) to the current source C(i+3), and the subsequent signal lines and current sources are connected in a similar fashion. Currents from three current sources are thus alternately inputted to one signal line, thereby avoiding uneven display. To generalize this connection using the function that expresses the present invention, the current sources are set so as to satisfy F 1 (N)=N+a, F 2 (N)=N+b, and F 3 (N)=N+c (a, b, and c are integers and a≠b≠c) when i=3, and a=−1, b=0, and c=1. FIG. 3 shows a specific example in which analog switches are used for the switching means having a switching function. In FIG. 3 , components identical with those in FIG. 2 are denoted by the same symbols, and the current sources C(i) to C(i+5) have the transistors Tr(i) to Tr(i+5), respectively. Denoted by A(l) to A(l+2) and A(l)b to A(l+2)b in FIG. 3 are wires connected to plural analog switches. The analog switches are divided into groups and a group of analog switches is connected to one signal line (switching unit). In FIG. 3 , switching units U(n) to U(n+5) each have three analog switches and, are connected to the signal lines S(m) to S(m+5), respectively. The switching units together form the switching means. In the current source C(i+1), the drain electrode of the transistor Tr(i+1) is connected to one of the analog switches of the switching unit U(n+1), one of the analog switches of the switching unit U(n), and one of the analog switches of the switching unit U(n +2). In short, a drain electrode of a transistor is connected to one analog switch chosen from each of three switching units. The rest of the current sources, C(i), C(i+2), C(i+3), C(i+4), and C(i+5), are similarly connected to their respective analog switches. When signals are inputted to the wires A(l) and A(l+1)b, an analog switch to be connected is chosen and turned conductive. Then a current flows from the current source connected with the selected analog switch to a signal line, for example, from the current source C(i+1) to the signal line S(m+2). Similarly, currents flow from the current sources C(i+1), C(i+3), C(i+4), C(i+5), and C(i+6) to the signal lines S(m), S(m+2), S(m+3), S(m+4), and S(m+5), respectively. This is referred to as Selection ( 1 ). Next, signals are inputted to the wires A(l+1) and A(l+1)b and an analog switch to be connected is chosen and turned conductive. Then a current flows from the current source connected with the selected analog switch to a signal line, for example, from the current source C(i+1) to the signal line S(m+1). Similarly, currents flow from the current sources C(i+1), C(i+3), C(i+4), C(i+5), and C(i+6) to the signal lines S(m+1), S(m+3), S(m+4), S(m+5), and S(m+6), respectively. Though not shown in FIG. 3 , the current source C(i +6) is the current source to the right of the current source C (i+5). This is referred to as Selection ( 2 ). Next, signals are inputted to the wires A(l+2) and A(l+2)b and an analog switch to be connected is chosen to turn it conductive. Then a current flows from the current source connected with the selected analog switch to a signal line, for example, from the current source C(i+1) to the signal line S(m). Similarly, currents flow from the current sources C(i +1), C(i+3), C(i+4), C(i+5), and C(i+6) to the signal lines S(m−1), S(m+1), S(m+2), S(m+3), and S(m+4), respectively. Though not shown in FIG. 3 , the signal line S(m−1) is the signal line to the left of the signal line S (m). This is referred to as Selection ( 3 ). Selections ( 1 ) to ( 3 ) are repeated at given intervals. In this way, an image displayed is made seemingly uniform even when the current inputted from the current sources C(i) to C(i+5) to the signal lines S(m) to S(m+5) is fluctuated. The switching period in the signal line driving circuit of the present invention is described with reference to a timing chart of FIG. 4 . F 1 to F 3 in FIG. 4 denote first to third frame periods, respectively, and it takes one frame period for a light emitting device to display one image. One frame period is usually set to about 1/60 second in order to prevent flicker from being recognized by the human eye. A(l) to A(l+2) and A(l)b to A(l+2)b in FIG. 4 represent electric potentials of signals inputted to the wires A(l) to A(l+2) and A(l)b to A(l+2)b. A switching period in which the electric potential of a signal inputted to A(l) is High (H) and the electric potential of a signal inputted to A(l)b is Low (L) is set in the first frame period F 1 . In this switching period, analog switches that are connected to the wires A(l) and A(l)b are turned conductive and currents are inputted from the transistors that are connected with the now-conductive analog switches to signal lines. Accordingly, only one analog switch out of each switching unit is turned conductive. A switching period in which the electric potential of a signal inputted to A(l+1) is High (H) and the electric potential of a signal inputted to A(l+1)b is Low (L) is set in the second frame period F 2 . In this switching period, analog switches that are connected to the wires A(l+1) and A(l+1)b are turned conductive and currents are inputted from the transistors that are connected with the now-conductive analog switches to signal lines. A switching period in which the electric potential of a signal inputted to A(l+2) is High (H) and the electric potential of a signal inputted to A(l+2)b is Low (L) is set in the third frame period F 3 . In this switching period, analog switches that are connected to the wires A(l+2) and A(l+2)b are turned conductive and currents are inputted from the transistors that are connected with the now-conductive analog switches to signal lines. The frame periods F 1 to F 3 are repeated to allow the switching means to switch currents flowing into the signal lines S(m) to S(m+5) in order. The description given in this embodiment deals with a structure in which the power supply line connected to a current source having an n type transistor is Vss and a current flows from a pixel to Vss. However, the polarity of the transistor is set in accordance with the polarity of the pixel as mentioned above. Accordingly, if the circuit takes a structure in which a current flows toward a pixel, the power supply line is Vdd and the transistor of the current source is given the p type conductivity. Described next is a case in which a current source has a DA conversion function. This current source makes a current source circuit that outputs a current having analog values of 8 gray scales when a 3-bit digital video signal is inputted, for example. FIG. 5 shows a specific circuit structure of such a current source circuit. As shown in FIG. 5 , each current source has three transistors, Tr 1 (i), Tr 2 (i), and Tr 3 (i). The ratio of W (gate width)/L (gate length) of the three transistors Tr 1 (i), Tr 2 (i), and Tr 3 (i) is set to 1:2:4. Then, with the same gate voltage applied to the transistors Tr 1 (i), Tr 2 (i), and Tr 3 (i), the ratio of currents flowing in the transistors is 1:2:4. In short, the ratio of currents supplied from one current source is 1:2:4 and the amount of current can be controlled in 2 3 =8 stages. Accordingly, the current source circuit can output a current having analog values of 8 gray scales from a 3-bit digital video signal. Which of the transistors Tr 1 (i), Tr 2 (i), and Tr 3 (i) will be turned ON or OFF is controlled by controlling the voltage applied to their gates. This way the current value of currents outputted from the current sources C(i) to C(i+5) can be controlled. However, combinations of the currents from the current sources C(i) to C(i+5) and the signal lines S(m) to S(m+5) are varied by the switching means. Therefore voltages applied to the transistors Tr 1 (i), Tr 2 (i), and Tr 3 (i) of each of the current sources C(i) to C(i+5) have to be switched in accordance with a switch in combination. By giving a current source a DA conversion function as above, an image can be displayed in gray scales with high accuracy. The bit number can be set to suit individual cases and transistors are designed in accordance with the set bit number. In a light emitting device that uses the above-described signal line driving circuit of the present invention, display unevenness of pixels is reduced visually and the light emitting device can display a uniform image having no unevenness. The present invention can provide a uniform image with no display unevenness also when a signal is inputted through an external circuit to a signal line if the present invention is applied to the external circuit. Furthermore, the present invention makes it possible to reduce the size and weight of a light emitting device if semiconductor elements of its signal line driving circuit are polysilicon transistors. This is because polysilicon transistors can be used for semiconductor elements of a pixel portion thereof and accordingly the pixel portion and a peripheral circuit portion that includes the signal line driving circuit can be formed integrally on the same substrate. When a pixel portion and a peripheral circuit portion are integrally formed on the same substrate, no external circuit is necessary. Since complex processes for connecting an external circuit to signal lines and failed connection can be avoided, the reliability of the light emitting device is improved by the present invention. Embodiment 2 In the present invention, the number of current sources (columns of current sources) or the position of current sources (current source column number) may be asymmetric as long as one signal line is connected to 2 or more current sources. This embodiment shows as examples different structures for connection between switching units of switching means, signal lines, and current sources than Embodiment 1. FIG. 8 shows a structure in which current sources C(i) to C(i+5) are connected to signal lines S(m) to S(m+5) through switching means. Switching means of the present invention has a function of switching currents sent from current sources. In order to avoid complicating the drawing, the switching function is schematically illustrated in FIG. 8 to give only 3 terminals and switches. For instance, the signal line S(m+2) can be connected to any one of the current sources C(i+2), C(i+3), and C(i+4). In short, one signal line can be connected to the closest current source and 2 adjacent current sources to the right of the closest current source. This rule is used to connect the rest of the signal lines, S(m), S(m+1), S(m+3), S(m+4), and S(m+5) to the current sources. To generalize this connection using the function that expresses the present invention, the current sources axe set so as to satisfy F 1 (N)=N+a, F 2 (N)=N+b, and F 3 (N)=N+c (a, b, and c are integers and a≠b≠c) when i=3, and a=−2, b=−1, and c=0. According to the connection relation between signal lines and current sources of the present invention, it is not always necessary to connect a signal line with the closest current source, namely, a current source in the closest column, but a signal line may be connected to a distant current source. A connection structure shown in FIG. 9 is given an example thereof. In FIG. 9 , current sources C(i) to C(i+6) are connected to signal lines S(m) to S(m+6) through switching means. This switching means too has 3 terminals and switches. For instance, the signal line S(m+2) can be connected to any one of the current sources C(i), C(i+2), and+4). In short, one signal line can be connected to the closest current source and to the current source the second from the closest current source on each side. This rule is used to connect the rest of the signal lines, S(m), S(m+1), S(m+3), S(m +4), S(m+5), and S(m+6) to the current sources. To generalize this connection using the function that expresses the present invention, the current sources are set so as to satisfy F 1 (N)=N+a, F 2 (N)=N+b, and F 3 (N)=N+c (a, b, and c are integers and a≠b≠c) when i=3, and a=−2, b=0, and c=−2. According to the connection relation between signal lines and current sources of the present invention, the number of current sources connected to one signal line is not limited to 3. FIG. 10 shows an example of connecting 5 current sources in one switching unit. In FIG. 10 , current sources C(i) to C(i+6) are connected to signal lines S(m) to S(m +6) through switching means. A switching unit in this switching means has 5 terminals and switches. For instance, the signal line S(m+2) can be connected to any one of the current sources C(i), C(i+1), C(i+2), C(i+3), and C(i+4). In short, one signal line can be connected to the closest current source and to 2 adjacent current sources on each side. This rule is used to connect the rest of the signal lines, S(m), S(m+1), S(m+3), S(m+4), and S(m+5) to the current sources. To generalize this connection using the function that expresses the present invention, the current sources are set so as to satisfy F 1 (N)=N+a, F 2 (N)=N+b, F 3 (N)=N+c, F 4 (N) =N+d, F 5 (N)=N+e (a, b, c, d, and e are integers and a≠b≠c≠d≠e) when i=5, and a=−2, b=−1, c=0, d=1, and e=2. A displayed image seems more uniform and unevenness is reduced more as the number of current sources that can be connected to one signal line is larger as in FIG. 10 . In this embodiment, currents flowing into signal lines can be switched by the method described in Embodiment 1 which uses analog switches to switch current sources. This embodiment may also employ current sources that have a DA conversion function (see Embodiment 1 for details). In short, this embodiment can be combined with the switching means and current sources of Embodiment 1. As described above, the connection relation between signal lines and current sources of the present invention allows current sources to be in asymmetric number and position as long as one signal line is connected to 2 or more current sources and currents flowing into signal lines can be switched. Embodiment 3 This embodiment describes an example in which a light emitting device of the present invention displays an image in gray scales by dividing one frame period (a unit frame period associated with synchronization timing of a video signal inputted) into sub-frame periods (this display method is called time ratio gray scale driving display). Time ratio gray scale driving display is explained first. In a time ratio gray scale driving method using a digital video signal (digital driving), a writing period Ta and a display period (also called a lighting period) Ts are alternately repeated in one frame period to display one image. For example, when an image is displayed from an n-bit digital video signal, one frame period has at least n writing periods and n display periods. The n writing periods are respectively associated with n bits of the video signal and the same applies to the n display periods. As shown in FIG. 11A , a writing period Tam (m is an arbitrary number ranging from 1 to n) is followed by a display period that is associated with the same bit number, in this case, a display period Tsm. One writing period Ta and one display period Ta constitute a sub-frame period SF. The sub-frame period consisting of the writing period Tam and the display period Tsm which are associated with the m-th bit is SFm. Lengths of the display periods Ts 1 to Tsn are set so as to satisfy Ts 1 :Ts 2 : . . . :Tsn=2 0 :2 1 : . . . :2 (n−1 ). In each sub-frame period, whether or not a light emitting element emits light is decided based on the bit of the digital video signal. The sum of lengths of display periods in one frame period in which a light emitting element emits light is controlled to control the gray scale number. In order to improve the quality of an image displayed, a sub-frame period having a long display period may be divided into several periods. For a specific dividing method, see Japanese Patent Application No. 2000-267164. In this embodiment, it is desirable to switch currents flowing from current sources to signal lines in a display period of a sub-frame period. If the switch is made in a writing period, the inputted current, namely, information on whether or not a light emitting element is to emit light, may not be transferred successfully. By switching in such short a period at intervals, fluctuation in luminance of light emitting elements is further reduced and the uniformity in display is improved. FIG. 11B shows a specific example in which a 3-bit signal is used. In FIG. 11B , one frame period has sub-frame periods SF 1 , SF 2 , and SF 3 . The sub-frame periods SF 1 , SF 2 , and SF 3 have writing periods Ta 1 , Ta 2 , and Ta 3 and display periods Ts 1 , Ts 2 , and Ts 3 , respectively. Periods in which connection between a signal line and a current source is switched (hereinafter simply referred to as switching periods) 1 , 2 , and 3 are provided in display periods Ts 1 , Ts 2 , and Ts 3 , respectively. Currents inputted from current sources to signal lines are switched in the switching periods 1 to 3 . In this way, the switch can be made in a short period at intervals and a displayed image seems more uniform. The switching periods 1 to 3 in FIG. 11B are each put immediately before a writing period. However, a switching period can be set in any time frame as long as it is within a display period. FIG. 11C is a timing chart of signals inputted to analog switches. In the first frame, A 1 is ON in SF 1 , A 2 is ON in SF 2 , and A 3 is ON in SF 3 . In the second frame, A 2 is ON in SF 1 , A 3 is ON in SF 2 , and A 1 is ON in SF 3 . Though not shown in FIG. 11C , it is similar for the third frame and A 3 is ON in SF 1 , A 1 is ON in SF 2 , and A 2 is ON in SF 3 . If ON states of A 1 to A 3 in the sub-frame periods SF 1 to SF 3 are fixed (if A 1 is ON in SF 1 , A 2 is ON in SF 2 , and A 3 is ON in SF 3 throughout the first to third frames), fluctuation cannot be evened out sufficiently. Accordingly, as shown in FIG. 11C , it is desirable to vary their ON states-from one sub-frame period to another and from one frame period to another. This embodiment is merely an example and which signal is inputted in which sub-frame period can be set to suit individual cases. For a specific method of inputting signals, see FIG. 4 . In this embodiment, it is preferable to employ the current source circuits of Embodiment 1 which have a DA conversion function in order to raise the gray scale number. This embodiment can be combined with Embodiments 1 and 2. Embodiment 4 This embodiment describes the structure of a light emitting device of the present invention with reference to FIG. 12 . The light emitting device of the invention includes a pixel portion 402 having a plurality of pixels arranged in matrix on a substrate 401 , and includes a signal line driving circuit 1203 , a first scanning line driver circuit 404 and a second scanning line driver circuit 405 in the periphery of the pixel portion 402 . Although the signal line driving circuit 1203 and the two scanning line driver circuits 404 and 405 are provided in FIG. 12(A) , the present invention is not limited thereto, and may be arbitrarily designed depending on the pixel structure. Signals are supplied from the outside to the signal line driving circuit 1203 , the first scanning line driver circuit 404 and the second scanning line driver circuit 405 via FPCs 406 . The structures and operations of the first scanning line driver 404 circuit and the second scanning line driver circuit 405 will be described using FIG. 12(B) . The first scanning line driver 404 circuit and the second scanning line driver circuit 405 each include a shift register 407 and a buffer 408 . Operations will be briefly described as: the shift register 407 sequentially outputs sampling pulses in accordance, with a clock signal (G-CLK), a start pulse (S-SP), and an inverted clock signal (G-CLKb); thereafter, the sampling pulses amplified in the buffer 408 are input to scanning lines; and the scanning lines are set to be in a selected state for each line; signal currents I data are sequentially written to pixels controlled by the selected signal lines. Note that the structure may be such that a level shifter circuit is arranged between the shift register 407 and the buffer 408 . Disposition of the level shifter circuit enables the voltage amplitude to be increased. The structure of the signal line driving circuit 1203 will be hereafter described. Note that this embodiment may be arbitrarily combined with Embodiment 1, 2 and 3. Current sources provided in the signal line driving circuit of the invention may not be arranged in a straight line, but may be shifted and arranged. Further, two signal line driving circuits may be provided symmetrical to the pixel portion. That is to say, the present invention does not limit the arrangement of the current sources as long as the current sources connect to the signal lines via switching means. Embodiment 5 In this embodiment, the detailed structure and operations of the signal line driving circuit 1203 used in the case of performing 1-bit digital gradation display will be described with reference to FIG. 13 . FIG. 13(A) is a schematic view of the signal line driving circuit 1203 used in the case of performing 1-bit digital gradation display. The signal line driving circuit 1203 includes a shift register 1211 , a first latch circuit 1212 , a second latch circuit 1213 and a constant current circuit 1214 . The shift register 1211 , the first latch circuit 1212 and the second latch circuit 1213 function as switches used for the video signals shown in FIG. 1 . Further, the constant current circuit 1214 is constituted by a plurality of current sources. FIG. 13(B) shows specific circuits of the shift register 1211 , the first latch circuit 1212 and the second latch circuit 1213 . Operations will be briefly described. The shift register 1211 is constituted by, for example, a plurality of flip-flop circuits (FFs). A clock signal (S-CLK), a start pulse (S-SP) and an inverted clock signal (S-CLKb) are input therein, and sampling pulses are sequentially output in accordance with the timing of these signals. The sampling pulses, which have been output from the shift register 1211 , are input to the first latch circuit 1212 . Digital video signals have been input to the first latch circuit 1212 , and a video signal is retained in each column in accordance with the input timing of the sampling pulse. In the first latch circuit 1212 , upon completion of video-signal retaining operations in columns to the last column, during a horizontal return period, a latch pulse is input to the second latch circuit 1213 , and video signals retained in the first latch circuit 1212 are transferred in batch to the second latch circuit 1213 . As a result, one-line video signals retained in the second latch circuit 1213 are input to video switches at the same time. On-off operations of the video switches are carried out to control the input of the signals to the pixels, thereby displaying the gradation. While the video signals retained in the second latch circuit 1213 are being supplied to the constant current circuit 1214 , sampling pulses are again output in the shift register 1211 . Thereafter, the operation is iterated, and one-frame video signals are processed. In addition, Embodiment 5 can be arbitrarily combined with the inventions described in embodiments 1, 2, 3 and 4. Embodiment 6 Electronic equipment using the light emitting device of the present invention includes, for example, video cameras, digital cameras, goggle type displays (head mount displays), navigation systems, audio reproducing devices (such as car audio and audio components), notebook personal computers, game machines, mobile information terminals (such as mobile computers, mobile phones, portable game machines, and electronic books), and image reproducing, devices provided with a recording medium (specifically, devices for reproducing a recording medium such as a digital versatile disc (DVD), which includes a display capable of displaying images). In particular, in the case of mobile information terminals, since the degree of the view angle is appreciated important, the terminals preferably use the light emitting device. Practical examples are shown in FIG. 15 . FIG. 15(A) shows a light emitting device, which contains a casing 2001 , a support base 2002 , a display portion 2003 , a speaker portion 2004 , a video input terminal 2005 , and the like. The light emitting device of the present invention can be applied to the display portion 2003 . Further, the light emitting device shown in FIG. 15(A) is completed with the present invention. Since the light emitting device is of self-light emitting type, it does not need a back light, and therefore a display portion that is thinner than that of a liquid crystal display can be obtained. Note that light emitting devices include all information display devices, for example, personal computers, television broadcast transmitter-receivers, and advertisement displays. FIG. 15(B) shows a digital still camera, which contains a main body 2101 , a display portion 2102 , an image receiving portion 2103 , operation keys 2104 , an external connection port 2105 , a shutter 2106 , and the like. The light emitting device of the present invention can be applied to the display portion. 2102 . Further, the digital still camera shown in FIG. 15 (B) is completed with the present invention. FIG. 15(C) shows a notebook personal computer, which contains a main body 2201 , a casing 2202 , a display portion 2203 , a keyboard 2204 , external connection ports 2205 , a pointing mouse 2206 , and the like. The light emitting device of the present invention can be applied to the display portion 2203 . Further, the light emitting device shown in FIG. 15(C) is completed with the present invention. FIG. 15(D) shows a mobile computer, which contains a main body 2301 , a display portion 2302 , a switch 2303 , operation keys 2304 , an infrared port 2305 , and the like. The light emitting device of the present invention can be applied to the display portion 2303 . Further, the mobile computer shown in FIG. 15(D) is completed with the present invention. FIG. 15(E) shows a portable image reproducing device provided with a recording medium (specifically, a DVD reproducing device), which contains a main body 2401 , a casing 2402 , a display portion A 2403 , a display portion B 2404 , a recording medium (such as a DVD) read-in portion 2405 , operation keys 2406 , a speaker portion 2407 , and the like. The display portion A 2403 mainly displays image information, and the display portion B 2404 mainly displays character information. The light emitting device of the present invention can be used in the display portion A 2403 and in the display portion B 2404 . Note that family game machines and the like are included in the image reproducing devices provided with a recording medium. Further, the DVD reproducing device shown in FIG. 15(E) is completed with the present invention. FIG. 15(F) shows a goggle type display (head mounted display), which contains a main body 2501 , a display portion 2502 , an arm portion 2503 , and the like. The light emitting device of the present invention can be used in the display portion 2502 . The goggle type display shown in FIG. 15(F) is completed with the present invention. FIG. 15(G) shows a video camera, which contains a main body 2601 , a display portion 2602 , a casing 2603 , external connection ports 2604 , a remote control reception portion 2605 , an image receiving portion 2606 , a battery 2607 , an audio input portion 2608 , operation keys 2609 , an eyepiece portion 2610 , and the like. The light emitting device of the present invention can be used in the display portion 2602 . The video camera shown in FIG. 15(G) is completed with the present invention. Here, FIG. 15(H) shows a mobile phone, which contains a main body 2701 , a casing 2702 , a display portion 2703 , an audio input portion 2704 , an audio output portion 2705 , operation keys 2706 , external connection ports 2707 , an antenna 2708 , and the like. The light emitting device of the present invention can be used in the display portion 2703 . Note that, by displaying white characters on a black background, the current consumption of the mobile phone can be suppressed. Further, the mobile phone shown in FIG. 15(H) is completed with the present invention. When the emission luminance of light emitting materials are Increased in the future, the light emitting device will be able to be applied to a front or rear type projector by expanding and projecting light containing image information having been output lenses or the like. Cases are increasing in which the above-described electronic equipment displays information distributed via electronic communication lines such as the Internet and CATVs (cable TVs). Particularly increased are cases where moving picture information is displayed. Since the response speed of the light emitting materials is very high, the light emitting device is preferably used for moving picture display. Since the light emitting device consumes power in a fight emitting portion, information is desirably displayed so that the light emitting portions are reduced as much as possible. Thus, in the case where the light emitting device is used for a display portion of a mobile information terminal, particularly, a mobile phone, an audio playback device, or the like, which primarily displays character information, it is preferable that the character information be formed in the light emitting portions with the non-light emitting portions being used as the background. As described above, the application range of the present invention is very wide, so that the invention can be used for electronic equipment in all of fields. The electronic equipment according to this embodiment may use the structure of the signal line driving circuit according to any one of Embodiments 1 to 5. The present invention can provide a semiconductor integrated circuit in which influence of characteristic fluctuation between transistors in a current source circuit is reduced until the transistor characteristics do not affect the circuit, and a method of driving the semiconductor integrated circuit. The semiconductor integrated circuit of the present invention can be used in a driving circuit portion to provide a light emitting device having a pixel portion. In particular, the semiconductor integrated circuit of the present invention can be applied to a signal line driving circuit of a driving circuit portion to provide an active matrix light emitting device in which pixels are arranged so as to form a matrix pattern and each of the pixels has a switching element and a light emitting element. The present invention can also provide a light emitting device in which elements of a pixel portion and a driving circuit portion are polysilicon thin film transistors to integrally form the pixel portion and the driving circuit portion on the same substrate.

A transistor causes fluctuation in the threshold and mobility due to the factor such as fluctuation of the gate length, the gate width, and the gate insulating film thickness generated by the difference of the manufacturing steps and the substrate to be used. As a result, there is caused fluctuation in the current value supplied to the pixel due to the influence of the characteristic fluctuation of the transistor, resulting in generating streaks in the display image. A light emitting device is provided which reduces influence of characteristics of transistors in a current source circuit constituting a signal line driving circuit until the transistor characteristics do not affect the device and which can display a clear image with no irregularities. A signal line driving circuit of the present invention can prevent streaks in a displayed image and uneven luminance. Also, the present invention makes it possible to form elements of a pixel portion and driving circuit portion from polysilicon on the same substrate integrally. In this way, a display device with reduced size and current consumption is provided as well as electronic equipment using the display device.

CONTINUATION-IN-PART APPLICATION This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/866,565, entitled "TRANSLATION LOOK-ASIDE BUFFER SLICE CIRCUIT AND METHOD OF OPERATION," filed on May 31, 1997. TECHNICAL FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed, in general, to microprocessors and, more specifically, to cache memory based microprocessors that employing a fast RAM circuit to implement a translation look-aside buffer (TLB) and/or a TLB slice circuit to retrieve cached data. CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS The present invention is related to those disclosed in: 1. U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/865,664, entitled "CACHE CIRCUIT WITH PROGRAMMABLE SIZING AND METHOD OF OPERATION" and filed on May 30, 1997, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,940,858; 2. U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/866,565, entitled "TRANSLATION LOOK-ASIDE BUFFER SLICE CIRCUIT AND METHOD OF OPERATION" and filed on May 30, 1997; 3. U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/866,441, entitled "SHADOW TRANSLATION LOOK-ASIDE BUFFER AND METHOD OF OPERATION" and filed on May 30, 1997, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,946,718; 4. U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/866,691, entitled "HIT DETERMINATION CIRCUIT FOR SELECTING A DATA SET BASED ON MISS DETERMINATIONS IN OTHER DATA SETS AND METHOD OF OPERATION" and filed on May 30, 1997; and 5. U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/992,346, entitled "REAL MODE TRANSLATION LOOK-ASIDE BUFFER AND METHOD OF OPERATION" and filed concurrently herewith. Each reference is commonly assigned with the present invention and is incorporated herein by reference for all purposes. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The ever-growing requirement for high performance computers demands that state-of-the-art microprocessors execute instructions in the minimum amount of time. Over the years, efforts to increase microprocessor speeds have followed different approaches. One approach is to increase the speed of the clock that drives the processor. As the clock rate increases, however, the processor's power consumption and temperature also increase. Increased power consumption increases electrical costs and depletes batteries in portable computers more rapidly, while high circuit temperatures may damage the processor. Furthermore, processor clock speed may not increase beyond a threshold physical speed at which signals may traverse the processor. Simply stated, there is a practical maximum to the clock speed that is acceptable to conventional processors. An alternate approach to improving processor speeds is to reduce the number of clock cycles required to perform a given instruction. Under this approach, instructions will execute faster and overall processor "throughput" will thereby increase, even if the clock speed remains the same. One technique for increasing processor throughput is pipelining, which calls for the processor to be divided into separate processing stages (collectively termed a "pipeline"). Instructions are processed in an "assembly line" fashion in the processing stages. Each processing stage is optimized to perform a particular processing function, thereby causing the processor as a whole to become faster. "Superpipelining" extends the pipelining concept further by allowing the simultaneous processing of multiple instructions in the pipeline. Consider, for example, a processor in which each instruction executes in six stages, each stage requiring a single clock cycle to perform its function. Six separate instructions can be processed simultaneously in the pipeline, with the processing of one instruction completed during each clock cycle. Therefore, the instruction throughput of an N stage pipelined architecture is, in theory, N times greater than the throughput of a non-pipelined architecture capable of completing only one instruction every N clock cycles. Another technique for increasing overall processor speed is "superscalar" processing. Superscalar processing calls for multiple instructions to be processed per clock cycle. Assuming that instructions are independent of one another (i.e., the execution of an instruction does not depend upon the execution of any other instruction), processor throughput is increased in proportion to the number of instructions processed per clock cycle ("degree of scalability"). If, for example, a particular processor architecture is superscalar to degree three (i.e., three instructions are processed during each clock cycle), the instruction throughput of the processor is theoretically tripled. A cache memory is a small but very fast memory that holds a limited number of instructions and data for use by the processor. One of the most frequently employed techniques for increasing overall processor throughput is to minimize the number of cache misses and to minimize the cache access time in a processor that implements a cache memory. The lower the cache access time, the faster the processor can run. Also, the lower the cache miss rate, the less often the processor is stalled while the requested data is retrieved from main memory and the higher the processor throughput is. There is a wealth of information describing cache memories and the general theory of operation of cache memories is widely understood. This is particularly true of cache memories implemented in x86 microprocessor architectures. Many techniques have been employed to reduce the access time of cache memories. However, the cache access time is still limited by the rate at which data can be examined in, and retrieved from, the RAM circuits that are internal to a conventional cache memory. This is in part due to the rate at which address translation devices, such as the translation look-aside buffer (TLB), translate linear (or logical) memory addresses into physical memory addresses. For example, the TLB is itself a RAM circuit that uses the linear memory address to select a memory location that contains the corresponding physical memory address that is needed by the cache memory. If the RAM array of the TLB has a comparatively long access time for retrieving data from the TLB memory locations, then the translation of the logical memory address into a physical address is comparatively slow. The slower this translation is, the slower the cache memory is in its overall operation. Therefore, there is a need in the art for improved cache memories that maximize processor throughput. More particularly, there is a need in the art for improved cache memories having a reduced access time. There also is a need for improved cache memories that are not limited by the rate at which data can be retrieved and examined from the RAM circuits in the cache memories. There is a further need in the art for cache memories implementing improved address memory devices that more rapidly translate linear memory addresses into physical memory addresses. In particular, there is a need in the art for an improved TLB using a very fast RAM circuit having a low data access time. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The shortcomings of the prior art described above are overcome by an improved linear-to-physical address translation device adapted for use in an x86-compatible processor having a physically-addressable cache. In one embodiment, the address translation device receives linear addresses from a plurality of linear address sources and selectively accesses physical addresses, linear addresses, and controls signals stored in the address translation device. The address translation device comprises: 1) an array of data cells for storing the physical addresses, linear addresses, and controls signals in a plurality of entries; 2) an entry selection circuit for receiving a first linear address from a first linear address source and, in response thereto, generating an entry select output corresponding to the first linear address; 3) a first switch controllable by the entry select output; and 4) a second switch controllable by an address source select signal received from the first linear address source, wherein the entry select output and the address source select signal close the first and second switches to thereby form a connection path, the formation of the connection path causing a selected data cell to transfer a stored target bit stored therein to a data bit line of the address translation device. In one embodiment of the present invention, the connection path connects the selected data cell to a ground rail. In another embodiment, the connection path connects the selected data cell to a positive voltage supply rail. In other embodiments of the present invention, the connection path causes the selected data cell to shift a voltage level on the data bit line. In still other embodiments of the present invention, the address translation device further comprises a third switch, controllable by the selected data cell, for selectively coupling the connection path to the data bit line. In a further embodiment of the present invention, the third switch couples the connection path to the data bit line if the stored target bit equals a first logic level. In a further embodiment of the present invention, the third switch does not couple the connection path to the data bit line if the stored target bit equals a second logic level. In yet another embodiment of the present invention, the entry selection circuit is a decoder and the entry select output is a decoded output of the decoder. The foregoing has outlined, rather broadly, preferred and alternative features of the present invention so that those skilled in the art may better understand the detailed description of the invention that follows. Additional features of the invention will be described hereinafter that form the subject of the claims of the invention. Those skilled in the art should appreciate that they can readily use the disclosed conception and specific embodiment as a basis for designing or modifying other structures for carrying out the same purposes of the present invention. Those skilled in the art should also realize that such equivalent constructions do not depart from the spirit and scope of the invention in its broadest form. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS For a more complete understanding of the present invention, reference is now made to the following descriptions taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is a block diagram of an exemplary system employing a processor in accordance with the principles of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a more detailed block diagram of the processor depicted in FIG. 1, which employs cache line locking in accordance with the principles of the present invention; FIG. 3 is a more detailed block diagram of the pipelined stages of the Integer Unit depicted in FIG. 2; FIGS. 4A and 4B depict a preferred system register set, comprising registers not generally visible to application programmers and typically employed by operating systems and memory management programs; FIG. 5 depicts an exemplary cache unit in accordance with the principles of the present invention; FIG. 6 depicts the exemplary L1 cache in FIG. 2 in greater detail; FIG. 7 depicts an improved L1 cache divided into sectors according to one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 8 depicts a conventional L1 TLB for translating linear addresses for the L1 cache; FIG. 9 depicts a conventional L2 TLB for translating linear addresses for the external L2 cache; FIG. 10 depicts an improved tag array in the L1 cache, wherein a shadow L1 TLB is integrated into the sectors of the tag array, according to one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 11 illustrates an L1 TLB slice according to one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 12 illustrates an L1 TLB slice according to another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 13 illustrates a conventional RAM architecture for use in the L1 TLB, the shadow L1 TLB, and/or the L1 TLB slice according to the prior art; FIG. 14 illustrates an improved RAM architecture for use in the L1 TLB, the shadow L1 TLB, and/or the L1 TLB slice circuit according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 15 is a flow diagram depicting an exemplary address translation operation of the RAM architecture illustrated in FIG. 14. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The detailed description of the preferred embodiment for the present invention is organized as follows: ______________________________________1. Exemplary Computing System2. Exemplary Processor2.1 Core 2.1.1 The Integer Unit 2.1.2 Out-of-Order Processing 2.1.3 Pipeline Selection 2.1.4 Register Renaming 2.1.5 Data Forwarding 2.1.5.1 Operand Forwarding 2.1.5.2 Result Forwarding 2.1.6 Data Bypassing 2.1.7 Branch Control 2.1.8 Speculative Execution 2.1.9 System Register Set 2.1.9.1 Model Specific Registers 2.1.9.2 Debug Registers 2.1.9.3 Test Registers 2.1.10 The Floating Point Unit2.2 Cache Unit______________________________________ This organizational table, and the corresponding headings used in this detailed description, are provided for convenient reference and are not intended to limit the scope of the present invention. It should be understood that while the preferred embodiment is described below with respect to x86 computer architecture, it has general applicability to any architecture. Certain terms related to x86 computer architecture (such as register names, signal nomenclature, etc.), which are known to practitioners in the field of processor design, are not discussed in detail in order not to obscure the disclosure. Moreover, certain structural details, which will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art, having the benefit of the description herein, have been illustrated in the drawings by readily understandable block representations and state/flow diagrams that show and describe details that are pertinent to the present invention. These illustrations do not necessarily represent the physical arrangement of the exemplary system, but are primarily intended to illustrate the major structural components in convenient functional groups, so that the present invention may be more readily understood. It is to be understood that other embodiments may be utilized and structural changes may be made without departing from the scope of the present invention. 1. Exemplary Computing System FIG. 1 is a block diagram of an exemplary computer system 10 employing a processor in accordance with the principles of the present invention. The exemplary computer system 10 comprises a system circuit board (a.k.a. motherboard) 100 and various peripherals and peripheral interfaces. Motherboard 100 comprises a processor 200 and memory subsystem 400 inter-coupled by a processor P-Bus (sometimes referred to as a CPU or local Bus). System logic circuitry interfaces the processor 200 to three conventional peripheral buses namely: X-Bus, PCI-Bus, and ISA-Bus. For the exemplary computer system, the P-Bus is compliant with the so-called "P55C socket." System logic circuitry comprises a system chipset 601 and a datapath chipset 602 (sometimes referred to as a North-Bridge and South-Bridge, respectively), as well as an external clock source 604 that provides an external clock input to the processor 200 and a system clock signal to the remainder of the motherboard 100. The external clock source 604 may take on many forms without departing from the scope of the present invention, including a digital or analog phase-locked loop or delay line loop circuitry. The exact details are not necessary for understanding the present invention. Processor 200 and the memory subsystem 400 reside on the P-Bus. The only other direct connections to the P-Bus are the system chipset 601 and the datapath chipset 602. According to the exemplary division of system logic functions, the system chipset 601 interfaces to a conventional 32-bit PCI-Bus, while the datapath chipset 602 interfaces to the 16-bit ISA-Bus and the internal 8-bit X-Bus. In alternative embodiments, a special Advanced Graphics Port (AGP) may provide an interface between the P-Bus and a graphics accelerator. Processor 200 is coupled over the P-Bus to L2 (level 2) cache 404 and through data buffers 406 to system memory 402 (DRAM). The system chipset 601 includes control circuitry for the P-Bus, system memory 402, and the L2 cache 404. The datapath chipset 602 also interfaces to the conventional X-Bus. The X-Bus is an internal 8-bit bus that couples to the BIOS ROM 702 and the real-time clock (RTC) 704. In addition, the X-Bus connects to a conventional 8-bit keyboard controller 706. The system and datapath chipsets 601 and 602 provide interface control for the 16-bit ISA-Bus and the 32-bit PCI-Bus. The ISA-Bus maintains compatibility with industry standard peripherals via ISA-compliant peripheral card slots 710. The PCI-Bus provides a higher performance peripheral interface via PCI-compliant peripheral card slots 810 for selected peripherals, such as a video/graphics card 802 and a storage controller 804 (which may be included as part of the system chipset 601) for interfacing to mass storage 906. The motherboard 100 is coupled to external peripherals 900, such as keyboard 902, display 904, and mass storage 906 through the PCI-, ISA-, and X-Buses. Network and modem interconnections are provided as ISA cards, but it is to be understood that they could also be provided as PCI cards. 2. Exemplary Processor FIG. 2 is a more detailed block diagram of the processor 200 depicted in FIG. 1, which employs cache line locking in accordance with the principles of the present invention. It is to be understood that other forms of the processor 200 may be utilized and other modifications can be made without departing from the scope and spirit of the present invention. The processor 200 consists of four major functional blocks, namely: 1) core 202, 2) cache unit 204, 3) memory management unit (MMU) 206, and 4) bus interface unit (BIU) 208. 2.1 Core The core 202 comprises a super-pipelined integer unit (IU) 215, a branch target buffer (BTB) 220, and a floating point unit (FPU) 225. The cache unit 204 comprises a 64 Kbyte unified L1 cache 245 that stores the most recently used data and instruction code and a 256 byte instruction line cache 240 that only stores instruction code. The MMU 206 preferably comprises two translation look-aside buffers (TLBs): a main level one (L1) TLB 230 and a larger level two (L2) TLB 235. The L1 TLB 230 is preferably direct mapped and has 16 entries, each entry holding one line of 42 bits. The L2 TLB 235 is preferably 6-way associative and has 384 entries to hold 384 lines. The MMU 206 translates linear (or logical) addresses supplied by the IU 215 into physical addresses, including addresses based on paging, for use by the unified L1 cache 245 and for transmission through the BIU 208. Memory management procedures are preferably x86 compatible, adhering to standard paging mechanisms. The Page Table Entry (PTE) is stored in either the unified L1 cache in the Cache Unit 204, the L2 cache 404, or in system memory 404. The Bus Interface Unit (BIU) provides the P-Bus interface. During a memory cycle, a memory location is selected through the address lines (A31-A3 and BE7#-BE0#) on the P-Bus. Data is passed to/from memory through the data lines (D63-D0) on the P-Bus. The core 202 requests instructions from the cache unit 204. The received integer instructions are decoded by either the X-processing pipeline or Y-processing pipeline within the super-pipelined IU 215. If the instruction is a multimedia extension or FPU instruction, the instruction is passed to the FPU 225 for processing. As required, data is fetched from the 64 Kbyte unified L1 cache 245. If the data is not in the unified L1 cache 245, the data is accessed via the BIU 208 from either the L2 cache 404 or system memory 402. 2.1.1 The Integer Unit FIG. 3 is a more detailed block diagram of the pipelined stages of the integer unit 215 depicted in FIG. 2. Parallel instruction execution is provided by two seven-stage integer pipelines, referred to as the X-pipeline and the Y-pipeline. Each of the X- and Y-pipelines can process several instructions simultaneously. The IU 215 comprises the following pipeline stages: Instruction Fetch (IF) 301, Instruction Decode 1 (ID1) 302, Instruction Decode 2 (ID2) 303, Address Calculation 1 (AC1) 304, Address Calculation 2 (AC2) 305, Execution 306, and Write-Back 307. The IF 301 stage, shared by both the X- and Y-pipelines, fetches 16 bytes of code from the cache unit 204 in a single clock cycle. Within the IF 301 stage, the code stream is checked for any branch instructions that could affect normal program sequencing. If an unconditional or conditional branch is detected, branch prediction logic within the IF 301 stage generates a predicted target address for the instruction. The IF 301 stage then begins fetching instructions at the predicted address. The super-pipelined Instruction Decode stage comprise the ID1 302 substage and ID2 303 substage. ID1, shared by both X- and Y-pipelines, evaluates the code stream provided by the IF 301 stage and determines the number of bytes in each instruction. Up to two instructions per clock are delivered to the ID2 substages, one in each pipeline. The ID2 303 substage decodes instructions and sends the decoded instructions to either the X- or Y-pipeline for execution. The particular pipeline is chosen, based on which instructions are already in each pipeline and how fast they are expected to flow through the remaining pipe-line stages. The Address Calculation stage comprises the AC1 304 sub-stage and the AC2 305 substage. If the instruction refers to a memory operand, the AC1 substage calculates a linear memory address for the instruction. The AC2 substage performs any required memory management functions, cache accesses, and register file accesses. If a floating point instruction is detected by the AC2 substage, the instruction is sent to the FPU 225 for processing. The Execution 306 stage executes instructions using the operands provided by the address calculation stage. The Write-Back 307 stage stores execution results either to a register file within the IU 215 or to a write buffer in the cache control unit. 2.1.2 Out-of-Order Processing If an instruction executes faster than the previous instruction in the other pipeline, the instructions may complete out of order. All instructions are processed in order, up to the Execution 306 stage. While in the Execution 306 and Write-Back 307 stages, instructions may be completed out of order. If there is a data dependency between two instructions, hardware interlocks are enforced to ensure correct program execution. Even though instructions may complete out of order, exceptions and writes resulting from the instructions are always issued in program order. 2.1.3 Pipeline Selection In most cases, instructions are processed in either pipeline and without pairing constraints on the instructions. However, certain instructions are preferably processed only in the X-pipeline, such as branch, floating point, and exclusive instructions. Branch and floating point instructions may be paired with a second instruction in the Y-pipeline. Exclusive instructions (e.g., protected mode segment loads, special control, debug, and test register accesses, string instructions, multiply and divide, I/O port accesses, push all and pop all, and inter-segment jumps, calls, and returns), which typically require multiple memory accesses, are preferably not paired with instructions in the Y-pipeline. Although exclusive instructions are not paired, hardware from both pipelines is used to accelerate instruction completion. When two instructions that are executing in parallel require access to the same data or register, one of the following types of data dependencies may occur: Read-After-Write (RAW), Write-After-Read (WAR), and Write-After-Write (WAW). Data dependencies typically force serial execution of instructions. However, the processor 200 employs register renaming, data forwarding, and data bypassing mechanisms that allow parallel execution of instructions containing data dependencies. 2.1.4 Register Renaming The processor 200 includes a register file containing 32 physical general purpose registers, each of which can be temporarily assigned as one of the general purpose registers defined by the x86 architecture (EAX, EBX, ECX, EDX, ESI, EDI, EBP, and ESP). For each register write operation, a new physical register is selected to allow previous data to be retained temporarily--effectively removing WAW and WAR dependencies. The programmer does not have to consider register renaming, since register renaming is completely transparent to both the operating system and application software. A WAR dependency exists when the first in a pair of instructions reads a logical register, and the second instruction writes to the same logical register. This type of dependency is illustrated by the pair of instructions shown below. In this and the following examples the original instruction order is shown in parentheses. ______________________________________X-PIPELINE Y-PIPELINE______________________________________(1) MOV BX, AX (2) ADD AX, CXBX←AX AX←AX + CX______________________________________ In the absence of register renaming, the ADD instruction in the Y-pipeline would have to be stalled to allow the MOV instruction in the X-pipeline to read the AX register. The processor 200, however, can avoid the Y-pipeline stall, as shown below in Table 1. As each instruction executes, the results are placed in new physical registers to avoid the possibility of overwriting a logical register value and to allow the two instructions to complete in parallel (or out of order) rather than in sequence. TABLE 1______________________________________Register Renaming with WAR Dependency Physical Register ContentsInstruction Reg0 Reg1 Reg2 Reg3 Reg4 Pipe Action______________________________________(Initial) AX BX CXMOV BX, AX AX CX BX X Reg3←Reg0ADD AX, CX CX BX AX Y Reg4← Reg0 + Reg2______________________________________ The representations of the MOV and ADD instructions in the final column of Table 1 are completely independent. A WAW dependency occurs when two consecutive instructions perform write operations to the same logical register. This type of dependency is illustrated by the pair of instructions shown below: ______________________________________X-PIPELINE Y-PIPELINE______________________________________(1) ADD, AX, BX (2) MOV AX, [mem]AX←AX + BX AX←[mem]______________________________________ Without register renaming, the MOV instruction in the Y-pipeline would have to be stalled to guarantee that the ADD instruction in the X-pipeline would first write its results to the AX register. The processor 200, however, can avoid the Y-pipeline stall, as shown below in Table 2. The contents of the AX and BX registers are placed in physical registers. As each instruction executes, the results are placed in new physical registers to avoid the possibility of overwriting a logical register value and to allow the two instructions to complete in parallel (or out of order) rather than in sequence. All subsequent reads of the logical register AX will refer to Reg3, the result of the MOV instruction. TABLE 2______________________________________Register Renaming with WAW Dependency Physical Register ContentsInstruction Reg0 Reg1 Reg2 Reg3 Pipe Action______________________________________(Initial) AX BXADD AX, BX BX AX X Reg2←Reg0 + Reg1MOV AX, [mem] BX AX Y Reg3←[mem]______________________________________ 2.1.5 Data Forwarding The processor 200 uses two types of data forwarding in conjunction with register renaming to eliminate RAW dependencies, namely, operand forwarding and result forwarding. Operand forwarding takes place when the first in a pair of instructions performs a move from register or memory, and the data that is read by the first instruction is required by the second instruction. The processor performs the read operation and makes the data read available to both instructions simultaneously. Result forwarding takes place when the first in a pair of instructions performs an operation (such as an ADD) and the result is required by the second instruction to perform a move to a register or memory. The processor 200 performs the required operation and stores the results of the operation to the destination of both instructions simultaneously. 2.1.5.1 Operand Forwarding A RAW dependency occurs when the first in a pair of instructions performs a write, and the second instruction reads the same register. This type of dependency is illustrated by the pair of instructions shown below ______________________________________X-PIPELINE Y-PIPELINE______________________________________(1) MOV AX, [mem] (2) ADD BX, AXAX←[mem] BX←AX + BX______________________________________ The processor 200, however, can avoid the Y-pipeline stall, as shown below in Table 3. Operand forwarding allows simultaneous execution of both instructions by first reading memory and then making the results available to both pipelines in parallel. Operand forwarding can only occur if the first instruction does not modify its source data. In other words, the instruction is a move type instruction (for example, MOV, POP, LEA). Operand forwarding occurs for both register and memory operands. The size of the first instruction destination and the second instruction source must match. TABLE 3______________________________________Example of Operand Forwarding Physical Register ContentsInstruction Reg0 Reg1 Reg2 Reg3 Pipe Action______________________________________(Initial) AX BXMOV AX, [mem] BX AX X Reg2←Reg2 + [mem]MOV AX, [mem] AX BX Y Reg3←[mem] + Reg1______________________________________ 2.1.5.2 Result Forwarding A RAW dependency can occur when the first in a pair of instructions performs a write, and the second instruction reads the same register. This dependency is illustrated by the pair of instructions in the X-and Y-pipelines, as shown below: ______________________________________X-PIPELINE Y-PIPELINE______________________________________(1) ADD AX, BX (2) MOV [mem], AXAX←AX + BX [mem]←AX______________________________________ The processor 200, however, can use result forwarding to avoid the Y-pipeline stall, as shown below in Table 4. Instead of transferring the contents of the AX register to memory, the result of the previous ADD instruction (Reg0+Reg1) is written directly to memory, thereby saving a clock cycle. The second instruction must be a move instruction and the destination of the second instruction may be either a register or memory. TABLE 4______________________________________Result Forwarding Example Physical Register ContentsInstruction Reg0 Reg1 Reg2 Pipe Action______________________________________(Initial) AX BXADD AX, BX BX AX X Reg2←Reg0 + Reg1MOV [mem], AX BX AX Y [mem]←Reg0 + Reg1______________________________________ 2.1.6 Data Bypassing In addition to register renaming and data forwarding, the processor 200 provides a third data dependency-resolution technique called data bypassing. Data bypassing reduces the performance penalty of those memory data RAW dependencies that cannot be eliminated by data forwarding. Data bypassing is provided when the first in a pair of instructions writes to memory and the second instruction reads the same data from memory. The processor retains the data from the first instruction and passes it to the second instruction, thereby eliminating a memory read cycle. Data bypassing only occurs for cacheable memory locations. A RAW dependency occurs when the first in a pair of instructions performs a write to memory and the second instruction reads the same memory location. This dependency is illustrated by the pair of instructions in the X-and Y-pipelines, as shown below. ______________________________________X-PIPELINE Y-PIPELINE______________________________________(1) ADD [mem], AX (2) SUB BX, [mem][mem]←[mem] + AX BX←BX - [mem]______________________________________ The processor 200 can use data bypassing to stall the Y-pipeline for only one clock cycle by eliminating the Y-pipeline's memory read cycle, as shown below in Table 5. Instead of reading memory in the Y-pipeline, the result of the previous instruction ([mem]+Reg0) is used to subtract from Reg1, thereby saving a memory access cycle. TABLE 5______________________________________Example of Data Bypassing Physical Register ContentsInstruction Reg0 Reg1 Reg2 Pipe Action______________________________________(Initial) AX BXADD [mem], AX AX BX X [mem]←[mem] + Reg0SUB BX, [mem] AX BX Y Reg2←Reg1 - {[mem] + Reg0}______________________________________ 2.1.7 Branch Control Programmers have found through simulation and experimentation that branch instructions occur on average every four to six instructions in x86-compatible programs. The processor 200 minimizes performance degradation and latency of branch instructions through the use of branch prediction and speculative execution. The processor 200 uses a 512-entry, 4-way set associative Branch Target Buffer (BTB) 220 to store branch target addresses and a 1024-entry branch history table. During the fetch stage, the instruction stream is checked for the presence of branch instructions. If an unconditional branch instruction is encountered, the processor 200 accesses the BTB 220 to check for the branch instruction's target address. If the branch instruction's target address is found in the BTB 220, the processor 200 begins fetching at the target address specified by the BTB 220. In case of conditional branches, the BTB 220 also provides history information to indicate whether the branch is more likely to be taken or not taken. If the conditional branch instruction is found in the BTB 220, the processor 200 begins fetching instructions at the predicted target address. If the conditional branch misses in the BTB 220, the processor 200 predicts that the branch will not be taken, and instruction fetching continues with the next sequential instruction. The decision to fetch the taken or not taken target address is preferably, although not necessarily, based on a four-state branch prediction algorithm. Once fetched, a conditional branch instruction is first decoded and then dispatched to the X-pipeline only. The conditional branch instruction proceeds through the X-pipeline and is then resolved in either the Execution 306 stage or the Write-Back 307 stage. The conditional branch is resolved in the Execution 306 stage if the instruction responsible for setting the condition codes is completed prior to the execution of the branch. If the instruction that sets the condition codes is executed in parallel with the branch, the conditional branch instruction is resolved in the Write-Back 307 stage. Correctly predicted branch instructions execute in a single core clock cycle. If resolution of a branch indicates that a misprediction has occurred, the processor 200 flushes the pipeline and starts fetching from the correct target address. The processor 200 preferably prefetches both the predicted and the non-predicted path for each conditional branch, thereby eliminating the cache access cycle on a misprediction. If the branch is resolved in the Execution 306 stage, the resulting misprediction latency is four clock cycles. If the branch is resolved in the Write-Back 307 stage, the latency is five clock cycles. Since the target address of return (RET) instructions is dynamic rather than static, the processor 200 caches target addresses for RET instructions in an eight-entry return stack rather than in the BTB 220. The return address is pushed on the return stack during a CALL instruction and popped during the corresponding RET instruction. 2.1.8 Speculative Execution The processor 200 is capable of speculative execution following a floating point instruction or predicted branch. Speculative execution allows the X- and Y-pipelines to continuously execute instructions following a branch without stalling the pipelines waiting for branch resolution. As will be described below, the same mechanism is used to execute floating point instructions in parallel with integer instructions. The processor 200 is capable of up to four levels of speculation (i.e., combinations of four conditional branches and floating point operations). After generating the fetch address using branch prediction, the processor 200 checkpoints the machine state (registers, flags, and processor environment), increments the speculation level counter, and begins operating on the predicted instruction stream. Once the branch instruction is resolved, the processor 200 decreases the speculation level. For a correctly predicted branch, the status of the checkpointed resources is cleared. For a branch misprediction, the processor 200 generates the correct fetch address and uses the checkpointed values to restore the machine state in a single clock. In order to maintain compatibility, writes that result from speculatively executed instructions are not permitted to update the cache or external memory until the appropriate branch is resolved. Speculative execution continues until one of the following conditions occurs: 1) a branch or floating point operation is decoded and the speculation level is already at four; 2) an exception or a fault occurs; 3) the write buffers are full; or 4) an attempt is made to modify a non-checkpointed resource (i.e., segment registers, system flags). 2.1.9 System register Set Registers are broadly grouped into two sets, namely: 1) the application register set comprising registers frequently used by application programs, and 2) the system register set comprising registers typically reserved for use by operating system programs. The application register set preferably includes general purpose registers, segment registers, a flag register, and an instruction pointer register. The system register set preferably includes control registers, system address registers, debug registers, configuration registers, and test registers. In order not to obscure the invention, only relevant portions of the system register set will be further described. Those skilled in the art may easily obtain additional descriptions of the application register set by referring to publications such as "The Cyrix 6x86 Microprocessor Data Book," Order No. 94175-00, August 1995, herein incorporated by reference. FIGS. 4A and 4B depict a preferred system register set 400, comprising registers not generally visible to application programmers and typically employed by operating systems and memory management programs. The control registers, CR0-CR4, control certain aspects of the processor 200 such as paging, coprocessor functions, and segment protection. The debug registers, DR0-DR7, provide debugging facilities to enable the use of data access break-points and code execution breakpoints. The test registers, TR3-TR7, provide a mechanism to test the contents of both the cache unit 204 and the Translation Look-Aside Buffers, TLB 230 and TLB 235. The configuration control registers, CCR0-CCR7, are used to configure the processor 200's on-chip cache operations, power management features, and System Management Mode, as well as provide information on device type and revision. The address region registers, ARR0-ARR7, are used to specify the location and size for the eight address regions. Attributes for each address region are specified in the region control registers, RCR0-RCR7. ARR7 and RCR7 are used to define system main memory and differ from ARR0-ARR6 and RCR0-RCR6. With non-cacheable regions defined on-chip, the processor 200 eliminates data dependencies and resource conflicts in its execution pipelines. If KEN# is active for accesses to regions defined as non-cacheable by the RCRs, the region is not cached. A register index, is used to select one of three bytes in each ARRx. The starting address of the ARRx address region, selected by the START ADDRESS field, must be on a block size boundary. For example, a 128 Kbyte block is allowed to have a starting address of 0 Kbytes, 128 Kbytes, 256 Kbytes, and so on. The region control registers, RCR0-RCR7, specify the attributes associated with the ARRx address regions. Cacheability, weak locking, write gathering, and cache-write-through policies can be activated or deactivated using the attribute bits defined in the region control registers. 2.1.9.1 Model Specific Registers The processor 200 preferably comprises at least four model specific registers (MSRs). The MSRs can be read using the RDMSR instruction. During a register read, the contents of the particular MSR, specified by the ECX register, is loaded into the EDX:EAX registers. The MSR can be written using the WRMSR instruction. During a MSR write the contents of EDX:EAX are loaded into the MSR specified in the register. 2.1.9.2 Debug Registers At least six debug registers, DR0-DR3, DR6 and DR7, support debugging on the processor 200. Memory addresses loaded in the debug registers, referred to as "breakpoints," generate a debug exception when a memory access of the specified type occurs to the specified address. A data breakpoint can be specified for a particular kind of memory access, such as a read or a write. Code breakpoints can also be set allowing debug exceptions to occur whenever a given code access (execution) occurs. The size of the debug target can be set to 1, 2, or 4 bytes. The debug registers are accessed via MOV instructions, which can be executed only at privilege level 0. The Debug Address Registers (DR0-DR3) each contain the linear address for one of four possible breakpoints. Each breakpoint is further specified by bits in the Debug Control Register (DR7). For each breakpoint address in DR0-DR3, there are corresponding fields L, R/W, and LEN in DR7 that specify the type of memory access associated with the breakpoint. The R/W field can be used to specify instruction execution as well as data access break-points. Instruction execution breakpoints are always taken before execution of the instruction that matches the breakpoint. The Debug Status Register (DR6) reflects conditions that were in effect at the time the debug exception occurred. The contents of the DR6 register are not automatically cleared by the processor 200 after a debug exception occurs and, therefore, should be cleared by software at the appropriate time. Code execution breakpoints may also be generated by placing the breakpoint instruction (INT 3) at the location where control is to be regained. Additionally, the single-step feature may be enabled by setting the TF flat in the EFLAGS register. This causes the processor to perform a debug exception after the execution of every instruction. 2.1.9.3 Test Registers The test registers can be used to test the unified L1 cache 245, the L1 TLB 230, and the L2 TLB 235. Test registers TR3, TR4, and TR5 are used to test the unified L1 cache 245 and TR6 and TR7 are used to test the L1 TLB 230 and the L2 TLB 235. Use of these test registers is described in more detail below. 2.1.10 Floating Point Unit The floating point unit (FPU) 225 processes floating point and multimedia extension instructions and is preferably x87 instruction set compatible, adhering to the IEEE-754 standard. Floating point instructions may execute in parallel with integer instructions. Integer instructions may complete out-of-order with respect to the FPU instructions. The processor 200 maintains x86 compatibility by signaling exceptions and issuing write cycles in program order. Floating point instructions are preferably dispatched to the X-pipeline in the IU 215. The address calculation stage of the X-pipeline checks for memory management exceptions and accesses memory operands used by the FPU 225. If no exceptions are detected, the state of the processor 200 is check-pointed and, during AC2, floating point instructions are dispatched to a FPU instruction queue. The processor 200 can then complete subsequent integer instructions speculatively and out-of-order relative to the FPU instruction and relative to any potential FPU exceptions which may occur. As additional FPU instructions enter the pipeline, the processor 200 can preferably dispatch four or more FPU instructions to the FPU instruction queue. The processor 200 continues executing speculatively and out-of-order, relative to the FPU queue, until one of the conditions that causes speculative execution to halt is encountered. As the FPU 225 completes instructions, the speculation level decreases and the check-pointed resources are available for reuse in subsequent operations. The FPU 225 preferably has a set of six or more write buffers to prevent stalls due to speculative writes. 2.2 Cache Unit FIG. 5 depicts an exemplary cache unit 204 in accordance with the principles of the present invention. Those skilled in the art will readily understand that other organizations, sizes and associativities for the cache unit 204 are possible, for which the principles of the present invention may be practiced without departing from the scope of the invention. The cache unit 204 comprises a unified L1 cache 245 and an instruction line cache 240. The unified L1 cache 245 is the primary data cache and secondary instruction cache. The unified L1 cache 245 is preferably, although not exclusively, 64 Kbytes in size and four-way set-associative with a 32 byte line size (2048 lines total). The instruction line cache 240 is the primary instruction cache, provides a high speed instruction stream to the IU 215, and is preferably, though not exclusively, 256 bytes in size and fully associative. The instruction line cache 240 is filled from the unified L1 cache 245 through the data bus. Fetches from the IU 215 that hit in the instruction line cache 240 do not access the unified L1 cache 245. If an instruction line cache miss occurs, the instruction line data from the unified L1 cache 245 is transferred simultaneously to the instruction line cache 240 and the IU 215. The instruction line cache 240 uses a pseudo-LRU replacement algorithm. To ensure proper operation in the case of self-modifying code, any writes to the unified L1 cache 245 are checked against the contents of the instruction line cache 240. If a hit occurs in the instruction line cache 240, the appropriate line is invalidated. FIG. 6 depicts the exemplary L1 cache 245 in FIG. 2 in greater detail. It is recalled that the exemplary L1 cache 245 preferably contains 64 Kbytes of data subdivided into 2048 cache lines of 32 bytes each. The L1 cache 245 is also organized as 512 sets, Sets 0-511, that are divided into four ways, Ways 0-3. Blocks 601-604 in L1 cache 245 comprise Ways 0-3, respectively. Ways 1-3, shown in dotted outline, are functionally equivalent to Way 0. This being the case, only Way 0 need be discussed to explain cache hits and cache misses and the retrieval of data from L1 cache 245. Each set consists of eight entries: an address tag and a 32-byte cache line from each of the four ways. For example, if address bits A(13:5) are 000000000, Set 0 is being addressed and, in all four ways, a corresponding 32-byte line in data array 605 and a corresponding address tag in tag array 610 are accessed. Twenty seven physical address bits, A(31:5), are needed to fetch data from the L1 cache 245. Since data are written to, and read from, the L1 cache 245 in entire 32-byte cache lines, the five least significant address bits, A(4:0), are not used. Address bits A(4:0) may be used to address individual bytes within a cache line. Data must be fetched from the L1 cache 245 (and the external L2 cache 404) using physical addresses. Therefore, address translation is necessary. As explained above, address calculation proceeds in two steps, AC1 and AC2. The lowest twelve (12) address bits, A(11:0), are the page offset and are the same in both the linear and physical addresses. These bits do not require translation. The upper twenty bits, A(31:12), of the linear (or logical) address identify the required 4096 byte page and require translation. Since address bits A(11:0) do not require translation, they are available during AC1 for accessing data in L1 cache 245. Address bits A(31:12) are translated during AC2 and translated bits A12 and A13 become available last. The linear (or logical) addresses are translated into physical addresses in a TLB (such as the TLB 230 or TLB 235 of FIG. 2). In one embodiment of the present invention, two TLBs are implemented: a 16 entry direct mapped L1 TLB 230 and a 384 entry 6-way associative L2 TLB 235 (again, both of FIG. 2). Each TLB compares some of linear address bits A(31:12) of the current linear address to linear address bits previously stored in the TLB. If a match is found, the corresponding physical address is output from the TLB to the L1 cache 245 and/or the L2 cache 404. Address bits A(13:5) select a 32-byte line in data array 605 and an address tag in tag array 610 simultaneously in each of the four ways (eight entries total). When a cache line is written into data array 605, the tag address A(31:14), which is a physical address, is simultaneously stored in one of the 512 locations in tag array 610, as determined by the address bits A(13:5). Thus, when address bits A(13:5) are applied to tag array 610, the stored value of tag address A(31:14) is sent to comparator 615 for comparison with address bits A(31:14) of the current physical address. At the same time, the 32 bytes in the data array 605 corresponding to A(13:5) are applied to one of the channels of multiplexer 620. If the address bits A(31:14) are the same, a cache hit has occurred and one (and only one) of the enable signals, WAY 0 HIT, WAY 1 HIT, WAY 2 HIT, or WAY 3 HIT, will go high for the corresponding way. This will, in turn, select the correct channel of multiplexer 620 (which forms a part of sector selection circuitry) and output a corresponding one of the 32-byte lines of data, referred to generically as WAY 0 DATA, WAY 1 DATA, WAY 2 DATA, or WAY 3 DATA. It is noted that two address bits, A13 and A12, must be translated in order to select the correct set in each way. Thus, a first delay is caused by the translation of A13 and A12. A second delay is incurred after translation while the correct set is being selected in tag array 610 (i.e., before the tag address A(31:14) settles at the output of tag array 610). When the tag address A(31:14) is finally valid at the output of tag array 610, another delay is incurred while the tag array 610 output is compared in comparator 615 to the current memory address A(31:14). The present invention improves the rate at which data may be accessed in each of the ways of L1 cache 245 by dividing the L1 cache 245 (and Ways 0-3) into sectors corresponding to predetermined values of A13 and A12. The untranslated physical bits A(11:5), which are available early in AC1, are used to select a set in each sector of the L1 cache 245. The multiple selected sets from the same way are then multiplexed at the data output of the way. The translated physical address bits A13 and A12 control the output multiplexer in each way and thereby select the correct data set (i.e., cache line) to be output from the way. Thus, the speed of the way is more closely related to the rate at which A13 and A12 can be translated, and is not limited by the speed of the tag array 610 and comparator 615. FIG. 7 depicts an improved L1 cache 245 divided into sectors according to one embodiment of the present invention. Once again, only Way 0 (block 601) needs to be shown, since Ways 1-3 are functionally equivalent to Way 0. Tag array 610 and data array 605 are subdivided into four sectors, 0-3, according to the values of A(13:12). When data is written to L1 cache 245, the cache line is stored in a selected one of Data Sectors 0-3 in data array 605 and the tag address A(31:12) is stored in a selected one of Tag Sectors 0-3 of tag array 610. For example, if bits A(13:12) of the translated physical address are 00, the tag address A(31:12) is written into Tag Sector 0 and the corresponding 32-byte cache line is written into Data Sector 0 of data array 605. Similarly, if bits A(13:12) of the translated physical address are 01, 10, or 11, cache lines are written into Data Sectors 1, 2 or 3, respectively, and tag addresses are written into Tag Sectors 1, 2 or 3, respectively. During a read operation, the address bits A(11:5), which do not need to be translated and are available during AC1, are applied to each of the four sectors. Thus, a set is addressed in each of the four sectors. The four corresponding cache lines are output to multiplexer 701 (which forms a part of sector selection circuitry). At the same time, the tag address bits A(31:12) are output from the selected set in each tag sector to a respective first input channel on a respective one of comparators 702-705. The second input channel on each of comparators 702-705 is connected to the address bits A(31:12) of the translated physical address. The address bits A(11:5) are the only bits required to access the caches lines in each of Data Sectors 0-3 and the tag address bits A(31:12) in each of Tag Sectors 0-3. Since address bits A(11:5) do not need translation, they are available during AC1. Therefore, the caches lines from Data Sectors 0-3 are available at the inputs of multiplexer 701 before address bits A13 and A12 are translated. Similarly, the tag address bits A(31:12) from Tag Sectors 0-3 are available at the inputs of comparators 702-705 before address bits A13 and A12 are translated. The address bits A(11:5) can have values only between 0 and 127, thereby addressing any one of 128 possible sets per sector. Nonetheless, the sets in FIG. 7 are shown numbered sequentially from Set 0 to Set 511 across sector boundaries. This is done only for the purpose of illustration. The number of each set shown in FIG. 7 reflects the "offset" value of A13 and A12. For example, Set 0 and Set 384 are both enabled by the set address A(11:5)=0000000. However, Set 384 is only accessed (written to) when A(13:12)=11 and Set 0 is only accessed (written to) when A(13:12)=00. When address bits A13 and A12 are translated during AC2, A13 and A12 immediately select the corresponding channel of multiplexer 701 and the corresponding cache line is output to multiplexer 620. At the same time, translated address bits A(31:12) are applied to comparators 702-705 and, if they match one of the four tag addresses output from the tag sectors, an output line of one of the comparators 702-705 will go high (i.e., a cache hit has occurred). Advantageously, since the A12 and A13 bits from each Tag Sector are always different, only one comparator will go high at time. This allow the outputs to be connected together to form a wired-OR gate. The wired-OR output of comparators 702-705 forms one of the selects, WAY 0 HIT-WAY 3 HIT, on multiplexer 620. As the above description shows, cache lines are output from each way faster because translated address bits A13 and A12 are no longer needed to retrieve the cache line from the data array 605 or retrieve the tag address from the tag array 610. Instead, the translated bits A13 and A12 are used to select a channel in multiplexer 620. This is much faster than selecting a 32-byte cache line from data array 605, which is essentially a (comparatively slow) RAM device. Additionally, the tag addresses are output from the Tag Sectors 0-3 during AC1 and are available for comparison even before the translated physical address bits A(31:12) are sent to comparators 702-705. It is therefore not necessary to wait for the value of the selected tag address to settle and become valid at the tag array 610 output after translation of A13 and A12, because A13 and A12 are no longer required to select a tag address. Hence, the speed of the L1 cache 245 is now closer to the speed at which the address can be translated to a physical address. In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, the values of A13 and A12 assigned to the sectors in the L1 cache 245 may be programmed under the control of the cache unit 204. For example, the physical locations of Sets 0-127 may be programmed to hold tag addresses ending with A(13:12)=00 (Tag Sector 0), A(13:12)=01 (Tag Sector 1), A(13:12)=10 (Tag Sector 2), or A(13:12)=11 (Tag Sector 3). This advantageously allows a processor with a defective cache sector to be salvaged, at the cost of a smaller cache size. For example, if faults are found in Set 50 in Data Sector 0 and in Set 200 in Data Sector 1, Data Sector 3 and Data Sector 4 may be redesignated as Data Sector 0 and Data Sector 1, respectively, according to the value of tag address bit A13. The dysfunctional circuitry used by the old Data Sectors 0 and 1 is no longer accessed and the L1 cache 245 becomes a 32 Kbyte 4-way set associative cache. If three sectors are found to be defective, the remaining good sector is still usable and may contain any value of A13 and A12. The L1 cache 245 then becomes a 16 Kbyte 4 -way set associative cache. This redesignation may occur in the factory before sale of the processor 200 in a computer. The processor 200 could then be sold with a less powerful (i.e., smaller) cache at a lower price. In a preferred embodiment, the redesignation of sectors may also occur when a cache error is detected during a self test routine, such as when a computer is booted up. The computer maps out the defective sectors in the cache and continues to run with the smaller cache. Ideally, a warning message is displayed on the monitor warning of the cache fault(s). The redesignation of sectors in the L1 cache 245 may be accomplished by reprogramming switch positions in the data paths that write cache lines into data array 605 and tag address bits A(31:12) into tag array 610. For example, in an initial configuration, cache lines and tags are switched to Sector 3 when A(13:12)=11, to Sector 2 when A(13:12)=10, to Sector 1 when A(13:12)=01, and to Sector 0 when A(13:12)=00 during a cache write operation. If one or both of Sectors 3 and 4 becomes defective, the switching paths may be reconfigured such that cache lines and tags are switched to Sector 1 when A12=1 and to Sector 0 when A12=0 during a write operation. During a read operation, address line A13 is held at 0 on multiplexer 701 so that only Sectors 0 and 1 are selected, depending on the value of A 12. The value of A13 in Tag Sectors 0 and 1 may have values of either 0 or 1, however. In one embodiment of the present invention, the rate at which data may be accessed in each of the ways of the L1 cache 245 is further improved by providing a shadow L1 look-aside translation buffer (TLB). The shadow L1 TLB holds the same tag addresses as the primary L1 TLB 230, but provides translated physical addresses to the L1 cache 245 much more rapidly because it is an integral part of the cache. Before describing the shadow L1 TLB in detail, the operation of the L1 TLB 230 and the L2 TLB 235 will be discussed. FIG. 8 depicts a conventional L1 TLB 230 for translating linear addresses for the L1 cache 245. L1 TLB 230 is a 16-entry direct mapped buffer that receives linear address A(31:12) from the core 202 of the processor 200. Linear address A(31:12) identifies the current 4096 byte page in memory. Four linear address bits A(15:12) select one of the sixteen (16) page table entries in L1 TLB 230. Each page table entry comprises a linear address in the Tag field 810 array and a corresponding physical address in the Data field 805 array. Each page table entry also comprises a number of access bits, such as V (valid), U/S (user/supervisor), R/W (read/write), D (dirty), etc. When A(15:12) selects an entry in the L1 TLB 230, Tag field 810 outputs the tag address bits A(31:16) stored in the entry to one of the input channels of comparator 815. The other input channel of comparator 815 receives linear address bits A(31:16) of the current memory address. If the bits are the same, a TLB "hit" has occurred (i.e., the memory page identified by linear address A(31:12) matches the linear address of a memory page previously stored in the Tag field 810). The signal L1 TLB HIT goes high, thereby signaling the L1 cache 245 that a valid physical address is being sent to the L1 cache 245. At the same time that the linear address bits are being compared, linear address bits A(15:12) select the physical address bits A(31:12) in Data field 805 that correspond to the stored tag address in Tag field 810. Data field 805 outputs the selected physical address A(31:12) to L1 cache 245 so that the physical address may immediately be used by L1 cache 245 when L1 TLB HIT goes high. If the tag address A(31:16) in Tag field 810 does not match the current linear address A(31:16), an L1 TLB "miss" has occurred and the physical address A(31:12) output by the L1 TLB 230 is ignored by L1 cache 245. After an L1 TLB miss, the L2 TLB 235 is examined to determine if the L2 TLB 235 contains the linear address A(31:12). If the L2 TLB 235 does contain the linear address A(31:12), then an L2 TLB "hit" has occurred, the entire entry in the L2 TLB 235 is transferred to the L1 TLB 230, thereby updating the L1 TLB 230 with the "missed" linear address, physical address and access bits. At the same time, the physical address A(31:12) retrieved from the L2 TLB 235 and an L2 TLB HIT signal are sent to the L1 cache 245, so that processing may continue. If the L2 TLB 235 does not contain the linear address A(31:12), then an L2 TLB "miss" has occurred, the entire entry in the L2 TLB 235 is transferred to the L1 TLB 230, thereby updating the L1 TLB 230 with the "missed" linear address, physical address and access bits. This means that the requested data must be retrieved from system memory 402. The linear address A(31:12) is translated by the MMU 206 and the data retrieved from system memory 402 is written back to the L1 cache 245, the L2 cache 404 the L1 TLB 230 and the L2 TLB 235, thereby updating the L1 TLB 230 and the L2 TLB 235 with the "missed" linear address, physical address and access bits. FIG. 9 depicts conventional L2 TLB 235 for translating linear addresses for the external L2 cache 402. L2 TLB 235 is a 384-entry 6-way set associative buffer that receives linear address A(31:12) from the core 202 of the processor 200. The L2 TLB 235 is organized as 64 sets, Sets 0-63, that are divided into six ways, Ways 0-5. Blocks 911-916 in the L2 TLB 235 comprise Ways 0-5, respectively. Ways 1-5, shown in dotted outline, are functionally equivalent to Way 0. This being the case, only Way 0 need be discussed to further explain the operation of the L2 TLB 235. Each set consists of twelve entries: a linear address tag in Tag field 910 and a corresponding physical address in Data field 905 from each of the six ways. The sets also contain access bits associated with the entries. The access bits may be ignored for this discussion), such as V (valid), U/S (user/supervisor), R/W (read/write), D (dirty), etc. Linear address bits A(17:12) are used to select the sets. For example, if address bits A(17:12) are 000000, Set 0 is being accessed and, in all four ways, a corresponding physical address A(31:12) in Data field 905 and a corresponding linear tag address A(31:18) tag in Tag field 910 are accessed. When A(15:12) selects an entry in the Tag field 810, Tag field 810 outputs the tag address bits A(31:18) stored in the entry to one of the input channels of comparator 920. The other input channel of comparator 920 receives linear address bits A(31:18) of the current memory address. If the bits are the same, an L2 TLB "hit" has occurred (i.e., the memory page identified by linear address A(31:12) matches the linear address of a memory page previously stored in the Tag field 910). The comparator 920 output generates the signal, WAY 0 HIT, which indicates a "hit". At the same time that the linear address bits are being compared, linear address bits A(17:12) select the physical address A(31:12) in Data field 905 that corresponds to the stored tag address in Tag field 910. Data field 905 outputs the selected physical address A(31:12) to one of the input channels of multiplexer 925. If a hit occurs in any of the six ways, one of the six enable signals, WAY 0 HIT-WAY 5 HIT, goes high for the corresponding way. This, in turn, selects the correct channel of multiplexer 925 and outputs a corresponding one of the physical addresses A(31:12). As noted above, if an L2 TLB "miss" occurs, the data must be retrieved from system memory 402. It is apparent from the foregoing that the speed at which the L1 TLB 230 provides a translated physical address to the L1 cache 245 directly affects the access time of the L1 cache 245. Unfortunately, the data paths between the L1 TLB 230 and the L1 cache 245 are lengthy and drive a large number of gates, including intermediate multiplexers used to route the physical address A(31:12) to other functional units in the processor 200. This means that the physical address A(31:12) bits are comparatively slow in reaching the L1 cache 245, causing a concomitant delay in accessing data in the L1 cache 245. In one embodiment of the present invention, the time delay in transferring a physical address A(31:12) to, and then reading data from, the L1 cache 245 is reduced by providing a "shadow" translation look-aside buffer located proximate the L1 cache 245. The shadow TLB contains identical copies of the sixteen physical addresses in the L1 TLB 230, but does not contain, and does not require, either the linear tag addresses or the access bits in the L1 TLB 230. For the purpose of clarity in explaining below the operation of the shadow TLB, the L1 TLB 230 may from time to time be referred to as the "primary" L1 TLB. FIG. 10 depicts an improved tag array 610 in the L1 cache 245, wherein a shadow L1 TLB 1005 is integrated into the sectors of the tag array 610, according to one embodiment of the present invention. In the illustrated embodiment, the shadow L1 TLB 1005 is bifurcated in order to minimize the length of lead lines from different tag sectors in tag array 610. One portion of the shadow L1 TLB 1005 and comparators 702 and 703 are disposed proximate (and perhaps between) the physical address A(31:12) outputs of Tag Sector 3 and Tag Sector 2. The other portion of the shadow L1 TLB 1005 and comparators 704 and 705 are disposed proximate (and perhaps between) the physical address A(31:12) outputs of Tag Sector 1 and Tag Sector 0. The address translation operation of shadow L1 TLB 1005 is simpler than the address translation operation of the primary L1 TLB 230. Linear address bits A(15:12) are received into the shadow L1 TLB 1005 (and therefore into the L1 cache 245) and select one of sixteen entries in the data field of the shadow L1 TLB 1005. The physical address A(31:12) in the selected entry is immediately output to the four comparators 702-705. The shadow L1 TLB 1005 does not contain a tag field and tag address comparators similar to those in the primary L1 TLB 230. If the physical address A(31:12) selected by A(15:12) is wrong, then it is also wrong in the primary L1 TLB 230, since both L1 TLB's contain identical physical addresses A(31:12). If physical address A(31:12) is wrong in the "primary" L1 TLB 230, then a "miss" has occurred in both the L1 TLB 230 and the L1 cache 245. The physical address A(31:12) is ignored after an L1 cache 245 miss. Therefore, no harm is done in not performing a tag address comparison in the shadow L1 TLB 1005. The L1 cache 245 no longer needs to wait to receive the translated physical address A(31:12) from the primary L1 TLB 230. As FIG. 10 shows, the L1 cache 245 now requires only sixteen address bits: physical address A(11:5), which does not require translation and is available early in AC1, and linear address bits A(15:12), which are also available early in AC1. The shadow L1 TLB 1005 output the physical address bits A(31:12) much more rapidly than they can be translated in, and transferred from, the primary L1 TLB 230. When the physical address bits A(31:12) are output by the shadow L1 TLB 1005, the tag array 610 in L1 cache 245 compares the physical address bits A(31:12) to the tag address A(31:12) as described above in connection with FIGS. 6 and 7. The untranslated address A(11:5) selects tag addresses in all four tags sectors of the tag array 610 and the four selected tag addresses A(31:12) are compared by comparators 702-705 to the output of the shadow L1 TLB 1005. The output of the four comparators are connected to each other to form a wired-OR gate. The wired-OR outputs from the comparators in all four ways of the L1 cache 245 are used as multiplexer channel selects for multiplexer 620. The data array 605 and the multiplexer 701 in FIG. 7 are not show in FIG. 10 because they are not affected by the shadow L1 TLB 1005. However, the earlier availability of translated physical address A(31:12) from the shadow L1 TLB 1005 means that the comparators 702-705 more quickly generate a "hit" signal for each of Ways 0-3 (i.e., WAY 0 HIT-WAY 3 HIT). Also, the earlier availability of translated physical address bits A13 and A12 means that a cache line from data array 605 in each way is more quickly selected by multiplexer 701 (i.e., WAY 0 DATA-WAY 3 DATA). This means that both the channel data and the channel select signals for multiplexer 620 are available to output data from the L1 cache 245 onto the data bus. The operation of the shadow L1 TLB 1005 has been explained in connection with an L1 cache 245 that is partitioned into sectors. However, those skilled in the art will recognize that the shadow L1 TLB 1005 described above may readily be implemented in a non-partitioned L1 cache and still provide faster translation of the higher order address bits A(31:12) than a conventional "primary" L1 translation look-aside buffer. It is also apparent from the foregoing that the speed at which the linear address bits A12 and A13 are translated into physical address bits A12 and A13 by the L1 TLB 230 directly affects the access time of the L1 cache 245. It is recalled that translated physical address bits A12 and A13 are used to control multiplexer 701, which selects one 32-byte cache line from one of the four sectors in each of the four ways in the L1 cache 245. The sooner that translated address bits A12 and A13 are available at multiplexer 701, the sooner that the selected cache line may be output from the way to multiplexer 620. Translated physical address bits A12 and A13 normally become available from the outputs of the data field 805 in the L1 TLB 230 during AC2, along with translated physical address bits A(31:14). Unfortunately, the speed at which the L1 TLB 230 can translate address bits A12 and A13 is comparatively slow. The L1 TLB 230 is essentially a RAM device that contains 16 entries (Sets 0-15). The entries are subdivided into the data field 805, the tag field 810 and numerous access bits, so that each entry contains over 40 bits. The L1 TLB 230 therefore requires comparatively long bit lines and somewhat complex row/column selection circuitry. The RAM cells in the L1 TLB 230 are also synchronous and a selected data location must await the next clock edge before being output from the data field 805. In sum, the speed at which physical address bits A12 and A13 (as well as A(31:14)) are made available at the output of the L1 TLB 230 is slowed by the size of the RAM structure in the L1 TLB 230. The present invention further improves the operation of the L1 cache 245 by providing an L1 TLB slice that is used to store a separate copy of the physical address bits A12 and A13. The L1 TLB slice is essentially an asynchronous RAM that is much smaller, and consequently much faster, than the primary L1 TLB 230. Like the primary L1 TLB 230, the L1 TLB slice receives the untranslated linear address bits A(15:12) during AC1 and uses the linear address bits A(15:12) to select (or index into) one of sixteen entries in the L1 TLB slice. The entries contain only A13 and A12. Thus, the translated physical address bits A12 and A13 are available during AC1, rather than during AC2, and the selection signals for multiplexer 701 are also available that much sooner. FIG. 11 depicts an L1 TLB slice 1101 according to a first embodiment of the present invention. The L1 TLB slice 1101 is shown disposed in Way 0 (reference numeral 601), shown in dotted outline, of the L1 cache 245, also shown in dotted outline. In the first embodiment (and some other embodiments) of the present invention, a single L1 TLB slice may be implemented that provides translated address bits A12 and A13 for all of the ways in the L1 cache 245. In other embodiments, a separate L1 TLB slice may be implemented in each way. When a physical address is written into the L1 TLB 230 after an L1 TLB "miss," the A12 and A13 bits are simultaneously written to the L1 TLB slice 1101, so that the L1 TLB 230 and the L1 TLB slice 1101 contain identical A12 and A13 bits. In L1 TLB implementations where the translated A12 and A13 bits are provided to other functional units in the processor 200 at the same time as the translated A(31:14) bits, redundant copies of physical address bits A12 and A13 may continue to be stored in the entries in data field 605 of the primary L1 TLB 230. In other L1 TLB implementations where the translated A12 and A13 bits need not be provided to other functional units in the processor 200 at the same time as the translated A(31:14) bits, physical address bits A12 and A13 may be eliminated from the entries in data field 605 of the primary L1 TLB 230. This advantageously reduces the size, and increases the speed, of the primary L1 TLB 230. When the untranslated linear address bits A(15:12) select an entry in the L1 TLB slice 1101, physical address bits A13 and A12 are output from the L1 TLB slice 1101 to a 2-to-4 decoder 1102. The outputs of the decoder 1102 are the multiplexer selection lines, S0-S3. In some embodiments, decoder 1102 may be an integral part of the multiplexer 701. Thus, a 32-byte cache line is selected from one of the four sectors, Data Sectors 0-3, in Way 0 of the L1 cache 245 and is output during AC1 to the multiplexer 620. Each of Ways 1-3 also outputs a 32-byte cache line to the multiplexer 620. It is noted that the values (00-11) of the two bits A12 and A13 entirely determine the values of the multiplexer selection bits S0-S3. This allows yet another improvement to be made to the operation of the L1 cache 245. A preferred embodiment of the present invention provides an L1 TLB slice that stores the values of the selection bits S0-S3 corresponding to the values of the physical address bits A12 and A13, rather than storing the actual physical address bits A12 and A13. Although this slightly increase the size and complexity of the L1 TLB slice, these increases are more than offset by the speed increase gained by omitting the decoder 1102. FIG. 12 depicts an L1 TLB slice 1201 according to a second (and preferred) embodiment of the present invention. Once again, the L1 TLB slice 1201 is shown disposed in Way 0 (reference numeral 601), shown in dotted outline, of the L1 cache 245, also shown in dotted outline. As before, a single L1 TLB slice may be implemented that provides translated address bits A12 and A13 for all of the ways in the L1 cache 245, or a separate L1 TLB slice may be implemented in each way. When a physical address is written into the L1 TLB 230 after an L1 TLB "miss", the A12 and A13 bits are not written to the L1 TLB slice 1201. Instead, A12 and A13 are decoded in a 2-to-4 decoder (similar to decoder 1102) and the output of the decoder, multiplexer selection bits S0-S3 are simultaneously written to the L1 TLB slice 1201. The L1 TLB slice 1201 now contains four bits in each of its sixteen entries, rather than two bits. When the untranslated linear address bits A(15:12) select an entry in the L1 TLB slice 1201, selection bits S0-S3 are output from the L1 TLB slice 1201 to multiplexer 701. Thus, a 32-byte cache line is selected from one of the four sectors, Data Sectors 0-3, in Way 0 of the L1 cache 245 and is output during AC1 to the multiplexer 620. As before, each of Ways 1-3 also outputs a 32-byte cache line to multiplexer 620. It is apparent from the foregoing that the relative speeds of the linear-to-physical address translation devices, namely the L1 TLB 230, the L1 TLB slice 1101/1201, and the shadow L1 TLB 1005, are all critical to the overall speed of the L1 cache 245. Furthermore, the relative speeds of the L1 TLB 230, the L1 TLB slice 1201, and the shadow L1 TLB 1005 are dependent at least in part on the architecture of the RAM arrays and RAM select circuitry that comprise these address translation devices. FIG. 13 illustrates a conventional RAM architecture for use in the L1 TLB 230, the shadow L1 TLB 1005, and/or the L1 TLB slice 1101/1201 according to the prior art. These address translation devices actually receive linear addresses from a number of sources in the processor 200. Linear addresses are received as part of data read/data write operations, instruction fetch operations, etc. and from both pipelines of the integer unit (IU) 215. In the exemplary embodiment, four linear address sources are represented generically in FIG. 13 as ADDR1(31:12), ADDR2(31:12), ADDR3(31:12) and ADDR4(31:12). The linear addresses, ADDR1(31:12) through ADDR4(31:12), are applied to the input channels of a multiplexer (MUX) 1305. The desired channel is then switched to the output of the MUX 1305 by selection signals SELECT1 through SELECT4. SELECT1 selects ADDR1(31:12), SELECT2 selects ADDR2(31:12), SELECT3 selects ADDR3(31:12), and SELECT4 selects ADDR4(31:12). Each of the selection signals is controlled by a corresponding circuit (not shown) located elsewhere in the IU 215 that is performing the pending instruction fetch, data read, data write, etc., operation. A subset of the linear address bits A(31:12) at the output of MUX 1305, namely bits A(15:12), is then decoded by a decoder 1310, which enables one of the word lines in the RAM cell array 1315. Generally, RAM cell array 1315 contains MxN data cells, where M is the number of rows/word lines/entries and N is the number of stored target bits in each row/word line/entry. It is recalled that the L1 TLB 230 has a RAM array comprising a data field of physical addresses and a tag field of linear addresses; that the shadow L1 TLB 1005 has a RAM array comprising only a data field of physical addresses; that the L1 TLB slice 1101 has a RAM array comprising a reduced data field of only two physical addresses and that the L1 TLB slice 1201 has a RAM array comprising a reduced data field of four MUX selection signals. For the purpose of simplifying the following descriptions of both the prior art devices and the present invention, as illustrated in FIGS. 13-15, the phrase "stored target bits" shall be used to collectively identify the physical address bits, linear address bits and/or MUX selection signals that are stored in the address translation devices, namely the L1 TLB 230, the shadow L1 TLB 1005, and the L1 TLB slice 1101/1201. In keeping with the foregoing descriptions of the L1 TLB 230, the shadow L1 TLB 1005, and the L1 TLB slice 11011/201, the exemplary RAM cell array 1315 also contains sixteen (16) entries, represented by word lines, WL0 through WL15. In the case of the L1 TLB 230, each entry contains thirty-six (36) target bits, comprising twenty (20) translated physical address bits, A(31:12) and sixteen (16) linear address tag bits, A(31:16). In the case of the L1 TLB slice 1101, each entry contains two (2) encoded target bits, comprising the translated physical address bits A(13:12). In the case of the L1 TLB slice 1201, each entry contains four (4) decoded target bits, comprising the MUX selection signals S0, S1, S2, and S3. The above description of the conventional RAM architecture used in the L1 TLB 230, the shadow L1 TLB 1005, and/or the L1 TLB slice 1101/1201 shows that time delays are incurred in both the MUX 1305 and in the decoder 1310. The elimination or reduction of either of these delays will significantly improve the performance of the address translation devices. When the RAM array is large, the propagation delay of the MUX 1305 is relatively small compared to the propagation delays of the decoder 1310 and the RAM cell array 1315 itself. When the RAM array is small, however, the propagation delay of the MUX 1305 is relatively large compared to the propagation delays of the decoder 1310 and the RAM cell array 1315. In a preferred embodiment, the present invention takes advantage of the reduced size of the RAM cell array 1315 in the address translation devices, L1 TLB 230, shadow L1 TLB 1005, and L1 TLB slice 1101/1201, in order to eliminate the propagation delay of the MUX 1305. The present invention does this by providing a very fast switching path for accessing a RAM cell and transferring the stored target bit contained therein to an output data line. FIG. 14 illustrates an improved RAM architecture for use in the L1 TLB 230, the shadow L1 TLB 1005, and/or the L1 TLB slice 1101/1201, according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. A RAM cell selection circuit 1400 comprises a data latch 1401, an N-type field effect transistor (NFET) 1402, and a pre-charged data bit line 1403 that are used to drive a sense amplifier 1404. The NFET 1402 and data latch 1401 are selected by the NFETs 1421-1428, which are driven by decoders 1411-1414 and the signals SELECT1 through SELECT4 and ADDR1(15:12) through ADDR4(15:12). The RAM cell selection circuit 1400 shown is representative of only one stored target bit cell in the RAM cell array. With the exception of decoders 1411-1414, sense amplifier 1410, and the pre-charged data bit line 1403, the other components of RAM cell selection circuit 1400 are repeated for each stored target bit in all sixteen entries in the exemplary address translation devices, L1 TLB 230, shadow L1 TLB 1005, and L1 TLB slice 1101/1201. The decoders 1411-1414 each have sixteen (16) output decoded lines. Each decoded output line is coupled to the gate of a corresponding NFET in another RAM cell selection circuit for another stored target bit. However, since all of the RAM cell selection circuits operate in analogous manners, it is sufficient to explain the operation of only exemplary RAM cell selection circuit 1400 in order to understand the principles of the present invention. The operation of the exemplary RAM cell selection circuit 1400 is straightforward. NFETs 1421 through 1428 are arranged in series-connected pairs (i.e., NFETs 1421/1422, NFETs 1423/1424, NFETs 1425/1426, and NFETs 1427/1428 form the series pairs). If none of the series pairs have both NFETs turned ON (i.e., data latch 1401 is NOT selected), then the source of NFET 1402 is effectively floating (open-circuited). The ON/OFF condition of NFET 1402 is therefore irrelevant, since some other RAM cell is driving pre-charged data bit line 1403. If both NFETs in any series pair are turned ON, the source of NFET 1402 is effectively shorted to ground. Since only one of the linear address sources at a time can send a linear address to the address translation devices, only one of the signals SELECT1 through SELECT4 can be enabled at one time. This ensures that at most only one series pair of NFETs can have both NFETs turned ON at the same time. If one of the series pairs has both NFETs turned ON, the source of NFET 1402 is shorted to ground and the value DATUM X in data latch 1401 (i.e., the stored target bit) is then being read. The ON/OFF condition of NFET 1402 determines whether or not the pre-charged data bit line 1403 remains charged (Logic 1) or is discharged through NFET 1402 to ground (Logic 0). The value DATUM X controls the gate of NFET 1402. If DATUM X is Logic 0, NFET 1402 is OFF (switch open) and the pre-charged data bit line 1403 remains at its pre-charged value (i.e., Logic 1). If DATUM X is Logic 1, NFET 1402 is ON (switch closed) and the pre-charged data bit line 1403 discharges through NFET 1402 to ground (i.e., Logic 0). Sense amplifier 1404 acts as an inverter with respect to the pre-charged data bit line 1403, so that the DATA OUT output is the same as the value of DATUM X in data latch 1401. FIG. 15 is a flow diagram depicting an exemplary address translation operation of the RAM architecture illustrated in FIG. 14. A linear address source device in processor 200 that requires a linear-to-physical address translation requests and initiates such an operation by enabling its associated selection signal (see process step 1501). In this example, the SELECT1 signal goes to Logic 1. Since SELECT1 is enabled, SELECT2, SELECT3 and SELECT4 may not be enabled, since only one linear address source device in processor 200 may access the address translation device at a time. Therefore, NFETs 1423-1428 and decoders 1412-1414 are effectively removed from the circuit and have no further effect on the exemplary address translation operation. NFET 1421 is turned ON (switch closed) by SELECT1 (see process step 1502), so that the drain of NFET 1422 is effectively shorted to the source of NFET 1402. In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, the requesting linear address source also sends four linear address bits ADDR1(31:12) to the address translation device (i.e., L1 TLB 230, shadow L1 TLB 1005, L1 TLB slice 1101/1201) approximately concurrently with the SELECT1 signal (see process step 1503). Decoder 1411 receives ADDR1(15:12) and decodes the address (see process step 1504), such that a corresponding one of the sixteen output lines of decoder 1411 goes to Logic 1. The Logic 1 level is applied to the gate of NFET 1422, which is turned ON (see process step 1505). It is recalled that the RAM cell selection circuit 1400 is located in one of the sixteen entries (word lines) of the RAM cell array 1315. The stored target bit, DATUM X, in data latch 1401 is selected only if the value of the four bits ADDR1(15:12) matches the value of the word line to which the exemplary RAM cell selection circuit 1400 corresponds. For example, if data latch 1401 is located in word line 2 (WL2) of the RAM cell array 1315, NFET transistor 1422 is turned ON by decoder 1411 only if ADDR1(15:12)=0010. Decoder 1411 also simultaneously enables all of the other RAM cell selection circuits 1400 in WL2. At this point, the source of NFET 1402 is effectively shorted to ground by NFETs 1421 and 1422. The value of DATUM X may now be read (see process step 1506). At the start of the address translation operation, pre-charged data bit line 1403 is at a pre-determined level, in this example, Logic 1. If DATUM X is Logic 0, NFET 1402 is OFF (switch open) and the pre-charged data bit line 1403 remains at Logic 1. The sense amplifier 1404 inverts and amplifies this level so that DATA OUT is read as a Logic 0 at the end of the address translation operation. If DATUM X is Logic 1, NFET 1402 is ON (switch closed) and the pre-charged data bit line 1403 is effectively shorted to ground by NFETs 1402, 1421, and 1422. The sense amplifier 1404 inverts and amplifies this level so that DATA OUT is then read as a Logic 1 at the end of the address translation operation. After the end of the address translation operation, pre-charged data bit line 1403 is pre-charged back to its pre-determined charge level (see process step 1507). In the above-described preferred embodiment, the receipt of the SELECT1 signal occurs approximately concurrently with the receipt of the four address bits ADDR1(15:12). However, this is not essential to the operation of the improved RAM cell selection circuit 1400. In alternate embodiments, the receipt of the SELECT1 signal may occur either before or after the receipt of the four linear address bits ADDR1(15:12). In that case, process steps 1501 and 1502 in FIG. 15 occur in series with process steps 1503, 1504, and 1505, rather than in parallel. The speed at which RAM cell selection circuit 1400 operates is determined by the speed at which NFETs 1421 and 1422 can be closed. Thus, the speed is essentially determined by the speed at which decoders 1411-1414 can decode linear address bits ADDR1(15:12). This is a comparatively rapid decode, since only four bits are involved. The initial stage of multiplexing four 20-bit linear addresses, ADDR1(31:12) through ADDR4(31:12), as depicted in prior art FIG. 13, is eliminated. Instead, the signals SELECT1 through SELECT4 select which decoder is used to decode the lowest four linear address bits, ADDR1(15:12), ADDR2(15:12), ADDR3(15:12), or ADDR4(15:12). The closing of NFETs 1421 and 1422 provides a very fast, low-resistance path between ground and the pre-charged data bit line 1403. In one embodiment of the present invention, the pre-charged data bit line 1403 is charged to a level slightly higher than an input bias level of sense amplifier 1404. For example, if the RAM cell selection circuit 1400 is implemented in 2.5V logic, the input bias of sense amplifier 1401 may be 1.2 volts and the pre-charge level of the pre-charged data bit line 1403 may be 1.3 volts. The amplification effects of the sense amplifier 1404 will be sufficient to drive DATA OUT all the way to the ground rail (Logic 0). Assuming NFET 1402 is closed by DATUM X=Logic 1, when NFETs 1421 and 1422 are closed by SELECT1 and ADDR1(15:12), the voltage level on the pre-charged data bit line 1403 only needs to move 0.2 volts, (to 1.1 volts from 1.3 volts) in order to drive DATA OUT all the way to the +2.5V rail (Logic 1). This 0.2 volt shift can be accomplished very rapidly by NFETs 1421 and 1422 (or any other series-connected NFET pair). The use of a static sense amplifier permits the RAM cell selection circuit 1400 to operate asynchronously. The cell selection process begins as soon as an address becomes available. This permits faster operating speeds than would be found in an equivalent dynamic logic circuit embodiment. Dynamic logic circuits typically operate off clock edges. Speed would be lost in the cell selection process due to possible time intervals between the arrival of an address for decoding and the next triggering clock edge. The exemplary configurations and operations of data latch 1401, NFET 1402, pre-charged data bit line 1403, and sense amplifier 1404 described above are by way of illustration only and should not be construed to limit the broad applicability of the fast RAM cell selection circuitry formed by NFETs 1421-1428 and decoders 1411-1414. Those skilled in the art will readily perceive that the very fast low-resistance paths provided by the series connected NFET pairs depicted in FIG. 14 may be used to access RAM cells in other configurations, and drive sense amplifiers and output data lines in other configurations, as well. It will also be readily understood that the very fast low-resistance paths between ground and the data bit line provided by the series-connected NFET pairs could be replaced by an analogous structure of series-connected PFET pairs that provide low-resistance paths between the data bit line and the positive voltage supply rail (+VDD). In this alternate implementation, the outputs of the decoders 1411-1414, the output of the data latch 1401, and the signals SELECT1-SELECT4 would be active low (Logic 0) signals, and the data bit line would be pulled up towards the +VDD supply rail in order to switch the value of DATA OUT. Although the present invention has been described in detail, those skilled in the art should understand that they can make various changes, substitutions and alterations herein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention in its broadest form.

There is disclosed, for use in an x86-compatible processor having a physically-addressable cache, an address translation device for translating linear addresses received from a plurality of linear address sources and selectively accessing physical addresses, linear addresses, and controls signals stored in the address translation device. The address translation device comprises: 1) an array of data cells for storing the physical addresses, linear addresses, and controls signals in a plurality of entries; 2) an entry selection circuit for receiving a first linear address from a first linear address source and, in response thereto, generating an entry select output corresponding to the first linear address; 3) a first switch controllable by the entry select output; and 4) a second switch controllable by an address source select signal received from the first linear address source, wherein the entry select output and the address source select signal close the first and second switches to thereby form a connection path, the formation of the connection path causing a selected data cell to transfer a stored target bit stored therein to a data bit line of the address translation device.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 12/113,262, filed May 1, 2008; which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 11/093,152, filed Mar. 29, 2005. This application relates to commonly-owned, co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. Nos. 11/093,132; 11/093,154; 11/093,131; 11/093,132; 11/093,127; and 11/093,160 all filed on even date herewith and incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein. BACKGROUND [0002] 1. Field [0003] The present invention generally relates to computer systems having multiprocessor architectures and, more particularly, to a novel multi-processor computer system for processing memory accesses requests and the implementation of cache coherence in such multiprocessor systems. [0004] 2. Description of the Prior Art [0005] To achieve high performance computing, multiple individual processors have been interconnected to form multiprocessor computer system capable of parallel processing. Multiple processors can be placed on a single chip, or several chips—each containing one or several processors—interconnected into a multiprocessor computer system. [0006] Processors in a multiprocessor computer system use private cache memories because of their short access time (a cache is local to a processor and provides fast access to data) and to reduce number of memory requests to the main memory. However, managing caches in multiprocessor system is complex. Multiple private caches introduce the multi-cache coherency problem (or stale data problem) due to multiple copies of main memory data that can concurrently exist in the multiprocessor system. [0007] Small scale shared memory multiprocessing system have processors (or groups thereof) interconnected by a single bus. However, with the increasing speed of processors, the feasible number of processors which can share the bus effectively decreases. [0008] The protocols that maintain the coherence between multiple processors are called cache coherence protocols. Cache coherence protocols track any sharing of data block between the processors. Depending upon how data sharing is tracked, cache coherence protocols can be grouped into two classes: 1) Directory based and 2) Snooping. [0009] In directory based approach, the sharing status of a block of physical memory is kept in just one location called the coherency directory. Coherency directories are generally large blocks of memory which keep track of which processor in the multiprocessor computer system owns which lines of memory. Disadvantageously, coherency directories are typically large and slow. They can severely degrade overall system performance since they introduce additional latency for every memory access request by requiring that each access to the memory go through the common directory. [0010] FIG. 1 illustrates a typical prior art multiprocessor system 10 using the coherence directory approach for cache coherency. The multiprocessor system 10 includes a number of processors 15 a, . . . , 15 d interconnected via a shared bus 24 to the main memory 20 a, 20 b via memory controllers 22 a, 22 b, respectively. Each processor 15 a, . . . , 15 d has its own private cache 17 a, . . . , 17 d, respectively, which is N-way set associative. Each request to the memory from a processor is placed on the processor bus 24 and directed to the coherency directory 26 . Frequently, in the coherency controller, a module is contained which tracks the location of cache lines held in particular subsystems to eliminated the need to broadcast unneeded snoop request to all caching agents. This unit is frequently labeled “snoop controller” or “snoop filter”. All memory access requests from the I/O subsystem 28 are also directed to the coherency controller 26 . Instead of the main memory, secondary cache connected to the main memory can be used. Processors can be grouped into processor clusters, where each cluster has its own cluster bus, which is then connected to the coherency controller 26 . As each memory request goes through the coherence directory, additional cycles are added to each request for checking the status of the requested memory block. [0011] In a snooping approach, no centralized state is kept, but rather each cache keeps the sharing status of data block locally. The caches are usually on a shared memory bus, and all cache controllers snoop (monitor) the bus to determine whether they have a copy of the data block requested. A commonly used snooping method is the “write-invalidate” protocol. In this protocol, a processor ensures that it has exclusive access to data before it writes that data. On each write, all other copies of the data in all other caches are invalidated. If two or more processors attempt to write the same data simultaneously, only one of them wins the race, causing the other processors' copies to be invalidated. [0012] To perform a write in a write-invalidate protocol based system, a processor acquires the shared bus, and broadcasts the address to be invalidated on the bus. All processors snoop on the bus, and check to see if the data is in their cache. If so, these data are invalidated. Thus, use of the shared bus enforces write serialization. [0013] Disadvantageously, every bus transaction in the snooping apporach has to check the cache address tags, which could interfere with CPU cache accesses. In most recent architectures, this is typically reduced by duplicating the address tags, so that the CPU and the snooping requests may proceed in parallel. An alternative approach is to employ a multilevel cache with inclusion, so that every entry in the primary cache is duplicated in the lower level cache. Then, snoop activity is performed at the secondary level cache and does not interfere with the CPU activity. [0014] FIG. 2 illustrates a typical prior art multiprocessor system 50 using the snooping approach for cache coherency. The multiprocessor system 50 contains number of processors 52 a, . . . , 52 c interconnected via a shared bus 56 to the main memory 58 . Each processor 52 a, . . . , 52 c has its own private cache 54 a, . . . , 54 c which is N-way set associative. Each write request to the memory from a processor is placed on the processor bus 56 . All processors snoop on the bus, and check their caches to see if the address written to is also located in their caches. If so, the data corresponding to this address are invalidated. Several multiprocessor systems add a module locally to each processor to track if a cache line to be invalidated is held in the particular cache, thus effectively reducing the local snooping activity. This unit is frequently labeled “snoop filter”. Instead of the main memory, secondary cache connected to the main memory can be used. [0015] With the increasing number of processors on a bus, snooping activity increases as well. Unnecessary snoop requests to a cache can degrade processor performance, and each snoop requests accessing the cache directory consumes power. In addition, duplicating the cache directory for every processor to support snooping activity significantly increases the size of the chip. This is especially important for systems on a single chip with a limited power budget. [0016] What now follows is a description of prior art references that address the various problems of conventional snooping approaches found in multiprocessor systems. [0017] Particularly, U.S. Patent Application US2003/0135696A1 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,704,845B2 both describe replacement policy methods for replacing entries in the snoop filter for a coherence directory based approach including a snoop filter. The snoop filter contains information on cached memory blocks—where the cache line is cached and its status. The U.S. Patent Application US2004/0003184A1 describes a snoop filter containing sub-snoop filters for recording even and odd address lines which record local cache lines accessed by remote nodes (sub-filters use same filtering approach). Each of these disclosures do not teach or suggest a system and method for locally reducing the number of snoop requests presented to each cache in a multiprocessor system. Nor do they teach or suggest coupling several snoop filters with various filtering methods, nor do they teach or suggest providing point-to-point interconnection of snooping information to caches. [0018] U.S. Patent Applications US2003/0070016A1 and US2003/0065843A1 describe a multi-processor system with a central coherency directory containing a snoop filter. The snoop filter described in these applications reduces the number of cycles to process a snoop request, however, does not reduce the number of snoop requests presented to a cache. [0019] U.S. Pat. No. 5,966,729 describes a multi-processor system sharing a bus using a snooping approach for cache coherence and a snoop filter associated locally to each processor group. To reduce snooping activity, a list of remote processor groups “interested” and “not-interested” in particular cache line is kept. Snoop requests are forwarded only to the processor groups marked as “interested” thus reducing the number of broadcasted snoop requests. It does not describe how to reduce the number of snoop requests to a local processor, but rather how to reduce the number of snoop requests sent to other processor groups marked as “not interested”. This solution requires keeping a list with information on interested groups for each line in the cache for a processor group, which is comparable in size to duplicating the cache directories of each processor in the processor group thus significantly increasing the size of chip. [0020] U.S. Pat. No. 6,389,517B1 describes a method for snooping cache coherence to allow for concurrent access on the cache from both the processor and the snoop accesses having two access queues. The embodiment disclosed is directed to a shared bus configuration. It does not describe a method for reducing the number of snoop requests presented to the cache. [0021] U.S. Pat. No. 5,572,701 describes a bus-based snoop method for reducing the interference of a low speed bus to a high speed bus and processor. The snoop bus control unit buffers addresses and data from the low speed bus until the processor releases the high speed bus. Then it transfers data and invalidates the corresponding lines in the cache. This disclosure does not describe a multiprocessor system where all components communicate via a high-speed bus. [0022] A. Moshovos, G. Memik, B. Falsafi and A. Choudhary, in a reference entitled “JETTY: filtering snoops for reduced energy consumption in SMP servers” (“Jetty”) describe several proposals for reducing snoop requests using hardware filter. It describes the multiprocessor system where snoop requests are distributed via a shared system bus. To reduce the number of snoop requests presented to a processor, one or several various snoop filters are used. [0023] However, the system described in Jetty has significant limitations as to performance, supported system and more specifically interconnect architectures, and lack of support for multiporting. More specifically, the approach described in Jetty is based on a shared system bus which established a common event ordering across the system. While such global time ordering is desirable to simplify the filter architecture, it limited the possible system configurations to those with a single shared bus. Alas, shared bus systems are known to be limited in scalability due to contention to the single global resource. In addition, global buses tend to be slow, due to the high load of multiple components attached to them, and inefficient to place in chip multiprocessors. [0024] Thus, in a highly optimized high-bandwidth system, it is desirable to provide alternate system architectures, such as star, or point-to-point implementations. These are advantageous, as they only have a single sender and transmitter, reducing the load, allowing the use of high speed protocols, and simplifying floor planning in chip multiprocessors. Using point to point protocols also allows to have several transmissions in-progress simultaneously, thereby increasing the data transfer parallelism and overall data throughput. [0025] Other limitations of Jetty include the inability to perform snoop filtering on several requests simultaneously, as in Jetty, simultaneous snoop requests from several processors have to be serialized by the system bus. Allowing the processing of several snoop requests concurrently would provide a significant increase in the number of requests which can be handled at any one time, and thus increase overall system performance. [0026] Having set forth the limitations of the prior art, it is clear that what is required is a system incorporating snoop filters to increase overall performance and power efficiency without limiting the system design options, and more specifically, methods and apparatus to support snoop filtering in systems not requiring a common bus. [0027] Furthermore, there is a need for a snoop filter architecture supporting systems using point-to-point connections to allow the implementation of high performance systems using snoop filtering. [0028] There is a further need for the simultaneous operation of multiple snoop filter units to concurrently filter requests from multiple memory writers to increase system performance. [0029] There is further a need to provide novel, high performance snoop filters which can be implemented in a pipelined fashion to enable high system clock speeds in systems utilizing such snoop filters. [0030] There is an additional need for snoop filters with high filtering efficiency transcending the limitations of prior art. SUMMARY [0031] It is therefore an object of the present invention to provide a simple method and apparatus for reducing the number of snoop requests presented to a single processor in cache coherent multiprocessor systems. [0032] It is a further object of the present invention to provide a simple method and apparatus for supporting snoop filtering in multiprocessor system architectures. While prior art has allowed snoop filtering to be used only in bus-based system, the present invention teaches how to advantageously use snoop filtering in conjunction with point to point protocols by permitting several transmissions in-progress simultaneously, thereby increasing the data transfer parallelism and overall data throughput. [0033] In accordance with the present invention, there is provided a snoop filtering method and apparatus for supporting cache coherency in a multiprocessor computing environment having multiple processing units, each processing unit having one or more local cache memories associated and operatively connected therewith. The method comprises providing a snoop filter device associated with each processing unit, each snoop filter device having a plurality of dedicated input ports for receiving snoop requests from dedicated memory writing sources in the multiprocessor computing environment. Each snoop filter device includes a plurality of parallel operating port snoop filters in correspondence with the plurality of dedicated input ports that are adapted to concurrently filter snoop requests received from respective dedicated memory writing sources and forward a subset of those requests to its associated processing unit. [0034] According to the invention, there is provided a snoop filtering method and a snoop filter apparatus associated with a processing unit of a computing environment having multiple processing units for supporting cache coherency in the computing environment, the snoop filter apparatus comprising: a plurality of inputs, each receiving a snoop request from a dedicated memory writing source in the computing environment; a snoop filter means provided for each input and adapted to concurrently filter received respective snoop requests from respective dedicated memory writing sources, each snoop filter means implementing one or more parallel operating sub-filter elements adapted for processing received snoop requests and forwarding a subset thereof to the associated processing unit, whereby as a result of the concurrent filtering, a number of snoop requests forwarded to a processing unit is significantly reduced thereby increasing performance of the computing environment. [0038] In accordance with the present invention, one of said one or more parallel operating sub-filter elements comprises an address range filter means for determining whether an address of a received snoop request is within an address range comprising a minimum range address and a maximum range address. [0039] Furthermore, one of said one or more parallel operating sub-filter elements comprises a snoop cache device adapted for tracking snoop requests received at the snoop filter means and recording addresses corresponding to snoop requests received; and, a snoop cache logic means in one to one correspondence with a respective snoop cache for comparing a received snoop request address against all addresses recorded in the corresponding snoop cache device, and, one of forwarding said received snoop request to the associated processing unit when an address does not match in the respective snoop cache device, or discarding the snoop request when an address match is found in the snoop cache device. [0040] Furthermore, the processing unit has one or more cache memories associated therewith, and the snoop filter means comprises a memory storage means adapted to track cache line addresses of data that have been loaded into a cache memory level of its associated processor and record the cache line addresses. Accordingly, one of the one or more parallel operating sub-filter elements comprises a stream register check means for comparing an address of the received snoop request against corresponding addresses stored in the memory storage means; and, one of forwarding said received snoop request to said processor in response to matching an address in the memory storage means, or otherwise discarding the snoop request. [0041] In one embodiment, the memory storage means comprises a plurality of stream register sets, each stream register set comprising a base register and a corresponding mask register pair, the base register tracking address bits common to all of the cache lines represented by the stream register; and, the corresponding mask register tracking bits representing differences to prior recorded addresses included in its corresponding base register. [0042] Furthermore, each of the one or more parallel operating sub-filter elements generates a signal indicating whether a snoop request is to be forwarded to said associated processor or not forwarded. The snoop filter means further comprising: a means responsive to each signal generated from the sub-filter element for deciding whether a snoop request is to be forwarded or discarded. [0043] Advantageously, the present invention enables snoop filtering to be performed on several requests simultaneously, while in the prior art systems, simultaneous snoop requests from several processors have to be serialized by the system bus. Allowing the processing of several snoop requests concurrently provides a significant increase in the number of requests which can be handled at any one time, and thus increase overall system performance. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0044] The objects, features and advantages of the present invention will become apparent to one skilled in the art, in view of the following detailed description taken in combination with the attached drawings, in which: [0045] FIG. 1 depicts a base multiprocessor architecture with the coherence directory for cache coherency according to the prior art; [0046] FIG. 2 depicts a base multiprocessor system using snooping approach for cache coherency according to the prior art; [0047] FIG. 3 depicts a base multiprocessor system using snooping approach for cache coherency using a point-to-point connection described according to the present invention; [0048] FIG. 4 illustrates an alternative embodiment base multiprocessor system using snooping approach for cache coherency using point-to-point connection where snoop filter is placed between the L2 cache and the main memory; [0049] FIG. 5 depicts a high level schematic of a snoop filter block in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the invention; [0050] FIG. 6 is a high level schematic of the snoop block containing multiple snoop filters according to the present invention; [0051] FIG. 7 illustrates a high level schematic of a single snoop port filter according to the present invention; [0052] FIGS. 8( a ) and 8 ( b ) depict high level schematics of two alternative embodiments of the snoop block according to the present invention; [0053] FIG. 9 is a is a high level schematic of the snoop block including multiple port snoop filters according to a further embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 10 depicts the control flow for the snoop filter implementing snoop cache for a single snoop source according to the present invention; FIG. 11 depicts a control flow logic for adding a new entry to the port snoop cache inaccordance with the present invention; FIG. 12 depicts a control flow logic for removing an entry from the snoop cache in accordance with the present invention; [0054] FIG. 13 depicts a block diagram of the snoop filter implementing stream registers in accordance with the present invention; [0055] FIG. 14 depicts another embodiment of the snoop filter implementing stream registers filtering approach in accordance with the present invention; [0056] FIG. 15 is a block diagram depicting the control flow for the snoop filter using paired stream registers and masks sets according to the invention; and, [0057] FIG. 16 is a block diagram depicting the control flow for updating two stream register sets and the cache wrap detection logic for the replaced cache lines according to the invention; [0058] FIG. 17 illustrates block diagram of signature filters to provide additional filtering capability to stream registers; [0059] FIG. 18 is the block diagram of filtering mechanism using signature files in accordance with the present invention; [0060] FIGS. 19( a ) and 19 ( b ) depict exemplary cache wrap detection logic circuitry (registers and comparator) for an N-way set-associative cache; [0061] FIG. 20 depicts an exemplary cache wrap detection logic circuitry for an N-way set-associative cache according to a second embodiment of the invention that is based on a loadable counter; and, [0062] FIG. 21 depicts an exemplary cache wrap detection logic circuitry for an N-way set-associative cache according to a third embodiment of the invention that is based on a scoreboard register. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0063] Referring now to drawings, and more particularly to FIG. 3 , there is shown the overall base architecture of the multiprocessor system with the use of snooping approach for cache coherency. In the preferred embodiment, the multiprocessor system is composed of N processors 100 a, . . . , 100 n (or CPUs labeled DCU 1 to DCU N ) with their local L1 data and instruction caches, and their associated L2 caches 120 a, . . . , 120 n. The main memory 130 is shared and can be implemented on-chip or off-chip. In the alternative embodiment, instead of main memory, a shared L3 with access to main memory can be used. In the preferred embodiment, the processor cores 100 a, . . . , 100 n are PowerPC cores such as PPC440 or PPC405, but any other processor core can be used, or some combination of various processors in a single multiprocessor system can be used without departing from the scope of this invention. The processor cores 100 a, . . . , 100 n are interconnected by a system local bus 150 . [0064] To reduce the number of snoop requests presented to a processor, and thus to reduce the impact of snooping on processor and system performance, and to reduce power consumed by unnecessary snoop requests, a snoop filter 140 a, . . . , 140 n is provided for each respective processor core 100 a, . . . , 100 n in the multiprocessor system 10 . For transferring snooping requests, the preferred embodiment does not use the system bus 150 , as typically found in prior art systems, but rather implements a point-to-point interconnection 160 whereby each processor's associated snoop filter is directly connected with each snoop filter associated with every other processor in the system. Thus, snoop requests are decoupled from all other memory requests transferred via the system local bus, reducing the congestion of the bus which is often a system bottleneck. All snoop requests to a single processor are forwarded to the snoop filter 140 a, . . . , 140 n, which comprises several sub-filters with the same filtering method, or with several different filtering methods, or any combination of the two, as will be described in greater detail herein. The snoop filter processes each snoop request, and presents only a fraction of all requests which are possibly in the processor's cache to the processor. [0065] For each processor, snoop requests are connected directly to all other processors' snoop filters using a point-to-point interconnection 160 . Thus, several snoop requests (resulting from write and invalidate attempts) from different processors can occur simultaneously. These requests are no longer serialized, as in the typical snooping approach using the system bus, where this serialization is performed by the bus. That is, multiple snoop requests can be processed in the snoop filter concurrently, as will be described herein in further detail. As a processor has only one snoop port, the snoop requests not filtered out by a snoop filter will be serialized in a queue to be presented to the processor. However, the number of requests passed to the processor is much less than the pre-filtered number of all snoop requests, reducing the impact of cache coherence implementation on system performance. [0066] To prevent queue overflowing condition of the queues contained in the snoop filter block, a token-based flow control system is implemented for each point to point link to limit the number of simultaneously outstanding requests. According to the token-based flow control, each memory writer can send the next write request—which also initiates snoop requests to all other processor units and accompanied snoop filter blocks—only if it has tokens available for all ports of the snoop filter blocks it has a direct point-to-point connection. If there are no tokens available from at least one of the remote ports it is connected to, no snoop requests can be sent out from this memory writer until at least one token from the said snoop filter port gets available again. [0067] FIG. 4 illustrates an alternative embodiment of this invention, with a base multiprocessor system using a snooping approach for cache coherency with point-to-point interconnection for snooping requests, wherein the snoop filter is placed between the L2 cache and the main memory 230 . The multiprocessor system according to this embodiment thus comprises N processors 200 a, . . . , 200 n (or CPUs labeled DCU 1 to DCU N ) with their local L1 data and instruction caches, and their associated L2 caches 220 a, . . . , 220 n. The main memory 230 is shared and can be implemented on-chip or off-chip. In the alternative embodiment, instead of main memory, a shared L3 cache with access to main memory can be used. All memory access requests from processors 200 a, . . . , 200 n are transferred via a system local bus 250 . In the embodiment depicted in FIG. 4 , each of the processors in the multiprocessor system is paired with a respective snoop filter 240 a, . . . , 240 n. The point-to-point interconnection 260 is used to transfer snoop requests in the preferred embodiment in order to reduce the congestion of the system bus. In this point-to-point connection scheme 260 , each processor's associated snoop filter is directly connected with each snoop filter associated with every other processor in the system. All snoop requests to a single processor are forwarded to its snoop filter, which processes each snoop request, and forwards only an appropriate fraction of all requests to the processor. In this embodiment, the snoop requests are filtered at the L2 cache level (not at L1, as in the previous embodiment illustrated in FIG. 3 ), but the presented invention is applicable to any cache level, and can be used for other levels of the cache hierarchy without departing from the scope of the invention. [0068] Referring now to FIG. 5 , there is depicted a high level block diagram of the snoop filter device according to the present invention. Snoop requests from all other processors 1 to N in a multiprocessor system are forwarded to the snoop block 310 via dedicated point-to-point interconnection inputs 300 a, . . . , 300 n. The snoop block 310 filters the incoming snoops and forwards the appropriate subset to the processor 320 via the processor snoop interface 340 . In addition, the snoop block 310 monitors all memory access requests from the processor and L1 data cache block 320 to the L2 cache 330 . These are only requests which miss in the L1 cache. The snoop block monitors all read address and control signals 360 and 362 to update its filters accordingly. [0069] FIG. 6 depicts a high level schematic of the snoop block 310 depicted in FIG. 5 . As shown in FIG. 6 , the snoop block 310 includes multiple (“N”) port snoop filters 400 a, . . . , 400 n that operate in parallel, with each dedicated only to one source of N memory writers (processors or a DMA engine sub-system, etc.). Each of the port snoop filters 400 a, . . . , 400 n receive on its dedicated input 410 a, . . . , 410 n snoop requests from a single source which is directly connected point-to-point. As will be described herein, a single port snoop filter may include a number of various snoop filter methods. The snoop block 310 additionally includes a stream register block 430 and snoop token control block 426 . In addition, each port snoop filter 400 a, . . . , 400 n monitors all memory read access requests 412 from its associated processor which miss in the processor's L1 level cache. This information is also provided to the stream register block 430 for use as will be described in greater detail herein. [0070] In operation, the port snoop filters 400 a, . . . , 400 n process the incoming snoop requests and forward a subset of all snoop requests to a respective snoop queue 420 a, . . . , 420 n having one queue associated with each snoop port. A queue arbitration block 422 is provided that arbitrates between all the snoop queues 420 and serializes all snoop requests from the snoop queues 420 fairly. Logic is provided to detect a snoop queue overflow condition, and the status of each queue is an input to a snoop token control unit 426 that controls flow of snoop requests from the remote memory writers. A memory writer—being a processor or a DMA engine—can submit a write to the memory and a snoop request to all snoop filters only if it has a token available from all snoop filters. The only snoop filter from which a processor does not need a token available to submit a write is its own local snoop filter. This mechanism ensures that the snoop queues do not overflow. From the snoop queue selected by arbiter 422 , snoop requests are forwarded to the processor via a processor snoop interface 408 . [0071] FIG. 7 illustrates a high level schematic of a single snoop port filter 400 . The snoop port filter block 400 includes multiple filter units which implement various filtering algorithms. In the preferred embodiment, three snoop filter blocks 440 , 444 , and 448 operate in parallel, each implementing a different snoop filter algorithm. The snoop filter blocks are labeled snoop cache 440 , stream register check unit 444 , and range filter 448 . In one embodiment, each of the parallel snoop filter blocks receives on its input an identical snoop request 410 from a single source simultaneously. In addition, the snoop cache 440 monitors all memory read access requests 412 from the processor which miss in the L1 level cache, and stream registers check unit 444 receives status input 432 from the stream register unit 430 depicted in FIG. 6 . [0072] According to the preferred embodiment, the snoop cache block 440 filters the snoop requests 410 using an algorithm which is based on the temporal locality property of snoop requests, meaning that if a single snoop request for a particular location was made, it is probable that another request to the same location will be made soon. The snoop cache monitors every load made to the local cache, and updates its status, if needed. The stream register check block 444 filters snoop requests 410 using an algorithm that determines a superset of the current local cache content. The approximation of cache content is included in the stream registers block 430 ( FIG. 6 ), and the stream register status 432 is forwarded to each snoop port filter 400 . Based on this status, for each new snoop requests 410 , a decision is made if the snoop address can possibly be contained in the local cache. The third filtering unit in the snoop port filter is the range filter 448 . For this filtering approach, two range addresses are specified, the minimum range address and the maximum range address. The filtering of a snoop request is performed by first determining if the snoop request is within the address range determined by these two range addresses. If this condition is met, the snoop request is discarded; otherwise, the snoop request is forwarded to the decision logic block 450 . Conversely, the request can be forwarded when it falls within the address range and discarded otherwise, without departing from the scope of the invention. Particularly, the decision logic block 450 receives results 456 of all three filter units 440 , 444 and 448 together with the control signals 454 which enable or disable each individual snoop filter unit. Only results of snoop filter units for which the corresponding control signals are enabled are considered in each filtering decision. If any one of the filtering units 440 , 444 or 448 decides that a snoop request 410 should be discarded, the snoop request is discarded. The resulting output of this unit is either to add the snoop request to the corresponding snoop queue 452 , or to discard the snoop request and return a snoop token 458 to the remote processor or DMA unit that initiated the discarded snoop request. [0073] In the preferred embodiment, only the three filtering units implementing the algorithms above described are included in a port snoop filter, but one skilled in the art will appreciate that any other number of snoop filter units can be included in a single port snoop filter, or that some other snoop filter algorithm may be implemented in the port snoop filter, or a combination of snoop algorithms can be implemented, without departing from the scope of the invention. [0074] FIGS. 8( a ) and 8 ( b ) depict high level schematics of two alternative embodiments of the snoop filter block 310 of FIG. 6 . As described herein with respect to FIG. 6 , the snoop block may include multiple snoop filters that can use various filtering approaches, the same filtering approach, or a combination of the two. As shown in FIG. 8( a ), N port snoop filters 460 a, . . . , 460 n operate in parallel, one for each of N remote memory writers. Each of the port snoop filters 460 a, . . . , 460 n receive on its respective input 462 a, . . . , 462 n snoop requests from a single dedicated source which is connected point-to-point. In addition, each snoop filter 460 a, . . . , 460 n monitors all of the local processor's memory load requests 464 which have missed in the L1 level cache. Other signals from other units of the snoop block may also be needed to supply to the port snoop filters, if required by the filter algorithm implemented. The exact signals needed are determined by the one or more snoop filter algorithms implemented in a single port snoop filter 460 . Additionally, it should be understood that all port snoop filters do not have to implement the same set of filtering algorithms. [0075] The port snoop filters 460 a, . . . , 460 n filter the incoming snoops and forward the appropriate unfiltered subset of snoop requests into the respective queues 466 a, . . . , 466 n and the queue arbitration block 468 . Here, the snoop requests are serialized and presented to a next snoop filter 470 , which handles inputs from all remote memory writers. This shared snoop filter 470 processes all snoop request presented and forwards a subset of all requests to the snoop queue 472 . From the snoop queue 472 , snoop requests are forwarded to the processor via the processor snoop interface 474 . It should be understood that it is possible to have multiple or no shared snoop filters 470 instead of the configuration shown in FIG. 8( a ). In the case of multiple shared filters, the filters may be arranged in parallel or in series (in which case the output of one filter is the input to the next, for example). If a filter has inputs from more than one source (i.e., is shared between multiple sources), it has to have its own input queue and an arbiter to serialize snoop requests. A final ordered subset of all snoop requests is placed in the snoop queue 472 , and snoop requests are forwarded to the processor via the processor snoop interface 474 . Optionally, a snoop queue full indication signal 476 is provided that indicates when the snoop queue is full in order to stop some or all remote memory writers from issuing further snoop requests until the number of snoops in the snoop queue falls below a predetermined level. [0076] Similarly, FIG. 8( b ) illustrates another embodiment with an alternative organization of the snoop filters in the snoop block 310 . N port snoop filters 480 a, . . . , 480 n, each receiving only snoop requests from one of N remote memory writers (i.e., excluding the processor where the snoop filter is attached), operate in parallel. Each port snoop filter 480 a, . . . , 480 n receives on its respective input snoop requests 482 a, . . . , 482 n from only a single source, respectively. A shared snoop filter 484 is connected in parallel with the port snoop filter devices 480 a, . . . , 480 n. In an alternative embodiment, more than one shared snoop filter can be attached in parallel. The shared snoop filter 484 handles inputs from all N remote memory writers. Having more than one input, the shared filter 484 has its own input queues 486 and a queue arbiter 488 for serializing snoop requests. Further in the embodiment depicted in FIG. 8( b ), all port snoop filters 480 a, . . . , 480 n and the shared snoop filter 484 monitor all memory read access requests 490 from the local processor which miss in the L1 level cache. The snoop filters 480 a, . . . , 480 n and 484 filter the incoming snoop requests and forward the appropriate unfiltered subset to the input queue of the next shared snoop filter 492 a, . . . , 492 n. Here, the unfiltered snoop requests are serialized by the queue arbiter 494 , and are forwarded to the processor via the processor snoop interface 496 . If one of the snoop queue devices 492 a, . . . , 492 n or 486 is full, a snoop queue full indication 498 is activated to stop all (or some of) the remote memory writers from issuing further snoop requests until the number of snoops in the snoop queue falls below a the predetermined level. [0077] Referring now to FIG. 9 , there is depicted a further embodiment of the snoop filter block 310 . The block contains N port snoop filters 500 a, . . . , 500 n, corresponding to port snoop filters 400 , 460 a, . . . , 460 n, and 480 a, . . . , 480 n (of FIGS. 8( a ) and 8 ( b )). Each port snoop filter 500 a, . . . , 500 n includes a snoop cache device 502 a, . . . , 502 n, and a snoop check logic 504 a, . . . , 504 n. The snoop cache devices 502 a, . . . , 502 n implement a snoop filtering algorithm which keeps track of recent snoop requests from one source, where the source of snoop requests can be another processor, a DMA engine, or some other unit. For each new snoop request from a single source, the snoop request's address is checked against the snoop cache in the snoop check logic block 504 . If the result of this comparison matches, i.e., the snoop request is found in the snoop cache, the snooped data is guaranteed not to be in the local L1 level cache of the processor. Thus, no snoop request is forwarded to the snoop queue 506 and the snoop queue arbiter 508 . If no match is found in the snoop cache 502 a, . . . , 502 n for the current snoop request, the address of the snoop requests is added to the snoop cache using the signals 514 a, . . . , 514 n. Concurrently, the snoop request is forwarded to the snoop queue 506 . [0078] All snoop cache devices 502 a, . . . , 502 n also receive read addresses and requests 512 from the local processor, and compare the memory read access addresses to the entries in the snoop cache 502 a, . . . , 502 n. If a request matches one of the entries in the snoop cache, this entry is removed from the snoop cache, as now the cache line is going to be located in the processor's first level cache. In the preferred embodiment, multiple snoop caches operating in parallel are used, each keeping track of snoop requests from a single remote memory writer. After filtering, a fraction of unfiltered snoop requests can be forwarded to the next port snoop filter, or they can be queued for one or more shared snoop filters, or they are placed in the snoop queue of the processor interface, depending on the embodiment. [0079] It is understood that a single snoop cache device 502 includes an internal organization of M cache lines (entries), each entry having two fields: an address tag field, and a valid line vector. The address tag field of the snoop cache is typically not the same as the address tag of the L1 cache for the local processor, but it is shorter by the number of bits represented in the valid line vector. Particularly, the valid line vector encodes a group of several consecutive cache lines, all sharing the same upper bits represented by the corresponding address tag field. Thus, the n least significant bits from an address are used for encoding 2 n consecutiveL1 cache lines. In the extreme case when n is zero, the whole entry in the snoop cache represents only one L1 cache line. In this case, the valid line vector has only one bit corresponding to a “valid” bit. [0080] The size of the address tag field in the snoop cache is determined by the size of the L1 cache line and the number of bits used for encoding the valid line vector. In an example embodiment, for an address length of 32 bits ( 31 : 0 ), an L1 cache line being 32 bytes long, and a valid line vector of 32 bits, address bits ( 31 : 10 ) are used as the address tag field, (bit 31 being the most significant), address bits ( 9 : 5 ) are encoded in the valid line vector, and address bits ( 4 : 0 ) are ignored because they encode the cache line byte offset. As an illustration, three snoop caches for three different memory writers (N=3) are listed below, each snoop cache having M=4 entries, with address tag field to the left, and with 5 bits from the address used to encode the valid line vector to track 32 consecutive cache lines: Snoop requests source 1 Entry 1 : 01c019e 00000000000000000001000000000000 Entry 2 : 01c01a0 00000000000000000000000100000000 Entry 3 : 01c01a2 00000000000000000000000000010000 Entry 4 : 01407ff 00000000000000000000000110000000 Snoop requests source 2 Entry 1 : 01c01e3 00010000000000000000000000000000 Entry 2 : 01c01e5 00000001000000000000000000000000 Entry 3 : 01c01e7 00000000000100000000000000000000 Entry 4 : 0140bff 00000000000000000000000110000000 Snoop requests source 3 Entry 1 : 01c0227 00000000000000000001000000000000 Entry 2 : 01c0229 00000000000000000000000100000000 Entry 3 : 01c022b 00000000000000000000000000010000 Entry 4 : 0140fff 00000000000000000000000110000000 [0096] In this example, entry 1 of the source 1 snoop cache has recorded that address 01c019ec hexadecimal has been invalidated recently and cannot possibly be in the L1 cache. Therefore, the next snoop request to the same cache line will be filtered out (discarded). Similarly, entry 4 of the source 1 snoop cache will cause snoop requests for cache line addresses 01407ff7 and 01407ff8 to be filtered out. [0097] Referring now to FIG. 10 , the control flow for the snoop filter implementing a snoop cache device for a single snoop source is shown. At the start of operation, all M lines in the snoop cache are reset as indicated at step 600 . When a new snoop request from a snoop source i is received, the address of the snoop request is parsed into the “address tag” field 526 and into bits used for accessing the valid line vector 524 . The valid line vector of the snoop request has only one bit corresponding to each L1 cache with address bits matching the address tag field. This is performed in the step 602 . In the step 604 , the “tag” field of the snoop request is checked against all tag fields in the snoop cache associated with the snoop source i. If the snoop request address tag is the same as one of the address tags stored in the snoop cache, the address tag field has hit in the snoop cache. After this, the valid line vector of the snoop cache entry for which a hit was detected is compared to the valid line vector of the snoop request. If the bit of the valid line vector in the snoop cache line corresponding to the bit set in the valid line vector of the snoop request is set, the valid line vector has hit as well. In one preferred embodiment, the valid line vector check is implemented by performing a logical operation upon the bit operands. Thus, for example, the valid line vector check may be performed by AND-ing the valid line vector of the snoop request with the valid line vector of the snoop cache line, and checking if the result is zero. It is understood that other implementations may additionally be used without departing from the scope of this invention. It is further understood that checking for a valid line vector hit can be implemented in parallel with checking for an address tag hit. [0098] At step 606 , a determination is made as to whether both the “tag” field matches and the corresponding bit in the valid line vector is set. If both the “tag” field matches and the corresponding bit in the valid line vector is set, the snoop request is guaranteed not to be in the cache as indicated at step 606 . Thus, this snoop request is not forwarded to the cache; it is filtered out as indicated at step 608 . [0099] Otherwise, if the address “tag” field hits in the snoop cache but the bit in the valid line vector is not set or, alternately, if the tag does not hit in the snoop cache, this indicates that the line may be in the cache. Consequently, the snoop request is forwarded to the cache by placing it into a snoop queue as indicated at step 612 . This snoop request is also added as a new entry to the snoop cache as shown at step 610 . [0100] Referring now to FIG. 11 , there is shown the details of step 610 ( FIG. 10 ) describing the process of adding new information in the snoop cache. This is accomplished by several tasks, as will now be described. At step 614 , a determination is first made as to whether the address tag is already stored in the snoop cache (i.e., the address tag was a hit). For this step, the information calculated in step 602 ( FIG. 10 ) can be used. If the address tag check gave a hit, then the process proceeds to step 624 , where the bit in the valid line vector of the selected snoop cache entry corresponding to the snoop request is set. If the address tag check gave a miss in step 614 , a new snoop cache entry has to be assigned for the new address tag, and the process proceeds to 616 where a determination is made as to whether there are empty entries available in the snoop cache. If it is determined that empty entries are available, then the first available empty entry is selected as indicated at step 620 . Otherwise, if it is determined that there are no empty entries in the snoop cache, one of the active entries in the snoop cache is selected for the replacement as indicated at step 618 . The replacement policy can be round-robin, least-recently used, random, or any other replacement policy known to skilled artisans without departing from the scope of this invention. Continuing to step 622 , the new address tag is then written in the selected snoop cache line and the corresponding valid line vector is cleared. Then, as indicated at step 624 , the bit in the valid line vector of the selected snoop cache entry corresponding to the bit set in the valid line vector of the snoop request is set. [0101] In yet another embodiment, the new information is not added into the snoop cache based on the hit or miss of a snoop request in the snoop cache only, but instead, the addition of new values—being whole snoop cache lines or only setting a single bit in a valid line vector—is based on the decision of the decision logic block 450 ( FIG. 7 ). In this embodiment, the new information is added into the snoop cache only if the decision logic block does not filter out the snoop request. If any other filter in the snoop port filter block 400 ( FIG. 7 ) filters out the snoop request (i.e., determines that the data are not in the local L1 cache), no new information is added to the snoop cache, but the operation steps are the same as for snoop cache hit case. The advantage of this embodiment is that the snoop cache performs better because less redundant information is stored. [0102] Referring now to FIG. 12 , there is depicted the control flow for removing an entry from a snoop cache. On each local processor memory read request which misses in the local L1 level cache, the address of the memory request is checked against all entries in all snoop caches associated with all snoop request sources. In step 630 , the address of the memory read request is parsed into an address tag field and into bits used for encoding the valid line vector. This is performed in the step 630 . In the step 632 , a determination is made as to whether there are one or more tag hits. This is accomplished by checking the “tag” field of the memory request against all tag fields in all snoop caches associated with all snoop sources. If the tag check misses, this address is not being filtered out and nothing has to be done. Thus, the control flow loops back to step 630 to wait for the next cache miss from the processor. [0103] Returning to step 632 , if it is determined that the comparison of the address tag with all snoop caches results in one or more hits, the information has to be removed from all snoop caches for which it was hit. Thus, at step 634 , the appropriate low order bits of the memory read address are decoded into a valid line vector, and is matched against the valid line vector of the snoop cache entry that was hit as indicated in step 635 . Proceeding now to step 636 , it is determined whether the unique bit set in the read address vector is also set in the valid line vector of the snoop cache. If there is no such valid line vector hit (regardless of the address tag field hit), this memory address is not filtered out and nothing has to be changed in the particular snoop cache. Thus, the control flow proceeds to step 640 to check if all address tag hits have been processed, and if not, the process returns to step 635 . [0104] If, however, it is determined at step 636 that the read address vector hits in the valid line vector, then the read address is being filtered out. The corresponding valid line vector bit has to be cleared since the memory read address is going to be loaded into the first level cache. This clearing of the corresponding bit in the valid line vector is performed at step 638 . If after removing the corresponding bit from the valid line vector the number of bits set of the valid line vector becomes zero, the address tag field is further removed from the snoop cache causing the entry to be empty. As next indicated at step 640 , the same process of checking for the valid line vector bit, its clearing, and clearing of the address tag—if necessary—is repeated for all snoop caches which hit the memory read request which was miss in the local L1 cache. This condition that all hit address tag lines have been processed is checked at step 640 . Once all of the cache lines have been checked, the process returns to step 630 . [0105] In yet another embodiment, the local memory request is compared to all address tags in all snoop caches simultaneously. Concurrently, the valid line vector encoding of the local memory request may be compared with all valid line vectors in all snoop caches in which there were hits simultaneously. Then, these two results—address tag hit and valid line vector hit—can be combined to determine all snoop cache lines from which the corresponding valid line vector bit has to be removed, and all these bits can be removed from the hitting cache lines from all snoop caches simultaneously. [0106] Referring now to FIG. 13 , there is depicted the block diagram of the snoop filter device implementing stream registers. In one preferred embodiment, the snoop filter unit comprises the following elements: two sets of stream registers and masks 700 , a snoop check logic block 702 , a cache wrap detection logic block 706 , a stream register selection logic block 704 , filter queues 703 , and a processor arbitrate and multiplex logic 710 . As will be described in greater detail herein, unlike the snoop cache filters that keep track of what is not in the cache, the stream registers and masks sets 700 keep track of recent data which were loaded into the cache of the processor. More precisely, the stream registers keep track of at least the lines that are in the cache, but may assume that some lines are cached which are not actually in the cache. However, forwarding some unnecessary snoop requests to the cache does not affect correctness. [0107] The heart of the stream register filter is the stream registers 700 themselves. One of these registers is updated every time the cache loads a new line, which is presented to the stream registers with appropriate control signals 716 . Logic block 704 in FIG. 13 is responsible for choosing a particular register to update based upon the current stream register state and the address of the new line being loaded into the cache in signals 716 . [0108] In operation, snoop requests received from one of the N remote processors arrive as signals 714 shown in the right-hand side of FIG. 14 . The snoop check logic 702 comprises a set of port filters that compare the addresses of the arriving snoop requests 714 with the state of the stream registers 700 to determine if the snoop requests could possibly be in the cache. If so, the requests are forwarded to queues 703 where they wait to be forwarded to the cache as actual cache snoops. The queuing structure of FIG. 13 , where each of the N remote processors has a dedicated snoop request queue 703 , is designed to allow for the maximum snoop request rate since a large number of the snoop requests will be filtered out and will never need to be enqueued. Alternative queuing structures are possible without departing from the general scope of the invention. [0109] The arbitrate and multiplex logic block 710 simply shares the snoop interface of the cache between the N snoop request queues 703 in a fair manner, guaranteeing forward progress for all requests. [0110] A description of how a single stream register is updated is now provided. A stream register actually comprises a pair of registers, the “base” and the “mask”, and a valid bit. The base register keeps track of address bits that are common to all of the cache lines represented by the stream register, while the corresponding mask register keeps track of which bits these are. The valid bit simply indicates that the stream register is in use and should be consulted by the snoop check logic 702 when deciding whether to filter a remote snoop request 714 . In order to understand the examples in the following description, consider an address space of 2 32 bytes with a cache line size of 32 bytes. In this case, a cache line load address is 27 bits in length, and the base and mask registers of the stream registers are also 27 bits in length. [0111] Initially, the valid bit is set to zero, indicating that the stream register is not in use, and the contents of the base and mask register is irrelevant. When the first cache line load address is added to this stream register, the valid bit is set to one, the base register is set to the line address, and all the bits of the mask register are set to one, indicating that all of the bits in the base register are significant. That is, an address that matches the address stored in the base register exactly is considered to be in the cache, while an address differing in any bit or bits is not. For example, given a first cache line load address is 0x1708fb1 (the 0x prefix indicates hexadecimal). Then the contents of the stream register after the load is: [0000] Base=0x1708fb1 Mask=0x7ffffff Valid=1 [0112] Subsequently, when a second cache line load address is added to this stream register, the second address is compared to the base register to determine which bits are different. The mask register is then updated so that the differing bit positions become zeros in the mask. These zeros thus indicate that the corresponding bits of the base register are “don't care”, or can be assumed to take any value (zero or one). Therefore, these bits are no longer significant for comparisons to the stream register. For example, say the second cache line load address is 0x1708fb2. Then the contents of the stream register after this second load is: [0000] Base=0x1708fb1 Mask=0x7fffffc Valid=1 [0113] In other words, the second address and the base register differed in the two least significant bits, causing those bits to be cleared in the mask register. At this point, the stream register indicates that the addresses 0x1708fb0, 0x1708fb l, 0 x1708fb2, and 0x1708fb3 can all be in the cache because it can no longer distinguish the two least significant bits. However, it is important to note that the two addresses which have actually been loaded are considered to be in the cache. This mechanism thus guarantees that all addresses presented to the stream register will be included within it. In the limit, the mask register becomes all zeros and every possible address is included in the register and considered to be in the cache. Clearly, the mechanism described can be used to continue adding addresses to the stream register. [0114] Every cache line load address is added to exactly one of the multiple stream registers. Therefore, the collection of stream registers represents the complete cache state. The decision of which register to update is made by the update choice logic block 704 in FIG. 13 . One possible selection criteria is to choose the stream register with minimal Hamming distance from the line load address (i.e. the stream register which will result in the minimum number of mask register bits changing to zero). Yet another selection criteria is to choose the stream register where the most upper bits of the base register match those of the line load address. Other selection criteria are possible and can be implemented without departing from the scope of the invention. [0115] In selecting a stream address register to update, the line load address is compared to all base registers combined with their corresponding mask registers in parallel. The line load address is then added to the selected stream register as described herein. [0116] The snoop check logic block 702 determines whether a snoop address 714 could possibly be in the cache by comparing it to all of the stream registers as follows: the snoop address 714 is converted to a line address by removing the low-order bits corresponding to the offset within a cache line. This line address is compared with a single stream register by performing a bitwise logical exclusive-OR between the base register and the snoop line address, followed by a bitwise logical AND of that result and the mask register. If the final result of these two logical operations has any bits that are not zero, then the snoop address is a “miss” in the stream register and is known not to be in the cache, as far as that stream register is concerned. The same comparison is performed on all of the stream registers in parallel, and if the snoop line address misses in all of the stream registers, then the snoop address is known not to be in the cache and can be filtered out (i.e. not forwarded to the cache). Conversely, if the snoop address hits in any one of the stream registers, then it must be forwarded to the cache. [0117] The snoop check logic 702 is duplicated for each of the N remote snoop request ports, but they all share the same set of stream registers 700 . [0118] Over time, as cache line load addresses are added to the stream registers, they become less and less accurate in terms of their knowledge of what is actually in the cache. As illustrated in the example above, every mask bit that becomes zero increases the number of cache lines that the corresponding stream registers specifies as being in the cache by a factor of two. In general, the problem of forwarding useless snoop requests to the processor (i.e., failing to filter them) becomes worse as the number of mask bits that are zero increases. Therefore, the stream register snoop filter are provided with a mechanism for recycling the registers back to the initial condition. This mechanism is based upon the observation that, in general, lines loaded into the cache replace lines that are already there. Whenever a line is replaced, it can be removed from the stream registers, since they only track which lines are in the cache. Rather than remove individual lines, the stream register snoop filter effectively batches the removals and clears the registers whenever the cache has been completely replaced. However, the new cache lines that were doing this replacement were also added into the stream registers, so the contents of those registers cannot simply be discarded. [0119] To solve this dilemma, the stream register snoop filter performs the following: starting with an initial cache state, stream register updates occur as described previously herein. The cache wrap detection logic block 706 is provided with functionality for monitoring cache update represented by cache update signals 717 and determining when all of the cache lines present in the initial state have been overwritten with new lines, i.e. the cache has “wrapped”. At that point, contents of all of the stream registers (call them the “active” set) are copied to a second “history” set of stream registers and the stream registers in the active set are all returned to the invalid state to begin accumulating cache line load addresses anew. In addition, the state of the cache at the time of the wrap becomes the new initial state for the purpose of detecting the next cache wrap. The stream registers in the history set are never updated. However, they are treated the same as the active set by the snoop check logic 702 when deciding whether a snoop address could be in the cache. With this mechanism, the stream registers are periodically recycled as the cache is overwritten. [0120] There are a number of ways that cache wrapping can be detected depending upon the cache update policy and the cache update signals 717 . For example, if the cache specifies the line that is overwritten, then a simple scoreboard can be used to determine the first time that any particular line is overwritten and a counter can be used to determine when every line has been overwritten at least once. Any mechanism for detecting cache wrapping can be used without departing from the scope of the invention. [0121] FIG. 14 shows an alternative embodiment of the stream register snoop filter, where the filter is entirely shared by the N remote processors. That is, the individual snoop request ports 714 do not have their own snoop check logic 702 as shown in the embodiment described with respect to FIG. 13 . In this embodiment, snoop requests are enqueued in queue structures 708 before being input to a shared snoop check logic block 701 . The queued requests are forwarded in a fair manner to the snoop check logic block 701 via an arbitrate and multiplex logic 705 . The functionality of the snoop check logic block 701 is otherwise identical to the previous stream register snoop filter check logic as described herein with respect to FIG. 13 . Clearly, alternative queuing structures 708 are possible and do not depart from the general scope of the invention. [0122] In a preferred embodiment, two sets of stream registers are used, but more than two sets can be used without departing from the scope of the invention. For example, in an embodiment implementing four sets of stream registers, two sets of active registers, A and B, and two sets of corresponding history registers, are implemented. In this embodiment, the A set of stream registers can contain information related to one subset of the cache, and the B set of stream registers can contain information related to a different subset of the cache. The partition of the cache into parts assigned to each set of stream registers, A and B, can be performed by dividing the cache into two equal parts, but other partitions may be used. Furthermore, the number of stream register sets can be more than two. For example, there can be one set of stream registers assigned to each cache set of a set-associative cache. [0123] In yet another embodiment, there can be more than one history set of stream registers, allowing the active set to be recycled more frequently. However, care must be taken to manage the history registers relative to cache wrap detections so that a register is never cleared when a cache line covered by that register could still be in the cache. One way to ensure that a register is never cleared is to add history registers to the active set of stream registers and then copy all of those history registers (and the active registers) to a second set of history registers when the cache wraps. This is essentially adding a second “dimension” of history to the preferred embodiment of the stream register snoop filter as described herein. [0124] Referring now to FIG. 15 , there is depicted a detailed process flow diagram of the control flow for the snoop filter using paired base register and mask register sets. At the start of operation, all stream registers and masks and snoop queues are reset as indicated at step 730 , and the system waits for the next snoop request from any snoop source as indicated at step 732 . When a new snoop request is received, the address of the snoop request is checked against all address stream register and masks (both sets of the stream registers) as depicted in step 734 . The address of the snoop requests is checked against all stream registers combined with accompanied masks (i.e., all address stream register and masks (both sets of the stream registers)). If the comparison of the current snoop request matches a stream register combined with the paired mask register as determined at step 736 , the snooped cache line might be in the cache and the snoop request is forwarded to the cache by placing the snoop request into snoop queue in step 740 . The process returns to step 732 to wait for the next snoop request. If, however, the snoop request does not match any stream register combined with the paired mask register in the both sets of stream registers, the snooped cache line is guaranteed not in the cache. Thus, this snoop request is filtered out in the step 738 and the process returns to step 732 . [0125] Referring now to FIG. 16 , there is depicted the control flow for updating two stream register sets and the cache wrap detection logic block for the replaced cache lines. At the start of operation, all stream registers and masks are reset and the cache wrap detection logic is cleared as indicated at step 750 , and first set of registers is activated. For each processor memory request (including either a load or store operation) that misses in L1 cache, the address of the memory request is added to a first set of stream registers, referred to as an active address stream register set. All address stream registers from the first set of registers are checked to select the best match—as specified by the implemented register selection criteria; alternately, the first empty stream register may be selected. The address of the memory request is stored into the selected stream address register in the active register set as indicated at step 752 , and the paired mask is updated to reflect which bits of the address are relevant, and which are not. Then, at step 754 , the cache wrap detection logic is updated to reflect the new data loaded in the cache. The cache wrap detection block keeps track of whether all lines in the cache have been replaced since first use of the active registers was initiated. Thus, at step 756 , a determination is made as to whether a cache wrap condition exists. If a cache wrap condition is not detected in step 756 , the control flow loops back to the step 752 where the system waits for the next processor memory request. Otherwise, if a cache wrap condition is detected, the control continues to the step 758 where the cache wrap detection logic block is cleared and a second stream registers and masks set are cleared in the step 758 . Proceeding next to step 760 , the system waits for the next processor memory request. For the new memory request, all address stream registers from the second set of registers are checked to select the best match, e.g., as specified by the implemented register selection criteria, for example, or, the first empty stream register is selected. The address of the memory request is stored into the selected stream address register in the second register set as indicated at step 760 , and the paired mask is updated to reflect which bits of the address are relevant. Proceeding to step 762 , the cache wrap detection logic is updated to reflect the new data loaded in the cache. As the cache wrap detection logic keeps track of all lines in the cache that have been replaced since first use of the second set of registers was initiated, a determination is then made at step 764 to determine if a cache wrap condition exists. If no cache wrap event is detected in the step 764 , the system waits for the next processor memory request by returning to step 760 . If, however, the cache wrap event is detected, the first set of registers and masks will be used again. Thus, all registers and paired masks from the first set of registers are reset, the cache wrap detection logic is cleared in the step 766 . The first set of registers are going to be used again as active for approximating the content of the cache, and the control flow is looped back to the step 752 . [0126] As described herein with respect to use of the stream register snoop filter, the power of each stream register filter to block snoop requests decreases as the number of mask bits set to zero increases. For example, if all mask bits are zero, then all snoop requests must be sent through. However, supposing these mask bits were set to zero one bit at a time (i.e., each load differs from the stream register by only one bit), then, in such a case, a snoop request for an address having exactly two bits different from the stream register would be let through, even though this address cannot be in the cache. Accordingly, additional filtering capability is provided by implementing signature filters that enable detection of more complicated, or subtle, differences such as the number of different bits. The general idea is that a snoop is forwarded from a stream register only if both the mask filter and the signature filter indicate that the address might be in the cache. [0127] Referring to FIG. 17 , there is a signature function 900 that takes as inputs, an address 901 and a stream register 902 and computes the signature 903 of the address, relative to the stream register. There are many possible signature functions, such as: 1. The number of bits in the address that are different than the stream register address. Denote this number by s. Truncation can be used to save space, e.g., set the signature to min(M,$) for some constant M. 2. If the address is N bits long, the signature is a vector of length B=(N+1) bits with zeros in every bit except for a one in bit i if s=i. To save space, this could be truncated to a vector of length B+1 (B+1<N) where there is a one in bit i if min(s,B)=i. 3. Divide the address into k (k>1) groups of bits. The length of group i is L(i) bits and let M(i)=L(i)+1. Let s(i) be the number of address bits in group i that are different than the stream register bits in group i. Then the signature is given by (s( 1 ), s( 2 ) . . . , s(k)), which is simply the number of different bits in each group. These groups may consist of either disjoint sets of bits, or partially overlapping sets of bits (i.e., some bit of an address is in more than one group). The length of the signature is B( 1 )+ . . . +B(k) bits where B(i) is the number of bits required to represent all possible values of s(i). 4. A combination of (2) and (3) above, in which the signature consists of k bit vectors corresponding to each of the groups. Bit i in group j is set to one if s(j)=i. If group i is of length L(i) bits then it requires M(i)=(L(i)+1) bits to encode all possible values of s(i). The signature is M( 1 )+ . . . +M(k) bits long. Truncation can be used to save space, e.g., bit i in group j is set to one if min(M,s(j))=i for some constant M. 5. As in (3) above, but there are M( 1 )* . . . *M(k) different unique combinations of s( 1 ), . . . , s(k). Assign an integer q to each combination, and set the signature to a vector of all zeros except for a one in bit q. Truncation, as in (4) above, can reduce space. 6. Divide the address into k (k>1) groups of bits and let p(i) be the parity of the address bits in group i. Then the signature is given by (p( 1 ), p( 2 ) . . . , p(k)). 7. As in (6) above, but encode each of the 2 k combinations of parity to an integer q, and return a bit vector of length 2 k zeros, except for a one in bit q. It is understood that many other signatures are possible. [0135] If the address 901 is a load to the cache, the signature 903 is fed to a signature register updater 904 . The updater also takes the previous value of a signature register 905 as input and replaces it by a new value 906 . The appropriate way to update the signature register depends on the type of signature. Let S_old denote the old value of the signature register, S_new denote the new value of the signature register, and V denote the value of the signature 903 . Corresponding to the signature functions above, the signature updater 904 computes: 1. S_new=max(S_old,V). This keeps track of the maximum number of bits that differ from the stream register. 2. S_new=S_old bit-wise-or V. This keeps a scoreboard of the number of different bits. 3. S_new=max(S_old,V). This keeps track of the maximum number of bits in each group that differ from the stream register. 4. S_new=S_old bit-wise-or V. This keeps a scoreboard of the number of different bits in each group. 5. S_new=S_old bit-wise-or V. This keeps a scoreboard of the number of different bits in each group that occur simultaneously. 6. S_new=S_old bit-wise-or V. This keeps a scoreboard of the parity in each group. 7. S_new=S_old bit-wise-or V. This keeps a scoreboard of the parity in each group that occur simultaneously. [0143] When a snoop request comes in, its signature is computed and compared to the signature register. It a match does not occur there, the address cannot be in the cache, so the request is filtered even if the normal stream register and mask filter indicates that it might be in the cache. A snoop is forwarded only if the signature register and mask register both indicate that the address might be in the cache. [0144] The signature filtering mechanism is shown in FIG. 18 . A load address 1001 to the cache is sent to the mask update logic 1002 which operates as described earlier, taking the previous mask register 1003 , a stream register 1004 and updating the mask register 1003 . This address 1001 is also fed to a signature function 1005 that also takes the stream register 1004 as input and produces a signature 1006 . The signature 1006 and previous signature register 1008 are fed to the signature update logic 1007 that creates a new value for the signature register 1008 . [0145] When a snoop address 1009 a request comes in, it is received and processed by the mask filter 1010 producing a mask snoop request 1011 . In addition, this same snoop address (shown as 1009 b ) and the stream register 1004 are fed to the signature function 1012 producing a signature 1013 . Note that the signature functions 1005 and 1012 must be identical logic, meaning that if they have the same inputs they will produce the same outputs. The signature of the snoop request 1013 and the signature register are fed to the signature filter 1014 . [0146] This filter must determine if a request having this signature might be in the cache and its exact operation depends on the type of signature. In the case of the “scoreboard” types of signature updaters, the snoop signature is bit-wise and-ed with the signature register. If the result of this is non-zero, then a signature snoop request 1015 is made (i.e., that signal is set to 1 if a request is to be made and 0 otherwise). In the case of “maximum number of bits changed” types of signature updaters, a check is made to see if the snoop signature is less than or equal to the signature register (one comparison for each group). If all such comparisons are true, the address might be in the cache and the signature snoop request 1015 is made. The mask snoop request 1011 and the signature snoop request 1015 are AND-ed together in logic element 1016 to generate a snoop request signal 1017 . If this signal is 1, a snoop request will be generated unless it is ruled out by the snoop vector lists, or an applied range filter (see FIG. 7 ). However, specifically, such a snoop request cannot be ruled out by the result of a signature-mask filter from another stream register. [0147] The signature register is set appropriately at the same time that the stream register is first set, or reset. For scoreboard types and max-types of signatures, the signature register is set to all zeros (indicating no bits different from the stream register). [0148] The stream register filter relies upon knowing when the entire contents of a cache have been replaced, relative to a particular starting state—a cache wrap condition as referred to herein. A set-associative cache is considered to have wrapped when all of the sets within the cache have been replaced. Normally, some sets will be replaced earlier than others and will continue to be updated before all sets have been replaced and the cache has wrapped. Therefore, the starting point for cache wrap detection is the state of the cache sets at the time of the previous cache wrap. [0149] In one embodiment, the cache is set-associative and uses a round-robin replacement algorithm, however other replacement implementations are possible. For instance, cache wrap detection may be achieved when the cache implements an arbitrary replacement policy, including least-recently-used and random. As referred to in the description to follow, a set-associative (SA) cache comprises some number of sets, where each set can store multiple lines (each with the same set index). The lines within a set are called “ways”. Hence, a 2-way set associative cache has two (2) lines per set. All of the ways within a set are searched simultaneously during a lookup, and only one of them is replaced during an update. Furthermore, a set can be partitioned such that a subset of the ways is assigned to each partition. For example, a 4-way SA cache may be partitioned into two 2-way SA caches. The virtual memory page table (and the translation lookaside buffer (TLB)) can provide a partition identifier that specifies which cache partition a particular memory reference is targeted at (both for lookup and update). The register that stores the way to be updated for a cache wrap needs to be big enough to store a way number. For example, 2 bits for a 4-way SA cache, or 5 bits for a 32-way SA cache. There is one such register per set because each set can wrap at a different time. [0150] In one embodiment of the invention, the cache is partitionable into three partitions, with each partition including a contiguous subset of the cache ways, and that subset is the same within each cache set. Memory references are designated by the processor's memory management unit to be cached in one of the three partitions. Updates to a partition occur independently of the other partitions, so one partition can wrap long before the entire cache wraps. However, detecting the wrapping of a partition is identical to detecting the wrapping of the entire cache when the partition being updated is known. Thus, as referred to hereinafter, cache wrapping includes either partition wrapping or entire cache wrapping. [0151] In order for external logic to detect cache updates, a cache must provide an indication that an update is occurring and which line is being overwritten. The logic of the preferred embodiment assumes that this information is provided by means of a set specification, a way specification and an update indicator. [0152] FIGS. 19( a ) and 19 ( b ) depict the cache wrap detection logic of the preferred embodiment for an N-way set-associative cache. In this embodiment, it is assumed that updates to a set are always performed in round-robin order. That is, the “victim” way chosen to be overwritten is always the one following the previously-overwritten one. [0153] FIG. 19( a ) particularly depicts one embodiment of logic implemented for detecting the wrap of a single partition of a single set (set “i” in the embodiment depicted) within the logic block 920 . When this logic has detected a wrap in set i, it asserts the set_wrap(i) signal 910 . FIG. 19( b ) shows how the individual set_wrap(i) 910 signals from all N sets of the cache are combined with a logic OR function to produce the cache_wrap 912 signal, which asserts when the entire cache (i.e. all sets) have wrapped. It is understood that the logic and circuitry depicted in FIGS. 19( a ) and 19 ( b ) is only one example implementation and skilled artisans will recognize that many variations and modifications may be made thereof without departing from the scope of the invention. [0154] On the left-hand side of FIG. 19( a ), there is depicted a partition detection logic block 922 that determines when a cache update falls within the partition that is being monitored for wrapping. This logic assumes that the partition extends from a way specified by “lower” 916 to the way specified by “upper” 918 . Therefore, the remainder of the logic that detects set wraps partition only changes state when there is an update, and that update falls within the partition of interest. Note that the partition detection logic 922 is common to all N copies of the set wrap detection logic. [0155] Within the set wrap detection logic, the common partition update indicator is further qualified to act only when the update is to the particular set i associated with that logic. This is done by matching the set specifier 924 to the index of the set wrap detection logic 926 . [0156] The remainder of the logic circuits function as follows: Assume that initially, the flip-flop driving set_wrap(i) 930 is clear, indicating that the set has not wrapped, and the register 928 includes the way that must be updated to complete a set wrap. In this state, the register retains its value. When a cache update occurs, where the way 914 matches the contents of the register 928 , as determined by a comparator device 919 , the flip-flop driving set_wrap(i) 930 is loaded with logic 1, causing set_wrap(i) 910 to assert. Thereafter, cache updates cause the updated way 914 to be stored in the register 928 , so the register 928 effectively tracks those updates. When all cache sets have wrapped, the combined cache_wrap 912 signal is asserted as shown in FIG. 19 ( b ), causing the flip-flop 930 to clear (assuming Reset takes precedence over Load). This returns the circuit to the initial state, with the register 928 storing the way that must be updated to indicate the next set wrap. [0157] It is thus understood that there is one register per set that stores the number of a way and when that way is overwritten, then the set has wrapped. However, the sets wrap at different times (depending on the access pattern), and the entire cache is not considered to have wrapped until all sets have wrapped. At that point, the state of the victim way pointers (i.e. pointer to the last way that was overwritten; one per set) becomes the new initial condition for detecting the next cache wrap. The first embodiment accommodates this requirement by having the register described above keep track of ways that are overwritten between the time that it has wrapped and the time that the entire cache has wrapped. Then when the whole cache wraps, it stops tracking the overwritten ways and becomes the basis for comparison for determining when the set wraps again. [0158] In a second embodiment of the cache wrap detection logic, a counter is implemented, so when the whole cache wraps, all set counters are reset to the number of ways in the partition. As ways are overwritten, the counters count down; and when a counter reaches zero, then the corresponding set has wrapped. When all counters reach zero, then the cache has wrapped and the process starts again. [0159] According to this second embodiment, the set wrapped detection logic provided within the box 920 depicted in FIG. 19( a ) is thus based on a loadable counter, rather than a register and comparator. This logic is shown in FIG. 20 . In this logic, a down-counter device 932 is loaded with the number of ways in the partition 936 while set_wrap(i) 910 is asserted (assuming Load takes precedence over Down). When all sets have wrapped and cache_wrap 912 is asserted, the flip-flop 930 driving set_wrap(i) is cleared and the counter 932 is no longer loaded. Thereafter, each update to the partition 914 and set 934 tracked by the logic cause the counter 932 to count down by one. Once it reaches zero, the flip-flop 930 is loaded with logic 1, causing set_wrap(i) 910 to be asserted, and returning the logic to the initial state. [0160] A third embodiment of the cache wrap detection logic, shown in FIG. 21 , will work with a cache that implements any replacement policy, including least recently used and random. In this case, a scoreboard 940 is used to keep track of the precise cache way 914 that is overwritten. Specifically, it is used to detect the first write to any way. In addition, a counter 942 keeps track of the number of times that a scoreboard bit was first set (i.e. goes from 0 to 1). It does this by only counting scoreboard writes where the overwritten bit (old_bit) is zero. The counter 942 is pre-loaded to the partition size 936 (i.e. number of ways in the partition), so once this counter reaches zero, the entire cache partition has wrapped. This is indicated by the cache_wrap 912 signal being asserted, causing the counter 942 to be reloaded (assuming Load takes precedence over Down) and the scoreboard 940 to be cleared (i.e. reset). [0161] While the preferred embodiment of the present invention is practiced in conjunction with a write-through cache, wherein snooping only occurs on write requests, and the results of a snoop action are the invalidation of a local data copy, the invention is not so limited. For instance, the invention can also be practiced in conjunction with write-back cache organizations. In accordance with a write-back cache, a coherence protocol will include additional transactions, e.g., including but not limited to, those in accordance with the well-known MESI protocol, or other coherence protocols. In accordance with a coherence protocol for writeback caches, read transaction on remote processors cause snoop actions to determine if remote caches have the most recent data copy in relation to the main memory. If this is the case, a data transfer is performed using one of several ways, including but not limited to, causing the processor having the most recent data to write the data to main memory, directly transferring the data from the owner of the most recent copy to the requestor, or any other method for transferring data in accordance with a snoop intervention of a specific protocol. In accordance with this invention, a snoop filtering action can be used to determine an accelerated snoop response. [0162] While the preferred embodiments have been described in terms of fixed interconnection topologies, and fixed snoop filtering operations, in one aspect of the present invention the snoop filtering subsystem has programmable aspects at one, or more, levels of the snoop filter hierarchy. In accordance with one embodiment of a programmable feature of the present invention, the interconnect topology is selected. In accordance with one variety of programmable topology, the one-to-one and one-to-many relationship between different filters in a topology is selectable. In accordance with another aspect of a programmable embodiment, the order in which a first snoop filter, and then a second snoop filter is accessed, or alternatively, a first or second snoop filter are accessed in parallel, is configurable under program control. [0163] In accordance with yet another aspect of yet another embodiment of a programmable feature of the present invention, the operation of a filter subunit is programmable. This can be in the form of configurable aspects of a snoop filter, e.g., by configuring programmable aspects such as associativity of the cache being snooped, the coherence architecture being implemented, and so forth. In another aspect of a programmable filter subunit, the filter subunit is implemented in programmable microcode, whereby a programmable engine executes a sequence of instructions to implement the aspects of one or more preferred embodiments described herein. In one aspect, this is a general microcode engine. In another aspect, this is an optimized programmable microcode engine, the programmable microcode engine having specialized supporting logic to detect snoop filter-specific conditions, and, optionally, specialized operations, such as “branch on cache wrap condition”, specialized notification events, e.g., in the form of microcode engine-specific exceptions being delivered to the microcode engine, such as “interrupt on cache wrap condition”, and so forth. [0164] In yet another embodiment of a programmable feature of the present invention, parts or all of the aspects of snoop filtering are implemented incorporating a programmable switch matrix, or a programmable gate array fabric. In one of these aspects, the routing between snoop subunits is performed by configuring the programmable switch matrix. In another aspect of this programmable embodiment, the actions of the snoop filter unit are implemented by configuring a programmable gate array logic block. In anther aspect of the present invention, the entire snoop filter block is implemented by configuring at least one field-programmable gate array cell. [0165] In accordance with another embodiment of a programmable feature of the present embodiments, one of more snoop filter subsystems can be disabled, certain snoop filtering steps can be bypassed, or snoop filtering can be disabled altogether. In one embodiment, this is achieved by writing the configuration of the snoop filter in a configuration register. In another embodiment, this configuration can be selected by input signals. [0166] While there has been shown and described what is considered to be preferred embodiments of the invention, it will, of course, be understood that various modifications and changes in form or detail could readily be made without departing from the spirit of the invention. It is therefore intended that the invention be not limited to the exact forms described and illustrated, but should be constructed to cover all modifications that may fall within the scope of the appended claims.

A method and apparatus for supporting cache coherency in a multiprocessor computing environment having multiple processing units, each processing unit having one or more local cache memories associated and operatively connected therewith. The method comprises providing a snoop filter device associated with each processing unit, each snoop filter device having a plurality of dedicated input ports for receiving snoop requests from dedicated memory writing sources in the multiprocessor computing environment. Each snoop filter device includes a plurality of parallel operating port snoop filters in correspondence with the plurality of dedicated input ports, each port snoop filter implementing one or more parallel operating sub-filter elements that are adapted to concurrently filter snoop requests received from respective dedicated memory writing sources and forward a subset of those requests to its associated processing unit.

TECHNICAL FIELD TO WHICH THE INVENTION BELONGS The present invention relates to a cement composition which improves the drawbacks of Portland cement wherein an environmental countermeasure is taken such that the cement composition has a low pH and is free from eluting a hexavalent chromium (hereinafter the cement composition is also referred to as a soil stabilizer in the specification). PRIOR ART It is a present state that Portland cement elutes a great quantity of hexavalent chromium such that it elutes 50 ppm of hexavalent chromium against the requirement of 1.5 ppm or less by Environment Agency Notification No. 46. Moreover, it elutes a high alkali material of pH 14 over a long period of time so that it is considered to effect environmental deterioration and scenery disruption. Further, since a scarcity of concrete aggregates has recently occurred, a concrete mold which does not use gravel and sand has been required. On the other hand, since a countermeasure against sludge which deposits on beds of river, pond and lake has not progressed in an easy way, a water environment affected by sludge deposition has become a large social problem. To cope with these problems, environmental countermeasures such as cement in which a countermeasure against hexavalent chromium is taken, neutral cement, a neutral soil stabilizer, a high polymeric coagulant, an ultra water-absorbing resin and the like have been used. However, it is a present situation that a satisfactory result has not been obtained. As a neutral cement, magnesia phosphoric acid cement has conventionally been put on the market. However, it is high in cost and limited to a partial application so that it has been used as an adhesive rather than as a cement. The reason is based on that the chemical composition thereof is that of bobierrite and has a ratio of phosphoric acid to magnesium oxide of from 1:1 to 2:3 (mol), whereupon the adjustment of the setting time is difficult so that there are many products which show an exceedingly rapid setting compared with the pot life of Portland cement. In a soil cement using a high-sulfate based stabilizer or a lime based soil stabilizer, a solidified product exhibits an extremely inferior strength generation in some cases in accordance with the qualities of the soil, whereupon they cannot comply with peat, andosols, acidic volcanic ashes in some cases. Particularly, in high organic sludge treatment, an agent with advantageous solidification which can reuse the sludge has been requested. Further, aggregates for use in concrete has been scarce for a long time and a novel cement which can solidify clay, silt, decomposed granitic soil, volcanic ashes and the like for utilizing them as an aggregate in cement is desired. It is preferable that heavy metals and cyan specified by Environment Agency Notification No. 46, organic chlorides and the like do not elute in a pH range of 5.5 to 8.5 as environmental standards, whereas, as in Portland cement, in the case of a high pH or on the acidic side, if any one of lead and cadmium is stabilized, the other one tends to be eluted. Where a neutral stabilization is required, however, there exists no suitable solidifying material/stabilizer capable of corresponding to this kind of requirement. While, if in a pH range of 3.5 to 10.0, an effect of a chelating agent can be expected so that the stabilizer, which works in an alkalescent range, can be attained as an object. Further, various tests verify that, if a stabilizer which can decrease the moisture content of sludge from about 500% to 60% can be utilized, the sludge in beds of lakes can be treated in an easy manner. However, a pH range is required in which the sedimentation sludge in the beds of lakes is solidified without separating water therefrom and the resultant solidified product made of sludge can be utilized as a fertilizer. Concrete using Portland cement does not attract animate things in water thereon for a long period of time so it is required in the construction of blocks for use in revetment of rivers, tetrapod-like concrete blocks, artificial fishing banks and the like using materials other than conventional concrete and, for this purpose, there are some cases in which a folding trap for fish and the like has been used to replace them. Further, since banks of canals or rivers are protected from destruction by cutting weeds twice or more a year, it is required to decrease the number of weed cuttings by suppressing the growth of the weeds. Still furthermore, in agricultural engineering, in order to protect ridges between rice fields, farm roads and waterways from weeds and water leakage, they have been treated with soil cement and the like. However, due to pH problems and the inferior capability of soil solidification, the number of treatments of this kind has recently been decreased. As an engineering method for stabilizing soil, a soil solidification for bases for engineering and building has been performed by soil stabilization by means of deep layer mixing or surface layer solidification. However, it is pointed out that, in the case of a soil stabilizer, there exist problems related to pH and hexavalent chromium and, in the case of lime-based stabilizers, there exist problems related to pH and risks of underground water pollution. Even if the above-described problems are intended to be solved, there exist many problems which conventional soil stabilizers or lime-based stabilizers can not solve. In order to solve the above-described problems, provision of a novel cement which, being alkalescent, is capable of solidifying/stabilizing a wide range of soil and applicable to biological environment, has been required. DISCLOSURE OF THE INVENTION The present inventors found that a light burned magnesia, among magnesium oxides, reacts well with various types of phosphates, in particular, phosphate fertilizers within a specified ratio therebetween, while having a moderate setting time in the presence of gypsum and hydroxycarboxylic acid or a ketocarboxylic acid for the purpose of a reaction control and the resultant product shows a strength comparable to that of Portland cement and, further, a solid solution having the same chemical composition also reacts with a phosphate in a similar manner whereupon the present invention has been accomplished. That is, in a method of using a light burned magnesia and a phosphate in a non-chemical equivalent manner instead of using phosphate magnesia cement in a conventional chemical equivalent manner, it is one of the characteristics that the weight ratio of a light burned magnesia and a phosphate is in the range of 100:3 to 3.5. This is the same with a case where a main component of a solid solution is magnesium silicate and has a completely different chemical composition from a conventional phosphate magnesia cement composition where a weight ratio of Mg 3 (PO 4 ) 2 .8H 2 O (bobierrite) and a phosphate is 100:120. Moreover, as a method of controlling a solidifying reaction, the addition of gypsum, a hydroxycarboxylic acid or a ketocarboxylic acid can enhance the strength. Examples of hydroxycarboxylic acids and ketocarboxylic acids capable of being applied in the present invention include citric acid, gluconic acid, ketogluconic acid and the like. In particular, citric acid is the most preferable. Taking citric acid as a representative example, an explanation is made below. On this occasion, these chemicals can be mixed as anhydride forms or various types of salts thereof. Further, as a method to enhance the initial strength, calcium aluminate, alumina, aluminum silicate, ferrous sulfate, ferrous chloride and the like were added while an inorganic coagulant and a high polymeric coagulant were concurrently used in a high-water-content sludge or organic sludge whereupon the solidifying capability of the sludge was able to be highly improved compared with a conventional method. That is, the present invention is a cement composition containing 100 parts by weight of magnesium oxide, 5 to 25% by weight of any one of silicic acid, alumina and iron oxide, 3 to 35 parts by weight of phosphate, 2 to 30 parts by weight of gypsum and 0.005 to 7 parts by weight of a hydroxycarboxylic acid or a ketocarboxylic acid are compounded. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION It has ordinarily been a prohibited matter to mix hydrated lime, caustic lime, burned dolomite, light burned magnesia or the like with a phosphate fertilizer or to concurrently apply them as fertilizers. The reason is that calcium phosphate or magnesium phosphate was generated, thereby causing solidification of the soil. Moreover, there has been no method to utilize this as cement. However, the present inventors have made an extensive study based on this theory and found a phosphate that can maintain a safe pH region by having the pH thereof lower than that of Mg(OH) 2 and with the help of a pH buffer action of phosphoric acid and, further, become a solidifying agent for light burned magnesia. Although the self-hardening capability of light burned magnesia has already been known, it has not been suitable for applications requiring high strength and it is sure that there has been a method to use it for oxychloride cement or phosphoric acid magnesia cement. However, it has a problem in water resistance, setting time and the like and, further, is high in cost so that it can enjoy only a limited market compared with Portland cement. Physical properties and cost which are not much different from those of Portland cement have been attained by a method which utilizes a phosphate fertilizer or phosphate as a phosphoric acid source thereby reducing an addition rate. Light burned magnesium oxide, a phosphate fertilizer and a phosphate described in the present invention is soluble in citric acid and, since 0.005 part by weight to 7.0 parts by weight of citric acid are contained in the composition, a phenomenon can be seen such that the water solubility of light burned magnesium oxide, phosphate fertilizer and phosphate was increased, they are activated, the reactivity thereof are enhanced and the flow values thereof are increased. Hence, the setting time can be adjusted. For this reason, regardless of water-soluble phosphoric acid and water-insoluble phosphoric acid, a solidified reaction product can be obtained in which, since coexisting light burned magnesium oxide is soluble in citric acid, citric acid is critical in the present reaction as an essential ingredient. Further, gypsum as a component acts to adjust the hydration of the light burned magnesium oxide in the same way as in Portland cement whereupon anhydrous gypsum, hemihydrate gypsum, dihydrate gypsum and calcium sulfate are individually used according to their respective applications. In a cement composition of the present invention, light burned magnesium oxide is suitable as the magnesium oxide to be used and it is preferable that a particle size of the light burned magnesium oxide is from 60 mesh to 360 mesh, a content of MgO in the composition is from 40% to 85% and a material purity of MgO is from 65% to 98% while the composition may contain an amount of from 5% to 25% of SiO 2 , Al 2 O 3 and/or Fe 2 O 3 as an impurity. As a means for further decreasing the pH, productivity and cost and improving the strength, there is a method in which a solid solution containing magnesium ferro aluminium solid solution by substituting for Ca used in a production method of Portland cement by Mg thereby producing magnesium silicate (mixed melting product of enstatite, forsterite and cordierite) or substituting for Ca in a production method of alumina cement by Mg thereby producing magnesium alminate (periclase, spinel) and further adding iron for a purpose of decreasing a melting point of the solid solution is produced and powders of the thus produced solid solution are acted on by a phosphate. In a method to effectively utilize phosphates, a water-soluble phosphate fertilizer is used from among magnesium triple superphosphate, calcium triple superphosphate and calcium superphosphate, in this order of ease of application, and urea magnesium phosphate, magnesium ammonium phosphate, acidic magnesium phosphate and/or acidic calcium magnesium phosphate can be used in a quick-setting compound composition and, when quick setting is avoided, any of these components can be absorbed in an inorganic porous material such as diatomaceous earth and the like to allow it to be in a sustained release state or subjected to heating treatment at a temperature of 200° C. or over to allow it to form meta phosphoric acid. Examples of components which are soluble in citric acid include magnesium metaphosphate, calcium metaphosphate, fused phosphate, Thomas phosphate fertilizer and the like in this order of ease of solubility. An addition rate of phosphate in a composition is from 3 parts by weight to 35 parts by weight and is substantially determined by the content of P 2 O 5 whereupon the addition rate is determined depending on the solubility thereof in water or citric acid and, when fineness of the phosphate exceeds a range of 200 mesh to 500 mesh, the reactivity thereof does not deteriorate, even if the addition rate of citric acid is held at a required minimum and, therefore, the addition rate of citric acid can be from 0.005 part by weight to 7 parts by weight. The above-described phosphates can be used individually or in a combination of two or more of them and also in various types of compositions according to the application. Next, as gypsum to be used in the present invention, anhydrous gypsum, hemihydrate gypsum, dihydrate gypsum and calcium sulfate are selectively used in accordance with applications whereupon anhydrous gypsum is used for sludge treatment, hemihydrate gypsum for applications which require quick setting and dihydrate gypsum for applications which put stress on retardant setting. A method can be performed in which a clinker of a solid solution is first produced by 3 MgO.SiO 2 , 3 MgO.Al 2 O 3 and MgO.Al 2 O 3 or NaO.2MgO.SiO 2 .3MgO.Al 2 O 3 .Fe 2 O 3 which can form a solid solution as chemical ingredients in the cement composition according to the present invention and then a crushed product thereof is added to the above-described phosphate, gypsum and citric acid. Magnesite and brucite, magnesium oxide, magnesium dross or magnesium chloride as main materials of MgO sources, MgO.SiO 2 .Al 2 O 3 as an auxiliary material, magnesium vermiculite, forsterite, enstatite, chlorite, pyrope, talc, serpentinite, sepiolite, anthophyllite, spinel and the like as mineral ores, feldspar, clay and, further, iron oxide, iron chloride, ferrous sulfate, slag, iron ore and the like as iron sources containing no chromium and, furthermore, Ca or Mn of 5% or less may be included. Components are compounded so that respective coefficients inclusive of ratios of cement hydraulic properties show as follows in terms of that the CaO in a Portland cement type is substituted by MgO, hydraulic ratio is from 1.26 to 2.0, magnesium ratio is 2.5, chemical index is 1.0 or less, silicic acid ratio is from 2.0 to 3.0, activity coefficient is from 3.0 to 4.0, ratio of iron oxide to alumina is from 1.5 to 2.0, magnesium index is 1.09, cement index is 5.0, acidity coefficient is 7.5 and each of the saturation degree of magnesium, Hess number and Spinel number is 100. A simplest fused composition is made such that 130 parts by weight of magnesite, 30 parts by weight of clay and silica stone and 8 parts by weight of slag are mixed, melted at 1500, then cooled and crushed to be 300-mesh or more powders, the resultant powders are mixed with 4 to 5 parts by weight of gypsum, 3 to 35 parts by weight of the above-described phosphate and 0.005 to 7 parts by weight of citric acid thereby producing cement. In the thus produced clinker composition, an appropriate quantity of magnesite is replaced by serpentinite, SiO 2 contained in clay and silica stone is supplemented by serpentinite, clay and bauxite are used as Al 2 O 3 sources and slag is used after being subjected to iron containing no chromium or phosphoric acid treatment. In the thus obtained solid solution chemical composition, the ratio of MgO is required to be large in order to generate a large quantity of 3MgO.SiO 2 , 3MgO.Al 2 O 3 and 2MgO.Fe 2 O 3 and it is preferable that the quantity of Na is increased to about 1% in order to enhance the hydraulic property. In a magnesium aluminate type, 3MgO.Al 2 O 3 is contained as a main ingredient and 2MgO.Al 2 O 3 (periclase) and 3MgO.Al 2 O 3 .Fe 2 O 3 may be contained. However, a eutectic material of 3MgO.Al 2 O 3 and 12MgO.7Al 2 O 3 is preferable and it decreases a melting point thereby facilitating a production as in the aluminate cement to contain silic acid or iron oxide of from 3% to 10%. Since fire retardancy is not taken into consideration for the application of the present invention, it is preferable that the mole ratio of MgO in a mole ratio relationship of MgO>Al 2 O 3 is an excessive one in order to enhance hydraulic capability. However, when the low temperature fusion capability is taken into consideration, if an iron content is increased while containing MgO.Al 2 O 3 as a main ingredient, then it facilitates production. In ores as starting materials, magnesium oxide, magnesium dross, magnesium chloride and magnesium hydroxide are used as main magnesium sources, bauxite, aluminum dross and aluminum hydroxide are used as aluminum sources and, on this occasion, serpentinite can be utilized for the purpose of cost reduction. A production method comprises the steps of crushing the starting materials into powders of 80 mesh or less; making them into a briquet by adding 40% or less of water and subjecting the thus obtained briquet to a heating fusion treatment at a temperature between 1200° C. and 1700° C. for 6 hours to obtain a clinker. The thus obtained clinker is used after being crushed into powders of 500 mesh or less. Optionally, the clinker can also be used by mixing the composition as set forth previously. Phosphate which is a reactive solidifying agent has a low reactivity different from light burned magnesia so that because of the low alkalinity thereof, it is difficult to use in the form of pyrophosphoric acid but acid phosphate or phosphoric acid adsorbed in an inorganic porous material can be used. 3 to 35 parts, favorably 5 to 15 parts by weight of the above-described phosphate is added to 100 parts by weight of MgO.Al 2 O 3 and then 3 parts by weight of gypsum and from 0.05 to 5 parts by weight of citric acid are added to produce a cement composition. A soil stabilizer according to the present invention can shorten a setting time thereof by adding 0.5 to 20 parts by weight of calcium aluminate as a setting accelerator and can be used in a condition that the pH is not largely increased. Calcium aluminate as a component thereof may be a solid solution comprising Ca 12 Al 7 , Ca 4 Al 7 , Ca 2 Al, CaAl and gypsum. By adding these materials, the soil stabilizer can set much quicker than that in which nothing is added to achieve early setting and early strength close to those of Portland cement of the ultra high-early strength type. The soil stabilizer according to the present invention cannot only shorten the setting time but also enhance the water-absorbing property of the high water-content sludge by adding alumina, in particular activated alumina, burned bauxite, aluminum hydroxide and the like containing alumina. An addition rate is 3 to 30 parts by weight and favorably 5 to 10 parts by weight. The cement composition according to the present invention can enhance the solidifying property thereof by adding kaolin, acid clay, clay, allophane, hydrated halloysite or montmorillonite as an aluminum silicate compound thereby increasing the viscosity thereof; hence it can have a plasticity and texture which cannot be achieved by Portland cement. When a porcelain-like texture can be obtained by adding 10 to 30 parts by weight of these materials, 10 to 30 parts by weight thereof is used and, when underwater non-separable property is required, 3 to 10 parts by weight thereof is a preferable range. In a method in which the soil stabilizer according to the present invention is used together with an inorganic or high polymeric coagulant, an ordinary lime or cement type inorganic material cannot obtain a favorable flock and serves mainly as a pH adjusting agent, whereas the soil stabilizer according to the present invention is different from a calcium-based one and forms a favorable flock in a low alkaline region due to the pH buffer action by the contained phosphoric acid and the thus formed flock undergoes an underwater shift reaction to exhibit a phenomenon that it dries in the air by discharging water thereby easily obtaining a dehydrated cake of an organic sludge which cannot conventionally be obtained. When this reaction is utilized, it is possible that the dehydrated cake of the organic sludge having a water content of about 80% is changed into that having a water content of about 60% which can easily be treated. This phenomenon utilizes a phenomenon in which the soil stabilizer having crystallization water of 22 to 32 hydrated salts according to the present invention is changed into that of 8 hydrated salts and there is a convenient condition such that the phenomenon occurs in an acidic region or weakly alkaline region of about pH 8 and does not occur in a range of a high content thereof in a high strength region by virtue of a low range of addition rate of the soil stabilizer according to the present invention. As an inorganic coagulant, ferrous sulfate, ferrous chloride, poly aluminum chloride or the like is exemplified. An addition rate thereof is 0.5 to 5.0% of the total weight of sludge. As a high polymeric coagulant, polyacrylamide, a copolymer of polymethacrylic acid and polyacrylamide, a copolymer of maleic acid and polybutadience or the like is exemplified. These materials are used at an addition rate of 0.001 to 0.5%. The cement composition according to the present invention can also be used as mortar as in the case of Portland cement whereupon it has characteristics that, since it does not exhibit whitening, when a pigment is added, it can be brightly colored and when an aggregate is added in a high compounding ratio, it can exhibit a good glossy color thereof and, moreover, since it has a white tint color, it has a tone of color which cannot be obtained by a conventional white cement. Tests conducted under conditions as set forth in JIS R-5201 show that the initial set is 2.5 hours at 20° C. when citric acid is added by 0.3%, final set is 3.3 hours, the flow value is as small as 11.5, but it does not increase linearly like that in Portland cement, bending and compression strength after 28 days are 3.2 N/mm 2 and 24.6 N/mm 2 , respectively. Cement of this soil stabilizer is capable of producing various types of compounds having a pH of 10 or less by mixing with various kinds of aggregates or fillers whereupon it can prepare plastering materials, spray coating materials and various types of molds and, further, due to the low pH thereof, prepare GRC molds and mortar having glass-based aggregates using E glass fillers. Concrete comprising the soil stabilizer according to the present invention is capable of producing a concrete in which a conventional concrete composition is held, except for cement replacement, and the thus produced concrete elutes substantially no hexavalent chromium and can find an animate object attached thereon in about 3 months due to its pH of 9.8 or less. Slump thereof in accordance with Concrete Standard Specification is low as being similar to that of mortar when a water reducing agent is not added, but the same flowability is obtained when about 0.3 of super water reducing agent is added, the bending strength and compression strength of that in a case of 300 kg/m 3 with a water content showing 0 slump are 3.4 N/mm 2 and 26.8 N/mm 2 , respectively. Contraction, creep and the like thereof are approximate to those of Portland cement and, characteristically, a surface thereof does whiten and hardly undergoes carbonation. But it is liable to permit iron formwork or iron bars to get rusted thereby necessitating anti-rust treatment on them. Soil cement of the soil stabilizer according to the present invention has an advantage such that it can obtain a same strength with soil of a loamy layer, for example, loamy soil of the Kanto district and the like as that of an ordinary high sulfate type soil stabilizer or slag soil cement by one third of an addition rate of the latter two to thereby obtain 3.5 N/mm 2 in a case of 10 kg/m 3 . It also can advantageously solidify peat, andosols, quasi-gley soil, decomposed granitic soil, volcanic ashes, volcanic glassy sand and the like. It can with the same strength solidify white clay, argil, kaoline and the like which exist in soil of deep layers by one half the addition rate in the case of loamy soil, for example, of the Kanto district and the like. The soil cement of the soil stabilizer according to the present invention from which the air content therein has greatly been reduced by a vacuum soil kneader or a press mold can attain a density of 2.2, a pencil hardness of 6H or more and a high strength such as a bending strength of 23.4 N/mm 2 and compression strength of 121.4 N/mm 2 and, further, since the tone of the color of the soil can be held as it is, it can produce a mold which will not spoil the scenery. For this reason, secondary products such as unburned brick, artificial stone, building materials, boards, soil concrete mold and the like can be obtained and, further, soil sand concrete compounded with sand irrespective of incorporation or non-incorporation of aggregates or coarse aggregates and the like can be produced and, still furthermore, in the field of agriculture engineering, permanent footpaths between rice fields, weed preventive footpaths, canal retaining walls, revetment blocks and the like can be produced from on-site soil. In the field of soil stabilizing construction methods, deep mixing can be performed with the soil stabilizer according to the present invention either in the form of powders or a slurry whereupon a press-in method of an earth pillar and a continuous wall both incorporated with on-site soil can be utilized and constructed, respectively. Further, in a surface soil improvement method, surface soil is mixed with the soil stabilizer according to the present invention by a stabilizer, a backhoe and other appropriate tools and machineries and imparted with plasticity by means of a planar pressing method using a vibration roller or a table compactor while adjusting the water content thereof thereby performing soil solidification in an easy manner. The soil stabilizer according to the present invention added with a plasticizer can be utilized in a backfilling grout for a shield, various types of soil grouting agents while using on-site soil and, since it is inherently provided with a property capable of being used in a multiplicity of applications when incorporated in a flash setting or retardant setting composition comprising any one of or a mixture of a phosphate, a setting accelerator, setting retarder and the like and also it can be shaped into granules, it allows the construction on site of a drainage conduit, water-permeable pavement and a backfilling material. These resultant products cause environmental pollution to an extremely low extent and, moreover, when pulverized, can be returned to the soil whereupon it becomes a recyclable material which does not aggravate the environment. The soil stabilizer according to the present invention can solidify various types of construction sludge, sewage sludge, sedimentation sludge in beds of rivers and lakes with a relatively small amount thereof at a pH value of 9.5 or less. Conventional soil stabilizers tend to increase the usage thereof in order to suppress a pH value so that there are many cases in which solidification cannot be performed with a decrease of the addition rate thereof whereupon there is a limitation to sea water and organic sludge. However, the soil stabilizer according to the present invention can solidify construction and sedimentation sludges in beds of rivers and lakes by the addition of as small as 3 to 10% and can treat sewage sludge, even highly hydrated sludge thereof having a water content of 700 to 200%, when used together with an inorganic or high polymeric coagulant. These kinds of sludges have ordinarily been pretreated with hydrated lime before they are treated with the inorganic or organic coagulant whereupon ammonia dissolved in water tends to be salted out. However, in order to solve this problem, the sludge is neutralized using light burned magnesium oxide or magnesium hydroxide, added with the coagulant to produce a flock and the resultant flock is mixed with the soil stabilizer according to the present invention by 5% to 30% and stirred to be solidified and then water which has been captured in the thus solidified flock as crystallization water can be discharged by an underwater shift reaction under a mild alkali to mild acidic condition. This reaction can be viewed in bobierrite as in a chemical reaction, Mg 3 (PO 4 ) 2 .22H 2 O→Mg 3 (PO 4 ) 2 .8H 2 O. However, a non-chemical equivalent reaction, 10(Mg 3 (PO 4 ) 2 ).22H 2 O−32H 2 O→10 (Mg 3 (PO 4 ) 2 ).8H 2 O, is executed by a more remarkable shift reaction. This dehydration reaction enables a dehydration ratio to reach 60% to 69% while an ordinary physical dehydration is limited to be 80% to 120% whereupon it is characteristic in that, even if the thus solidified sludge is returned to water, it will not be restored to an original sludge form. The soil stabilizer according to the present invention can produce various types of products by changing the components in the compounds or additives in accordance with the applications and usages whereupon the principal material, MgO, can be changed into magnesite or an Mg-containing ore. Therefore, it has a mass-production capability and cost close to those of Portland cement. It has a far lower pH compared with a conventional low alkali cement, does not interfere with the durability of E glass and does not pollute the environment so that it finds a multiplicity of industrial applications. EXAMPLES The present invention is specifically explained in detail with reference to the embodiments illustrated below. Example 1 85 parts by weight of sea water light burned magnesium oxide (available from Kyowa Chemical Industry Co., Ltd.), 10 parts by weight of triple super phosphate powders, 5 parts by weight of natural anhydrous gypsum Type-II and 0.5 part by weight of citric anhydride were well mixed to obtain a soil stabilizer. In accordance with a cement testing method stipulated in JIS R5201, 520 g of the thus obtained soil stabilizer, 1560 g of standard sand and 312 g of water were mixed by a Hobert mixer for 10 minutes and then a flow test was conducted on the resultant mixture to obtain a flow value of 10.5 to 11.5. In the same way, a setting test was conducted on the resultant mixture to obtain an initial set of 3 hours and 23 minutes and a final set of 4 hours and 18 minutes. Further, 10 g of the mixture was diluted with 100 cc of deionized water and subjected to a pH measurement to obtain a pH value of 9.86. The above-described resultant mixture, namely, mortar, was flowed into a formwork of 40 mm×40 mm×160 mm to allow it to be molded. The thus molded material showed a compression strength of 5.6 N/mm 2 , 13.7 N/mm 2 and 23.9 N/mm 2 at material ages of 3 days, 7 days and 28 days, respectively. Stability tests showed no cracking observed in the molded materials. Example 2 365 parts by weight of basic magnesium carbonate of reagent first grade, 25 parts by weight of kaoline, 7.5 parts by weight of silica sand, 8.0 parts by weight of iron oxide and 80 parts by weight of water were mixed to prepare a cake. The thus prepared cake was then heated at 1600° C. for 6 hours in an electric oven to obtain a clinker. A block of this clinker was cooled and crushed by a ball-mill to collect powders of 300 mesh or less by a filtering operation. 100 parts by weight of the thus collected powders, 4 parts by weight of dihydrate gypsum, 12 parts by weight of dried heavy calcined phosphate powders of 200 mesh or less and 0.6 part by weight of sodium gluconate were mixed by a Hobert mixer for 10 minutes to obtain a soil stabilizer. In accordance with a cement testing method stipulated in JIS R5201, 520 g of the thus obtained soil stabilizer, 1560 g of standard sand and 312 g of water were mixed by a Hobert mixer for 10 minutes and then a flow test was conducted on the resultant mixture to obtain a flow value of 14.5 to 15.5. In the same way, a setting test was conducted on the resultant mixture to obtain an initial set of 4 hours and 36 minutes and a final set of 5 hours and 32 minutes. Further, 10 g of the mixture was diluted with 100 cc of deionized water and subjected to a pH measurement to obtain a pH value of 8.5. The above-described resultant mixture, namely, mortar, was flowed into a formwork of 40 mm×40 mm×160 mm to allow it to be molded. The thus molded material showed a compression strength of 6.4 N/mm 2 , 15.3 N/mm 2 and 26.4 N/mm 2 at material ages of 3 days, 7 days and 28 days, respectively. Stability tests showed no cracking observed in the molded materials. Example 3 182 parts by weight of basic magnesium carbonate of reagent first grade, 80 parts by weight of powdered serpentinite, 25 parts by weight of kaoline, 8.0 parts by weight of iron oxide and 60 parts by weight of water were mixed to prepare a cake. The thus prepared cake was then heated at 1600° C. for 6 hours in an electric oven to obtain a clinker. A block of this clinker was cooled and crushed by a ball-mill to collect powders of 300 mesh or less by a filtering operation. 100 parts by weight of the thus collected powders, 4 parts by weight of dihydrate gypsum, 12 parts by weight of dried heavy calcined phosphate powders of 200 mesh or less and 0.3 part by weight of sodium 2-ketoglutarate ware mixed by a Hobert mixer for 10 minutes to obtain a soil stabilizer. In accordance with a cement testing method stipulated in JIS R5201, 520 g of the thus obtained soil stabilizer, 1560 g of standard sand and 312 g of water were mixed by a Hobert mixer for 10 minutes and then a flow test was conducted on the resultant mixture to obtain a flow value of 14.5 to 15.5. In the same way, a setting test was conducted on the resultant mixture to obtain an initial set of 4 hours and 56 minutes and a final set of 5 hours and 42 minutes. Further, 10 g of the mixture was diluted with 100 cc of deionized water and subjected to a pH measurement to obtain a pH value of 8.4. The above-described resultant mixture, namely, mortar, was flowed into a formwork of 40 mm×40 mm×160 mm to allow it to be molded. The thus molded material showed a compression strength of 5.4 N/mm 2 , 13.6 N/mm 2 and 23.8 N/mm 2 at material ages of 3 days, 7 days and 28 days, respectively. Stability tests showed no cracking observed in the molded materials. Example 4 400 parts by weight of sea water light burned magnesium oxide (available from Kyowa Chemical Industry Co., Ltd.), 1000 parts by weight of alumina of reagent first grade, 17 parts by weight of ferric oxide and 35 parts by weight of water were kneaded to obtain a block having a 10φ which was then placed in a platinum skull crucible furnace and calcined at 1400° C. for 6 hours. The thus calcined block was cooled and crushed by a ball-mill to powders of 200 mesh or less. 100 parts by weight of the thus prepared powders, 15 parts by weight of super phosphate, 3 parts by weight of dihydrate gypsum and 0.5 part by weight of citric anhydride were mixed to obtain a soil stabilizer. In accordance with a cement testing method stipulated in JIS R5201, 520 g of the thus obtained soil stabilizer, 1560 g of standard sand and 312 g of water were mixed by a Hobert mixer for 10 minutes and then a flow test was conducted on the resultant mixture to obtain a flow value of 18.5 to 19.5. In the same way, a setting test was conducted on the resultant mixture to obtain an initial set of 2 hours and 56 minutes and a final set of 3 hours and 32 minutes. Further, 10 g of the mixture was diluted with 100 cc of deionized water and subjected to a pH measurement to obtain a pH value of 9.4. The above-described resultant mixture, namely, mortar, was flowed into a formwork of 40 mm×40 mm×160 mm to allow it to be molded. The thus molded material showed a compression strength of 15.3 N/mm 2 , 23.7 N/mm 2 and 34.2 N/mm 2 at material ages of 3 days, 7 days and 28 days, respectively. Stability tests showed no cracking observed in the molded materials. Example 5 100 parts by weight of aluminum dross (metallic aluminum 47%, alumina 43%, other components such as aluminum nitride, zinc and the like 9%), 140 parts by weight of magnesium dross (metallic magnesium 51%, MgO 45%, other components such as Mn, copper, zinc and the like 4%), 10 parts by weight of powdered serpentinite and 10 parts by weight of water were mixed to react. After 24 hours, the thus reacted mixture was molded into a briquet. The briquet was fused at 1750° C. in an electric oven, quenched and crushed by a ball-mill to powders of 400 mesh to obtain magnesium aluminate powders having a periclase composition. 100 parts by weight of the thus obtained powders, 5 parts by weight of magnesium metaphosphate powders, 3 parts by weight of citric acid and 65 parts by weight of water were mixed by a Hobert mixer for 10 minutes and then a flow test was conducted on the resultant mixture to obtain a flow value of 19.0 to 20.5. In the same way, a setting test was conducted on the resultant mixture to obtain an initial set of 4 hours and 20 minutes and a final set of 4 hours and 38 minutes. Further, 10 g of the mixture was diluted with 100 cc of deionized water and subjected to a pH measurement to obtain a pH value of 8.5. The above-described resultant mixture, namely, mortar, was flowed into a formwork of 40 mm×40 mm×160 mm to allow it to be molded. The thus molded material showed a compression strength of 14.2 N/mm 2 , 24.2 N/mm 2 and 28.9 N/mm 2 at material ages of 3 days, 7 days and 28 days, respectively. Stability tests showed no cracking observed in the molded materials. Example 6 85 parts by weight of light burned magnesium oxide (produced in Liaoning Province, P.R.C.) (200 mesh or less), 10 parts by weight of heavy calcined phosphate powders, 5 parts by weight of hemihydrate gypsum and 0.5 part by weight of citric anhydride were well mixed to obtain a soil stabilizer. In accordance with a cement testing method stipulated in JIS R5201, 520 g of the thus obtained soil stabilizer, 1560 g of standard sand and 312 g of water were mixed by a Hobert mixer for 10 minutes and then a flow test was conducted on the resultant mixture to obtain a flow value of 11.0 to 11.5. In the same way, a setting test was conducted on the resultant mixture to obtain an initial set of 3 hours and 28 minutes and a final set of 4 hours and 30 minutes. Further, 10 g of the mixture was diluted with 100 cc of deionized water and subjected to a pH measurement to obtain a pH value of 9.98. The above-described resultant mixture, namely, mortar, was flowed into a formwork of 40 mm×40 mm×160 mm to allow it to be molded. The thus molded material showed a compression strength of 4.3 N/mm 2 , 14.2 N/mm 2 and 20.2 N/mm 2 at material ages of 3 days, 7 days and 28 days, respectively. Stability tests showed no cracking observed in the molded materials. Example 7 85 parts by weight of light burned magnesium oxide (produced in Liaoning Province, P.R.C.) (200 mesh or less), 25 parts by weight of fused phosphate powders, 5 parts by weight of hemihydrate gypsum and 5 parts by weight of citric anhydride were well mixed to obtain a soil stabilizer. In accordance with a cement testing method stipulated in JIS R5201, 520 g of the thus obtained soil stabilizer, 1560 g of standard sand and 312 g of water were mixed by a Hobert mixer for 10 minutes and then a flow test was conducted on the resultant mixture to obtain a flow value of 12.0 to 12.3. In the same way, a setting test was conducted on the resultant mixture to obtain an initial set of 23 hours and 30 minutes and a final set of 32 hours and 56 minutes. Further, 10 g of the mixture was diluted with 100 cc of deionized water and subjected to a pH measurement to obtain a pH value of 10.96. The above-described resultant mixture, namely, mortar, was flowed into a formwork of 40 mm×40 mm×160 mm to allow it to be molded. The thus molded material showed a compression strength of 1.2 N/mm 2 , 4.6 N/mm 2 , 10.2 N/mm 2 and 21.5 N/mm 2 at material ages of 3 days, 7 days, 28 days and 35 days, respectively. Stability tests showed no cracking observed in the molded materials. Example 8 85 parts by weight of light burned magnesium oxide (produced in Liaoning Province, P.R.C.) (200 mesh or less), 20 parts by weight of fused phosphate powders, 5 parts by weight of hemihydrate gypsum and 7 parts by weight of citric anhydride were well mixed to obtain a soil stabilizer. In accordance with a cement testing method stipulated in JIS R5201, 520 g of the thus obtained soil stabilizer, 1560 g of standard sand and 312 g of water were mixed by a Hobert mixer for 10 minutes and then a flow test was conducted on the resultant mixture to obtain a flow value of 12.0 to 13.7. In the same way, a setting test was conducted on the resultant mixture to obtain an initial set of 96 hours and 30 minutes and a final set of 131 hours and 15 minutes. Further, 10 g of the mixture was diluted with 100 cc of deionized water and subjected to a pH measurement to obtain a pH value of 10.98. The above-described resultant mixture, namely, mortar, was flowed into a formwork of 40 mm×40 mm×160 mm to allow it to be molded. The thus molded material showed a compression strength of 0, 0.6 N/mm 2 , 80.8 N/mm 2 and 20.5 N/mm 2 at material ages of 3 days, 7 days, 28 days and 35 days, respectively. Stability tests showed no cracking observed in the molded materials. Example 9 85 parts by weight of light burned magnesium oxide (produced in Liaoning Province, P.R.C.) (200 mesh or less), 5 parts by weight of magnesium metaphosphate powders, 5 parts by weight of anhydrous gypsum and 0.01 part by weight of citric anhydride were well mixed to obtain a soil stabilizer. In accordance with a cement testing method stipulated in JIS R5201, 520 g of the thus obtained soil stabilizer, 1560 g of standard sand and 312 g of water were mixed by a Hobert mixer for 10 minutes and then a flow test was conducted on the resultant mixture to obtain a flow value of 14.0 to 15.7. In the same way, a setting test was conducted on the resultant mixture to obtain an initial set of 4 hours and 25 minutes and a final set of 4 hours and 57 minutes. Further, 10 g of the mixture was diluted with 100 cc of deionized water and subjected to a pH measurement to obtain a pH value of 9.8. The above-described resultant mixture, namely, mortar, was flowed into a formwork of 40 mm×40 mm×160 mm to allow it to be molded. The thus molded material showed a compression strength of 7.6 N/mm 2 , 14.3 N/mm 2 and 26.4 N/mm 2 at material ages of 3 days, 7 days and 28 days, respectively. Stability tests showed no cracking observed in the molded materials. Example 10 300 kg/m 3 of the soil stabilizer according to Example 1, 900 kg/m 3 of river sand, 1450 kg/m 3 of gravel, 210 kg/m 3 of water and 6 kg/m 3 of Mighty 21 were mixed and kneaded by a concrete mixer to obtain concrete having a slump of 58 and air volume of 5%. This concrete was flowed into a formwork of 100φ×200 mm and cured at 60% RH and 20° C. The unconfined compressive strength of the resultant product was 9.8 N/mm 2 and 24.3 N/mm 2 at material ages of 7 days and 28 days, respectively. Concrete having the above-described composition was added with 50 kg/mm 3 of calcined kaoline and, further, allowed to have 220 kg/mm 3 of water and 7 kg/mm 3 of Mighty 21, thereby obtaining concrete having a slump of 52 and air volume of 4.6%. The unconfined compressive strength of the thus obtained concrete was 13.4 N/mm 2 and 26.7 N/mm 2 at material ages of 7 days and 28 days, respectively. This concrete exhibited a favorable abrasive resistant and smooth surface. Example 11 300 kg/m 3 of the soil stabilizer according to Example 2, 900 kg/m 3 of river sand, 1450 kg/m 3 of gravel, 210 kg/m 3 of water and 9 kg/m 3 of Mighty 150 were mixed and kneaded by a concrete mixer to obtain concrete having a slump of 53 and air volume of 5%. This concrete was flowed into a formwork of 100φ×200 mm and cured at 60% RH and 20° C. The unconfined compressive strength of the resultant product was 19.8 N/mm 2 and 27.5 N/mm 2 at material ages of 7 days and 28 days, respectively. Example 12 85 parts by weight of light burned magnesium oxide (produced in Liaoning Province, P.R.C.) (200 mesh or less), 12 parts by weight of heavy calcined phosphate powders, 5 parts by weight of hemihydrate gypsum and 1 part by weight of citric anhydride were well mixed to obtain a soil stabilizer. 30 parts by weight of the thus obtained soil stabilizer, 30 parts by weight of silica sand No. 5, 70 parts by weight of loamy soil of the Kanto district and 65 parts by weight of water were mixed by a Hobert mixer for 20 minutes and then pushed into a formwork of 50φ×100 mm using a rammer to produce a mold. The mold showed an initial set of 2 hours and 30 minutes and a final set of 3 hours and 15 minutes. Further, 10 g of the resultant mixture was taken out of the formwork, diluted with 100 cc of deionized water and subjected to a pH measurement to obtain a pH value of 9.8. The mold showed a compression strength of 0.22 N/mm 2 , 0.46 N/mm 2 , 17.2 N/mm 2 and 21.7 N/mm 2 at material ages of 3 days, 7 days, 28 days and 35 days, respectively. It has a specific gravity of 2.1. While, a mold made of 30 parts by weight of soil stabilizer having this composition, 30 parts by weight of silica sand No. 5, 70 parts by weight of loamy soil of the Kanto district, 3 parts by weight of Denka ES and 65 parts by weight of water showed an initial set of 34 minutes and a final set of 48 minutes. Further, 10 g of the resultant mixture was taken out of the formwork, diluted with 100 cc of deionized water and subjected to a pH measurement to obtain a pH value of 10.2. The mold showed a compression strength of 0.32 N/mm 2 , 0.66 N/mm 2 , 23.2 N/mm 2 and 26.5 N/mm 2 at material ages of 3 days, 7 days, 28 days and 35 days, respectively. It had a specific gravity of 2.1. Example 13 85 parts by weight of light burned magnesium oxide (produced in Liaoning Province, P.R.C.) (200 mesh or less), 10 parts by weight of heavy calcined phosphate powders, 5 parts by weight of hemihydrate gypsum and 1 part by weight of citric anhydride were well mixed to obtain a soil stabilizer. 30 parts by weight of the thus obtained soil stabilizer, 30 parts by weight of silica sand No. 5, 70 parts by weight of loamy soil of the Kanto district and 60 parts by weight of water were mixed by a Hobert mixer for 20 minutes, pushed into a formwork of 50 φ×100 mm using a rammer and, further, applied with a pressure of 10 kg/cm 2 to produce a mold. The mold showed an initial set of 2 hours and 121 minutes and a final set of 2 hours and 38 minutes. Further, 10 g of the resultant mixture was taken out of the formwork, diluted with 100 cc of deionized water and subjected to a pH measurement to obtain a pH value of 9.6. The mold showed a compression strength of 3.2 N/mm 2 , 5.68 N/mm 2 and 27.2 N/mm 2 at material ages of 3 days, 7 days and 28 days, respectively. It had a specific gravity of 2.3 and a pencil hardness of 6. Example 14 80 parts by weight of light burned magnesium oxide (produced in Liaoning Province, P.R.C.) (200 mesh or less), 10 parts by weight of heavy calcined phosphate powders, 5 parts by weight of hemihydrate gypsum and 0.5 part by weight of citric anhydride were well mixed to obtain a soil stabilizer. 10 parts by weight of the thus obtained soil stabilizer, 90 parts by weight of acid clay and 65 parts by weight of water were mixed by a Hobert mixer for 20 minutes, pushed into a formwork of 50φ×100 mm using a rammer and, further, applied with a pressure of 10 kg/cm 2 to produce a mold. The mold showed an initial set of 3 hours and 20 minutes and a final set of 3 hours and 45 minutes. Further, 10 g of the resultant mixture was taken out of the formwork, diluted with 100 cc of deionized water and subjected to a pH measurement to obtain a pH value of 9.8. The mold showed a compression strength of 0.28 N/mm 2 , 0.48 N/mm 2 and 12.2 N/mm 2 at material ages of 3 days, 7 days and 28 days, respectively. It had a specific gravity of 2.0 and a pencil hardness of 4. Example 15 10 parts by weight of the soil stabilizer according to Example 2, 90 parts by weight of loamy soil of the Kanto district and 60 parts by weight of water were mixed by a Hobert mixer for 20 minutes, pushed into a formwork of 50φ×100 mm using a rammer and, further, applied with a pressure of 10 kg/mm 2 to obtain a mold. The mold showed an initial set of 4 hours and 26 minutes and a final set of 5 hours and 12 minutes. Further, 10 g of the resultant mixture was taken out of the formwork, was diluted in 100 cc of deionized water and subjected to a pH measurement to obtain a pH value of 8.4. The mold showed a compression strength of 0.14 N/mm 2 , 0.26 N/mm 2 and 0.40 N/mm 2 at material ages of 3 days, 7 days and 28 days, respectively. It had a specific gravity of 1.74 and a pencil hardness of 2. Example 16 10 parts by weight of the soil stabilizer according to Example 1 and 90 parts by weight of loamy soil of the Kanto district having a moisture content of 170% (specific gravity being 1.31) were mixed by a Hobert mixer for 10 minutes and pushed into a formwork of 50φ×100 mm using a rammer to obtain a mold. 10 g of the resultant mixture was taken out of the formwork, diluted in 100 cc of deionized water and subjected to a pH measurement to obtain a pH value of 9.8. The mold showed a compression strength of 0.25 N/mm 2 and 0.61 N/mm 2 at material ages of 7 days and 28 days, respectively. Example 17 10 parts by weight of the soil stabilizer according to Example 1 and 90 parts by weight of loamy soil of the Kanto district having a moisture content of 105% (specific gravity being 1.41) were mixed by a Hobert mixer for 10 minutes and pushed into a formwork of 50φ×100 mm using a rammer to obtain a mold. 10 g of the resultant mixture was taken out of the formwork, diluted in 100 cc of deionized water and subjected to a pH measurement to obtain a pH value of 9.8. The mold showed a compression strength of 1.65 N/mm 2 and 2.08 N/mm 2 at material ages of 7 days and 28 days, respectively. Example 18 10 parts by weight of the soil stabilizer according to Example 1 and 90 parts by weight of silt having a moisture content of 60% (specific gravity being 1.64) were mixed by a Hobert mixer for 10 minutes and pushed into a formwork of 50φ×100 mm using a rammer to obtain a mold. 10 g of the resultant mixture was taken out of the formwork, diluted in 100 cc of deionized water and subjected to a pH measurement to obtain a pH value of 9.9. The mold showed a compression strength of 0.26 N/mm 2 and 0.50 N/mm 2 at material ages of 7 days and 28 days, respectively. Example 19 10 parts by weight of the soil stabilizer according to Example 1 and 90 parts by weight of decomposed granitic soil (moisture content of 180% and specific gravity of 1.34) were mixed by a Hobert mixer for 10 minutes and pushed into a formwork of 50φ×100 mm using a rammer to obtain a mold. 10 g of the resultant mixture was taken out of the formwork, diluted in 100 cc of deionized water and subjected to a pH measurement to obtain a pH value of 8.9. The mold showed a compression strength of 0.11 N/mm 2 and 0.340 N/mm 2 at material ages of 7 days and 28 days, respectively. Example 20 15 parts by weight of the soil stabilizer according to Example 4 and 85 parts by weight of organic sludge having a moisture content of 400% (specific gravity being 1.12) were mixed by a Hobert mixer for 10 minutes and pushed into a formwork of 50φ×100 mm using a rammer to obtain a mold. 10 g of the resultant mixture was taken out of the formwork, diluted in 100 cc of deionized water and subjected to a pH measurement to obtain a pH value of 8.4. The mold showed a compression strength of 0.03 N/mm 2 and 0.08 N/mm 2 at material ages of 7 days and 28 days, respectively. Example 21 30 parts by weight of the soil stabilizer according to Example 5, 70 parts by weight of loamy soil of the Knato district, 50 parts by weight of charcoal powders and 60 parts by weight of water were mixed by a Hobert mixer for 25 minutes to obtain soil having charcoal therein in the form of granules. 10 g of the thus obtained soil having charcoal granules was immersed in 100 cc of deionized water and subjected to a pH measurement to obtain a pH value of 9.3. The soil was filled in a formwork of 50φ×100 mm and then subjected to a compression test which showed a compression strength of 0.16 N/mm 2 and 0.36 N/mm 2 at material ages of 7 days and 28 days, respectively. It had a void volume ratio of 37%. Example 22 30 parts by weight of the soil stabilizer according to Example 2, 70 parts by weight of volcanic ashes of Miyake Island and 50 parts by weight of water were mixed by a Hobert mixer for 10 minutes and pushed into a mortar bar formwork of 40 mm×40 mm×160 mm using a rammer to obtain a mold. 10 g of the resultant mixture was taken out of the formwork, diluted in 100 cc of deionized water and subjected to a pH measurement to obtain a pH value of 8.5. The mold showed a compression strength of 1.61 N/mm 2 and 25.6 N/mm 2 at material ages of 7 days and 28 days, respectively. Example 23 Elution tests were conducted on the soil stabilizers according to Examples 1 to 6 to measure an elution quantity of hexavalent chromium. Results of the tests are shown in Table 1. Total chromium quantity by: DC method=diphenylcarbazide absorptiometry; and IPC (T−Cr)=IPC, in accordance with environmental standards according to soil pollution stipulated in Environment Agency Notification No. 46. TABLE 1 Cr +6 elution quantities Soil stabilizers DC method IPC (T—Cr) Example 1 <0.02 <0.02 Example 2 <0.02 <0.02 Example 3 <0.02 <0.02 Example 4 <0.02 <0.02 Example 5 <0.02 <0.02 Example 6 <0.02 <0.02 Example 24 Elution tests were conducted on molds made of loamy soil of the Kanto district (moisture content of 60%) using 10 parts by weight of respective soil stabilizers according to Examples 1 to 6 in accordance with environmental standards according to soil pollution stipulated in Environment Agency Notification No. 46. TABLE 2 Cr −6 elution quantities Material ages 14 days 28 days Soil addition DC IPC DC IPC stabilizers rates method (T-Cr) method (T-Cr) Example 1 10 <0.02 <0.02 <0.02 <0.02 Example 2 10 <0.02 <0.02 <0.02 <0.02 Example 3 10 <0.02 <0.02 <0.02 <0.02 Example 4 10 <0.02 <0.02 <0.02 <0.02 Example 5 10 <0.02 <0.02 <0.02 <0.02 Example 6 10 <0.02 <0.02 <0.02 <0.02 These figures are detection limits of Cr +6 . The elution quantities and contents thereof are within the environmental standards. Example 25 30 parts by weight of the soil stabilizer according to Example 3, 70 parts by weight of volcanic ashes of Miyake Island, 5 parts by weight of burned bauxite and 53 parts by weight of water were mixed by a Hobert mixer for 10 minutes and pushed into a mortar bar formwork of 40 mm×40 mm×160 mm using a rammer to obtain a mold. 10 g of the resultant mixture was taken out of the formwork, diluted in 100 cc of deionized water and subjected to a pH measurement to obtain a pH value of 8.5. The mold without addition of the burned bauxite showed an initial set of 3 hours and 45 minutes, while that added with the burned bauxite showed an initial set of 2 hours and 54 minutes. The mold showed a compression strength of 1.84 N/mm 2 and 26.2 N/mm 2 at material ages of 7 days and 28 days, respectively. Example 26 0.001 g of Accofloc B-1 (copolymer of polyacrylic acid and polyacrylamide) was dissolved in water and then added into 1000 ml of organic sludge having a moisture content of 400% (specific gravity of 1.12). The thus prepared sludge having Accofloc was mixed with 150 parts by weight of the soil stabilizer by a Hobert mixer for ten minutes according to Example 4 and flowed into a formwork of 50φ×100 mm to obtain a mold. 10 g of the resultant mixture was taken out of the form work, diluted with 100 cc of deionized water and subjected to a pH measurement to obtain a pH value of 8.2. The mold showed a compression strength of 0.02 N/mm 2 and 0.11 N/mm 2 at material ages of 7 days and 28 days, respectively. When a solidified product of this mold was held in the air, it underwent dehydration whereupon the weight thereof was decreased from 286 g to 57.2 g in 14 days while, when it was immersed in water, it was in a sandy form and did not return to sludge. Example 27 1000 ml of sewage activated sludge having a moisture content of 600% (specific gravity being 1.04) was neutralized by 8 g of MgO, added with an aqueous solution comprising 0.005 g of Accofloc A-3 (copolymer of polyacrylic acid and polyacrylamide), added with 50 parts by weight of the soil stabilizer according to Example 4 and well mixed. The resultant mixture was allowed to stand for 4 hours to form a flock. After a supernatant liquid of the mixture was removed therefrom, the mixture was subjected to a filtering operation by a filter press to obtain a dehydrated cake having a moisture content of 64%. If neutralization was performed by lime, ammonium gas was generated. However, when performed by MgO, no ammonium gas was generated whereupon the resultant dehydrated cake hardly smelled. Example 28 1000 cc of sewage activated sludge having a moisture content of 600% (specific gravity of 1.04) was neutralized by 8 g of MgO, added with an aqueous solution comprising 4.5 g of aluminum sulfate, added with 150 parts by weight of the soil stabilizer according to Example 4 and well mixed. The resultant mixture was allowed to stand for 4 hours to form a flock. After a supernatant liquid of the mixture was removed therefrom, the mixture was subjected to a filtering operation by a filter press to obtain a dehydrated cake having a moisture content of 52%. Though the ammonium content in the sewage was enough to generate gas, there was no generation of ammonium gas during neutralization by MgO whereupon the resultant dehydrated cake hardly smelled.

A novel cement is alkalescent, capable of solidifying a wide range of soil and applicable to biological environment. The cement composition contains 100 parts by weight of magnesium oxide, 5 to 25% by weight of at least one of silicic acid, alumina and iron oxide, 3 to 35 parts by weight of a phosphate, 2 to 30 parts by weight of gypsum and 0.005 to 7 parts by weight of a hydroxycarboxylic acid or a ketocarboxylic acid.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0001] The invention relates to a method for producing a hardened steel part with cathodic corrosion protection, a cathodic corrosion protection, and parts comprised of steel sheets with the corrosion protection. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] Low-alloy steel sheets, particularly for vehicle body construction are not corrosion resistant after they have been produced using suitable forming steps, either by means of hot rolling or cold rolling. This means that even after a relatively short period of time, moisture in the air causes oxidation to appear on the surface. [0003] It is known to protect steel sheets from corrosion by means of appropriate corrosion protection coatings. According to DIN 50900, Part 1, corrosion is the reaction of a metallic material with its environment, producing a measurable change in the material, and can impair the function of a metallic part or an entire system. In order to avoid corrosion damage, steel is usually protected so that it resists corrosion-inducing influences for the required length of service life. Corrosion damage prevention can be achieved by influencing the properties of the reaction partners and/or by changing the reaction conditions, by separating a metallic material from the corrosive medium through the application of protective coatings, and by means of electrochemical measures. [0004] According to DIN 50902, a corrosion protection coating is a coating produced on a metal or in the region close to the surface of a metal and is comprised of one or more layers. Multilayer coatings are also referred to as corrosion protection systems. [0005] Possible corrosion protection coatings include, for example, organic coatings, inorganic coatings, and metallic coatings. The reason for using metallic corrosion protection coatings is to lend the steel surface the properties of the coating material for the longest possible period of time. The selection of an effective metallic corrosion protection correspondingly requires knowledge of the corrosion-inducing chemical relationships in the system comprised of the steel, coating metal, and aggressive medium. [0006] The coating metal can be electrochemically more noble or less noble than steel. In the first case, the respective coating metal protects the steel only by forming protective coatings. This is referred to as a so-called barrier protection. As soon as the surface of the coating metal develops pores or is damaged, a “local element” forms in the presence of moisture in which the base partner, i.e. the metal to be protected, is attacked. The more noble coating metals include tin, nickel, and copper. [0007] On the one hand, base metals provide protective covering layers; on the other hand, since they are no more noble than steel, they are also attacked when there are breaches in their coating. If such a coating becomes damaged, then the steel is not attacked as a result, but the formation of local elements begins to corrode the base covering metal. This is referred to as a so-called galvanic or cathodic corrosion protection. The base metals include zinc, for example. [0008] Metallic protective layers are applied by means of a variety of methods. Depending on the metal and the method, the bond with the steel surface is chemical, physical, or mechanical and runs the gamut from alloy formation and diffusion to adhesion and simple mechanical bracing. [0009] The metallic coatings should have technological and mechanical properties similar to those of steel and should also behave similarly to steel in reaction to mechanical stresses or plastic deformations. The coatings should also not be damaged by forming and should also not be negatively affected by forming procedures. [0010] When applying hot dipped coatings, the metal to be protected is dipped into liquid molten metal. The hot dipping produces corresponding alloy layers at the phase boundary between the steel and the coating metal. An example of this is hot-dip galvanizing. [0011] In continuous hot-dip galvanizing, the steel band is conveyed through a zinc bath at a bath temperature of approx. 450° C. The coating thickness—typically 6-20 μm—is adjusted by means of slot nozzles (using air or nitrogen as the stripping medium) that strip off the excess zinc scooped up by the band. Hot-dip galvanized items have a high degree of corrosion resistance and good suitability for welding and forming; they are chiefly used in the construction, automotive, and household appliance industries. [0012] It is also known to produce a coating from a zinc-iron alloy. To accomplish this, these items, after the hot-dip galvanizing, undergo a diffusion annealing at temperatures above the melting point of zinc, usually between 480° C. and 550° C. This causes the zinc-iron alloy layers to grow and the overlying zinc layer to shrink. This method is referred to as “galvannealing”. The zinc-iron alloy thus generated likewise has a high resistance to corrosion, and a good suitability for welding and forming; its chief uses are in the automotive and household appliance industries. Hot dipping can also be used to produce other coatings made of aluminum, aluminum-silicon, zinc-aluminum, and aluminum-zinc-silicon. [0013] It is also known to produce electrolytically deposited metal coatings, which means that metallic coatings comprised of electrolytes are deposited in an electrolytic fashion, i.e. with current passing through. [0014] Electrolytic coating can also be used for metals that cannot be applied using the hot dipping method. Electrolytic coatings usually have layer thicknesses of between 2.5 and 10 μm and are generally thinner than hot-dipped coatings. Some metals such as zinc also permit the production of thick-layered coatings using the electrolytic coating method. Electrolytically galvanized sheets are primarily used in the automotive industry; because of their high surface quality, these sheets are chiefly used to construct the outer body. They have a good forming capacity, are suitable for welding, store well, and have matte surfaces to which paint adheres well. [0015] Particularly in the automotive field, there is a constant push toward ever lighter raw vehicle bodies. On the one hand, this is because lighter vehicles consume less fuel; on the other hand, raw vehicle bodies need to be lighter in order to offset the weight of the ever more numerous auxiliary functions and auxiliary units with which modem vehicles are being equipped. [0016] At the same time, however, safety requirements for motor vehicles are becoming more and more stringent; the vehicle body must assure the safety of the passengers in the vehicle and protect them in the event of an accident. It has therefore become necessary to provide a higher level of accident safety with lighter vehicle body weights. This can only be achieved by using materials with an increased strength, particularly in the region of the passenger compartment. [0017] In order to achieve the required levels of strength, it is necessary to use steel types with improved mechanical properties or to treat the steel types used in order to provide them with the necessary mechanical properties. [0018] In order to produce steel sheets with an increased strength, it is known to form steel parts and simultaneously harden them in a single step. This method is also referred to as “press hardening”. In this process, a steel sheet is heated to a temperature above the austenitization temperature, usually above 900° C., and then formed in a cold die. The die forms the hot steel sheet, which, due to its contact with the surfaces of the cold die, cools very rapidly so that the known hardening effects occur in the steel. It is also known to first form the steel sheet and then cool and harden the formed sheet steel part in a calibration press. By contrast with the first method, this has the advantage that the sheet is formed in the cold state, which makes it possible to achieve more complex shapes. In both methods, however, the heating causes scaling to occur on the surface of the sheet, so that after the forming and hardening, the surface of the sheet must be cleaned, for example by means of sandblasting. Then, the sheet is cut to size and if need be, the necessary holes are punched into it. In this case, it is disadvantageous that the sheets have a very high degree of hardness at the time they are mechanically machined, thus making the machining process expensive, in particular incurring a large amount of tool wear. [0019] The object of U.S. Pat. No. 6,564,604 B2 is to produce steel sheets that then undergo a heat treatment and to create a method for manufacturing parts by hardening these coated steel sheets. In spite of the temperature increase, this approach is intended to assure that the steel sheet is not decarburized and the surface of the steel sheet does not oxidize before, during, or after the hot pressing or heat treatment. To this end, an alloyed, intermetallic mixture is applied to the surface before or after the punching, which should provide protection from corrosion and decarburizing and can also provide a lubricating function. In one embodiment form, the above-mentioned patent proposes using a conventional zinc layer that is clearly applied electrolytically; the intent is for this zinc layer, along with the steel substrate, to transform into a homogeneous Zn—Fe alloy in a subsequent austenitization of the sheet substrate. This homogeneous layer structure is verified by means of microscopic images. This coating should have a mechanical resistance that protects it from melting, thus contradicting earlier assumptions. In practice, however, such a property is not apparent. In addition, the use of zinc or zinc alloys should offer a cathodic protection to the edges if cuts are present. In this embodiment form, however, contrary to the contentions in the above-mentioned patent, a coating of this kind disadvantageously provides hardly any cathodic corrosion protection at the edges and in the region of the sheet metal surface and provides only poor corrosion protection in the event that the coating is damaged. [0020] In the second example in U.S. Pat. No. 6,564,604 B2, a coating is disclosed, which is composed of 50% to 55% aluminum and 45% to 50% zinc, possibly with small quantities of silicon. A coating of this kind is not novel in and of itself and is known by the brand name Galvalume®. According to the above-mentioned patent, the coating metals zinc and aluminum should combine with iron to form a homogeneous zinc-aluminum-iron alloy coating. The disadvantage of this coating is that it no longer achieves a sufficient cathodic corrosion protection; but when it is used in the press hardening process, the predominantly barrier-type protection that it provides is also insufficient due to inevitable surface damage in some regions. In summary, the method described in the above patent is unable to solve the problem that in general, zinc-based cathodic corrosion coatings are not suitable for protecting steel sheets, which, after being coated, are to be subjected to a heat treatment and possibly an additional shaping or forming step. [0021] EP 1 013 785 A1 has disclosed a method for producing a sheet metal part in which the surface of the sheet is to be provided with an aluminum coating or an aluminum alloy coating. A sheet provided with coatings of this kind should be subjected to a press hardening process; possible coating alloys disclosed include an alloy containing 9-10% silicon, 2-3.5% iron, and residual aluminum with impurities, and a second alloy with 2-4% iron and the residual aluminum with impurities. Coatings of this kind are intrinsically known and correspond to the coating of a hot-dip aluminized sheet steel. A coating of this kind has the disadvantage that it only achieves a so-called barrier protection. The moment a barrier protection coating of this kind is damaged or when fractures occur in the Fe—Al coating, the base material, in this case the steel, is attacked and corrodes. No cathodic protection is provided. [0022] It is also disadvantageous that when the steel sheet is heated to the austenitization temperature and undergoes the subsequent press hardening step, even a hot-dip aluminized coating is subjected to such chemical and mechanical stress that the finished part does not have a sufficient corrosion protection coating. This substantiates the view that such a hot-dip aluminized coating is not sufficiently suitable for the press hardening of complex geometries, i.e. for the heating of a steel sheet to a temperature greater than the austenitization temperature. [0023] DE 102 46 614 A1 has disclosed a method for producing a coated structural part for the automotive industry. This method is intended to eliminate the disadvantages of the above-mentioned European patent application 1 013 785 A1. In particular, the contention therein is that by using the dipping method according to European patent application 1 013 785 A, an intermetallic phase would already have been produced during the coating of the steel and that this alloy layer between the steel and the actual coating would be hard and brittle and would fracture during cold forming. As a result, microfractures would occur to such an extent that the coating itself would come loose from the base material and consequently lose its ability to protect. According to DE 102 46 614 A1, therefore, a coating comprised of metal or a metal alloy is applied by means of at least one galvanic coating method in an organic, non-aqueous solution; according to the above-mentioned patent application, aluminum or an aluminum alloy is a particularly well-suited and therefore preferable coating material. Alternatively, zinc or zinc alloys would also be suitable. A sheet coated in this way can then undergo a cold preforming followed by a hot final forming. But this method has the disadvantage that an aluminum coating, even when it has been electrolytically applied, offers no further corrosion protection once the surface of the finished part is damaged since the protective barrier has been breached. An electrolytically deposited zinc coating has the disadvantage that when heated for the hot forming, most of the zinc oxidizes and is no longer available for a cathodic protection. The zinc vaporizes in the protective gas atmosphere. [0024] An object of the present invention is to create a method for producing a part made of hardened steel sheet with an improved cathodic corrosion protection. [0025] A further object of the present invention is to create a cathodic corrosion protection for steel sheets that undergo a forming and hardening. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0026] In the method according to the present invention, a hardenable steel sheet is provided with a coating comprised of a mixture of mainly zinc and one or more high oxygen affinity elements such as magnesium, silicon, titanium, calcium, aluminum, boron, and manganese, containing 0.1 to 15% by weight of the high oxygen affinity element, and the coated steel sheet, at least in some areas, is heated to a temperature above the austenitization temperature of the sheet alloy with the admission of oxygen, and is formed before or after this; after sufficient heating, the sheet is cooled, the cooling rate being calculated to produce a hardening of the sheet alloy. The result is a hardened part made of a sheet steel that provides a favorable level of cathodic corrosion protection. [0027] The corrosion protection for steel sheets according to the present invention, which first undergo a heat treatment and are then formed and hardened, is a cathodic corrosion protection that is essentially zinc-based. According to the invention, the zinc that comprises the coating is mixed with 0.1% to 15% of one or more high oxygen affinity elements such as magnesium, silicon, titanium, calcium, aluminum, boron, and manganese, or any mixture or alloy thereof. It has turned out that such small quantities of a high oxygen affinity element such as magnesium, silicon, titanium, calcium, aluminum, boron, and manganese achieve a surprising effect in this specific use. [0028] According to the present invention, the high oxygen affinity elements include at least Mg, Al, Ti, Si, Ca, B, and Mn. In the following, whenever aluminum is mentioned, it is intended to also stand for all of the other elements mentioned here. [0029] For example, the coating according to the present invention can be deposited on a steel sheet by means of so-called hot-dip galvanization, i.e. a hot-dip coating process in which a fluid mixture of zinc and the high oxygen affinity element(s) is applied. It is also possible to deposit the coating electrolytically, i.e. to deposit the mixture of zinc and the high oxygen affinity element(s) together onto the sheet surface or to first deposit a zinc coating and then in a second step, to deposit one or more high oxygen affinity elements one after another or in any mixture or alloy thereof onto the zinc surface or to deposit them onto it through vaporization or other suitable methods. [0030] It has surprisingly turned out that despite the small quantity of a high oxygen affinity element such as aluminum, upon heating, a very effective, self-healing, superficial, and full-coverage protective layer forms, which is essentially comprised of Al 2 O 3 or an oxide of the high oxygen affinity element (MgO, CaO, TiO, SiO 2 , B 2 O 3 , MnO). This very thin oxide layer protects the underlying zinc-containing corrosion protection coating from oxidation, even at very high temperatures. This means that during the special processing of the galvanized sheet in the press hardening process, an approximately two-layered corrosion protection coating forms, which is composed of a highly effective cathodic layer with a high zinc content that is in turn protected from oxidation and vaporization by a very thin oxidation protection coating comprised of one or more oxides (Al 2 O 3 , MgO, CaO, TiO, SiO 2 , B 2 O 3 , MnO). A cathodic corrosion protection coating is thus produced that has a surprising resistance to chemical attack. This means that it is necessary to perform the heat treatment in an oxidizing atmosphere. It is in fact possible to avoid oxidation if protective gas is used (an oxygen-free atmosphere), but the zinc would then vaporize due to the high vapor pressure. [0031] It has also turned out that the corrosion protection coating according to the invention for the press hardening process also has such a high stability that a forming step following the austenitization of the sheets does not destroy this layer. Even if microfractures develop on the hardened part, the cathodic protective action nevertheless remains more powerful than the protective action of the known corrosion protection coatings for the press hardening process. [0032] In order to provide a sheet with the corrosion protection according to the invention, in a first step, a zinc alloy with an aluminum content of greater than 0.1 wt. % but less than 15 wt. %, in particular less than 10 wt. %, and even more preferably of less than 5 wt. %, can be applied to a steel sheet, in particular an alloyed steel sheet, and then in a second step, parts of the coated sheet can be machined out, in particular cut out or punched out, and heated to a temperature above the austenitization temperature of the sheet alloy with the admission of atmospheric oxygen and subsequently cooled at an increased speed. A forming of the part cut out from the sheet (the sheet bar) can occur before or after the sheet is heated to the austenitization temperature. [0033] It is assumed that in the first step of the process when the sheet is being coated, a thin inhibition phase comprised in particular of Fe 2 Al 5−x Zn x forms on the sheet surface or in the proximal region of the sheet, which inhibits the Fe—Zn diffusion in a fluid metal coating process that occurs in particular at a temperature of up to 690° C. Thus in the first process step, the sheet with a zinc-metal coating and added aluminum is produced, which has an extremely thin inhibition phase only toward the sheet surface, i.e. the proximal region of the coating, that effectively prevents a rapid growth of an iron-zinc binding phase. It is also conceivable that the mere presence of aluminum reduces the tendency for iron-zinc diffusion in the region of the boundary layer. [0034] If in the second step, the sheet provided with a zinc-aluminum-metal coating is heated to the austenitization temperature of the sheet material with the admission of atmospheric oxygen, then the metal coating on the sheet liquefies for the time being. On the distal surface, the higher oxygen affinity aluminum from the zinc reacts with atmospheric oxygen to form a solid oxide or alumina, which produces a drop in the aluminum-metal concentration in this direction, resulting in a steady diffusion of aluminum toward depletion, i.e. toward the distal region. This alumina enrichment in the coating region exposed to the air then functions as an oxidation protection for the coating metal and as a vaporization inhibitor for the zinc. [0035] Also during heating, the aluminum is drawn by steady diffusion from the proximal inhibition phase toward the distal region and is available there to form the surface layer of Al 2 O 3 . This achieves the sheet coating production that leaves behind a highly effective cathodic coating with a high zinc content. [0036] A suitable example is a zinc alloy with an aluminum content of greater than 0.2 wt. % but less than 4 wt. %, preferably of greater than 0.26 wt. % but less than 2.5 wt. %. [0037] If in the first step, the application of the zinc alloy coating onto the sheet surface suitably occurs during the passage through a liquid metal bath at a temperature of greater than 425° C. but less than 690° C., in particular from 440° C. to 495° C., with subsequent cooling of the coated sheet, it is possible not only to efficiently produce the proximal inhibition phase and to achieve an observable, very good diffusion inhibition in the region of the inhibition layer, but also to improve the hot forming properties of the sheet material. [0038] An advantageous embodiment of the invention comprises a method that uses a hot rolled or cold rolled steel band with a thickness of for example greater than 0.15 mm and with a concentration range of at least one of the alloy elements within the following weight percentage limits: carbon up to 0.4, preferably 0.15 to 0.3 silicon up to 1.9, preferably 0.11 to 1.5 manganese up to 3.0, preferably 0.8 to 2.5 chromium up to 1.5, preferably 0.1 to 0.9 molybdenum up to 0.9, preferably 0.1 to 0.5 nickel up to 0.9, titanium up to 0.2, preferably 0.02 to 0.1 vanadium up to 0.2 tungsten up to 0.2, aluminum up to 0.2, preferably 0.02 to 0.07 boron up to 0.01, preferably 0.0005 to 0.005 sulfur max. 0.01, preferably max. 0.008 phosphorus max 0.025, preferably max. 0.01 residual iron and impurities. [0039] The surface structure of the cathodic corrosion protection according to the invention has been demonstrated to be particularly favorable for a high degree of adhesion of paints and lacquers. [0040] The adhesion of the coating to the sheet steel item can be further improved if the surface coating has a zinc-rich, intermetallic iron-zinc-aluminum phase and an iron-rich iron-zinc-aluminum phase, the iron-rich phase having a ratio of zinc to iron of at most 0.95 (Zn/Fe≦0.95), preferably from 0.20 to 0.80 (Zn/Fe=0.20 to 0.80), and the zinc-rich phase having a ratio of zinc to iron of at least 2.0 (Zn/Fe≧2.0), preferably from 2.3 to 19.0 (Zn/Fe=2.3 to 19.0). [0041] Examples of the invention will be explained in greater detail below in conjunction with the drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0042] FIG. 1 shows a heating curve of test sheets during annealing in a radiation furnace. [0043] FIG. 2 shows a microscopic image of the transverse section of an annealed test specimen of a steel sheet that has been hot-dip aluminized with a method not according to the invention. [0044] FIG. 3 shows the potential curve over the measurement time in a galvanostatic dissolution for a steel sheet that has been hot-dip aluminized with a method not according to the invention. [0045] FIG. 4 shows a microscopic image of the transverse section of an annealed test specimen of a steel sheet with an aluminum-zinc-silicon alloy coating not according to the invention. [0046] FIG. 5 shows the potential curve over the measurement time in a galvanostatic dissolution trial of a steel sheet with an aluminum-zinc-silicon alloy coating not according to the invention. [0047] FIG. 6 shows a microscopic image of the transverse section of an annealed test specimen of a cathodically corrosion-protected sheet according to the invention. [0048] FIG. 7 shows the potential curve for the sheet according to FIG. 6 . [0049] FIG. 8 shows a microscopic image of the transverse section of an annealed test specimen of a sheet provided with a cathodic corrosion protection according to the invention. [0050] FIG. 9 shows the potential curve for the sheet according to FIG. 8 . [0051] FIG. 10 shows microscopic images of the surface of a sheet that has been coated according to the invention in the unhardened—not yet heat treated—state shown in FIGS. 8 and 9 in comparison to a sheet that has been coated and treated by methods not according to the invention. [0052] FIG. 11 shows a microscopic image of the transverse section of a sheet that has been coated and treated by methods not according to the invention. [0053] FIG. 12 shows the potential curve for the sheet not according to the invention in FIG. 11 . [0054] FIG. 13 shows a microscopic image of the transverse section of a sheet that has been coated and heat treated according to the invention. [0055] FIG. 14 shows the potential curve for the sheet according to FIG. 13 . [0056] FIG. 15 shows a microscopic image of the transverse section of a steel sheet that has been electrolytically galvanized not according to the invention. [0057] FIG. 16 shows the potential curve for the sheet according to FIG. 15 . [0058] FIG. 17 shows a microscopic image of the transverse section of an annealed test specimen of a sheet with a zinc-nickel coating not according to the invention. [0059] FIG. 18 shows the potential curve for the sheet not according to the invention in FIG. 17 . [0060] FIG. 19 is a comparison of the potentials required for dissolution for the tested materials as a function of time. [0061] FIG. 20 is a graph depicting the area used to assess the corrosion protection. [0062] FIG. 21 is a graph depicting the different protection energies of the tested materials. [0063] FIG. 22 is a graph depicting the different protection energies of a sheet according to the invention, under two different heating conditions. [0064] FIG. 23 qualitatively depicts the phase formation as a “leopard pattern” in coatings according to the invention. [0065] FIG. 24 is a flowchart depicting the possible process sequences according to the invention. [0066] FIG. 25 is a graph depicting the distribution of the elements aluminum, zinc, and iron depending on the depth of the surface coating before the sheet is annealed. [0067] FIG. 26 is a graph depicting the distribution of the elements aluminum, zinc, and iron depending on the depth of the surface coating after the sheet is annealed, as proof of the formation of a protective aluminum oxide skin on the surface. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS [0068] Approximately 1 mm thick steel sheets with a corrosion protection coating that is the same on both sides, with a layer thickness of 15 μm were manufactured and tested. The sheets were placed for 4 minutes 30 seconds in a 900° C. radiation furnace and then rapidly cooled between steel plates. The time between removal of the sheets from the furnace and the cooling between the steel plates was 5 seconds. The heating curve of the sheets during the annealing in the radiation furnace essentially followed the curve shown in FIG. 1 . [0069] Then, the test specimens obtained were analyzed for visual and electrochemical differences. Assessment criteria here included the appearance of the annealed steel sheets and the protection energy. The protection energy is the measure for the electrochemical protection of the coating, determined by means of galvanostatic dissolution. [0070] The electrochemical method of galvanostatic dissolution of the metallic surface coatings of a material makes it possible to classify the corrosion protection mechanism of the coating. The potential/time behavior of a coating to be protected from corrosion is ascertained at a predetermined, constant current flow. A current density of 12.7 mA/cm 2 was predetermined for the measurements. The measurement device is a three-electrode system. A platinum network was used as a counter electrode; the reference electrode was comprised of Ag/AgCl (3M). The electrolyte was comprised of 100 g/l ZnSO 4 *5H 2 O and 200 g/l NaCl, dissolved in deionized water. [0071] If the potential required to dissolve the layer is greater than or equal to the steel potential, which can easily be determined by stripping or grinding off the surface coating, then this is referred to as a pure barrier protection without an active cathodic corrosion protection. The barrier protection is characterized in that it separates the base material from the corrosive medium. [0072] The results of the coating examples will be described below. EXAMPLE 1 (NOT ACCORDING TO THE INVENTION) [0073] A hot-dip aluminized steel sheet is produced by conveying a steel sheet through a liquid aluminum bath. When annealed at 900° C., the reaction of the steel with the aluminum coating produces an aluminum-iron surface layer. The correspondingly annealed sheet has a dark gray appearance; the surface is homogeneous and does not have any visually discernible defects. [0074] The galvanostatic dissolution of the surface coating of the hot-dip aluminized sheet must have a very high potential (+2.8 V) at the beginning of the measurement in order to assure the current density of 12.7 mA/cm 2 . After a short measurement time, the required potential falls to the steel potential. It is clear from this behavior that an annealed sheet with a coating produced by hot-dip aluminization provides very efficient barrier protection. However, as soon as holes develop in the coating, the potential falls to the steel potential and damage to the base material begins to occur. Since the potential required for the dissolution never falls below the steel potential, this represents a pure barrier layer without cathodic corrosion protection. FIG. 3 shows the potential curve over the measurement time and FIG. 2 shows a microscopic image of a transverse section. EXAMPLE 2 (NOT ACCORDING TO THE INVENTION) [0075] A steel sheet was covered with an aluminum-zinc coating by means of hot-dip galvanization, the molten metal being comprised of 55% aluminum, 44% zinc, and approx. 1% silicon. After the coating of the surface and a subsequent annealing at 900° C., a gray-blue surface without defects is observed. FIG. 4 depicts a transverse section. [0076] The annealed material then undergoes the galvanostatic dissolution. At the beginning of the measurement, the material demonstrates an approx. −0.92 V potential required for dissolution, which thus lies significantly below the steel potential. This value is comparable to the potential required for dissolution of a hot-dip galvanized coating before the annealing process. But this very zinc-rich phase ends after only approx. 350 seconds of measurement time. Then there is a rapid increase to a potential that now lies just below the steel potential. After this coating is breached, the potential first falls to a value of approx. −0.54 V and then continuously rises until it reaches a value of approx. −0.35 V. Only then does it begin to gradually fall to the steel potential. Because of the very negative potential that lies significantly below the steel potential at the beginning of the measurement, in addition to the barrier protection, this material does provide a certain amount of cathodic corrosion protection. However, the part of the coating that supplies a cathodic corrosion protection is depleted after only approx. 350 seconds of measurement time. The remaining coating can only provide a slight amount of cathodic corrosion protection since the difference between the required potential for the coating dissolution and the steel potential is now only equivalent to less than 0.12 V. In a poorly conductive electrolyte, this part of the cathodic corrosion protection is no longer usable. FIG. 5 shows the potential/time graph. EXAMPLE 3 (ACCORDING TO THE INVENTION) [0077] A steel sheet is hot-dip galvanized in a heat melting bath of essentially 95% zinc and 5% aluminum. After annealing, the sheet has a silver-gray surface without defects. In the transverse section ( FIG. 6 ), it is clear that the coating is comprised of a light phase and a dark phase, these phases representing Zn—Fe—Al-containing phases. The light phases are more zinc-rich and the dark phases are more iron-rich. Part of the aluminum reacts to the atmospheric oxygen during annealing and forms a protective Al 2 O 3 skin. [0078] In the galvanostatic dissolution, at the beginning of the measurement, the sheet has a potential required for dissolution of approx. −0.7 V. This value lies significantly below the potential of the steel. After a measurement time of approx. 1,000 seconds, a potential of approx. −0.6 V sets in. This potential also lies significantly below the steel potential. After a measurement time of approx. 3,500 seconds, this part of the coating is depleted and the required potential for dissolution of the coating approaches the steel potential. After the annealing, this coating consequently provides a cathodic corrosion protection in addition to the barrier protection. Up to a measurement time of 3,500 seconds, the potential has a value of ≦−0.6 V so that an appreciable cathodic protection is maintained over a long time period, even if the sheet has been brought to austenitization temperature. FIG. 7 shows the potential/time graph. EXAMPLE 4 (ACCORDING TO THE INVENTION) [0079] The sheet is conveyed through a heat melting bath or zinc bath with a zinc content of 99.8% and an aluminum content of 0.2%. During the annealing, aluminum contained in the zinc coating reacts to atmospheric oxygen and forms a protective Al 2 O 3 skin. Continuous diffusion of the high oxygen affinity aluminum to the surface causes this protective skin to form and keeps it maintained. After annealing, the sheet has a silver-gray surface without defects. During annealing, diffusion transforms the zinc coating that was originally approx. 15 μm thick into a coating approx. 20 to 25 μm thick; this coating ( FIG. 8 ) is composed of a dark-looking phase with a Zn/Fe composition of approx. 30/70 and a light region with a Zn/Fe composition of approx. 80/20. The surface of the coating has been verified to have an increased aluminum content. The detection of oxides on the surface indicates the presence of a thin protective coating of Al 2 O 3 . [0080] At the beginning of the galvanostatic dissolution, the annealed material has a potential of approx. −0.75 V. After a measurement time of approx. 1,500 seconds, the potential required for dissolution rises to ≦−0.6 V. The phase lasts until a measurement time of approx. 2,800 seconds. Then, the required potential rises to the steel potential. In this case, too, a cathodic corrosion protection is provided in addition to the barrier protection. Up to a measurement time of 2,800 seconds, the potential has a value of ≦−0.6 V. A material of this kind consequently also provides a cathodic protection over a very long time period. FIG. 9 shows the potential/time graph. EXAMPLE 5 (NOT ACCORDING TO THE INVENTION) [0081] After the sheet band emerges from the zinc bath (approx. 450° C. band temperature), the sheet is heated to a temperature of approx. 500° C. This causes the zinc layer to completely convert into Zn—Fe phases. The zinc layer is thus completely converted into Zn—Fe phases, i.e. all the way to the surface. This yields zinc-rich phases on the steel sheet that all have a Zn to Fe ratio of >70% zinc. In this corrosion protection coating, the zinc bath contains a small amount of aluminum, on the order of magnitude of approx. 0.13%. [0082] A 1 mm-thick steel sheet with the above-mentioned heat-treated and completely converted coating is heated for 4 minutes 30 seconds in a 900° C. furnace. This yields a yellow-green surface. [0083] The yellow-green surface indicates an oxidation of the Zn—Fe phases during the annealing. No presence of an aluminum oxide protective layer could be verified. The reason for the absence of an aluminum oxide layer can be explained by the fact that during the annealing treatment, the presence of the solid Zn—Fe phases prevents the aluminum from migrating to the surface as rapidly and protecting the Zn—Fe coating from oxidation. When this material is heated, at temperatures around 500° C., there is not yet any fluid zinc-rich phase because this only forms at higher temperatures of 782° C. Once 782° C. is reached, a thermodynamically generated fluid, zinc-rich phase is present, in which the aluminum is freely available. The surface layer, however, is not protected from oxidation. [0084] At this point in time, it is possible that the corrosion protection coating is already partially oxidized and it is no longer possible for a full-coverage aluminum oxide skin to form. The coating in the transverse section appears rough and wavy and is comprised of Zn oxides and Zn—Fe oxides ( FIG. 11 ). In addition, due to the highly crystalline, acicular surface structure of the surface, the surface area of the above-mentioned material is much greater, which could also be disadvantageous for the formation of a full-coverage, thicker aluminum oxide protection coating. In the initial state, i.e. when it has not yet been heat treated, the above-mentioned coating not according to the invention constitutes a brittle coating with numerous fractures oriented both transversely and longitudinally in relation to the coating. ( FIG. 10 , compared to the previously mentioned example according to the invention (on the left in the figure).) As a result, in the course of the heating, both a decarburization and an oxidation of the steel substrate can occur, particularly in cold formed parts. [0085] In the galvanostatic dissolution of this material, for the dissolution with a constant current flow, at the beginning of the measurement, a potential of +1V is applied, which then levels off to a value of approx. +0.7V. Here, too, the potential during the entire dissolution lies significantly below the steel potential ( FIG. 12 ). These annealing conditions thus also indicate a pure barrier protection. Here, too, no cathodic corrosion protection could be verified. EXAMPLE 6 (ACCORDING TO THE INVENTION) [0086] As in the example mentioned above, immediately after the hot-dip galvanization, a sheet undergoes a heat treatment at approx. 490° C. to 550° C., which only partially converts the zinc layer into Zn—Fe phases. The process here is carried out so that only part of the phase conversion occurs so that as yet unconverted zinc with aluminum is present at the surface and consequently, the free aluminum is available as an oxidation protection for the zinc coating. [0087] A 1 mm-thick steel sheet with the heat-treated coating that is only partially converted into Zn—Fe phases according to the invention is inductively heated rapidly to 900° C. This yields a gray surface without defects. An REM/EDX test of the transverse section ( FIG. 13 ) shows a surface layer approx. 20 μm thick; the originally approx. 15 μm-thick zinc covering on the coating has, during the inductive annealing, transformed due to the diffusion into an approx. 20 μm Zn—Fe coating; this coating has the two-phase structure that is typical of the invention, having a “leopard pattern” with a phase that looks dark in the image and contains a Zn/Fe composition of approx. 30/70 and light regions with a Zn/Fe composition of approx. 80/20. Moreover, certain individual areas have zinc contents of ≧90%. The surface turns out to have a protective coating of aluminum oxide. [0088] In the galvanostatic dissolution of the surface coating, a rapidly heated sheet bar with the hot-dip galvanized coating according to the invention, which is—by contrast with example 5—only partially heat treated before the press hardening, at the beginning of the measurement, the potential required for dissolution is approx. −0.94 V and is therefore comparable to the potential required for dissolution of an unannealed zinc coating. After a measurement time of approx. 500 seconds, the potential rises to a value of −0.79 V and thus lies significantly below the steel potential. After a measurement time of approx. 2,200 seconds, ≦0.6 V are required for dissolution; the potential then rises to −0.38 V and then approaches the steel potential ( FIG. 14 ). The rapidly heated material, which has been incompletely heat-treated according to the invention before the press hardening, can provide both a barrier protection and a very good cathodic corrosion protection. In this material, too, the cathodic corrosion protection can be maintained for a very long measurement time. EXAMPLE 7 (NOT ACCORDING TO THE INVENTION) [0089] A sheet is electrolytically galvanized by electrochemical depositing of zinc onto steel. During the annealing, the diffusion of the steel with the zinc coating forms a thin Zn—Fe layer. Most of the zinc oxidizes into zinc oxide, which has a green appearance due to the simultaneous formation of iron oxides. The surface has a green appearance with localized scaly areas in which the zinc oxide layer does not adhere to the steel. [0090] An REM/EDX test ( FIG. 15 ) of the sample sheet confirms, in the transverse section, that a majority of the coating is comprised of a covering of zinc-iron oxide. In the galvanostatic dissolution, the potential required for the current flow is approx. +1V and thus lies significantly above the steel potential. In the course of the measurement, the potential fluctuates between +0.8 and −0.1 V, but lies above the steel potential during the entire dissolution of the coating. It follows, therefore, that the corrosion protection of an annealed, electrolytically galvanized coating is a pure barrier protection, but is less efficient than in a hot-dip aluminized sheet since the potential at the beginning of the measurement is lower in an electrolytically coated sheet than it is in a hot-dip aluminized sheet. The potential required for dissolution lies above the steel potential during the entire dissolution. Consequently even an annealed, electrolytically coated sheet does not provide a cathodic corrosion protection at any time. FIG. 16 shows the potential/time graph. The potential lies essentially above the steel potential, but fluctuates in detail from one test to another, despite identical test conditions. EXAMPLE 8 (NOT ACCORDING TO THE INVENTION) [0091] A sheet is produced by means of electrochemical depositing of zinc and nickel onto a steel surface. The weight ratio of zinc to nickel in the corrosion protection coating is approx. 90/10. The deposited layer thickness is approx. 5 μm. [0092] The sheet with the coating is annealed in the presence of atmospheric oxygen for 4 minutes 30 seconds at 900° C. During the annealing, the diffusion of the steel with the zinc coating produces a thin diffusion layer comprised of zinc, nickel, and iron. Due to the lack of aluminum, though, most of the zinc oxidizes into zinc oxide. The surface has a scaly, green appearance with small, localized spalling areas where the oxide coating does not adhere to the steel. [0093] An REM/EDX test of a transverse section ( FIG. 17 ) demonstrates that most of the coating has oxidized and is consequently unavailable for cathodic corrosion protection. [0094] At the beginning of the measurement, at 1.5 V, the potential required for dissolution of the coating lies far above the steel potential. After approximately 250 seconds, it falls to approx. 0.04 V and oscillates within a range of ±0.25 V. After approx. 1,700 seconds of measurement time, it levels off to a value of −0.27 V and remains at this value until the end of the measurement. The potential required for dissolution of the coating lies significantly above the steel potential for the entire measurement time. Consequently, after the annealing, this coating performs a pure barrier function without any cathodic corrosion protection whatsoever ( FIG. 18 ). 9. Verification of the Aluminum Oxide Layer by Means of GDOES Analysis [0095] A GDOES (Glow Discharge Optical Emission Spectroscopy) test can be used to verify the formation of the aluminum oxide layer during the annealing (and the migration of the aluminum to the surface). [0096] For the GDOES measurement: [0097] A 1 mm-thick steel sheet coated according to example 4, with a coating thickness of 15 μm was heated in air for 4 min 30 s in a 900° C. radiation furnace, then rapidly cooled between 5 cm-thick steel plates, and then the surface was analyzed with a GDOES measurement. [0098] FIGS. 25 and 26 show GDOES analyses of the sheet coated according to example 4, before and after the annealing. Before the hardening ( FIG. 25 ) after approx. 15 μm, the transition from the zinc coating to the steel is reached; after the hardening, the coating is approx. 23 μm thick. [0099] After the hardening ( FIG. 26 ), the increased aluminum content at the surface is evident in comparison to the unannealed sheet. 10. CONCLUSION [0100] The examples demonstrate that only the corrosion protected sheets used according to the invention for the press hardening process have a cathodic corrosion protection after the annealing, in particular with a cathodic corrosion protection energy of >4 J/cm 2 . FIG. 19 shows a comparison of the potentials required for dissolution as a function of time. [0101] In order to properly evaluate the quality of the cathodic corrosion protection, it is not permissible to only examine the length of time for which the cathodic corrosion protection can be maintained; it is also necessary to take into account the difference between the potential required for the dissolution and the steel potential. The greater this difference is, the more effective the cathodic corrosion protection, even with poorly conductive electrolytes. The cathodic corrosion protection is negligibly low in poorly conductive electrolytes when there is a voltage difference of 100 mV from the steel potential. Even with a small difference from the steel potential, however, a cathodic corrosion protection is still present in principal as long as a current flow is detected when a steel electrode is used; this is, however, negligibly low for practical aspects since the corrosive medium must be very conductive for this to contribute to the cathodic corrosion protection. This is practically never the case with atmospheric influences (rainwater, humidity, etc.). For this reason, the evaluation did not take into account the difference between the potential required for dissolution and the steel potential, but instead used a threshold of 100 mV below the steel potential. Only the difference up to this threshold was taken into account for the evaluation of the cathodic protection. [0102] The area between the potential curve during the galvanostatic dissolution and the established threshold of 100 mV below the steel potential was established as an evaluation criterion for the cathodic protection of the respective surface coating after annealing ( FIG. 20 ). Only the area that lies below the threshold is taken into account. The area above the threshold is negligibly small and makes practically no contribution whatsoever to the cathodic corrosion protection and is therefore not included in the evaluation. [0103] The area thus obtained, when multiplied by the current density, corresponds to the protection energy per unit area with which the base material can be actively protected from corrosion. The greater this energy is, the better the cathodic corrosion protection. FIG. 21 compares the determined protection energies per unit area to one another. While a sheet with the aluminum-zinc coating comprised of 55% aluminum and 44% zinc that is known from the prior art only has a protection energy per unit area of approx. 1.8 J/cm 2 , the protection energies per unit area of sheets coated according to the invention are 5.6 J/cm 2 and 5.9 J/cm 2 . [0104] For the cathodic corrosion protection according to the present invention, it is determined below that 15 μm-thick coatings and the above-described processing and testing conditions yield a cathodic corrosion protection energy of at least 4 J/cm 2 . [0105] A zinc coating that has been electrolytically deposited onto the surface of the steel sheet cannot by itself provide a corrosion protection according to the invention, even after a heating step that brings it to a temperature higher than the austenitization temperature. However, the present invention can also be achieved with an electrolytically deposited coating according to the invention. To accomplish this, the zinc, together with the high oxygen affinity element(s) can be simultaneously deposited in an electrolysis step onto the surface of the sheet so that the surface of the sheet is provided with a coating of a homogeneous structure that contains both zinc and the high oxygen affinity element(s). When heated to the austenitization temperature, a coating of this kind behaves in the same manner as a coating of the same composition that is deposited on the surface of the sheet by means of hot-dip galvanization. [0106] In another advantageous embodiment form, only zinc is deposited onto the surface of the sheet in a first electrolysis step and the high oxygen affinity element(s) is/are deposited onto the zinc layer in a second electrolysis step. The second layer comprised of the high oxygen affinity elements here can be significantly thinner than the zinc layer. When such a coating according to the invention is heated, the outer covering—which is composed of the high oxygen affinity element(s) and is situated on the zinc layer—oxidizes, thus protecting the underlying zinc with an oxide skin. Naturally, the high oxygen affinity element(s) is/are selected so that they do not vaporize from the zinc layer or do not oxidize without leaving behind a protective oxide skin. [0107] In another advantageous embodiment form, first a zinc layer is electrolytically deposited and then a layer of the high oxygen affinity element(s) is deposited by means of vaporization or other suitable non-electrolytic coating processes. [0108] It is typical of the coatings according to the invention that in addition to the surface protective layer comprised of an oxide of the high oxygen affinity element(s), in particular Al 2 O 3 , after the heat treatment for the press hardening, the transverse sections of the coatings according to the invention have a typical “leopard pattern” that is composed of a zinc-rich, intermetallic Zn—Al phase and an iron-rich Fe—Zn—Al phase, the iron-rich phase having a ratio of zinc to iron of at most 0.95 (Zn/Fe≦0.95), preferably from 0.20 to 0.80 (Zn/Fe=0.20 to 0.80), and the zinc-rich phase having a ratio of zinc to iron of at least 2.0 (Zn/Fe≧2.0), preferably from 2.3 to 19.0 (Zn/Fe=2.3 to 19.0). It was possible to verify that only when such a two-phase structure is achieved is there a sufficient amount of cathodic protective action. Such a two-phase structure is only produced, however, if the Al 2 O 3 has already formed on the surface of the coating. By contrast with a known coating according to U.S. Pat. No. 6,564,604 B2, which has a homogeneous makeup in terms of structure and texture in which the Zn—Fe needles are supposed to lie in a zinc matrix, in this case, a non-homogeneous structure is composed of at least two different phases. [0109] The invention is advantageous in that a continuous and therefore economically produced steel sheet is achieved for the manufacture of press-hardened parts and has a cathodic corrosion protection that is reliably maintained even when the sheet is heated above the austenitization temperature and subsequently formed.

The invention relates to a method for producing a hardened steel part having a cathodic corrosion protection, whereby a) a coating is applied to a sheet made of a hardenable steel alloy in a continuous coating process; b) the coating is essentially comprised of zinc; c) the coating additionally contains one or more oxygen-affine elements in a total amount of 0.1% by weight to 15% by weight with regard to the entire coating; d) the coated steel sheet is then, at least in partial areas and with the admission of atmospheric oxygen, brought to a temperature necessary for hardening and is heated until it undergoes a microstructural change necessary for hardening, whereby; e) a superficial skin is formed on the coating from an oxide of the oxygen-affine element(s), and; f) the sheet is shaped before or after heating, and; g) the sheet is cooled after sufficient heating, whereby the cooling rate is calculated in order to achieve a hardening of the sheet alloy. The invention also relates to a corrosion protection layer for the hardened steel part and to the steel part itself.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/150,069, filed May 9, 2016, which application is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/854,819, filed Apr. 1, 2013, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,374,532, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/799,985, filed on Mar. 15, 2013, the contents of which are incorporated by reference herein. BACKGROUND 1. Field of the Disclosure This disclosure generally relates to manipulating video content and more specifically to stabilizing camera motion in video content. 2. Description of the Related Art The sharing of video content on websites has developed into a worldwide phenomenon, supported by numerous websites. Many thousands of videos are posted every day, and this number is increasing as the tools and opportunities for capturing video become easier to use and more widespread. Millions of people watch the posted videos. There is often a need to process the posted videos to improve image and audio quality. This processing can involve correcting videos to reduce shaking visible in the video due to undesired motion of the physical camera used to capture the video. For example, with the growth of mobile phone cameras, there has been a significant increase in the uploading and sharing of videos by casual users capturing their daily experiences with their mobile devices. A significant portion of these videos are prone to shaking, as it is difficult to keep hand-held cameras stable, especially when capturing a moving subject or if moving while recording. While many modern cameras are generally equipped with image stabilizers for still images, the stabilization afforded by them is usually insufficient in the presence of heavy camera-shake or low-frequency motion, such as the shaking induced when the user is walking or running during capture. The amount of casual videos with significant shake is only predicted to increase with the growth of wearable and first-person-view cameras, especially popular for sports and other activities. Most casual users may not have access to, or the inclination to use professional stabilization equipment (e.g., tripods, dollies, steady-cam). Furthermore, legacy videos shot from older cameras or digitized from film could also benefit from stabilization. Additionally, most casual users also do not have access to professional stabilization software. Further, although such professional stabilization software exists generally, these software programs correct video with varying degrees of quality. Additionally, many of these software programs cannot function without metadata available from the physical camera, or without input from the user regarding how the stabilization should be carried out. SUMMARY An easy-to-use online video stabilization system and computer implemented video stabilization methods are described. Videos are stabilized after capture, and therefore the stabilization works on all forms of video footage including both legacy video and recently captured video. In one implementation, the video stabilization system is fully automatic, requiring no input or parameter settings by the user other than the video itself. The video stabilization system uses a cascaded motion model to choose the correction that is applied to different frames of a video. In various implementations, the video stabilization system is capable of detecting and correcting high frequency jitter artifacts, low frequency shake artifacts, rolling shutter artifacts, significant foreground motion, poor lighting, scene cuts, and both long and short videos. In one embodiment, a camera path is generated at least in part by accessing a video and generating a plurality of tracked features for each of at least two adjacent frames of the video, the tracked features of the adjacent frames indicating an inter-frame motion of the camera. A plurality of motion models are applied to the inter-frame motion of the tracked features to estimate a plurality of properties for each of the applied motion models, the motion models each representing a different type of camera motion comprising a different number of degrees of freedom (DOF). One or more of the motion models are determined to be valid by comparing the properties of the motion models to corresponding thresholds. The camera path is generated between the adjacent frames based on the valid motion models. In one embodiment, rolling shutter is corrected at least in part by accessing a video and generating a plurality of tracked features for each of at least two adjacent frames of the video, the tracked features of the adjacent frames indicating an inter-frame motion of the camera. A homographic model is applied to the inter frame motion to determine a number of tracked features that are inliers matching the homographic model. A homographic mixture model is applied to the inter frame motion to determine a number of tracked features that are inliers matching the homographic mixture model. If the number of homographic mixture inliers exceeds the number of homographic inliers by a threshold, a stabilized video is made by applying the homographic mixture model to the adjacent frames of the video. In another embodiment, rolling shutter is corrected at least in part by accessing a video and generating a plurality of tracked features for each of at least two adjacent frames of the video, the tracked features of the adjacent frames indicating an inter-frame motion of the camera. A homographic model is applied to the inter frame motion to determine a number of tracked features that are inliers matching the homographic model. A number of homographic mixture models are applied to the tracked features to determine, for each of the homographic mixture models, a number of tracked features that are inliers matching each homographic mixture model, the homographic mixture models having different rigidities. A least rigid homographic mixture model is determined where the number of homographic mixture inliers exceeds the number of homographic inliers by a threshold specific to that homographic mixture model. A stabilized video is generated by applying the least rigid homographic mixture model to the adjacent frames of the video. In one embodiment, a video is classified as being likely to benefit from stabilization at least in part by accessing a video and estimating, for a plurality of frames of the video, values of a plurality of degrees of freedom (DOF) of a similarity motion model, each degree of freedom representing a different camera motion of an original camera used to capture the video, the values of the DOFs representing magnitudes of the different camera motions. A spectrogram is generated for each of the DOFs, each spectrogram based on the values of the DOFs over a time window comprising a plurality of adjacent frames of the video. A plurality of shake features are generated based on the spectrograms. The video is classified based on the shake features. The video is then stabilized based on the classification. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a high-level block diagram of a computing environment including a video stabilization system, according to one embodiment. FIG. 2 is a high-level block diagram illustrating an example of a computer for use as a video stabilization system, video server, and/or client. FIG. 3 is a high-level block diagram illustrating modules within the video stabilization system, according to one embodiment. FIG. 4 is a flowchart illustrating a process for determining a camera path of a video, according to one embodiment. FIG. 5 is a flowchart illustrating a process for detecting and correcting rolling shutter in a video, according to one embodiment. FIG. 6 illustrates motion of example tracked features and their motion within a frame, according to one embodiment. FIG. 7 illustrates a number of motion models each having a different number of degrees of freedom, according to one embodiment. FIG. 8 is a flowchart illustrating a process for detecting camera shake in a video, according to one embodiment. FIG. 9A is an illustration of a number of spectrograms for a number of time windows and for the different degrees of freedom of the similarity model for a first video, according to one embodiment. FIG. 9B is an illustration of a number of spectrograms for a number of time windows and for the different degrees of freedom of the similarity model for a second video, according to one embodiment. The figures depict an embodiment of the present invention for purposes of illustration only. One skilled in the art will readily recognize from the following description that alternative embodiments of the structures and methods illustrated herein may be employed without departing from the principles of the invention described herein. DETAILED DESCRIPTION I. Overview FIG. 1 is a high-level block diagram of a computing environment including a video stabilization system, according to one embodiment. FIG. 1 illustrates a video server 110 , a video stabilization system 112 (the “stabilization system”) and a client 114 connected by a network 116 . Only one client 114 is shown in FIG. 1 in order to simplify and clarify the description. Embodiments of the computing environment 100 can have thousands or millions of clients 114 , as well as multiple video server 110 and stabilization systems 112 . The video server 110 serves video content (referred to herein as “videos”) to clients 114 via the network 116 . In one embodiment, the video server 110 is located at a website provided by YOUTUBE™, although the video server can also be provided by another entity. The video server 110 includes a database storing multiple videos and a web server for interacting with clients 114 . The video server 110 receives requests from users of clients 114 for the videos in the database and serves the videos in response. In addition, the video server 110 can receive, store, process (e.g., stabilize) and serve videos posted by users of the clients 114 and by other entities. The client 114 is a computer or other electronic device used by one or more users to perform activities including uploading videos, initiating the stabilization of videos using the stabilization system 112 , and viewing videos and other content received from the video server 110 . The client 114 , for example, can be a personal computer executing a web browser 118 that allows the user to browse and search for videos available at the video server web site. In other embodiments, the client 114 is a network-capable device other than a computer, such as a personal digital assistant (PDA), a mobile telephone, a pager, a television “set-top box,” etc. The network 116 enables communications among the entities connected to it. In one embodiment, the network 116 is the Internet and uses standard communications technologies and/or protocols. Thus, the network 116 can include links using technologies such as Ethernet, 802.11, worldwide interoperability for microwave access (WiMAX), 3G, digital subscriber line (DSL), asynchronous transfer mode (ATM), InfiniBand, PCI Express Advanced Switching, etc. Similarly, the networking protocols used on the network 116 can include multiprotocol label switching (MPLS), the transmission control protocol/Internet protocol (TCP/IP), the User Datagram Protocol (UDP), the hypertext transport protocol (HTTP), the simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP), the file transfer protocol (FTP), etc. The data exchanged over the network 116 can be represented using technologies and/or formats including the hypertext markup language (HTML), the extensible markup language (XML), etc. In addition, all or some of links can be encrypted using conventional encryption technologies such as the secure sockets layer (SSL), transport layer security (TLS), virtual private networks (VPNs), Internet Protocol security (IPsec), etc. In another embodiment, the entities use custom and/or dedicated data communications technologies instead of, or in addition to, the ones described above. The stabilization system 112 is configured to receive an input video and to stabilize it by altering the pixel content of the frames of the video. The stabilization system 112 outputs a stabilized video. As part of the stabilization process, the stabilization system 112 determines a camera path describing the two dimensional (2D) motion of the camera originally used to record the video. The stabilization system 112 may also output this camera path separately from using it merely to stabilize the video. To stabilize the video, the camera path is used to negate, to the extent possible, the motion of pixels in the frames of the video due to the motion of the camera. In one embodiment, the output stabilized video is a copy of the original video where the positions of the pixels of each frame are adjusted to counteract the motion between frames according to the determined camera path. FIG. 2 is a high-level block diagram illustrating an example of a computer 200 for use as a video server 110 , stabilization system 112 , and/or client 114 . Illustrated are at least one processor 202 coupled to a chipset 204 . The chipset 204 includes a memory controller hub 220 and an input/output (I/O) controller hub 222 . A memory 206 and a graphics adapter 212 are coupled to the memory controller hub 220 , and a display device 218 is coupled to the graphics adapter 212 . A storage device 208 , keyboard 210 , pointing device 214 , and network adapter 216 are coupled to the I/O controller hub 222 . Other embodiments of the computer 200 have different architectures. For example, the memory 206 is directly coupled to the processor 202 in some embodiments. The storage device 208 is a non-transitory computer-readable storage medium such as a hard drive, compact disk read-only memory (CD-ROM), DVD, or a solid-state memory device. The memory 206 holds instructions and data used by the processor 202 . The pointing device 214 is a mouse, track ball, or other type of pointing device, and is used in combination with the keyboard 210 to input data into the computer system 200 . The graphics adapter 212 displays images and other information on the display device 218 . The network adapter 216 couples the computer system 200 to the network 116 . Some embodiments of the computer 200 have different and/or other components than those shown in FIG. 2 . The computer 200 is adapted to execute computer program modules for providing functionality described herein. As used herein, the term “module” refers to computer program instructions and other logic used to provide the specified functionality. Thus, a module can be implemented in hardware, firmware, and/or software. In one embodiment, program modules formed of executable computer program instructions are stored on the storage device 208 , loaded into the memory 206 , and executed by the processor 202 . The types of computers 200 used by the entities of FIG. 1 can vary depending upon the embodiment and the processing power used by the entity. For example, a client 114 that is a mobile telephone typically has limited processing power, a small display 218 , and might lack a pointing device 214 . The stabilization system 112 , in contrast, may comprise multiple servers working together to provide the functionality described herein. As will be apparent from the description below, the operations of the stabilization system 112 to stabilize a video are sufficiently complex as to require their implementation by a computer, and thus cannot be performed entirely mentally by the human mind. II. Video Stabilization FIG. 3 is a high-level block diagram illustrating modules within the video stabilization system 112 , according to one embodiment. As introduced above, the stabilization system 112 is configured to receive an input video 302 , to stabilize the video, and output the stabilized video 304 and/or the camera path 306 . In one embodiment, the stabilization system 112 includes a motion estimation system module 310 , a camera path analysis module 320 , a camera path stabilization module 330 , a stabilized video generation module 340 , a data storage module 350 , and a shake detection module 360 . Some embodiments of the stabilization system 112 have different and/or additional modules than the ones described here. Similarly, the functions can be distributed among the modules in a different manner than is described here. Certain modules and functions can be incorporated into other modules of the stabilization system 112 and/or other entities on the network 116 , including the video server 110 and client 114 . The data storage module 350 stores data used by the various modules of the stabilization system 112 . The stored data include, for example, frames and/or other portions of videos being operated upon, tracked features, estimated motion models, properties and thresholds related to the stabilization process, camera paths, and other intermediate items of data created during the stabilization process. This list is intended to be exemplary and not exhaustive. II.A. Motion Estimation The motion estimation module 310 analyzes the frames of the input video 302 to characterize the original 2D camera motion of the camera used to capture the input video 302 , and to provide that characterized output as a camera path, and is one means for performing this function. For a pair of adjacent frames I t and I t+1 representing times t and t+1 in the video, respectively, the motion estimation module 310 characterizes the camera path based on the movement of a set of tracked features T t , T t+1 from their initial locations in frame I t to their final locations in frame I t+1 . The set of tracked features T is generated from the underlying pixels of each frame, and their movement between adjacent frames is represented as a set of inter-frame motions M t . Using the inter-frame motions M t , the motion estimation module 310 estimates a set of motion models F t for frame I t , where the application of the estimated motion models F t to the pixels of frame I t describes the motion of the pixels between frame I t and I t+1 . However, not all of the estimated motion models will validly characterize the inter-frame motion of the pixels, and thus the motion estimation module 310 is further configured to determine which estimation motion models are valid for use in the camera path between frames I t and I t+1 . Only the valid motion models for each frame pair are used in the camera path. In one embodiment, to determine the camera path the motion estimation module 310 includes a tracking module 312 and a cascaded motion module 314 . As motion estimation is performed at the level of frame pairs, motion estimation can be parallelized by distributing motion estimation across several computers running in parallel on different parts (or clips) of the video. II.A.i. Tracking The tracking module 312 is configured to generate a set of tracked features T t for each frame I t of the input video 312 , and is one means for performing this function. The tracked features act as markers for objects appearing in a video frame. The tracking module 312 tracks the motion of individual tracked features between frame pairs to track how objects in the video move between frames. In aggregate, the motion M t of the tracked features between a pair of adjacent frames can be analyzed to separate object motion within the frame from motion of the capturing camera. The tracking module 312 generates the tracked features T t for a frame by applying a corner measure to the pixels of the frame (e.g., a Harris corner measure). The corner measure generates a tracked feature at each pixel in the frame where a “corner” appears, that is, where the vertical and horizontal lines of significant gradient in pixel color meet. More specifically, the tracked features are located at pixels where the minimum eigenvalue of the auto-correlation matrix of the gradient of the frame is above a threshold after non-maxima suppression. The tracked features may be stored as a set of two-dimensional (2D) points, each tracked feature having an x and y axis coordinate within the Cartesian coordinate system of the frame of the video. Thus, the i-th tracked feature T t,i of a frame and its motion M t,i to frame I t+1 may be represented as: T t , i = [ x y ] , M t , ⁢ i = [ Δ ⁢ ⁢ x Δ ⁢ ⁢ y ] ( 0 ) Further, in generating the tracked features the tracking module 312 may divide the frame into multiple layers of grids having different sizes (e.g., 4×4 or 16 grids total, 8×8 grids, and 16×16 grids). The gradient threshold for what may be considered a tracked feature may set on a per-grid basis to normalize the number of tracked features generated per cell of the grid. This helps balance the number of tracked features arising out of each portion of the frame, so that the tracked features are not overly representative of some cells over others. That way, cells with large amounts of color change over a relatively short distance will not necessarily have more tracked features than cells that are more uniform in color. An absolute minimum threshold may be enforced to address homogeneous regions of a frame. The absolute minimum threshold may conclude that particular regions may lack tracked features. Tracked features that are in close proximity to other tracked features (e.g., within 5 pixels) may be aggregated or filtered in order to ensure that the tracked features are spread out within a cell, and within the frame as a whole. FIG. 6 illustrates motion of example tracked features and their motion M t within a frame, according to one embodiment. Generally, at least some of the tracked features will exhibit motions that are inconsistent with the motion other nearby tracked features. The tracked features are analyzed to identify and filter out these outlier tracked features. Inconsistent motion can include, for example, a tracked feature T t,i moving M t,i in substantially different (e.g., opposite) direction from other nearby tracked features. The threshold for what represents a different direction and what represents nearby is determined several times at several different levels. Several levels of grids (e.g., 4×4 or 16 grids total, 8×8 grids, and 16×16 grids) are used as introduced above, where each level of grid has a different threshold for what constitutes a nearby tracked feature and what constitutes a substantially different direction. Generally, tracked features within a cell of a grid are considered nearby. The direction of motion of the tracked features of a cell is determined based on an aggregate (e.g., an average) of the directions of motions of each of the tracked features of that cell. The threshold tolerance for a substantially different direction may be set very high (e.g., requiring a high amount of uniformity) between tracked features for larger grids (e.g., 16×16), and may be set comparatively lower (e.g., requiring less uniformity) between tracked features for smaller grids (e.g., 4×4). Tracked features not meeting the directionality threshold at one or more levels are thrown out. In one embodiment, tracked features are filtered using a random sample consensus (RANSAC) algorithm. For example, all but one tracked feature in an example grid may exhibit leftward translation, whereas the remaining tracked feature exhibits rightward translation. Consequently, the rightward moving tracked feature may be filtered and not considered in further processing. II.A.ii. Cascaded Motion Estimation The cascaded motion module 314 is configured to use the set of inter-frame motions M t of the set of tracked features T t between pairs of adjacent frames to determine the original camera path, and is one means for performing this function. To do this, the cascaded motion module 314 fits the set of inter-frame motions M t to a set of linear motion models F t . Each of the motion models represents a different type of motion having a different number of degrees of freedom (DOF). The output camera path of the cascaded motion module 314 is, for each pair of frames, the estimated motion models that are determined to be valid representations of the inter-frame motions. For convenience, the set of motion models determined valid for a pair of adjacent frames I t and I t+1 are assigned to the second frame, I t+1 , in the pair. Generally, a set of valid motion models is determined assigned for each frame in the video except the first, as there is no motion to be analyzed in the first frame of the video. For the first frame of the video, an identity motion model is used for initialization. As will be described below, applying the valid motion models of frame I t is at least part of the process used to generate stabilized video frame J t+1 , which is frame I t+1 stabilized for the original camera motion. In an alternative embodiment, the set of valid motion models may be assigned to the first frame in the pair instead. II.A.ii.a Estimating Motion Models FIG. 7 illustrates a number of motion models each having a different number of degrees of freedom, according to one embodiment. In one embodiment, at least four motion models F t (k) are considered. The first motion model F t (0) is a translation model having two degrees of freedom for detecting motion along the x and y axes of the frame. The second motion model F t (1) is a similarity model with four degrees of freedom for detecting rotations and uniform scaling (e.g., size of the frame), as well as for detecting translation. The third motion model F t (2) is a is a homographic model having eight degrees of freedom for detecting perspective effects, skew, non-uniform scales, as well as for detecting similarities and translations. The fourth motion model F t (3) is a homographic mixture model with 8×n degrees of freedom, where n is the number of mixtures in the homographic mixture model. In one embodiment, n=10. The homographic mixture model detects rolling shutter distortions (e.g., wobble), in addition to detecting homographies, similarities, and translations. Thus, as the number of DOFs of a motion model increase, each motion model includes new degrees of freedom representing a new type of camera and also includes DOFs for the motions represented by the lower DOF motion models. Exemplary motion models are further described below. The motion models are each configurable with their own parameters, where each parameter represents one of the DOF of the motion model. Thus, two different translations between two different frame pairs will fit two different translation models F (0) , each having their own parameter (or DOF) configurations. The cascaded motion module 314 estimates the parameters of the motion models to determine the configuration of each motion model that best fits the inter-frame motions M t . Once the parameters for the motion models have been estimated, the estimated motion models can be evaluated to determine whether or not they are the “correct” models to be applied. That is, they are evaluated for validity to determine whether or not they represent the motion M t of tracked features between frames. This is further described below in the next section. To estimate the parameters of each motion model with respect to inter-frame motion M t , the parameters of a given motion model are determined so as to minimize: Σ i ∥(T t,i +M t,i )−F(T t,i )∥ p   (1) where each i represents an inter-frame motion between two corresponding tracked features of a frame pair, and where p is an order of a normalizing factor (e.g., p=2 for a Euclidean norm). More specifically, in one embodiment the motion models are fit to the inter-frame motion using an iterative re-weighted least squares function: ∑ i ⁢ w i ⁢  ( T t , i + M t , i ) - F ⁡ ( T t , i )  2 , where ⁢ ⁢ w i = 1  ( T t , i + M t , i ) - F ⁡ ( T t , i )  1 ( 2 ) and where w i are inverse fitting error weights. The larger the value of w i , the better the fit. Inlier tracked features fitting the model have values much greater than 1, and outliers have small weights having values close to or less than 1. The parameters each motion model F t are estimated by minimizing the sum of Eq. 2. The parameters (DOF) of each motion model are as follows. The translation motion model F t (0) is estimated as the weighted average translation of the tracked features with weights w i such that: F t ( 0 ) = [ 1 0 t x 0 1 t y 0 0 1 ] ( 3 ) where t x and t y represent the magnitude of translation of the camera along the x and y axes, respectively. The magnitude of translation may be expressed in pixels or as a percent of the frame width/height before cropping. As above, the values of t x and t y can also be said to represent the values of the DOFs of the translation model for that frame. The similarity motion model F t (1) is estimated such that: F t ( 1 ) = [ a - b t x b a t y 0 0 1 ] ( 4 ) where a is a frame-constant scale parameter, b represents rotation, and t are translations in x and y. The homographic model F t (2) is estimated using a 3×3 matrix, where up-to-scale ambiguity is resolved by normalizing the matrix elements such that h 33 equals 1. The matrix elements of the homographic model are estimated using a weighted version of the non-homogeneous direct linear transformation (DLT) algorithm solved via QR decomposition. F t ( 2 ) = [ a b t x c d t y w 1 w 2 1 ] ( 5 ) where, assuming small inter-frame rotation and scale, w T =(w 1 , w 2 ) T is the frame-constant perspective part, a and d are frame-constant scale parameters, t are translations in x and y, and c and b are rotation and skew, respectively. The homographic mixture model F t (3) is estimated using a mixture of a number (e.g., 10) of different homographic models, as well as a regularizer that may vary in value between different implementations. The homographic mixture model applies a different homographic model to each portion of the frame. More specifically, a block is a set of consecutive scan lines in a frame, where the total number of scan lines in the frame is partitioned into 10 blocks of scan lines. Thus, a different homographic model is applied to each block. The regularizer affects the rigidity of the homographic mixture model. For example, a regularizer value of a sufficiently high value (e.g., 1) causes the homographic mixture model to be rigid, making it identical to the homographic model F t (2) . A smaller regularizer value (e.g., between 0 and 1) increases the contribution of the other mixtures/blocks, causing the homographic mixture model to better model a rolling shutter wobble in the inter-frame motion. The homographic mixture model F t (3) is represented by F t ( 3 ) = [ a b k t k x c k d t k y w 1 w 2 1 ] , k = 1 ⁢ ⁢ … ⁢ ⁢ 10 ( 6 ) where w T =(w 1 , w 2 ) T is the frame-constant perspective part, a and d are frame-constant scale parameters, t k are block-varying translations in x and y, and c k and b k are block-varying rotation and skew. For 10 blocks (k), F t (3) has 4×10+4=44 degrees of freedom. The tracked features T t contributing to the inter-frame motions M t are filtered prior to estimation of the homographic F t (2) and homographic mixture model F t (3) parameters. To perform this filtering, the parameters for the similarity model F t (1) are estimated first. A set of one or more tracked features not matching the estimated similarity model are determined. These non-matching tracked features are filtered from use in estimating the homographic and homographic mixture model parameters, for at least the first iteration of Eq. 2. This may be accomplished, for example, by setting their weights w i to zero. This helps insulate the parameters of the homographic and homographic mixture models against significant foreground motions (e.g., motions very close to the camera). In determining the parameters of the models, the weights of the tracked features may, in an alternative embodiment, be biased to give greater weight to tracked features near the edge of frame, and to give less weight to tracked features near the center of the frame. This may be accomplished, for example, using an inverted Gaussian function along the x and y coordinate axes of the frame. This is based on a prediction that faces and other objects close to the camera frame tend to be centered with respect to the frame. II.A.ii.b Determining the Valid Estimated Motion Models The inter-frame motions M t of tracked features T t between any given pair of frames may look like any, some, all, or none of the estimated motion models. For example, if the scene is strictly non-planar (e.g. due to different depth layers or significant foreground motions) the translation motion model will be insufficient in describing the motion (with the translation model generating the least number of stabilization artifacts relative to the other motion models). Application of the correct (or valid) set of motion models to the inter-frame motion will stabilize those frames and remove at least some destabilizations, resulting in residual shake. Application of incorrect models introduces distortions into both the camera path and the stabilized video that were not originally present. More specifically, if the translation model is valid, the result of its application will be a reduction of shake. If the translation model is invalid, the result of its application will be additional shake distortion. If the similarity model is valid, the result of its application will be the introduction of high frequency rigid wobble residual shake (mostly perspective in nature). If the similarity model is invalid, the result of its application will be additional shake distortion. If the homographic model is valid, the result of its application will be close to none residual shake if there is no rolling shutter present, and wobble residual shake if there is rolling shutter present. If the homographic model is invalid, the result of its application will be perspective warping errors. If the homographic mixture model is valid, the result of its application will be close to none residual shake. If the homographic mixture model is invalid, the result of its application will be non-rigid wave-like warp distortions. Once the cascaded motion module 314 has computed the parameters for the set of motion models F t , the motion models are fit to the set of tracked features T t , T t+1 and inter-frame motions M t to determine which motion models F t validly match the inter-frame motion. Generally, a motion model is considered to be valid with respect to an inter-frame motion if the type of motion represented by the motion model matches the exhibited inter-frame motion with respect to one or more properties. These properties represent the degree of fit between the motion model and the inter-frame motions. The properties differ among the motion models. Table 1 illustrates an example set of properties for validity evaluation, according to one embodiment. Table 1 includes the motion models, the properties relevant to each motion model, and a threshold. Some properties are simply the parameters of the motion models estimated for the inter-frame motions. Others properties are derivable from the fit of the estimated motion model to the tracked features T t , T t+1 and inter-frame motions M t . Tracked features matching the model may be referred to as inliers, and tracked features not matching the model may be referred to as outliers. A tracked feature is an inlier if it fits the estimated motion model to within a threshold tolerance. For example, if the motion model predicted the motion M t,i of a tracked feature T t,i between to within 1.5 pixels of accuracy, than the tracked feature may be considered an inlier. In one embodiment, if a single property does not meet its corresponding threshold, the motion model is invalid. In other embodiments, other properties, thresholds, and requirements may be defined for determining whether or not a motion model is valid. Motion Model Property Threshold Translation Number of tracked features >3 m.f. Translation magnitude as a <15% percentage of frame diameter Standard deviation of translation <7% as a percentage of frame diameter Acceleration: Current translation <20 over median translation pixels Similarity Number of tracked features >30 m.f. Feature coverage as a >15% percentage of frame area Scale change <25% Change in rotation <20° Homographic Scale change <20% Change in rotation <15° Grid coverage >30% Homographic Inlier block definition: >40% Mixture block coverage Adjacent outlier blocks <5 Empty blocks (too <3 few tracked features) Regarding translation properties, the number of tracked features is the total number of tracked feature inliers. The translation magnitude is the amount of inter-frame motion estimated by the translation model. This may be determined, for example, from a translation magnitude parameter of the motion model. Standard deviation of translation may be determined based on the individual translations of the tracked features between frames. Acceleration may be determined based on the average pixel shift of the tracked features between a pair of frames relative the median of the average pixel shift from one or more previous frame pairs (e.g., 5 previous frame pairs). Regarding similarity properties, the number of tracked features is the same as for the translation model. The feature coverage as a percentage of frame area is determined by placing a box having a fixed size around each feature and by taking the union of all the boxes. The area within the union of the boxes is compared against the total frame area to determine the feature coverage. The scale change and rotation properties may be determined based scale change and rotation parameters, respectively, of the similarity model. Regarding homographic properties, the scale change and change in rotation properties are the same as in the similarity model. The homographic properties may also include a perspective property that may be determined based on a change in perspective parameter from the homographic model. The threshold for the perspective property is based on a per-normalization, is unit-less, and may, for example, be 4×10 −4 in value. The grid coverage property represents a calculation of the amount of the frame that is covered by inlier tracked features. The grid coverage property is determined by overlaying a grid (e.g., 10×10) over the tracked features of the frame pair. For each cell (or bin) of the grid, a score is determined whether the bin is an inlier or outlier bin. The bin score is based on whether the tracked features in the bin are inliers or outliers with respect to the homographic model, and based on the weights w i of the tracked features in the bin, specifically based on the median b j of the feature weights of the tracked features in the bin. In one embodiment, the score of a bin j is determined based on b ^ J = 1 1 + e ( - a ⁡ ( b j - 1 ) ) ( 7 ) where a and b j are scaling factors for the logistic regression scoring functions. Grid coverage G t is an average over all bin scores, such that G t = 1 N ⁢ ∑ j = 1 N ⁢ ⁢ b ^ J ( 8 ) If G t is too low, the grid coverage property is too low (e.g., below 30% of the bins) and thus the homographic model may be considered invalid. Regarding homographic mixture properties, the block coverage property is similar to the grid coverage property above. Here, instead of a single per-frame grid coverage score, each block of the mixture is assigned its own block coverage score. Specifically, for 1×10 grid is overlaid on the tracked features, each bin (10 bins total) corresponds to one of the blocks. Each block thus covers a number of scan lines in the frame. A score is determined for each bin/block based on the weights of the tracked features and whether or not they are inliers. A block is considered an outlier block if its coverage is below a threshold, for example 40%. The adjacent outlier blocks properties indicates the number of adjacent blocks that are outliers. If too many are outliers, the property is invalid. The empty block property indicates the number of blocks having few (e.g., below a threshold) or no tracked features. If too many blocks have too few tracked features, insufficient data is available to fully validate the homographic mixture, and consequently the homographic mixture model is considered invalid. To streamline the estimation of motion models, the motion models are estimated, and evaluated for validity with respect to the inter-frame motion in a sequenced order, starting with the translation model and increasing in number of DOF from there. If the translation model is determined to be valid, the similarity model is considered. If the similarity model is determined to be valid, the homographic model is considered, and so on. At any point, if a model is determined to be invalid, the process is stopped and the previous model/s that was/were considered valid are used as part of the camera path for that frame. If no motion model is valid, an identity motion model used which assumes the camera path did not move (e.g., no stabilization is performed). This streamlining is efficient because often if a lower DOF motion model is invalid, it is likely that the higher DOF motion models will also be invalid. II.B. Camera Path Analysis The camera path analysis module 320 receives the tracked features and the valid estimated motion models from the motion estimation module 310 . Generally, the camera path analysis module 320 uses these inputs to address stabilization issues that occur over a longer time span than can be detected at the inter-frame time span, for example stabilization issues that occur over hundreds of milliseconds to seconds of video. The camera path analysis module 320 performs corrections by changing the estimated motion models that are considered valid on a frame by frame basis, and by flagging frames that exhibit particular characteristics. In one embodiment, the camera path analysis module 320 includes an invalidity propagation module 322 , a rolling shutter correction module 324 , and an overlay and blur correction module 326 . II.B.i. Invalidity Propagation The invalidity propagation module 322 is configured to smooth out the camera path over longer stretches of frames for temporal stability, and is one means for performing this function. This is based on the assumption that instabilities generally occur over multiple pairs of frames rather than in between two frames. For example, if the highest DOF valid motion model at t−1 is the homographic mixture model, at t it is the similarity model, and at t+1 it is the homographic mixture model, it is unlikely that the cause of the invalidity of the higher DOF models at t occurred only within the two frame time span between the frame time t and the frame at time t+1. To smooth out the camera path, the number of DOF of the highest DOF valid model at a given frame pair is propagated to a number of nearby frame pairs. Using the example above, the highest DOF valid model at time t may be the similarity model. For a number (e.g., 3) of preceding and following frame pairs, (e.g., t±1, t±2, and t±3), the invalidity propagation module 322 compares the number of DOF of the highest DOF valid model at that preceding or subsequent time with the number of DOF of the highest DOF valid model at time t. If the number of DOF at time t is lower, the highest valid DOF model at the previous or subsequent time is downgraded (in terms of DOF) to match the number of DOF at time t. Continuing with the example introduced above, using invalidity propagation the highest DOF valid model at times t−1 and t+1 would be downgraded from the homographic mixture model to the similarity model. In performing this propagation, only the number of DOF is propagated to the prior frames, the actual motion model used at these previous and subsequent times is the motion model previously estimated for that frame having that number of DOFs. This is because the motion between each frame pair is expected to differ, often significantly, and thus the parameters of a motion model calculated at one point in time will generally not apply to another frame pair. Further, invalidity propagation is generally not performed multiple times, otherwise all frames would end up with the motion model of the frame having the lowest number of DOF that is still valid. The output of the invalidity propagation module 322 is a set valid estimated motion models that is different from the set of valid motion models received from the motion estimation module 310 . II.B.ii. Rolling Shutter Correction The rolling shutter correction module 324 is configured to analyze tracking features T t , T t+1 and inter-frame motions M t to detect and correct rolling shutter distortions, and is one means for performing this function. The rolling shutter correction module 324 does not require any information from the original capturing camera regarding how the video was captured, or how the camera moved during capture. Rolling shutter occurs when not all parts of a frame are recorded at the same time by the camera capturing the video. While this can be a deliberately generated effect in single image capture use cases, it is generally undesirable in videos. Rolling shutter can result in several different effects, including wobble, skew, smear, and partial exposure. Generally, rolling shutter effects occur as a result of an object moving quickly within the frame during frame capture, such that the object appears to wobbles, appears skewed, etc. II.B.ii.a Detecting Rolling Shutter To detect rolling shutter effects between a frame pair, the rolling shutter correction module 324 is configured to apply the homographic model F t (2) estimated for that frame pair to the tracked features of that frame pair. A number of homographic inliers are determined, where a homographic inlier is a tracked feature i where the corresponding motion M t,i matches the motion estimated by homographic model for that frame pair to within a threshold number of pixels. For example, if the threshold is within 1.5 pixels a tracked feature i is an inlier if between the two frames in the pair, the tracked feature moved M t,i in x and y as expected by the estimated homographic model to within 1.5 pixels of accuracy. In this example, the feature's weight w i would be 1/1.5=0.66667. A number of homographic mixture inliers are also determined in the same manner, except the homographic mixture model F t (3) is used in place of the homographic model F t (2) . The tracked features inliers are grouped into grids to determine separate grid coverages for both the homographic inliers and homographic mixture inliers. The determination of grid coverage is similar to that described above, but is repeated for clarity below. A grid (e.g., 10×10) is overlaid over the frame. Each tracked feature is located in one bin, based on its coordinate location within the frame and the boundaries of the individual bins, as the bins do not overlap. For each cell (or bin) of the grid, two scores are determined, a homographic bin score and a homographic mixture bin score. The homographic bin score determines whether the bin is a homographic inlier or outlier. Similarly, the homographic mixture bin score determines whether the bin is a homographic mixture inlier or outlier. Each score is based on the number of tracked features in the bin that are inliers or outliers with respect to either the homographic model or the homographic mixture. The scores are further weighted based on the weights w i of the tracked features in the bin, specifically based on the median b j of the feature weights of the tracked features in the bin. In one embodiment, the score of a bin j for either case is determined based on b ^ J = 1 1 + e ( - a ⁡ ( b j - 1 ) ) ( 9 ) where a and b j are scaling factors for the logistic regression scoring functions. Grid coverage G t is an average over all bin scores, such that G t = 1 N ⁢ ∑ j = 1 N ⁢ ⁢ b ^ J ( 10 ) Two grid coverages are determined, a homographic grid coverage G t (2) and a homographic mixture grid coverage G t (3) , each based on their respective bin scores. Generally, the homographic mixture model models rolling shutter better than the homographic model. Consequently, generally the homographic mixture has a higher grid coverage G t (3) than the homographic model's grid coverage G t (2) when a rolling shutter effect is present. In one embodiment, the rolling shutter correction module uses a rolling shutter boost estimate rse t to detect a rolling shutter effect where, the boost rse t is the ratio: rse t = G t ( 3 ) G t ( 2 ) ( 11 ) A boost rse t greater than 1 generally signifies that the homographic mixture model is detecting some motion (e.g., rolling shutter) that the homographic model is not capturing. Thus, the homographic mixture model is considered to “boost” the response of the homographic model. In one embodiment, the rolling shutter correction module 324 is configured to determine that there is a rolling shutter at time t responsive to the boost rse t being above a boost threshold (e.g., 1.1, 1.3, 1.4, 1.9, etc.). Generally, rolling shutter effects occur over multiple frames (e.g., on the order of hundreds of milliseconds to seconds). The rolling shutter correction module 324 determines the boost rse t for multiple times/frames t (e.g., over 10% of the frames of a 6 second clips, over several hundred milliseconds, or over some other time duration). If a threshold percentage of the frames (e.g., 30-100%) exhibit a boost above the specified threshold, then the rolling shutter detection module 324 concludes that a rolling shutter effect is present for a set of frames. If the threshold percentage of frames is not met, the rolling shutter detection module 324 concludes that a rolling shutter effect is not present for the set of frames. In another implementation, the rolling shutter detection module 324 detects rolling shutter effects using a number of different homographic mixture models F t (2, λ) , where each of the homographic mixture models varies with respect to the regularizer λ. As above, a sufficiently high regularizer causes the homographic mixture model to be rigid and thus identical to the homographic model. Relatively low regularizer values (e.g., 3×10 −5 ) better model heavy distortions originating from fast vibrating camera centers (e.g., mounting of the camera on a helicopter or motorbike). Relatively high value regularizer values (e.g., 4.7×10 −4 ) model relatively slower moving distortions (e.g., a person walking with a camera, a video shot from a boat). According to this implementation, to detect rolling shutter effects for a frame pair, the motion estimation module 310 estimates a number (e.g., four) homographic mixture models for the frame pair, where each homographic mixture model has a different regularizer. The rolling shutter detection module 324 determines the grid coverage G t (2, λ) and boost rse t,λ for each of the homographic mixture models with respect to the estimated homographic model F t (2) . Due to the difference in the regularizer, each homographic mixture model F t (2, λ) will have a different boost rse t,λ . The different homographic mixture models allow for more precise modeling of different types of rolling shutter effects. To determine whether a rolling shutter effect is present for a frame and to determine which homographic mixture model to apply, the boost of each homographic mixture model is compared against a different boost threshold. More rigid homographic mixtures have their boosts rse t,λ compared against comparatively lower boost thresholds (e.g., a boost threshold 1.1-1.3). Less rigid homographic mixtures have their rse t,λ compared against higher boost thresholds (e.g., 1.5-1.9). In one embodiment, the homographic mixture with least rigid regularizer that meets the boost threshold (or stated differently, the homographic mixture meeting the highest boost threshold) is the homographic mixture used for that frame. In one embodiment, the various boost thresholds are configured such that if a lower regularizer boost threshold is met, the thresholds of all higher regularizer thresholds will also be met. To determine whether a rolling shutter effect is present across a set of frames, the homographic mixture models that meet the various boost thresholds are compared. In one embodiment, if a percentage (e.g., 5-15%, or higher) of the frames of the set meet one of the boost thresholds, then it is determined that a rolling shutter effect is present. II.B.ii.b Correcting Rolling Shutter To correct for rolling shutter effects, the rolling shutter correction module 324 is configured to alter the set of valid estimated motion models received from motion estimation module 310 . In one embodiment, if a rolling shutter effect is determined to be present across a set of frames, the valid motion models for that set of frames is permitted into include previously determined valid estimated homographic mixture models F t (3) for those frames. If a rolling shutter effect is determined not to be present across a set of frames, the valid estimated motion models for that set of frames is constrained to motion models having eight DOF (e.g., homographic models F t (2) ), or lower. In another embodiment, if a rolling shutter effect is determined to be present across a set of frames, the valid motion models for that set of frames are upgraded such that homographic mixture models F t (3) are considered valid for all frames in the set. To correct for rolling shutter effects in an implementation where multiple homographic mixture models were determined, the rolling shutter correction module 324 determines first whether or not a rolling shutter effect is present, and if a rolling shutter effect is present, which of the homographic mixture models to use for a set of frames. As above, if a rolling shutter effect is determined not to be present, across a set of frames, the valid estimated motion models for that set of frames is constrained to motion models having eight DOF (e.g., homographic models F t (2) ), or lower. If a rolling shutter effect is determined to be present, the homographic mixture model F t (2, λ) used is the homographic mixture model meeting the boost threshold for the specified percentage of frames in the set. If more than one homographic mixture model meets this condition, the rolling shutter correction module 324 uses the homographic mixture model with the weakest regularizer for the frames in the set. As above, depending upon the implementation this homographic mixture model may be used for all frames in the set or only for those frames where the estimated homographic mixture model for that frame was determined to be valid. II.B.iii. Overlay and Blur Correction The overlay and blur correction module 326 flags frames (or frame pairs) exhibiting a large amount of blur or significant static overlay, and is one means for performing this function. The flags are used to place restrictions on the camera path itself and/or its use in generating the stabilized video. A static overlay is identified in a frame by identifying those tracked features T t,i exhibiting near zero motion M t,i (e.g., less than 0.2 pixels) as well as significantly small relative motion with respect to the dominant camera translation (e.g., <20%). These tracked features are indicated to be static. The overlay and blur correction module 326 aggregates the determinations that individual tracked features are static to determine whether a frame as a whole has a static overlay. To do this, the frame is divided into cells using a grid as described above. If more than 30% of a cell's tracked features are indicated as static, the cell is determined to be static. If a cell at given time t is indicated as being an overlay, that indication is propagated to a number of nearby frames (e.g., 30), as static overlays are typically present for more than a fraction of a second. If a sufficient number of cells of the grid are indicated as having an overlay, the entire frame is flagged as containing an overlay. This process is repeated for the other nearby frames, which may be similarly flagged. These flags indicate the presence of a static overlay, which may be taken into account in generating the stabilized video, described further below. Motion blur, or simply blur, is detected based on an corner measure of the pixels used in the detection. The corner measure here is similar to the corner measure used in tracking, above. For detecting blur, however, the corner measure may performed with different parameters and thresholds than is used for tracking. A blur score is determined for each frame using the corner measure. The overlay and blur correction module 324 is configured to flag an individual frame as blurred based on the frame's blur score. To flag a frame as blurred, the frame's blur score is compared to the blur score of each of a number of nearby frames (e.g., 50 nearby frames) to determine a ratio between the blur score of the frame in question to the blur score of each nearby frame. This ratio is determined separately for each of those nearby frames. The ratios may be weighted based on a number of factors including, for example, the time (or frame count) difference between the frame in question and the nearby frame on which the ratio is based, and the frame area overlap/intersection between the frame in question and the nearby frame. If one or more of the ratios is above a threshold (e.g., 2.5), the frame in question is flagged as blurry. II.C. Camera Path Stabilization The camera path stabilization module 330 generates a smoothed camera path and a crop transform (or simply crop), and is one means for performing this function. The camera path stabilization module 330 receives as input the tracked features T and motions M generated by motion estimation 310 , the set of valid estimated motion models F as generated by the motion estimation module 310 and as refined by the camera path analysis module 320 , and any flags generated by the camera path analysis module 320 . As introduced above, the camera path 306 may be output separately. This output camera path 306 may include the estimated motion models and/or the smoothed path and crop generated by the camera path stabilization module 330 . The smoothed camera path and crop can also used as an input to the stabilized video module 340 to generate a stabilized video 304 . The camera path stabilization module 330 includes a camera path smoothing module 332 and a cropping module 334 . II.C.i. Camera Path Smoothing The camera path smoothing module 332 smoothes the camera path by generating a smoothed path P that eliminates shake due to similarity (4 DOF), and lower DOF camera motions. The smooth path P does not take into account or correct higher DOF (e.g. more than 4) motion. The camera path smoothing module 332 generates the smoothed path of a frame at time P t using an L1 path stabilization and the estimated valid translation F t (0) , similarity F t (1) , and identity motion models, and is one means for performing this function. The camera path P t at time t is calculated using C t =C t−1 F t (1)   (12) and P t =C t B t   (13) P t includes a series of segments, each segment being one of a constant, linear, and/or parabolic motion. To accomplish this segmentation, P t is estimated by using a constrained L1 optimization O ( P )=α 1 |DP ( t )| 1 +α 2 |D 2 P ( t )| 1 +α 3 |D 3 P ( t )| 1   (14) where D is the differential operator. The result of camera path smoothing is a two dimensional (e.g., along the x and y axes) function P t that minimizes O(P). As above, as P t is based only on the similarity model F t (1) , P t does not fully represent the camera path. Generally, the smoothed camera path P t in combination with the higher DOF motion models (translation, homographic, homographic mixture), represents the camera path 306 in its entirety. B t represents the crop transform to be applied to the frame at time t to make a stabilized video 304 generated using the camera path appear if it was captured along the smooth path P t , thereby stabilizing the video. In one embodiment, the CLP (Computational Infrastructure for Operations Research (COIN-OR) Linear Programming) simplex solver is used to determine B t . Crop determination is further described with respect to the cropping module 334 , below. Thus, camera path smoothing module 332 is configured to output the smoothed camera path P t based on the crop B t from the cropping module 334 and based on the estimated similarity motion model from each frame pair. If the similarity model for a given frame is not valid, a translation or identity model can be used in place of the similarity model in determining the smoothed path and crop. II.C.ii. Cropping The cropping module 334 is configured to determine the crop B t of each frame, and is one means for performing this function. The crop governs the size of the frame. For fully automatic video stabilization, the crop B t is determined by the camera motions present in the video. Generally, the cropping module 334 is configured to find a crop B t that crops the content of each frame such that the remaining portion of the frame has the freedom to compensate for unwanted motion by adjusting what part of each frame is shown. Although larger crops generally make this easier, very large crops have the effect of removing frame content without providing additional stabilization benefit. The cropping module determines the crop B t using Eq. (14) and by testing out several different crop window sizes to determine the crop B t that at least approximately minimizes O i (P t ) of Eq. (14), where i represents the i-th crop test. In one embodiment, the crops tested include a 95% crop, a 90% crop, an 85% crop, and so on, down to a lower threshold such as a 70% crop. In one embodiment, the optimal crop c opt is based on an absolute threshold a s and a relative threshold r s . Examples values include a s =0.002 and r s =0.8. c opt = max i ⁢ { c i if ⁢ ⁢ O i < a s ⁢ ⁢ or ⁢ ⁢ O i - 1 O i > r s c n otherwise ( 15 ) The optimal crop size c opt is a percentage of the frame rectangle. As above, the crop transform B t is independent of crop size. Although it would be possible to exactly determine, for each frame, the exact crop that minimizes O(P), finding the exact ideal crop is inefficient from a processing standpoint. Even testing just a few crops, as described above, can be computationally intensive. In one embodiment, to improve the efficiency of the determination of the optimal crop c opt for each frame, temporal subsampling is performed on every k-th frame (e.g., if k=3, the temporal subsampling is performed on every third frame) to determine the optimal crop c opt . This reduces the number of times the optimal crop c opt needs to be determined in total, thus reducing the total processing required to determine the camera path. In one embodiment, the determination of the optimal crop c opt for a temporally subsampled frame is, rather than being based on Eq. (14), is instead based on: O ( P )=α 1 k|DP ( kt )| 1 +α 2 k 2 |D 2 P ( t )| 1 +α 3 k 3 |D 3 P ( kt )| 1    (16) The determination of crop transform B t includes a number of constraints. First, the four corners c k of a crop window have a predetermined size less than the frame size. The size of the corners is determined to remain within in the frame after the transformation, e.g., [0,0]≦B t c k <[width, height] at all times for all four corners. The values of c k are based on the crop transform and the magnitude of the crop as determined by c opt . This prevents undefined out-of-bound areas after applying the crop B t , alleviating the need for costly motion in-painting. Second, bounds are placed on the degrees of rotation allowed by the crop (e.g., 15°) and the change in scale (e.g., 90%) allowed by the crop. This limits the absolute deviation from the camera path P t . Third, if a frame is flagged as exhibiting a sufficiently large overlay, the crop B t is constrained to an identity transform. Fourth, if a frame is flagged to be motion blurred, a inequality constraint is placed, such that P t preserves a portion (e.g., 60%) of the original camera motion, thereby suppressing the perceived blur in the result at the cost of more shakiness. This may be isolated to one frame, or spread across several adjacent frames. Fifth, the scale of the c opt of the crop is added, with a small negative weight, to the objective as described in Eq. (14), effectively applying an inverse spring force on the crop window to bias the result towards less cropping. In one embodiment, the crop transform B t is determined on clips (or portions) of the video at a time (e.g., 6 seconds at a time). Additional constraints may be placed on individual clips that are not necessarily applicable to future clips. First, the crop window is biased to be axis aligned and frame centered for the first frame of a clip (e.g., zero translation, a scale of 1, and zero rotation). This constrains the initial orientation for the crop of a clip. Second, if the translation model of the first frame of the clip was deemed invalid, the identity model is embedded in the similarity model and the crop transform is centered for the first frame of the clip. Third, if the similarity model of the first frame of the clip was deemed invalid, the identity model is embedded in the similarity and change in rotation and scale of the crop across frames of that clip is set to zero (e.g., only translational DOFs are allowed). II.D. Stabilized Video Generation The stabilization video module 340 is configured to generate a stabilized video 304 using the set of valid motion models F t (k) and crop transform B t from each frame pair, and is one means for performing this function. In one embodiment, to generate the stabilized video 304 , the stabilized video module 340 generates a stabilized frame J t for each input frame I t from the original input video 302 . In one embodiment, the stabilized video module 340 generates each stabilized video frame J t by resampling the original frames I t according to the crop B t , and by correcting the resampling to account for any residual motion according to: J t ⁡ ( x ) = I t ⁡ ( y t ) = I t ⁡ ( R t ⁢ B t - 1 ⁢ x H t ) ( 17 ) where x is the Cartesian coordinate axes of the pixels of the frame, where R t represents the residual motion: R t = B t ⁢ F t ( 1 ) B t - 1 ( 18 ) and where H t =F t (k*) and where k* equals 2 or 3, whichever is the highest DOF valid estimated motion model for that frame. Resampling I t according to B t corrects for camera motions have similarity (e.g., DOF=4) or lower (e.g., translation) DOF. However, this resampling does not take into account higher DOF camera motions, such as those captured by the homographic and homographic mixture models. If no further correction were performed, such higher DOF motions would appear as high frequency residual wobble distortions in the resulting stabilized frames. The additional terms H t and R t account for such higher DOF motions on a frame by frame basis. They affect the output frames J t where there is a homographic and/or homographic mixture model that has been determined to be valid for that frame. In practice, to solve Eq. (17) including the residual R t , Eq. (17) is recursively expanded as: J t ⁡ ( x ) = I t ⁡ ( y t ) = I t ⁡ ( R t H t ⁢ R t - 1 H t - 1 ⁢ ⁢ … ⁢ ⁢ R t ⁢ B p H p ⁢ x ) ( 19 ) until some earlier time/frame p. Two key frames at times t=p and t=n are fixed. Simple resampling is used, i.e., J t (x)=I t (B t x) such that tε{p,n}. For intermediate frames t: p<t<n, Eq. (19) is used to recursively compute the resampling location y t (p) from p to t and y t (n) using a backward chain from n to t. The two resampling locations are then linearly blended (or interpolated) to determine the final value of J t (x), such that J t ⁡ ( x ) = I t ⁡ ( y t ) = I t ⁡ ( ( t - p ) ⁢ y t ( p ) + ( n - t ) ⁢ y t ( n ) n - p ) ( 19 ) More generally, the stabilized video module 340 generates the frames J t by applying the crop B t and the estimated valid motion models F t directly to the pixels of each frame I t . The estimated motion models dictate a location where each pixel from each frame will appear after stabilization, if at all, as dictated by the crop. This process may be completed for all available frames to generate the stabilized video 304 . II.E. Camera Shake Detection II.E.i Overview The shake detection module 360 is configured to analyze videos to determine whether or not a video 302 would benefit from stabilization, as not all videos will benefit. The process of determining whether or not a video would benefit from stabilization is referred to as camera shake detection, or simply shake detection. The shake detection module 360 is configured to quantify an amount of shake in a video by generating a number of shake features. The shake features are used to determine whether or not to stabilize the video 302 . Shake detection may be performed automatically or subject to a received request. Responsive to performing shake detection, a conclusion may be reached regarding whether the video has enough shake relative to a threshold to merit stabilization. Stabilization may be performed automatically upon reaching the threshold, or alternatively the user inputting the video 302 may be prompted with the option of performing stabilization based on the conclusion of the shake detection module 360 . The threshold for determining that a video would benefit from stabilization may vary between implementations. For videos with very little camera motion (or shake), stabilization may actually make the video worse (e.g., more difficult to watch as a viewer) than if no stabilization were performed. The threshold may be set such that stabilization is only performed if it improves the video. Processing costs involved with performing stabilization may also be a factor. The threshold may also be set such that stabilization is only performed if it improves the video enough to justify the processing cost. Thus, the threshold for determining whether to apply stabilization may vary between implementations. II.E.ii Generating Shake Features As introduced above, to determine whether to apply stabilization to a video, the shake detection module 360 is configured to quantify the shake present in the video by generating a number of shake features. To generate the shake features, the shake detection module 360 generates a number of spectrograms S for the video 302 based on the estimated similarity models C t for the frames of the video (see Eq. (12)). Each spectrogram S describes the frequency (or energy) components of the value of a single DOF of the similarity model across a number of adjacent frames. Thus each spectrogram represents either a DOF of translation t x along the x coordinate axis, a DOF of translation t y along they coordinate axis, a DOF of scale change, or a DOF of rotation change. As described above, the value of each DOF for a frame is represented by a parameter in the motion model, thus the value of each similarity DOF is the value of the corresponding parameter in the estimated similarity motion model F t (1) for that frame. Each spectrogram S also covers a limited time window of frames (e.g., 128 frames, or about 5 seconds of video. The spectrograms also partially overlap with each other in time, such that two spectrograms may share frames. For example, a first spectrogram may be based on frames 0-128, a second spectrogram may be based on frames 64-196, and a third spectrogram may be based on frames 128-256. The spectrogram S is generated in a frequency coordinate system where the portion of the spectrogram S k for each frame k is generated using the DOF values across the frames of the window and using a Fourier transform such as the Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT)-II algorithm: S k =  D k  = 2 ⁢ ∑ n = 0 127 ⁢ ⁢ d n ⁢ cos ⁡ ( π ⁢ k 128 ⁢ ( n + 0.5 ) ) , k = 0 ⁢ ⁢ … ⁢ ⁢ 127 , ( 19 ) for an implementation using 128 frames per spectrogram, where d n represents the amount of contribution of a particular frequency/energy to the DOF values for the frames of the window. An individual portion of the spectrogram S k can be stored, in the data storage 350 , as a histogram comprising 128 bins, each bin representing a particular frequency/energy range. Each bin has a height of d n representing that bin's contribution to the DOF values of the frames of the window. Thus, in S k a comparatively tall bin indicates that the frequency/energy range of that bin contributes more strongly to the values of the DOF in the window compared to another, comparatively shorter bin. Generally, taller spectrogram bins at higher frequencies/energies represent more vigorous camera motions such as rapid shaking of the camera. Conversely, taller histogram bins at lower frequencies/energies represent slower camera motions. Spectrogram S aggregates the DOF values for the frames of a time window into a histogram having a number of bins, where each bin represents a different frequency (or energy) range's contribution to the DOF's value for the frames in the window. Spectrograms may be compressed to help save memory space. In one embodiment, a scale 2 compression is used as it is generally expected that most energy in most video 302 spectrograms will be found at lower energies. A scale of 2 aggregates all frequencies in the interval [2 n , 2 n+1 ] resulting in a total of 8 bins for the spectrogram (2 8 =128) rather than the 128 bins from the example above. Thus, in performing compression the contributions d n of similar energy ranges are aggregated together. Using the example above, after compression rather than their being 128 d n values, each portion of the spectrogram S k instead has 8 d n values, one for each energy bin. FIG. 9 is an illustration of a number of spectrograms for a number of time windows and for the different degrees of freedom of the similarity model, according to one embodiment. FIG. 9A illustrates the spectrograms of a first, short-length video 12 windows in length, and FIG. 9B illustrates the spectrograms of a second, longer-length video 40 windows in length. A separate graph is illustrated for each DOF of the similarity model for each video. The example graphs of FIG. 9 assume 128 frames per spectrogram, scale 2 compression and thus 8 energy bins per spectrogram, and approximately 50% window overlap in the frames of each spectrogram. They axis of each graph illustrates the 8 energy bins, with bin number increasing with respect to energy. The x axis of each graph illustrates the spectrograms of the video by window. The color of each pixel of the graph represents the amount of energy (i.e., motion) within a particular frequency range within each window of frames. Comparing the spectrograms of FIG. 9A and FIG. 9B , the shorter video has very little shake of the DOFs at higher energies, where as the longer video has significant amounts of shake at higher energies. Thus, it may be concluded that the longer video would more greatly benefit from stabilization relative to the shorter video. The shake features may be generated from the spectrograms using any one of several different methods including, for example, based on the mean, median, and/or maximum of spectrogram histogram bin height across all windows and based on a separate histogram that groups the spectrogram's energy according to percentile. Each of these methods is now described in turn. One or more sets of shake features may be generated from the spectrograms by taking one or more of the mean, maximum, and median spectrogram height of each bin across the windows of a video. As introduced above, the height of a bin of a spectrogram represents the contribution of particular range of energies/frequencies to the DOF values of the windows on a window per window basis. Thus, the mean across all windows represents the average contribution of that bin's frequencies/energies to the video as a whole by window across the windows of the video. Similarly, the maximum across all windows represents the maximum contribution of that bin's frequencies/energies to the video as a whole by window across the windows of the video, and the median across all windows represents the median contribution of that bin's frequencies/energies to the video as a whole by window across the windows of the video. Using the example conditions above, if there 8 energy bins per DOF and given that there are 4 DOFs in the similarity model, consequently the shake detection module 360 generates 32 mean shake features, 32 maximum shake features, and 32 median shake features for a video. Note that the number of shake features generated is independent of the length (e.g., number of windows) of the video. Another set of shake features may be generated by from the spectrograms by creating a separate set of histograms of the spectrogram domain, one domain histogram for each energy bin for each DOF, and thus using the exemplary conditions above, 32 domain histograms total (e.g., 8 energy bin times 4 DOF). Each domain histogram has a number of bins (referred to as domain bins to avoid confusion with the energy bins of the underlying spectrograms). Each domain bin has its own shake feature. Continuing with the example from above, if each domain histogram has 10 domain bins, then the shake features generated by this technique number 320 in total. A domain histogram groups the heights/contributions, d n , of the individual windows of a single energy bin (e.g., one of 0-7) of spectrogram into percentile ranges of contribution relative to all energy bins of the spectrogram across all windows. The domain histogram is normalized on a scale of, for example, [0,1], where 0 represents a contribution value d n of zero, or alternatively the lowest amount of contribution d n, min in the spectrogram, and 1 represents the highest amount of contribution d n, max in the spectrogram. Each domain bin covers a defined percentile range of contribution values. The height of each domain bin is the number of windows in the energy bin having that contribution values d n within that percentile range. For example, if each of 10 domain bins covers a 10% range, a height of a first domain bin indicates the number of windows of the energy bin (e.g., spectrogram bin 0 out of bins 0-7) having contribution values d n between 0-10% the contribution of the maximum contribution of any bin in the spectrogram. A height of a second domain bin indicates the number of windows of that same energy bin (e.g., again spectrogram bin 0) having contribution values d n between 11-20% the contribution of the maximum contribution of any bin in the spectrogram. The heights of the domain bins may be normalized by the total number of windows in the video so that the domain bins are invariant with respect to the length of the video. This allows domain bin shake features from videos of various lengths to be compared despite having differing numbers of windows. II.E.iii Determining Whether to Stabilize the Video The shake features are analyzed to determine whether to apply stabilization to a video. In one implementation, the shake detection module 360 uses machine learning algorithms to trains a shake classifier to determine whether to apply stabilization. To train the shake classifier, the shake detection module 360 uses shake features from known videos and determinations (e.g., yes, no) of whether these known videos would be stabilized as training inputs. By training the classifier with decisions about whether these known videos would or would not be stabilized, the shake classifier is trained to learn whether or not later received videos 302 should be stabilized. The shake features used to train the shake classifier may vary between implementations. In one embodiment, 32 mean shake features, 32 maximum shake features, and 320 domain shake features are used to train the classifier. In other embodiments, any combination of mean, max, median, and domain shake features may be used to train the classifier. In other embodiments, additional features of the video may also be used to train the classifier. These features may include, for example, features deduced from the blur present in the video, as well as non-shake features such as the scene content of the video, and the audio of the video. Once the shake classifier has been trained, a video 302 may be analyzed to determine whether or not to stabilize the video. The shake detection module 360 processes the video to generate shake features as described above. The shake features (and any other features are input to the shake classifier. The shake classifier then outputs a determination of whether or not the video should be stabilized. Stabilization may then be automatically conducted, or conducted responsive to a user input. III. Example Methods FIG. 4 is a flowchart illustrating a process for determining a camera path of a video, according to one embodiment. The stabilization server 112 accesses 402 a video and generates 404 two dimensional tracked features for at least two adjacent frames of the received video. The tracked features of the adjacent frames indicate an inter-frame motion of the camera. A number of different motion models are each individually applied 406 to the tracked features of a frame to determine properties of the motion models. Each motion model has a different number of DOF. Based on the properties, a determination 408 is made regarding which of the motion models are valid. A camera path 410 describing the motion of the camera used to capture the video is generated based on the motion models that are valid for the inter-frame motion between the adjacent frames. FIG. 5 is a flowchart illustrating a process for detecting and correcting rolling shutter in a video, according to one embodiment. The stabilization server access 502 a video and generates 504 two dimensional tracked features for at least two adjacent frames of the received video. The tracked features of the adjacent frames indicate an inter-frame motion of the camera. A homographic model is applied 506 to the inter-frame motion to determine a number of tracked features that are inliers matching the homographic model. A homographic mixture model is applied 508 to the inter-frame motion to determine a number of tracked features that are inliers matching the homographic mixture model. Responsive to determining 510 that the number of homographic mixture inliers exceeds the number of homographic inliers by a threshold, a determination can be made that the video exhibits a rolling shutter effect. A stabilized is generated by applying the homographic mixture model to the adjacent frames of the video. FIG. 8 is a flowchart illustrating a process for detecting camera shake in a video, according to one embodiment. The stabilization system 112 accesses 802 a video and estimates 804 , for a number of frames of the video, values (or parameters) of the DOFs of a similarity motion model as described above. The stabilization system 112 generates 806 a spectrogram for each DOFs and time window, such that each spectrogram is based on the values of the DOFs over a time window comprising a plurality of adjacent frames of the video. Using the spectrograms, the stabilization system 112 generates 808 shake features based on the spectrograms. The stabilization system 112 classifies 810 the video based on the shake features and a previously trained shake classifier. The shake classifier classifies 810 the video into one of two categories, videos that should be stabilized and videos that should not be stabilized. Based on the classification, the stabilization system 812 stabilizes the video based on the classification, either automatically or responsive to a user input. IV. Additional Considerations The above description is included to illustrate the operation of the embodiments and is not meant to limit the scope of the invention. The scope of the invention is to be limited only by the following claims. From the above discussion, many variations will be apparent to one skilled in the relevant art that would yet be encompassed by the spirit and scope of the invention.

An easy-to-use online video stabilization system and methods for its use are described. Videos are stabilized after capture, and therefore the stabilization works on all forms of video footage including both legacy video and freshly captured video. In one implementation, the video stabilization system is fully automatic, requiring no input or parameter settings by the user other than the video itself. The video stabilization system uses a cascaded motion model to choose the correction that is applied to different frames of a video. In various implementations, the video stabilization system is capable of detecting and correcting high frequency jitter artifacts, low frequency shake artifacts, rolling shutter artifacts, significant foreground motion, poor lighting, scene cuts, and both long and short videos.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION [0001] This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application, Ser. No. 60/178,348, filed Jan. 25, 2000. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] 1. Field of the Invention [0003] The present invention relates to electronic gaming apparatus and methods and, more particularly, to such apparatus and methods for playing games such as poker, slot machines, keno, and secondary feature games. More specifically, the present invention relates to electronic gaming machines and methods that provide one or more players with the option to play individual games independently or simultaneously or, where there are multiple machines, to play such games independently or simultaneously and jointly with one or more players seated at separate machines. [0004] 2. Description of the Prior Art [0005] Electronic video gaming machines, for example, the GAME KING® by IGT® and the GAME MAKER® of Bally Gaming Systems®, have become a significant part of the gaming industry. With the help of advancements in microcomputer technology manufactures have expanded game features to allow players the ability to play a variety of games e.g., Slot, Poker, Keno, etc., to be displayed in a single game format (one game per machine) or a multi-game format (a variety of games per machine). Depending upon the machine, a player has the option of playing an independent game from a single game format or the ability to play an independent game from a multi game format. These advanced features are used to increase player appeal and to increase the volume of play (“coin-in”). The proliferation of legalized gaming has saturated the desirable locations for gaming establishments. Manufacturers of electronic video machines have been creating new games, bonuses, and a variety of progressive systems having giant jackpots—all to attract players and raise the volume of “coin in” in efforts, which helps casinos maximize profits over their limited gaming floor space. Casinos also compete for “player time” with other casinos because of the normal close proximity of the establishments. [0006] Today game manufacturers are using a number of strategies to sell new machines, create player appeal, promote play and most importantly, increase the volume of coin in. A few of these strategies are listed below: [0007] 1. Using current technology, gaming companies are improving old games and creating new games with sophisticated hardware, software, and video graphics; [0008] 2. Using U.S. Pat. No. 4,448,419, permits an electronic gaming machine to have higher odds. Manufacturers & Casinos are using wide area progressive systems that can link together electronic gaming machines from casino to casino, forming one progressive jackpot. The more machine connected to a single progressive the faster it will grow. Wide area progressive systems create fast, growing progressives that are seeded with high jackpot amounts; [0009] 3. Using entertaining themes, gaming companies are using the familiarity of TV shows, board games and personalities to create entertaining new games; and [0010] 4. Using second event games, as in U.S. Pat. No. 5,823,874, gaming companies are creating special payouts and bonuses. [0011] All of the strategies listed above have proven successful in the gaming market. However, even with the use of current technology and ingenious gaming concepts, up until the present day the player has only been able to play one independent game at a time. By using the proper programming, the method of the present invention can be used with all the strategies listed above. [0012] Presently, the only way for a player to play multiple games is to concurrently play on adjoining machines. There has also been a limit to the justified odds and pay tables constructed from the existing games. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0013] There is a demand in the gaming market for a new method of game play on electronic video machines. A method of game play that would provide the player with: new games and/or bonuses with higher odds and larger jackpots, that would not change the percentage of payback on existing games; a method of game play that would allow for a higher volume of “coin-in” per machine; and a method of game play that would promote groups of game players to participate in the same establishment. [0014] By programming electronic video machines to permit players to play independent games or to play such independent games simultaneously and/or in conjunction with other independent games. Pay tables with higher odds and larger jackpots could be created for such new games and/or bonuses. This strategy would also allow for a higher volume of “coin in” by allowing the player(s) to place multiple wagers on multiple games using a independent electronic video machine or networked independent electronic video machine. This method would create a new dimension of game play for players and the gaming industry. [0015] The method of the present invention can be used on any electronic gaming apparatus and more particularly to that class of gaming machines known as “electronic video machines” that are suitably programmed. Furthermore, where such a machine is so programmed, the method of the present invention can be used with virtually all of the existing games and game styles (Slot, Poker, Keno, etc.), as are available in the gaming market today. [0016] The growth in new casinos is slowing, and new machine replacement is expected to drive the bulk of future business in the gaming market. This in turn provides a great opportunity to upgrade older machines and create a new generation of gaming machines with a method of game play that will enable casinos to have a higher volume of “coin in”. [0017] It is an object of the present invention to be used in any old or new gaming apparatus that is suitably programmed in the gaming market. [0018] It is a still further object of the present invention to provide a method of game play on a gaming machine that gives the player a more entertaining gaming experience, and one that is easy to understand. [0019] The method of the present invention is also beneficial to the casinos and the customers. By enabling the player to play independent games simultaneously and/or in conjunction with other games, the player can play more than one of his or her favorite games at the same time without having to move from one machine to the next. This can be accomplished in an auto-play style and/or the player can play all the independent games on the screen at the same time. [0020] With casinos and other gaming establishments having limited floor space, even when all of the gaming machines are being played, there remains a limit to the amount of “coin in” possible using those machines and their present manner of play. In contrast, utilization of the present inventive method enables an increase in the “coin in”, generating more revenue for the casino and giving the player a new entertaining gaming experience. [0021] It is a further object of the present invention to provide a method of game play on an electronic gaming machine that allows for a higher volume of “coin in”, while also permitting the player to play the same games to which they have become accustomed. [0022] The method of the present invention permits a player to wager on and play independent games (for example, those having different odds and pay tables) independently, simultaneously, and/or in conjunction with the same machine game from another electronic gaming machine over a game machine network. [0023] Accordingly, the method of the present invention permits a player to choose the combination of independent games, i.e., those having different odds and pay tables, game styles, denominations, and wagers, yet play such games independently, simultaneously, and/or in conjunction with the other same machine games from an electronic gaming machine. [0024] Yet another object of the present invention is to provide the player(s) with new games and additional opportunities to receive winning payouts. [0025] It is a still further object of the present invention to provide a method of game play on an electronic gaming machine that allows for higher odds by creating, based upon a player's selection of games, pay tables for new games and/or bonuses. These newly created or create-able pay tables will in turn provide players the opportunity to play for higher jackpots and bonuses. [0026] The method of the present invention is to permit the player(s) to wager on and play independent games independently, simultaneously, and/or in conjunction with other games from one or more electronic gaming machines. In addition, if the player(s) chooses to play more than one independent game at a time, the present invention allows the player(s) to become eligible for new games and/or bonuses. The independent games e.g. odds and pay tables, and wagers selected by the player then become parameters in pay tables created from the predetermined indicia of the independent games to create new games and/or bonuses. [0027] A method of the present invention permits the player(s) to choose the combination of independent games, for example, the same or different odds and pay tables, game styles, denominations, and wagers, to be played simultaneously and/or in conjunction with other independent games—those of different odds and pay tables, game styles, denominations, and wagers on more than one electronic gaming machine. The independent games and wagers selected by the player(s) then become parameters in pay tables created from the predetermined indicia of the independent games to create new games and/or bonuses. Utilizing this method of game play, the player is allowed to play his or her favorite independent games while playing a new game and/or bonus. [0028] In a still further object of the present invention, through utilization of a networked gaming system, and by identifying groups of gaming machines with numbers, letters, etc. (for example, machine 1,2,3; machine A,B,C; and so forth), on the video screen of the gaming machines, groups of electronic gaming machines can be linked together, permitting player(s) from the selected groups of gaming machines to play with other player(s) on the same group of gaming machines, using the same method of game play as is described above. [0029] By adding a feature on the video screen that identifies the machines in the group, a player on machine one could select to play with a player on machine two, or with any other player(s) that want to participate in a new game and/or bonus that are playing at the time on the identified group of machines. Likewise, a player on machine two could select to play with a player on gaming machine one, or any other players that want to participate in the new game and/or bonus that are playing at the time on the identified group of machines. [0030] In this manner players would be able to play as groups or teams for the same new games and/or bonuses that are described above. The independent games and wagers selected by the player(s) then become parameters in pay tables created from the predetermined indicia of the independent games to create new games and/or bonuses. [0031] The method of game play under the present invention permits new games and/or bonuses to be created with higher odds and higher paybacks for the player(s) that can be used for large jackpots and/or in conjunction with networked gaming systems, progressive and wide-area progressive, and internet gaming systems. The variety of game pay tables that can be used to create new game and/or bonuses for the player is limited only to the programmer and the options programmed into the chosen gaming apparatus. [0032] It is still another important object of the method of the present invention to permit a player(s) to choose the combination of independent progressive and non-progressive games, game styles, denominations, and wagers to be played independently, simultaneously, and/or in conjunction with other independent progressive and non-progressive games, game styles, denominations, wagers on one or more electronic gaming machine at any remote or multiple-remote gaming and non-gaming sites, using any remote or compatible wide-area progressive systems. [0033] The games, and wagers selected by the player then become parameters in pay tables created from the predetermined indicia of the independent progressive and non-progressive games to create new games and bonuses. In this manner, the player is allowed to play his or her favorite independent games while playing for a progressive or wide-area progressive jackpots. [0034] It is still another important object of the method of the present invention to permit the player(s) to choose the combination of independent progressive and non-progressive games, for example, different odds and pay tables, game styles, denominations, and wagers, to be played simultaneously and/or in conjunction with other independent progressive and non-progressive games, i.e., different odds and pay tables, game styles, denominations, and wagers on more that one electronic gaming apparatus. The games and wagers selected by the player then become parameters in pay tables created from the predetermined indicia of the independent progressive and non-progressive games to create new progressive and wide-area progressive games. This is made possible under the present invention by permitting play on one or more independent gaming machine that is simultaneous and/or in conjunction with machine games. It is thus possible to combine the odds of the independent games to create “combination” games having higher odds. [0035] The method of the present invention is made possible by using a multi-tasking platform in an electronic gaming machine that is properly programmed. In order for players from different electronic gaming apparatuses to play together for the same new games and/or bonuses, the electronic gaming machine must be networked on any suitable gaming system that is being used in the market today. [0036] While the method of the present invention has been described by way of examples, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that it is not intended to limit the invention to these examples. On the contrary, it is intended to cover all alternatives, modifications and equivalents as may be included within the spirit and scope of the invention. It is expected that some further objects, advantages, and features of the present invention shall become apparent from the ensuing description and as illustrated in the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0037] FIGS. 1 - 30 are schematic representations of different video display screens, of the type as might be shown on gaming machines in accordance with the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS [0038] The method of the present invention is to permit the player the option to play an independent game in a single game format independently, simultaneously, and/or in conjunction with other independent games. FIGS. 1 - 4 are basic illustrations displaying information and showing one example of how a player would play an independent game independently and FIGS. 5 - 12 show one example of how a player would play an independent game simultaneously and/or in conjunction with other independent games utilizing the method of game play of the present invention on a video touch screen gaming machine in a single game format. [0039] The method of the present invention is also intended to permit the player to choose the combination of independent games e.g. different odds and pay tables, game styles, e.g., poker, keno, slot, bingo, blackjack, and the like, for a variety of monetary denominations, (5 cents, 25 cents, one dollar, etc.) and a variety monetary wagers, (1 coin, 2 coins, max bet, etc.). Permitting, in a multi game, denomination, and wager format, play of the games independently, simultaneously and/or in conjunction with other independent games. [0040] [0040]FIG. 28 is a basic display illustration of three independent poker games after the player has selected the games, denominations, and wagers from an electronic video touch screen gaming machine menu. The same method of game play is applied here as in FIGS. 1 - 11 , only now in a multi-game, denomination, and wager format. [0041] Using this method of game play, there is an unlimited number of independent game e.g. odds and pay tables, denomination, and wager combinations that can be played simultaneously and/or in conjunction with other independent games e.g. odds and pay tables, denominations, and wagers. This inventive technology thus creates new entertaining game play for the player while also allowing a higher volume of coin in for the casinos, with the player now allowed to wager on more than one game. [0042] The method of the present invention is also intended to permit the player(s) to play an independent game in a single game format independently, simultaneously, and/or in conjunction with independent games from one or more electronic gaming machines. Should the player(s) choose to play more than one independent game at a time, the independent games (i.e. odds and pay tables), and wagers selected by the player(s) then become parameters in pay tables created from the predetermined indicia of the independent games to create New Games and/or New Bonuses. [0043] FIGS. 13 - 19 are basic illustrations showing how a player(s) would become eligible for bonus pays, created by utilizing the method of game play on a video touch screen gaming machine in a single game format. FIGS. 21 - 26 are basic illustrations of how a player(s) would play a new game, to be referred hereinafter as BIG MONEY, created by utilizing the method of game play on a video touch screen gaming machine in a multi game format. [0044] The method of the present invention is also intended to permit a player(s) to choose a combination of independent games game styles from one or more gaming apparatuses, as well as denominations and wagers in a multi-game format to be played simultaneously and/or in conjunction with other independent games e.g. different odds and pay tables, game styles, denominations, and wagers. The games e.g. different odds and pay tables and wagers selected by the player(s) then become parameters in pay tables created from the predetermined indicia of the independent games to thereby create New Games and/or New Bonuses. [0045] [0045]FIG. 29 is a basic illustration displaying information and two independent poker games with Bonus Pays after the player(S) has selected the games, denominations, and wagers from a menu on an electronic video touch screen gaming machine. The same method of game play is applied here as in FIGS. 13 - 19 , only now in a multi-game, denomination, and wager format. FIG. 30 is a basic illustration displaying information and two independent poker games and the BIG MONEY after the player(s) has selected the games, denominations, and wagers from a menu located on an electronic video touch screen gaming machine. The same method of game play is applied here as in FIGS. 21 - 27 , only now in a multi-game, denomination, and wager format. [0046] A multi-game offers a player a set of games, {G1, G2, . . . , Gn} that may be played simultaneously. Each game, Gi, has an associated set of outcomes, {O1, O2, . . . Om} that occur with probabilities {p1, p2, . . . , pm}. This preferred embodiment describes a bonus method based on combinations of outcomes of simultaneous games. Each game is played with independent wagers that may or may not be identical. [0047] Total bonuses equal the sum of amounts bonused for each possible combination of outcomes times the probability of occurrence of the combination of outcomes. Let pi, j equal the probability of occurrence of outcome Oj of game Gi. The subscript j may have a different range for each game as each game may have a different set of outcomes. The total expectation of bonuses, B, for n simultaneous games is therefore: [0048] the sum of B(i,j) (k,l) (. . .)(n,m) times pi, jpk, lp . . . pn, m for each outcome, j, l, . . . , m of each game i, k, . . . , n played (where m may have a different value for each of n games). [0049] For example, let game 1 have three possible outcomes, game 2 have four possible outcomes and game 3 have five possible outcomes with associated probabilities p1,1, p1,2, p1,3, p2,1, p2,2, p2,3, p2,4, p3,1, p3,2, p3,3, p3,4, p3,5. Then there are 3*4*5=60 possible bonus expectations: [0050] B(1,1)(2,1)(3,1)p1,1p2,1p3,1 [0051] B(1,2)(2,1)(3,1)p1,2p2,1p3,1 [0052] B(1,3) (2,1) (3,1)p1,3p2,1p3,1 [0053] B(1,1) (2,2) (3,1)p1,1p2,2p3,1 [0054] B(1,2)(2,2)(3,1)p1,2p2,2p3,1 [0055] . [0056] . [0057] . [0058] B(1,3)(2,4)(3,5)p1,3p2,4p3,5 [0059] The sum of these expectations divided by the wager required to win a bonus is the amount by which the game percentage is increased. Assume that it is desired that all expectations be equal. Then each bonus expectation should equal the total expectation divided by 60 since there are 60 possible combinations. Further assume a wager of one cent ($0.01) and a bonus payback of 1% (0.01). Then any bonus expectation is: B (1,1) (2,1) (3,1) p 1,1 p 2,1 p 3,1=(0.01 * 0.01)/60 [0060] and the bonus amount to be paid on bonus combination of G1O1, G2O1, G3O1 is: B (1,1)(2,1)(3,1)=(0.01*0.01)/60/( p 1,1 p 2,1 p 3,1) [0061] From this point on, a simplified notation can be used to replace game numbers by position in a statement, i.e. B(1,1)(2,1)(3,1) and p1,1p2,1p3,1 become B111 and p1p2p3. [0062] Continuing the example above let us arbitrarily assign values to outcome probabilities for each of the three games. p Game 1 Outcome 1 0.9 Outcome 2 0.09 Outcome 3 0.01 Game 2 Outcome 1 0.8 Outcome 2 0.1 Outcome 3 0.07 Outcome 4 0.03 Game 3 Outcome 1 0.7 Outcome 2 0.2 Outcome 3 0.08 Outcome 4 0.012 Outcome 5 0.008 [0063] Then bonus values in dollars (per penny wagered per percent of payback) equal: B 111=(0.01*0.01)/60/(0.9*0.8*0.7)=$0.000003306 B 211=(0.01*0.01)/60/(0.09*0.8*0.7)=$0.00003306 B 311=(0.01*0.01)/60/(0.01*0.8*0.7)=$0.0002976 B 121=(0.01*0.01)/60/(0.9*0.1*0.7)=$0.000026455 B 221=(0.01*0.01)/60/(0.09*0.1*0.7)=$0.00026455 B 321=(0.01*0.01)/60/(0.01*0.1*0.7)=$0.002380952 B 131 (0.01*0.01)/60/(0.9*0.07*0.7)=$0.000037792 . . . B 335=(0.01*0.01)/60/(0.01*0.07*0.008)=$0. 297619047 B 145 (0.01*0.01)/60/(0.9*0.03*0.008)=$0. 007716049 B 245=(0.01*0.01)/60/(0.09*0.03*0.008)=$0. 077160493 B 345=(0.01*0.01)/60/(0.01*0.03*0.008)=$0.694444444 [0064] The maximum bonus in this example is B345 and is equal to 69.444 times wager. [0065] As a specific example let us consider three games of stud poker played simultaneously. For each game there are ten possible outcomes with probabilities: No pair 0.501177394 One pair 0.422569027 Two pairs 0.047539015 Three of a kind 0.021128451 Straight 0.003924646 Flush 0.001965401 Full house 0.001440576 Four of a kind 0.000240096 Straight flush 0.000013851 Royal flush 0.000001539 [0066] There are 1000 possible bonus combinations which gives bonus values equal to: [ Bxyz =(0.01*0.01)/1000/( px*py*pz )] B 1 1 1=0.0000001/(0.501177394*0.501177394*0.501177394)=$0.000000794 B 2 1 1=0.0000001/(0.422569027*0.501177394*0.501177394)=$0.000000942 B3 1 1=0.0000001/(0.047539015*0.501177394*0.501177394)=$0.000008374 B 4 1 1=0.0000001/(0.021128451*0.501177394*0.501177394)=$0.000018842 . B 1 5 7=0.0000001/(0.501177394*0.003924646*0.001440576)=$0.035291641 B 2 5 7=0.0000001/(0.422569027*0.003924646*0.001440576)=$0.041856766 B 3 5 7=0.0000001/(0.047539015*0.003924646*0.001440576)=$0.372060149 B 4 5 7=0.0000001/(0.021128451*0.003924646*0.001440576)=$0.837135340 . B 8 9 9=0.0000001/(0.000240096*0.000013851*0.000013851)=$2,170,964.97 B 9 9 9=0.0000001/(0.000013851*0.000013851*0.000013851)=$37,631,940.40 . B 10 10 10=0.0000001/(0.000001539*0.000001539*0.000001539)=$27,433,684,550.00 [0067] This chart shows the awards to be paid a player who hits a given number of numbers on an 8-spot Keno ticket while simultaneously winning a given stud poker hand. Awards are for a 1% return for $1.00 bet. No One Jacks or Three of Poker Hand Pair Pair Better Two Pair A Kind Straight KENO DOLLARS HIT 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 HIT 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 HIT 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 HIT 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 HIT 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 HIT 5 0 0 0 0 0 1 HIT 6 0 0 0 0 1 6 HIT 7 0 0 2 5 13 70 HIT 8 13 22 50 139 313 1686 [0068] [0068] Four of A Straight Poker Hand Flush Full House Kind Flush Royal Flush KENO DOLLARS HIT 1 0 0 1 27 245 HIT 2 0 0 1 23 210 HIT 3 0 0 2 35 316 HIT 4 0 0 4 84 758 HIT 5 2 3 18 316 2844 HIT 6 13 18 109 1896 17068 HIT 7 140 191 1148 19913 179223 HIT 8 3367 4594 27569 477891 4301021 [0069] The format in which a game can be programmed to permit a player to be able to play independent games simultaneously and/or in conjunction with other independent games is unlimited. The format that is described below is very basic in order not to stray from the spirit and scope of the invention. [0070] In a flowing format, the manner of play of game machines utilizing the present invention is set forth as follows: [0071] [0071]FIG. 1 shows a representation of a video touch screen displaying information and a conventional Jacks or Better \ 25 cent \ bet 1 to 5 credits video poker game in a single game format. Giving the player the option to play one, two or three games: Player chooses \ one game. [0072] [0072]FIG. 2 shows a representation of a video touch screen displaying information and a conventional Jacks or Better \ 25 cent \ bet 1 to 5 credits video poker game in a single game format: Player selects play max credits, and deal. [0073] [0073]FIG. 3 shows a representation of a video touch screen displaying information and a conventional Jacks or Better \ 25 cent \ bet 1 to 5 credits video poker game in a single game format: Player receives five cards, holds two cards and selects draw. [0074] [0074]FIG. 4 shows a representation of a video touch screen displaying information and a conventional Jacks or Better \ 25 cent \ bet 1 to 5 credits video poker game in a single game format: Player receives 3 new cards; three of a kind winner paid 15 credits. Player selects play more games. [0075] [0075]FIG. 5 shows a representation of a video touch screen displaying information and three independent conventional Jacks or Better \ 25 cent \ bet 1 to 5 credits video poker game in a single game format: Player selects 3 games. [0076] [0076]FIG. 6 shows a representation of a video touch screen displaying information and three independent conventional Jacks or Better \ 25 cent \ bet 1 to 5 credits video poker game in a single game format: Player selects play max credits, and place bet game one. [0077] [0077]FIG. 7 shows a representation of a video touch screen displaying information and three independent conventional Jacks or Better \ 25 cent \ bet 1 to 5 credits video poker game in a single game format: Player selects play max credits, and place bet game two. [0078] [0078]FIG. 8 shows a representation of a video touch screen displaying information and three independent conventional Jacks or Better \ 25 cent \ bet 1 to 5 credits video poker game in a single game format: Player selects play max credits, and place bet game three. [0079] [0079]FIG. 9 shows a representation of a video touch screen displaying information and three independent conventional Jacks or Better \ 25 cent \ bet 1 to 5 credits video poker game in a single game format: Player selects deal. [0080] [0080]FIG. 10 shows a representation of a video touch screen displaying three independent conventional Jacks or Better \ 25 cent \ Bet 1 to 5 credits video poker game pay tables. [0081] [0081]FIG. 11 shows a representation of a video touch screen displaying information and three independent conventional Jacks or Better \ 25 cent \ bet 1 to 5 credits video poker game in a single game format: Player receives five cards game one; Player receives five cards, holds two game two; Player receives five cards, holds two game three; and Player selected draw. [0082] [0082]FIG. 12 shows a representation of a video touch screen displaying information and three independent conventional Jacks or Better \ 25 cent \ bet 1 to 5 credits video poker game in a single game format: Player receives five new cards game one; Player receives three new cards, full house winner paid 45 credits game two; and Player receives three new cards; two pairs winner paid 10 credits game three. [0083] [0083]FIG. 13 shows a representation of a video touch screen displaying information and a independent conventional Jacks or Better \ 25 cent \ bet 1 to 5 credits with Bonus Pays video poker game in a single game format. Giving the player the option to play one, two or three games: Player selects two games. [0084] [0084]FIG. 14 shows a representation of a video touch screen displaying information and a Bonus Pays video poker game pay table. [0085] [0085]FIG. 15 shows a representation of a video touch screen displaying information and two independent conventional Jacks or Better \ 25 cent \ bet 1 to 5 credits with Bonus Pays video poker game in a single game format: Player selects play max credits, and place bet game one. [0086] [0086]FIG. 16 shows a representation of a video touch screen displaying information and two independent conventional Jacks or Better \ 25 cent \ bet 1 to 5 credits with Bonus Pays video poker game in a single game format: Player selects play max credits, and place bet game two. [0087] [0087]FIG. 17 shows a representation of a video touch screen displaying information and two independent conventional Jacks or Better \ 25 cent \ bet 1 to 5 credits with Bonus Pays video poker game in a single game format: Player selects deal. [0088] [0088]FIG. 18 shows a representation of a video touch screen displaying information and two independent conventional Jacks or Better \ 25 cent \ bet 1 to 5 credits with Bonus Pays video poker game in a single game format: Player receives five cards, holds four cards game one; Player receives five cards, holds three cards game two; and Player selects draw. [0089] [0089]FIG. 19 shows a representation of a video touch screen displaying information and two independent conventional Jacks or Better \ 25 cent \ bet 1 to 5 credits with Bonus Pays video poker game in a single game format; Player receives one new cards, flush winner paid 30 credits game one; and Player receives two new cards, flush winner paid 30 credits game two; and Player receives two flushes Bonus Pays winner 20 credits. [0090] [0090]FIG. 20 shows a representation of a video touch screen displaying draw poker hand frequencies created from the method of the present invention. [0091] [0091]FIG. 21 shows a representation of a video touch screen displaying information and an independent conventional Jacks or Better \ 25 cent \ bet 1 to 5 credits and Big Money video poker games in a multi game format: Player selects two games and BIG MONEY. [0092] [0092]FIG. 22 shows a representation of a video touch screen displaying information and two independent conventional Jacks or Better \ 25 cent \ bet 1 to 5 credits and Big Money video poker games in a multi game format: Player selects bet max credits and place bet game one. [0093] [0093]FIG. 23 shows a representation of a video touch screen displaying information and two independent conventional Jacks or Better \ 25 cent \ bet 1 to 5 credits and Big Money video poker games in a multi game format: Player selects bet max credits and place bet game two. [0094] [0094]FIG. 24 shows a representation of a video touch screen displaying information and two independent conventional Jacks or Better \ 25 cent \ bet 1 to 5 credits and Big Money video poker games in a multi game format: Player selects bet 5 credits and place bet Big Money; and Player selects deal. [0095] [0095]FIG. 25 shows a representation of a video touch screen displaying information and two independent conventional Jacks or Better \ 25 cent \ bet 1 to 5 credits and Big Money video poker games in a multi game format: Player receives five cards, holds two cards game one; Player receives five cards, holds two cards game two; and Player selects draw. [0096] [0096]FIG. 26 shows a representation of a video touch screen displaying information and two independent conventional Jacks or Better \ 25 cent \ bet 1 to 5 credits and Big Money video poker games in a multi game format: Player receives three new cards, three-of-a-kind winner paid 15 credits game one; Player receives three new cards, three-of-a-kind winner paid 15 credits game two; and Player receives two three-of-a-kinds BIG MONEY winner paid 30 credits. [0097] [0097]FIG. 27 shows a representation of a video touch screen displaying information and a Big Money video poker games pay table. [0098] [0098]FIG. 28 shows a representation of a video touch screen displaying information and three independent video poker games in a multi game, denomination and wager format. [0099] [0099]FIG. 29 shows a representation of a video touch screen displaying information and two independent video poker games with Bonus Pays in a multi game, denomination and wager format. [0100] [0100]FIG. 30 a representation of a video touch screen displaying information and two independent video poker games and Big Money in a multi game, denomination and wager format. [0101] Reference is now made to the drawings wherein like numerals refer to like features throughout. [0102] In conventional video poker, an electronic gaming machine is programmed to display a five-card hand dealt from a standard deck of fifty-two playing cards. The player bets one to five coins and activates the “Deal” button (or receives the initial deal automatically if the maximum number of coins are bet) to receive the initial deal of five cards. After the initial deal of the cards, the player may hold any of the initially dealt cards and then the player may select the “Draw” button to receive replacement cards. The player receives a payout on the resulting hand if the player achieves one of the pre-designated poker hand combinations shown on the payout schedule. The player bases the amount of the payout on the number of coins bet. [0103] To describe the method of the present invention, the same conventional video poker game play as is describe above will be used. As will be understood by people skilled in the art, in order for the method of the present invention to work, the electronic gaming machine must be suitably programmed to add these additional features. [0104] FIGS. 1 - 4 are basic illustrations showing how a player would play an independent conventional video poker game on a video touch screen gaming machine in a single game format using the method described above. Under the present invention, however, the player has the option to choose between One Game, Two Games or Three Games (and as is conventionally the case, any action can be initialized by touching the screen). [0105] [0105]FIG. 1 shows a representation of a video touch screen 10 displaying information and an independent conventional Jacks or Better \ 25 cent \ bet one to five credit video poker game, with (based on theoretical probabilities) a payback percentage of approximately 96%. Also shown is a typical payout schedule that is used in electronic video draw poker machines. In order to activate the gaming machine the player inserts money into the coin entry or bill validator (not shown). Player inserts $10.00 into bill validator (not shown), credit $10.00 (Ref Num 20 ). Player now has the option to select One Game, Two Games or Three Games 30 . In this example, Player selects One Game 40 . [0106] In FIG. 2, Player selects play max credits 50 ; a bet of 5 credits is displayed 60 . To start play, Player selects Deal 70 . In FIG. 3, five cards are displayed, with Player holding the 2 of Hearts and the 2 of Spades in game one 80 . Player selects Draw 90 . [0107] In FIG. 4, three new cards are displayed: the 2 of Clubs, the Ace of Diamonds and the Queen of Spades (game one 80 ). Player receives three of a kind, and Player wins 15 credits 110 (credit $11.25 120 ). Player selects play more games 125 . [0108] [0108]FIG. 5- 11 are basic illustrations displaying information and showing how a player would play an independent game simultaneously and/or in conjunction with other independent games using the method of the present invention on a video touch screen gaming machine in a single game format. [0109] [0109]FIG. 5, is a representation of a video touch screen displaying information—independent conventional Jacks or Better \ Bonus Pays \ 25 cent \ bet one to five coin video poker game, with the option to play one, two or three games. [0110] In order to activate the gaming machine the player inserts money into the coin entry or bill validator (not shown). In this example, Player inserts a $10.00 into bill validator (not shown)—credit $10.00 200 . Player selects Three games. [0111] [0111]FIG. 6 is a representation of a video touch screen displaying information and three independent conventional Jacks or Better \ 25 cent \ bet one to five credit video poker games—Game one 130 , Game two 140 , and Game three 150 . Player selects play max credits 50 and places bet game one 160 . In FIG. 7 Player selects play max credits 50 then selects place bet game two 170 . In FIG. 8, Player selects play max credits 50 then selects place bet game three 180 . [0112] In FIG. 9, a representation of a video touch screen displaying information, requiring three independent Jacks or better \ 25 cent video \ Bet 1 to 5 credit poker games, before the player activates game play. Player bets five credits game one 130 , bets five credits game two 140 , and bets five credits game three 150 (credit $6.25 190 ). [0113] [0113]FIG. 10 is a representation of the three independent 25 cent \ Jacks or better \ bet one to five credits pay tables for game one, two, and three. [0114] In FIG. 9, Player selects Deal 70 . FIG. 11 is a representation of a video touch screen displaying information and five cards displayed game one 130 . Five cards displayed, player holds King of Spades and King of Diamonds game two 140 . Five cards displayed, player holds Two of Hearts and Two of Spades game three 150 . Player selects Draw 90 . [0115] In FIG. 12 five new cards are displayed game one 130 , in game two three new cards are displayed 2 of Spades, 2 of Diamonds and the 2 of Clubs. Player receives a full house, winner is paid 45 credits on game two 140 , and in game three, three new cards are displayed 8 of Clubs, 8 of Hearts and the 3 of Clubs. Player receives two pairs, and winner is paid 10 credits on game three 150 (credit $22.00 190 ). [0116] FIGS. 13 - 19 are basic illustrations showing how a player would become eligible for bonus pays, using the method of the present invention on a video touch screen gaming machine in a single game format. [0117] [0117]FIG. 13 is a representation of a video touch screen displaying information—independent conventional Jacks or Better \ Bonus Pays \ 25 cent \ bet one to five coin video poker game, with the option to play one, two or three games. [0118] In order to activate the gaming machine the player inserts money into the coin entry or bill validator (not shown). In this example, Player inserts a $10.00 into bill validator (not shown)—credit $10.00 200 . This is the same video poker game illustrated in FIG. 1, only now the player can become eligible for bonus pays by playing max coins on two or more games 210 . FIG. 13 Player selects two games 220 (see bonus pays 230 , FIG. 14 as an example of a bonus pays pay table). Player is eligible for bonus pays while playing max coins on two or more games. Player wins if he or she receives two or more Royal Flushes, Straight Flushes, Four of a kinds, Full Houses, Flushes, Straights, Three of a Kinds, Two Pairs, or Jacks or Better. [0119] If the Player chooses to play more than one independent game at a time, the independent games selected by the player then become parameters in pay tables created from the predetermined indicia, for example, Royal Flush, Four of a kind, etc., of the independent games to create bonus pays. [0120] In FIG. 15, Player selects: play max credits 50 , and places this bet game one 130 . In FIG. 16, Player selects: play max credits 50 , in placing bet in game two 140 . [0121] [0121]FIG. 17 is a representation of a video touch screen displaying information and two independent Jacks or better \ Bonus Pays \ 25 cent \ Bet 1 to 5 credits video poker games, before the player activates game play. As shown, the Player bets five credits in game one 130 , and bets five credits in game two 140 (credit $7.50 240 ). Player selects Deal 70 . In FIG. 18, five cards are displayed, Player holds 5, 3, 7, and 9 of Clubs game one 130 . Five cards are displayed, player holds Queen, 4, and 5 of Hearts game two 140 . Player selects Draw 90 . [0122] In FIG. 19 one new card is displayed: Jack of Clubs, and Player receives a Flush—winner paid 30 credits on game one 130 . Two new cards are displayed 8 and 2 of Hearts, and Player receives a Flush—winner paid 30 credits on game two 140 . Player having received Two Flushes obtains a Bonus Pays—winner 20 credits 250 . [0123] [0123]FIG. 20 is a representation of draw poker hand frequencies created from the method of the present invention. By allowing the player the option to play more than one game at a time, the interplay of the independent game hand frequencies creates combination game hand frequencies with extremely high odds that can be used for bonus pays and new games. [0124] FIGS. 21 - 26 are basic illustrations of how a player would play a new game, to be referred hereinafter as BIG MONEY, created by utilizing the method of the present invention on a video touch screen gaming machine in a multi game format (see Big Money Pays 230 , with FIG. 27 an example of a Big Money pay table). Player is eligible for Big Money while playing two or more games and betting 5 credits on Big Money. Player wins if he or she receives two or more Royal Flushes, Straight Flushes, Four of a kinds, Full Houses, Flushes, Straights, Three of a Kinds, Two Pairs, or Jacks or Better. [0125] If the Player chooses to play more than one independent game at a time, the independent games selected by the player then become parameters in pay tables created from the predetermined indicia, for example, Royal Flush, Four of a kind, etc., of the independent games to create Big Money. [0126] [0126]FIG. 21 is a representation of a video touch screen displaying information and an independent conventional jacks or Better \ 25 cent \ bet one to five credits and BIG MONEY \ 25 cent \ 5 credits video poker games. In order to activate the gaming machine the player inserts money into the coin entry or bill validator (not shown). In the present example, Player inserts $10.00 into a bill validator—credit $10.00 125 . This is the same video poker game illustrated in FIG. 1, only now if the player chooses to play two or more games he or she can also play BIG MONEY. [0127] Player selects two games 220 and BIG MONEY 260 . In FIG. 22 player selects play max credits 50 then selects place bet game one 130 . In FIG. 23, Player selects play max credits 50 then selects place bet game two 140 . In FIG. 24, Player selects play max credits 50 then selects place bet BIG MONEY 270 . Player then selects Deal 70 . [0128] In FIG. 25, five cards are displayed, player holds Ace of Clubs and Ace of Spades in game one 130 . In game 2, five cards are displayed, with Player holding the Queen of Clubs and the Queen of Diamonds 140 . Player selects Draw 90 . [0129] In FIG. 26, in game one three new cards are displayed, the 3 of Clubs, 8 of Hearts, and the Ace of Diamonds. Player receives three-of-a-kind—winner paid 15 credits on game one 130 . In game two, three new cards are displayed: the 3 of Hearts, 5 of Diamonds, and the Queen of Clubs. Player receives three-of-a-kind—winner paid 15 credits game two 140 . Player received two three-of-a-kinds, BIG MONEY winner paid 30 credits 280 . FIG. 28 shows a representation of a video touch screen displaying information and three independent video poker games in a multi game, denomination and wager format. [0130] [0130]FIG. 29 shows a representation of a video touch screen displaying information and two independent video poker games with Bonus Pays in a multi game, denomination and wager format. FIG. 30 shows a representation of a video touch screen displaying information and two independent video poker games and Big Money in a multi game, denomination and wager format. [0131] [0131]FIG. 31 is a representation of a video touch screen displaying information, MACHINE ONE'S identification for group play 500 and an independent conventional jacks or Better \ 25 cent \ bet one to five credits and video poker games. This is the same video poker game illustrated in FIG. 1, only now the player on MACHINE 1 chooses to participate in BIG MONEY GROUP PLAY 510 . [0132] In FIG. 32 player on MACHINE 1 selects to play with another player on eligible MACHINE 2 520 and also selects to place bet on BIG MONEY GROUP PLAY 530 . FIG. 33 shows a representation of a video touch screen displaying information and BIG MONEY GROUP PLAY bet two credits 540 and MACHINES 1&2 are participating in BIG MONEY GROUP PLAY 550 . [0133] [0133]FIG. 34 is a representation of a video touch screen displaying information, MACHINE TWO'S identification for group play 560 and an independent conventional jacks or Better \ 25 cent \ bet one to five credits and video poker games. This is the same video poker game illustrated in FIG. 1, only now the player chooses to participate in BIG MONEY GROUP PLAY 570 . [0134] In FIG. 35 player on MACHINE 2 selects to play with another player on eligible MACHINE 1 580 and also selects to place bet on BIG MONEY GROUP PLAY 590 . [0135] [0135]FIG. 36 shows a representation of a video touch screen displaying information and BIG MONEY GROUP PLAY bet two credits 600 and MACHINES 2&1 are participating in BIG MONEY GROUP PLAY 610 . [0136] My invention has been disclosed in terms of a preferred embodiment thereof, which provides an improved single and multi format gaming machine and method for combination and/or simultaneous play that is of great novelty and utility. Various changes, modifications, and alterations in the teachings of the present invention may be contemplated by those skilled in the art without departing from the intended spirit and scope thereof. It is intended that the present invention encompass such changes and modifications.

An electronic gaming device having a plurality of games available for selection by a user allows selection of multiple games for concurrent play. One or more of the multiple games selected by the user in turn are utilized to create composite pay tables. These selection-dependant pay tables in turn provide the basis for additional betting opportunities for the user. The networking of multiple electronic gaming devices having the concurrent play feature provides multiple users with the betting opportunities embodied in these composite pay tables.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION The invention relates to a circuit arrangement for the protection of data, particularly tariff data and variable control data, in write-read memories (RAM) which are constructed as volatile memories, in interaction with a microcomputer system of a taximeter which is protected by means of buffer elements against supply voltage breakdowns. This circuit arrangement is intended to protect against manipulation and loss or unauthorized modification of the stored information. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The microcomputer system of a taximeter consists essentially of an arrangement of a microprocessor with memories, input-output elements and supply modules which are combined as a system and which can decide, compute, display and store data by means of a predeterminable program based on the input of distance and/or time signals. A much-accepted type is the MOS microprocessor (for instance Intel 8049) which works, for instance, with an eight bit word length compared to the bipolar embodiments. As a part of the microcomputer system, the microprocessor or CPU serves for the processing of data according to a predeterminable rule. The directions for the latter are stored in a read-only memory or ROM as thus identified instructions and they represent the internal working program of the system. Information is fed one time into the read-only memory (ROM) and remains there permanently. The function of the ROM is limited so that the memory content can be read out. In the case of this application, the ROM serves primarily for program storage. However, during each change of information, the ROM must be exchanged for a new ROM which is programmed with correspondingly changed data. In the case of taximeters, the tariff data which form the basis for calculation of a fare are also subject to such changes. In known taximeters, one supplied the changed tariff data into a separate, exchangeable, programmable ROM (PROM) and, at the appropriate point in time when the new tariff became effective, it was exchanged for the present module (PROM). Of course, considerable effort is expended in this mode of operation when the tariff changes frequently. In addition, a write-read memory (RAM) for the processing of variable data is provided in the microcomputer system. Since information can be read in the RAM and again read out at random in an advantageous manner, this type of memory is extremely suitable for the storage of data or the intermediate storage of data, however, care must be taken that the feed voltage is not lost because the information may be falsified or may be lost due to a voltage breakdown. It is therefore absolutely necessary in the storage of information in write-read memories (RAM) which are constructed as volatile memories, to provide suitable measures which activate a protective device in dependence on power supply failures or the decrease of supply voltages below a predetermined value and these protective devices guarantee that the information remains in the RAM. A known circuit arrangement for bridging power supply failures consists in that, for instance, a buffer battery is assigned to the RAM area which saves the stored information temporarily. However, it has been found that, in addition, for instance during power supply failure, due to capacities or inductances in the computer system or the power supply part, undefined voltage conditions result which may falsify information stored in the write-read memory (RAM). In addition to protecting the supply voltage for the RAM area by means of a buffer battery, also for protection of the information in the RAM, an additional measure is necessary which prevents all undefined voltage pulses which result during power supply failure in the system and which may act as interference pulses from affecting the RAM area. In this connection, according to the German Patent No. 28 03 202, a circuit arrangement for the protection of data during power supply failure or decreasing supply voltage is specified for information stored in write-read memories (RAM) which are constructed as volatile memories. As measures for protection of information in the RAM during voltage failure or decrease of the supply voltage below a minimum value, a voltage monitoring circuit is provided which, in the case of protection, i.e., only during voltage decrease, takes over the supply of the RAM area with operating voltage from a charge storage or long-term storage of a decoupling network. The decoupling network then also controls a RAM write blocking circuit whereby any change of information in the RAM area is prevented before any interference pulses are present. In summary, this known device serves exclusively for protection of information in the RAM during voltage failure of the computer system. During the normal operation of a system, i.e., during correct operating voltage conditions, the known system does not offer adequate protection, for instance, for tariff data and/or control data in an RAM of a taximeter since, due to any system interferences or manipulations, it would be conceivable to feed erroneous information into the RAM. It is an object of the invention to provide a circuit arrangement for the permanent protection of data, particularly of tariff data and control data, in a volatile write-read memory (RAM) of a taximeter, wherein the measures for protection can only be cancelled by means of an authorized action in the circuit arrangement. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The object of the invention, referred to above, is achieved according to the invention by means of a control circuit which is incorporated in the signal line between the microcomputer system and the write-read memory (RAM). By means of this control circuit, in the calibrated state of the system, a suppression of write instructions can be set in such a way that maintenance of the stored data in the RAM is guaranteed. The advantages of using a write-read memory (RAM) which is constructed as a volatile memory can generally not be overlooked for data storage. The advantages lie particularly in the characteristic of the RAM memory which makes available, on a relatively economical basis with this component, a storage means into which, in a simple manner, information may be read in and read out as often as desired. This ability is very convenient in the application in a taximeter in the characteristic as a tariff data and control data storage. Since, however, RAM's as storage means are in connection with all data, address and control lines with a microprocessor system, it must be ensured by means of additional circuit measures that unintentional information from the system cannot cause a change in the stored data in the RAM due to a case of interference as well as due to attempted manipulation. With the control which is incorporated in the write-signal line between the microcomputer system and the RAM, a total or partial preselectable suppression of write instructions can be set. By means of the circuit arrangement for the prevention of the recording possibility of the RAM, for instance, for tariff data and with a simultaneously effective decoupling of the operating voltage of the system and buffering of the supply voltage of the RAM during normal operating condition of a taximeter, it is achieved without great expenditure that the data stored in the RAM cannot be influenced by any uncontrolled interferences. During a simultaneous use of the RAM for feeding in tariff data and variable control counter data, the control circuit has measures by means of which parts of the RAM, for instance those parts characterized by a special address range, can be blocked against recording of information, so that a data interrogation can always be triggered, but any action in the sense of a data modification remains without effect for the characterized part of the memory. Due to the measure of a controlled prevention of the possibility to write in the RAM, it is possible during normal operation of a taximeter to absolutely protect the content of information of the memory which is volatile per se. In order to finally utilize the characteristic of reading in information into the RAM in an advantageous manner, particularly in connection with a change of tariff data, the switching element for prevention of a write effect consists, for instance, of a sealable switch by means of which, during normal operation of the taximeter, the write signal can be blocked, however, it can be released for a programming operation. The latter process is limited, for instance, to an input of new or changed tariff data which may only be performed by a group of persons with the authority for this task. Due to the possibility to change the tariff data by means of suitable switching elements in the control circuit, tariff changes can be performed as often as desired without any expenditure for new parts. To release the write-blocking circuit for a required change in the tariff data, also a code switching mechanism may be used. Finally, instead of the code switching mechanism, suitable optically or magnetically acting devices may be used in order to guarantee an effect on the control circuit in the case of a required change in the tariff data. For a better understanding of the present invention, reference is made to the following description and accompanying drawings, while the scope of the present invention will be pointed out in the appended claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS In the drawings: FIG. 1 shows a schematic circuit arrangement with a microcomputer system for taximeters including a circuit device for the protection of tariff data in a volatile memory (RAM); FIG. 2 shows a schematic circuit arrangement according to FIG. 1 including a circuit device for the protection of tariff data, stored in a specific address range of a volatile memory (RAM). DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The invention is directed to storage of tariff and control data in an electronic taximeter and the protection of these data against unauthorized changes caused by system interferences or attempted manipulation. An electronic taximeter is essentially comprised of a microcomputer system 1 which is usually a combination of a microprocessor 2 or CPU (central processor unit), a program memory or ROM3 (read-only memory), a write-read memory 4 or RAM (random access memory), a control unit 5 or bus control and a clock generator 6 or clock. Depending on the functional importance and the structural interconnections of the device, the required components are combined to component groups and are arranged according to their hardware on appropriately designed, printed circuit boards. These printed circuit boards can be connected with one another by means of suitable plug connections whereby simultaneously, if possible, all necessary conducting lines between the component groups are established. A further description of all component groups is not necessary for the explanation for the connections of the circuit arrangement according to the invention and for this reason they are only indicated generally. Functional decisions, calculating processes, control processes, storage of data, etc., are handled in an electronic taximeter in the component group which is to be identified with the term "logic". The core of the logic is, as shown in FIG. 1, the microcomputer system 1 with the central microprocessor 2 or CPU as the component which performs the functional sequences. For supply with operating voltage, the microcomputer system 2 is connected by means of a line 7 with a power supply which is adapted to the requirements, but not further shown. For representation of the processes, particularly for the continuous display of results, storage data, control counter data and other information which is important for the operation of the taximeter, the corresponding called-up data are shown by means of a display bus 8 in a multiple display field which is arranged in accordance with the importance of the data. Finally, the microcomputer system 1 receives via a generator signal line 9 by means of appropriately prepared signals from a generator input circuit which are evaluated, for instance, as distance units for conversion to fare units, using predetermined computation rules in the logic. As is known, in addition to distance units, time units are also included in the computation of a fare unit. The decision which of the two units are included in the form of a signal course, or whether both signal frequencies are included in a specific relation to one another for the determination of the fare, is made by the logic based on a working program which is determined by the corresponding tariff structure. As is also known, the basis for a fare unit is the tariff which is established for local conditions. Due to this requirement and also due to the continuous adaptation of the fares to the continuously rising expenses, the taximeter or the hardware areas must be adaptable to any specified tariff situation. The memory module which is on the market as a volatile write-read memory 10 or RAM has proven to be particularly suitable for storage of tariff data as well as repeated changes of these data at certain intervals as long as one is successful in achieving an absolute protection of the tariff data, stored in the RAM. A protective measure must be directed to the ordinary case of interference, such as system interferences or power supply failures, as well as also to the attempted case of interference due to manipulation of the stored data during normal operation of the taximeter. The RAM 10 is functional as a tariff data storage, separately from the central microcomputer system 1, as shown in FIGS. 1 and 2, and is connected with all data, address and control lines to the microcomputer system 1. According to the embodiment of FIG. 1, for the storage of tariff data, a separate RAM 10 is provided; correspondingly, in order to hold continuously variable data, such as, for instance, the control counter data, a RAM 11 is arranged. By means of a bidirectional counter data bus 12 controlled by the control mechanism in the microcomputer system 1, the flow of data takes place between the microcomputer system 1 and the called-up memory RAM 10 or 11. While the RAM 11 can be switched during normal operation of the taximeter by means of control signals from the microcomputer area 1 selectively according to the operating program to write or read processes, the function of the RAM 10 remains limited to merely making available the stored tariff data for the read-out process. In the exceptional case, i.e., in the case of an intentional change of the tariff data, also the RAM 10 can be set by actuating a control circuit 13 which is still to be explained below for a write process. For the selection of the data to be read out or for feeding in of data to be stored, the RAM 10 and 11 are connected by means of an address bus 14 with the microcomputer system 1. Corresponding signals for reading or writing are conducted into the RAM 10 by means of the internal control unit 5 or the control bus and a read-signal line 15 as well as a write signal line 16. For the transfer of a write-signal into the RAM 10 which is intended exclusively for tariff data, the write-signal line 16 is connected by means of a control circuit 13 and a write-connecting line 17 with the RAM 10. Due to the control circuit 13, it is possible, by means of additional switching elements in the control circuit 13, to let an intentional write-signal reach the RAM 10 exclusively by means of influencing the control circuit 13 separately from the system. Due to the interconnection of the control circuit 13, for the normal operation of a taximeter, a permanent suppression of the write instruction, which in its simplest form is represented as a write pulse on a signal line 16 to the RAM 10, can be set. In this way, it is absolutely prevented that the system can change the data stored as tariff data in the RAM 10 in any manner. To restrict the influence on the control circuit 13 to an authorized circle of personnel, the control circuit 13 has, for instance, a sealable switch 18 which interrupts a write signal for the RAM 10 or generates a blocking signal by means of which any flow of information into the RAM 10 is prevented. In order to make it more difficult to influence the control circuit 13, also a code switching mechanism may be provided by means of which a switch 18 to produce the connection of the write-signal line with the RAM 10 can be controlled. In another embodiment, it is conceivable to influence the control circuit 13 by means of an optical device in order to make possible to write in the tariff RAM 10 with new tariff data. In another embodiment of the control circuit 13, the tariff RAM 10 can also be charged by means of magnetic control elements and the use of Reed switches. The different specified types of external action on the control circuit 13 in the sense of a specified tariff data change are indicated according to FIGS. 1 and 2 by a line 19. For storage of the variable control data, according to the embodiment of FIG. 1, an additional write-read memory (RAM) 11 is provided which for read-in and read-out of data is also connected by means of the data bus 12 and the address bus 14 with the microcomputer system 1. In a storage of variable control data, for a continuous modification of the memory contents, the write-signal line 16 and the read-signal line 15 are connected directly with the bus control unit 5. To supply the RAM 10 and 11 with operating voltage, for protection of the voltage supply and for protection against any operating voltage breakdowns, one decoupling diode 20 is always provided in the line 21 to the operating voltage source of the system. An additional decoupling diode 22 is always in the voltage supply line from a buffer battery 23, shown in FIG. 1. Finally, the circuit arrangement contains, for decoupling and buffering of the supply voltage, a buffer capacitor 24 which is connected on the one side to ground and with its second connection is connected with the voltage supply lines 21 and 25 as well as by means of a line 26 with the RAM 10 and 11 for continuous supply and maintenance of the memories with operating voltage. In another embodiment of the circuit arrangement according to the invention, for the mutual storage of tariff data and variable data (for instance, control counter data), one single write-read memory (RAM) module 27 is used (FIG. 2). The RAM 27 is divided into correspondingly required storage areas for fulfillment of the storage tasks of secured tariff data, on the one hand, and variable control counter data, on the other hand. In order to also here achieve to the same extent the absolute protection of the tariff data against unauthorized changes, the control circuit 13 is expanded in that additional switching elements 28 are provided by means of which specific address areas in the RAM which are assigned to the storage of tariff data can be blocked for incorrect writing. For this purpose, the address bus 14 is guided with respect to the signal lines 29 for the memory address for tariff data over the control circuit 13 where appropriate memory areas can be addressed by means of the switching element 29. In the memory sector which can be blocked by means of the switching element 28, in the sealed state of the taximeter, the storage areas are readable but not writable. Accordingly, in interaction with the write-signal block which is arranged in the same control circuit 13, the tariff data stored there cannot be changed. As already explained in connection with FIG. 1, a change can be only undertaken by authorized persons by externally acting by influencing a line 19. Regarding the safety measures against falsification of the contents of information of the RAM 27 based on a voltage breakdown or loss, the same measures apply for the circuit arrangement according to FIG. 2, as were explained for the circuit according to FIG. 1. While the foregoing description and drawings represent the preferred embodiments of the present invention, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art that various changes and modifications may be made therein without departing from the true spirit and scope of the present invention.

A circuit arrangement for the permanent protection of data in volatile write-read memories (RAM) such as the type used for the storage of tariff data and variable control counter data in a taximeter. The inventive circuit arrangement provides a signal line between the microcomputer system and a volatile write-read memory (RAM) via a control circuit. By means of this arrangement, in the sealed state of the taximeter, a permanently effective suppression of write instructions can be set. Thus, the data stored there can no longer be affected by any interference signals from the microcomputer system. The supply of operating voltage of the RAM is secured by means of a circuit which includes a buffer battery and a buffer capacitor.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION [0001] This is a continuing application, under 35 U.S.C. § 120, of copending international application No. PCT/EP2003/006691, filed Jun. 25, 2003, which designated the United States; this application also claims the priority, under 35 U.S.C. § 119, of German patent application No. 202 09 839.7, filed Jun. 25, 2002; the prior applications are herewith incorporated by reference in their entirety. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0002] The present invention relates to a configuration with a condenser and an evaporator shell for a refrigerating device, such as for instance a refrigerator or freezer cabinet. [0003] In the case of a refrigerator, moisture given off by the refrigerated items to the air in the interior space of the refrigerator or moisture introduced by opening the door condenses on the evaporator. This moisture must be removed from the interior space of the refrigerator. For this purpose, a collecting channel which collects the moisture flowing off from the evaporator is generally fitted to a wall of the interior space, underneath the evaporator. From the lowest point of the collecting channel, a duct through which the water can flow away from the interior space is led through the housing wall of the refrigerator. This duct opens out in a conventional way into an open shell in which the water can evaporate. The shell is arranged above the condenser of the refrigerator, in order to warm up the water with the waste heat of the condenser and in this way speed up its evaporation. [0004] Such evaporator shells are also used in the case of freezers with automatic defrosting, so-called no-frost appliances, in which the evaporator is artificially heated up from time to time in order to thaw frost which has been deposited on it. [0005] Such a shell must be fitted as close as possible to the condenser in order to achieve adequate heating that ensures that the shell does not run over during operation and allow water to flow onto the condenser. In order to achieve such a close proximity between the condenser and the evaporator shell that is also consistent from appliance to appliance in mass production, the shell is generally not mounted on housing parts of the refrigerating device but directly on the condenser. [0006] A known possible way of mounting the shell is to make it engage in a latching manner on pipe connecting pieces of the condenser. However, this is unsatisfactory from the aspect of a firm and reliable attachment of the evaporator shell, since a maximum of two fastening points are available on the inlet line and outlet line of the condenser and the distance between the pipe connecting pieces and the evaporator shell can be great. [0007] The technique used at present by the assignee, BSH Bosch und Siemens Hausgeräte GmbH of Munich, Germany, therefore uses flat pins which are welded onto the upper side of the condenser in order to mount the evaporator shell on it. With this technique, the evaporator shell can indeed be mounted firmly and securely and also with a reproducible position with respect to the condenser, but it has the disadvantage that the welding is labor-intensive, because the places on the condenser housing that are intended for attaching the pins have to be ground smooth in advance, and that the possibility of damage to the condenser housing caused by careless welding cannot be ruled out. If a hole is formed in the housing of the condenser during welding, this damage cannot be rectified cost-effectively, and the condenser has to be scrapped. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0008] It is accordingly an object of the invention to provide a condenser/evaporator assembly, which overcomes the above-mentioned disadvantages of the heretofore-known devices and methods of this general type and which provides for a condenser-evaporator shell configuration that can be implemented in a simple and cost-effective manner. [0009] With the foregoing and other objects in view there is provided, in accordance with the invention, a configuration for a refrigerating device, comprising: a condenser for the refrigerating device, the condenser having a housing formed with an upper half-shell and a lower half-shell, the upper half-shell carrying latching flanks; an evaporator shell mounted to the housing of the condenser, the evaporator shell bearing retaining claws configured to engage behind the latching flanks on the upper half-shell of the housing. [0012] The latching flanks of the upper half of the shell can be already formed with little effort by machining during the production of the shell, before the condenser is assembled. The assembly of the configuration according to the invention can therefore take place in a simple way, in that the shell is simply pressed onto the condenser until it engages, or by placement and subsequent turning in the manner of a bayonet fastener. [0013] To simplify the assembly, it is desirable that the upper half-shell has a basic shape which is rotationally symmetrical about an axis, and that the latching flanks are arranged at the same height with respect to this axis. In this way it is possible to mount the evaporator shell in many different orientations corresponding to the degree of symmetry; searching for an orientation of the shell that is suitable for mounting is made easier in this way, or made entirely superfluous. [0014] In accordance with an added feature of the invention, the latching flanks are formed on at least one projection or at least one groove of the upper half-shell. This may be, in particular, a single, peripheral projection or a number of projections that are separate from one another and distributed at regular angular intervals around the periphery of the half-shell; in a corresponding way, the groove may also extend over the entire periphery of the half-shell, or a number of grooves extend in a plane over separate peripheral portions of the half-shell. [0015] The retaining claws are preferably flexible, so that they are spread apart when the evaporator shell is fitted onto the upper half-shell, in order to be able subsequently to engage behind the latching flanks. [0016] It may also be desirable to be able to use rigid retaining claws, such as for instance if the evaporator shell is formed from a rigid material and the retaining claws are intended to be in one part with the shell. In this case, latching engagement of the evaporator shell can be achieved in a simple way if the projections are separated in the peripheral direction of the upper half-shell by intermediate spaces, the width of which corresponds at least to the width of the retaining claws, so that the latter can be led through between the projections when the evaporator shell is placed onto the condenser, and can be made to engage on these during subsequent turning. [0017] Other features which are considered as characteristic for the invention are set forth in the appended claims. [0018] Although the invention is illustrated and described herein as embodied in a condenser-evaporator shell configuration for a refrigerating device, it is nevertheless not intended to be limited to the details shown, since various modifications and structural changes may be made therein without departing from the spirit of the invention and within the scope and range of equivalents of the claims. [0019] The construction and method of operation of the invention, however, together with additional objects and advantages thereof will be best understood from the following description of specific embodiments when read in connection with the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0020] FIG. 1 shows a schematic, partly cut-away, perspective view of the upper part of a condenser with an evaporator shell mounted thereon; [0021] FIG. 2 is a perspective view of the complete evaporator shell from FIG. 1 ; and [0022] FIG. 3 is a section taken through the upper part of a condenser with an evaporator shell mounted on it according to a second configuration of the invention. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS [0023] Referring now to the figures of the drawing in detail and first, particularly, to FIG. 1 thereof, there is shown a perspective view of the upper part of the housing 1 of a condenser for a refrigerating device and, halved, an evaporator shell 2 mounted on it. An upper half-shell 1 and a lower half-shell 9 , only represented in part, are connected by a weld seam 10 . The lower half-shell 9 bears four fastening lugs 11 for screwing the condenser in a refrigerating device, only one of which can be seen in the figure. The half-shell 1 is a round dome, which is formed as one part from sheet metal by deep-drawing. Three rib-shaped projections 3 are formed out of the dome shape. These ribs 3 extend in each case about 60° in the same plane perpendicular to the vertical axis of symmetry of the dome. [0024] The evaporator shell 2 shown in its entirety in FIG. 2 has a base 4 , which is adapted to the dome shape of the upper half-shell 1 . Arranged at the edge of the base 4 , where the latter meets the side wall of the evaporator shell 2 , are three retaining claws 5 . These likewise extend in each case over an angle of just 60° and are uniformly distributed over the periphery of the evaporator shell 2 . In this way it is possible to mount the evaporator shell 2 by initially placing it onto the half-shell 1 in an orientation in which the retaining claws 5 reach through the intermediate spaces between adjacent ribs 3 and subsequently turning the evaporator shell 2 , so that the retaining claws 5 come into contact with latching flanks 7 on the underside of the ribs 3 and in this way keep the evaporator shell 2 pressed against the upper half-shell 1 . [0025] The evaporator shell 2 according to this exemplary embodiment may be produced as one part from a rigid material, since the mounting does not require any significant deformation of the retaining claws 5 . [0026] In the case of an alternative configuration, the three ribs 3 are replaced by one rib extending over the entire periphery of the half-shell 1 . In this case, the retaining claws of the evaporator shell must be flexible, in order that the evaporator shell can be mounted on the continuous rib by fitting it on, with the retaining claws being bent outward. For this purpose, the entire evaporator shell may be formed from a flexible material, or flexible retaining claws may be joined onto an otherwise rigid evaporator shell, for example formed on by injection-molding around it. [0027] If the material of the retaining claws is not only flexible but also extensible, the retaining claws may also be formed as a closed ring, extending over the entire periphery of the evaporator shell 2 . [0028] In the case of the second configuration of the configuration according to the invention, shown in section in FIG. 3 , the evaporator shell is fastened to a peripheral groove 6 , which is recessed in the upper half-shell 1 . Here, too, the retaining claws 5 engaging in the groove 6 may also be distributed as a plurality over the periphery of the evaporator shell 2 , or they may form a single closed ring. [0029] Latching flanks 7 for anchoring the evaporator shell are formed here by the upper side wall of the groove 6 .

An evaporator shell is mounted on the half-shell of a condenser housing. The evaporator shell is retained with the aid of retaining claws that engage from the rear with catching flanks formed on the upper half-shell.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION The present application relates to and claims priority from U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/727,122, filed Oct. 14, 2005, incorporated herein by reference. TECHNICAL FIELD The present application relates to microemulsions which are effective for incorporating water-insoluble components into aqueous-based food and beverage compositions or water-soluble components into lipid-based food compositions. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The formulation of food and beverage products, particularly aqueous-based food and beverage products, can be difficult. For example, it is frequently necessary to incorporate water immiscible components, such as colors, flavors, nutrients, nutraceuticals, therapeutic agents, or antioxidants, into compositions which are primarily aqueous based. The difficulty of this task is increased by the fact that the compositions need to be formulated such that they are esthetically pleasing to the consumer. For example, it is frequently necessary to incorporate a water-insoluble material into an aqueous beverage while still maintaining the optical clarity of the beverage. These compositions also need to exhibit long-term shelf stability under typical food and beverage shipping, storage and use conditions. One way that the industry has attempted to satisfy these conflicting requirements is to incorporate the water immiscible materials using microemulsions. A microemulsion is a dispersion of two immiscible liquids (one liquid phase being “dispersed” and the other being “continuous”) in which the individual droplets of the dispersed phase have an average radius less than about one-quarter the wavelength of light. Such microemulsions have also been termed “nanoemulsions”. Typically, in a microemulsion, the dispersed phase droplets have a radius of less than about 1400 Å, and preferably on the order of about 100 to about 500 Å. The basic theory of microemulsions is more fully described in Rosano, Journal of the Society of Cosmetic Chemists, 25: 609-619 (November, 1974), incorporated herein by reference. Microemulsions can be difficult to formulate, frequently requiring the use of co-solvents, such as ethanol or propylene glycol. These co-solvents can lead to off-flavors in the final product. Further, the formation of microemulsions frequently requires some rather stressful processing conditions, such as high pressure homogenization, which require specialized equipment and can increase the cost of the final product. It therefore would be useful to have a procedure for formulating microemulsions, using relatively low levels of food grade emulsifiers, which allow the incorporation of water-immiscible components into aqueous-based food and beverage compositions without requiring the use of such co-solvents and relatively extreme processing conditions. The prior art describes the formation of microemulsions, as well as the use of microemulsions formed by conventional processes for the incorporation of materials into food and beverage products. U.S. Pat. No. 4,146,499, Rosano, issued Mar. 27, 1979, describes an oil-in-water microemulsion which utilizes a high/low HLB surfactant mixture for forming the emulsion. The patent does not teach or suggest use of a ternary (high/low/medium HLB) surfactant system in forming the emulsion. U.S. Pat. No. 4,752,481, Dokuzovic, issued Jun. 21, 1988, describes a flavored chewing gum product which includes a chewing gum base, a sweetener, and a flavor-containing emulsion. The emulsion comprises 19 to 59% of a flavoring oil, 1 to 5% of an emulsifier having an HLB of from about 1.6 to about 7.0, and an alkyl polyol (for example, glycerin or polyethylene glycol). U.S. Pat. No. 4,835,002, Wolf et al., issued May 30, 1989, describes a microemulsion of an edible essential oil (such as citrus oil) in a water/alcohol matrix. The composition comprises water, the essential oil, alcohol and a surfactant. The surfactant component utilized must include a high HLB surfactant, although a mixture of high HLB and low HLB surfactants can also included. There is no disclosure of a ternary surfactant emulsifier system for use in forming the emulsion. U.S. Pat. No. 5,320,863, Chung et al, issued Jun. 14, 1994, describes microemulsions used to deliver high concentrations of flavor or fragrance oils. The compositions are said to exhibit high stability even in the absence of lower alcohols. The compositions include a nonionic surfactant (generally not edible or food grade); no discussion of HLB criticality is provided. There is no disclosure or suggestion to combine high, low and medium HLB surfactants into a ternary emulsifying system. U.S. Pat. No. 5,447,729, Belenduik et al, issued Sep. 5, 1995, describes a particulate pharmaceutical composition wherein a pharmaceutical active material may be incorporated into particles in the form of a microemulsion. The outer layers of the particles have hydrophobic/lipophilic interfaces between them. The disclosed compositions can include polysorbate 80 or glycerol monooleate as an emulsifier. There is no teaching in the patent of a ternary surfactant emulsifier system. U.S. Pat. No. 5,948,825, Takahashi et al., issued Sep. 7, 1999, describes water-in-oil emulsions of hard-to-absorb pharmaceutical agents for use in topical or oral administration. There is no disclosure or suggestion of a ternary surfactant emulsifier system. The emulsifiers disclosed in the '825 patent can include a mixture of two types of nonionic surfactants, one having an HLB of from 10 to 20, and the other having an HLB from 3 to 7. U.S. Pat. No. 6,048,566, Behnam et al., issued Apr. 11, 2000, describes a nonalcoholic, clear beverage which incorporates from 10 to 500 mg/l of ubiquinone Q10, together with a polysorbate stabilizer. U.S. Pat. No. 6,077,559, Logan et al., issued Jun. 20, 2000, relates to flavored vinegars which are based on the inclusion of specifically defined microemulsions. The oil-in-vinegar microemulsions comprise from 20% to 70% vinegar, 5% to 35% ethanol, 0.1% to 5% of a flavor material, and 0.5% to 5% of a surfactant. The surfactants utilized are high HLB surfactants; they can also include a small amount of low HLB (4 to 9) surfactant. There is no disclosure of a ternary surfactant emulsifier system in the '559 patent. U.S. Pat. No. 6,146,672, Gonzalez et al., issued Nov. 14, 2000, relates to spreadable water-in-oil emulsions which are used as fillings in pastry products, particularly frozen pastries. The fillings are said to exhibit enhanced shelf-life and stability. The described emulsions include a mixture of high and low HLB emulsifiers. Although the '672 patent describes a mixture of high and low HLB surfactants, it does not disclose or suggest the ternary surfactant emulsifier system which is utilized in the present invention. Further, the '672 patent does not teach microemulsions or the use of an emulsion to incorporate water-insoluble materials into food products. U.S. Pat. No. 6,303,662, Nagahama et al., issued Oct. 16, 2001, describes microemulsions used in the delivery of fat-soluble drugs. The disclosed compositions require a high polarity oil, a low polarity oil, a polyglycerol mono fatty acid ester, and a water-soluble polyhydric alcohol. There is no disclosure of a ternary surfactant emulsifier system. U.S. Pat. No. 6,376,482, Akashe et al., issued Apr. 23, 2002, describes mesophase-stabilized compositions which incorporate plant sterols as cholesterol-lowering agents. The compositions can include a mixture of a surfactant having an HLB of from 6 to 9, a surfactant having an HLB of from 2 to 6, and a surfactant having an HLB of from 9 to 22. Although this patent does teach a ternary emulsifier system, the product formed is not a microemulsion, but rather a mesophase-stabilized emulsion (the mesophase does not have separate oil and water phases). The disclosed compositions are said to provide mouth feel and texture benefits to food products. The emulsion particles formed in the '482 patent are relatively large (i.e., from about 2 to about 10 μm). U.S. Pat. No. 6,426,078, Bauer et al., issued Jul. 30, 2002, describes oil-in-water microemulsions which comprise from 10% to 99% of a triglycerol mono fatty acid emulsifier (for example, triglycerol monolaurate, triglycerol monocaproate or triglycerol monocaprylate), 1% to 20% of a lipophilic substance (for example, beta-carotene, vitamin A or vitamin E), and water. These compositions are said to be useful in foods, cosmetics or pharmaceuticals for incorporating non-water-soluble (lipophilic) substances. There is no disclosure of a ternary surfactant emulsifier system for forming the microemulsion. U.S. Pat. No. 6,444,253, Conklin et al, issued Sep. 3, 2002, describes a microemulsion flavor delivery system in the form of an oil-in-alcohol composition. These compositions require the use of alcohols which generally are not included in typical food or beverage formulations. Further, the '253 patent does not teach or suggest a ternary surfactant emulsifier system. U.S. Pat. No. 6,509,044, Van Den Braak et al., issued Jan. 21, 2003, describes microemulsions of beta-carotene. These microemulsions are said to be based on an emulsifier system which preferably is a binary surfactant system, but can also be a ternary system (although there are no examples of a ternary system provided). It is taught that the fatty acid profiles of the emulsifiers are matched with the fatty acid profiles of the oily ingredient to be incorporated into the composition. There is no teaching in the '044 patent of a ternary high/low/medium HLB surfactant emulsifier system for use in forming the microemulsion. U.S. Pat. No. 6,774,247, Behnam, issued Aug. 10, 2004, relates to aqueous ascorbic acid solutions. These solutions are said to contain an excess of an emulsifier having an HLB of from about 9 to about 18, such as polysorbate 80. There is no suggestion in the '247 patent to utilize a ternary surfactant emulsifier system. U.S. Published Patent Application 2002/0187238, Vlad, published Dec. 12, 2002, relates to clear, stable oil-loaded microemulsions used as flavoring components in clear beverage compositions. These compositions utilize a co-solvent at a co-solvent:surfactant ratio of about 1:1. Further, the surfactant component comprises a mixture of at least two surfactants having an average HLB of from about 9 to about 18, preferably from about 12 to about 15. There is no disclosure in the '238 application of a ternary surfactant emulsifier composition comprising a mixture of low/medium/high HLB surfactants. The microemulsions defined in the '238 application comprise at least 30% oil, 1% to 30% of a surfactant mixture having an HLB of from 9 to 18, less than 20% co-solvent, and at least 35% water. PCT Published Patent Application WO 94/06310, Ford et al., published Mar. 31, 1994, describes a colorant composition in the form of a microemulsion. Compositions disclosed in the '310 application include beta-carotene, alpha-tocopherol and ascorbic acid. Polysorbates are preferred emulsifiers in the '310 application. There is no teaching of a ternary surfactant emulsifier system in the formation of the microemulsion. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to microemulsions used to incorporate lipophilic water-insoluble materials into food and beverage compositions, comprising: (a) an oil phase comprising said water-insoluble material and a low HLB emulsifier having an HLB of from about 1 to about 5; (b) an aqueous phase; and (c) a food grade emulsifier system comprising: (i) an emulsifier having an HLB of from about 9 to about 17; and (ii) an emulsifier having an HLB of from about 6 to about 8; wherein said oil phase is dispersed as particles having an average diameter of less than about 300 nm, within said aqueous phase. The present invention also encompasses food compositions and beverage compositions which incorporate the microemulsions defined above. The present invention also relates to a method for preparing the microemulsions defined above, comprising the steps of: (a) mixing the lipophilic water-insoluble components with the low HLB emulsifier to form the oil phase; (b) mixing the emulsifier system into the oil phase; and (c) adding the aqueous phase into the product of step (b) and mixing to form the microemulsion. Finally, the present invention relates to water-in-oil microemulsions using the ternary emulsifier system described herein, and concentrates used for making oil-in-water and water-in-oil microemulsions. The microemulsions of the present invention provide several advantages over conventional compositions. Specifically, the microemulsions of the present invention can carry effective levels of difficult-to-disperse components, such as carotenoids, in optically transparent beverages. The compositions of the present invention are sufficiently stable under normal soft drink transport and storage conditions. The taste of the food and beverage products of the present invention is very acceptable. The physical and optical characteristics of the emulsions are controllable by selection of appropriate emulsifiers and the heating temperature used, as well as the order of addition of the components. Importantly, the microemulsions of the present invention form essentially spontaneously under normal stirring, without requiring extreme processing conditions, such as high-pressure homogenization. Finally, the microemulsions of the present invention can demonstrate improved bioavailability of the dispersed elements, such as carotenoids. With the present invention it is also possible to prepare oil-in-water microemulsions containing omega-3 fatty acids or their esters that are highly susceptible to oxidation (or other acids/esters which are highly susceptible to oxidation). It is observed that such components exhibit higher oxidative stability in microemulsions of the present invention than in conventional emulsions. All patents and publications listed in the present application are intended to be incorporated by reference herein. All ratios and proportions described in this application are intended to be “by weight,” unless otherwise specified. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides for microemulsions which are easily formed and which allow for the incorporation of water immiscible components into aqueous-based food and beverage compositions. Similarly, the microemulsions can be used to incorporate water-soluble materials into fat-based products. For example, water-soluble natural colorants, flavors, vitamins, salts or antioxidants can be incorporated into fat-based products like coating layers on a snack bar, frosting, chocolate, margarine, fat spread or confectionary products. The water-insoluble components which may be incorporated into the food and beverage compositions of the present invention encompass any materials which are desirably incorporated into a food or beverage product, but which are insoluble in or immiscible with an aqueous-based composition. Such materials generally are lipophilic. Examples of such materials include certain colorants, flavorants, nutrients, nutraceuticals, therapeutic agents, antioxidants, extracts of natural components (such as plants, roots, leaves, flowers, etc.), medicaments, preservatives, and mixtures of these materials. Specific examples of such materials which are frequently used in food and beverage compositions include the following: carotenoids and their derivatives (such as beta-carotene, apocarotenal, lutein, lutein ester, lycopene, zeaxanthin, crocetin, astaxanthin), essential oils, edible oils, fatty acids, proteins and peptides, polyunsaturated fatty acids and their esters, vitamin A and its derivatives, vitamin E and its derivatives, vitamin D and its derivatives, vitamin K and its derivatives, colorants, flavorants, nutrients, nutraceuticals, therapeutic agents, antioxidants, extracts of natural components (such as plants, roots, leaves, flowers, seeds, etc.), medicaments, preservatives, lipoic acid, phytosterins, quercetin, phytosterols and their esters, co-enzyme Q10 (ubidecarone), plant isoflavones (such as genistein, isogenistein or formononetine), and mixtures thereof. Particularly preferred materials which can be incorporated using the present invention include, for example, oil-soluble, oil-insoluble or water-soluble food ingredients, such as food additives, food preservatives, food supplements, antioxidants, nutraceuticals, cosmoceuticals, plant extracts, medicaments, fatty acids, peptides, proteins, carbohydrates, natural flavors, synthetic flavors, colorants, vitamins, and combinations of those materials. The specific microemulsion systems of beta-carotene, vitamin E, vitamin A materials, such as vitamin A palmitate, vitamin E acetate, and mixtures of those components are given as examples of this invention. A key element for forming the microemulsions of the present invention is the ternary surfactant emulsifier system. It is through the use of this ternary system that microemulsions which provide the benefits of the present invention are formed. This ternary emulsifier system is a mixture of at least three food grade emulsifiers in the form of nonionic or anionic surfactants. Nonionic surfactants are preferred. Nonionic surfactants are well known in the art and are described, for example, in Nonionic Surfactants: Organic Chemistry , Nico M. van Os (ed.), Marcel Dekker, 1998. At least one of the emulsifiers has a low HLB (i.e., from about 1 to about 5), at least one of the emulsifiers has a medium HLB (i.e., from about 6 to about 8), and at least one of the emulsifiers has a high HLB (i.e., from about 9 to about 17, preferably from about 10 to about 16). The selection of the particular surfactants used in the ternary emulsifier system depends on the HLB (hydrophilic-lipophilic balance) value of such surfactants. The surfactants are selected such that they have the HLB values described above. The HLB value, and the determination thereof, for surfactants is well known in the art and is disclosed, for example, by Milton J. Rosen in Surfactants and Interfacial Phenomena , J. Wiley and Sons, New York, N.Y., 1978, pages 242-245, or in the Kirk - Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 3rd edition, volume 8, 1979, at pages 910-915, both incorporated herein by reference. The following table sets forth the HLB values for a variety of anionic and nonionic surfactants which can, as examples, be used in the ternary system of the present invention. The HLB of other non-listed surfactants can be calculated using procedures well known in the art. HLB Value* Anionic Surfactant myristic acid 22 palmitic acid 21 stearic acid 20 oleic acid 20 monoglyceride ester of diacetyltartaric acid 9.2 digylceride ester of diacetyltartaric acid 3.2 monoglyceride ester of citric acid + and salts 27 thereof diglyceride ester of citric acid 20 monoglyceride ester of lactic acid 21 diglyceride ester of lactic acid 14 dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate 18 monoglyceride ester of phosphoric acid 14 diglyceride ester of phosphoric acid 8 lecithin 7 to 9 hydroxylated lecithin** 8 to 9 Nonionic Surfactants polysorbates 10 to 18 sorbitan ester of myristic acid 6.7 sorbitan ester of palmitic acid 5.7 sorbitan ester of stearic acid 4.7 sorbitan ester of oleic acid 4.7 polyglycerol esters of myristic acid 3 to 16 depending on polyglycerol esters of palmitic acid the number of glycerol polyglycerol esters of stearic acid units and fatty acid polyglycerol esters of oleic acid side chains present therein monoglyceride ester of myristic acid 4.8 monoglyceride ester of palmitic acid 4.3 monoglyceride ester of stearic acid 3.8 monoglyceride ester of oleic acid 3.1 diglyceride ester of myristic acid 2.3 diglyceride ester of palmitic acid 2.1 diglyceride ester of stearic acid 1.8 diglyceride ester of oleic acid 1.8 (ethoxy)n monoglyceride of myristic acid*** 13 to 21 (ethoxy)n monoglyceride of palmitic acid*** (ethoxy)n monoglyceride of stearic acid*** (ethoxy)n monoglyceride of oleic acid*** (ethoxy)n diglyceride of myristic acid***  7 to 15 (ethoxy)n diglyceride of palmitic acid*** (ethoxy)n diglyceride of stearic acid*** (ethoxy)n diglyceride of oleic acid*** sucrose ester of myristic acid 18 ester of palmitic acid 17 ester of stearic acid 16 ester of oleaic acid 16 propylene glycol ester of myristic acid 4.4 ester of palmitic acid 3.9 ester of stearic acid 3.4 ester of oleaic acid 4.3 *in fully ionized form in water at 20–25° C. **amphoteric depending on pH of matrix ***wherein n is a whole number from 10 to 30 Any edible oil may be used as the oil phase in the present compositions. Specifically, the oil phase can be selected from edible fat/oil sources, such as the oil extracts from natural components (e.g., plants, flowers, roots, leaves, seeds). For example, these materials can include carrot seed oil, sesame seed oil, vegetable oil, soybean oil, corn oil, canola oil, olive oil, sunflower oil, safflower oil, peanut oil, or algae oil. Also included are flavor oils, animal oils (such as fish oils), and dairy products (such as butterfat). The oil phase can be made from pure oil, mixtures of different oils, or a mixture of different oil-soluble materials, or mixtures thereof. In the oil-in-water microemulsions of the present invention the low HLB surfactant is present at from about 0.1% to about 5%, particularly about 0.7% to about 1%, of the microemulsion. The high HLB surfactant is present at from about 5% to about 25%, particularly from about 12% to about 18%, of the microemulsion. The medium HLB surfactant is present at from about 0.1% to about 5%, particularly from about 0.5% to about 1.5% of the microemulsion. Particularly preferred low HLB surfactants include glycerol monooleate, polyglycerol riconoleate, decaglycerol decaoleate, sucrose erucate and sucrose oleate. Particularly preferred medium HLB surfactants are polyglycerol esters, such as decaglycerol hexaoleate, and triglycerol monofatty acids, such as triglycerol monooleate, and sucrose stearate. Particularly preferred high HLB surfactants include polysorbate 80 or polyoxysorbitan monolaurate (commercially available as the TWEEN® series of surfactants), polyglycerol-6 laurate, decaglycerol lauric acid esters, decaglycerol oleic acid esters and sucrose esters. In one embodiment of the microemulsions of the present invention, the oil phase is dispersed within the aqueous phase (i.e., an oil-in-water (o/w) microemulsion). The oil phase is present in particulate form, having a particle size mean diameter of less than about 300 nm, such as from about 1 to about 300 nm, preferably from about 1 to about 200 nm. The aqueous phase typically comprises water and the water-soluble ingredients of the composition, and is present at from about 50% to about 90%, preferably from about 70% to about 85%, of the microemulsion. The oil phase generally comprises from about 1% to about 15%, preferably from about 2% to about 6%, of the microemulsion. Typically, the oil phase includes the water-insoluble components, as they have been defined above, together with the low HLB emulsifier component. This oil-in-water microemulsion of the present invention, described above, can be formulated in a relatively simple manner as follows. The lipophilic water-insoluble components are mixed with the low HLB emulsifier to form the oil phase. Heat may be applied, if necessary, to melt the insoluble components and/or the surfactant to form the oil phase. The emulsifier system, which comprises the high HLB and the medium HLB emulsifiers is then formed and mixed into the oil phase. The aqueous phase is then added into the previously made (oil phase/emulsifier) mixture and further mixed to form the microemulsion. The mixing which is required to form the microemulsion is relatively easy mixing. Typical equipment which can be used to mix the components to form the microemulsion include, for example, a magnetic stirrer or an overhead mixer. In selecting the emulsifiers utilized in the microemulsions of the present invention, the following criteria may also be important. The high HLB emulsifier should have an HLB value between about 9 and about 17, preferably between about 10 and about 16. Without wishing to specify a particular mechanism of action of the emulsifiers, it may be advantageous to use emulsifiers with relatively bulky head groups and non-bulky tails selected as to their length so they can form micelles readily. This is the major emulsifier which confers water-soluble characteristics to the system. The hydrophilic portions of the molecule repel each other sideways to curve the interface around the oil side and promote the formation of the oil-in-water microemulsions. The low HLB emulsifier must be lipophilic and have an HLB value between about 1 and about 5. This minor emulsifier stays within the oil phase and acts as a co-surfactant. The emulsifier molecules align their heads and tails in nearly a perfect way with the oil and the first hydrophilic surfactant to promote formation of micelles as small as possible. The third emulsifier has a medium HLB between about 6 and about 8. This minor emulsifier can stay in either the water or oil phase and also acts as a co-surfactant. It is believed that this emulsifier not only further reduces the interfacial tension between droplets, but also tends to bend the interface to make the droplets smaller. The combination of the very low interfacial tension, long hydrophobic tails of the first emulsifier and close packing, and the effect of the co-surfactants on the curvature of the interface provides a dispersed and stable system of small droplet size. Examples of food grade surfactants which can be used in the microemulsions of the present invention include polysorbates (ethoxylated sorbitan esters), such as polysorbate 80; sorbitan esters, such as sorbitan monostearate; sugar esters, such as sucrose laurate; polyglycerol esters of fatty acids (from mono-, di-, tri-, and up to deca-, glycerol esters of fatty acids), mono and diglycerides, combinations of fatty acids and ethoxylated mono-diglycerides, and mixtures thereof. In addition to the oil-in-water microemulsions described above, the present invention also encompasses water-in-oil (w/o) microemulsions. These are particularly useful for incorporating water-soluble materials into oil- or fat-based compositions. In these water-in-oil microemulsions, the aqueous phase is dispersed in the oil phase. The aqueous phase is present in particulate form, having a particle size mean diameter of less than about 300 nm, such as from about 1 to about 300 nm, preferably from about 1 to about 200 nm. The aqueous phase typically comprises water and the water-soluble ingredients of the composition, and is present at from about 1% to about 15%, preferably from about 2% to about 6%, of the microemulsion. The oil phase includes the water-insoluble components and the oily/fatty base, and is generally present at from about 50% to about 90%, preferably from about 70% to about 85%, of the microemulsion. In forming these water-in-oil microemulsions, the water-soluble components are mixed with the high HLB emulsifier to form the aqueous phase. The low HLB and medium HLB emulsifiers are then mixed together and added to the aqueous phase. The oil phase is then added to the aqueous phase with mixing, for example, with an overhead mixer to form the water-in-oil microemulsion. Typically, in water-in-oil microemulsions, the high HLB surfactant is present at from about 0.1% to about 5%, the medium HLB surfactant is present at from about 0.1% to about 5%, and the low HLB surfactant is present at from about 5% to about 30%, of the final composition. Physical properties of the microemulsion composition, and the final product, can be adjusted by increasing or decreasing the amount of oil or water in the dispersed phase of the microemulsion. Finally, the present invention encompasses concentrate microemulsion systems which comprise the dispersed phase (including the component(s) which is (are) to be incorporated into the final composition) and the three emulsifiers defined herein; the concentrate does not include the continuous phase. The concentrate is added to the continuous phase, with stirring, and the microemulsion is formed. Thus, in a concentrate to form an oil-in-water microemulsion, there will be included an oil-based phase of selected lipid-soluble ingredients, together with the ternary emulsifier system, with no aqueous phase. This concentrate is added to an aqueous phase, with mixing, to form the oil-in-water microemulsion. On the other hand, for a concentrate to form a water-in-oil microemulsion, there will be an aqueous phase of particular water-soluble ingredients, together with the ternary emulsifier system, with no oil phase. Examples of such concentrates are described in this application. These concentrates that will form oil-in-water microemulsions comprise from about 1% to about 40% of the disperse phase, and from about 1% to about 10% of the low HLB emulsifier, from about 1% to about 10% of the medium HLB emulsifier, and from about 65% to about 95% of the high HLB emulsifier. These concentrates that will form water-in-oil microemulsions comprise from about 1% to about 40% of the dispersed phase, and from about 65% to about 95% of the low HLB emulsifier, from about 1% to about 10% of the medium HLB emulsifier, and from about 1% to about 10% of the high HLB emulsifier. The concentrate is added, with mixing, to the continuous phase such that the final microemulsion composition comprises from about 1% to about 15% (preferably from about 2% to about 6%) of the dispersed phase, and from about 50% to about 99% (preferably from about 70% to about 85%) of the continuous phase. The microemulsions of the present invention may be incorporated into aqueous-based or lipid-based food and beverage products. These products are conventional and are well known in the art. Examples and information about the formulation of such products may be found in the Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition , by Benjamin Caballero, Luis C. Trugo and Paul M. Finglas (editors), 2nd Edition, London: Academic, 2003, or in the Dictionary of Food Compounds with CD - ROM: Additives, Flavors and Ingredients , edited by Shmuel Yannai, Boca Raton, Fla., CRC Press, 2004, or in The Soft Drinks Companion: A Technical Handbook for the Beverage Industry , by Maurice Shachman, Boca Raton, Fla., CRC Press, 2005, all of which are incorporated herein by reference. The microemulsions of the present invention may be incorporated into those products using the following conventional techniques. The microemulsions can be incorporated into those products as color, flavor or other types of food ingredients. The microemulsions can simply be added and mixed or diluted directly into aqueous-based or lipid-based food and beverage compositions using typical mixers or stirrers. The speed with which the microemulsion systems are incorporated into food and beverage products depends on the velocity at which individual components in the microemulsions dissolve into the specific food and beverage systems; typically the products can be homogeneous within 5 minutes. The speed of incorporation of microemulsions into various systems could be accelerated by increasing the speed of mixing and/or possibly warming the food systems to about 40° C., if it is necessary. In addition to the components described above, the food and beverage compositions, as well as the microemulsions of the present invention, may include adjunct components conventionally used in food or beverage products at their art-established levels. Examples of such components include preservatives, antioxidants, flavorants, colorants, nutrients, nutraceuticals, food supplements, antioxidants, plant extracts, therapeutic agents (for example, chondroitin or electrolytes), and combinations of those materials. To the extent such components are water-immiscible or lipid-immiscible, they may be incorporated into the food and beverage compositions using the microemulsions of the present invention. By using the compositions and methods of the present invention, it is possible to form effective microemulsions without the use of co-solvents, such as ethanol and propylene glycol. These co-solvents can result in off-flavors in the food or beverage compositions. In addition, the microemulsions of the present invention are formed using lower levels of surfactants than are typically needed in microemulsion formation. Because of this, the microemulsions of the present invention exhibit less off-flavor caused by surfactants, are able to carry high levels of difficult-to-disperse ingredients, and are more stable either in concentrated or dilute form. In addition, the present invention allows for the preparation of stable compositions containing difficult-to-disperse ingredients (such as beta-carotene). Beta-carotene is highly insoluble and tends to recrystallize, hence breaking a typical microemulsion system). The present invention allows for a stable composition of such materials, such as beta-carotene, formed in a way which does not require extreme processing conditions. Further, the microemulsions of the present invention, as well as the food and beverage products containing them, have a controllable appearance in that by adjusting the types and concentrations of surfactants and/or the oil phase, the optical properties, from crystal clear to cloudy, can be adjusted in the finished product. The following examples are intended to be illustrative of various embodiments of the present invention and are not intended to be limiting of the invention definition in any way. Example 1—Beta-Carotene Oil-in-Water Microemulsion The following is an example of the preparation of a beta-carotene oil-in-water microemulsion of the present invention. The microemulsion has the following composition: Component Weight % Water, deionized 79.335 Sodium benzoate agglomerate 0.075 Ascorbic acid 0.20 Polysorbate 80 (TWEEN ®) - high HLB 15.00 Triglyceryl monostearate - medium HLB 1.00 Beta-carotene (30% suspension in vegetable oil) 3.36 Vitamin E (tocopherol alpha) 0.10 Vitamin A palmitate 0.10 Glyceryl monooleate - low HLB 0.83 Total 100.000 The above ingredients are prepared in three separate parts: (1) a water phase (water, sodium benzoate and ascorbic acid); (2) a mixture of emulsifiers containing the high and medium HLB materials (polysorbate and Triglyceryl monostearate); and (3) an oil phase which comprises the water-insoluble components and the low HLB emulsifier (beta-carotene 30%, vitamin E, vitamin A and glycerol monooleate). Heat is used to melt the beta-carotene and surfactant so that the components form a single liquid phase. These three parts are then added in the following order to form a concentrated microemulsion: In the first vessel, prepare the aqueous phase by adding sodium benzoate to deionized water. Mix for 5 minutes with medium agitation until the powder is completely dissolved. Add ascorbic acid and mix for 5 minutes. In the second vessel, prepare the emulsifier phase by combining polysorbate 80 (TWEEN®) and polyglycerol ester (tryglyceryl monostearate). Mix well until it is homogeneous. In the heating kettle, prepare the oil phase by combining beta-carotene 30% oil, glyceryl monooleate, vitamin A palmitate and alpha tocopherol. After the oil phase is completely mixed, heat the kettle containing beta-carotene, vitamin E, vitamin A and glyceryl monooleate to 280-285° F. with medium agitation until beta-carotene crystals are completely dissolved. Immediately add the oil phase from the kettle to the emulsifier phase in the second vessel, then mix for an additional 5 minutes or until homogeneous. Then add the aqueous phase (water/sodium benzoate/ascorbic acid) from the first vessel to the mixture of the oil phase and emulsifier in the second vessel. Mix at high speed for 15 minutes or until the microemulsion is uniform. The microemulsion can then be diluted to the desired concentration and added to a food or beverage product. Examples of commercial sources of emulsifiers suitable for use in the present invention, include, but are not limited to, Abitec ADM, BASF, Danisco, ICI, Lambent Technologies, Lonza, Mitsubishi Chemical, and Stepan. Example 2—Lemon Oil-in-Water Microemulsion Component Weight % Water, deionized 77.225 Sodium benzoate agglomerate 0.075 Ascorbic acid 0.20 Decaglycerol lauric acid ester - high HLB 16.67 Decaglycerol oleic acid ester - medium HLB 1.67 Lemon oil 3.33 Sucrose oleate - low HLB 0.83 Total 100.00 First, mix 16.67 g of decaglycerol lauric acid ester with 1.67 g of decaglycerol oleic acid ester. Second, mix 3.33 g of lemon oil with 0.83 g of sucrose oleate in a separate container, then add to the mixture obtained above. Third, mix sodium benzoate with deionized water before adding ascorbic acid. Then add the aqueous phase to the mixture from step two. Microemulsion is obtained by mixing, using an overhead mixer. The entire process is done at room temperature. This system can be diluted with any amount of water. Example 3—Paprika Oil-in-Water Microemulsion Component Weight % Water, deionized 71.00 Sodium benzoate agglomerate 0.075 Ascorbic acid 0.20 Decaglycerol lauric acid ester - high HLB 25.00 Decaglycerol tetraoleate - medium HLB 1.67 Paprika oleoresin 1.00 Decaglycerol decaoleate - low HLB 1.00 Total 100.00 First, mix 25 g of decaglycerol lauric acid ester with 1.67 g of decaglycerol tetraoleate. Second, mix 1 g of paprika oleoresin with 1 g of decaglycerol decaoleate in a separate container, then add to the mixture obtained above. Third, mix sodium benzoate with deionized water before adding ascorbic acid. Then add the aqueous phase to the mixture from step two. Microemulsion is obtained by mixing, using an overhead mixer. The entire process is done at room temperature. This system can be diluted with any amount of water. Example 4—Beet Juice Water-in-Oil Microemulsion Component Weight % Cottonseed oil 74.64 Polysorbate 80 - high HLB 1.49 Triglycerol monooleate - medium HLB 1.49 Beet juice 7.46 Polyglycerol ricinoleate - low HLB 14.92 Total 100.00 First, mix 7.46 g of beet juice and 1.49 g of polysorbate 80. Second, mix 1.49 g of triglycerol monooleate with 14.92 g of polyglycerol ricinoleate in a separate container, then add to the mixture obtained above. Third, cottonseed oil is added to the mixture from step two. Concentrate beet juice water-in-oil microemulsion system is obtained by mixing, using an overhead mixer. The entire process is done at room temperature. This system can be diluted with any amount of edible vegetable or mineral oil or lipid-based systems provided the system does not contain substantial levels of emulsifier (s). Example 5—Aronia Extract Water-in-Oil Microemulsion Component Weight % Canola oil 70.17 Decaglycerol monocaprylate - high HLB 1.75 Decaglycerol tetraoleate - medium HLB 1.75 Aronia extract 8.77 Polyglycerol ricinoleate - low HLB 17.54 Total 100.00 First, mix 8.77 g of aronia extract (natural water-soluble colorants) and 1.75 g of decaglycerol monocaprylate. Second, mix 1.75 g of decaglycerol tetraoleate with 17.54 g of polyglycerol ricinoleate in a separate container, then add to the mixture obtained above. Third, canola oil is added to the mixture from step two. Concentrate aronia extract water-in-oil microemulsion system is obtained by mixing, using an overhead mixer. The entire process is done at room temperature. This system can be diluted with any amount of edible vegetable or mineral oil or lipid-based systems provided the system does not contain substantial levels of emulsifier (s). Example 6—Elderberry Extract Water-in-Oil Microemulsion Concentrate Component Weight % Polyethyleneglycol monooleate - high HLB 5.89 Decaglycerol hexaoleate - medium HLB 5.89 Elderberry extract 29.41 Decaglycerol decaoleate - low HLB 58.82 Total 100.00 First, mix 29.41 g of elderberry extract (natural water-soluble colorants) and 5.89 g of polyethyleneglycol monooleate. Second, mix 58.82 g of decaglycerol tetraoleate with 5.89 g of decaglycerol hexaoleate in a separate container, then add to the mixture obtained above to form the concentrate. Canola oil is added to the mixture from step two to form the microemulsion by mixing using an overhead mixer. The entire process is done at room temperature. This system can be diluted with any amount of edible vegetable or mineral oil or lipid-based systems provided the system does not contain substantial levels of emulsifier (s). Example 7—Alpha-Tocopherol Oil-in-Water Microemulsion Concentrate Component Weight % Polysorbate 20 (TWEEN ®) - high HLB 85.00 Triglycerol monooleate - medium HLB 5.00 Alpha-tocopherol 6.67 Decaglycerol decaoleate - low HLB 3.33 Total 100.00 First, mix 6.67 g of alpha-tocopherol (vitamin E) and 3.33 g of decaglycerol decaoleate. Second, mix 5 g of triglycerol monooleate with 85 g of polysorbate 20 in a separate container, then add to the mixture obtained above. Concentrate alpha-tocopherol microemulsion (micellar) system is obtained by mixing, using an overhead mixer. The entire process is done at room temperature. This system can be diluted with any amount of water. Example 8—Vitamin E Acetate Oil-in-Water Microemulsion Concentrate Component Weight % Decaglycerol lauric acid ester - high HLB 89.26 Decaglycerol tetraoleate - medium HLB 1.65 Vitamin E acetate 7.44 Glyceryl monooleate - low HLB 1.65 Total 100.00 First, mix 7.44 g of vitamin E acetate and 1.65 g of glyceryl monooleate. Second, mix 1.65 g of decaglycerol tetraoleate with 89.26 g of decaglycerol lauric acid ester in a separate container, then add to the mixture obtained above. Concentrate vitamin E acetate microemulsion (micellar) system is obtained by mixing, using an overhead mixer. The entire process is done at room temperature. This system can be diluted with any amount of water. Example 9—Beverage with Vitamin E Microemulsion Component Weight % Water 86.67 Sucrose 6.00 Citric acid 1.00 Ascorbic acid 0.30 Apple juice 5.00 Pineapple juice 1.00 Vitamin E microemulsion 0.03 (e.g., see Example 8) Total 100.00 First, mix 6 g of sucrose, 1 g of citric acid and 0.3 g of ascorbic acid with 86.67 g of water. Second, add 5 g of apple juice, 1 g of pineapple juice and 0.3 g vitamin E microemulsion into the solution of step one, and mix until homogeneous using a stirrer or an overhead mixer. The entire process is done at room temperature. This system can then be passed through a thermal process, such as pasteurization or sterilization, to prevent microbial spoilage. Example 10—Beverage with Beta-Carotene Microemulsion Component Weight % Water 86.44 Sucrose 12.00 Citric acid 1.30 Ascorbic acid 0.20 Orange flavor 0.05 Beta-carotene microemulsion (e.g., see Example 1) 0.01 Total 100.00 First, mix 12 g of sucrose, 1.03 g of citric acid and 0.2 g of ascorbic acid with 86.44 g of water. Second, add 0.05 g of orange flavor and 0.01 g of beta-carotene emulsion into the solution formed in step one, and mix until homogeneous using a stirrer or an overhead mixer. The entire process is done at room temperature. This system can then be passed through a thermal process, such as pasteurization or sterilization, to prevent microbial spoilage. Example 11—Icing with Aronia Extract Natural Color Microemulsion Component Weight % Confectioners sugar 77.88 Canola oil 11.88 Water 9.11 Cream of tartar 0.77 Salt 0.45 Aronia extract microemulsion (e.g., see Example 5) 0.17 Total 100.00 First, mix 77.8 g of confectioners sugar, 0.77 g of cream of tartar and 0.45 g of salt with 9.11 g of water and 11.88 g of canola oil. Then add aronia extract microemulsion to the mixture formed in step one. Mix thoroughly until homogeneous. The entire process is done at room temperature. While this invention has been described with reference to certain specific embodiments, it will be recognized by those skilled in the art that many variations are possible without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention. Further, it will be understood that the present application is intended to cover all changes and modifications of the invention disclosed herein for the purposes of illustration which do not constitute departure from the spirit and scope of the invention.

Oil-in-water microemulsions which can be used to incorporate lipophilic water-insoluble materials, such as beta-carotene, into food and beverage compositions are disclosed. The microemulsions utilize a ternary food grade emulsifier system which incorporates a low HLB emulsifier, a medium HLB emulsifier, and a high HLB emulsifier. The microemulsions of the present invention allow for the incorporating of water-insoluble materials in an effective and easy-to-process manner while providing formulational flexibility and without significantly affecting the taste of the underlying food or beverage product. Food and beverage products including the microemulsions are also disclosed. Finally, the method of preparing the microemulsions is described. The invention also encompasses water-in-oil microemulsions for use in incorporating water-soluble materials into food and beverage products. Finally, the invention encompasses concentrate compositions used for making those microemulsions.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an autotensioner which is used to apply appropriate tension to the timing belt of an automotive engine or to a belt for driving auxiliary machinery, for example, an alternator, compressor, etc. 2. Description of the Prior Art To drive a cam shaft of an OHC or DOHC type engine to rotate synchronously with the crankshaft, a drive mechanism that employs a timing belt 1, such as that shown in FIG. 14, is widely used. In FIG. 14, reference numeral 2 denotes a driving pulley that is driven to rotate by the crankshaft of an engine, 3 a driven pulley that is secured to an end portion of a cam shaft, and 4 a tension pulley for applying appropriate tension to the timing belt 1. The tension pulley 4 is, as shown in the enlarged view of FIG. 15, rotatably supported by a portion of a pivoting member 6 that pivots about a fixed shaft 5, the portion being eccentric with respect to the fixed shaft 5. A tension spring 8 is connected at one end thereof to the distal end portion of an arm piece 7 that is secured at its proximal end to the pivoting member 6, thereby applying resilient force to the pivoting member 6 in a direction in which the tension pulley 4 is resiliently pressed against the timing belt 1, and thus maintaining the tension in the timing belt 1 at a constant level irrespective of a change in the size of the timing belt 1 caused by a temperature change, for example, or oscillations of the belt 1 caused by the operation of the engine. This machanism is generally known as autotensioner. The conventional autotensioner, however, involves the following problems. When the driving pulley 2 in the arrangement shown in FIGS. 14 and 15 rotates counterclockwise, as shown by an arrow a in FIG. 14, the left half of the timing belt 1 tends to become taut, while the right half tends to become slack. The autotensioner, which includes the tension pulley 4, is provided at the right half of the timing belt 1, that is, the portion of the belt 1 which tends to become slack. However, when the engine comes to a stop, it is likely to momentarily rotate in the reverse direction. During this moment, the right half of the timing belt 1 tends to become taut. If the tension pulley 4 directly follows the movement of the timing belt 1 when such a sudden change in tension occurs, a large amount of slack momentarily occurs in the timing belt 1. In an extreme case, the slack in the timing belt 1 causes an undesired shift in the mesh between the belt 1 and the toothed pulleys (driving and driven pulleys 2 and 3), resulting in a difference in the phase of rotation between the engine crankshaft and the cam shaft. To solve this problem, damper resistance that occurs between the fixed shaft 5 and the pivoting member 6 may be utilized in such a manner that the tension pulley 4 will not immediately follow a sudden change in the tension. In such a case, however, when the tension pulley 4 is rotating in a normal state (i.e., tension variations are small), it may be unable to follow fine oscillations of the timing belt 1. Thus, this arrangement may cause oscillations of the timing belt 1. Under these circumstances, Japanese Patent Public Disclosure (KOKAI) No. 63-167163 discloses an invention wherein an oil damper mechanism and a roller-type one-way clutch are provided around the fixed shaft 5 so that the tension pulley 4 immediately follows the movement of the belt 1 only when the belt 1 becomes slack. The disclosed invention suffers, however, from a lack of durability due to the following reasons: it is difficult to lubricate the roller type one-way clutch; fretting corrosion is likely to occur due to the type of structure; and the tension in the belt is supported by a roller. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is an object of the present invention to provide an autotensioner which is free from the above-described problems of the prior art. The autotensioner of the present invention has a fixed shaft, a pivoting member which is rotatably supported around the fixed shaft, at least the proximal portion of the member having a cylindrical configuration, a pulley which is rotatably supported around a pivot shaft that is a part of the pivoting member, the pivot shaft being parallel to the fixed shaft, and a spring which presses the pulley against a member to which tension is to be applied, in the same way as in the conventional autotensioner stated above. The autotensioner of the present invention further has an annular space which is provided between the outer peripheral surface of the fixed shaft and the inner peripheral surface of the pivoting member, the space being filled with a viscous fluid, a first partition wall which is formed on a part of the outer peripheral surface of the fixed shaft, the partition wall having its outer peripheral edge in close proximity to the inner peripheral surface of the pivoting member to partition the annular space circumferentially, and a second partition wall which is formed on a part of the inner peripheral surface of the pivoting member, the second partition wall having its inner peripheral edge in close proximity to the outer peripheral surface of the fixed shaft to partition the annular space circumferentially, thus the second partition wall being moved within the viscous fluid that fills the annular space. According to a first aspect of the present invention, which corresponds to the appended claim 1, the above-described autotensioner has a passage which is provided circumferentially in at least either one of the first and second partition walls, and a check valve which is provided in the intermediate part of the passage, the check valve being arranged to open the passage only when the pulley is moved by the resilient force of the spring. According to a second aspect of the present invention, which corresponds to the appended claim 3, the above-described autotensioner has a passage which is defined by a space that is formed by separating at least either one of the outer peripheral edge of the first partition wall and the inner peripheral edge of the second partition wall from a peripheral surface that faces the peripheral edge concerned, and a check valve which is provided in the intermediate part of this passage, the check valve being arranged to open the passage only when the pulley is moved by the resilient force of the spring. The autotensioner of the present invention, arranged as described above, functions as follows. When the tension in a belt, to which appropriate tension is to be applied by the autotensioner, is suddenly increased at a part thereof which is pressed by the pulley that is supported on the pivoting member through the pivot shaft, the pivoting member is caused to pivot suddenly against the resilient force of the spring and consequently the second partition wall that is formed on the inner peripheral surface of the pivoting member is caused to move within the viscous fluid that fills the annular space. However, when the pulley is caused to move against the resilient force of the spring in this way, the check valve, which is provided in the intermediate part of the passage that is provided in at least either one of the first and second partition walls (in the case of the appended claim 1) or the passage that is formed in between either one of the outer peripheral edge of the first partition wall and the inner peripheral edge of the second partition wall and a peripheral surface that faces the peripheral edge concerned (in the case of the appended claim 3), is left closed. Accordingly, strong resistance acts on the second partition wall when moving within the viscous fluid that fills the annular space, so that the pivoting member is only allowed to move slowly and effectively, thus enabling the pulley to follow slowly and effectively the movement of the belt in which the tension is increased suddenly. Thus, the other part of the belt is prevented from becoming excessively slack. Conversely, when a part of the belt which is pressed by the pulley suddenly becomes slack, the check valve that is provided in the passage opens, so that resistance to the second partition wall that moves within the viscous fluid decreases. Accordingly, the pivoting member is allowed to pivot rapidly by the resilient force of the spring, thus enabling the pulley to follow the slack in the belt. In short, the autotensioner of the present invention acts in such a manner that, when a part of the belt that is in contact with the pulley becomes tense, the pulley slowly and effectively follows the movement of the belt, whereas, when that part of the belt becomes slack, the pulley rapidly follows the movement of the belt, thus preventing, in either case, occurrence of excessive slack in any part of the belt. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIGS. 1 to 5 show in combination a first embodiment of the present invention, in which: FIG. 1 is a sectional view showing the whole structure of the embodiment; FIG. 2 is a sectional view taken along the line A--A in FIG. 1; FIG. 3 shows only a pivoting member as viewed from the right-hand side of FIG. 1; and FIGS. 4 and 5 are enlarged views of the part B of FIG. 2, FIG. 4 showing the behavior of a check valve when a belt becomes slack, and FIG. 5 showing the behavior of the check valve when the belt becomes taut. FIGS. 6 to 9 show in combination a second embodiment of the present invention, in which: FIG. 6 is a sectional view showing the whole structure of the embodiment; FIG. 7 is a sectional view taken along the line C--C in FIG. 6; and FIGS. 8 and 9 are enlarged views of the part D of FIG. 7, FIG. 8 showing the behavior of the check valve when the belt becomes slack, and FIG. 9 showing the behavior of the check valve when the belt becomes taut. FIGS. 10 to 13 show in combination a third embodiment of the present invention, in which: FIG. 10 is a view corresponding to a sectional view taken along the line C--C in FIG. 6; FIG. 11 is an exploded perspective view of a check valve that is employed in the third embodiment; and FIGS. 12 and 18 are enlarged views of the part E of FIG. 10, FIG. 12 showing the behavior of the check valve when the belt becomes slack, and FIG. 13 showing the behavior of the check valve when the belt becomes taut. FIG. 14 is a front view of a timing belt driving mechanism of an engine, which is provided with an autotensioner; and FIG. 15 is a front view showing one example of conventional autotensioners, which is incorporated in the timing belt driving mechanism shown in FIG. 14. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The present invention will be described below in more detail by way of embodiments and with reference to the accompanying drawings. FIGS. 1 to 5 show in combination a first embodiment of the present invention, in which: FIG. 1 is a sectional view showing the whole structure of the embodiment; FIG. 2 is a sectional view taken along the line A--A in FIG. 1; FIG. 3 shows only a pivoting member as viewed from the right-hand side of FIG. 1; and FIGS. 4 and 5 are enlarged views of the part B of FIG. 2, FIG. 4 showing the behavior of a check valve when a belt becomes slack, and FIG. 5 showing the behavior of the check valve when the belt becomes taut. Reference numeral 9 denotes a fixed shaft which is in the form of a cylinder that has a flange portion 9a which is formed along the outer peripheral surface of a portion which is closer to the proximal end (the right end as viewed in FIG. 1). When the autotensioner is to be used, the fixed shaft 9 is secured by means of a bolt 10 to the front side of the cylinder block of an engine (in the case where the autotensioner is designed for a timing belt). Reference numeral 11 denotes a pivoting member which comprises a short cylindrical proximal portion 12 which fits on the flange portion 9a, and a pivot portion 13 which projects from the outer end face (the left end face as viewed in FIG. 1) of the proximal portion 12, the pivot portion 13 being eccentric with respect to the proximal portion 12. A pulley 14 is rotatably supported around the pivot portion 13 through a rolling bearing 36. The pivot portion 13 is fitted on the distal end portion of the fixed shaft 9 through a sliding bearing 16. Reference numeral 15 denotes a torsion coil spring for application of resilient force to pivot the pivoting member 11. One end of the spring 15 is retained by a proximal end portion of the fixed shaft 9 which projects from the flange portion 9a, while the other end of the spring 15 is retained by the proximal end portion of the pivoting member 11. In consequence, the pivoting member 11 is caused to pivot about the pivot portion 13 by the resilient force of the torsion coil spring 15, and the pulley 14 that is supported around the pivoting member 11 is movable in response to the pivotal motion of the member 11 by an amount corresponding to the eccentricity of the pivot portion 13 with respect to the fixed shaft 9. The above-described arrangement is the same as that of autotensioners which have heretofore been known. In the autotensioner of the present invention, which is shown in FIGS. 1 to 5, however, an annular space 17 is provided between the outer peripheral surface of the fixed shaft 9 and the inner peripheral surface of the pivoting member 11, and the space 17 is filled with a viscous fluid, for example, oil. More specifically, a sealing member 18 is provided between the outer peripheral edge of the flange portion 9a and the inner peripheral surface of the proximal portion 12 of the pivoting member 11, and another sealing member 18 is provided between the inner peripheral surface of the proximal end portion of the pivot portion 13 and the outer peripheral surface of the intermediate portion of the fixed shaft 9, thereby preventing leakage of the viscous fluid that fills the annular space 17, which is present between the two sealing members 18. A first partition wall 19 is formed on the outer peripheral surface of a part of the fixed shaft 9 that is located between the flange portion 9a and the inner side surface 13a of the pivot portion 13. The outer peripheral edge of the first partition wall 19 is in close proximity to the inner peripheral surface of the pivoting member 11, and two side edges of the first partition wall 19 are in close proximity to the flange portion 9a and the inner side surface 13a, respectively. As a result, the annular space 17 is circumferentially partitioned by the first partition wall 19 (FIG. 2). A second partition wall 20 is formed on the inner peripheral surface of a part of the pivoting member 11 that is located between the flange portion 9a and the inner side surface 13a of the pivot portion 13. The inner peripheral edge of the second partition wall 20 is in close proximity to the outer peripheral surface of the fixed shaft 9, and two side edges of the second partition wall 20 are in close proximity to the flange portion 9a and the inner side surface 13a, respectively. As a result, the annular space 17 is also circumferentially partitioned by the second partition wall 20 (FIG. 2). The second partition wall 20, which is formed on the inner peripheral surface of the pivoting member 11, is movable within the viscous fluid that fills the annular space 17. Of the first and second partition walls 19 and 20 that partition the annular space 17 circumferentially, the first partition wall 19, which is formed on the outer peripheral surface of the fixed shaft 9, is provided with a passage 21, which extends circumferentially (perpendicularly to the plane of FIG. 1; horizontally as viewed in FIG. 2). A valve seat 22, which has an inward flange-like configuration, is formed along the inner peripheral edge of the opening of the passage 21, and a ball 23 is loosely fitted in the passage 21, the ball 23 having an outer diameter that is greater than the inner diameter of the valve seat 22. The ball 23 is resiliently pressed toward the valve seat 22 by means of a compression spring 25 which is provided between the ball 23 and a step 24 that is formed on the inner peripheral surface of the intermediate part of the passage 21. In consequence, the ball 23 and the valve seat 22 comprise a check valve 26 which allows the viscous fluid to flow only in one direction (from the right to the left as viewed in FIGS. 2, 4 and 5) within the passage 21. It should be noted that the torsion coil spring 15 has a pretorqued resilient force which causes the pivoting member 11 to pivot clockwise as viewed in FIG. 2, and the check valve 26 therefore opens the passage 21 only when the pivoting member 11, which supports the pulley 14, is moved counter to the resilient force of the torsion coil spring 15 (i.e., clockwise as viewed in FIG. 3). The autotensioner of the present invention, which is arranged as described above, is used in a state where the pulley 14 is brought into contact with a belt to which appropriate tension is to be applied and this pulley 14 is pressed against the belt by the resilient force of the torsion coil spring 15. When, in such a used state, the tension in a part of the timing belt that is pressed by the pulley 14 increases suddenly due to the engine stopping, for example, the pivoting member 11 that supports the pulley 14 at the distal end thereof is caused to pivot suddenly clockwise as viewed in FIG. 2 (i.e., counterclockwise as viewed in FIG. 3) against the resilient force of the torsion coil spring 15. If, in such a case, the movement of the pulley 14 is allowed as it is, the other part of the belt would become excessively slack, causing problems such as an undesired shift in the mesh between the belt and the toothed pulleys (driving and driven pulleys), as described above. To solve such problems, the autotensioner of the present invention is designed to function as follows. When the pivoting member 11 is caused to pivot clockwise as viewed in FIG. 2 by a sudden increase in the tension applied to the belt, the second partition wall 20 that is formed on the inner peripheral surface of the pivoting member 11 is forced to move clockwise as viewed in FIG. 2 within the viscous fluid that fills the annular space 17, causing an increase in the pressure of the viscous fluid at the front side of the second partition wall 20 as viewed in the direction of movement thereof. As a result, the viscous fluid in the annular space 17 is caused to flow clockwise as viewed in FIG. 2. However, when the pivoting member 11, which supports the pulley 14, moves against the resilient force of the torsion coil spring 15 in this way, the direction of the pressure that is applied to the ball 23 coincides with the direction in which the ball 23 is pressed by the compression spring 25, which is incorporated in the check valve 26 that is provided in the intermediate part of the passage 21 in the first partition wall 19. Accordingly, the check valve 26 is left closed, as shown in FIG. 5, so that strong resistance acts on the second partition wall 20 when moving within the viscous fluid in the annular space 17. Thus, the pivoting member 11 is only allowed to move slowly and effectively. Accordingly, the pulley 14 is enabled to follow slowly and effectively the movement of the belt in which the tension is suddenly increased, thus preventing the other part of the belt from becoming excessively slack. Conversely, when a part of the timing belt that is pressed by the pulley 14 suddenly becomes slack, the pivoting member 11 that supports the pulley 14 is caused to pivot counterclockwise as viewed in FIG. 2 (i.e., clockwise as viewed in FIG. 3). In consequence, the second partition wall 20 that is formed on the inner peripheral surface of the pivoting member 11 is forced to move counterclockwise as viewed in FIG. 2 within the viscous fluid that fills the annular space 17. As a result, the viscous fluid in the annular space 17 is caused to flow counterclockwise as viewed in FIG. 2. Thus, when the pivoting member 11, which supports the pulley 14, is caused to move by the resilient force of the torsion coil spring 15, the direction of the pressure that is applied to the ball 23 is counter to the direction in which the ball 23 is pressed by the compression spring 25, which is incorporated in the check valve 26 that is provided in the intermediate part of the passage 21 in the first partition wall 19. Accordingly, the check valve 26 is opened, as shown in FIG. 4, so that resistance to the movement of the second partition wall 20 within the viscous fluid in the annular space 17 decreases, thus enabling the pivoting member 11 to move rapidly. As a result, the pivoting member 11 is rapidly pivoted by the resilient force of the torsion coil spring 15 to enable the pulley 14 to follow the slack in the belt. Thus, in the case where the autotensioner of the present invention is used to apply tension to the belt 14, when a part of the belt that is contacted by the pulley 14 becomes tense, that is, when the pivoting member 11 pivots clockwise as viewed in FIG. 2, the pulley 14 slowly and effectively follows the movement of the belt in which the tension is increased, whereas, when the belt becomes slack, that is, when the pivoting member 11 pivots counterclockwise as viewed in FIG. 2, the pulley 14 rapidly follows the belt, thereby preventing occurrence of excessive slack in any part of the belt. Although in the illustrated embodiment the passage 21 and the check valve 26 are provided in the first partition wall 19, these elements may be provided in the second partition wall 20 and may also be provided in both the first and second partition walls 19 and 20. However, in any case, the check valve 26 must be provided such that it opens the passage 21 only when the pivoting member 11 that supports the pulley 14 is moved by the resilient force of the torsion coil spring 15. The structure of the check valve 26 is not necessarily limitative to a ball valve such as that illustrated in the figures. It is also possible to adopt other known structures, for example, a reed valve. A second embodiment of the present invention, which corresponds to the appended Claims 3 and 4, will next be explained. FIGS. 6 to 9 show in combination a second embodiment of the present invention, in which: FIG. 6 is a sectional view showing the whole structure of the embodiment; FIG. 7 is a sectional view taken along the line C--C in FIG. 6; and FIGS. 8 and 9 are enlarged views of the part D of FIG. 7, FIG. 8 showing the behavior of the check valve when the belt becomes slack, and FIG. 9 showing the behavior of the check valve when the belt becomes taut. In this embodiment, the outer peripheral edge of the first partition wall 19 that is formed on the outer peripheral surface of the fixed shaft 9 is designed to separate from the inner peripheral surface of the pivoting member 11, thereby defining a passage 27 between the outer peripheral edge and the inner peripheral surface, and a check valve 28 is provided in the intermediate part of the passage 27, which is adapted to open the passage 27 only when the pivoting member 11 that supports the pulley 14 is moved by the resilient force of the torsion coil spring 15. More specifically, the check valve 28 comprises a roller 30 which is loosely fitted in a recess 29 that is formed in the outer peripheral edge of the first partition wall 19, the depth of the recess 29 being continuously varied circumferentially, and a compression spring 31 which is provided between the roller 30 and the inner side surface of the recess 29 to press the roller 30 toward the shallower side of the recess 29. In this embodiment, when the pivoting member 11, which supports pulley 14, pivots clockwise as viewed in FIG. 7 in response to a sudden increase in the tension in the belt, the check valve 28 closes the passage 27, as shown in FIG. 9, thereby preventing the pivoting member 11 from moving rapidly, and thus enabling the pulley 14 to follow slowly and effectively the movement of the belt in which tension is suddenly increased. Conversely, when the belt becomes slack, the check valve 28 opens the passage 27, as shown in FIG. 8, so that no great resistance will act on the pivotal movement of the pivoting member 11, thereby enabling the pulley 14 to follow rapidly the movement of the belt. Since the other arrangements and functions are the same as those in the above-described first embodiment, including the configuration (see FIG. 3) of the second partition wall 20 that is formed on the pivoting member 11, the same elements or portions are denoted by the same reference numerals, and repeated description thereof is omitted. A third embodiment of the present invention, which corresponds to the appended Claims 3 and 5, will next be explained. FIGS. 10 to 13 show in combination a third embodiment of the present invention, in which: FIG. 10 is a view corresponding to a sectional view taken along the line C--C in FIG. 6; FIG. 11 is an exploded perspective view of a check valve that is employed in the third embodiment; and FIGS. 12 and 13 are enlarged views of the part E of FIG. 10, FIG. 12 showing the behavior of the check valve when the belt becomes slack, and FIG. 13 showing the behavior of the check valve when the belt becomes taut. In this embodiment, the outer peripheral edge of the first partition wall 19 that is formed on the outer peripheral surface of the fixed shaft 9 is designed to separate from the inner peripheral surface of the pivoting member 11, thereby defining a passage 27 between the outer peripheral edge and the inner peripheral surface, and a check valve 32 is provided in the intermediate part of the passage 27, which is adapted to open the passage 27 only when the pivoting member 11 that supports the pulley 14 is moved by the resilient force of the torsion coil spring 15, in the same way as in the second embodiment. The check valve 32 in this embodiment is, however, comprised of a plate-shaped flapper 33 which is pivotally supported at its inner end portion through a pivot shaft 34 that is attached to the outer peripheral edge portion of the first partition wall 19. The outward pivotal movement of the flapper 33 is limited by the abutment between one side of the flapper 33 and the outer peripheral edge of the first partition wall 19. More specifically, this embodiment has a stopper mechanism wherein, when the flapper 33 pivots outwardly about the pivot shaft 34 until the outer peripheral edge of the flapper 33 comes into close proximity to the inner peripheral surface of the pivoting member 11, one side of the flapper 33 abuts against the outer peripheral edge of the first partition wall 19, as described above, thereby preventing the flapper 33 from pivoting any further. In addition, a torsion spring 35 is provided between the flapper 33 and the first partition wall 19 to cause the flapper 33 to pivot in a direction in which the outer peripheral edge of the flapper 33 comes into close proximity to the inner peripheral surface of the pivoting member 11. The operation of this embodiment is similar to that of the second embodiment. That is, when the pivoting member 11, which supports pulley 14, pivots clockwise as viewed in FIG. 10 in response to a sudden increase in the level of tension in the belt, the check valve 32 closes the passage 27, as shown in FIG. 13, thereby preventing the pivoting member 11 from moving rapidly, and thus enabling the pulley 14 to follow slowly and effectively the movement of the belt in which the tension is suddenly increased. Conversely, when the belt becomes slack, the check valve 32 opens the passage 27, as shown in FIG. 12, so that no great resistance will act on the pivotal movement of the pivoting member 11, thereby enabling the pulley 14 to follow rapidly the movement of the belt. Although in the second and third embodiments the passage 27 and the check valve 28 (32) are provided in between the outer peripheral surface of the first partition wall 19 and the inner peripheral surface of the pivoting member 11, these elements may be provided in between the inner peripheral edge of the second partition wall 20 and the outer peripheral surface of the fixed shaft 9 and may also be provided both in the area between the outer peripheral surface of the first partition wall 19 and the inner peripheral surface of the pivoting member 11 and in the area between the inner peripheral edge of the second partition wall 20 and the outer peripheral surface of the fixed shaft 9. However, in any case, the check valve 28 (32) must be provided such that it opens the passage 27 only when the pivoting member 11 that supports the pulley 14 is moved by the resilient force of the torsion coil spring 15 (i.e., when the pivoting member 11 moves clockwise, as viewed in FIG. 10). Although in each of the foregoing embodiments the distal end portion of the pivoting member 11 is arranged to be eccentric with respect to the fixed shaft 9 to define the pivot portion 13 and the pulley 14 is supported on the pivot shaft 13, the stroke of the pulley 14 can also be ensured by an arrangement wherein a pivoting arm is provided on the outer peripheral surface of the pivoting member 11 and the pulley 14 is supported through a pivot shaft that is provided at the distal end of this pivoting arm. The autotensioner of the present invention, arranged as detailed above, has a structure which is easy to lubricate and free from fretting corrosion and which is therefore superior in terms of both durability and reliability, and yet enables the tension in the belt to be constantly maintained at an optimal level and thereby prevents the occurrence of problems such as an undesired shift in the mesh between the belt and the toothed pulleys (driving and driven pulleys). Although the present invention has been described through specific terms, it should be noted that the described embodiments are not necessarily exclusive and that various changes and modifications may be imparted thereto without departing from the scope of the invention which is limited solely by the appended claims.

An autotensioner which is designed to apply appropriate tension to a timing belt of an engine or a belt that drives auxiliary machinery, for example, an alternator, compressor, etc. The autotensioner has an annular space that is partitioned into two chambers by a first partition wall which is provided on a fixed member and a second partition wall which is provided on a pivoting member, the annular space being filled with a viscous fluid. The first partition wall is formed with a passage which provides communication between the two chambers, and a check valve is provided in the passage. The check valve closes the passage when the tension in the belt increases suddenly, to resist the pivotal movement of the tensioner in one rotational direction, thereby enabling the tensioner to follow slowly and effectively the movement of the belt in which the tension is suddenly increased. The check valve opens the passage when the portion of the belt engaged by the tensioner becomes slack, thereby decreasing the resistance to movement of the second partition wall within the viscous fluid, thus enabling the tensioner to move rapidly in a rotational direction opposite the direction of movement of the tensioner when the tension in the belt increases.