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Trelis 83

This is a division of application Ser. No. 866,996, filed May 19, 1986, now U.S. Pat. No. 4,758,594 which was a continuation of application Ser. No. 632,143 filed on July 18, 1984 and abandoned. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The invention sought to be patented in its chemical compound aspect is A compound having the structural formula I, II or III wherein: ##STR1## T is straight or branched chain alkyl having from 7-15 carbon atoms which may optionally contain from 1-3 noncumulative double or triple bonds; U is --CH 2 CH 2 --, --CH═CH-- or --C.tbd.C--; V is straight or branched chain alkylene having from 1 to 4 carbon atoms or is a direct bond; W and W 1 may be the same or different and are O or S(O) m [wherein m is 0, 1 or 2]; X and X 1 may be the same or different and are straight or branched chain alkylene having from 2 to 12 carbon atoms which may optionally contain from 1 to 3 non-cumulative double or triple bonds and which may be optionally substituted with the group - NHR a [wherein R a is hydrogen, alkyl having from 1 to 6 carbon atoms, COCF 3 , CO(CH 2 ) 2 CH(NH 2 )CO 2 H, or SO 2 R b (wherein R b is alkyl having from 1 to 6 carbon atoms or CF 3 )]; R 1 is hydrogen or straight or branched chain alkyl having from 1-6 carbon atoms; R 2 and R 3 may be the same or different and are CH 2 OR c [wherein R c is hydrogen, carboxylic acyl having from 1 to 6 carbon atoms, tetrahydropyran-2-yl or COCH 2 CH 2 CO 2 H], CHO, 2-tetrazolyl, COR d [wherein R d is hydroxy, alkoxy having from 1 to 6 carbon atoms, OCH 2 OC(O)C(CH 3 ) 3 , NHR e (wherein R e is hydrogen, alkyl having from 1 to 6 carbon atoms or CH 2 CO 2 H)] or SO 3 H, with the proviso that at least one of R 2 and R 3 is 2-tetrazolyl or carboxyl; ##STR2## T, U, V, W, X, R 2 and R 3 are defined above; Y is straight or branched chain alkylene having from 1 to 12 carbon atoms which may optionally be substituted with the group OR c [wherein R c is defined above] and may optionally contain from 1 to 3 non-cumulative double or triple bonds; ##STR3## T, U, V, R 2 and R 3 are defined above; Z and Z 1 may be the same or different and are straight or branched chain alkylene having from 1 to 12 carbon atoms which may optionally contain from 1 to 3 non-cumulative double or triple bonds; R 4 is hydrogen, hydroxyl, or is combined with Z to form a double bond as indicated by the dashed line "a" or a cyclopropyl ring as indicated by the dashed lines "b". Preferred values for the above-defined substituents are as follows: T is straight chain alkyl having 7-15 carbon atoms; U is --C.tbd.C--; V is a direct bond; W is O or S; W 1 is O or S; X is alkyl having from 2 to 8, more preferably 2 to 6 carbon atoms; X 1 is alkyl having from 2 to 8, more preferably 2 to 6 carbon atoms; R 1 is hydrogen; R 2 is carboxyl; R 3 is carboxyl; Y is alkyl having from 2 to 6 carbon atoms; Z is alkyl having from 2 to 6 carbon atoms; Z 1 is alkyl having from 2 to 6 carbon atoms; Z 1 is alkyl having from 2 to 6 carbon atoms; R 4 is hydrogen hydroxyl or is combined with Z to form a double bond. A preferred subgenus of compounds is a compound having structural formula I, II or III wherein the substituents T--U--V-- are combined to form the n-1-tetradecyn-1-yl group, i.e. n-C 12 H 25 C.tbd.C--. An additional preferred subgenus of compounds is a compound having structural formula I, II or III wherein the substitutents R 2 and R 3 may be the same or different and are COR d wherein R d is defined above. Preferred species of the invention are those having the following names: butanoic acid, 4,4'-[pentadecynylidenebis(oxy)]bis-; hexanoic acid, 6,6'-[pentadecynylidenebis(oxy)]bis-; (±)-pentanoic acid, 4,4'-[pentadecynylidenebis(oxy)]bis-; (±)-heptanoic acid, 6,6'-[2-pentadecynylidenebis(oxy)]bis-; butanoic acid, 4-[[1-(4-hydroxybutoxy)-2-pentadecynyl]oxy]-; butanoic acid, 4,4'-[2-pentadecynylidenebis(thio)]bis-; hexanoic acid, 6,6'-[2-pentadecynylidenebis(thio)]bis-; butanoic acid, 4,4'-[tridecylidenebis(oxy)]bis-; butanoic acid, 4,4'-[pentadecylidenebis(oxy)]bis-; (±)-hexanoic acid, 5,5'-[2-pentadecynylidenebis(oxy)]bis-; (±)-6-[(2-carboxyethyl)thio]-7-eicosynoic acid; (±)-6-[(3-carboxypropyl)thio]-7-eicosynoic acid; (+) and (-)-6-[(5-carboxypentyl)thio]-7-eicosynoic acid; (±)-6-[(5-carboxypentyl)oxy]-7-eicosynoic acid; potassium 6-[[2-(trifluoroacetyl)amino]ethyl]thio]-7-eicosynoate; (±)-6-[(2-amino-3-hydroxy-3-oxopropyl)thio]-7-eicosynoic acid, dipotassium salt; (±)-6-[[2-carboxy-2-[(trifluoroacetyl)amino]ethyl]thio]-7-eicosynoic acid; 6-hydroxy-6-(1-tetradecynyl)undecanedioic acid; 6-(1-tetradecynyl)undecanedioic acid; 6-(1-tetradecynyl)undec-5(E) and (Z)ene dioic acids; (±)-pentanoic acid, 4,4'-[2-pentadecynylidenebis(thio)]bis-; 6-tetradecyl-6-hydroxy-undecanedioic acid; 2-butynoic acid, 4,4'-[2-pentadecynylidenebis(oxy)]bis-; methane sulfonamide, N,N'-[2-pentadecynylidenebis[oxy(5-methyl-5,1-hexanediyl)]]bis-; and hexanoic acid, 5-[[1-[(5-amino-1-methyl-5-oxopentyl)oxy]-2-pentadecynyl]oxy]. The invention sought to be patented in its pharmaceutical composition aspect is a composition which comprises a compound having the structural formula I, II or III in combination with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. The invention sought to be patented in its first pharmaceutical method aspect is a method for treating allergic reactions in a mammal, which comprises administering the above-defined composition to said mammal. The invention sought to be patented in its second pharmaceutical method aspect is a method for treating inflammation in a mammal, which comprises administering the above-defined composition to said mammal. The invention sought to be patented in its third pharmaceutical method aspect is a method for reducing the severity of myocardial infarction resulting from heart attack in a mammal, which comprises administering the above-defined composition to said mammal. DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The compounds of the invention having structural formula I may be prepared by reacting a compound having structural formula X with a compound having the structural formula XI, T--U--V--CR.sup.1 (OR').sub.2 X HWXR.sup.2 XI wherein T, U, V, W, X, R 1 and R 2 are as defined herein and R' is any convenient alkyl group, preferably ethyl. The carbonyl compound which corresponds to compound X, i.e., T--U--V--COR 1 , may optionally be utilized in this reaction in place of compound X. This reaction is preferably carried out under conditions whereby the reaction-produced alcohol, R'OH, or water is continuously removed as it is formed. This continuous removal may be accomplished by azeotropic distillation using a solvent such as benzene or toluene. The reaction proceeds best when catalyzed by acid, e.g. p-toluenesulfonic acid may be utilized; When an excess (i.e. 2 equivalents or more) of reactant XI is utilized, compounds having structural formula I wherein --W--X--R 2 and --W 1 --X 1 --R 3 are equivalent will be produced. When compounds having structural formula I wherein --W--X--R 2 and --W 1 --X 1 --R 3 are different are desired, the reaction may be accomplished in two separate steps utilizing one equivalent of the desired reactant, XI, in each step. In an additional method, a compound having structural formula I where W and W 1 are both oxygen may be treated with one equivalent of a compound having structural formula XI wherein W is sulfur to thereby displace either the W--X--R 2 or the W 1 --X 1 --R 3 substituent. For purposes of this procedure, the W--X--R 2 and W 1 --X 1 --R 3 substituents of starting compound I should ideally be equivalent. This procedure is conveniently carried out using an acid catalyst such as boron trifluoride. Compounds having structural formula I wherein W and W 1 are sulfur may be oxidized to the corresponding sulfoxide or sulfone by known procedures. Compounds having structural formula II may be prepared from a compound having formula XII, wherein T, U, V, Y and R 3 are defined above. T--U--V--CH(OH)YR.sup.3 XII Compounds having structural formula II wherein W is sulfur may be prepared by first converting the hydroxyl substituent of compound XII to a more readily displacable substituent, e.g. the methane sulfonic acid ester, XIII, T--U--V--CH(OSO.sub.2 CH.sub.3)YR.sup.3 XIII or to the corresponding bromo or an activated phosphorous substituent. The conversion of XII to XIII may be carried out by treating XII with methane sulfonyl chloride under standard conditions. Compound XIII may then be treated with a compound having structural formula XIV. HS--X--R.sup.2 XIV using known conditions to produce the desired compounds having structural formmula II wherein W is sulfur. The sulfur atom may thereafter be oxidized to the corresponding sulfoxide or sulfone by known procedures if desired. Compounds having structural formula II wherein W is oxygen may be prepared from compound XIII in a similar manner by using the alcohol XV HO--X--R.sup.2 XV Alternatively, compound XII may be converted to compound II wherein W is oxygen by direct alkylation on the hydroxyl oxygen atom. Thus, for example, XII may be treated with a base such as sodium hydride to form the corresponding sodium salt of the alcohol, XVI. T--U--V--CH(ONa)YR.sup.3 XVI This salt may next be treated with a halide compound, for example, an iodo compound such as IXR 2 to produce the compounds having structural formula II wherein W is oxygen. Compounds having structural formula III may be prepared by reacting an anion derived from a compound having structural formula XVII, T--U--V--H XVII i.e. compound XVIII T--U--V.sup.- M.sup.+ XVIII wherein M + is a metal cation such as the lithium cation, or an equivalent complex metal cation, e.g. MgBr + with a carbonyl compound having structural formula XIX ##STR4## using known procedures. This reaction will produce compounds having structural formula III wherein R 4 is a hydroxyl group. This tertiary alcohol function may thereafter be converted to other R 4 substituents by known methods if desired. For example, treatment of the tertiary alcohol with diethylaminosulfur trifluoride will produce the corresponding compound wherein R 4 is fluorine. The tertiary alcohol may be dehydrated to produce a compound wherein R 4 and Z are combined to form a double bond, i.e. a compound having structural formula III wherein the dashed line "a" indicates a double bond. This double bond compound may be reduced to produce the compounds wherein R 4 is hydrogen, or it may be reacted with methylene carbene to produce the corresponding cyclopropyl compounds, i.e. a compound having structural formula III wherein the dashed lines "b" indicate the completion of a cyclopropyl ring. In certain of the above-described reactions certain substituents may have to be protected in order to avoid unwanted reactions. Thus, for example, certain of the R 2 and R 3 substituents may be protected by art recognized methods. In addition, certain of the groups, R 2 and R 3 may be modified, if desired, by known procedures. Thus, for example, a compound wherein R 2 is CH 2 OH may be converted to a compound wherein R 2 is CO 2 H by oxidation or to a compound wherein R 2 is CH 2 OCOCH 3 by acylation. For purposes of completeness, the following abbreviated reaction sequence is utilized to exemplify a process for performing selective reactions where multiple sites of unsaturation are present. Other such sequences are known in the art. ##STR5## In the above abbreviated reaction sequence, THP indicates the 2-tetrahydropyranyl radical. Double bonds can be regiospecifically included or excluded by proper choice of carbon to carbon bond forming reactions and reagents which will be known to those skilled in the art. The above-described starting materials are either known compounds or preparable from known compounds by art-recognized methods. Thus, compound X is an acetal or ketal, which compounds are preparable from the corresponding aldehyde or ketone by well known methods. In an alternate method, a compound such as XX may be reacted with an orthoester such as ethyl orthoacetate by known methods to produce the acetal XXI. ##STR6## Compounds having structural formula XII are secondary alcohols which may be prepared, for example, by the reaction of a Grignard reagent such as XXII with an aldehyde such as XXIII. T--U--V--MgBr XXII OHCYR.sup.3 XXIII Known equivalent reactants to XXII such as lithium reagents, e.g. XXIV, may also be utilized. C.sub.12 H.sub.25 C.tbd.CLi XXIV Certain compounds of the invention form pharmaceutically acceptable salts with any of a variety of inorganic and organic bases. Suitable bases for purposes of the invention, are those which form pharmaceutically-acceptable salts such as sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate, potassium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, ammonia and amines. The salt forms may be converted back to their respective acid forms by treatment with an acid such as dilute hydrochloric acid. The acid forms and their respective salts differ in certain physical properties such as solubility but they are otherwise equivalent for purposes of the invention. Certain compounds of the invention form pharmaceutically acceptable salts with organic and inorganic acids. Examples of suitable acids for salt formation are hydrochloric, sulfuric, phosphoric, acetic, citric, oxalic, malonic, salicylic, malic, fumaric, succinic, ascorbic, maleic, methanesulfonic, and the like. The salts are prepared by contacting the free base form with a sufficient amount of the desired acid to produce a salt in the conventional manner. The free base forms may be regenerated by treating the salt form with a base. For example, dilute aqueous base solutions may be utilized. Dilute aqueous sodium hydroxide, potassium carbonate, ammonia, and sodium bicarbonate solutions are suitable for this purpose. The free base forms differ from their respective salt forms somewhat in certain physical properties such as solubility in polar solvents, but the salts are otherwise equivalent to their respective free base forms for purposes of the invention. The compounds of the invention may exist in unsolvated as well as solvated forms, including hydrated forms. In general, these solvated forms with pharmaceutically acceptable solvents such as water, ethanol and the like are equivalent to the unsolvated forms for purposes of the invention. Certain compounds of the invention may exist in isomeric forms. The invention contemplates all such isomers both in pure form and in admixture, including racemic mixtures. The compounds of this invention can be used to treat allergy caused diseases and their preferred use is for treating allergic chronic obstructive lung diseases. Chronic obstructive lung disease as used herein means disease conditions in which the passage of air through the lungs is obstructed or diminished such as is the case in asthma, bronchitis and the like. The anti-allergy effects of the compounds of this invention may be identified by tests which measure a compound's inhibition of leukotriene C 4 induced contraction of lung smooth muscle. The substance leukotriene C 4 is a component of slow reacting substance of anaphylaxis (SRS-A). For example, the compound hexanoic acid, 6,6'-[2-pentadecynylidenebis(oxy)]bis- was found to inhibit leukotriene C 4 contractions of lung smooth muscle in such a test procedure in vitro at a concentration of 10 -5 Molar. Said compound was also found to inhibit leukotriene C 4 induced bronchospasm in guinea pigs in vivo at an intratracheal dose of 0.5 mg/kg or intravenous dose of 10 mg/kg. Measurement of inhibition of leukotriene C 4 contractions in vitro A guinea pig is killed and the lung is removed. The trachea, bronchi and large blood vessels are removed and discarded. Strips of lung parenchyma are prepared from the lower lobes of the lung. The strips are suspended in a heated organ bath containing 10 ml of oxygenated Tyrodes solution. Isometric tension is measured. A contractile response to 10 -8 Molar leukotriene C 4 is generated in the absence and presence of test compound and the percent inhibition produced by the test compound is calculated. Measurement of inhibition of leukotriene C 4 bronchospasm in guinea pigs in vivo Fasted male guinea pigs are anesthetized with dialurethane and prepared for the measurement of intratracheal pressure as modified from H. Konzett and R. Rossler, Nauyn-Schmeidebergs Arch Exp Path Pharmakol 195: 71-74, 1940. A bronchospasm [as measured by the increase in intratracheal pressure] is induced by the intratracheal administration of 0.3 ug of leukotriene C 4 delivered in 0.1 ml of isotonic saline solution. Test compound is administered either 10 min [intravenous] or 5 min [intratracheal] before the administration of leukotriene C 4 . The bronchospasm to leukotriene C 4 is measured and a percent inhibition by the test compound is calculated. When administered orally the compounds of the invention are active at doses from about 10 to 500 mg/kg of body weight; when administered parenterally, e.g., intravenously, the compounds are active at dosages from about 0.1 to 10 mg/kg body weight; when administered by inhalation (aerosol or nebulizer) the compounds are active at dosages of about 0.1 to 5 mg per puff, one to four puffs may be taken every 4 hours. The compounds of this invention are also useful for the treatment of inflammation. The anti-inflammatory use of the compounds of the present invention may be demonstrated by the Reversed Passive Arthus Reaction (RPAR) Synovitis technique as set forth below using male Lewis rats (obtained from Charles River Breeding Laboratories) weighing 200-250 grams. The potency of the compounds is determined using indomethacin as the standard. On the basis of the test results, an oral dosage range of about 10 milligrams per kilogram of body weight per day to about 500 milligrams per kilogram of body weight per day in divided doses taken at about 4 hour intervals is recommended. RPAR Synovitis Technique A Lewis rat is dosed orally with drug or placebo one hour prior to intravenous administration of 2.28 mg of bovine serum albumin (BSA) in 0.2 cc of pyrogen-free saline followed by the intraarticular injection of 0.54 mg of rabbit anti-BSA antibody in 0.03 cc of pyrogen-free saline into one knee joint. The contralateral knee is injected with 0.03 cc of pyrogen-free saline. All injections are made with the animal under light ether anesthesia. Three hours later the rat is again dosed orally with drug or placebo. All drug doses are split. That is, one-half of the dose is administered before lesion induction and one-half is administered after lesion induction. The following morning (about 17 hours after lesion induction) the rat is killed and both knee joints are exposed. The subpatellar areolar tissue with attendant synovium is excised and weighed. Differences between the weight of antibody and saline injected knees are considered to represent the inflammatory response for each animal (delta synovial weight). Differences in delta synovial weight between lesion controls and drug-treated rats are evaluated for statistical significance with an analysis of variance. Relative potencies are determined with a linear regression analysis. For preparing pharmaceutical compositions from the compounds described by this invention, inert, pharmaceutically acceptable carriers can be either solid or liquid. Solid form preparations include powders, tablets, dispersible granules, capsules, cachets and suppositories. A solid carrier can be one or more substances which may also act as diluents, flavoring agents, solubilizers, lubricants, suspending agents, binders or tablet disintegrating agents; it can also be an encapsulating material. In powders, the carrier is a finely divided solid which is in admixture with the finely divided active compound. In the tablet the active compound is mixed with carrier having the necessary binding properties in suitable proportions and compacted in the shape and size desired. The powders and tablets preferably contain from 5 or 10 to about 70 percent of the active ingredient. Suitable solid carriers are magnesium carbonate, magnesium stearate, talc, sugar, lactose, pectin, dextrin, starch, gelatin, tragacanth, methylcellulose, sodium carboxymethylcellulose, a low melting wax, cocoa butter and the like. The term "preparation" is intended to include the formulation of the active compound with encapsulating material as carrier providing a capsule in which the active component (with or without other carriers) is surrounded by carrier, which is thus in association with it. Similarly, cachets are included. Tablets, powders, cachets and capsules can be used as solid dosage forms suitable for oral administration. For preparing suppositories, a low melting wax such as a mixture of fatty acid glycerides or cocoa butter is first melted, and the active ingredient is dispersed homogeneously therein as by stirring. The molten homogeneous mixture is then poured into convenient sized molds, allowed to cool and thereby solidify. Liquid form preparations include solutions, suspensions and emulsions. As an example may be mentioned water or water-propylene glycol solutions for parenteral injection. Liquid preparations can also be formulated in solution in aqueous polyethylene glycol solution. Aqueous solutions suitable for oral use can be prepared by adding the active component in water and adding suitable colorants, flavors, stabilizing, sweetening, solubilizing and thickening agents as desired. Aqueous suspensions suitable for oral use can be made by dispersing the finely divided active component in water with viscous material, i.e., natural or synthetic gums, resins, methylcellulose, sodium carboxymethylcellulose and other well-known suspending agents. Also included are solid form preparations which are intended to be converted, shortly before use, to liquid form preparations for either oral or parenteral administration. Such liquid forms include solutions, suspensions and emulsions. These particular solid form preparations are most conveniently provided in unit dose form and as such are used to provide a single liquid dosage unit. Alternately, sufficient solid may be provided so that after conversion to liquid form, multiple individual liquid doses may be obtained by measuring predetermined volumes of the liquid form preparation as with a syringe, teaspoon or other volumetric container. When multiple liquid doses are so prepared, it is preferred to maintain the unused portion of said liquid doses at low temperature (i.e., under refrigeration) in order to retard possible decomposition. The solid form preparations intended to be converted to liquid form may contain, in addition to the active material, flavorants, colorants, stabilizers, buffers, artificial and natural sweeteners, dispersants, thickeners, solubilizing agents and the like. The solvent utilized for preparing the liquid form preparation may be water, isotonic water, ethanol, glycerine, propylene glycol and the like as well as mixtures thereof. Naturally, the solvent utilized will be chosen with regard to the route of administration, for example, liquid preparations containing large amounts of ethanol are not suitable for parenteral use. Preferably, the pharmaceutical preparation is in unit dosage form. In such form, the preparation is subdivided into unit doses containing appropriate quantities of the active component. The unit dosage form can be a packaged preparation, the package containing discrete quantities of preparation, for example, packeted tablets, capsules and powders in vials or ampoules. The unit dosage form can also be a capsule, cachet or tablet itself or it can be the appropriate number of any of these in packaged form. The quantity of active compound in a unit dose of preparation may be varied or adjusted from 1 mg to 100 mg according to the particular application and the potency of the active ingredient. The compositions can, if desired, also contain other therapeutic agents. The dosages may be varied depending upon the requirements of the patient, the severity of the condition being treated and the particular compound being employed. Determination of the proper dosage for a particular situation is within the skill of the art. Generally, treatment is initiated with smaller dosages which are less than the optimum dose of the compound. Thereafter, the dosage is increased by small increments until the optimum effect under the circumstances is reached. For convenience, the total daily dosage may be divided and administered in portions during the day if desired. EXAMPLE 1 2-Pentadecynyl Aldehyde Dithioacetal of Cysteine N-triflouoroacetate Methyl Ester A solution of the 2-pentadecynyl aldehyde (0.3098 g) in dry CH 2 Cl 2 (5 ml) was treated with cysteine methylester N-triflouroacetate, freshly prepared by zinc reduction of the corresponding disulfide (1 g; required 0.9667 g), followed by trimethylsilyl chloride (0.15 g). The reaction was stirred at room temperature for 1 hour. Evaporation of CH 2 Cl 2 in vacuo gave a gummy residue which was distributed between CH 2 Cl 2 and water. The CH 2 Cl 2 phase was separated, and the aqueous phase extracted once with CH 2 Cl 2 . Combined CH 2 Cl 2 extracts were dried over Na2SO 4 and evaporated to dryness to provide the crude product which was purified on a coarse silica gel (30 g) column using 20-50% diethyl ether in n-hexane. Yield: 0.6893 g. EXAMPLE 2 1-Butanol-4,4'-[2-Pentadecynylidenebis(oxy)]bis-, Dibenzoate A mixture of 2-pentadecynyl aldehyde diethylacetal (5.0 g), butane-1,4-diol monobenzoate (6.5 g) and p-toluenesulfonic acid (0.2 g) in dry benzene was refluxed with azeotropic removal of ethanol. After 3 hours the dark reaction solution was washed with aqueous NaHCO 3 , water, then brine. The solvent was removed in vacuo to give crude product (11.0 g) as a brownish oil which was used as such in the next reaction. EXAMPLE 3 1-Butanol-4,4'-[2-Pentadecynylidenebis(oxy)]bis- The product from Example 2 (4.0 g) was hydrolyzed with 30% KOH in aqueous ethanol (120 ml) by refluxing the reaction mixture for 2 hours. Ethanol was evaporated under vacuum and the residue was washed with water. The product was extracted with diethyl ether, dried over MgSO 4 , filtered and evaporated to dryness in vacuo to give 1.8 g of the product as a yellowish oil. EXAMPLE 4 Butanoic Acid 4,4'-[2-Pentadecynylidenebis(oxy)]bis-, Dimethyl Ester A. The acetal-diol (1 g; from Example 3) was dissolved in dry DMF (20 ml) and treated with pyridinium dichromate (8.2 g). The mixture was stirred at room temperature for 20 hours, diluted with 200 ml water and extracted with approximately 400 ml diethylether in portions. Drying over Na 2 SO 4 and evaporation of the ether extract gave the crude diacid. The reaction was repeated with acetal-diol (0.488 g) in 10 ml DMF and 4.1 g pyridinium dichromate. Work-up as above gave the crude diacid. B. The two reactions from above were combined and treated with diazomethane (from 6.5 g diazald). Excess diazomethane was removed by carefully bubbling nitrogen through the solution. Evaporation of diethylether gave the crude diester which was chromatographed on TLC grade silica gel (50 g) using 5% acetone in n-Hexane as eluent. The pure dimethylester (0.6813 g) was obtained as a yellowish oil. EXAMPLE 5 Butanoic Acid 4,4'-[2-Pentadecynylidenebis(oxy)]bis- The dimethylester (0.5 g; from Example 4) was dissolved in ethanol (10 ml) and treated with 10% aqueous NaOH (5 ml). After stirring at room temperature for 36 hours, ethanol was evaporated in vacuo, the residue taken up in water and extracted once with diethylether. The remaining aqueous phase was acidified to pH 1.5 with aqueous oxalic acid and extracted with CH 2 Cl 2 . Drying CH 2 Cl 2 extract over Na 2 SO 4 followed by evaporation in vacuo provided the pure diacid as a colorless crystalline solid, m.p. 62°-63° C. Yield: 0.4496 g. EXAMPLE 6 1-Butanol-4,4'-[2-nonynylidenebis(oxy)]bis-, Dibenzoate A mixture of 2-nonynyl aldehyde diethylacetal (4.4 g), butane-1,4-diol monobenzoate (8.2 g) and a catalytic amount of p-toluenesulfonic acid in dry benzene was refluxed for 3 hours as in Example 2. Work-up as in Example 2 gave the crude product which was purified by passing through a SiO 2 column eluting with hexane and chloroform (1:1) to give 9.0 g of the product. EXAMPLE 7 1-Butanol, 4,4'-[2-nonynylidenebis(oxy)]bis- The product from Example 6 (1.0 g) was hydrolyzed with 30% KOH in aqueous ethanol as in Example 3. The product so obtained was purified by preparative TLC using 5% methanol in CHCl 3 as eluent. Yield: 0.3 g. EXAMPLE 8 Butanoic Acid, 4,4'-[2-nonynylidenebis(oxy)]bis- A. The product from Example 7 (0.5 g) was oxidized with pyridinium dichromate (4.1 g) in 13 ml of dry DMF at room temperature for 2 days The mixture was diluted with water (350 ml), and extracted with diethylether (3×100 ml), washed with water, dried (Na 2 SO 4 ) and filtered. The solvent was evaporated to give 0.4 g crude diacid which was methylated with diazomethane followed by chromatography to give pure dimethylester which was hydrolyzed as in Example 5 to give 0.3 g pure diacid. EXAMPLE 9 Benzene Methanol-4,4'-[2-pentadecyn-1-ylidenebis(oxy)methylene]bis The crude reaction mixture containing benzene methanol-4,4'-dibenzoate ester was treated with 100 ml of water, 20 g of KOH and 300 ml of absolute ethanol. After stirring the mixture at room temperature overnight, it was refluxed for one hour. The solvents were then evaporated, the oily residue was treated with CH 2 Cl 2 , washed with water, and dried over Na 2 SO 4 . After evaporation of the solvent, the mixture was purified via silica gel chromatography (50% EtOAc/Hexanes). Yield: 8.5 g) EXAMPLE 10 Benzoic Acid-4,4'-[2-pentadecyn-1-ylidene bis(oxy)methylene]bis 1.7 g of benzoic acid-4,4'[2-pentadecyn-1-ylidene bis(oxy)methylene]bis-dimethyl ester were stirred at room temperature in 30 ml of absolute EtOH and 20 ml of 10% aqueous KOH. After two days, the solvents were evaporated under reduced pressure. The residue was taken in water and acidified with aqueous oxalic acid. The precipitate obtained was filtered, washed with water and dried. Yield: 1.6 g. EXAMPLE 11 A. Methyl-[4-(oxy)-methylacetate)]-3-oxaoctadec-5-yn-1-oate B. Methyl-[4-(2-oxyethanol)]-3-oxaoctadec-5-yn-1-oate 2.0 g of 4-(2-oxyethanol)-3-oxaoctadecen-5-yn-1-ol (Example 31) in 30 ml dry DMF was added in portions to a solution of pyridinium dichromate (PDC) in 70 ml of dry DMF. After stirring at room temperature for two days, the mixture was poured into water (500 ml). The aqueous solution was extracted several times with Et 2 O. The combined extracts were washed with water and dried over Na 2 SO 4 . The crude acid resulting from the evaporation of the solvent was treated in Et 2 O at 0° C. with large excess of diazomethane solution in Et 2 O. The esterified mixture (2.0 g) was purified by chromatography on TLC grade silica gel: Fractions 23-28 gave compound (A), 0.13 g Fractions 75-85 gave compound (B), 0.11 g. EXAMPLE 12 Pentanoic Acid-5,5'-[2-pentadecyn-1-ylidene-bis(oxy)]bis-Dimethylester A dry DMF solution (50 ml) of 1-pentanol-5,5'-[2-pentadecyn-1-ylidene-bis(oxy)]bis (example 14) (3.67 g) was added at room temperature to a solution of pyridinium dichromate in 120 ml of dry DMF. After two days the reaction was worked up as in Example 11. The crude reaction mixture was treated at 0° C. in Et 2 O with large excess of CH 2 N 2 . The excess diezomethane was destroyed with glacial acetic acid and the reaction mixture was purified by silica gel chromatography (10% EtOAc/Hexanes). Yield: 0.9 g. EXAMPLE 13 Pentanoic Acid-5,5'-[2-pentadecyn-1-ylidene bis(oxy)]bis 0.7 g of pentanoic acid-5,5'-[2-pentadecyn-2-ylidene bis(oxy)]bis-dimethyl ester (example 12) was stirred at room temperature for 24 hours with 10 ml of absolute EtOH and 10 ml of 10% aqueous KOH. The solvents were then evaporated under reduced pressure. The residue was taken in water, acidified with aqueous oxalic acid, and extracted several times with CH 2 Cl 2 . The combined extracts were washed with water and dried over Na 2 SO 4 . Evaporation of the solvent yielded 0.65 g. of the title compound. EXAMPLE 14 1-Pentanol-5,5'-[2-pentadecyn-1-ylidene-bis(oxy)]bis The crude reaction mixture containing 1-pentanol-5,5'-[2-pentadecyn-1-ylidene bis(oxy)]bis- dibenzoate ester was stirred overnight with 150 ml of water and 300 ml of absolute EtOH containing 25 g of KOH. After refluxing for three hours, the solvents were evaporated under reduced pressure. The residue was treated with CH 2 Cl 2 , washed with water and dried over Na 2 SO 4 . The reaction mixture was purified by silica gel chromatography (50% EtOAc/Hexanes). Yield: 4.0 g. EXAMPLE 15 Hexanoic Acid, 6,6'-[2-pentadecynylidenebis(oxy)]bis- 3.5 g of 1-hexanol, 6,6'-[2-pentadecynylidene-bis(oxy)]bis- in 20 ml of dry DMF was added in portions to a solution of pyridinium dichromate in 70 ml of dry DMF at room temperature. After 24 hours, the reaction was worked up as Example 11. The reaction mixture was purified by silica gel chromatography (first CHCl 3 ; then 5% MeOH/CHCl 3 ). Yield: 70 mg. EXAMPLE 16 1-Hexanol-6,6'-[2-pentadecyn-1-ylidene bis(oxy)]bis The title compound was prepared and purified in similar manner as in Example 14. The starting material was a mixture containing 1-hexanol-6,6'-[2-pentadecyn-1-ylidene bis(oxy)]bis dibenzoate ester. EXAMPLE 17 (±)-1-Benzoyloxy-6-(4-oxybutane-1-ol)-5-oxaeicos-7-yne 3.5 g of benzoyl chloride in 27 ml of CH 2 Cl 2 was added dropwise, over a period of three hours, at 0° C. to a solution of 1-butanol-4,4'-[2-pentadecyn-1-ylidene bis(oxy)]bis (8.0 g) and dry pyridine (15 ml) in 60 ml of CH 2 Cl 2 . After the addition, the mixture was allowed to warm to room temperature and stirred overnight. The mixture was then diluted with CH 2 Cl 2 (400 ml), washed with water, and dried over Na 2 SO 4 . After evaporation of the solvent, the reaction mixture (10 g) was purified by silica gel chromatography (10% Acetone/CHCl 3 ). This material was chromatographed again using CHCl 3 as eluent. Yield 4.2 g. EXAMPLE 18 (±)-6-(4-Oxybutan-1-ol)-5-oxaeicos-7-yn-1-oic Acid 2.2 g of product from Example 17 was oxidized and purified as in Example 15 (eluent: first CHCl 3 , then 1% MeOH/CHCl 3 ). The product of the oxidation (1.1 g) was hydrolysed and the reaction was worked up as in Example 14. The reaction product was purified by column chromatography (SiO 2 ; eluent: first CHCl 3 ; then 50% CH 3 CN)/CHCl 3 ; then 30% MeOH/CHCl 3 ). The product obtained from the elution with 30% MeOH/CHCl 3 was purified again (SiO 2 ; 5% MeOH/CHCl 3 ) using the same technique. Yield: 0.16 g. EXAMPLE 19 6-(4-Oxy-Methylbutanoate)-5-oxa-Methyl Eicosanoate 1.7 g of butanoic acid-4,4'-[2-pentadecyn-1-ylidene bis(oxy)]bis-dimethylester was dissolved in olefin free petroleum ether (60 ml) and hydrogenated in the presence of 10% Pd/C (0.7 g). After absorption of H 2 was complete (3 hours), the catalyst was filtered through celite and washed with CH 2 Cl 2 . The reaction product (1.6 g) obtained after evaporation of the combined filtrates was purified by silica gel chromatography (1% acetone in CHCl 3 ). Yield: 0.8 g. EXAMPLE 20 Butanoic Acid, 4,4'-[pentadecylidenebis(oxy)]bis- 0.65 g of the product from example 19 was hydrolyzed in 12 ml of absolute EtOH and 8.1 ml of 10% aqueous KOH as in example 13 to provide the pure diacid. EXAMPLE 21 (±)-1-Benzoyloxy-6-ethoxy-5-oxaeicos-7-yne 32 g of ethane-2,2'-[2-pentadecyn-1-ylidene bis(oxy)]bis, 25 g of 4-benzoyloxy-1-butanol, and 100 mg of p-toluene sulfonic acid were refluxed in a dry apparatus in 300 ml of benzene using a Dean-Stark trap. After evaporating 75 ml of solvent, the solution was cooled to room temperature diluted with CHCl 3 , washed with saturated aqueous NaHCO 3 , then with water and dried over Na 2 SO 4 . The resulting oil (13 g) after evaporation of the solvent was purified by column chromatography (SiO 2 ) (CHCl 3 ). The partially purified compound was rechromatographed (SiO 2 ) (50% Hexanes/CHCl 3 ). Yield: 1.5 g. EXAMPLE 22 (±)-6-Ethoxy-5-oxaeicos-7-yn-1-ol (±)-1-Benzoyloxy-6-Ethoxy-5-oxaeicos-7-yne was hydrolyzed using the same procedure as described for example 14. The reaction mixture was purified in the same manner using CHCl 3 as eluent. EXAMPLE 23 (±)-6-Ethoxy-5-oxaeicos-7-yn-1-oic Acid 1.2 g of the product from example 22 in 15 ml of dry DMF was added in portions to a solution of pyridinium dichromate (4.4 g) in 30 ml of dry DMF. The solution was stirred at room temperature for 24 hours, then poured into water (300 ml). The aqueous mixture was extracted several times with Et 2 O, the combined extracts were washed with water and dried over Na 2 SO 4 . The reaction mixture was purified by column chromatography (SiO 2 ) (1% MeOH/CHCl 3 ). The partially purified product (0.54 g) was further purified by preparative thin layer chromatography (SiO 2 ) (2% MeOH/CHCl 3 ). Yield: 0.35 g. EXAMPLE 24 1-Penthanol, 4,4'-[2-Pentadecynylidenebis(oxy)]bis- The crude mixture containing 1-pentanol, 4,4'-[2-pentedecynylidene-bis(oxy)]bis-, dibenzoate ester was hydrolyzed and purified using the same procedure as described for example 14 to provide the title compound. EXAMPLE 25 Pentanoic Acid, 4,4'-[2-pentadecyn-ylidene bis(oxy)]bis- 2.6 g of Pentanoic acid, 4,4'-[2-pentadecynylidenebis(oxy)]bis-, dimethyl ester was hydrolyzed using the same procedure as described in example 13. Yield: 2.4 g. EXAMPLE 26 5-Methyl-7-(5-oxyhexanol)-6-oxaheneicos-8-yn-1-ol The mixture containing 5-Methyl-7-(5-oxyhexanol)-6-oxaheneicos-8-yn-1-ol-dibenzoate ester was hydrolyzed and purified using the same procedure as described in example 14. EXAMPLE 27 Hexanoic Acid, 5,5'-[2-pentadecynylidenebis(oxy)]bis-, Dimethyl Ester The product from example 24 was oxidized, methylated and purified as described in example 12. EXAMPLE 28 Hexanoic Acid, 5,5'-[2-pentadecynylidenebis(oxy)]bis- The product from example 27 was hydrolyzed using the same procedure as described for example 13. EXAMPLE 29 Cis-Methyl-6-(4-oxy-methylbutanoate)-5-oxaeicos-7-en-1-oate 0.4 g of Lindlar catalyst in petroleum ether (10 ml; olefin and sulfur free) was equilibrated under H 2 at room temperature and atmospheric pressure (containing 5 drops of a 5% solution of quinoline in petroleum ether). After four hours, 1.0 g of butanoic acid-4,4'-[2-pentadecyn-1-ylidene bis(oxy)]bis-dimethyl ester in 20 ml of petroleum ether (olefin and sulfur free) was added. The mixture absorbed 47 ml of H 2 (theory: 55 ml). The catalyst was then removed by filtration through "Celite" and washed several times with petroleum ether. Evaporation of the solvent yielded 0.9 g of the title compound. EXAMPLE 30 Potassium-6-(4-oxy-potassium Butanoate-5-oxaeicos-7-en-1-oate 0.6 g of product from example 29 was dissolved in 15 ml of absolute EtOH and 8 ml of 10% aqueous KOH was added. After stirring at room temperature for 24 hours, the solvents were evaporated and the residue was applied as water solution to 65 g of XAD-4 resin column. The column was eluted first with water, then with MeOH. The fractions containing the compound were combined and treated twice with 30% Et 2 O/Hexanes. The solvents were decanted and the remaining product dried in vacuo to provide the title compound. EXAMPLE 31 Ethanol, 2,2'-[2-Pentadecynylidenebis(oxy)]bis- The reaction mixture containing ethanol, 2,2'-[pentadecynylidene bis(oxy)]bis-, dibenzoate ester was hydrolyzed and purified using the same procedure as described in example 14. EXAMPLE 32 Acetic Acid, 2,2'-[2-pentadecynylidenebis(oxy)]bis- 0.13 g of acetic acid, 2,2'-[2-pentadecynylidenebis(oxy)]bis-, dimethyl ester (Example 11) was hydrolyzed using the same procedure described in example 13. Yield: 0.13 g. EXAMPLE 33 Butanoic Acid, 4-[[1-[[3-methoxy-3-oxo-2(S)-[(Trifluoroacetyl)amino]thio]-2-nonynyl]oxy]-, Methyl Ester A solution of the acetal-dimethylester (0.6627 g from example 8-A) in dry CH 2 Cl 2 (5 ml) was treated with freshly prepared cysteine methylester N-triflouroacetamide (from 0.4300 g corresponding disulfide) and the mixture cooled (dry ice/cyclohexanone bath) With stirring and in an atmosphere of N 2 , BF 3 .Et 2 O (0.05 ml) was syringed in. After 1 hour the reaction flask was allowed to stir outside the cooling bath for˜3 minutes and then quenched with dilute (˜7%) NH 4 OH solution. Extractive isolation with CH 2 Cl 2 gave a gummy product (0.9797 g) which was chromatographed on TLC grade silica gel (50 g) using 10% acetone/n-Hexane as eluent. Fractions (5 ml each): 41-51 Pure less polar isomer (0.1287 g) 61-81 Pure more polar isomer (0.0831 g) Both isomers were obtained as thick oils. EXAMPLE 34 Butanoic Acid, 4-[[1-[[3-methoxy-3-oxo-2(S)-[(Trifluoroacetyl)amino]propyl]thio]-2-pentadecynyl]-oxy], Methyl Ester A stirred solution of the acetal-diester (1 g; from example 4) dissolved in dry CH 2 Cl 2 (6 ml) was treated with cysteine methylester N-triflouroacetamide (freshly prepared from 0.53 g corresponding disulfide). The mixture was cooled (cyclohexanone/dry ice bath) and the reaction flask was taken out of the cooling bath and let stir for 3-4 minutes followed by treatment with dilute (˜7%) NH 4 OH. Extractive isolation with CH 2 Cl 2 gave a gummy product (1.4618 g) which was chromatographed on TLC grade silica gel (75 g) using 10% acetone/n-Hexane as eluent. Fractions (5 ml each): 50-58 Pure less polar isomer (0.3783 g) 64-78 Pure more polar isomer (0.2626 g) Both isomers were obtained as thick oils. EXAMPLE 35 Butanoic Acid, 4-[[1-[(2(S)-Amino-2-carboxyethyl)thio]-2-pentadecynyl]oxy]-, Dipotassium Salt (from less polar diastereoisomer) The dimethylester (0.3783 g; from example 34, less polar isomer) was subjected to hydrolysis with 0.13M K 2 CO 3 (100 ml) in MeOH:water (3:1) at room temperature. After ˜36 hours solvents were removed in vacuo and the crude dipotassium salt so obtained purified on XAD-4 (140 g) column: Fraction 1, 600 ml - water (discarded) Fractions 2-5, 400 ml each - methanol Evaporation in vacuo provided the product as a amorphous solid, 0.1043 g. EXAMPLE 36 Butanoic Acid, 4-[[1-[(2(S)-Amino-2-carboxyethyl)thio]-2-pentadecynyl]oxy]-, Dipotassium Salt (from more polar diastereoisomer) The dimethylester (0.3426 g; from example 34, more polar isomer) was subjected to hydrolysis with 0.13M K 2 CO 3 (100 ml) in MeOH:water (3:1) as in example 35. Work-up and purification on XAD-4 column (140 g) provided in fractions 2-5 (400 ml each, MeOH) the product (0.1049 g) as a amorphous solid. EXAMPLE 37 Butanoic Acid, 4,4'-[4E,6Z,9Z-Pentadecatrien-2-ynylidenebis(thio)]bis- A solution of the product from preparative example IV (1.0 g) and 4-mercaptobutanoic acid (1.1 g) in 24 ml of dry CH 2 Cl 2 was cooled to -22° C. (CCl 4 /CO 2 ) (under N 2 ). To this was added BF 3 Et 2 O (0.5 ml). The reaction mixture was stirred at this temperature for 2 hours. The mixture was diluted with CH 2 Cl 2 and washed with water. The organic phase was dried (Na 2 SO 4 ) and concentrated to provide the crude product which was purified by passing through 65 g of coarse SiO 2 column, using CHCl 3 :MeOH:AcOH (990:9:1) as eluent to yield 0.98 g of product. EXAMPLE 38 Hexanoic Acid, 6,6'-[2-Pentadecynylidenebis(thio)]bis- The product from preparative example II (2.0 g) in CH 2 Cl 2 (15 ml) was treated with 1-mercapto-5-carbomethoxy-pentane (3.9 g) under N 2 at room temperature. To this was added Me 3 SiCl (1.5 ml) and the reaction was allowed to stir at room temperature for 1/2 hour. The solvent was removed under vacuum and the residue was purified on a SiO 2 column with gradient elution (hexane; 2% Et 2 O/hexane; 5% Et 2 O/Hexane; 10% Et 2 O/Hexane) to give 3.2 g of product. EXAMPLE 39 Butanoic Acid, 4,4'-[2-Pentadecynylidenebis(thio)]bis- The product from preparative example II (1.58 g) and γ-mercaptobutyric acid (2.3 g) in 10 ml of dry CH 2 Cl 2 was treated with Me 3 SiCl (1.0 ml) as in Example 38 to afford 1.35 g of product. EXAMPLE 40 1-Propynl-3,3'-[2-pentadecyn-1-ylidene-bis(oxy)]bis 5.0 g of 2-pentadecynal diethyl acetal (preparative example I), 13 ml of propargylic alcohol, and 0.2 g of p-toluene sulfonic acid were refluxed in 200 ml of benzene using a Dean-Stark trap provided with an adapter filled with Dririte. After distilling 170 ml of azeotrope, the residue is diluted with hexanes (200 ml). The organic phase was washed first with aqueous NaHCO 3 , then with water, dried (Na 2 SO 4 ) and evaporated in vacuo to provide the crude product. It was purified by column chromatography (SiO 2 ) eluting first with hexanes (1000 ml), then 3% EtOAC/Hexanes. Yield: 2.4 g. EXAMPLE 41 1-Butanol 4,4'-[(Tridecylidene)bis(oxy)]bis-benzoate To a 3 neck, 100 ml reaction vessel were added: catalytic amount of τ-toluenesulfonic acid monohydrate (50 mg), 8.54 g of butane 1,4-diol monobenzoate, and 5 g tridecenal, all in a total 25 ml benzene. The reaction mixture was heated to reflux with azeotropic removal of water. After˜2 hours the reaction was cooled, the benzene solution washed with aqueous K 2 CO 3 followed by distilled water. The organic phase was dried over Na 2 SO 4 and evaporated to dryness in vacuo. The crude product so obtained was chromatographed on coarse silica gel (500 g) using 5% acetone in n-Hexane as eluent. Fractions 14 and 15 (200 ml each) were evaporated in vacuo to provide pure dibenzoate (4.23 g) as a thick oil. EXAMPLE 42 1-Butanol, 4,4'-[(Tridecylidenebis(oxy)]bis- A solution of the dibenzoate (1 g; from example 41) in ethanol (20 ml) was treated with aqueous 10% NaOH solution. An additional 20 ml ethanol was added to obtain a homogeneous solution. After stirring at room temperature for˜48 hours, the reaction was worked up as in example 3 to provide virtually pure product as a yellowish oil. It was used as such in the next reaction. EXAMPLE 43 1-Butanoic Acid, 4,4'-[(Tridecylidene)bis(oxy)]bis-dimethyl Ester The diol (1 g; from example 42) was oxidized with pyridinium dichromate (7.33 g) in dry DMF (14 ml) as in example 4A to provide crude diacid which was treated with diazomethane as in example 4B. Chromatography of the crude dimethylester on TLC grade silica gel (30 g) using 5% acetone in n-Hexane as eluent provided the pure dimethylester (0.28 g) as a yellow oil. EXAMPLE 44 1-Butanoic Acid, 4,4'-[(Tridecylidene)bis(oxy)]bis A solution of the dimethylester (0.2 g; from example 43) in ethanol was treated with 10% aqueous NaOH (2 ml) and the mixture refluxed for 4 hours. Work-up of the reaction as in example 5 yielded the pure diacid (0.15 g) as a crystalline solid, m.p. 33° C. EXAMPLE 45 6-[(3-Carboxypropyl(thio)]-7-eicosynoic Acid A mixture of methyl 6-bromo-7-eicosanoate (3.0 g), methyl 4-mercaptobutyrate (1.0 g), Cs 2 CO 3 , (2.44 g) in DMF (70 ml) was stirred at room temperature for 2 hours. After dilution with water followed by extraction with Et 2 O afforded 4.0 g crude product which was purified on SiO 2 (200 g) column. Elution with 50% hexane/CHCl 3 gave 1.7 g pure eicosanoate. The diester (1.42 g) from above was hydrolyzed with 10 ml 10% KOH and 20 ml EtOH at room temperature for 5 hours. After work-up as in example 5, the pure diacid was obtained as a solid (1.22 g). EXAMPLE 46 6-[(5-Carboxypropyl(thio)]-7-eicosynoic Acid A mixture of methyl 6-bromo-7-eicosanoate, methyl 6-mercaptohexanoate (1.21 g) in 70 ml DMF was treated with Cs 2 CO 3 (2.44 g) as in Example 45 to give 1.02 g of methyl-6-[(6-methoxy-6-oxohexyl)thio]-7-eicosynoate. The diester (0.72 g) from above was hydrolyzed in a similar manner as in Example 45 to give the title compound as a solid (0.53 g). EXAMPLE 47 6-[2-Carboxyethyl)thio]-7-eicosanoic Acid To a stirred slurry of 0.58 g of NaH (50%) in Et 2 O (12 ml) at 0° C. was added dry CF 3 CH 2 OH (0.93 ml). After the H 2 evolution had ceased, a solution of triphenylphosphine (1.58 g) in 12 ml of CH 2 Cl 2 was added. After stirring for 10 min, 0.3 ml bromine was added. This mixture was then stirred at 0° C. for 1 hour, followed by addition of a solution of the product from preparative example VI (1.7 g) and methyl-3-mercaptopropionate (0.55 ml) in CH 2 Cl 2 (2.5 ml). The mixture was stirred at room temperature for 7 hours. The reaction was quenched with water and extractive isolation with CH 2 Cl 2 yielded 2.5 g crude product. Chromatography on 100 g SiO 2 using 30% hexane in CH 2 Cl 2 as eluent gave 0.66 g of methyl 6 -[(3-methoxy-3-oxopropyl)thio]-7-eicosynoate. The above product (1.3 g) was hydrolyzed with 12.2 ml of 10% NaOH in 25 ml EtOH at room temperature for 17 hours. Work-up as in example 5 yielded 0.91 g of the product as a yellowish solid. EXAMPLE 48 Potassium 6-[[2-[(Trifluoroacetyl)amino]ethyl]thio]-7-eicosynoate The product from example 49 (0.5 g) in 40 ml dry MeOH was treated with 0.5 g of 5-ethylthiotrifluoroacetate and was stirred at room temperature for 1 hour. The MeOH was removed in vacuo to give 0.57 g the title compound as a yellowish liquid. EXAMPLE 49 Potassium 6-[(2-Aminoethyl)thio]-7-eicosynoate Methyl 6-[[2-(trifluorocetyl)ethyl]thio]-7-eicosanoate was prepared in a manner similar to Example 47, except that N-(2-mercaptoethyl)trifluoroacetamide was used instead of methyl 3-mercaptopropanoate. The above product (1.0 g) was hydrolyzed with 50 ml of 0.13M K 2 CO 3 in MeOH/H 2 O (3:1) at room temperature for 48 hours and subjected to purification on a XAD-4 (250 g) column to yield 0.56 g of product. EXAMPLE 50 (±) Trans-6-[(2-Amino-2-Carboxyethyl)thio]-5-hydroxy-7-eicosynoic Acid, Dipotassium Salt Hydrolysis of (±)-methyl 5-hydroxy-6-[[3-methoxy-3-oxo-2-[(trifluoroacetyl)amino]propyl]thio]-7-eicosynate (0.23 g) in a manner similar to example 49 provided 0.16 g of the title compound. EXAMPLE 51 (±)-6-[(2-Amino-3-methoxy-3-oxopropyl)thio]-7-eicosynoic Acid (The synthesis of the title compound is described in part E of this example.) Part A To a solution of dry cyclohexanone (20 g) in dry Et 3 N (125 ml) in dry DMF (125 ml) was added in one portion 61.2 g of t-butyldimethyl chlorosilane. The mixture was refluxed under N 2 for two days. After cooling to room temperature, the mixture was diluted with Et 2 O, washed with aqueous NaHCO 3 , then with 0.1N HCl, then again with saturated aqueous NaHCO 3 , and finally with water, and dried over Na 2 SO 2 . The oil, resulting from the distillation of the solvents, was purified by fractional distillation. Yield: 22 g. B.p=70°-73° C./4 mm, Hg. Part B A solution of 10 g of the product from part A in 150 ml dry CH 2 Cl 2 and 15 ml t-butanol was ozonized at -78° C. for 1/2 hour. The excess O 3 was kept in solution for 15 more minutes, then bubbled off with N 2 . (CH 3 ) 2 S (10 ml) was added at -78° C., then the solution was allowed to warm to room temperature and kept overnight. After evaporation of the solvent, the resulting oil was purified by fractional distillation. After distilling the fraction boiling at 44°-50° C./4mm Hg, the residue was used as such. Part C 14.8 ml of a 3.0 molar solution of EtMgBr in Et 2 O was added at room temperature with stirring under N 2 to 10.0 gr of 1-tetradecyne in 20 ml of dry Et 2 O. After the addition, the solution was stirred for another hour, then added to a precooled solution (dry ice-acetone bath) of the aldehyde prepared as described in part B (10.0 g) in 75 ml of dry Et 2 O. After the addition, the thick paste formed was allowed to warm to room temperature and stirred for one hour; then 75 ml of saturated aqueous NH 4 Cl was added in portions. The organic layer was separated, and the aqueous layer extracted several times with Et 2 O. The combined extracts were washed with water and dried over Na 2 SO 4 . The oil resulting from the evaporation of the solvent, was purified by fractional distillation. The fractions distilling between 80° and 100° C. at 3 mm Hg were discarded. The residue was used as such for part D. Part D 5.0 g of the product prepared as described in part C was dissolved in 50 ml of dry CH 2 Cl 2 and 10 ml of dry pyridine and the solution cooled (ice bath). A solution of methanesulfonic anhydride (2.85 g) in 20 ml of dry CH 2 Cl 2 was added dropwise. After the addition, the mixture was let warm up and stirred at room temperature for three hours, then diluted with CH 2 Cl 2 . The CH 2 Cl 2 solution was washed twice with water, then with aqueous NH 3 (1:10), then again with water and dried over Na 2 SO 4 . The reaction product (5.4 g) obtained after evaporation of the solvent was used as such for part E. Part E 2.0 g of the product prepared as described in part D, t-butanol (7 ml), cysteine methyl ester hydrochloride (1.46 g), and 4 ml of dry Et 3 N were mixed in the order under N 2 at room temperature. After 24 hours, 20 ml of dry CH 2 Cl 2 was added and the mixture stirred for another 24 hours. The solvents were then evaporated, and the reaction mixture was purified by column chromatography (silica gel). The column was eluted first with CHCl 3 (3 liters), then with 20% MeOH/CHCl 3 . The combined fractions containing the compound (2.7 g) were chromatographed again on silica gel. The column was eluted successively with CHCl 3 (1 liter), 5% MeOH/CHCl 3 , 10% MeOH/CHCl 3 , and 20% MeOH/CHCl 3 . The fractions containing the compound were combined and purified by preparative thin layer chromatography on silica gel [solvent: 10% (MeOH:NH 3 )/CHCl 3 (9:1); two elutions] yield: 0.05 g. EXAMPLE 52 Cysteine, (±)-(1-Pentyl-2-Pentadecynyl)-N-(Trifluoroacetyl)-, Methyl Ester Part A The reaction conditions were the same as in part C of example 51 except that hexanal was used as one of the reactants. Part B The reaction conditions were the same as in part D of example 51. Part C 1.99 g of the product as obtained from part B, tert-butanol (10 ml), 2.97 g of cysteine methyl ester N-trifluoroacetate and dry Et 3 N (2.5 ml) were reacted as described in example 53. The reaction mixture was purified by column chromatography (silica gel) (CHCl 3 ). The fractions containing the product were combined and purified again as above using 50% CHCl 3 /Hexanes as eluent. The pure fractions were combined to provide the title compound. EXAMPLE 53 (+)-6-[2(-Amino-3-methoxy-3-oxopropyl)thio]-7-eicosynoic Acid 1.97 of crude product prepared as described in part D of example 51, tert-butanol (7 ml), N-trifluoroacetyl cysteine methyl ester (2.0 g), and Et 3 N (2 ml) were added at room temperature. The solution was stirred at room temperature under N 2 for four hours. The solvents were then evaporated under reduced pressure and the dark oily residue obtained was treated with water and extracted with CHCl 3 . The CHCl 3 extract was washed with water, dried (Na 2 SO 4 ) and evaporated to dryness. The reaction product (3.6 g) was purified by column chromatography (silica gel). The column was successively eluted with CHCl 3 , and 10% MeOH/CHCl 3 . The fractions containing the title compound were combined and purified again as above. The column was eluted first with CHCl 3 , then with 2% MeOH/CHCl 3 . The fractions containing the pure product were combined and evaporated in vacuo to provide the title compound. EXAMPLE 54 Cysteine, (±)-(1-(1-pentyl-2-pentadecynyl)-, Potassium Salt 0.64 g of compound from example 52 was stirred at room temperature under N 2 with 60 ml of 0.13M K 2 CO 3 in MeOH:H 2 O (3:1) for 16 hours. Aqueous KOH (0.35 g/ml water) was added and the reaction stirred for 20 hours at room temperature. The solvents were evaporated under high vacuum. The solid residue was treated with water (25 ml) and the pH of the solution adjusted to 5.2. The mixture was taken in CHCl 3 and the aqueous layer was separated. The organic layer was washed with water and dried over Na 2 SO 4 . Evaporation of the solvent gave the title compound. EXAMPLE 55 7-Eicosynoic Acid, (±)-6-[(2-Amino-2-carboxyethyl)thio]-, Dipotassium Salt 0.4818 g of product from example 53 was treated with 20 ml MeOH:H 2 O (3:1) and cooled in ice bath under N 2 . 0.5 g of KOH in 3 ml of water was then added dropwise. The solution was let warm up to room temperature and stirred for a total of four hours. Aqueous KOH (0.25 g/ml) was added and after another hour, the solvents were evaporated under reduced pressure. The residue was dissolved in water (10 ml) and applied to an XAD-4 column (145 g). The column was successively eluted with water (10×20 ml), 30% MeOH/H 2 O (6×20 ml), 50% MeOH/H 2 O (5×20 ml) and MeOH (11×20 ml). The methanolic fractions gave 0.28 g of the title compound. EXAMPLE 56 (±)-6-[(2-Carboxy-2-[(Trifluoroacetyl)amino]ethyl]thio-7-eicosynoic Acid 0.4 g of compound prepared according to example 53 was stirred at room temperature under N 2 in 57 ml of 0.13M K 2 CO 3 in MeOH:H 2 O (3:1) for five hours. The solvents were evaporated under high vacuum and the residue was purified using 250 g XAD-4 resin column in water. The column was eluted with water to pH=7, then with 250 ml. of 30% MeOH/H 2 O, 500 ml of 50% MeOH/H 2 O, and 100% MeOH. The product (0.16 g) was further purified by preparative thin layer chromatography on SiO 2 (40% MeOH/CHCl 3 ). Yield: 0.035 g. EXAMPLE 57 (±)-6-[[3-Methyl-3-oxo-2-[(Trifluoroacetyl)amino]propyl]thio]-7-eicosynoic acid, Methyl Ester 0.7 g of the product prepared according to example 53 was treated at 0° C. in Et 2 O with large excess of CH 2 N 2 in Et 2 O. Solvent was evaporated under N 2 at room temperature. The reaction mixture was purified by column chromatography (SiO 2 ) (CHCl 3 ). Yield: 0.22 g. EXAMPLE 58 2H-Pyran, Tetrahydro-2-[[6-[[6-[(tetrahydro-2H(±)-pyran-2-yl)oxy]hexyl]oxy]-7-eicosynyl]oxy- Part A 21 ml (2.85M in Et 2 O) EtMgBr was added dropwise to a solution of 1-tetradecyne in 120 ml of dry Et 2 O at room temperature. After the addition, the brown solution was stirred at room temperature for one hour, then cooled (dry ice-acetone bath). 10.0 g 6-[(tetrahydropyran-2H-pyran-2-yl)oxy]-hexanal in 50 ml of dry Et 2 O was added in one portion. The mixture was let warm up to room temperature and stirred for two hours. 3.5 g NH 4 Cl in 30 ml water was then added. The mixture was diluted with Et 2 O (total volume=750 ml), washed with water, and dried over Na 2 SO 4 . The reaction mixture resulting from the evaporation of the solvent (20 g) was filtered through silica gel (350 g) using CHCl 3 as eluent. The product obtained (3.6 g) was used as such for part B. Part B 0.9 g NaH (50% oil dispersion) was washed with hexanes under N 2 , then 4 ml of dry THF was added. 2.66 g of the product from part A was added at room temperature, and the mixture refluxed under N 2 for three hours. After cooling to room temperature, 3.0 g of 1-iodo-6-tetrahydropyran-2-yl-ether was added and the mixture refluxed overnight under N 2 . The mixture was then cooled in ice bath and treated with water. The solution was taken in CH 2 Cl 2 (300 ml), washed with water to pH=7 and dried over Na 2 SO 4 . The reaction product was purified by column chromatography (silica gel) (5% EtOAc/Hexanes). Yield: 1.0 g. EXAMPLE 59 (±)-6-[(6-Hydroxyhexyl)oxy]-7-eicosyn-1-ol 1.0 g of 2H-Pyran, tetrahydro-2-[[6-[[6-[(tetrahydro-2H-pyran-2-yl)oxy]hexyl]oxy]-7-eicosynyl]oxy]- was stirred at room temperature for seven hours with 15 ml methanol containing 50 mg of p-toluenesulfonic acid. The solution was kept overnight in the refrigerator, then treated with 3 ml MeOH:aq. NH 3 (8:2). After evaporation of the solvents, the resulting oil was taken in CH 2 Cl 2 washed with water (3×50 ml), and dried over Na 2 SO 4 . Yield: 0.65 g. EXAMPLE 60 (±)-6-[(6-Methoxy-6-oxyhexyl)oxy]-7-eicosynoic Acid, Methyl Ester The product from example 59 was oxidized and methylated using the same procedure as described in example 11. The reaction mixture was purified by column chromatography on silica gel (5% EtOAc/Hexanes). EXAMPLE 61 (±)-6-[(5-Carboxypentyl)oxy]-7-eicosynoic Acid The product from example 60 (0.2 g) was hydrolysed using the same procedure as described in example 13. Yield: 0.195 g. EXAMPLE 62 (-)-Methyl(5R,6S)-5-hydroxy-6-[(2R)-2-(trifluoroacetylamino)-2-(methoxycarbonyl)-ethylthio]-7-eicosynoate and (+)-Methyl(5S,6R)-5-hydroxy-6-[(2R)-2-(trifluoroacetylamino)-2-(methoxycarbonyl)-ethylthio]-7-eicosynoate A solution of methyl-trans-5,6-epoxy-7-eicosynoate (0.3762 g) (preparative example X) in methanol (0.1 ml) containing Et 3 N (0.8 ml) was treated with cysteine methylester N-trifluoroacetate (0.516 g). After 2 hours solvents were evaporated in vacuo and the residue distributed between water and CH 2 Cl 2 . The organic phase was then separated and the aqueous phase extracted three times with CH 2 Cl 2 . Combined CH 2 Cl 2 extracts were washed once with water, dried (Na 2 SO 4 ) and evaporated to dryness in vacuo to provide a thick yellow oil (1.0097 g). The reaction was repeated exactly as above using 1.22 g. trans-epoxide to provide another batch of the product (3.228 g). The two products were combined and chromatographed on TLC grade silica gel using 20-30% ethylacetate in η-Hexane as eluent: A. Less polar isomer 0.94 g, [α] D 26 -10.9° (CHCl 3 ) B. More polar isomer 0.66 g, [α] D 26 +22.1° (CHCl 3 ) Both isomers were obtained as waxy solids. EXAMPLE 63 (-)-(5R,6S)-5-hydroxy-6-[(2R)-2-amino-2-carboxyethylthio]-7-eicosynoic Acid Dipotassium Salt The less polar dimethylester from example 62 (0.4 g) was stirred with 90 ml 0.13M K 2 CO 3 in MeOH: water (3:1) at room temperature in N 2 atmosphere. After 36 hours solvents were removed in vacuo (bath temp. 40° C.) and the residue obtained subjected to purification on a XAD-4 (160 g) column: Fractions: water (800 ml) - discarded 1-5 MeOH 0.2783 g amorphous solid (400 ml) each [α] D 26 -24.6° (MeOH) EXAMPLE 64 (+)-(5S,6R)-5-hydroxy-6-[(2R)-2-amino-2-carboxyethylthio]-7-eicosynoic Acid Dipotassium Salt The more polar dimethylester (0.3 g) was stirred with 66 ml 0.13M K 2 CO 3 in MeOH:water (3.1) at room temperature in N 2 atmosphere. After 36 hours the reaction was worked up as in example 63 and the product subjected to purification on a XAD-4 (120 g) column: Fractions: Water (600 ml) 1-5 MeOH 0.2264 g (400 ml each) amorphous solid [α] D 26 +11.9° (MeOH) EXAMPLE 65 6-Hydroxy-6-(1-tetradecynyl)-undecanedioic acid (Crude) A stirred solution of 1-tetradecyne (58.2 g) in 55 ml dry tetrahydrofuran (THF) was treated (in argon atmosphere) dropwise with n-BuLi (1.6M in n-Hexane) until 85 ml had been added. A very heavy precipitation of Li-salt of 1-tetradecyne took place causing difficulty in stirring the reaction mixture. After stirring the reaction mixture in ice bath for ˜45 minutes, 6-oxo undecanedioic acid (10.4 g) was added as a concentrated solution in dry THF (50 ml). The reaction mixture was gradually allowed to warm up to room temperature and stirred for a total 15 hours. The pasty reaction mixture was quenched with water and extracted with n-hexane to remove excess 1-tetradecyne. The aqueous phase was adjusted to pH˜2 with aqueous oxalic acid and extracted with CH 2 Cl 2 . A crystalline solid not soluble in either phase later found to be unchanged oxo dicarboxylic acid was removed by filtration. The CH 2 Cl 2 extract was dried (Na 2 SO 4 ) and evaporated to dryness to provide a crystalline solid. Yield: 6.36 g. This product was used as such in the next reaction. EXAMPLE 66 Undecanedioic Acid, 6-hydroxy-6-(1-tetradecynyl)-, Dimethylester The crude diacid from example 65 (0.6 g) was treated with excess diazomethane as in example 4B and subjected to chromatography on six 1 mm thick silica gel plates (solvent system: 20% ethylacetate in n-hexane). The less polar major band was extracted with 20% MeOH/CHCl 3 to provide a crystalline solid, m.p. 35° C. Yield: 0.44 g. EXAMPLE 67 -hydroxy-6-(1-tetradecynyl)undecanedioic acid (pure) A solution of the pure diester from example 66 (0.22 g) in ethanol (5 ml) was treated with 10% aqueous NaOH (2.5 ml). The mixture was stirred for 36 hours at room temperature. Work-up of the reaction as in example 5 yielded a crystalline solid, m.p. 65°-66° C. Yield: 0.191 g. EXAMPLE 68 6-(1-tetradecynyl)undec-5z-enedioic acid, dimethylester A solution of the tert. alcohol-dimethylester from example 66 (1 g) in CH 2 Cl 2 (50 ml) was treated with cooling (bath temp 0°-5° C.) and good stirring with P 2 O 5 (0.8 g). After 1 hour the reaction was quenched with water. CH 2 Cl 2 phase was separated and the aqueous phase was extracted twice with more CH 2 Cl 2 . The combined CH 2 Cl 2 extract was washed with aqueous NaHCO 3 , dried over Na 2 SO 4 and evaporated to dryness to provide the crude product (1.035 g) as a thick oil. It was purified by chromatography on coarse SiO 2 (30 g) using 10% ethylacetate in n-hexane as eluent (50 ml fractions). The desired 5Z-olefin was obtained as the less polar component. Yield: 0.7564 g. The more polar fraction was a mixture of 5Z-(major) and 5E-(minor) olefins (0.2028 g). EXAMPLE 69 6-(1-tetradecynyl)undec-5 z-enedioic acid A solution of the dimethylester from example 68 (0.2 g) in ethanol (5 ml) was treated with 10% aqueous NaOH (2.5 ml). The reaction mixture was stirred for 36 hours and worked up as in example 5 to provide the title compound as a crystalline solid, m.p. 47°-48° C. Yield: 0.196 g. EXAMPLE 70 6-(1-Tetradecynyl)-undec-5E-Enedioic acid, dimethylester Dehydration of 7 g. tert. alcohol-dimethylester (from example 66) was conducted as in example 68. The minor more polar 5E-olefin was isolated by repeated chromatography on TLC grade silica gel using 10% ethylacetate in-hexane as eluent. The partially purified 5E-olefin (0.149 g) was further purified by preparative thin layer chromatography. EXAMPLE 71 6-(1-Tetradecynyl)undec-5E-Enedioic acid Hydrolysis of the 5E-olefin-dimethylester (0.16 g) as in example 69 gave the title compound as a crystalline solid. Yield: 0.15 g. EXAMPLE 72 Undecanedioic Acid, 6-fluoro-6-(1-tetradecynyl)-, Dimethylester A stirred solution of the 6-hydroxy-dimethylester (1 g; example 66) in CH 2 Cl 2 (5 ml) was cooled (ice bath) and treated with diethylaminosulfurtrifluoride (DAST) (0.7 ml; excess). After 30 minutes in the ice bath, the reaction was allowed to warm up to room temperature. The reaction mixture was stirred for a total of 11/2 hours followed by treatment with dilute NaHCO 3 solution. CH 2 Cl 2 layer was separated and the aqueous phase extracted once more with CH 2 Cl 2 . The combined organic extracts were washed once with water, dried (Na 2 SO 4 ) and evaporated to dryness to provide a gummy product. It was chromatographed on TLC grade SiO 2 (50 g) using 10% ethylacetate in n-hexane as eluent (˜5 ml fractions). The desired 6-fluoro-dimethylester was isolated from the more polar fractions 47-52 as a colorless oil. Yield: 0.4856 g. EXAMPLE 73 6-Fluoro-6-(1-Tetradecynyl)-Undecanedioic Acid A solution of the fluoro-diester from example (0.22 g) in ethanol was hydrolysed with 10% aqueous NaOH (3 ml) as in example 5. Work-up in the same manner provided the desired diacid as a crystalline solid, m.p. 98°-100° C. Yield: 0.2051 g. EXAMPLE 74 6-fluoro-6-tetradecylundecanedioic acid, dimethylester A solution of the acetylenic product (0.4 g); from example 73) in n-hexane (40 ml) was hydrogenated in the presence of 10% Pd/C (0.1 g). After 15 hours the catalyst was removed by filtration, washed with CH 2 Cl 2 and the combined filtrates and washings were evaporated to dryness to provide a thick colorless oil. Yield: 0.4 g. EXAMPLE 75 6-Tetradecylundecanedioic acid, Dimethylester A solution of the unsaturated diester (0.3 g; example 68) in n-hexane (30 ml) was hydrogenated in the presence of 10% Pd/C (0.1 g) overnight. Catalyst was removed by filtration and washed with CH 2 Cl 2 . Evaporation of combined filtrates gave the title compound as a thick colorless oil. Yield: 0.3 g. EXAMPLE 76 6-Tetradecylundecanedioic acid A solution of the diester (0.2 g; from example 75) in ethanol (5 ml) was treated with 10% aqueous NaOH (2.5 ml) exactly as in example 5 to provide a crystalline solid, m.p. 48°-50° C. EXAMPLE 77 6-hydroxy-6-tetradecylundecanedioic acid A solution of the saturated diester (0.23 g; example 74) in ethanol (8 ml) was treated with 10% aqueous NaOH (2.5 ml) as in the previous experiment. The product after trituration with n-hexane provided a crystalline solid, m.p. 79°-80° C. Yield: 0.1896 g. EXAMPLE 78 6-(1-Tetradecynyl)undecanedioic acid (The synthesis of the title compound is described in part E of this example) Part A To a solution of 6-(1-tetradecynyl)undec-5Z-enedioic acid dimethylester (1.0 g.; example 68) was added (under N 2 ) dicobalt octacarbonyl (0.94 g.) in dry CH 2 Cl 2 at room temperature. The reaction was stirred for 1 hr. followed by removal of CH 2 Cl 2 under N 2 atmosphere. Part B A solution of the product from the above reaction (1.5 g.) in dry methanol (25 ml) was added to a slurry of potassium diazodicarboxylate (5.06 g.) in dry methanol (25 ml) in an atmosphere of N 2 . The reaction mixture was cooled (ice bath) and a solution of glacial acetic acid (2.7 ml) in dry methanol (7.3 ml) was added dropwise. The mixture was stirred in ice bath for three hours. Four additions of potassium diazodicarboxylate (as a solid) (3.3 g.) along with glacial acetic acid (1.5 ml) in dry methanol (8.5 ml) were necessary at three hour intervals. After evaporation of methanol in vacuo the residue was dissolved in CHCl 3 , washed with aqueous NaHCO 3 , water and dried (Na 2 SO 4 ). Evaporation of the solvent in vacuo left the crude product (1.07 g.). Part C A portion of the reaction product from above (0.722 g.) was dissolved in acetone (25 ml) and the solution cooled (ice bath). Ceric ammonium nitrate (3.3 g.) was added in small portions over a period of 30 minutes with good stirring. The reaction mixture was stirred for an additional 15 minutes followed by addition of n-hexane (200 ml). the organic phase was washed with water, dried (Na 2 SO 4 ) and evaporated to dryness to provide the crude dimethylester of the title compound containing unchanged olefinic dimethylester. Part D The above mixture was treated with m-chloroperbenzoic acid as described in preparative example XII. A mixture of the epoxide derived from the unchanged olefinic dimethylester and unreacted dimethylester of the title compound was thus obtained. The two products were separated by chromatography on t.l.c. grade silica gel. The pure dimethylester of the title compound so obtained was treated as follows. Part E A portion (0.1 g.) of 6-(1tetradecynyl)undecanedioic acid dimethylester (as obtained from Part D) was treated with 10% aqueous KOH as in example 13 to provide the title compound. Yield: 0.09 g. EXAMPLE 79 Heptanoic acid-6,6'-[Pentadecyn-1-ylidene bis(oxy)]-bis-(2,2-dimethyl-1-oxopropoxymethyl)ester To a stirred solution of heptanoic acid-6,6'-[2-pentadecyn-1-ylidene bis(oxy)]bis (0.5 g) in dry DMF (3 ml) was added dry Et 3 N (0.77 ml). The solution was cooled in an ice bath and a solution of chloromethyl pivalate (0.34 ml) was added. The solution was allowed to warm to room temperature and stirred in an argon atmosphere for ˜15 hrs. The solvent was evaporated in vacuo, the residue treated with water (20 ml) and extracted several times with ethyl acetate. The combined extracts were washed with water, dried (Na 2 SO 4 ) and evaporated to dryness to provide a gummy product. The impure product was filtered through a column of SiO 2 (30 g) using CHCl 3 as eluent. Yield: 0.7 g. PREPARATIVE EXAMPLE I 2-Pentadecynal Diethylacetal 1-Tetradecyne (100 g), (EtO) 3 CH (200 ml) and ZnI 2 (15 g) were heated together (bath temperature 170°-175°) with distillative removal of ethanol (˜90 minutes). The reaction mixture was evaporated in vacuo (bath temperature 80°) to remove excess (EtO) 3 CH. The residue was distributed between CH 2 Cl 2 and water. The CH 2 Cl 2 phase was separated, washed with aqueous NaHCO 3 , dried (Na 2 SO 4 ) and evaporated in vacuo to provide a light brown oil. Yield: 135.4 g. This product was shown to be virtually pure by TLC and PMR and it was used as such in subsequent reactions. PREPARATIVE EXAMPLE II 2-Pentadecynal A mixture of 2-pentadecynal diethyl acetal (4 g) and 10% aqueous H 2 SO 4 (60 ml) was refluxed with efficient stirring, for one hour. An additional 40 ml dilute H 2 SO 4 was added at this stage and the mixture heated for another two hours. After cooling, the reaction mixture was extracted with CH 2 Cl 2 , the extract dried (Na 2 SO 4 ) and evaporated in vacuo to provide a yellow oil. Yield: 2.9 g. PREPARATIVE EXAMPLE III 2-E-Hexen-4-ynal, 6,6-Diethoxy A stirred solution of diformyl acetylene monodiethylacetal (2.28 g) was treated in small portions with Ph 3 P=CH.CHO (4.47 g). After stirring for 15 hours the solvent was evaporated in vacuo and the dark residue subjected to chromatography on coarse SiO 2 (100 g) using 5% acetone/n-hexane as eluent. Fractions (100 ml) were collected and the title compound was obtained pure from fraction no. 6. Yield: 2.01 g. PREPARATIVE EXAMPLE IV 4E,6Z,9Z-Pentadecatriene-2-yne aldehyde diethyl acetal A solution of 3-(Z)-nonene-triphenylphosphonium salt in 20-23 ml of dry THF was treated with 1.6M BuLi (6.79 ml) and stirred at room temperature for 1 hour. The aldehyde (1.68 g, example III) in 3 ml THF was added and allowed to stir for another 3 hours. The reaction mixture was diluted with EtOAc and washed with dilute NaHSO 3 solution, brine and dried (Na 2 SO 4 ). Evaporation of the solvent followed by chromatography on SiO 2 (eluent 10% Et 20 in n-hexane) gave the pure product (1.17 g) as a yellow oil. PREPARATIVE EXAMPLE V (±) Methyl 6-Hydroxy-7-Eicosyndoate A cooled solution (ice bath) of the 6-ketone (29.86 g) in methanol (475 ml) and water (10 ml) was treated with NaBH 4 (1.27 g) in small portions. After 30 minutes the reaction was diluted with water (50 ml), methanol evaporated in vacuo and the residue distributed between water (50 ml) and CH 2 Cl 2 (100 ml). CH 2 Cl 2 phase was extracted twice with CH 2 Cl 2 The combined CH 2 Cl 2 extracts were dried (Na 2 SO 4 ) and evaporated to dryness to provide the almost pure alcohol as a thick oil (30.23 g). It was further purified on coarse silica gel (300 g) using 5% ethyl acetate/n-hexane as eluent. Fractions 7-18 (250 ml each) gave the pure alcohol. Yield: 21.79 g. PREPARATIVE EXAMPLE VI (±) Methyl 6(R)-Hydroxy-7-Eicosynoate A solution of (+) α-pinene (1.04 ml; [α] D 26 +47.7°) and 9-borabicyclonohane (12 ml of 0.5M THF solution; 0.006 mol) was refluxed for 21/2 hours and cooled to room temperature. With ice bath cooling methyl 6-oxo-7-eicosynoate (1 g; 0.003 mol) was now added. The mixture was now stirred under argon at room temperature for 3 days. Acetaldehyde (21 ml) was injected into the solution which was then stirred for 15 minutes The THF and (+) α-pinene were removed in vacuo at 40° (bath temperature). The remaining yellow product was treated with diethylether (5 ml) to dissolve, followed by addition of ethanolamine (0.38 g; 0.006 mol). After stirring at ice bath temperature for 15 minutes, the white precipitate formed was removed by filtration and washed with cold diethylether. The combined filtrate was washed with saturated NaCl, dried (Na 2 SO 4 ) and evaporated to dryness to provide a thick oil. It was chromatographed on TLC grade SiO 2 (100 g) using 10% ethyl acetate in n-hexane as eluent. Fractions 103-135 (˜5 ml each) gave pure 6R-alcohol. Yield: 0.6268 g. Note: The 6(S)-alcohol of opposite configuration was obtained by substituting (+) α-pinene with (-) α-pinene in the above reaction. PREPARATIVE EXAMPLE VII 2-Pentadecyne 1-ol A stirred solution of the aldehyde from preparative example II (16.56 g) in methanol (160 ml) and water (16 ml) was cooled (ice bath) and treated with NaBH 4 (1.25 g) in small portions. After ˜10 minutes a crystalline precipitate separated. Stirring was continued for 30 minutes. The solvents were evaporated in vacuo and the residue was distributed between CH 2 Cl 2 (˜100 ml) and water (˜50 ml). CH 2 Cl 2 phase was separated and the aqueous phase extracted twice with CH 2 Cl 2 . The combined CH 2 Cl 2 extracts were washed once with water, dried (NaSO 4 ) and evaporated to dryness to provide a crystalline solid, m.p. 36°-37° C. Yield: 17.8 g. PREPARATIVE EXAMPLE VIII 1-Bromo-2-Pentadecyne A stirred solution of the alcohol (17 g; preparative example VII) in CH 2 Cl 2 (500 ml) was treated with CBr 4 (30.19 g). After all CBr 4 had dissolved, the solution was cooled (ice bath) and treated with Ph 3 P (25.87 g). The reaction was worked up after 1 hour as follows: CH 2 Cl 2 was evaporated in vacuo and the gummy residue treated with n-hexane. A precipitate of Ph 3 P═O so obtained was removed by filtration and washed with n-hexane. The combined filtrate and washings were evaporated to dryness in vacuo and passed through a column of coarse SiO 2 (200 g) using n-hexane (˜2L) as eluent. Evaporation of the n-hexane eluate in vacuo (temp. 60°-90°) provided the bromide as a colorless oil. Yield: 19.9 g. PREPARATIVE EXAMPLE IX 2-Pentadecyne-1-Tetramethylene Sulfonium Bromide To a solution of the bromide (18.9 g.; preparative example VIII) in 150 ml methanol:water (9:1) was added tetrahydrothiophene (7.56 g). The reaction mixture was efficiently stirred for 2 days. After washing once with n-hexane, the MeOH:water phase was evaporated to dryness and the residue dissolved in CH 2 Cl 2 The methylene chloride solution was concentrated to ˜10 ml and treated with n-hexane until separation of colorless crystals took place. The crystals were collected by filtration. Yield: 13.6 g, m.p. 76°-79° C. PREPARATIVE EXAMPLE X Trans-5,6-Epoxy-7-Epocoxynoic Acid Methyl Ester/Cis-5,6-Epoxy-7-Eicosynoic Acid Methyl Ester A stirred and cooled solution (bath temperature -25°) of the tetramethylene sulfonium bromide (3 g; preparative example IX) methyl 4-formylbutyrate (1.04 g) containing benzyltriethylammonium chloride (0.054 g) in CH 2 Cl 2 (15 ml) was treated with 10M NaOH solution (8.06 ml) in one portion. The mixture was efficiently stirred for 1 min. and then rapidly cooled to -70° (bath temp ). CH 2 Cl 2 layer was decanted out with a pippette. The frozen aqueous phase was washed 3-4 times with CH 2 Cl 2 , the combined CH 2 Cl 2 extract and washings were washed with water, dried (Na 2 SO 4 ) and evaporated to dryness to provide a turbid oil. The products from four such reactions were combined to yield 14.2 g total crude product which was chromatographed on TLC grade SiO 2 . The column was eluted with 50% n-hexane/CHCl 3 (containing 2 ml/1 L triethylamine) and ˜6 ml fractions were collected: Fractions 102-132 Pure trans-epoxide Fractions 191-205 Pure cis-epoxide PREPARATIVE EXAMPLE XI (±) Methyl-6-Bromo-7-Eicosynoate This compound was prepared by reaction of 6-(±)-hydroxy-7-eicosynoate (preparative example V) with CBr 4 /Ph 3 P reagent in exactly the same manner as described in preparative example VIII. Note: By use of the corresponding 6-R, and 6-S alcohols (preparative example VI) the optically active (+) and (-) 6-bromo-7-eicosanoates were also obtained PREPARATIVE EXAMPLE XII 5,6-Epoxy-6-(1-Tetradecynyl)Undecanedioic Acid, Dimethyl Ester 0.19 g. of the product from example 70 was cooled in ice bath and meta-chloroperbenzoic acid (0.07 g) was added. Additional 0.1 g peracid was added in two portions after two and three hours period. Two hours later, the reaction mixture was diluted with CH 2 Cl 2 (180 ml), washed with aqueous NaHSO 3 , aqueous Na 2 CO 3 (3×50 ml), then with water and dried over Na 2 SO 4 . The reaction mixture was purified by column chromatography on silica gel (CHCl 3 ). The fractions containing the title compound were further purified by prepartive thin layer chromatography on silica gel (20% EtOAc/hexanes). Yield: 0.139 g. PREPARATIVE EXAMPLE XIII (±)-Dipotassium 5,6-Epoxy-6-(1-Tetradecynyl)-Undecanedioate 0.37 g. 6-(1tetradecynyl-5,6-epoxyundecanedioic acid dimethyl ester was stirred at room temperature with 5 ml of absolute EtOH and 1.84 ml of 10% aqueous KOH for 24 hours. The solvents were then evaporated and the mixture was desalted on a XAD-4 resin (35 g) column. The column was eluted first with water to pH=7, then with 50% H 20/ MeOH to provide in methanolic fractions the title compound.

Novel compounds and compositions which inhibit SRS-A in mammals are disclosed. Methods for preparing said compounds and compositions and methods for their use for treating allergic reactions, inflammation and for reducing the severity of myocardial infarction resulting from heart attack are disclosed. Useful intermediates for preparing said compounds are also disclosed.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/450,038, filed Jun. 8, 2006, pending, which is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/449,854, filed Nov. 26, 1999, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,192,759, issued Mar. 20, 2007, the contents of each of which are incorporated herein by this reference. TECHNICAL FIELD [0002] The invention relates to biotechnology and the development and manufacture of vaccines. In particular, the invention relates to the field of production of viral proteins and/or viruses, more in particular to the use of a mammalian cell, preferably a human cell for the production of viruses growing in eukaryotic, preferably mammalian and, in particular, human cells. The invention is particularly useful for the production of vaccines to aid in protection against viral pathogens for vertebrates, in particular mammalians and especially humans. BACKGROUND [0003] Means and methods are disclosed herein for producing a virus and/or viral protein in a (human) cell, preferably using a defined synthetic medium, and for purifying the virus and/or components thereof from the cell and/or culture medium. Pharmaceutical compositions containing virus or its components and methods for manufacturing and recovering and/or purifying them are provided. [0004] Vaccination is the most important route of dealing with viral infections. Although a number of antiviral agents are available, typically these agents have limited efficacy. Administering antibodies against a virus may be a good way of dealing with viral infections once an individual is infected (passive immunization) and typically human or humanized antibodies do seem promising for dealing with a number of viral infections. But the most efficacious and safe way of dealing with virus infection is, and probably will be, prophylaxis through active immunizations. Active immunization is generally referred to as vaccination and vaccines comprising at least one antigenic determinant of a virus, preferably a number of different antigenic determinants of at least one virus, e.g., by incorporating in the vaccine at least one viral polypeptide or protein derived from a virus (subunit vaccines). Typically, the formats mentioned so far include adjuvants in order to enhance an immune response. This also is possible for vaccines based on whole virus, e.g., in an inactivated format. A further possibility is the use of live, but attenuated forms of the pathogenic virus. A further possibility is the use of wild-type virus, e.g., in cases where adult individuals are not in danger from infection, but infants are and may be protected through maternal antibodies and the like. Production of vaccines is not always an easy procedure. In some cases the production of viral material is on eggs, which leads to difficulty in purifying material and extensive safety measures against contamination, etc. Also production on bacteria and or yeasts, which sometimes, but not always, is an alternative for eggs, requires many purification and safety steps. Production on mammalian cells would be an alternative, but mammalian cells used so far all require, for instance, the presence of serum and/or adherence to a solid support for growth. In the first case, again, purification and safety and e.g., the requirement of protease to support the replication of some viruses become an issue. In the second case, high yields and ease of production become a further issue. The present invention overcomes at least a number of the problems encountered with the production systems for production of viruses and/or viral proteins for vaccine purposes of the systems of the prior art. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0005] Thus, in certain aspects, the invention provides a method for producing a virus and/or viral proteins, other than adenovirus or adenoviral proteins, for use as a vaccine comprising providing a cell with at least a sequence encoding at least one gene product of the E1 gene or a functional derivative thereof of an adenovirus, providing the cell with a nucleic acid encoding the virus or the viral proteins, culturing the cell in a suitable medium and allowing for propagation of the virus or expression of the viral proteins and harvesting the virus and/or viral proteins from the medium and/or the cell. Until the present invention, there were few, if any (human) cells that had been found suitable to produce viruses and/or viral proteins for use as vaccines in any reproducible and upscaleable manner and/or with sufficiently high yields and/or which were easily purifiable. We have now found that cells which comprise adenoviral E1 sequences, preferably in their genome, are capable of sustaining the propagation of viruses in significant amounts. [0006] The preferred cell according to the invention is derived from a human primary cell, preferably a cell which is immortalized by a gene product of the E1 gene. In order to be able to grow a primary cell, of course, it needs to be immortalized. A good example of such a cell is one derived from a human embryonic retinoblast. [0007] In cells according to the invention, it is important that the E1 gene sequences are not lost during the cell cycle. It is, therefore, preferred that the sequence encoding at least one gene product of the E1 gene is present in the genome of the (human) cell. For reasons of safety care, it is best taken to avoid unnecessary adenoviral sequences in the cells according to the invention. It is, thus, another embodiment of the invention to provide cells that do not produce adenoviral structural proteins. However, in order to achieve large-scale (continuous) virus production through cell culture, it is preferred to have cells capable of growing without needing anchorage. The cells of the present invention have that capability. To have a clean and safe production system from which it is easy to recover and, if desirable, to purify the virus, it is preferred to have a method according to the invention, whereby the human cell comprises no other adenoviral sequences. The most preferred cell for the methods and uses of the invention is PER.C6®, as deposited under the Budapest Treaty under ECACC No. 96022940, or a derivative thereof. [0008] Thus, the invention provides a method of using a cell according to the invention, wherein the cell further comprises a sequence encoding E2A, or a functional derivative or analogue or fragment thereof, preferably, a cell wherein the sequence encoding E2A, or a functional derivative or analogue or fragment thereof is present in the genome of the human cell and, most preferably, a cell wherein the E2A encoding sequence encodes a temperature-sensitive mutant E2A. [0009] Furthermore, as stated, the invention also provides a method according to the invention wherein the (human) cell is capable of growing in suspension. [0010] The invention also provides a method wherein the human cell can be cultured in the absence of serum. The cells according to the invention, in particular PER.C6®, have the additional advantage that they can be cultured in the absence of serum or serum components. Thus, isolation is easy, safety is enhanced and reliability of the system is good (synthetic media are the best in reproducibility). The human cells of the invention and, in particular, those based on primary cells and particularly the ones based on HER cells, are capable of normal post- and peri-translational modifications and assembly. This means that they are very suitable for preparing viral proteins and viruses for use in vaccines. [0011] Thus, the invention provides a method according to the invention, wherein the virus and/or the viral proteins comprise a protein that undergoes post-translational and/or peri-translational modification, especially wherein the modifications comprise glycosylation. A good example of a viral vaccine that has been cumbersome to produce in any reliable manner is influenza vaccine. The invention provides a method wherein the viral proteins comprise at least one of an Influenza virus neuramidase and/or a hemagglutinin. Other viral proteins (subunits) and viruses (wild-type to be inactivated) or attenuated viruses that can be produced in the methods according to the invention include enterovirus, such as rhinovirus, aphtovirus, or poliomyelitis virus, herpes virus, such as herpes symplex virus, pseudorabies virus or bovine herpes virus, orthomyxovirus, such as influenza virus, a paramyxovirus, such as Newcastle disease virus, respiratory syncitio virus, mumps virus or a measles virus, retrovirus, such as human immunedeficiency virus, or a parvovirus or a papovavirus, rotavirus or a coronavirus, such as transmissable gastroenteritis virus or a flavivirus, such as tick-borne encephalitis virus or yellow fever virus, a togavirus, such as rubella virus or eastern-, western-, or Venezuelean-equine encephalomyelitis virus, a hepatitis causing virus, such as hepatitis A or hepatitis B virus, a pestivirus, such as hog cholera virus, or a rhabdovirus, such as rabies virus. [0012] The invention also provides the use of a human cell having a sequence encoding at least one E1 protein of an adenovirus or a functional derivative, homologue or fragment thereof, in its genome, which cell does not produce structural adenoviral proteins for the production of a virus, or at least one viral protein for use in a vaccine. Of course, for such a use the cells preferred in the methods according to the invention are also preferred. The invention also provides the products resulting from the methods and uses according to the invention, especially viral proteins and viruses obtainable according to those uses and/or methods, especially when brought in a pharmaceutical composition comprising suitable excipients and in some formats (inactivated viruses, subunits) adjuvants. Dosage and ways of administration can be sorted out through normal clinical testing in as far as they are not yet available through the already registered vaccines. [0013] Thus, the invention also provides a virus or a viral protein for use in a vaccine obtainable by a method or by a use according to the invention, the virus or the viral protein being free of any non-human mammalian proteinaceous material, and a pharmaceutical formulation comprising such a virus and/or viral protein. [0014] The invention further provides a human cell having a sequence encoding at least one E1 protein of an adenovirus or a functional derivative, homologue or fragment thereof, in its genome, which cell does not produce structural adenoviral proteins and having a nucleic acid encoding a virus or at least one non-adenoviral viral protein. This cell can be used in a method according to the invention. [0015] In a preferred embodiment, the invention provides influenza virus obtainable by a method according to the invention or by a use according to the invention. In another embodiment the invention provides influenza vaccines obtainable by a method according to the invention or by a use according to the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS [0016] FIG. 1 : Percentage of infected cells (positive cells) viewed microscopically after immunofluorescence assay versus percentage of dead cells measured via FACS after propidium iodide staining, at MOIs of 10−3 and 10−4. Poor viability of the cells from samples derived from infection at moi 10−3 didn't give rise to reliable data. [0017] FIG. 2 : Percentage of infected cells viewed microscopically after immunofluorescence assay. Samples derived from infection at moi 10 and 1, at 48 hours post-infection are not shown, because of full CPE. [0018] FIG. 3 : Kinetics of virus propagation measured in hemagglutinating units (HAU) from day 1 to day 6 after infection. [0019] FIG. 4 : Percentage of infected cells (positive cells) viewed microscopically after immunofluorescence assay. [0020] FIG. 5 : Kinetics of virus propagation measured in hemagglutinating units (HAU) from day 1 to day 6 after infection. [0021] FIG. 6 : Percentage of infected cells (positive cells) viewed microscopically after immunofluorescence assay. [0022] FIG. 7 : Kinetics of virus propagation measured in hemagglutinating units (HAU) from day 2 to day 6 after infection. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0023] The present invention discloses a novel, human immortalized cell line for the purpose of propagating and harvesting virus, for production of the virus. PER.C6® cells (WO 97/00326) were generated by transfection of primary human embryonic retina cells, using a plasmid that contained the Ad serotype 5 (Ad5) E1A- and E1B-coding sequences (Ad5 nucleotides 459-3510 SEQ ID NO:1 of the incorporated herein SEQUENCE LISTING) under the control of the human phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK) promoter. [0024] The following features make PER.C6®, or a derivative, particularly useful as a host for virus production: it is a fully characterized human cell line; it was developed in compliance with GLP; it can be grown as suspension cultures in defined serum-free medium, devoid of any human or animal serum proteins; and its growth is compatible with roller bottles, shaker flasks, spinner flasks and bioreactors, with doubling times of about 35 hours. Influenza Epidemiology [0025] Influenza viruses, members of the family of Orthomyxoviridae, are the causative agents of annual epidemics of acute respiratory disease. In the US alone, 50 million Americans get the flu each year. Estimated deaths worldwide (1972-1992) are 60,000 (CDC statistics). There have been three major cases of pandemic outbreaks of influenza, namely in 1918 (Spanish flu, estimated 40 million deaths), in 1957 (Asian flu, estimated one million deaths), and in 1968 (Hong-Kong flu, estimated 700,000 deaths). Infections with influenza viruses are associated with a broad spectrum of illnesses and complications that result in substantial worldwide morbidity and mortality, especially in older people and patients with chronic illness. Vaccination against influenza is most effective in preventing the often fatal complications associated with this infection (B. R. Murphy and R. G. Webster, 1996). The production of influenza virus on the diploid human cell line MRC-5 has been reported (L. Herrero-Euribe et al., 1983). However, the titers of influenza virus are prohibitively low. Strains of Influenza Virus [0026] Present day flu vaccines contain purified hemagglutinin and neuraminidase of influenza virus A and B. The three viruses that represent epidemiologically important strains are influenza A(H1N1), influenza A(H3N2) and influenza B. The division into A and B types is based on antigenic differences between their nucleoprotein (NP) and matrix (M) protein antigen. The influenza A virus is further subdivided into subtypes based on the antigenic composition (sequence) of hemagglutinin (H1-H15) and neuraminidase (N1-N9) molecules. Representatives of each of these subtypes have been isolated from aquatic birds, which probably are the primordial reservoir of all influenza viruses for avian and mammalian species. Transmission has been shown between pigs and humans and, recently, (H5N1) between birds and humans. Influenza Vaccines [0027] Three types of inactivated influenza vaccines are currently used in the world: whole virus, split product and surface antigen or subunit vaccines. These vaccines all contain the surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) of the influenza virus strains that are expected to circulate in the human population in the upcoming season. [0028] These strains, which are incorporated in the vaccine, are grown in embryonated hens' eggs, and the viral particles are subsequently purified before further processing. [0029] The need for the yearly adjustment of influenza vaccines is due to antigen variation caused by processes known as “antigenic drift” and “antigenic shift.” [0030] Antigenic drift occurs by the accumulation of a series of point mutations in either the H or N protein of a virus resulting in amino acid substitutions. These substitutions prevent the binding of neutralizing antibodies, induced by previous infection, and the new variant can infect the host. [0031] Antigenic shift is the appearance of a new subtype by genetic reassortment between animal and human influenza A viruses. The pandemic strains of 1957 (H2N2) and 1968 (H3N2) are examples of reassorted viruses by which avian H and/or N genes were introduced in circulating human viruses, which subsequently could spread among the human population. [0032] Based on the epidemiological surveys by over hundred National Influenza Centers worldwide, the World Health Organization (WHO) yearly recommends the composition of the influenza vaccine, usually in February for the Northern hemisphere, and in September for the Southern hemisphere. This practice limits the time window for production and standardization of the vaccine to a maximum of nine months. [0033] In case of an urgent demand of many doses of vaccine, for example, when a novel subtype of influenza A virus arises by antigenic shift and antigenic drift, limited availability of eggs may hamper the rapid production of vaccine. Further disadvantages of this production system are the lack of flexibility, the risk of the presence of toxins and the risks of adventitious viruses, particularly retroviruses, and concerns about sterility. This presents a serious problem in today's practice of influenza vaccine production on embryonated hens' eggs. [0034] Therefore, the use of a cell culture system for influenza vaccine production would be an attractive alternative. Influenza viruses can be grown on a number of primary cells, including monkey kidney, calf kidney, hamster kidney and chicken kidney. Yet, their use for vaccine production is not practical because of the need to re-establish cultures from these primary cells for each preparation of a vaccine. Therefore, the use of continuous cell lines for influenza vaccine production is an attractive alternative. [0035] The use of culture systems was facilitated by the realization that the proteolytic cleavage of HA in its two subunits (HA1 and HA2), which is required for influenza virus infectivity, can be obtained by the addition of trypsin. Inclusion of trypsin permits replication and plaque formation in Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells (K. Tobita et al., 1975). [0036] The MDCK cell line was recently shown to support the growth of influenza virus for vaccine production (R. Brand et al., 1996, 1997; A. M. Palache et al., 1997). The use of trypsin requires growth of the MDCK cells in serum-free tissue culture medium (MDCK-SF1). However, MDCK cells are currently not approved as a substrate for production of influenza virus. [0037] However, any non-human system for production of influenza vaccines has an inherent drawback known as “adaptation.” Human influenza A and B virus both carry mutations in the HA, due to adaptation in embryonated hens' eggs. These mutations result in altered antigenicity (R. W. Newman et al., 1993; S. P. Williams and J. S. Robertson, 1993; J. S. Robertson et al., 1994; L. V. Gubareva et al., 1994; G. C. Schild et al., 1993; J. S. Robertson et al., 1987; S. Kodihalli et al., 1995). In humans, immunization with vaccines containing an HA bearing an egg-adaption mutation induces less neutralizing antibody to virus that contains a non-egg adapted HA (R. W. Newman et al., 1993). [0038] Human influenza viruses propagated in canine cells such as MDCK cells also show adaptation, albeit to a lesser extent. Such viruses resemble the original human isolates more closely than egg-derived viruses (J. S. Robertson et al., 1990). [0039] Furthermore, there is evidence that host-specific changes in NA and host-specific phosphorylation patterns of NP can affect the replication of influenza viruses (J. L. Schulman and P. Palese 1977; A. Sugiara and M. Ueda, 1980; 0. Kistner et al., 1976). [0040] Therefore, it would clearly be advantageous to avoid adaptation or other host-induced changes of influenza virus. It may result in a more homogeneous population of viruses and render the ultimate vaccine more effective. [0041] In certain embodiments, the invention provides human cells as a substrate for the production of high titers of influenza virus, suitable for the development of vaccines. [0042] To illustrate the invention, the following illustrative examples are provided, not intended to limit the scope of the invention. EXAMPLES PER.C6®D Cell Banking [0043] Cell line PER.C6® cell (deposited under No. 96022940 at the European Collection of Animal Cell Cultures at the Center for Applied Microbiology and Research), or derivatives thereof, were used (described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,994,128 to Fallaux et al., which is incorporated herein by this reference). Cell lines were banked by a two tier cell bank system. The selected cell line was banked in a research master cell bank (rMCB) which was stored in different locations. From this rMCB, working cell banks were prepared as follows: an ampoule of the rMCB was thawed, and the cells were propagated until enough cells were present to freeze the cells by using dry ice. Four hundred to 500 ampoules containing 1 ml (1−2×10 6 cells/ml) of rMCB were stored in the vapor phase of a liquid nitrogen freezer. PER.C6® Cell Preculture [0044] One ampoule containing 5×10 6 PER.C6® cells of the WCB was thawed in a water bath at 37° C. Cells were rapidly transferred into a 50 ml tube and re-suspended by adding 9 ml of the suspension medium ExCell™ 525 (JRH Biosciences, Denver, Pa.) supplemented with 1×L-Glutamin. After three minutes of centrifugation at 1000 rpm, cells were re-suspended in a final concentration of 3×10 5 cells/ml and cultured in a T80 cm 2 tissue culture flask, at 37° C., 10% CO 2 . Two to three days later, cells were seeded into 490 cm 2 tissue culture roller bottles (Corning Costar Corporation, Cambridge, Mass., US), with a density of 3×10 5 /ml and cultured in continuous rotation at 1 rpm. PER.C6® and MDCK Cell Culture [0045] Madin Darby Canine Kidney (MDCK) cells were cultured in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (DMEM, Life Technologies Breda, The Netherlands) containing 10% heat inactivated fetal bovine serum and 1×L-Glutamine (Gibco-BRL), at 37° C. and 10% CO 2 . [0046] Suspension cultures of PER.C6® were cultured in ExCell™ 525 (JRH Biosciences, Denver, Pa.) supplemented with 1×L-Glutamin, at 37° C. and 10% CO 2 , in stationary cultures in six-well dishes (Greiner, Alphen aan de Rijn, The Netherlands) or in 490 cm 2 tissue culture roller bottles (Corning Costar Corporation, Cambridge, USA) during continuous rotation at 1 rpm. Immunofluorescence Test [0047] Direct immunofluorescence assays for the detection of influenza virus infection were carried out using the IMAGEN™ Influenza Virus A and B kit (DAKO, Glostrup, Denmark) according to the standard protocol of the supplier. Samples were viewed microscopically using epifluorescence illumination. Infected cells are characterized by a bright apple-green fluorescence. Propidium Iodide Staining [0048] Cell pellets were re-suspended into 300μ of cold PBS-0.5% BSA+5μ of propidium iodide 50 μg/ml in PBS-FCS-azide solution. Viable and dead cells were then detected via flow cytofluorometric analysis. Hemagglutination Assay [0049] To 50 μ/l of two-fold diluted virus solutions in PBS, 25 1/4 1 of a 1% suspension of turkey erythrocytes in PBS was added in 96-well microtiter plates and incubated at 4° C. for one hour. The hemagglutination pattern was examined, and expressed as hemagglutinating units (HAU). The amount of HAU corresponded to the reciprocal value of the highest virus dilution that showed complete hemagglutination. PER.C6® Cells as Permissive Cell Line for Influenza A Virus [0050] PER.C6® cells are not known for their ability to sustain influenza virus infection and replication. We, therefore, verified whether PER.C6® cells are permissive for influenza virus infection in comparison with MDCK (Madin Darby Canine Kidney) cells. [0051] The day before infection, 2×10 5 MDCK cells/well were seeded in six-well plates. Twenty-four hours later, 4×10 5 PER.C6® cells/well and MDCK were infected with the H1N1 strain A/Puerto Rico/8/34 (titer 3.6×10 7 pfu/ml), obtained from Dr. Eric Claas, Dept. of Virology, Leiden University Medical Center, NL. Infection was performed at various multiplicities of infection (“MOIs”) ranging from of 0.1 to 10 pfu/cell. After about two hours of incubation at 37° C., the inoculum was removed and replaced by fresh culture medium. A direct immunofluorescence assay for the detection of influenza virus infection was performed 24 and 48 hours post-infection. The experiment showed permissivity of PER.C6® cell for influenza infection, with percentages of positive cells moi-dependent and comparable with MDCK (see Table 1). PER.C6® Cells as Cell Line for Influenza A Virus Propagation [0052] We verified whether replication and propagation of influenza virus are supported by PER.C6® cells. The day of infection, PER.C6® cells were seeded in 490 cm 2 tissue culture roller bottles, with the density of 2×10 5 cells/ml in a final volume of 40 ml, in the presence of 5 μg/ml of trypsin-EDTA (Gibco-BRL). Cells were either mock inoculated or infected with the H3N 2 strain A/Shenzhen/227/95 (titer 1.5×10 6 pfu/ml), a kind gift from Dr. Eric Claas, Department of Virology, Leiden University Medical Center, NL. Infections were performed at moi 10 −4 and 10 −3 pfu/cell. After one hour of incubation at 37° C., the inoculum was removed by spinning down the cells at 1,500 rpm and re-suspending them in fresh culture medium +5 μg/ml of trypsin-EDTA. Harvest of 1.3 ml of cell suspension was carried out each day from day 1 to day 6 post-infection. Supernatants were stored at −80° C. and used for hemagglutination assays. Cell pellets were used for direct immunofluorescence tests and for propidium iodide staining (see FIG. 2 ). Permissivity of PER.C6® Cell for Influenza Strains [0053] To further investigate the permissivity of PER.C6® cell for propagation of various influenza strains, we performed an infection by using the H1N1 vaccine strains A/Beijing/262/95 and its reassortant X-127 obtained from the National Institute for Biological Standards and Control (NIBSC), Potters Bar, UK. The day of infection, PER.C6® cells were seeded in 490 cm 2 tissue culture roller bottles, with the density of approximately 1×10 6 cells/ml in a final volume of 50 ml. Cells were inoculated with 5 μl (10 −4 dilution) and 50 μl (10 −3 dilution) of virus in the presence of 5 μg/ml trypsin-EDTA. In order to establish if trypsin was indeed required, one more infection was carried out by inoculating 5 μl of the strain A/Beijing/262/95 in the absence of the protease. After approximately one hour of incubation at 37° C., the inoculum was removed by spinning down the cells at 1,500 rpm and re-suspending them in fresh culture medium ±5 μg/ml of trypsin-EDTA. At day 2 and day 4 post-infection, more trypsin was added to the samples. Harvest of 1.3 ml of cell suspension was carried out from day 1 to day 6 post-infection. Supernatants were stored at −80° C. and used for hemagglutination assays and further infections; cell pellets were used for direct immunofluorescence tests. Results obtained with the above-mentioned immunofluorescence and hemagglutination assays are shown in FIGS. 4 and 5 , respectively, illustrating the efficient replication and release of the viruses. Infectivity of Virus Propagated on PER.C6® Cells [0054] We verified if the viruses grown in PER.C6® cells were infectious and if adaptation to the cell line could increase virus yields. Virus supernatants derived from PER.C6® infected with the strains A/Beijing/262/95 and its reassortant X-127 (dil. 10 −3 ) and harvested at day 6 post-infection, were used. At the day of infection, PER.C6® cells were seeded in 490 cm 2 tissue culture roller bottles, with the density of approximately 1×10 6 cells/ml in a final volume of 50 ml. Cells were inoculated with 100 μl and 1 ml of virus supernatant in the presence of 5 μg/ml trypsin-EDTA. In order to establish if trypsin was still required, one more infection was carried out by inoculating 100 μl of the strain A/Beijing/262/95 in the absence of the protease. After approximately one hour of incubation at 37° C., the inoculum was removed by spinning down the cells at 1,500 rpm and re-suspending them in fresh culture medium ±5 μg/ml of trypsin-EDTA. At day 2 and day 4 post-infection, more trypsin was added to the samples. Harvest of 1.3 ml of cell suspension was carried out from day 1 to day 6 post-infection. Supernatants were stored at −80° C. and used for hemagglutination assays and further infections; cell pellets were used for direct immunofluorescence tests. Results obtained with the above-mentioned immunofluorescence and hemagglutination assays are shown in FIGS. 6 and 7 , respectively. Data obtained with the present experiment showed infectivity of the viruses grown in PER.C6® cells as well as an increase in virus yields. Recovery of Virus [0055] Intact virus is recovered from the culture medium by ion-exchange chromatography. The virus preparations are further processed to an inactivated surface antigen preparation by formaldehyde inactivation, solubilization with detergent and ultrafiltration and ultracentrifugation (H. Bachmayer, 1975). REFERENCES [0000] Bachmayer H. Selective solubilization of hemagglutinin and neuraminidase from influenza virus. Intervirology 1975; 5:260-272. Brands R., A. M. Palache, and G. J. M. van Scharrenburg. Madin Darby Canine Kidney (MDCK) cells for the production of inactivated influenza subunit vaccine. Safety characteristics and clinical results in the elderly. In: L. E. Brown, E. W. Hampson, and R. G. Webster, editors. Option for the control of influenza III. Amsterdam, Elsevier, 1996; pp. 683-693. Brands R., A. M. Palache, and G. J. M. van Scharrenburg. Development of influenza subunit vaccine produced using mammalian cell culture technology. M. J. T. Carrondo, B. Griffths, and J. L. P. Moreira, editors. Animal cell technology: from vaccines to genetic medicine. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1997; pp. 165-167. Gubareva L. V., J. M. Wood, W. J. Meyer, J. M. Katz, J. S. Robertson, D. Major, and R. G. Webster. Codominant mixtures of viruses in strains of influenza virus due to host cell variation. Virol. 1994; 199:89-97. Herrero-Euribe L. et al. Replication of Influenza A and B viruses in human diploid cells. J. Gen. Virol. 1983; 64:471-475. Kodihalli S., D. M. Justewicz, L. V. Gubareva, and R. G. Webster. Selection of a single amino acid substitution in the hemagglutinin molecule by chicken eggs can render influenza A virus (H3) candidate vaccine ineffective. J. Virol. 1995; 69:4888-4897. Kirstner O., K. Muller, and C. Scholtissek. Differential phosphorylatian of the nucleoprotein of influenza A viruses. J. Gen. Virol. 1989; 70:2421-2431. Murphy B. R. and R. G. Webster. Orthomyxoviruses. In: Fields Virology , chapter 46, 1397. Eds. B. N. Fields, D. M. Knipe, and P. M. Howley, et al. Lippincott-Raven Publishers, Philadelphia, Pa. 1996. Newman R. W., R. Jenning, D. L. Major, J. S. Robertson, R. Jenkins, C. W. Potter, I. Burnett, L. Jewes, M. Anders, D. Jackson, and J. S. Oxford. Immune response of human volunteers and animals to vaccination with egg grown influenza A (H1N1) virus is influenced by three amino acid substitutions in the hemagglutinin molecule. Vaccine, 1993; 11:400-406. Palache A. M., R. Brands, and G. J. M. van Scharrenburg. Immunogenicity and reactogenecity of influenza subunit vaccines produced in MDCK cells or fertilized chicken eggs. J. Infert. Dis. 1977; 176:S20-S23. Robertson J. S., P. Cook, C. Nicolson, R. Newman, and J. M. Wood. Mixed populations in influenza vaccine strains. Vaccine, 1994; 12:1317-1320. Robertson J. S., J. S. Bootman, C. Nicolson, D. Major, E. W. Robertson, and J. M. Wood. The hemagglutinin of influenza B virus present in clinical material is a single species identical to that of mammalian cell grown-virus. Virol. 1990; 179:35-40. Robertson J. S., J. S. Bootman, R. Newman, J. S. Oxford, R. S. Daniels, R. G. Webster, and G. C. Schild. Structural changes in the hemagglutinin which accompany egg adaptation of an influenza A (H1N1) virus. Virol. 1987; 160:31-37. Schild G. C., J. S. Oxford, J. C. de Jong, and R. G. Webster. Evidence for host-cell selection of influenza virus antigenic variants. Nature, 1983; 303:706-709. Schulman J. L., and P. Palese. Virulence factors of influenza A viruses: WSN virus neuraminidase required for plaque production in MDBK cells. J. Virol. 1977; 24:170-176. Sugiara A., and M. Ueda. Neurovirulence of influenza virus in mice. I. Neurovirulence of recombinants between virulent and avirulent virus strains. Virol. 1980; 101:440-449, 495, 271). Tobita K., A. Sugiura, C. Enomoto, and M. Furuyama. Plaque assay and primary isolation of influenza A viruses in an established line of canine Kidney cells (MDCK) in the presence of trypsin. Med. Microbiol. Immunol. 1975; 162:9-14. Williams S. P., and J. S. Robertson. Analysis of restriction to the growth of non-egg-adapted human influenza in eggs. Virol. 1993; 196:660665.

Means and methods are provided for the production of mammalian viruses comprising: infecting a culture of immortalized human cells with the virus, incubating the culture infected with virus to propagate the virus under conditions that permit growth of the virus, and to form a virus-containing medium, and removing the virus-containing medium. The viruses can be harvested and be used for the production of vaccines. Advantages are that human cells of the present invention can be cultured under defined serum free conditions, and the cells show improved capability for propagating virus. In particular, methods are provided for producing, in cultured human cells, influenza virus and vaccines derived thereof. This method eliminates the necessity to use whole chicken embryos for the production of influenza vaccines. The method provides also for the continuous or batchwise removal of culture media. As such, the invention allows the large-scale, continuous production of viruses to a high titer.

This application is a continuation, of application Ser. No. 08/147,702, filed Nov. 4, 1993. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to data communications systems. More particularly, the present invention relates to data communication systems using optical fibers to carry information. These co-pending applications and the present application are owned by one and the same assignee, International Business Machines Corporation of Armonk, N.Y. The descriptions set forth in these co-pending applications are hereby incorporated into the present application by this reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Transmission of serial data is usually performed by encoding the data into entities called frames, and between transmission of frames an idle sequence is transmitted. Additionally, several modifications of the idle sequence are transmitted to signal primitive link conditions. Further, to increase bandwidth between computing elements, multiple serial conductors can be coupled to increase the transmission speed. The first step in receiving information from a single serial source is recognizing bit sequences. The bits are usually grouped into characters or, in this case, groups of characters called words. A precise interpretation of all possible sequences, including those caused by errors due to noise and/or design errors, must be defined so that all equipment connected to the serial link has a consistent interpretation. Most frames containing information fields (data) require a buffer at the receiving end of the link. Usually, the contents of a frame directed at a particular buffer is simply loaded into the targeted buffer. The protocols on the link usually insure that frames sent over the link do not erroneously overwrite the contents of the receiving buffer. To protect the contents and operation of receiving buffers, the concept of receive buffer states is introduced. When multiple frames are used to send data to a single buffer, each frame has to be processed, and the more frames that are used to send a given amount of data, the more processing overhead is required. By adding hardware to determine the beginning and end of a buffer transfer, the processing overhead is reduced. Finally, when multiple serial conductors are coupled to increase the transmission speed, the information in the frames has to be assembled and disassembled for the message to be intelligible. Normally, this processes is designed for a fixed number of conductors. This process must be extended to accommodate a variable number of conductors. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention comprises a system and method for receiving information across multiple carriers in a serial manner. A group of state machines is used to process the sequence of received bits into a simple group of indicators that are used to receive information from the link and to determine recovery actions. It is a primary objective of the present invention to completely define the result of all possible sequences of serial bits received over multiple conductors such that information can be properly extracted and error conditions can be accurately reported with the least latency. It is another objective of the present invention to provide a state machine defining reception requirements for frames and idle sequences (including continuous sequences) for individual conductors. It is another objective of the present invention to provide a set of states for each of the multiple receive buffers for the multiple link conductors to ensure that frames are accepted only at specific times in the message passing sequence. It is another objective of the present invention to provide a central set of states that allows the receipt of multiple frame groups appear as a single frame group. It is another objective of the present invention to automatically destripe received secondary commands and automatically stripe the responses to these secondary commands, BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The present invention will be better understood by reference to the drawings in which: FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a physical link between two computing elements; FIG. 2 illustrates a multimessage channel buffer structure; FIG. 3 is an illustration of the format of an exemplary frame; FIG. 4 is an illustration of the format of an exemplary frame group; FIG. 5 is an illustration of the contents of the Link Control word; FIG. 6 is a block diagram of one end of a multiconductor link; FIG. 7 is a block diagram of a Link Adapter; FIG. 8 is a state table for receiving all sequences from the serial link; FIG. 9 is a state table controlling the operation of a request or response buffer in the Link Adapter; FIG. 10 is a state table controlling the operation of a data buffer in the Link Adapter; FIG. 11 is a block diagram of the internals of the Link Controller; FIG. 12 is a block diagram of the internals of the LC FIFO SM; FIG. 13 is a state table used by the Link Controller to monitor the operation of the data buffers; FIG. 14 is a logic diagram of the Request Data buffers in the Link Controller. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Turning first to FIG. 1, a physical link between two computing elements 102, 104 is illustrated. These elements could be, for example, two computers or a computer and a shared memory device. In any event, the computing elements 102, 104 are connected by way of an intersystem channel link 106 comprising a fiber optic bus 108. The fiber optic bus 108 is formed of multiple fiber pairs 110. Each fiber pair consists of two optical fibers, one for transmitting information and one for receiving information. While any number of fiber pairs can be used, exemplary values for intersystem channels would be a range of 1 to 64 fiber pairs in powers of two. The fiber pairs 110 of the fiber optic bus 108 are coupled to the computing elements 102, 104 by way of transceivers 112, 114 located at opposite ends bus. Each of the transceivers 112, 114 includes a transmitter unit and a receiver unit, both of which will be described in more detail later. All of the data traffic over the fiber optic bus 108 supports message passing between the computing elements 102, 104. A typical message is a request sent from computing element 102 to computing element 104. Data may be associated with the request and is either sent from computing element 102 to computing element 104 (a write operation) or from computing element 104 to computing element 102 (a read operation). After the data is transferred, a response is sent from computing element 104 to computing element 102. The messages, consisting of requests, data, and responses is stored in buffers located in both computing elements. To transfer a request, data, or response, a transmit buffer 116 is required in the transmitting computer element 102, and a receive buffer 118 is required in the receiving computer element 104. In practice, transmit buffers and receive buffers are required in both computing elements in order to complete a message passing operation; this is described later. It should be understood that the transmitting buffer 116 may be located anywhere in the transmitting computer element 102, including the main processor storage. It should be further understood that the receive buffers must at all times be immediately accessible by the transceiver 114. Therefore, the receive buffer 118 is usually implemented as an array dedicated to the channel, and it is not in main processor storage where access is shared among many different elements within the computer. To process a complete message with data requires buffers in both computing elements 102, 104. The computing element that initiates the message is the originator, and the computing element that processes the message is the recipient. FIG. 2 shows multiple buffers on both sides of a link. For example, to pass a message with data from Channel A 202 to Channel B 204 requires the Channel A originator buffers shown in block 206 and the Channel B recipient buffers shown in block 208. Each group of buffers in blocks 206, 208 are called "buffer sets." When a message is sent, the originator buffer request area 210 is loaded with the request, and the request is sent over the link to the recipient buffer request area 216. If data is to be transferred, it is either sent from originator buffer data area 214 to recipient buffer data area 220 for a write operation, or it is sent from recipient buffer data area 220 to originator buffer data area 214 for a read operation. After data transfer, if any, the response is loaded into the recipient buffer response area 218 and sent across the link to the originator buffer response area 212. The information transferred from one side of the link to the other is contained in frames or frame groups. This information is always targeted to a particular buffer area, and the targeting information is contained in the link-control word of the frame. This targeting information allows the frames to be multiplexed over the link in any order. As an example, returning to FIG. 2, Channel A could send a request for buffer set 1 followed by write data for buffer set 0, followed by a response for buffer set 0, etc. It should be understood that a computing element can dynamically set up various numbers of originator and/or recipient buffers depending on the number and type of links to be established. The formal of an exemplary frame is illustrated in FIG. 3. Transmission of all information is on word boundaries and words are groups of exactly four characters. Each character has ten bits and is defined by U.S. Pat. No. 4,486,739, issued Dec. 4, 1984 to Franaszek et al. for "Byte Oriented DC Balance (0,4) 8B/10B Partitioned Block Transmission Code" and assigned to the assignee of the present invention. The idle word 310 is the K28.5 character followed by three D21.5 characters and is transmitted when no frames are being transmitted. Each frame starts with a data word which is the link-control word (LC) 302. Various fields in the link-control word 302 identify the frame format and type, designate a buffer set area, and control the state of the transceiver and link, and these fields are described in more detail later. Null words 312 can be inserted anywhere in the stream of idle or data words. These words do not affect the contents of the frames and are used to regulate the flow of information on the link. (See the above referenced: "Null Words for Pacing Serial Links to Driver and Receiver Speeds", by Danniel F. Casper et al, Ser. No. 08/071,150, filed Jun. 1, 1993.) A link-control-CRC (cyclical redundancy check) word 304 follows the ink-control word. The link-control CRC word 304 is conventionally generated from the values in the link-control word. The link-control CRC word is checked at the receiver to test the validity of the link-control word in the incoming frame. There are two types of frames, control frames and information frames. Control frames do not have an information field. They consist only of a link-control word and a link-control CRC word. An information frame has a link-control word 302 a link-control CRC word 304 and an information field 306. Information fields contain, for example, from one to 1,024 words. The information field contains the information sent from a buffer set area at one end of the link to a buffer set area at the other end. An information field is followed by an information-field CRC word 308. The information-field CRC word is conventionally generated from the values in the information field. The information field CRC word is checked at the receiver to test the validity of the information field in the incoming frame. Related information can be placed in several frames, one on each transceiver of the operational link. These frames (referred to as a "frame group") are transmitted concurrently. There must be as many frames in the frame group as there are transceivers in the operational link. FIG. 4 shows an exemplary frame group 402 transmitted on four transceivers. The use of the frame group enables the data to be sent at a bandwidth that is multiples of the single fiber optic bandwidth since multiple frames (one per fiber) are transmitted simultaneously across the link. The time difference between the transmission or reception of the beginning of the first frame to the beginning of the last frame of the group is called skew 404. Although not provided with sequence numbers, each frame group is largely interlocked with those of subsequent and previous frame groups. The interlocking can be accomplished by the protocol on the link. For example, each message for a particular buffer set starts with a request, followed by data, followed by a response. Each of these types of transmissions has a unique link-control word since each transmission is targeted to differing buffer set areas. FIG. 5 shows details of the link-control word 302. Information transferred to a particular buffer may be contained in more than one frame or frame-group. The first frame for a buffer area always has the Start 508 bit on and this bit also indicates the validity of the Block Count 510. This count indicates the total number of 256 byte blocks that will be transferred to the buffer, and this count does not indicate the length of the presently transmitted frame. The transmitter can end the frame with a CRC 308 word on any 256 byte boundary of the information 306 field. When the transmitter resumes the transfer to the buffer, it starts the new frame with the Start 508 bit in the link-control word reset to zero. The zero value of the start bit indicates that this frame is a continuation of the previous frame targeted to the same buffer. The receiver knows that all of the information has been received when the total number of 256 byte blocks transmitted in all of the frame groups have been received and satisfy the Block Count 510 transmitted in the link-control word of the first frame group. A buffer area can be transmitted by any number of frame groups from one to the total number of 256 byte blocks. For example, a 1024 byte buffer area can be transmitted in any number of frame groups from one to four. In fact, there are eight different combinations of frame group lengths that can be used to transmit a 1024 byte buffer area. These are a single four block frame group, four single block frame groups, two single block frame groups followed by a two block frame group, a two block frame groups followed by two single block frame groups, a single block frame group followed by a two block frame group followed by a single block frame group, a two block frame group followed by another two block frame group, a single block frame group followed by a three block frame group, and a three block frame group followed by a single block frame group. Longer buffer areas have even more possibilities. The only rule is that the 256 byte blocks are sent in ascending order. The ability to split the transfer of information to a buffer set area has two distinct advantages. First, the channel can start transmitting the frame group before the entire buffer set area is fetched from main store. At any time during the transmission, data required to send the information field may become unavailable for a while. In this case it is desirable for the transmitter to end the frame and restart it when the data flow from main processor storage resumes. Second, frame groups can be interleaved in any combination. This interleaving capability allows the best possible utilization of the link since whatever data can be sent that is available and higher priority frame groups, such as requests or responses, can interrupt longer running data area frame groups. In addition to the idle sequence, there is a group of sequences that is similar to the idle sequence and are used to signal primitive link conditions. All of these sequences are the logical extensions to the sequences defined by U.S. Pat. No. 5,048,062, issued Sep. 10, 1991 to Gregg et al. for "Transmitting Commands Over a Serial Link" and assigned to the assignee of the present invention. In the referenced patent, these sequences are the idle character, K28.5, alternated with a data character. In the link described by the present invention, these sequences are the idle word alternated with a data word. The data words chosen are similar to the idle word and are composed of the identifying data character followed by three D21.5 data characters. Recall that the idle word also contains three D21.5 data characters. The identifying data characters are the same as those in the referenced patent. In the referenced patent, eight consecutive pairs of the idle character alternated with the data character must be received before the condition is recognized by the receiver. In the present invention, four consecutive pairs of the idle word alternated with the data word must be received. The multiconductor channel shown in FIG. 6 communicates over a four fiber pair link. Each of the four fiber pairs 612(A,B,C,D) is controlled by a Link Adapter 604(A,B,C,D), and each of these Link Adapters operates in a largely independent fashion. For example, each of the Link Adapters has its own data buffering and its own interface oscillator. The primary data path to the System 602 is over the four bidirectional Data 606(A,B,C,D) buses. The flow of information is managed by the Link Controller 608. The Link Controller communicates with the Link Adapters 604(A,B,C,D) over multiple Control 610 lines, and it communicates with the System over another group of control lines 614. The Link Controller contains a microprocessor and logic required to synchronize the operation of the Link Adapters 604(A,B,C,D). FIG. 7 shows the inbound elements of the Link Adapter 604 hardware which receive information from the Fiber Optic Module 702 (FOM) and present it to the Link Controller 608 over a bi-directional data bus 704 and a control bus 706. Information is received from the FOM and sent to the Inbound Sync Buffer 708 (ISB) which synchronizes the data clocked by the FOM to the System clock. The Loss Of Light line 710 indicates that the FOM is not receiving a signal and this line is sent to the Loss Of Light Processor 712 (LOLP) which determines a loss of light link failure condition. The ISB 708 feeds the 10/8 Decoder 714 which then feeds the Inbound State Machine 716 (ISM) and the Loss Of Sync Processor 718 (LOSP). The LOSP 718 determines when the FOM has lost bit and character synchronism, and the ISM controls the receive buffers through the Buffer State Machine 720 which will be described in detail below. Information sent to the Link Controller is prioritized and sent by the Link Controller Communications Controller 722 (LCCC). The seven Receive Buffers 724 are controlled by the the BSM 720 and receive the information fields from the inbound frames. The operation of the BSM will also be described in detail below. The ISM 716 examines the sequence of words and errors from the 10/8 Decoder 714, LOLP 712, and LOSP 718 to recognize the idle sequence, continuous sequences, and frames (with or without information fields). The operation of the ISM 716 is completely defined by the state table shown in FIG. 8. Along the top of the ISM state table 800 shown in FIG. 8 are the signals received 802 from the 10/8 Decoder 714, LOLP 712, and LOSP 718. Along the left side of the table are the ISM states 804. Each box in the table has two areas. On the top line is the next state 806. For example, if the ISM is in the RESET state and an IDLE word is received, the next state is IDLE,0. In some boxes there are 2 or 3 next states (separated by `/`). In this case the actions (shown below) describe how to choose the next state. On the bottom line are the actions 808 which are numbered 1 to 18 (4 is not used). For example, if the ISM is in IDLE,6 state and an IDLE word is received, action `3` is performed. Action `3` is setting the idle indicator (and sending it to the Link Controller). The signals received from the 10/8 Decoder 708, LOLP 712 and LOSP 718 are combined to form the four inputs 802 to the ISM. These inputs 802 are: IDLE. An idle word was received by the ISM. This signal comes directly from the 10/8 Decoder over control line 732. The idle word is the K28.5 character followed by three D21.5 characters. DATA. A valid data word was received by the ISM and is signaled over control line 728. Valid data words consist of four data characters and are represented by DXX.Y,DXX,Y,DXX,Y,DXX.Y. CV/UK. This is the logical OR of the Code Violation (CV) 734 and Unused K character (UK) 736 signals from the 10/8 Decoder. LOS, RESET. This is the logical OR of the Loss Of Light (LOL) 738 signal and the reset latch. The reset latch is set when any hardware error is detected in the Link Adapter. The ISM states 804 are: RESET. This state is entered when a LOL, LOS, LOL FALL, LOS FALL, or RESET condition is detected. The state indicates that either four pairs of idle words or four continuous sequence word pairs must be detected before the ISM is ready to detect frames. This state is also entered if an error is encountered while the ISM is detecting either the idle or the continuous sequence. While in the RESET state, CV and UK reports to the Link Controller are suppressed. The microprocessor through the Link Controller can force the ISM into the RESET state. IDLE,0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7. These idle states are stepped through as the ISM is detecting four pairs of idle words. In IDLE,6 the ISM has detected seven idle words. If another idle word is received while in this state, the ISM sets the IDLE SEQ indicator to the Link Controller and steps to the IDLE,7 state. In the IDLE,7 state, the ISM must detect one more idle word before it can recognize a frame. This ninth idle word may be the be the start of frame delimiter for the frame. IDLE. This state indicates that the last idle word detected may be the start of frame delimiter for a frame. If a data word is received while in this state, the ISM steps to the DATA0 state. Since this data word may be either a continuous sequence or a link-control word, it is examined to see if it is of the form DXX.Y,D21.5,D21.5,D21.5. If it is, it may be the start of a continuous sequence. In this case the DXX.Y byte is saved in the CS byte register and the continuous sequence (CS) byte valid latch is set. CS,0,1,2,3,4,5,6. These states are stepped through as the ISM is detecting four pairs of continuous sequence words, or continuing to detect an ongoing continuous sequence. In the CS,6 state, the ISM has detected three pairs of continuous sequence words followed by an idle word. If while in this state another data word is received (and it matches the previous data words of the continuous sequence), the CS indicator (along with the continuous sequence byte) is sent to the Link Controller. CS,0 state is used after four pairs of the continuous sequence have been detected and the sequence persists. DATA0. This state indicates that the ISM has detected a valid start of frame idle word followed by a data word. Depending on what is received next, this interface sequence may be either the start of a frame or a continuous sequence. If while in this state an idle word is received and the CS byte valid latch is set; the ISM steps to the CS,2 state. If while in this state a data word is received, it is the CRC of the link-control word and the ISM steps to the DATA1 state. If the CRC is correct, the link-control word is sent to the Link Controller. DATA1. This state indicates that the ISM has detected a link-control word followed by good CRC. If while in this state an idle word is detected, the IFSM steps to the IDLE state and verifies that the link-control word specified a frame with no information field. If while in this state a data word is received, the ISM steps to the DATA2 state and verifies that the link-control word specified a frame with an information field. DATA2. This state indicates that the ISM has detected the first data word of the frame information field. If while in this state an idle word is received, the ISM detects a word sequence check (SEQ CHK) and steps to the ERROR state. If while in this state a data word is received, the ISM steps to the DATAN state. DATAN. This state indicates that the ISM has detected the first two data words of the frame information field. If while in this state another data word is received, the ISM stays in the DATAN state. If while in this state an idle word is received, the idle word is the end of frame delimiter. The CRC is checked, and the ISM steps to the IDLE state. ERROR. This state indicates that some kind of error has been detected and that the receipt of a single idle word causes the ISM to step to the IDLE state. The ISM actions 808 are: 1) Set appropriate indicator (CV or UK), notify the BSM, reset CS indicator. 2) Set appropriate indicator (LOS, LOL, LOS FAIL, LOL FAIL), notify BSM, reset CS indicator. 3) Set IDLE SEQ indicator. 4) Unused. 5) Reset CS indicator. 6) Set SEQ CHK indicator. 7) If DATA=DXX.Y,D21.5,D21.5,D21.5, set CS byte, go to CS,1. If not, set SEQ CHK, go to RESET 8) If DATA=DXX.Y,D21.5,D21.5,D21.5, set CS byte, set CS byte valid. If DATA not=DXX.Y,D21.5,D21.5,D21.5, reset CS byte valid. 9) If DATA=DXX.Y,D21.5,D21.5,D21.5, and CS byte compares, go to CS,1. If DATA=DXX.Y,D21.5,D21.5,D21.5, and CS byte does not compare, set CS byte, reset CS indicator, go to CS,1. If DATA not=DXX.Y,D21.5,D21.5,D21.5, set SEQ CHK, reset CS indicator, go to RESET. 10) If CS indicator on, go to CS,0. If CS indicator off, go to CS,2. 11) If DATA=DXX.Y,D21.5,D21.5,D21.5, and CS byte compares, go to CS,3 or CS,5. If DATA=DXX.Y,D21.5,D21.5,D21.5, and CS byte does not compare, set SEQ CHK, set CS byte, go to CS,1. If DATA not=DXX.Y,D21.5,D21.5,D21.5, set SEQ CHK, go to RESET. 12) If DATA=DXX.Y,D21.5,D21.5,D21.5, and CS byte compares, set CS indicator, send CS byte to Link Controller, go to CS,1. If DATA=DXX.Y,D21.5,D21.5,D21.5, and CS byte does not compare, save CS byte, set SEQ CHK, go to CS,1. If DATA not=DXX.Y,D21.5,D21.5,D21.5, set SEQ CHK, go to RESET. 13) If CS byte valid is on, go to CS,2. If CS byte valid is off, set SEQ CHK, go to ERROR. 14) If CRC is good, send link-control word to Link Controller, send link-control word to BSM. If CRC is bad, set CRC CHK, go to ERROR. If the previous data word is of the from DXX.Y,D21.5,D21.5,D21.5 then set SEQ CHK. 15) If link-control word specifies no information field, go to IDLE. If link-control word specifies an information field, set SEQ CHK, notify BSM, go to ERROR. 16) If link-control word specifies no information field, set SEQ CHK, go to ERROR. If link-control word specifies an information field, send DATA to BSM, go to DATA2. 17) Send DATA to BSM. 18) If CRC is good, notify BSM, BSM sends EOF to Link Controller. If CRC is bad, set CRC CHK, notify BSM, BSM sends EOF to Link Controller. The ISM outputs include controls to the BSM and indicators which are sent to the Link Controller. The indicators are set by the ISM and reset when they are eventually sent to the Link Controller. The indicators are: IDLE STATE IDLE SEQ indicator (Idle sequence detected) CS indicator (continuous sequence) SEQ CHK (word sequence check)indicator CRC CHK indicator EOF indicator (end of frame) The BSM 720 controls the loading and maintains the status of the six receive buffers and a maintenance buffer. The six receive buffers consist of two 4K byte data area buffers and four 256 byte request and response area buffers. The 64 byte maintenance buffer is used to receive initialization frames. Each of the buffers has its own set of associated states, and all of the buffers are loaded in a similar way. The operation and states associated with the two data area buffers is more complicated than the other five buffers since the receipt of information for a data area may be transmitted in multiple frame groups. The other five buffers are limited to a single 256 byte block and must be transmitted in a single frame group. Each time the ISM recognizes a valid link-control word specifying a frame with an information field, the ISM sends the link-control word to the BSM (ISM, action number 14). If there are no errors on the link, the ISM follows the link-control word with data words. When the ISM detects the end of frame delimiter (an IDLE word), it checks the CRC using the previous word and notifies the BSM that the last data word sent was CRC and that the CRC is good. When there are errors after the link-control word is recognized, the ISM notifies the BSM, and the BSM takes the appropriate action described below. When the link adapter is on line, the maintenance buffer is not used and bits 6, 7, and 15 of the link-control word are examined to determine which of the six receive buffers is loaded. If link-control word bit 7 is off, the frame is for either a request or response area buffer, and bits 6 and 15 of the link-control word determine which of the four request or response area buffers is to be loaded. When link-control word bit 6 is on, one of the response area buffers is loaded, and when bit 6 is off, one of the request area buffers is loaded. Link-control word bit 15 selects which of the two request area buffers or two response area buffers is loaded. If link-control word bit 7 is on, one of the two data area buffers as determined by link-control word bit 15 is loaded. The operation and states associated with the maintenance and the four request and response area buffers is almost identical. The only difference is in the word count handling. For these five buffers, the receive buffer states inhibit the receipt of erroneously generated frames from damaging the contents of the receive buffer. Using these states also simplifies the design of these buffers since they do not have to be written and read at the same time. The received frames are written into the buffer and after the entire buffer is full, the contents is read and sent to the System. Each of these five buffers has three states (UNLOCKED, LOCKED, and ERROR). These three states are implemented with two latches called LOCKED and ERROR. Both latches are never on at the same time, and when both latches are off, the buffer is in the UNLOCKED state. When a link-control word is received for one of these five buffers and it is in either the LOCKED or ERROR state; the the data following is discarded, the buffer busy indicator is set and the buffer remains in either the UNLOCKED or the ERROR state. When a link-control word is received and the buffer is in the UNLOCKED state, the data following is stored in the appropriate buffer. As the data is being received, the word count is checked. With all five of these buffers, the frames can be less than the buffer size. The maximum size information field allowed depends on which buffer is selected. If the maintenance buffer is selected, the maximum size is always 64 bytes. If one of the four request or response area buffers is selected, the maximum size depends on the number of transceivers which are on-line (configured). If one transceiver is on-line, the maximum size is 256 bytes; if two transceivers transceivers are on-line, the maximum size is 128 bytes, and if four transceivers are on-line, the maximum size is 64 bytes. With all five buffers, when the maximum size has been exceeded, the BSM sets the buffer overrun indicator, and the buffer is set to the ERROR state. If the information field of the frame is not exceeded, the end of frame indicator is set, and the buffer state is set to LOCKED. When one of the four request or response area buffers is selected, the start bit in the link-control word is checked to be on and the block count is checked for a value of one. If these bits are not correct, the BSM sets the SEQ CHK indicator and goes to the ERROR state. If the ISM detects an error on the link which prematurely ends the frame (CV, UK, SEE:) CHK, CRC CHK, LOL, LOS, RESET) the buffer is set to the ERROR state. The operation of the four request and response area buffers and the maintenance buffer is defined in the state table 902 in FIG. 9. Along the top of the table are the states 904, and along the left side of the table are the events 906 received from the ISM and lock and unlock commands from the Link Controller. Each box in the table has two areas. On the top line is the next state 908. For example, if the BSM is in the UNLOCKED state and a link-control word is received, the BSM stays in the UNLOCKED state waiting for the end of frame. In one box there are two next states (separated by `/`). In this case the actions (shown below) describe how to choose the next state. On the bottom line are the actions which are numbered 1 to 3. For example, if the BSM is in the UNLOCKED state and a link-control word is received, the BSM takes action number 1. The BSM events 906 are: LCW DET. The ISM detected a link-control word (LCW) for this request or response area or maintenance buffer DATA. The ISM sends data from an information field and checks buffer overrun conditions. EOF DET. The ISM detected an EOF (end of frame with good CRC). The BSM will verify the count. ERROR. The ISM has detected an error while receiving the information field of the frame (CV, UK, SEQ CHK, CRC CHK, LOL, LOS, RESET). The BSM also detects some errors (described later). UNLOCK COMMAND. A buffer unlock command has been received from the Link Controller. LOCK COMMAND. A buffer lock command has been received from the Link Controller. The BSM states 904 are: UNLOCKED. This state indicates that the buffer is ready to receive data. If a link-control word is received from the ISM, the data from the information field is loaded into the buffer starting at address 0. If the Link Adapter is configured, the block count in the link-control word is checked for a value of 1, and the start bit in the link-control word is checked for a value of 1. If these fields are correct, the BSM remains in the UNLOCKED state waiting for data. If either of these fields is not correct, the BSM sets SEQ CHK and goes to the ERROR state. If the Link Adapter is not configured, all frames with an information field are placed in the maintenance buffer; no further link-control word checking is performed. In the ERROR state the BSM ignores EOF, ERROR, and UNLOCK events. As the BSM receives data, the buffer count is checked. If the count is exceeded, the BSM sets buffer overrun and goes to the ERROR state. When the EOF is received, the BSM sets the EOF, Count Satisfied indicator and goes to the LOCKED state. LOCKED. This state inhibits any more data from being written into the buffer. If a link-control word is received, the BSM does not change state and sends buffer busy to the Link Controller. The BSM ignores all other events (DATA, EOF, ERROR) except for the UNLOCK command. ERROR. This state indicates that an error occurred while receiving an information field or detecting an error in either the block count, start bit, or the frame length. The BSM remains in this state until the buffer is either locked or unlocked, and it ignores other events (DATA, EOF, and ERROR). If a link-control word is received, the BSM sends buffer busy to the Link Controller. The BSM actions 910 are: 1) If the Link Adapter is configured, and if link-control word block count is 1 and the start bit is 1, stay in the UNLOCKED state and wait for data. if not, set SEQ CHK, go to ERROR If the Link Adapter is not configured, stay in the UNLOCKED state and wait for data. 2) set buffer busy. 3) Check buffer fullness. If buffer not full, accept data. If buffer count exceeded, set buffer overrun, go the ERROR state. 4) Send EOF Count Satisfied to Link Controller, go to LOCKED state. As mentioned above, the operation and states of the two data area buffers is more complicated since multiple frames may used to transmit the data area buffer. For these two buffers, the receive buffer states inhibit the receipt of erroneously generated frames from damaging the contents of the receive buffer. Using these states also allows data from the link to be discarded after a link error has been detected. The buffer states then allow the received data area buffers to be primed to recognize the next frame with the start bit set, and begin receiving the information field. In addition to the LOCKED, UNLOCKED and ERROR states, there is the ACTIVE state. These four states are implemented with three latches called ACTIVE, LOCKED, and ERROR. No more than one of these latches is ever on at the same time, and when all three latches are off, the buffer is in the UNLOCKED state. The LOCKED and ERROR states are almost identical except for setting the buffer busy indicator. When a link-control word is received for one of the data area buffers, the start bit and the block count in the link-control word are examined by the BSM. If the start bit is on, the block count is captured by the BSM. The operation of the BSM for the two data area buffers is defined in the state table in FIG. 10. The arrangement of this table is the same as the arrangement of state table 902 of FIG. 9. The BSM events 1006 for the two data are buffers are: LCW DET, Start=0. The ISM detected a link-control word (LCW) with the start bit off for this data buffer. LCW DET, Start=1. The ISM detected a link-control word (LCW) with the start bit on for this data buffer. DATA. The ISM sends data from an information field and checks buffer overrun conditions. EOF DET. The ISM detected an EOF (end of frame with good CRC). The BSM will verify the count. ERROR. The ISM has detected an error while receiving the information field of the frame (CV, UK, SEQ CHK, CRC CHK, LOL, LOS, RESET). The BSM also detects some errors (described later). UNLOCK COMMAND. A buffer unlock command has been received from the Link Controller. LOCK COMMAND. A buffer lock command has been received from the Link Controller. The BSM states 1004 for the two data buffers are: UNLOCKED. This state indicates that the buffer is ready to receive data. If a link-control word is received from the ISM and the start bit is on, the data from the information field is loaded into the buffer starting at address 0. Also the block count is captured by the BSM and checked to see if it is between 1 and 16. If the block count is in this range, the BSM goes to ACTIVE state. If the block count is not in this range, the BSM sets SEQ CHK and goes to the ERROR state. If the start bit is off, the BSM stays in the UNLOCKED state. The BSM ignores the DATA, EOF, ERROR, and UNLOCK events when it is in this state. ACTIVE. This state is entered from the UNLOCKED state after a link-control word with the start bit on is received from the ISM. If another link-control word is received with the start bit off, the BSM remains in the ACTIVE state. If another link-control word is received with the start bit on, the BSM goes to the ERROR state. As data is being received, the BSM checks to see if the block count has been exceeded. The block count is exceeded if the number of bytes received is greater than 256 times the block count when one transceiver is on-line, 128 times the block count when two transceivers are on line, or 64 times the block count when four transceivers are on-line. If the block count is not exceeded, the BSM remains in the ACTIVE state. If the block count has been exceeded, the BSM sets buffer overrun and goes to the ERROR state. When an EOF is received, the BSM checks to see that the frame ended on a block boundary (256 bytes for one transceiver on-line, 128 bytes for two transceivers on-line, and 64 bytes for four transceivers on-line). If the frame did not end on a block boundary, the BSM sets SEQ CHK and goes to ERROR state. If the frame did end on a block boundary and the block count has not been satisfied, the BSM sends the EOF Count Not Satisfied to the Link Controller and remains in the ACTIVE state. If the frame did end on a block boundary and the block count has been met, the BSM sends the EOF Count Satisfied to the Link Controller and goes to the LOCKED state. LOCKED. This state inhibits any more data from being written into the buffer. If a link-control word is received, the BSM does not change state and sends buffer busy to the Link Controller. The BSM ignores the DATA, EOF, ERROR, and LOCK events and only processes UNLOCK commands. ERROR. This state indicates that an error occurred while receiving an information field, receiving a link-control word with the start bit on while in ACTIVE state, or detecting an error in either the block count or the frame length. The BSM remains in this state until the buffer is locked or unlocked, and it ignores all other events (LCW, DATA, EOF, and ERROR). The BSM actions 1010 are: 1) If link-control word block count is between 1 and 16, go to ACTIVE. If not, set SEQ CHK, go to ERROR 2) If buffer overrun (too much data for block count), set buffer overrun, go to ERROR. If buffer OK, stay ACTIVE. 3) If buffer count satisfied, send EOF Count Satisfied to Link Controller, go to LOCKED. If buffer count does not end on block boundary, set SEQ CHK, go to ERROR. If buffer count ends on block boundary and is not satisfied, send EOF Count Not Satisfied to Link Controller, stay ACTIVE. 4) set buffer busy 5) set SEQ CHK. Not only are there buffer states associated with the BSM in the Link Adapter, but there are also buffer states maintained by the Link Controller. FIG. 11 is a block diagram of the Link Controller. Each Link Adapter sends information to the Link Controller over control lines 1102(A,B,C,D). The four Link Adapter Receive State Machines (LA RCV SM) 1104(A,B,C,D) process information from the Link Adapters. The Link Controller First In First Out State Machine (LC FIFO SM) 1106 maintains the data area buffer states. Normally, each link-control word received is stored in the LC FIFO, shown later. Since several frame groups (1 to 16) can be used to send data for the data area buffers, hardware is included in the LC FIFO SM 1106 which reduces the number of LC FIFO entries made for these frame groups. Also, there are exactly two entries made in the LC FIFO for any error free transfers to a data area buffer regardless of the number of frame groups used. The first entry is made after the first link-control word(s) are received. This entry allows the code to start moving the data as soon as the frame starts to arrive. The second entry is made after all of the data for the data area buffer has been received. With this entry, the code knows that all of the data has been successfully received. FIG. 12 shows more detail of the LC FIFO SM 1106. As link-control words are received for the LA RCV SMs 1104(A,B,C,D), they are compared to each other in the control section 1202, and loaded into the LC IN 1204 register. The link-control words in the LC IN 1204 registers are compared to the Expect/Mask 0 (EXP/MSK 0) 1206 register by compare function 1208 as they are stored in the Link Controller First In First Out (LC FIFO) buffer 1210. The link-control words in LC IN 1204 registers are also compared to the Data Expect/Mask (DAT EXP/MSK) 1212 register by compare function 1214. The output of compare function 1214 indicates that a data area frame has been received. Each of the two data area buffers has an associated state in the LC FIFO SM which is used to control the LC FIFO entries. In the state table 1302 in FIG. 13, the data area buffer states 1304 are shown along the top. Along the left side are the input the input events 1306. Each box in the table has two areas. On the top line is the next state 1308, and the bottom line shows if a FIFO PUTAWAY 1310 operation is performed. This FIFO PUTAWAY operation stores a link-control word into the LC FIFO 1210. The states 1304 are: IDLE. This state indicates that the last transfer for this data area buffer completed with no errors. In this state, all link-control words for this data area buffer are entered into the LC FIFO 1210. ACTIVE. This state indicates that a complete link-control word was received. If the start bit in the link-control word was on, the link-control word is entered into the LC FIFO 1210 and the LC FIFO SM waits for either an end of frame or an error. If an end of frame with count not satisfied is received, the SUSPENDED state is entered. If an end of frame (EOF) with Count Satisfied is received, an LC FIFO 1210 entry is made, and the IDLE state is entered. SUSPENDED. This sate is entered from the ACTIVE state after an end of frame with count not satisfied is received. In this state, multiple frame groups are being received for a data area buffer and more data is expected. If while in this state a link-control word is received with the start bit off, no LC FIFO 1210 entry is made and the ACTIVE state is entered. SUP S=0. The Suppress Start=0 state is used to suppress LC FIFO entries after error events. In this state, no LC FIFO entries are made until a link-control word is received with the start bit on. The events 1306 are: LCW COMPLETE, Start=1. This event is the reception of a link-control word (LCW) from all Link Adapters. All of the link-control words must compare equal and must be received within the skew window. The link-control word start bit must also be on. LCW NOT COMPLETE, Start=1. This event is the reception of a link-control word (LCW) from one or more but not all of the Link Adapters. The link-control words are not complete because either there is a link-control word miscompare which prematurely ended reception of this frame group or one or more of the link-control words is not received within the skew window. The link-control word start bit must be on. LCW COMPLETE, Start=0, DAT EXP/MSK 1212 Compare. This event is the reception of a link-control word (LCW) from all Link Adapters. All of the link-control words must compare equal and must be received within the skew window. The link-control word start bit must also be off. Also, the contents of the LC IN register must compare equal to the contents of the DAT EXP/MSK 1212 register; in other words, the frame is for a data area buffer. LCW COMPLETE, Start=0, DAT EXP/MSK 1212 Miscompare. This event is the reception of a link-control word (LCW) from all Link Adapters. All of the link-control words must compare equal and must be received within the skew window. The link-control word start bit must also be off. Also, the contents of the LC IN 1204 register did not compare equal to the contents of the DAT EXP/MSK 1212 register; in other words, the frame is not for a data area buffer. LCW NOT COMPLETE, Start=0. This event is the reception of a link-control word (LCW) from one or more but not all of the Link Adapters. The link-control words are not complete because either there is a link-control word miscompare which prematurely ended reception of this frame group or one or more of the link-control words is not received within the skew window. The link-control word start bit must be off. END OF FRAME, COUNT SAT. This event is the reception of an end of frame with count satisfied from all Link Adapters. END OF FRAME, COUNT NOT SAT. This event is the reception of an end of frame with count not satisfied from all Link Adapters. ERROR. This event is the reception of an error from any of the Link Adapters before an end of frame is received. Returning to FIG. 11, the LA RCV SMs 1104(A,B,C,D) also feed the Request Data State Machine (REQ DAT SM) 1108 which is shown in greater detail in FIG. 14. The REQ DAT SM is pad of the Shared Expanded Storage Support Function (SSF) and assists in processing secondary commands received from the Coupling Function (CF). The SSF is described in "Integrity Of Data Objects Used To Maintain State Information For Shared Data At A Local Complex" by D. A. Elko et al, Ser. No. 07/860,800, filed Mar. 30, 1992, and assigned to the assignee of the present invention. The frames received from the CF include commands that invalidate local cache entries and manipulate work queue lists. The SSF also generates and sends the response frame for these commands. The information fields of these frames, both the request and response, are limited to 32 bytes. The main function of the REQ DAT SM is to destripe data from the variable number of Link Adapters and place it into a group of registers in the proper order. This automatic destriping of the data improves the message processor performance because the message processor does not have to be aware of the number of conductors. The complexity of the code used by the message processor is reduced since the messages and responses are always viewed the same independently of the number and positions of conductors in the I/O interface. The performance to the message processor is also improved by having the data from the information field in a local buffer that is faster to access than the receive buffers in the Link Adapters FIG. 14 shows the eight REQ DATA 1402(A through H) registers. Each register is one word wide and each byte position of each register can receive data from any of the four Link Adapters. Also, the receipt of data from each of the Link Adapters is independent since data movement from the Link Adapters does not necessarily happen in unison; there may be other data movement activity on the control lines from the Link Adapters to the Link Controller. As an example, when all four Link Adapters are configured, data from Link Adapter 0 is captured in REQ DATA 0 and 4 registers, data from Link Adapter 1 is captured in REQ DATA 1 and 5 registers, data from Link Adapter 2 is captured in REQ DATA 2 and 6 registers, and data from Link Adapter 3 is captured in REQ DATA 3 and 7 registers. When only 1 Link Adapter is configured, all of the data from the one Link Adapter is captured in REQ DATA 0,1,2,3,4,5,6, and 7 registers. Returning to FIG. 12, the EXP/MSK 0 1206 register in the LC FIFO SM 1106 is used to select which frames are retrieved from the Link Adapters by the REQ DAT SM. When the entries are made in the LC FIFO 1210, the LC IN 1204 register is compared to the EXP/MSK 0 1206 register by compare function 1208. The logic is a collection of circuits that can be initialized by the microprocessor to test various bits in the link-control words of received frames. If the LC IN register passes this test, a signal is sent to the REQ DATA SM along with bits 6, 7, and 15 of the LC IN register. These bits identify the Link Adapter receive buffer which passed the test. At this point, the REQ DATA SM is ready to start moving 32 bytes to the REQ DATA registers. Since there are two buffer sets for receiving secondary command frames, the REQ DATA SM maintains a queue of two requests from the LC FIFO SM along with a busy and a lock bit in the control logic 1404. The busy bit is set while the REQ DATA SM is actively collecting data from the Link Adapters. When the busy bit is set, any load instructions from the REQ DATA 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7 registers stop the microprocessor until all of the data has been retrieved from the Link Adapters. The microprocessor can also check the state of the busy bit before executing the load instruction by examining the REQ DAT LOCK register. Examining the lock bit can prevent potential instruction timeouts when a Link Adapter has a hardware failure. The lock bit is set when the REQ DATA SM has received all the data from the Link Adapters, and is reset when it is unlocked by the microprocessor. Each of the two queue entries contains a pending bit and the three LC IN register bits (6, 7, and 15) from the LC FIFO SM. When one of the pending bits is set from the LC FIFO SM and the REQ DATA SM is not locked, it uses the three LC IN bits to generate a series of Link Controller to Link Adapter bus commands to read the data from one of the receive buffers in the Link Adapters. The number of commands generated and the target Link Adapters depends on which Link Adapters are configured. There are eight allowed configuration combinations of the Link Adapters for the operation of the REQ DATA SM (four single fiber, three dual fiber, and one quad fiber configuration). Each command to retrieve data from a Link Adapter returns 8 bytes, so a quad fiber configuration requires one command to each Link Adapter (done in parallel) to retrieve 32 bytes, and the single fiber configurations require four consecutive commands. The ISC microprocessor sends a static response to the secondary commands. These responses have a 32 byte information field and are stored in a special buffer in the Link Adapters. Since the information field of the response frame does not change, contents of the special buffers is initialized by the microprocessor each time the number and/or position of the active fibers changes. The microprocessor `stripes` the information field into the Link Adapter special buffers in various ways depending on how many and which fibers are active. Once the special buffers are initialized, they do not have to be altered until the number or position of fibers changes. Once the special buffers have been initialized, the microprocessor can send a response by executing one load instruction to the Link Adapter Command register. The microprocessor loads this register when it sends a command to the Link Adapter. The value loaded into this register instructs the Link Adapters to generate a frame from the contents of a link-control word register and the special buffers. The buffer set number, 0 or 1, does not have to be known to the microprocessor and is handled by special hardware in the REQ DAT SM. When the microprocessor sends the response by loading the Link Adapter Command register, a bit in this register is set instructing the REQ DAT SM to insert the buffer set number of the active buffer set into the transmit command sent to the Link Adapters. The Link Adapters then takes this bit and merge it into link-control word bit 15 of the response frame. Another bit in Link Adapter Command register instructs the REQ DAT SM to unlock the REQ DAT registers to allow the next secondary command to be gathered from the Link Adapters. While we have described our preferred embodiments of our invention, it will be understood that those skilled in the art, both now and in the future, may make various improvements and enhancements which fall within the scope of the claims which follow. These claims should be construed to maintain the proper protection for the invention first disclosed.

A system and method for asynchronously receiving data blocks, in parallel, across multiple fibers in a serial manner. Frame groups are provided as a mechanism to transmit associated data serially on each fiber and tie the data being transmitted together. The frame groups do not have sequence numbers, therefore, the receiver determines which frames are part of a frame group by the arrival times of the individual frames. The transceivers for each member of the parallel bus examine the received bit stream to extract frames and continuous sequences. For each member of the parallel bus there are independent receive buffers, and these buffers are controlled by independent states. The states inhibit erroneously generated frames from corrupting the contents of the receive buffers and inhibit the loading of the buffers after errors on the link. These states also control the loading of the receive buffers after retransmission of a buffer area. The information from the individual frames of the frame group is assembled in the proper sequence by another element in the channel. This element also suppresses notification of the intermediate frame groups when multiple frame groups are used to transmit a buffer area.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] This application claims priority from U.S. provisional application serial No. 60/437,762 filed on Jan. 3, 2003, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT [0002] This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. 70NANBOH3015, awarded by the US Department of Commerce, National Institute of Standards & Technology. The Government has certain rights in this invention. INCORPORATION-BY-REFERENCE OF MATERIAL SUBMITTED ON A COMPACT DISC [0003] Not Applicable NOTICE OF MATERIAL SUBJECT TO COPYRIGHT PROTECTION [0004] A portion of the material in this patent document is subject to copyright protection under the copyright laws of the United States and of other countries. The owner of the copyright rights has no objection to the facsimile reproduction by anyone of the patent document or the patent disclosure, as it appears in the United States Patent and Trademark Office publicly available file or records, but otherwise reserves all copyright rights whatsoever. The copyright owner does not hereby waive any of its rights to have this patent document maintained in secrecy, including without limitation its rights pursuant to 37 C.F.R. § 1.14. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0005] 1. Field of the Invention [0006] This invention relates generally to methods of maintaining replica consistency and more particularly to methods of maintaining a consistent view of time for a group of replicas in a fault-tolerant distributed system, wherein each processor has a physical hardware clock and the replicated application program contains clock-related operations. [0007] 2. Description of Related Art [0008] One of the biggest challenges of replication-based fault tolerance is maintaining replica consistency in the presence of replica non-determinism (see, D. Powell, editor, “Delta-4: A Generic Architecture for Dependable Distributed Computing”, Springer-Verlag, 1991, incorporated herein by reference). For active replication, it has been recognized that the replicas must be deterministic, or rendered deterministic. Consequently, passive replication, based on the primary/backup approach, has been advocated if the potential for replica non-determinism exists; however, the same replica non-determinism problems that arise for active replication during normal operation arise for passive replication when the primary replica fails. [0009] Clock-related operations, such as invoking the method gettimeofday( ), are one source of replica non-determinism. Clock-related operations are common not only in real-time applications but also in non-real-time applications, such as in the following two examples: (1) the physical hardware clock value is used as the seed of a random number generator to generate unique identifiers such as object identifiers or transaction identifiers; and (2) the physical hardware clock value is accessed when a timeout is required, for example, for timed remote method invocations to prevent extensive delays and by transaction processing systems in two-phase commit and transaction session management. [0010] Although the primary/backup approach solves the consensus problem for individual clock readings of replicas in a group of replicas, it does not guarantee that the clock readings will always advance forward. If the primary replica that determines the clock readings for the group of replicas crashes, the newly selected primary starts with its own physical hardware clock value for the next clock reading. Because of the differences in the two physical hardware clocks, and the gap in time of the computation for the two replicas, the next clock reading might be earlier than the previous clock reading of the primary replica before it crashed. Clock roll-back can break the causal relationships between events in the distributed system, and can lead to undesirable consequences for the replicated application. [0011] It might also happen that two consecutive clock readings from two different replicas (due to the failure of the original replica) differ too much in the other direction; that is, the second clock reading is too far ahead of the first clock reading. The presence of this fast-forward behavior can lead to unnecessary time-outs in the replicated application. [0012] The clock roll-back and fast-forward problems associated with the primary/backup approach can be alleviated by closely synchronizing the physical hardware clocks. Clocks can be synchronized in a fairly accurate manner using software-based solutions such as the Network Time Protocol (NTP) or hardware-based solutions such as Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) clocks. However, even exact clock synchronization does not solve the problem of maintaining consistent clocks at the replicas. Note that the fast-forward behavior rarely happens for semi-active replication (discussed herein) because the backup replicas lag behind the primary replica that determines the clock value, assuming that the clocks are synchronized closely enough (see, P. Verissimo, “Ordering and timeliness requirements of dependable real-time programs”, Journal of Real-Time Systems, 7(2):105-128, 1994, incorporated herein by reference). [0013] For distributed applications that run on commercial-off-the-shelf general-purpose operating systems, such as Solaris, Linux or Windows, traditional physical hardware clock synchronization algorithms cannot solve the replica non-determinism problem for clock-related operations. Such traditional clock synchronization algorithms can be found in L. Lamport and P. M. Melliar-Smith, “Synchronizing clocks in the presence of faults”, Journal of the ACM, 32 (1):52-78,1985, incorporated herein by reference; L. Rodrigues, P. Verissimo, and A. Casimiro, “Using atomic broadcast to implement a posteriori agreement for clock synchronization”, in Proceedings of the IEEE 12th Symposium on Reliable Distributed Systems, pages 115-124, Princeton, N.J., October 1993, incorporated herein by reference; T. K. Srikanth and S. Toueg, “Optimal clock synchronization”, Journal of the ACM, 34(3):626-645, 1987, incorporated by reference; and P. Verissimo and L. Rodrigues, “A posteriori agreement for fault-tolerant clock synchronization on broadcast networks”, in Proceedings of the IEEE 22nd International Symposium on Fault-Tolerant Computing, pages 527-536, Boston, Mass., July 1992, incorporated herein by reference. One reason that traditional clock synchronization algorithms do not suffice is that such algorithms provide only approximate clock synchronization. Another reason is that the replicas in the group of replicas can read different clock values when they process the same request at different real times due to asynchrony in replica processing and/or scheduling, as shown in FIG. 1. This problem is intrinsic to event-triggered systems, no matter how accurately the clocks are synchronized. [0014] To guarantee replica consistency in the presence of clock-related non-determinism, fault-tolerant systems, such as Mars (see, H. Kopetz, A. Damm, C. Koza, M. Mulazzani, W. Schwabl, C. Senft, and R. Zainlinger “Distributed fault-tolerant real-time systems: The Mars approach”, IEEE Micro, pages 25-40, February 1989, incorporated herein by reference) have used a lock-step, time-triggered approach. However, the time-triggered approach is not applicable in all circumstances, due to its requirement of a priori scheduling of the operations of the replicated application. In particular, a program cannot read the clock time because no mechanism is provided to ensure precise consistency of the readings of the clocks. [0015] In S. Mullender, editor, “Distributed Systems”, ACM Press, second edition, 1993, incorporated herein by reference, a pre-processing approach has been proposed to render deterministic the computations of the replicas. The pre-processing involves executing a distributed consensus protocol to harmonize the inputs from the environment. In particular, the primary/backup approach is used to cope with non-deterministic reading of clocks for a group of replicas. The physical hardware clock value of the primary replica is returned, and the result is conveyed to all of the backup replicas. The other replicas utilize that clock value, instead of their own physical hardware clock values. [0016] U.S. Pat. No. 5,001,730, which is incorporated herein by reference, describes a distributed clock synchronization algorithm for address-independent networks. Synchronization is achieved by using the fastest clock in the network as the master clock against which all other clocks in the network are synchronized. Each node sends a message to all of the other nodes in the network when its timer times out. If a node receives a message with a higher clock time than its own before it sends a message, that node does not send its message. However, no mechanism is provided to ensure that all nodes receive the same message first and, thus, that patent does not ensure consistent readings of the clocks. [0017] U.S. Pat. No. 5,041,966, which is incorporated herein by reference, defines three partially distributed methods for performing clock synchronization. The general concept is that randomly selected M processors out of N processors cooperate to adjust the clocks of all processors in the distributed system. In the first method all processors randomly select M processors at different time instants, and each processor adjusts its clock to an average of the local times of the M processors. In the second method each processor transmits its own local time to randomly selected M processors and adjusts its own clock to the average of the local times it receives. In the third method all processors adjust their clocks to the average of the local times received from randomly selected M processors. The methods consider fault tolerance, but they make no attempt to ensure consistent readings of the clock. [0018] U.S. Pat. No. 5,530,846, which is incorporated herein by reference, describes a method for accommodating discrete clock synchronization adjustments, while maintaining a continuous logical clock that amortizes the adjustments at a predetermined rate. Two logical clocks are used to decouple clock synchronization from clock amortization. One logical clock is discretely synchronized to an external time reference, and a second logical clock is adjusted with amortization to provide a continuous monotonically non-decreasing logical clock. Again, the method makes no attempt to ensure consistent readings of the clock. [0019] U.S. Pat. No. 5,689,688, which is incorporated herein by reference, describes two methods for synchronizing local times, maintained at nodes within a network, with a reference time. The active method is a handshaking scheme in which synchronization is initiated by the node requiring synchronization and involves an exchange of messages between the node and the reference time source, producing a synchronized time and a maximum error. The passive method involves a reference time source that broadcasts a burst of reference-time synchronization messages; a node listens for the messages, updating its local time and maximum error. Individual nodes are synchronized independently and there is no mechanism to ensure consistent readings of the clock. [0020] U.S. Pat. No. 6,157,957, which is incorporated herein by reference, describes a clock synchronization system and method for a communication network, consisting of multiple nodes that transfer data over communication links. The nodes exchange timing information with a master node that has a master clock against which the local clocks of the nodes are to be synchronized. At predefined moments in time, each node exchanges timing information with the master node, calculates timing data and stores the timing data in a sequence of timing data, called its history. After at least two exchanges, the method calculates parameters from the history, stores them and uses them to compute a continuous conversion function. The continuous conversion function converts the local time into the master time with a pre-specified and guaranteed precision that is nevertheless only approximate. No mechanism is provided to guarantee consistent readings of the clock. [0021] [0021]FIG. 1A shows two replicas, R 1 10 and R 2 12 , that both process the same messages and are required to maintain consistency between their states, their processing and their results. Each replica is supported by a replication infrastructure 14 , 16 , and each such infrastructure contains a queue of unprocessed messages 18 , 20 . Because of communication delays and differences in processing speeds, the two replicas do not perform the same operations at exactly the same real time. In FIG. 1A, replica R 1 is processing 22 request message number 5 while replica R 2 is still processing 24 request message number 3 when request message number 8 is received and queued at both replicas R 1 and R 2 26 , 28 . Even though request message number 8 is received simultaneously at both replicas, the message is likely to be processed at different real times by the two replicas. [0022] In FIG. 1B, the processing of request message number 8 invokes the gettimeofday( ) method 34 , 36 of the operating system to read the physical hardware clock. Because the two replicas R 1 30 and R 2 32 process the request message at different real times, the replicas can receive different values for the time from the gettimeofday( ) method, even if the two clocks are perfectly synchronized. If the two replicas process two different values for the time, their states and results can diverge, thus destroying replica consistency. It is essential that the gettimeofday( ) methods in the two replicas yield exactly the same values for the time, even if their corresponding physical hardware clock readings yield different real times. [0023] Therefore, a need exists, as outlined above, for a method of providing a consistent time service for fault-tolerant distributed systems based on replication in order to maintain replica consistency. The present invention satisfies those needs, as well as others, and overcomes clock-related sources of replica non-determinism and replica inconsistency. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0024] Clock-related operations are one of the many sources of replica non-determinism and replica inconsistency in fault-tolerant distributed systems. In passive replication, if the primary server crashes, the next clock value returned by the new primary server, when it continues the computation, might have actually rolled back in time, which can lead to undesirable consequences for the replicated application. The same problem can arise for active replication where the result of the first replica to respond is taken as the next clock value, and that value might be smaller than the value chosen for the prior clock value. [0025] In response to these needs, the present invention provides a consistent time service for fault-tolerant distributed systems that are based on replication. The consistent time service ensures deterministic clock-related operations for a group of replicas, based on a consistent clock synchronization algorithm that provides a single group clock for the replicas in the group. It does not require synchronization of the physical hardware clocks. The consistent group clock is monotonically increasing and ensures that all of the replicas see the same clock values and the same behavior for clock-related operations. Assuming that the processing time and message delivery time are bounded, and that the physical hardware clocks have bounded increment and bounded drift, the consistent group clock also has bounded increment, bounded skew and bounded drift. [0026] The consistent time service ensures a consistent monotonically increasing clock, not only for active replication during normal operation, but also for passive replication and semi-active replication when the primary fails and a backup replica takes over as the new primary. The consistent time service is transparent to the application and is fault-tolerant; that is, it allows the addition of new replicas and the recovery of failed replicas, without losing the properties of the group clock. [0027] In one embodiment of the invention, a method of maintaining clock consistency in a fault-tolerant distributed system for a group of replicas each having a physical hardware clock comprises (a) executing a time service handler for accessing the physical hardware clock; (b) establishing a single group clock value within the time service handler for the group of replicas; and (c) returning from the time service handler with the group clock value instead of the physical hardware clock value at each replica. [0028] In another embodiment of the invention, a method of maintaining clock consistency for a group of replicas, each having a physical hardware clock and operating in a fault-tolerant distributed system, comprises (a) reading a physical clock value by a given replica as a result of a clock operation; (b) determining a local logical clock value for the given replica by adding a clock offset value (positive or negative) to the physical clock value; (c) proposing the local logical clock value as the group clock value by sending a clock synchronization message containing that value to replicas in the group when no other clock synchronization message for this reading of the physical clock value has been received; (d) extracting the local logical clock value from the received clock synchronization message as the group clock value; (e) setting the clock offset value for the given replica to the value of the group clock value less the physical clock value; and (f) returning the group clock value to the given replica. [0029] It should be recognized from the foregoing that the present invention provides a number of beneficial aspects. [0030] An object of the present invention is to provide a method of maintaining a consistent view of time within replicas executing in a fault-tolerant distributed system. [0031] Another object of the present invention is to provide a consistent group clock value to all replicas within a group of replicas. [0032] Another object of the present invention is for a replica to maintain a time offset value representing the relationship between a received group clock value and the physical hardware clock value of the replica. [0033] Another object of the present invention is to communicate the group clock value by sending that value within a consistent clock synchronization message that is multicast to replicas within the group of replicas. [0034] Another object of the present invention is that replicas within a group of replicas, subject to an active replication strategy, compete for being the synchronizer that establishes the group clock value. [0035] Another object of the present invention is that a primary replica within a group of replicas, subject to a passive replication strategy, determines the group clock value. [0036] Further objects and advantages of the invention will be brought out in the following portions of the invention, wherein the detailed description is for the purpose of fully disclosing preferred embodiments of the invention without placing limitations thereon. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWING(S) [0037] The invention will be more fully understood by reference to the following drawings which are for illustrative purposes only: [0038] [0038]FIG. 1A and FIG. 1B are diagrams exemplifying the current problems associated with executing clock-related operations on different replicas at different real times. [0039] [0039]FIG. 2 is a diagram of an example illustrating synchronizing the state of a recovering replica with the appropriate initialization of the new clock according to an aspect of the present invention. [0040] [0040]FIG. 3 is a flowchart of initializing the consistent clock synchronization algorithm according to an aspect of the present invention. [0041] [0041]FIG. 4 is a flowchart of the operation of the consistent clock synchronization algorithm according to an aspect of the present invention, shown executing a clock-related operation. [0042] [0042]FIG. 5 is a flowchart of the operation of the consistent clock synchronization algorithm according to an aspect of the present invention, shown on invocation of the get_grp_clock_time( ) method. [0043] [0043]FIG. 6 is a flowchart of the operation of the consistent clock synchronization algorithm according to an aspect of the present invention, shown on receipt of a consistent clock synchronization (CCS) message. [0044] [0044]FIG. 7 is a flowchart of the operation of the consistent clock synchronization algorithm according to an aspect of the present invention, shown on invocation of the recv_CCS_msg( ) method. [0045] [0045]FIG. 8 is a flowchart of the operation of the consistent clock synchronization algorithm according to an aspect of the present invention, showing steps taken on reception of a message that announces the addition of a new replica. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0046] Referring more specifically to the drawings, for illustrative purposes the present invention is embodied in the apparatus generally shown in FIG. 2 through FIG. 8. It will be appreciated that the apparatus may vary as to configuration and as to details of the parts, and that the method may vary as to the specific steps and sequence, without departing from the basic concepts as disclosed herein. [0047] 1. Introduction. [0048] The consistent time service that is the subject of this invention applies to active replication and to the primary/backup approach used by cold and warm passive replication and by semi-passive and semi-active replication. In active replication, all of the replicas are equal (there are no primary or backups replicas), and all of the replicas transmit the messages containing the requests and replies, receive the messages, and process the requests and replies concurrently. [0049] In warm passive replication, the application program is loaded into memory at the backup replicas, but the backup replicas do not process the messages containing the requests and replies; rather the messages are logged at the backup replicas and periodically the state of the primary replica is transferred to the backup replicas. In cold passive replication, the application program is not even loaded into memory at the backups and the messages are logged but not necessarily at the location at which the application program might subsequently be loaded into memory. In semi-passive replication, the application program is loaded into memory at the backups and the messages are logged at the backups, but the state is not transferred from the primary replica to the backup replicas. In semi-active replication, the application program is loaded into memory at the backup replicas and the backup replicas process the messages just as the primary replica does, but they do not communicate the requests or replies. [0050] The consistent time service is implemented on top of a replication infrastructure and a group communication system (see, e.g., L. E. Moser, P. M. Melliar-Smith, D. A. Agarwal, R. K. Budhia and C. A. Lingley-Papadopoulos, “Totem: A fault-tolerant multicast group communication system, Communications of the ACM”, vol. 39, no. 4, April 1996, pp. 54-63, incorporated herein by reference). The reliable ordered multicast protocol of the group communication system ensures that the replicas receive the same messages in the same order, and that a message is either delivered to all of the replicas in the group or to none of them. The membership algorithm of the group communication system maintains a consistent view of the group of replicas by all members of the group. The consistent time service applies to both asynchronous and synchronous distributed systems that provide these message delivery and membership services. [0051] The consistent time service of the present invention preferably employs library interpositioning of clock-related system calls to achieve application transparency, although it may be implemented by other convenient means without departing from the teachings of the present invention. [0052] The consistent time service depends on a consistent clock synchronization algorithm, described herein, which proceeds in rounds. The consistent clock synchronization algorithm presents a consistent view of the clocks for the replicas in the group and, hence, the application at each replica sees a consistent group clock instead of the inconsistent physical hardware clocks of the replicas. [0053] The replicas are assumed to be fail-stop, as are the physical clocks; that is, a non-faulty replica never sends a wrong clock value to the other replicas. The fail-stop assumption for physical clocks might seem to be overly restrictive. In fact, most group communication systems operate only if the physical clocks are fail-stop. Arbitrary fault models for physical clocks can disrupt the timeout-based fault detection strategy that the group communication system uses. [0054] If a replica is detected to be faulty, it is removed from the membership of the group. The failure of a replica does not interfere with the execution of the consistent clock synchronization algorithm. Communication faults are handled and masked by the underlying group communication system, i.e., the consistent clock synchronization algorithm assumes a reliable communication channel. At least one replica in the group is assumed to be non-faulty during a round of the clock synchronization algorithm. [0055] All threads that perform clock-related operations are created during the initialization of a replica, or during runtime, in the same order at different replicas. Except for timer management, one and only one thread is assigned to process incoming remote method invocations, to send nested remote method invocations and to handle the corresponding replies. [0056] We let gc(n) denote the group clock value at round n, where n>=1. We let pc(i,n) denote the reading of the physical hardware clock of replica i at the start of round n, where n>=1. We let Δ(i,n) denote the offset between the group clock value and the physical hardware clock value of replica i, i.e., Δ(i,n)=gc(n)−pc(i,n), n>=1, and we set Δ(i,0)=0. We let lc(i,n) denote the local logical clock that replica i proposes for the group clock for round n, where n>=1. In the consistent clock synchronization algorithm, lc(i,n+1)=pc(i,n+1)+Δ(i,n) and, thus, lc(i,1)=pc(i,1). [0057] The values of the physical hardware clocks may differ from real time, but if the physical hardware clocks satisfy the following property, then the group clock satisfies the corresponding property. [0058] Monotonically Increasing. The physical hardware clocks of the replicas are monotonically increasing, i.e., for all rounds n and for all replicas i at rounds n and n+1, pc(i,n+1)>pc(i,n). [0059] In addition, if the processing time and message delivery time are bounded and the physical hardware clocks satisfy the following properties, then the group clock satisfies corresponding boundedness properties. [0060] Bounded Increment. The physical hardware clocks of the replicas have a bounded increment, i.e., there exists an I such that, for all rounds n and for all replicas i at rounds n and n+ 1 , pc(i,n+1)−pc(i,n)<I. [0061] Bounded Drift. The physical hardware clocks of the replicas advance at approximately the same rate, i.e., there exists a D such that, for all rounds n and for all replicas i and j at rounds n and n+1, |[pc(i,n+1)−pc(i,n)]−[pc(j,n+1)−pc(j,n)]|<D. [0062] From the definition of the local logical clocks at the replicas and the monotonically increasing property of the physical hardware clocks of the replicas given above, it follows that the group clock satisfies the following properties: [0063] Consistency. All of the non-faulty replicas in the group at round n receive the same group clock gc(n), even if a fault occurs. [0064] Monotonically Increasing. The group clock at round n+1 is greater than the group clock at round n, i.e., gc(n+1)>gc(n). [0065] If, in addition, the processing time and message delivery time are bounded and the physical hardware clocks satisfy the bounded increment and bounded drift properties given above, then the group clock satisfies the following properties: [0066] Bounded Increment. The group clock has bounded increment, i.e., there exists an I′ such that, for all rounds n, gc(n+1)−gc(n)<I′. [0067] Bounded Skew. The group clock has bounded skew in that the difference between the local clock that replica i proposes for the group clock and the consistent group clock is bounded, i.e., there exists an S′ such that, for all rounds n and for all replicas i at round n, |lc(i,n)−gc(n)|<S′. [0068] Bounded Drift. The group clock has bounded drift in that the physical hardware clock at replica i and the group clock advance at approximately the same rate, i.e., there exists a D′ such that, for all rounds n and for all replicas i at rounds n and n+1, |[pc(i,n+1)−pc(i,n)]−[gc(n+1)−gc(n)]|<D′. [0069] The consistent time service that is the subject of this invention is preferably performed using the consistent clock synchronization algorithm of the present invention. The consistent clock synchronization algorithm proceeds in rounds. A round is a period of time in which the mechanisms retrieve the physical hardware clock values, exchange messages, reset the clock offset and decide on the consistent clock value for the group. A new round of clock synchronization is started for each clock-related operation. Within a single thread, all clock-related operations are naturally sequential; a thread cannot start a new round of the consistent clock synchronization algorithm before the current round completes. The scheduling algorithm of the replication infrastructure determines whether or not there are multiple concurrent consistent clock synchronizations in progress for different threads (see, e.g., P. Narasimhan, L. E. Moser, and P. M. Melliar-Smith. “Enforcing determinism for the consistent replication of multithreaded CORBA applications”, in Proceedings of the IEEE 18th Symposium on Reliable Distributed Systems, pages 263-273, Lausanne, Switzerland, October 1999, incorporated herein by reference; and R. Jimenez-Peris and S. Arevalo, “Deterministic scheduling for transactional multithreaded replicas”, in Proceedings of the IEEE 19th Symposium on Reliable Distributed Systems, pages 164-173, Nurnberg, Germany, October 2000, incorporated herein by reference). [0070] The consistent clock synchronization algorithm of the present invention is described herein for active replication; modifications for passive replication and semi-active replication are described as well. The general concept is that the replica in the group, whose consistent clock synchronization (CCS) message containing a proposed group clock value for a round is ordered and delivered first, decides on the group clock value for that round. The replica that decides the group clock value is referred to herein as the synchronizer for the round. For primary/backup replication strategies, the synchronizer is the primary replica. Each replica maintains a clock offset value to stay in synchronization with the clock readings for the group, even if the synchronizer changes for different rounds. The clock offset value is re-adjusted, if necessary, for each round of executing the consistent clock synchronization algorithm. [0071] In the consistent clock synchronization algorithm the replicas in the group may compete to become the synchronizer for the round. In a round, the group clock is set to the local clock proposed for the group clock by the winner (the synchronizer) of that round. In the initial round, the group clock is initialized to the synchronizer's local clock value, which is the value of the physical hardware clock of that replica. In each subsequent round, the group clock is set to the synchronizer's local clock value, which is the sum of its physical hardware clock value and its offset of the group clock from the local clock in the previous round. [0072] If the message containing the local logical clock value that is proposed for the group clock is delivered to any non-faulty replica, it will be delivered to all non-faulty replicas. Because at least one replica in the group is non-faulty during the consistent clock synchronization round, the consistent clock synchronization algorithm will determine a consistent group clock value for that round. [0073] For the primary/backup approach, if the primary replica fails during the round before it sends the consistent clock synchronization message or if it fails during the round after it sends the consistent clock synchronization message but its consistent clock synchronization message is not delivered to any non-faulty replica, then the new primary replica will send a consistent clock synchronization message. [0074] 2. Clock Synchronization Example. [0075] [0075]FIG. 2 illustrates an example of the consistent clock synchronization algorithm of the present invention showing the progress of real time 50 and three replicas, R 1 52 , R 2 54 and R 3 56 . All three replicas preferably start with a timer offset value of zero. [0076] At real time 8:10 60 , replica R 1 initiates a round of the consistent clock synchronization algorithm 62 . Replica R 1 reads its physical hardware clock and sets pc=8:10. It then adds pc and offset to obtain its local logical consistent clock lc=8:10, which it multicasts to all of the replicas in a consistent clock synchronization (CCS) message. After a short delay, replica R 1 receives its own CCS message 64 and determines that gc=8:10 and then subtracts pc from gc to obtain its timer offset value =0. Replica R 2 reads its physical hardware clock and sets pc=8:15, and then receives the multicast CCS message, from which it determines that gc=8:10. Replica R 2 then subtracts pc from gc to obtain its offset =−0.05. Replica R 3 receives the multicast CCS message 68 , from which its determines that gc=8:10, and reads its physical hardware clock and sets pc=8:25 68 . It then subtracts pc from gc to obtain its offset =gc−pc=−0.15. [0077] A short time later 70 , at real time 8:30, replica R 2 initiates a round of the consistent clock synchronization algorithm 72 . Replica R 2 reads its physical clock and sets pc=8:30, and then adds pc and offset to obtain lc=8:25, which it multicasts to all of the replicas. After a short delay, replica R 2 receives its own multicast CCS message 74 , from which it determines that gc =8:25. Replica R 2 then subtracts pc from gc to obtain its offset =−0.05. Replica R 1 receives the multicast CCS message 76 , from which it determines that gc=8:25, and then reads its physical hardware clock and sets pc=8:40. Replica R 1 then subtracts pc from gc to obtain its offset =−0.15. Replica R 3 reads its physical hardware clock and sets pc=8:35, and receives the multicast CCS message 78 from which it determines that gc=8:25. Replica R 3 then subtracts pc from gc to obtain its offset =−0.1. [0078] At real time 8:50 80 , replica R 3 initiates a round of the consistent clock synchronization algorithm 82 . Replica R 3 reads its physical hardware clock and sets pc=8:50. It then adds pc and offset to obtain lc=8:40, which it multicasts to all of the replicas. After a short delay, replica R 3 receives its own multicast CCS message 84 , from which it determines that gc=8:40. Replica R 3 then subtracts pc from gc to obtain its offset =−0.1. Replica R 1 reads its physical hardware clock and sets pc=8:60. It then receives the multicast CCS message 86 , and determines that gc=8:40. Replica R 1 subtracts pc from gc to obtain its offset =−0.2. Similarly, replica R 2 reads its physical hardware clock and sets pc=8:55, and receives the multicast CCS message 88 from which it determines that gc=8:40. Replica R 3 then subtracts pc from gc to obtain its offset =−0.15. [0079] 3. Data Structures. [0080] 3.1 Synchronization Messages. [0081] The consistent clock synchronization algorithm of the present invention requires the sending of a message containing synchronization information, herein referred to as a Consistent Clock Synchronization (CCS) message, to the replicas in the group. [0082] Each CCS message contains a common fault-tolerant protocol message header. The header preferably contains the following fields: [0083] msg_type: The type of message, (i.e. CCS). [0084] src_grp_id: The source, or sending, group identifier. [0085] dst_grp_id: The destination, or receiving, group identifier. For a CCS message, the source group identifier and the destination group identifier are the same. [0086] conn_id: The identifier that uniquely determines a connection that has been established between the source group and the destination group. [0087] msg_seq_num: The sequence number of the message sent on the connection. For CCS messages, this field contains the CCS round number. A CCS round number n means that this is the nth round of the consistent clock synchronization algorithm conducted by the group (for all threads in a replica in the group). [0088] For a regular user message, the src_grp_id, dst_grp_id and conn_id uniquely determine a connection within the distributed system. The msg_seq_num uniquely determines a message within the connection. These fields together constitute the message identifier. [0089] The payload of the CCS message contains two parts: [0090] Sending thread identifier: The identifier of the sending thread. [0091] Local clock value being proposed for the group clock: The sum of the physical hardware clock value and the clock offset at the replica. [0092] 3.2 Local Data Structures. [0093] For each replica, this embodiment of the consistent clock synchronization algorithm employs the following local data structures: [0094] my_physical_clock_val: The variable that stores the physical hardware clock value read at the beginning of each round of the consistent clock synchronization algorithm. [0095] my_clock_offset: The clock offset value of the group clock value from the physical hardware clock value of the local replica. The clock offset value is set once for each consistent clock synchronization round, as the difference between the group clock value for the round and my_physical_clock_val of the local replica. It is used to calculate the local clock value that any thread in the replica proposes for the group clock in the next round. [0096] my_round_number: The consistent clock synchronization round number for the replica. This number is used to perform duplicate detection and to match the clock-related operation with the corresponding CCS message in the same round. In active replication, all replicas compete for sending the CCS message and, therefore, duplicate detection is required during normal operation. In passive or semi-active replication, duplication detection is not required during normal operation but is required for recovery from a fault. [0097] my_common_input_buffer: A buffer that queues CCS messages for a slow replica when the thread that will perform the same logical operation has not been created yet. In this case, the mechanisms cannot find a matching CCS_handler (defined below) to process the received CCS messages. [0098] CCS_handler: The consistent clock synchronization handler object. There is one such handler object for each thread. Each CCS_handler object contains the following member variables and member methods: [0099] my_thread_id: The identifier of the thread. [0100] my_input_buffer: The buffer that stores the received CCS messages sent by the peer replicas and/or the local replica. Even though all of the clock-related operations in a thread are sequential, slower replicas might still need to queue one or more CCS messages from the faster replicas. Those messages correspond to the clock-related operations that the local replica has not performed yet. Note that an incoming request can trigger multiple clock-related operations, and that the dedicated timer management thread continuously performs clock-related operations. [0101] get_grp_clock_time( ): The thread invokes this member method for each clock-related operation and passes the local clock value that is being proposed for the group clock as the input parameter to this method. This method invocation blocks until the first CCS message is delivered. The consistent clock value that corresponds to the clock-related operation is returned to the calling thread. [0102] recv_CCS_msg( ): Using this method, the mechanisms append a received CCS message to the input buffer that is targeted for this thread. [0103] 4. Consistent Clock Synchronization Algorithm. [0104] The consistent clock synchronization algorithm is illustrated by way of example and not limitation in the flowcharts of FIG. 3 through FIG. 8. Each clock-related operation is converted into a CCS message that is multicast to all of the replicas in a group using a reliable ordered multicast protocol. Each CCS message contains in its payload a local logical clock value that the replica is proposing for the consistent group clock value for the round. The clock value contained in the first received CCS message is returned to the application as the consistent group clock value. [0105] 4.1 Initialization and Consistent Clock Synchronization. [0106] Referring to FIG. 3, during initialization 100 of the consistent clock synchronization algorithm, the clock offset value at each replica and the consistent clock synchronization round number are initialized, such as set to zero as per blocks 102 and 104 . This means that the CCS message for the first clock-related operation in each replica contains the physical hardware clock value for that replica. After initialization is performed execution exits at block 106 . [0107] On initialization of the consistent clock synchronization algorithm: my_clock_offset = 0; my_round_number = 0; [0108] Referring to FIG. 4, on each clock-related operation 120 , the physical hardware clock value is retrieved 122 and a local logical clock value is calculated by summing the physical hardware clock value and the clock offset 124 . Then, the consistent clock synchronization handler for the thread is retrieved and my_CCS_handler is set to that handler 126 and the get_grp_clock_time( ) method of the handler is invoked, with the local logical clock value as an input parameter, and grp_clock_val is set to the value retrieved 128 . This method invocation blocks until the first matching CCS message is delivered. Every replica in the group accepts the local logical clock value in that message as the group clock value (as a result of the reliable ordered multicast of CCS messages). The clock offset is updated by taking the difference of the group clock value and the physical hardware clock value 130 . The group clock value is then returned to the replica 132 and the algorithm returns 134 . On each clock-related operation:  my_physical_clock_val = read from physical hardware clock;  my_local_clock_val = my_physical_clock_val + my_clock_offset;  my_CCS_handler = consistent clock synchronization handler;  grp_clock_val =    my_CCS_handler.get_grp_clock_time(my_local_clock_val);  my_clock_offset = grp_clock_val − my_physical_clock_val;  return grp_clock_val; [0109] Referring to FIG. 5, on invocation of the get_grp_clock_time( ) method 150 , the round number is incremented each time the method is invoked 152 . Any matching CCS messages in the common input buffer for the calling thread that have been received earlier (when the mechanisms could not determine the thread to which those messages should be delivered) are moved from the common input buffer to the local input buffer in the thread 154 . [0110] The local input buffer is then checked 156 . If the local input buffer is empty, the mechanisms construct a CCS message with the local clock value that is being proposed for the group clock, the round number, and the appropriate thread identifier 158 . Then, they send the message using the reliable ordered multicast protocol 160 . The calling thread is blocked waiting for the arrival of the first matching CCS message 162 . [0111] When the thread is awakened by the arrival of a CCS message or if there is a message in the local input buffer, the mechanisms remove the first CCS message from the local input buffer 164 , extract the local clock value that is being proposed as the consistent group clock value 166 and return the consistent group clock value to the application 168 . The algorithm then returns 170 . On invocation of get_grp_clock time( ) method:  my_round_number = my_round_number + 1;  move matching CCS messages from my_common_input_buffer    to my_input_buffer;  if no message in my_input_buffer   construct a CCS message with my_local_clock_val,    my_round_number and the appropriate thread id;   multicast CCS message;   wait until my_input_buffer is no longer empty;  select the first message in my_input_buffer;  recvd_grp_clock_val = the consistent clock value in the    message;  return recvd_grp_clock_val; [0112] Referring to FIG. 6, on reception of a CCS message 180 , the mechanisms extract the sending thread identifier from the message 182 and search for the corresponding CCS_handler object 184 . If the handler object is found, the recv_CCS_msg( ) method of the handler object is invoked with the CCS message as an input parameter 186 and the algorithm exits 190 . If no handler object is found, the replica has not started the thread yet and the CCS message is queued in the common input buffer 188 and the algorithm exits 190 . on reception of a CCS message:  extract the sending thread id from the message;  if a CCS handler object with a matching thread id is found   invoke the handler's recv_CCS_msg( ) method with the    CCS message as an input parameter;  else   queue the CCS message in my_common_input_buffer; [0113] [0113]FIG. 7 illustrates invocation of the recv_CCS_msg( ) method 200 . Duplicate detection is performed based on the msg_seq_num in the CCS message 202 to see if it is a duplicate 204 . If the CCS message is a duplicate, it is discarded 206 and the algorithm exits 214 . If it is not a duplicate, the message is appended to the local input buffer 208 . If the local input buffer was previously empty 210 , there might be a thread that has been blocked waiting for the CCS message in which case a signal is sent to wake up a potential blocked thread 212 and the algorithm exits 214 . on invocation of the recv_CCS_msg( ) method:  perform duplicate detection based on msg_seq_num   information;  if the CCS message is a duplicate,   discard the CCS message;  else   append the CCS message to my_input_buffer;   if my_input_buffer was previously empty,    signal the blocked thread, if any, to awaken it; [0114] 4.2 Integration of New Clocks. [0115] Adding a new replica or restarting a failed replica introduces a new clock. The replication infrastructure ensures that the state transfer, or the synchronization of replica state, occurs when the group reaches a quiescent state, such as when the existing replicas in the group are not involved in any processing, including clock-related operations. Therefore, adding a new replica (a new clock) does not interfere with normal consistent clock synchronization. [0116] It is important to ensure that the newly added clock maintains the property that the group clock is increasing monotonically. During the recovery process, the new clock must be initialized properly, based on the existing group clock. [0117] [0117]FIG. 8 illustrates an example of recovery steps together with the necessary mechanisms to initialize the recovering replica. When adding a new replica (equivalent to adding a new clock), a synchronization point must be chosen for the state transfer from the existing replicas to the recovering replica. It is generally achieved by a reliable ordered multicast GET_STATE message, which takes a checkpoint. [0118] On reception of a message that reports the addition of a new replica 220 , each replica determines whether it is the new replica 222 . Replicas that are not the new replica must transfer their consistent group clock value and their state to the new replica. This is achieved by, first, invoking a clock-related operation 224 that generates a CCS message to synchronize the clocks of all of the replicas, including the new replica. The replica then invokes a get_state( ) operation 226 . The reply to the get_state( ) operation contains the state of the replica, which is multicast to all replicas and is used to set the state of the new replica. The existing replicas ignore the reply to the get_state( ) operation 228 and exit at block 242 . [0119] The new replica first awaits reception of the first CCS message multicast by an existing replica 230 . It sets my_round_number and grp_clock_val to the values contained in the CCS message 232 , and sets my_physical_clock_val by reading its physical clock 234 . It sets my clock_offset to the difference between grp_clock_val and my_physical_clock_val 236 . [0120] Next, the new replica awaits reception of the reply to the get_state( ) operation 238 . That reply contains the state of the other replicas. The new replica constructs an invocation of set_state( ), using the reply to get_state( ) as the parameter to set_state( ) 240 , so as to set the state of the new replica to match the state of the existing replicas. The new replica then exits 242 , and subsequently processes further messages in exactly the same way that existing replicas do. on receiving at replica i the message  that reports the addition of a new replica:  if I am the new replica,   await CCS message;   on receiving CCS message:    set my_round_number     to corresponding value in CCS message;    set grp_clock_val to corresponding value      in CCS message;    set my_physical_clock_val      by reading the physical hardware clock;    my_clock_offset =      grp_clock_val − my_physical_clock_val;    await reply to invocation of get_state( );    on receiving reply to invocation of get_state( )     invoke set_state( ) using reply value as parameter;  else    invoke the clock-related operation;    invoke get_state( );    ignore reply to get_state( ); [0121] Note that, for passive and semi-active replication, only the primary replica sends CCS messages. If the primary replica fails and a backup replica assumes the role of the primary replica, that backup replica might find that it has already received a CCS message from the primary replica and, consequently, that it does not need to send the CCS message but, rather, uses the consistent clock value contained in the CCS message that it received. [0122] Also note that the winner of a consistent clock synchronization round is not necessarily the first replica in the group that conducted the clock-related operation. The order in which concurrent messages are multicast depends on the strategy that the group communication protocol uses. In Totem (see, e.g., L. E. Moser, P. M. Melliar-Smith, D. A. Agarwal, R. K. Budhia and C. A. Lingley-Papadopoulos, “Totem: A fault-tolerant multicast group communication system”, Communications of the ACM, vol. 39, no. 4, April 1996, pp. 54-63, incorporated herein by reference) for example, the winner is determined by the relative ordering of the send request and the token visit, together with the position of the replica on the logical ring. Nevertheless, a faster replica has a higher probability of becoming the winner of a consistent clock synchronization round. [0123] It should also be noted that the consistent group clock can exhibit drift from real time over long periods of time, both because of the drift of the physical hardware clocks and because of the communication and processing delay. One strategy for reducing the drift is to increase the value of my_clock_offset by a mean delay each time that value is calculated to compensate for that delay. Such a compensation can significantly reduce the drift but is necessarily only approximate. A more aggressive strategy involves NTP, GPS or some other time source that might have a transient skew from real time but that has no drift. Each time a physical hardware clock is read and a proposed consistent clock is calculated at the start of a round, a small proportion of the difference between the “real time” and the proposed consistent clock is added to the proposed consistent clock. This introduces a small but repeated bias towards “real time” that can compensate for the drift in the group clock. [0124] Although the description above contains many details, these should not be construed as limiting the scope of the invention but as merely providing illustrations of some of the presently preferred embodiments of this invention. Therefore, it will be appreciated that the scope of the present invention fully encompasses other embodiments which may become obvious to those skilled in the art, and that the scope of the present invention is accordingly to be limited by nothing other than the appended claims, in which reference to an element in the singular is not intended to mean “one and only one” unless explicitly so stated, but rather “one or more.” All structural and functional equivalents to the elements of the above-described preferred embodiment that are known to those of ordinary skill in the art are expressly incorporated herein by reference and are intended to be encompassed by the present claims. Moreover, it is not necessary for a device or method to address each and every problem sought to be solved by the present invention, for it to be encompassed by the present claims. Furthermore, no element, component, or method step in the present disclosure is intended to be dedicated to the public regardless of whether the element, component, or method step is explicitly recited in the claims. No claim element herein is to be construed under the provisions of 35 U.S.C. 112 , sixth paragraph, unless the element is expressly recited using the phrase “means for.”

A consistent time service that provides a method of maintaining deterministic clock-related operations for a group of replicas in a fault-tolerant distributed system. A consistent clock synchronization algorithm is utilized that yields a single consistent group clock for the replicas in the group, and does not require synchronization of the underlying physical hardware clocks. The consistent group clock ensures the determinism of the replicas in the group with respect to clock-related operations, is monotonically increasing, has bounded increment, skew and drift. The consistent time service provides benefits for active replication during normal operation, as well as passive replication and semi-active replication to ensure a consistent monotonically increasing clock when the primary replica fails and a backup replica takes over as the new primary replica. The consistent time service provided is transparent to the application and guarantees group clock consistency despite replica failures or adding new or repaired replicas.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to the transport of containers on board ships. Container carrying ships generally use, for positioning and securing the containers in the hold, slides cooperating with the corners of each container. Above the hold, the containers are positioned on the sealed closure panels by means of manually placed bars, chains, tensioners etc. An improvement has been made there-to, for facilitating the positioning and stowage of the containers on the panels, which consists in extending the slides above the panels. These slides must then be interrupted, or have a removable part, so as to allow the panel to move in a horizontal plane during its opening movement so that, when it is desired to unload a container stored in a given hold, it is first of all necessary to remove all the containers placed in several piles on the closure panel of this hold, which represents considerable work and a considerable waste of time. 2. Description of the Prior Art The U.S. Pat. No. 3,827,384 proposes using, on a container carrying ship having a storage space inside which are disposed container receiving cells each formed by a group of vertical slides extending above this storage space, using independent closure panels each designed so as to slide inside a group of slides. Each independent panel has at its opposite ends hinged parts which, in the closed position of the panel, come into the extension of this latter which then has a length greater than that of the cell formed by the slides. This arrangement has the drawback of requiring interruption of the vertical slides at the level of the deck, and of preventing storage of the panel in another available slide group. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The aim of the present invention is to overcome the disadvantages of known devices and for this purpose provides a simple device of great efficiency which not only allows the system to be used for guiding the containers by vertical slides projecting above the deck without requiring, so as to have access to a container stored in a hold, moving the containers other than those stored directly above it, but also does not require the slides to be interrupted at the level of the hatchway panels and which further allows these panels to be stored at any height of a group of other available slides. In the invention, with each slide system for guiding a pile of containers there is associated an independent hatchway panel intended to cover the position of only a single container, and this panel cooperates sealingly with a fixed frame formed in the deck and with the inside of the guide slides without these latter being interrupted. The panel is advantageously designed so as to be operated by the handling spreader used for taking the containers and it will thus be readily understood that, for having access to a container stacked inside a hole of a ship, it is then sufficient to remove the containers stacked on the bridge above the container to which it is desired to have access, to remove the corresponding hatchway panel by sliding it along the slides by means of the spreader already used for the containers and possibly removing the stacked containers, inside the hold, above the one to be reached. Sealing of the panel of the invention about its periphery is provided, under the effect of its own weight and conventional bolts, by the compression of a seal, whereas sealing inside each slide is provided by a seal which is pressed either horizontally inside the slide or vertically in a short trough formed therein. The sealer which cooperates with the slide is mounted for example on a pivoting flap which is held tight in the sealing position under the action of a spring. At its four corners the panel of the invention includes openings which are identical to those of a container, thus allowing the panel to be handled by means of a conventional spreader. However, these openings are fixed on parts likely to slide vertically before coming into abutment in the raised position of the panel, sliding of these parts automatically controlling the withdrawal of the bolts of the panel and retraction of the seals and of the bolts inside the slides, which allows the panel to leave its slides. For repositioning the panel, the reverse operation is carried out by means of the spreader, release of the corner pieces of the panel by the spreader controlling the sealed locking of the panel through the action of springs or counterweights. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS For a good understanding of the device of the invention, a preferred embodiment thereof will be described hereafter by way of non limitative example, with reference to the accompanying drawings in which: FIG. 1 is a partial diagrammatic view in vertical section of a container carrying ship showing closure of the hold thereof by means of the individual panels of the invention; FIG. 2 is a top view with parts cut away of a panel of the invention, in the closed position, disposed between another closed panel and an unclosed hatchway; FIG. 3 is a vertical sectional view of a corner of a panel of FIG. 2, taken through the plane bisecting one of the guide slides, shown by the line III--III of FIG. 2; FIG. 4 is a vertical sectional view of a corner of the panel of the invention, taken along a line IV--IV of FIG. 2; FIG. 5 is a partial plane view of one of the corners of the panel; FIG. 6 is a vertical sectional view taken along line VI--VI of FIG. 2; FIGS. 7 and 8 are partial plane views of the locking device of FIG. 6, respectively in an active position and in a rest position; FIG. 9 is a perspective view showing the edge of the hatchway in the vicinity of a vertical slide, showing two different embodiments of the sealing device; and FIG. 10 is a variation of FIG. 3 showing the cooperation of a corner seal with a groove in the vertical slide. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Referring to FIG. 1, the hold of a container carrying ship has been shown at 1 and at 2 a plurality of vertical slides extending from the bottom of the hold and which continue above the deck of the ship. These slides 2, which each have the form of an angle iron, are disposed in groups of four so as to guide the four corners of a container 3. The closure of the hold is achieved in accordance with the invention by means of identical panels 5, independent of each other, which are each intended to be guided by a group of slides 2 and to provide sealed closure of the opening formed in the deck for the passage of these slides. In FIG. 1, the left hand part looking at this Figure shows, held by slides 2, a stack of containers 3 disposed both in hold 1 and above the panel 5 in the closed position. The central part of this Figure shows the same stack after the containers 3 disposed on panels 5' have been removed, and the right hand part shows removal of the panel 5" so as to allow access to a container 3 stacked inside the hold 1 and shown at the moment when it crosses the panel level. Panel 5, which in length and width has substantially the dimensions of a container, has on its' transverse and longitudinal edges a seal 6 (FIG. 6) made from rubber or any other suitable flexible and resilient material), intended to be compressed in a closed position between the parallel flanges 7, 8 of a beam 9 integral with the structure of the ship. For removing the leaks likely to occur between flanges 7, 8 at the four corners of the panel, from the space between these two flanges, drains 10 are provided which are directed outwardly (FIGS. 6 and 9). At each corner panel 5 has a gripping corner 11, similar to that of a standard container and designed so as to be engaged by a means for lifting the containers, for example a so called spreader. The gripping corner is mounted so as to slide vertically along a limited path in a cylindrical housing 12 formed in the panel, when the corner 11 is engaged by the spreader (FIGS. 3 and 4). The vertical movement of the corner could also be provided by a hinge. Sealing at each of the four corners of panel 5, which is provided in contact with slides 2, is achieved by means of a corner seal 13 of triangular shape (see FIG. 3), obtained by joining up the adjacent ends of the longitudinal and transverse parts of seal 6. This corner seal 13 is fixed by means of a butt strap 14 on a pivoting flap 15 hinged along a shaft 16 carried by panel 5. Flap 15 may pivot in a vertical plane between a lowered position (shown with a continuous line in FIG. 3) in which the triangular seal 13 is applied horizontally against the inner faces of slide 2 while providing sealing therealong, and a raised position (shown with broken lines) in which seal 13 is freed from slide 2. Flap 15 is integral with a shoe 17 which projects under panel 5 and whose orientation with respect to flap 15 is such that, in the raised position of this flap, shoe 17 comes into a horizontal position where it does not project from the panel (position shown with broken lines in FIG. 3). The gripping corner 11 has at its lower end a hooked shaped part 18, which, in the raised position of corner 11 (shown with a broken line in FIG. 4) drives a lever 19 whose extension 20 carries a pin 21 which cooperates with a notch 22 formed in a piece 23 rotating about a fixed pin 24. Piece 23 has another notch 25 which acts on a pin 26, integral with the shoe 17, for controlling the movement of flap 15 between its lowered position and its raised position. On lever 19 is fixed a hook 27 which is designed, in the position of this lever 19 corresponding to the lowered position of corner 11, to engage an abutment piece 28 carried by slide 2 so as to provide locking of the panel. A powerful return spring 29 is disposed between the rotary piece 23 and panel 5. When panel 5 is used for closing a hatchway provided for the passage of standardized containers of a length of 40 feet (12.192 meters), one or more bolts 30 are provided midway along each longitudinal side of the panel (FIG. 6). This bolt 30, which has a right angled shape, is carried by the lower end of a vertical rod 31 mounted for rotating in a housing in the panel. Rod 31 is fixed at its periphery to a ring shaped piece 31' on which are fixed, while being diametrically opposite, the end of a spring 31", returning bolt 30 to the bolted position, and an end of a link 32 itself connected to the rotary piece 23. Thus, pivoting of piece 23 in an anticlockwise direction looking at FIG. 4 drives rod 31 through a quarter of a revolution bringing bolt 30 into its unbolted position shown in the right hand part looking at FIG. 6, whereas rotation of piece 23 in the opposite direction, during release of corner 11, allows rod 31 to rotate through a quarter of a revolution in the other direction under the action of spring 31" so as to bring bolt 31 into the locked position shown in the left hand part looking at FIG. 6. The operation is clear from the above description. When containers 3, guided by the same group of slides 2, have been stacked up to the top of the hold 1 of the ship, by means of a conventional handling device such as a spreader, the corresponding hatchway is then closed by means of a panel 5 which is gripped at the position of its corners by the spreader and is lowered along slides 2. During this movement, the tractive force which is exerted on corners 11 brings the locking hooks 27 into their retracted position shown with broken lines in FIG. 4 and, through the rotary piece 23, flap 15 is brought into its raised position shown with broken lines in FIG. 3. If it is a panel having an intermediate bolt 30, this is in its released position shown in the right hand part of FIG. 6. At the end of its downward movement panel 5 engages the periphery of the hatchway, the spreader releasing the corners 11 which move down by inertia into their housings 12. This movement of corners 11 releases the assembly formed by lever 19 and the rotary piece 23 which, under the action of spring 29, come into the position shown with a continuous line in FIG. 4, in which position hooks 27 (and possibly the bolt 30 of FIG. 6 by the action of springs 32") come into the locked position of the panel. This position at piece 23, through the pin 26 of the shoe 17, causes flap 16 to come into the lowered position in which the triangular seal 13 is applied against the inner corner of slide 2 (position shown with a continuous line in FIG. 3). Thus, without any manual intervention, the panel 5 is automatically positioned and sealingly locked not only along the longitudinal and lateral edges of the hatchway through seal 6) but also against the internal face of the guide slides 2 (by means of the triangle of seals 13). Stacking of containers above panel 5 may then be continued, along the same slides 2. If it is desired to have access to one of the containers 3 stacked in hold 1 between said slides 2, the containers 3 stacked above the hatchway panel 5 are then removed by means of a spreader then with the same device panel 5 is gripped by its corners 11. The tractive force thus exerted on corners 11 causes these latter to slide into their top position while automatically unlocking the panel (bolts 27 and 30) and releasing the triangular seals 13 from the angle irons 2. The panel may thus be raised along slides 2 so as to be laid on another panel, on a container or on the ground of the quay. In this position, panel 5 then rests on shoes 17 which come into the horizontal position shown with a broken line in FIG. 3, to which corresponds the raised position of flap 15, thus, although the corners 11 are released, the triangular seals 13 as well as bolts 27 and 30 are then in their retracted position in which they do not project beyond the geometry of the panel and therefore do not risk being damaged by a moving object in the vicinity. Nevertheless, corner 11 moves down again by inertia into the low position, by means of an aperture 11' formed in the body of this corner above the part 18, while thus being protected and being able to receive other panels or containers stacked thereon. In a variant shown in FIG. 10, the triangular seal 13 carried by the pivoting flap 15 is designed, in its active position corresponding to the released condition of the corners 11 of the panel, to engage in a practically horizontal trough 34 formed in each of the two wings of slide 2, thus providing vertical sealing. In this case, slide 2 is equipped at the level of trough 34 with an external reinforcement 35. Since this trough 34 is slanted, it does not interrupt sliding of the containers. In FIG. 9, the right hand slide part has been shown continuous, for a horizontal application of seal 13, whereas the lefthand part of the slide has been shown with trough 34 so as to allow vertical application of seal 13. It will be readily understood that the above description has ben given by way of simple example, without any limitative character, and that constructional additions or modifications could be made thereto without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention defined by the following claims. It will be understood in particular that in place of springs 20 and 31" other return means could be used such as counterweights or compressed fluid. It will also be understood that the application of seal 13 against this side could be obtained either by a movement of flap 15 other than pivoting, or by means of a fluid following the known principle of the inflatable seal, release of seal 13 always taking place through the movement of corner 11.

A closure device is provided, particularly suitable for container carrying ships, including a plurality of independent hatchway panels, each panel having lengthwise and widthwise the dimensions of a container, each group of four vertical slides providing guiding and securing of the containers at their corners extending above the deck of the ship and the panel being applied sealingly and independently against the periphery of an opening surrounding said group of slides and against the internal face of the slide. In order to have access to a container stacked along the slides inside the hold, it is sufficient to remove the containers stacked above the panel, then this panel itself using the same handling device as for the containers.

[0001] This application is a Divisional of, and claims priority under 35 U.S.C. §120 to, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/494,843, filed Jun. 30, 2009, allowed, which claims priority under 35 U.S.C. §119 to U.S. Provisional application no. 61/076,757, filed 30 Jun. 2008, entitled “Jaw Thrust Device and Method”, the entireties of which are incorporated by reference herein. BACKGROUND [0002] 1. Field of Endeavor [0003] The present invention relates to devices, systems, and processes useful in patient airway maintenance, and more specifically to devices and methods that perform a jaw thrust. [0004] 2. Brief Description of the Related Art [0005] The jaw thrust is a technique used on patients in a supine position to open the patient's trachea (airway), which has become blocked by the backward movement of the lower jaw (mandible) relative to the rest of the patient's skull, which in turn can cause the patient's airway to be blocked. The practitioner typically uses their thumbs to physically push the posterior (back) aspects of the mandible forward and into a position in which the airway is no longer blocked. When the mandible is displaced forward, it pulls the tongue forward and prevents it from blocking (occluding) the entrance to the trachea, helping to ensure a patent (securely unobstructed) airway. [0006] Numerous devices have in the past been proposed for assisting in this procedure, which have been met with limited acceptance. Among the difficulties with prior devices is that many secure the patient's head to the device and/or to the surface (e.g., an operating table) on which the patient is positioned, which limits the medical practitioner's ability to perform procedures on the patient's head and neck. Additionally, many prior devices address only the relative position of the mandible and the associated position of the patient's tongue, and do not address other portions of the patient's airway. SUMMARY [0007] According to a first aspect of the invention, a jaw thrust device comprises a frame having a pair of upstanding arms with free ends, two jaw pads and two adjustment mechanisms, each of the adjustment mechanisms mounts a respective one of the jaw pads to a respective one of the free ends, and a neck pad positioned on the frame and between the two jaw pads, the neck pad having first and second ends, the frame holding the neck pad first end such that a portion of the frame and the two neck pad ends together form a triangle shape with the neck pad first end at the triangle apex. [0008] According to another aspect of the present invention, a jaw thrust device comprises a frame having a pair of upstanding arms with free ends two L-shaped jaw pads and two adjustment mechanisms, a jaw pad mounted to each arm free end via one adjustment mechanism, and a neck pad positioned on the frame and between the two jaw pads, the frame holding the neck pad. [0009] According to yet another aspect of the present invention, a method for opening a trachea of a patient comprises hyperextending a neck of a patient, and displacing a mandible of the patient anteriorly. [0010] Still other aspects, features, and attendant advantages of the present invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art from a reading of the following detailed description of embodiments constructed in accordance therewith, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0011] The invention of the present application will now be described in more detail with reference to exemplary embodiments of the apparatus and method, given only by way of example, and with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which: [0012] FIG. 1 illustrates an exemplary use of a device in accordance with the present invention to maintain the patency of a patient's airway; [0013] FIG. 2 illustrates a perspective view of a first exemplary embodiment of a device in accordance with the present invention; [0014] FIG. 3 illustrates a perspective view of a second exemplary embodiment of a device in accordance with the present invention; [0015] FIG. 4 illustrates a perspective view of a third exemplary embodiment of a device in accordance with the present invention; [0016] FIG. 5 illustrates a top, right, rear perspective view of a fourth exemplary embodiment of a device in accordance with the present invention; [0017] FIG. 6 illustrates a top, left, rear perspective view of the embodiment of FIG. 5 ; [0018] FIG. 7 illustrates a bottom plan view of the embodiment of FIG. 5 ; [0019] FIG. 8 illustrates a top plan view of the embodiment of FIG. 5 ; [0020] FIG. 9 illustrates a top, right, front perspective view of the embodiment of FIG. 5 ; [0021] FIG. 10 illustrates a schematic representation of a bottom view of a fifth exemplary embodiment of a device in accordance with the present invention; and [0022] FIG. 11 illustrates a schematic representation of a side view of the embodiment of right side of the embodiment of FIG. 10 . DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS [0023] Referring to the drawing figures, like reference numerals designate identical or corresponding elements throughout the several figures. [0024] With reference to FIG. 1 , an exemplary device 1 embodying principles of the present invention is illustrated. In FIG. 1 , the device 1 is schematically represented. The device 1 can include a base member 2 that can have a generally triangular shape, as see in side profile or sagittal view. The base member 2 can be oriented relative to a support surface S such that an apex 3 of the triangular shaped base member 2 can be positioned at height relative to the support surface S and at least one side 5 of the base member 2 can be inclined relative to the support surface S. When an adult human patient, in a supine position, is positioned on the support surface S with the back of their neck N resting on the base member 2 , the angle of the side 5 of the base member 2 and the height of the apex of the base member 2 can cause hyperextension of the patient's neck N. The amount of hyperextension of the patient's neck N can be an appropriate amount sufficient to minimize occlusion of the patient's trachea that may be caused by the patient's internal anatomy. [0025] In order to maintain patency of the patient's trachea once the neck N has been properly hyperextended, the device 1 can include a jaw support 4 secured to the base 2 . (Only the right side of the jaw support 4 is viewable in FIG. 4 —see FIG. 2 , for example, for further illustration of both sides of the exemplary jaw support.) The jaw support 4 can engage and support both sides of the patient's mandible M at a position relative to the apex 3 and the support surface S. In particular, the jaw support 4 can be oriented relative to the patient such that the jaw support 4 engages the ramus portion R on each side of the patient's mandible M. Thus, the jaw support 4 can prevent the patient's mandible M from slipping backwards when the patient's neck N is hyperextended, by the cooperation of inclined side 5 with other features of the base 2 , as will be described below. [0026] A first exemplary embodiment of the device 1 schematically represented in FIG. 1 is shown in FIG. 2 . FIG. 2 illustrates a device 10 that can include a base 12 and a jaw support 14 that can engage and support a patient's neck and mandible, respectively, as described above. [0027] The base 12 can include a frame 16 and a neck pad 18 . The frame 16 can cooperate with the neck pad to hyperextend the patient's neck an appropriate amount. The jaw support 14 can be connected to the frame 16 , as will be described in detail below. The neck pad 18 can be merely placed onto the frame 16 or the neck pad 18 can be positively connected to the frame 16 . If the neck pad 18 positively connected to the frame 16 , then the neck pad 18 can either be removably connected or permanently connected to the frame 16 . [0028] The frame 16 can be configured from a material and with a geometry sufficient to provide an unyielding support of a patent's neck when the patient is lying supine on a support surface. By way of example, the frame 16 can be fabricated from hollow tubing stock or solid rod stock. This stock can have any cross-section deemed appropriate by one skilled in the art. Examples of materials for the stock can include metals and plastics. In another example, stainless steel can be used for the stock material. Stainless steel is a common material for surgical equipment known to for its ability to withstand repeated sterilizations and it can be readily formed into complex geometric configurations. [0029] The frame 16 can form at least a portion of the base 12 and can include a polygonal stand 20 , a first pad support 22 (underneath the neck pad 18 ) and a second pad support 24 . The pad supports 22 , 24 can extend from opposite ends of the polygonal stand 20 . The pad supports 22 , 24 can be configured from a material and with a geometry sufficient to provide an unyielding support of a patent's neck when the patient is lying supine on a support surface. By way of example, the pad supports 22 , 24 can be fabricated from hollow tubing stock or solid rod stock. This stock can have any cross-section deemed appropriate by one skilled in the art. Examples of materials for the stock can include metals and plastics. In another example, stainless steel can be used for the stock material. Stainless steel is a common material for surgical equipment known to for its ability to withstand repeated sterilizations and it can be readily formed into complex geometric configurations. [0030] The polygonal stand 20 and the pad supports 22 , 24 can be integrally formed to define the frame 16 as a single, homogenous component. In this exemplary embodiment, the polygonal stand 20 and the pad supports 22 , 24 can be formed by bending the stock into the desired shape. In another exemplary embodiment, the pad supports 22 , 24 can be formed as separate components and connected to the frame 20 by any known fastening devices. [0031] The polygonal stand 20 can include a central segment 26 , a first lateral segment 28 , a second lateral segment 30 , a first connector segment 32 and a second connector segment 34 . The first lateral segment 28 can extend from one end of the central segment 26 at an obtuse angle. The second lateral segment 30 can extend from the other end of the central segment 26 at an obtuse angle and symmetrically with respect to the first lateral segment 28 . The first connector segment 32 can extend from the first lateral segment 28 to the first pad support 22 . The second connector segment 34 can extend from the second lateral segment 30 to the second pad support 24 . The first and second connector segments 32 , 34 can extend at an obtuse angle relative to the respective first and second lateral segments 28 , 30 , respectively. The first and second connector segments 32 , 34 can extend from the first and second pad supports 22 , 24 and any angle deemed sufficient to provide an appropriate hyperextension of the patient's neck. The junction between the first connector segment 32 and the first pad support 22 and the junction between the second connector segment 34 and the second pad support 24 can be arcuate. In another exemplary embodiment, this junction can be angular. [0032] Each of the segments 26 , 28 , 30 , 32 , 34 can be integrally formed to define the polygonal stand 20 as a single, homogenous component. Or, each of the segments 26 , 28 , 30 , 32 , 34 can be formed as separate components and connected to each other by any known fastening devices to form the polygonal stand 20 . [0033] The neck pad 18 can be permanently secured or removably secured to the first and second pad supports 22 , 24 in any known manner. If the neck pad 18 is removably connected to the pad supports 22 , 24 , then the neck pad 18 can be cleaned and reused, or the used neck pad 18 can be disposed and replaced with a new neck pad 18 after each use. The neck pad 18 can span the frame 16 from the first pad support 22 to the second pad support 24 . [0034] The neck pad 18 can include a first end 36 , a second end 38 , a first side 40 , a second side 42 , a backing 44 , and a cushion 46 . The cushion 46 can include an engagement surface 48 on a side of the cushion opposite to the backing 44 . The backing 44 and the engagement surface 48 can extend from and between the first and second ends 36 , 38 and the first and second sides 40 , 42 . The cushion 46 can be formed as a separate component from the backing 44 and subsequently affixed, permanently or removably, to the backing 44 in any known manner. The backing 44 can have a rigidity sufficient to support the patient's neck in an appropriate hyperextended position above the support surface without substantial deformation to the backing 44 . Any known material providing sufficient rigidity can be used to form the backing 44 . The cushion 46 can be formed from any known soft, resilient material used for cushions. One example of the cushion material can be a foam material. [0035] The first and second sides 40 , 42 of the neck pad 18 can be positioned adjacent to the respective first and second pad supports 22 , 24 . The first and second sides 40 , 42 can extend substantially parallel to the first and second pad supports 22 , 24 and can extend beyond the pad supports 22 , 24 . [0036] The backing 44 can rest against the pad supports 22 , 24 without a positive connection thereto. Or, the backing 44 can be positively secured to the pad supports 22 , 24 in any known manner. Any positive connection between the backing 44 and the pad supports 22 , 24 can be either a removable connection or a permanent connection. [0037] The engagement surface 48 of the neck pad 18 can be generally concave in its extent from the first side 40 to the second side 42 . The engagement surface 48 can have a generally convex curvature along a central portion extending from the first end 36 to the second end 38 . This compound curvature of the engagement surface 48 can provide stable support in the posterior, inferior, superior, and lateral directions for the patient's neck when the patient's neck is appropriately hyperextended. The backing 44 can minor the geometry of the engagement surface 48 or the backing 44 can be configured in any suitable geometry. [0038] The first end 36 of the neck pad 18 can be positioned adjacent the junction of the pad supports 22 , 24 with their respective connector segments 32 , 34 . The first end 36 of the neck pad 18 can be spaced from the central segment 26 and the first and second lateral segments 28 , 30 of the polygonal stand 20 . [0039] The second end 38 of the neck pad 18 can be spaced from the first and second pad supports 22 , 24 . The second end 38 can curve as it extends from the first side 40 to the second side 42 . Alternatively, the second end 38 of the neck pad 18 can be segmented in a manner that corresponds to the central segment 26 and the lateral segments 28 , 30 of the polygonal stand 20 . [0040] In use, a portion of the second end 38 of the neck pad 18 and a portion of the polygonal stand 20 can be placed on and engage the support surface upon which the patient lies. When placed on the support surface, the engaging portions of the second end 38 and the polygonal stand 20 can define the vertices of a triangular shape, when viewed in profile or sagittal view. The apex of this triangular shape relative to the support surface can lie adjacent the first end 36 of the neck pad 18 . The apex of the triangular shape can lie adjacent the junctions of the first and second connector segments 32 , 34 with the first and second pad supports 22 , 24 . [0041] The lengths of the lateral segments 28 , 30 and the connector segments 32 , 34 of the polygonal stand 20 and the lengths of the sides 40 , 42 of the neck pad 18 can be chosen along with the angle defined between the first connector segment 32 and the first pad support 22 and the angle defined between the second connector segment 34 and the second pad support 24 such that the base 12 can elevate the patient's neck above the support surface an amount to appropriately hyperextend the patient's neck. Thus, the frame 16 and the neck pad 18 can cooperate to stably support the neck of a supine patient in an appropriate hyperextended position without the need to fix the device 10 to the support surface. [0042] Routinely, a patient can lie on the support surface in a supine position with both shoulders resting against the support surface. When the engagement surface 48 of the neck pad 18 receives the patient's neck in this supine position, the central segment 26 of the polygonal stand and a central portion of the second end 38 of the neck pad 18 can engage the support surface. In this position, the lateral segments 28 , 30 of the polygonal stand 20 can extend away from the support surface. The length of the central segment 26 can be any length sufficient to ensure stable support of the patient's neck while the central segment 26 engages the support surface without fixing the device to the support surface. [0043] However, it may be advantageous to slightly roll the patient toward one side such that the opposite shoulder is slightly spaced above the supporting surface. The device 10 can also support a patient's neck in an appropriate hyperextended position when the patient is slightly rolled toward one side while lying on the support surface. The first and second lateral segments 28 , 30 can define beveled corners of the frame 16 that can permit rotation of the base 12 in unison with the patient as the patient is rolled slightly toward one side. [0044] In an instance where the patient is rolled slightly on the support surface toward the patient's left side, the device 10 can be reoriented relative to the support surface in unison with the patient because the device 10 is not fixed to the support surface. When so reoriented, the first lateral segment 28 of the polygonal stand 20 can engage the support surface and the central segment 26 and second lateral segment 30 can be spaced above the support surface. [0045] In an instance where the patient is rolled slightly on the support surface toward the patient's right side, the device 10 can be reoriented relative to the support surface in unison with the patient because the device 10 is not fixed to the support surface. When so reoriented, the second lateral segment 30 can engage the support surface and the central segment 26 and first lateral segment 26 can be spaced above the support surface. [0046] As with the central segment 26 , the length of the lateral segments 28 , 30 can be any length sufficient to ensure stable support of the patient's neck while the appropriate one of the lateral segments 28 , 30 engages the support surface without fixing the device 10 to the support surface. Thus, it is not necessary to fix the device 10 to the support surface when the device is in any of the above-mentioned orientations relative to the support surface. However, the device 10 can be removably fixed relative to the support surface in any known manner, as desired. [0047] In addition to providing stable support of the patient's neck, the concave curvature of the neck pad 18 can accommodate the multiple orientations of the polygonal stand 20 on the support surface. Similarly, the configuration (arcuate or segmented) of the second end 38 of the neck pad can also accommodate the multiple orientations of the polygonal stand 20 on the support surface. [0048] After the patient's neck has been appropriately hyperextended, the jaw support 14 can be used to position the patient's jaw relative to the neck such that occlusion of the patient's trachea by the patient's internal anatomy can be minimized. The jaw support 14 can include first and second mounting arms 50 , 52 and first and second jaw pad assemblies 54 , 56 engaging the first and second mounting arms 50 , 52 , respectively. [0049] The first and second mounting arms 50 , 52 can extend from the first and second pad supports 22 , 24 , respectively, at positions external to the first and second sides 40 , 42 , respectively, of the neck pad 18 . Each of the mounting arms 50 , 52 can include a first end connected to the respective pad support 22 , 24 and a free end spaced from both the pad supports 22 , 24 . The first ends of the mounting arms 50 , 52 can be connected to the first and second pad supports 22 , 24 in any manner known in the art suitable to ensure a substantially rigid relationship therebetween. [0050] By way of example, the first and second mounting arms 50 , 52 can be fabricated from hollow tubing stock or solid rod stock. This stock can have any cross-section deemed appropriate by one skilled in the art. Examples of materials for the stock can include metals and plastics. In another example, stainless steel can be used for the stock material. Stainless steel is a common material for surgical equipment known to for its ability to withstand repeated sterilizations and it can be readily formed into complex geometric configurations. If the first and second mounting arms 50 , 52 are fabricated from the same material stock as the frame 16 , then the first and second mounting arms 50 , 52 can be integrally formed as a single, homogenous component with the frame 16 . [0051] The first and second mounting arms 50 , 52 can extend away from the engagement surface 48 to a height sufficient to permit an adjustment range for the respective one of the jaw pad assemblies 54 , 56 while not impeding placement of either of the lateral segments 28 , 30 onto the support surface. Details of the adjustability offered by the mounting arms 50 , 52 will be discussed below. [0052] The first and second mounting arm 50 , 52 can be arcuate and can be aligned about a common arc. This geometry can promote contact with the patient's mandible when the neck pad 18 receives the patient's neck. Simultaneously with promotion of contact with the mandible, this geometry imparts a thrust force onto the patient's mandible that can push inward (medially) on the mandible. Thus, the jaw support 14 can be self-seating and can resist slippage relative to the mandible. [0053] The curvature of the mounting arms 50 , 52 can also be sufficient to allow clearance of the first and second mounting arms 50 , 52 with the support surface when either of the lateral segments 28 , 30 of the polygonal stand 20 engage the support surface, as discussed above. The curvature of the first and second mounting arms 50 , 52 can also be set to ensure sufficient clearance of the patient's neck as it is moved into and out of contact with the engagement surface 48 of the neck pad 18 . [0054] In another exemplary embodiment, the first and second mounting arms 50 , 52 can be linear. In another exemplary embodiment, the mounting arms 50 , 52 can include an arcuate portion connected to the respective pad support 22 , 24 and a linear portion connected to the other end of the arcuate portion. [0055] The second jaw assembly 56 can be substantially identical to or substantially a minor image of the first jaw assembly 54 and can operate substantially identically to the first jaw assembly 54 . Accordingly, the following description of the jaw assemblies 54 , 56 will be limited to the second jaw assembly 56 . [0056] The second jaw assembly 56 can include a jaw pad 58 , an adjustment post 60 and a connector assembly 62 . The jaw pad 58 can be secured to one end of the adjustment post 60 in any known manner. The connector assembly 62 can be movably secured to the second mounting arm 52 in either direction indicated by the arrows A. The adjustment post 60 can be movably mounted to the connector assembly 62 in either direction indicated by the arrows B. [0057] The jaw pad 58 can include a deformable core (not shown) and a removable cover. The core can be made from a deformable material and can be secured to the adjustment post 60 . The cover can enclose the core in part or in total. The cover can be made from a cloth material and can be removed from around the core for cleaning and reused or the cover can be removed, disposed and replaced with a new cover after each use. [0058] In another exemplary embodiment, the entire jaw pad 58 can be removably mounted to the adjustment post 60 . In this exemplary embodiment, the jaw pad 58 can be formed as a single component as compared to a separate core and cover component. This single component jaw pad can be removed, cleaned, and reused. Or, this single component jaw pad can be removed and replaced with a new jaw pad after each use. [0059] The jaw pad 58 can have an engagement surface 64 that can contact the ramus portion of the patient's mandible when the patient is positioned on the device as described herein. In FIG. 2 , the engagement surface 64 is best viewed on the jaw pad 58 associated with the first jaw pad assembly 54 . FIG. 2 depicts the engagement surface 64 of the jaw pad 60 as a substantially planar surface. However, the engagement surface 64 of the jaw pad 60 can be configured in any geometry deemed appropriate for stable engagement with the patient's mandible. [0060] By way of example, the adjustment post 60 can be fabricated from hollow tubing stock or solid rod stock. This stock can have any cross-section deemed appropriate by one skilled in the art. Examples of materials for the stock can include metals and plastics. In another example, stainless steel can be used for the stock material. Stainless steel is a common material for surgical equipment known to for its ability to withstand repeated sterilizations and it can be readily formed into complex geometric configurations. [0061] The connector assembly 62 can include a housing 63 that can include respective through-holes for the second mounting arm 52 and the adjustment post 60 . The connector assembly 62 can slide along the second mounting arm 52 via the respective through-hole and the adjustment post 60 can slide within the respective through-hole of the connector assembly 62 . Thus, the first and second jaw pad assemblies 54 , 56 can be adjusted to best fit the anatomy of each patient. [0062] The through-hole of the housing 63 that receives the adjustment post 60 can be oriented relative to the base 12 such that the adjustment post extends inwardly and upwardly (supero-medially) over the neck pad 18 . The adjustment post 60 can slide along its length within the housing 63 so that the jaw pad 58 can engage and subsequently displace the patient's mandible forward (anterior) by an amount sufficient to minimize occlusion of the trachea by the patient's internal anatomy. [0063] Once adjusted to the desired position, the first and second jaw pad assemblies 54 , 56 can be fixed in position by the respective connecter assembly 62 . By way of example, the connector assembly 62 can include a ratchet assembly (not shown) associated with each of the through-holes. The ratchet assembly can be any known ratchet assembly. [0064] Alternatively, the connector assembly 62 can utilize other fastening devices to secure the second jaw pad assembly 56 relative to the second mounting arm 52 and the adjustment post 60 relative to the connector assembly 62 . Examples of these alternate fastening devices can include a set screw, a cam-lever assembly, a ball and detent assembly, etc. In another exemplary embodiment, the through-holes can be dimensioned to provide a friction fit with the mounting arm 52 and the adjustment post 60 . [0065] As a independent feature of the jaw pad assemblies 54 , 56 , the mounting arms 50 , 52 , adjustment posts 60 and the respective through-holes can have complimentary geometries that can prevent, or at least impede relative rotation between the through holes and the respective one of the mounting arms 50 , 52 and the adjustment posts 60 . An exemplary geometry can be a square cross-sectional geometry. [0066] Thus, the device 10 can position a patient's neck in an appropriate hyperextended position while the patient lies on the support surface. The device 10 can also be adjusted for each patient so that the patency of the trachea can be maintained after the neck has been hyperextended by an appropriate amount. Additionally, the device 10 can accommodate multiple orientations of the patient relative to the support surface while providing and maintaining the appropriate hyperextension of the patient's neck. [0067] FIG. 3 illustrates a second embodiment of the device 1 schematically represent in FIG. 1 . In this embodiment, a device 70 can be substantially identical to the device 10 of FIG. 2 , except as noted below. Accordingly, substantially identical features of the device 70 are denoted by the same references numerals as used for the device 10 of a FIG. 2 . [0068] The device 70 can include a neck pad 72 that can be configured to internally receive the pad supports (not visible—see pad supports 22 , 24 of FIG. 2 , for example) of the frame 16 and a portion of the mounting arms 50 , 52 . In particular, the pad supports can extend within the neck pad 72 between the backing 74 and the cushion 76 of the neck pad 72 . Thus, the neck pad 72 can be connected to the frame 16 . [0069] FIG. 4 illustrates a third embodiment of the device 1 schematically represent in FIG. 1 . In this embodiment, a device 80 can be substantially identical to the device 10 of FIG. 2 , with any exceptions and/or modifications noted below. Accordingly, substantially identical features of the device 80 are denoted by the same references numerals as used for the device 10 of a FIG. 2 . [0070] The device 80 can include a base 82 . The base 82 can include a frame 84 and a neck pad 86 . The neck pad 86 can include a backing 88 and a cushion 90 . The backing 88 and the cushion 90 can include substantially all the features of the backing 44 and the cushion 46 described with reference to the device 10 of FIG. 2 . In this exemplary embodiment, the backing 88 of the neck pad 86 can be integrally formed with the frame 84 to define a single, homogenous component. The cushion 90 of the neck pad 86 can be affixed to the backing 88 in any manner described above with reference to FIG. 2 . [0071] The frame 82 can include a polygonal stand 92 that can be configured as a solid planar wall. The polygonal stand 92 can include a central edge segment 94 , a first lateral edge segment 96 , and a second lateral edge segment 98 that lie along the periphery of the polygonal stand 92 . The first lateral edge segment 96 can extend from one end of the central edge segment 94 at an obtuse angle. The second lateral edge segment 98 can extend from the other end of the central edge segment 94 at an obtuse angle and symmetrically with respect to the first lateral edge segment 96 . The device 80 can be oriented relative to a support surface with any one of the edge segments 94 , 96 , 98 in contact with the support surface and the remaining edge segments 94 , 96 , 98 spaced from the support surface in any manner described above with respect the segments 26 , 28 , 30 of the device 10 of FIG. 2 . [0072] The polygonal stand 92 can include an upper edge segment 100 , a first side edge segment 102 , and a second side edge segemnt 104 . The upper edge 100 can abut the first end 36 of the neck pad 86 . The upper edge 100 can be arcuate with a curvature that can conform to the curvature of the first end 36 of the neck pad 86 . [0073] The first side edge segment 102 can extend from the first lateral edge segment 96 to the upper edge segment 100 . The first side edge 102 can abut the backing 88 . The first side edge segment 102 can extend at an obtuse angle relative to the first lateral edge segment 96 . The first side edge segment 102 can extend at an acute angle relative to the upper edge segment 100 . [0074] The second side edge segment 104 can extend from the second lateral edge segment 98 to the upper edge segment 100 . The second side edge segment 104 can abut the backing 88 . The second side edge segment 104 can extend at an obtuse angle relative to the second lateral edge segment 98 . The second side edge segment 104 can extend at an acute angle relative to the upper edge segment 100 . [0075] The edge segments 94 , 96 , 98 , 100 , 102 , 104 together can define the perimeter of the planar wall of the polygonal stand 92 . [0076] The backing 88 can include a groove 107 formed in the surface of the backing 88 that abuts the cushion 90 . The groove 107 appears as a convex ridge from the outside of the backing 88 , as viewed in the orientation of FIG. 4 . The groove 107 can extend from the first side 40 of the neck pad 18 to the second side 42 of the neck pad 90 . [0077] The device 80 can include a jaw support 108 . The jaw support 108 can include a C-shaped mounting post 109 . By way of example, the mounting post 109 can be fabricated from hollow tubing stock or solid rod stock. This stock can have any cross-section deemed appropriate by one skilled in the art. Examples of materials for the stock can include metals and plastics. In another example, stainless steel can be used for the stock material. Stainless steel is a common material for surgical equipment known to for its ability to withstand repeated sterilizations and it can be readily formed into complex geometric configurations. [0078] The mounting post 109 can be centered in the groove 107 such that first and second free ends 110 , 112 can extend beyond the respective ends of the groove 107 and the sides 40 , 42 of the neck pad 86 . The free ends 110 , 112 can extend away from the engagement surface 48 of the cushion 90 . [0079] The depth of the groove 107 can be such that the mounting post 109 can lie flush with the surface of the backing 88 that abuts the cushion 90 . [0080] In an alternate exemplary embodiment, the mounting post 109 can include two separate post sections. In this alternate exemplary embodiment, the groove 107 can include separate groove sections that receive a respective one of the post sections. These separate groove sections can extend from the respective sides 40 , 42 of the neck pad 86 and terminate at respective position on the backing 88 intermediate the sides 40 , 42 . [0081] A further modification for the groove 107 can include a divider spanning the width of the groove 107 that can divide the groove into two sections. Each of these groove sections can receive a respective one of the post sections just described above. [0082] The jaw support 108 can include first and second jaw pad assemblies 54 , 56 . The jaw assemblies can be substantially identical in structure and operation to the jaw assemblies 54 , 56 described above with reference to the device 10 of FIG. 2 . The jaw assemblies 54 , 56 can be movably mounted along the respective free ends 110 , 112 of the mounting post 109 . [0083] The frame 84 can further include a first reinforcing support (not visible in FIG. 4 ) and a second reinforcing support 106 . The first reinforcing support can be minor image of the second reinforcing support 106 . Accordingly, further reference is made only to the second reinforcing support 106 . [0084] The second reinforcing support 106 can extend from the polygonal stand 92 to the backing 88 . The reinforcing support 106 can extend along at least a portion of second side edge segment 104 . The second reinforcing support 106 can extend along the bottom surface of the backing 88 and can abut the convex ridge of the groove 107 . The second reinforcing support 106 can include a plurality of ribs 114 arranged in a criss-cross pattern. Each of the ribs 114 can span from the bottom surface of the backing 88 to the bottom edge of the reinforcing support 106 . The second reinforcing support 106 can provide increased rigidity in the region adjacent the apex of the base 82 , where the apex lies adjacent to the junction of the upper edge segment 100 and the first end 36 of the neck pad 86 . [0085] The backing 88 , the polygonal stand 92 , and the reinforcing supports 106 can be formed from any suitable material sufficient to provide an unyielding support of a patent's neck when the patient is lying supine on a support surface. By way of example, the backing 88 , the polygonal stand 92 and the reinforcing supports 106 can be fabricated from ABS. However, these components of the device 80 can be formed separately from dissimilar materials. If these components of the device 80 are formed from the same material, these components of the device 80 can be integrally formed to define a single, homogenous component of the device 80 . [0086] FIGS. 5-9 illustrate a fourth embodiment of the device 1 schematically represent in FIG. 1 . In this embodiment, a device 120 can be substantially identical to the device 10 of FIG. 2 , with any exceptions and/or modifications noted below. Description of the device 120 is provided with specific reference to FIGS. 5 and 6 . [0087] The device 120 can include a base 122 and a jaw support 124 that can engage and support a patient's neck and mandible, respectively, as described above with reference to the device 10 of FIG. 2 . [0088] The base 122 can include a frame 126 and a neck pad 128 . The jaw support 124 can be connected to the frame 126 , as will be described in detail below. The neck pad 128 can be merely placed onto the frame 126 or the neck pad 128 can be positively connected to the frame 126 . If the neck pad 128 is positively connected to the frame 126 , then the neck pad 128 can either be removably connected or permanently connected to the frame 126 . Details of the engagement of the frame 126 by the neck pad 128 will be described below. [0089] The frame 126 can be configured from a material and with a geometry sufficient to provide an unyielding support of a patent's neck when the patient is lying supine on a support surface. By way of example, the frame 126 can be fabricated from hollow tubing stock or solid rod stock. This stock can have any cross-section deemed appropriate by one skilled in the art. Examples of materials for the stock can include metals and plastics. In another example, stainless steel can be used for the stock material. Stainless steel is a common material for surgical equipment known to for its ability to withstand repeated sterilizations and it can be readily formed into complex geometric configurations. [0090] The frame 126 can include a polygonal stand 130 , a first lateral pad support 132 , a second lateral pad support 134 and a transverse pad support 136 . The pad supports 132 , 134 can extend from opposite ends of the polygonal stand 130 . The pad supports 132 , 134 , 136 can be configured from a material and with geometry sufficient to provide an unyielding support of a patent's neck when the patient is lying supine on a support surface. By way of example, the pad supports 132 , 134 , 136 can be fabricated from hollow tubing stock or solid rod stock. This stock can have any cross-section deemed appropriate by one skilled in the art. Examples of materials for the stock can include metals and plastics. In another example, stainless steel can be used for the stock material. Stainless steel is a common material for surgical equipment known to for its ability to withstand repeated sterilizations and it can be readily formed into complex geometric configurations. [0091] The polygonal stand 130 and the pad supports 132 , 134 , 136 can be integrally formed to define the frame 126 as a single, homogenous component. In this exemplary embodiment, the polygonal stand 130 and the pad supports 132 , 134 , 136 can be formed by bending the stock into the desired shape. In another exemplary embodiment, the pad supports 132 , 134 , 136 can be formed as separate components and connected to the frame 126 by any known fastening device. [0092] The polygonal stand 130 can be substantially identical in structure and operation as described above with reference to the polygonal stand 20 of the device 10 of FIG. 2 . Accordingly, reference numbers of FIG. 2 are used in FIGS. 5 and 6 to denote the substantially identical structure of these two embodiments. [0093] The neck pad 128 can be permanently secured or removably secured to the any of the pad supports 132 , 134 , 136 in any manner known in the art. If the neck pad 128 is removably connected to the pad supports 132 , 134 , 136 , then the neck pad 128 can be cleaned and reused, or the used neck pad 128 can be disposed of and replaced with a new neck pad 128 after each use. The neck pad 128 can span the frame 126 from the first pad support 132 to the second pad support 134 . [0094] In this exemplary embodiment, the neck pad 128 can be removably connected to each of the lateral pad supports 132 , 134 . The neck pad 128 can include first and second clips 148 , 150 . The clips 148 , 150 can be configured to resiliently clamp to a respective one of the lateral pad supports 132 , 134 . [0095] The neck pad 128 can include a first end 152 , a second end 154 (see FIG. 9 ), a first side 156 , a second side 158 , a backing 160 , and a cushion. The cushion is omitted from FIGS. 5-9 for clarity and can be configured with structure and operation in manner substantially identical to the cushion 46 of the device 10 of FIG. 1 . The backing 160 can extend from and between the first and second ends 152 , 154 and the first and second sides 156 , 158 . The pad supports 132 , 134 , 136 can extend along the entirety of the respective sides 156 , 158 and the second end 154 . The backing 160 can have a rigidity sufficient to support the patient's neck in an appropriate hyperextended position above the support surface without substantial deformation to the backing 160 . Any material providing sufficient rigidity can be used to form the backing 160 . According to another exemplary embodiment, the backing 160 alternatively, even if it is less preferable, can be made in the form of a taught sling, that is, of a flexible material that is stretched between the sides. [0096] The structural relationship of the neck pad 128 to the frame 126 can be substantially identical to that described above with respect to the neck pad 18 and the frame 16 of the device 10 of FIG. 1 . [0097] The jaw support 124 can be substantially identical in structure and operation to the jaw support 14 of the device of FIG. 2 . Accordingly, reference numbers of FIG. 2 are used in FIGS. 5 and 6 and structure that can be unique to the jaw support 124 of the device 120 of FIGS. 5-9 , as compared to the jaw support 14 of the device 10 of FIG. 1 will be noted in the following description. [0098] The jaw support 124 can include first and second jaw pad assemblies 162 , 164 . Reference numbers of FIG. 2 are used to denote structure of the jaw pad assemblies 162 , 164 that can be substantially identical in structure and operation as the jaw pad assemblies 54 , 56 of the device 10 of FIG. 2 . [0099] The jaw pad assemblies 162 , 164 can include first and second jaw pads 166 , 168 , respectively. The jaw pads 166 , 168 can be connected to a respective one of the adjustment posts 60 in any manner discussed above with respect to the device 10 of FIG. 2 . The jaw pads 166 , 168 can include respective L-shaped engagement surface 170 , 172 . The L-shaped engagement surfaces 170 , 172 of the jaw pads can provide a thrust to the lower (inferior edge) of the patient's mandible that can inhibit, and possibly prevent, the patient's mandible from sliding backwards (posteriorly), while also engaging against the side of the patient's mandible along the ramus portion, thus inhibiting, and possibly preventing, the jaw pads 166 , 168 from sliding medially into the patient's neck. [0100] FIGS. 10 and 11 schematically illustrate a fifth embodiment of the device 1 schematically represent in FIG. 1 . FIGS. 10 and 11 can schematically represent an embodiment of the device 1 substantially identical to the device 80 of FIG. 4 . In this embodiment, a device 180 can include a base 182 and a jaw support 184 substantially identical in structure to the base 82 and the jaw mount 14 , respectively, of the device 80 of FIG. 4 , with at least the following exceptions. [0101] The base 182 can be configured for positive connection to the support surface such that the base 182 can be immobilized relative to the support surface. In this exemplary embodiment, the jaw support 184 is configured to move in either direction along an arcuate path (indicated by the arrows P) relative to the base 182 when the patient is rolled slightly to either side, respectively, while lying supine on the support surface. [0102] The jaw support 182 can include a C-shaped mounting post 186 that can move within an arcuate passage 188 formed though the base 182 . The passage 188 can be configured to frictionally engage the mounting post 186 or any known fastening device (not shown) can be used to lock the mounting post 186 in the desired position along the arcuate path P. The passage 188 and the mounting post 186 can be configured with complimentary geometries that can prevent, or at least impede rotation of the mounting post to the left or right, as viewed in FIG. 11 . According to yet another exemplary embodiment, similar to that illustrated in FIGS. 10 and 11 , the C-shaped mounting post 186 can instead be attached to a platform which is mounted to the base 182 . The platform, which includes a triangularly shaped portion which can hyperextend a patient's neck as described with reference to the other embodiments herein, carrying the post 186 and the other affixed structures, slides relative to the base 182 in the same curved path as the post 186 in the embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 10 and 11 . In this manner, the patient can be rotated along the same arcuate path P when resting on the platform, keeping the jaw pads pressing against the remus portion of the patient's jaw and pressing against the back of the patient's neck to hyperextend the neck. [0103] As can be readily appreciated from the several illustrations, it can be particularly advantageous when the frame, including the arms, forms at least part of an arc, e.g., a portion of a circle, so that the jaw pads engage the patient's mandible and simultaneously push medially inward on the patient's mandible, thus self-seating the jaw pads to the mandible and resisting the jaw pads slipping off the mandible. [0104] The shape of the head rest also can be advantageous, by effectively forming a ‘knee’ over which the patient's neck rests, which in turn can provide at least two beneficial effects. The ‘knee’ of the head rest can stabilize the patient on the device, because the patient's head can rest on the side of the ‘knee’ opposite the patient's shoulders and lower neck, thus inhibiting, and likely preventing, the device and the patient from sliding relative to each other. Stated somewhat differently, the triangle can provide firm support which can resist any downward movement or disengagement of the neck pad from the neck as the jaw pads are actively thrusting the patient's mandible forward (anteriorly). Additionally, this configuration can hyperextend the patient's neck, which in turn can further assist in opening the patient's airway. [0105] Optionally, for all of the embodiments, a strap (not illustrated) can be provided which can extend around the patient's forehead and around a portion of the device, to assist in holding the device to the patient. [0106] While the invention has been described in detail with reference to exemplary embodiments thereof, it will be apparent to one skilled in the art that various changes can be made, and equivalents employed, without departing from the scope of the invention. The foregoing description of the preferred embodiments of the invention has been presented for purposes of illustration and description. It is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the invention to the precise form disclosed, and modifications and variations are possible in light of the above teachings or may be acquired from practice of the invention. The embodiments were chosen and described in order to explain the principles of the invention and its practical application to enable one skilled in the art to utilize the invention in various embodiments as are suited to the particular use contemplated. It is intended that the scope of the invention be defined by the claims appended hereto, and their equivalents. The entirety of each of the aforementioned documents is incorporated by reference herein.

A pair of pads is held against the remus of a patient's jaw, to prevent the jaw from slipping back and causing an airway obstruction, while the patient's neck is hyperextended to also cause the patient's airway to stay open. A device including the adjustable jaw pads as well as a triangularly shaped portion over which the patient's neck rests is not required to be attached to the surface on which the patient is lying, and permits the patient to be rolled on either side while still maintaining the patency of the patient's airway.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0001] 1. Field of the Invention [0002] The present invention relates to thin film materials, suitable for ferroelectric tunable devices and/or decoupling thin film capacitors based on such materials, and methods of manufacturing thin film devices, and more particularly, to paraelectric perovskite oxynitride nanocomposite materials and methods of making such materials for use in forming varactor devices with improved voltage tunabilities and high capacitance density thin film decoupling capacitors. [0003] 2. Description of the Related Art [0004] In order to achieve maximum tunability of a ferroelectric varactor, a maximum voltage must be applied to induce a change in the dielectric constant needed to produce the maximum possible shift in capacitance. FIG. 1 illustrates an example of a typical tunability achieved with a ferroelectric varactor using a thin-film ferroelectric material, such as (Ba,Sr)TiO 3 . FIG. 1 corresponds to FIG. 7 of U.S. 2009/0069274. [0005] U.S. 2009/0069274 discloses a tunability of 2.8:1 under an electric field of 450 kV/cm to 500 kV/cm or a 70% reduction of the original capacitance under a 450 kV/cm bias field as shown in FIG. 1 . Additional examples reported typical tunabilities for 100 nm to 200 nm thick (Ba,Sr)TiO 3 (BST) films used in parallel plate Pt/BST/Pt MIM type variable capacitors (varactors) in the range of 4:1 at 11 Volts (see, for example, FIG. 5 of U.S. 2007/0069274) to 6.3:1 at 10 Volts as shown in FIG. 2 , which corresponds to FIG. 5 of T. Bernacki, I. Koutsaroff, and C. Divita, “Barium Strontium Titanate Thin-Film Multi-Layer Capacitors”, Passive Component Industry Magazine, September/October 2004, pp. 11-13. [0006] Oxynitrides perovskites can often be described as derivatives of oxides, formed by simultaneous substitutions (charge equivalency (balance) rule) of cation and anion components. The higher anionic charge resulting from the N 3− /O 2− substitution can be compensated according to two different principles. In the first case, a cross-substitution is applied with trivalent RE 3+ (rare earth) elements as suitable substitutes, for instance, for divalent alkaline-earth cations. For example, the oxynitride “charge balance equivalent” to BaTiO 3 will be LaTiO 2 N 1 , or NdTiO 2 N 1 . Another example for charge compensation in AB(ON) 3 oxynitrides perovskites, is simultaneous substitution of the Ti 4+ with Me 5+ and partial substitution of O 2− sites with N 3− so as to convert the perovskite oxide BaTiO 3 into the oxynitride perovskites, such as BaTaO 2 N or BaNbO 2 N, in addition to LaTaON 2 . [0007] The incorporation of N 3− /N 2− into oxygen anion sites of the perovskite oxides results in pronounced structural effects, such as an elongated Ti(Zr)—N bond length and the reduced electronegativity of the nitride ion N 3− , with respect to the oxide ion O 2− , which will tend to increase the covalence of the cation-anion bonds. The increased covalence of the bonding can in turn increase the likelihood of cation displacements through a second order Jahn-Teller-like distortion of the d 0 cation and could influence the ferroelectric properties of the oxynitride perovskites by suppressing the formation of a ferroelectric phase and enhancing the paraelectric properties into a superparaelectric state. Even the oxynitride formation could be associated with a structural change from cubic symmetry (Pm3m) to non-cubic (e.g., tetragonal) or quasi-cubic with increased in the tetragonal distortion (c/a ratio). On the other hand, the mixed occupancy of the anion site in oxynitrides AB(O 1-x N x ) 3 , provides a condition similar to that found in relaxors, as the polarizing octahedral cations (Ti 4+ ) will experience random chemical environments in the absence of complete O/N sites ordering. Anion control has previously been utilized to tune the properties of ferromagnetic and paramagnetic perovskite or double perovskite materials. [0008] Most recently both N 2 and NH 3 containing plasmas have been used for the nitridation of cubic perovskite single crystals, bulk ceramic, and thin film samples, such as SrTiO 3 , and for PLD and RF-sputtered depositions of BaTaO 2 N 1 , as well as growth of LaTiO 2 N 1 epitaxial thin films on SrTiO 3 or MgO substrates from oxynitride targets. However, there have been no reports of deposition and characterization of oxynitride polycrystalline ABO 2 N 1 or ABO 3-γ N γ thin films grown on Pt electrodes on common large size commercially available substrates nor any C-V or I-V characteristics of any ferroelectric oxynitride perovskite, except for the dielectric constants of LaTiO 2 N 1 and BaTaO 2 N 1 thin films at zero dc bias. In addition, even epitaxially grown BaTaO 2 N films at 760° C. from a oxynitride target on a SrTiO 3 :Nb substrate with a SrRuO 3 buffer by PLD method with gas ratio of N 2 /O 2 of 20:1 had a dielectric constant of only 220, which is about 20 less than that of BaTaO 2 N bulk samples. Temperature coefficient of capacitance (TCC) of BaTaO 2 N films from 10K to 300K is in the range of −50 ppm/K to 100 ppm/K. [0009] For the case of RF sputter-deposited LaTiO 2 N 1 , the dielectric constant had been reported to be from 400 to 1100 without any bulk ceramic data shown for comparison and without any voltage tunability or TCC data. [0010] It had been previously observed that that the presence of N 2 in the plasma reduces the surface defects on the electrodes as well as reducing the leakage current with almost no noticeable enhancement of the dielectric constant in SrTiO 3 films for low deposition temperatures (200° C.). The observed lower leakage (higher insulation resistance) in N-doped SrTiO 3 films had been attributed to nitrogen substitution of the oxygen vacancies generated by the high deposition rate of the SrTiO 3 , and N compensation of the donor sites created by the oxygen vacancies, without any further evidence or actual mechanism causing the lower leakage. [0011] All of the commonly known deposition methods of BST films, and particular solutions for achieving high voltage tunability and/or high capacitance density required for achieving better performance variable capacitors and/or high density decoupling thin film capacitors, typically require using very high deposition temperatures of about 800° C. or higher, very high post-deposition annealing temperatures between 800° C. and 900° C., and thicker BST dielectric layers, typically between 200 nm and 600 nm, all of which make it very difficult to simultaneously achieve large volume manufacturing reproducible quality paraelectric thin films with reasonably high tunability ratios, i.e., tunability ratios of at least 4-6:1, under applied DC biases below 6-8 Volts, low dielectric loss, i.e., of less than 1% at 1 KHz or 1 GHz, which is typically only possible at lower deposition temperatures of about 600° C. to about 650° C. The deposition of oxynitride perovskite thin films requires using epitaxially matching substrates which are not available in large manufacturing sizes and typically obtained oxynitride perovskite materials are not stable above 600° C. if annealed in oxygen atmospheres. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0012] To overcome the problems described above, preferred embodiments of the present invention provide a novel oxynitride paraelectric nanocomposite material which exhibits no measurable ferroelectricity and has good voltage tunable properties as well as a high dielectric constant, and also provide a method of producing of oxynitride paraelectric nanocomposite material that is compatible with large volume manufacturing processes. [0013] In accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention, a method of depositing oxynitride containing dielectric thin layers with perovskite structure in a radio frequency (RF) physical vapor deposition (PVD) process from insulating or semiconducting ceramic targets is provided. [0014] According to a preferred embodiment of the present invention, an RF sputter deposition process preferably provides a dense crystalline composite paraelectric material that includes nano-regions containing rich N 3− anions dispersed in a nano-grain sized matrix of crystalline oxide perovskite material, wherein (ABO 3-δ ) α −(ABO 3-δ-γ N γ ) 1-α (0.01<γ<1.5) or (Ba 1-x ,Sr x )TiO 3-δ ) α −(Ba 1-x ,Sr x )TiO 3-δ-γ N γ ) 1-α or BSTON-BSTO (0.5<1-x<0.8) nanocomposite films, which can be utilized as a dielectric layer, for example, in voltage tunable capacitors, high density capacitance devices, such as de-coupling thin film capacitors, or monolithically integrated with other micro-electronic or passive devices. [0015] A method of depositing a perovskite or ceramic oxide layer according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention preferably includes placing a substrate in a PVD reactor; flowing a gaseous mixture, for example, argon, nitrogen and oxygen, through the reactor; maintaining the sputtering gas mixture under a constant pressure using an automatic pressure control (APC) valve, and applying RF power to a target or applying different RF power levels to multiple targets simultaneously; wherein each target material includes a perovskite-type multicomponent ceramic oxide material, single metal oxides, or single metal nitrides, such as BST, TiN, and GdTiO x positioned with an approximately 45 degree off-axis configuration relative to the substrate. [0016] According to another preferred embodiment of the present invention, the deposition process preferably occurs with very little oxygen, for example, less than about <1%, present in the gas mixture (Ar + N 2 +O 2 ) flow while the N 2 /O 2 gas flow ratio is relatively high, and preferably between 40 to 58, to provide a high insulation resistance perovskite structure nanocomposite film with nitrogen-rich nano-regions in an oxide matrix as opposed to pure oxide grown perovskite films which predominantly include columnar grains and have much lower insulation resistances and lower dielectric constants. The resulting nanocomposite oxynitride films have much higher breakdown voltages, typically greater than 32 Volts for 10 nm-150 nm thick films, with uniform dielectric constant and voltage tunability, and low temperature coefficients of capacitance and tunability. [0017] According to various preferred embodiments of the present invention, the substrate is preferably preheated. The substrate may preferably be heated to temperatures from about 550° C. to about 700° C. for perovskite nanocomposite oxynitride film deposition on various substrates capable of withstanding such a temperature range with appropriate heating and cooling rates from/to room temperature. A perovskite nanocomposite oxynitride layer having a thickness from about 75 nm to about 1-2 microns thick may preferably be deposited. [0018] In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, the perovskite nanocomposite oxynitride layer formed on the substrate is preferably later rapid thermally annealed (RTA). The annealing atmosphere may preferably be 100% N 2 or an N 2 +O 2 mixture having an oxygen concentration of about 1% to 2% in N 2 . The annealing temperature may preferably be as low as about 450° C. and as high as about 700° C. depending on the thermal stresses that are induced by the difference in coefficient of thermal expansion between the dielectric perovskite layer and the substrate during the deposition and during the post-deposition anneal to guarantee lower dielectric loss factor (tan δ). The perovskite nanocomposite oxynitride films may preferably be doped with either transition metal dopants, for example, zirconium, niobium, tantalum, scandium; lanthanides including the rare earth ions, such as gadolinium, for example; and/or other amphoteric elements, such as Ge, Sn, for example. [0019] According to a preferred embodiment of the present invention, a parallel-plate thin-film capacitor having a stacked structure is preferably provided. The parallel-plate thin-film capacitor structure preferably includes one or more capacitor structures deposited on a substrate, wherein each capacitor structure includes a bottom electrode layer, a bottom buffer oxide perovskite layer, main oxynitride perovskite nanocomposite layer, for example, a BSTON-BSTO dielectric layer deposited over the bottom electrode layer or over the bottom buffer oxide layer, and a top electrode layer deposited over the nanocomposite BSTON-BSTO dielectric layer or over the top buffer oxide layer. An additional conducting interconnect layer may preferably be deposited over the top electrode layer of the capacitor device structure. [0020] According to various preferred embodiment of the present invention, most of the layers of the capacitor structure may preferably be formed within the same reactor chamber of a PVD reactor. [0021] The oxynitride perovskite nanocomposite layer may preferably be deposited on a substrate coated with platinum or other suitable conductive electrode material that is sufficiently stable at intermediate deposition temperatures of, for example, about 500° C. to about 700° C., and during the annealing that is needed for the processed capacitor structure. [0022] The above and other elements, features, steps, characteristics and advantages of the present invention will become more apparent from the following detailed description of the preferred embodiments with reference to the attached drawings. DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0023] FIG. 1 illustrates the conventional typical voltage tunability achieved with a ferroelectric varactor using a thin-film BST material. [0024] FIG. 2 illustrates the typically achieved voltage tunability of a ferroelectric varactor using a thin-film sputtered BST material on a Pt/Al 2 O 3 substrate. [0025] FIG. 3 is a schematic representation of a high tunability nonlinear perovskite multilayer structure with a main layer, a nanocomposite material according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention, wherein the material is integrated within a parallel plate varactor device configuration utilizing one or more bottom electrodes and one or more top electrodes. [0026] FIG. 4 is a schematic representation of a parallel plate low loss, highly variable material layer, a nanocomposite material according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention, wherein the material is integrated within a parallel plate varactor device configuration. [0027] FIG. 5 shows the density functional theory (DFT) generalized gradient approximation (GGA) predicted structural properties of oxynitride perovskite (Ba,Sr)TiO 3-δ N δ with an example for (Ba 0.5 Sr 0.5 )TiO 3-γ N γ with various concentrations of N anion substitution. [0028] FIG. 6 shows lattice constants a and c, lattice volumes, quasicubic lattice constants a c , and tetragonality ratios (c/a). Similar structural effects induced by the partial substitution with various amount of nitrogen anions are also predicted and expected for other oxynitride perovskites in a Gd (Ti,Zr)O 3-γ N γ system. [0029] FIG. 7 is a reproduction of a cross-sectional tilt view (top left) and plan view (bottom left) of field emission scanning electron microscope (FE-SEM) micrographs, with white color bar of 100 nm, showing the surface morphology of 700° C. deposited (Ba,Sr)TiO 3-δ-γ N γ —(Ba,Sr)TiO 3-δ thin film material (sputtered with gas mixture containing 1% O 2 , 25% N 2 and remaining balance of Ar) deposited on Pt/TiOx/sapphire according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention. AFM observation (bottom right) of the surface roughness (RMS) from the same (Ba,Sr)TiO 3-δ-γ N γ —(Ba,Sr)TiO 3-δ thin film sample is also shown. [0030] FIG. 8 is a typical low resolution TEM (Transmission Electron Microscopy) image of a typical Pt/(Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ-γ N γ —(Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ /Pt(111)/TiOx/sapphire sample with top and bottom BST buffer layers. [0031] FIG. 9 is a high-resolution TEM image of a (Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ-γ N γ (Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ /Pt(111)/TiOx/sapphire sample. [0032] FIG. 10 is a typical high resolution STEM-EELS (Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy—Electron energy loss spectroscopy) cross-sectional mapping of a Pt/(Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ-γ N γ —(Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ //Pt(111)/TiOx/sapphire sample showing the distribution maps (concentrations) of the perovskite film major constituents, such as Ba, Ti, O and N. An ADF (Annular dark field) cross-sectional pattern with “dark” spots (Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ-γ N γ correlates well with EELS maps for the regions with higher N concentration within (Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ matrix. [0033] FIG. 11 is the typical low resolution dark-field transmission electron microscopy cross-sectional image and reconstructed regions with a representative model sketch of the areas with chemically bonded rich-N clusters within the oxide perovskite matrix. [0034] FIG. 12 is an additional high resolution STEM-EELS (Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy—Electron energy loss spectroscopy) cross-sectional mapping of a Pt/(Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ-γ N γ —(Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ //Pt(111)/TiOx/sapphire sample showing the distribution maps (concentrations) of the perovskite film major constituents, such as Ba, Ti, O and N. An ADF (Annular dark field) cross-sectional pattern correlates well with EELS maps for the regions with higher N concentration within (Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ-γ N γ . [0035] FIG. 13 is an additional high resolution STEM-EELS (Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy—Electron energy loss spectroscopy) cross-sectional mapping of a Pt/(Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ-γ N γ —(Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ /Pt(111)/TiOx/sapphire sample showing the distribution maps (concentrations) of the nitrogen (K-line), Ti (L-line), Oxygen (K-line) and Ba(M-line) across the different nano-regions (labeled as A, B, C, D, E, F, G) of the perovskite composite film. Significant variation of the nitrogen peak intensity (concentration) can be clearly observed. [0036] FIG. 14A is an X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) high resolution spectra of N1s core levels, which was used to estimate the concentration (from about 1.8% to about 2.4%) of the chemically bonded nitrogen 6 nm below the surface of the (Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ-γ N γ —(Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ films after short Ar ion milling. The N 2 /O 2 gas ratio during sputtering was about 45, while the average nitrogen concentration within the nanocomposite film was γ=0.024 and 3-δ was 2.976. [0037] FIG. 14B is a table summarizing the observed binding energies, Ti and N concentrations from (Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ N δ —(Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ films after short Ar ion milling. [0038] FIG. 15 is a high resolution STEM (Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy) cross-section image of the same sample shown in FIG. 11 . HAADF-STEM (high-angle annular dark-field scanning transmission electron microscopy) and Bright Field (BF-STEM)) images are shown taken from the same “dark” spot in the regions with higher N concentration within (Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ matrix as shown with lower magnification in FIG. 11 . [0039] FIG. 16 is a high resolution HAADF-STEM (high-angle annular dark-field scanning transmission electron microscopy) and ABF-STEM: Annular bright field (ABF) scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM). The third image is the Inverse FFT (Inverse Fast Fourier Transform) image of the ABF-STEM image of (Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ N δ and (Ba0.7Sr0.3)TiO 3-δ regions. [0040] FIG. 17 illustrates the positions and displacement positions of Ti and O(N) atoms as shown in 1D real space along a single line analyzed and plotted as intensity obtained from the inverse Fourier transformed image of the ABF-STEM image shown in FIG. 16 . It can be clearly seen that on the right side (N-rich “dark” region”) the Ti—N positions (bond lengths) are elongated as compared to the left site which is expected to be originating primarily from the typically shorter Ti—O bond lengths. [0041] FIG. 18 illustrates selected area Electron Diffraction patterns taken during the TEM cross-section observation of a (Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ N δ —(Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ sample (BSTON on the left) and a (Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ sample (BSTO on the right). [0042] FIG. 19 illustrates XRD and AFM analyses of a Pt bottom electrode deposited at high temperatures of about 600° C. to about 700° C. on a TiOx/sapphire substrate and the (Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ-γ N γ —(Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ film deposited on top of the Pt electrode. The surface roughnesses (RMS) of the Pt and the BSTON film are about 0.7 nm and about 3.26 nm, respectively. [0043] FIG. 20 illustrates XRD spectra taken from a BSTO sample deposited on a Pt/Sapphire substrate. [0044] FIG. 21 is a graph showing room temperature voltage tunability results at about 1 KHz as a function of applied DC bias voltages for Pt/BST buffer/BSTO(1%O 2 +Ar)/BST buffer/Pt/TiO x /Sapphire vs. Pt/BST buffer/(Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ-γ N γ (Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ (N 2 /O 2 =45+Ar)/BST buffer/Pt/TiO x /Sapphire, measured from approximately 500 μm diameter size top electrodes structures. A 1%O 2 BSTO film control sample had been annealed at about 640° C. for about 15 min in 100% O 2 , while the (Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ-γ N δ —(Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ (N 2 /O 2 =45) sample is annealed at about 600° C. to about 650° C. for about 5 min in 1.5%O 2 +N 2 . Enhancement of voltage tunability from about 2.1:1 to about 5.7:1 at the same electric field of about 500 kV/cm can be clearly demonstrated in preferred embodiments of the present invention. [0045] FIG. 22 is a graph showing room temperature voltage tunability and dielectric loss at about 1 KHz as a function of applied DC bias voltages for Pt/BST buffer/BSTO(1%O 2 +Ar)/BST buffer/Pt/TiO x /Sapphire sample after about 640° C. for about 15 min in 100% O 2 . It can be clearly seen that greater than −5 Volts DC bias dielectric loss become greater than about 4% at about 1 KHz. [0046] FIG. 23 is a graph showing room temperature voltage tunability and tan δ-V (%) vs. applied DC bias curves for Pt/BST buffer/(Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ-γ N γ —(Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-6 (N 2 /O 2 =48+Ar)/BST buffer/Pt/TiO x /Sapphire, measured from approximately 500 μm diameter size top electrodes structures. (Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ-γ N γ —(Ba 0.1 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ (N 2 /O 2 =48) sample is annealed at about 600° C. for about 5 min in 1.5%O 2 +N 2 t. Symmetry and stability of the tan δ at very high biases can be clearly observed, which are just two of the advantages achieved by at least one preferred embodiment of the present invention. [0047] FIG. 24 includes graphs of room temperature relative dielectric constant and voltage tunability at about 5.5 Volts and about 6.5 Volts DC bias curves for Pt/BST buffer/BSTON/BST buffer/Pt/TiO x /Sapphire samples having thicknesses of about 100 nm to about 150 nm with different N 2 /O 2 gas ratios during deposition by RF sputtering, measured from approximately 500 μm diameter size top electrodes structures. [0048] FIG. 25 includes graphs of room temperature relative dielectric constant and voltage tunability curves for Pt/BST buffer/(Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ-γ N γ —(Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ /BST buffer/Pt/TiO x /Sapphire samples having thicknesses of about 100 nm to about 150 nm with different GdZrO x amounts deposited with a fixed N 2 /O 2 gas ratio of about 22 deposited by RF sputtering, measured from approximately 500 μm diameter size top electrode structures. [0049] FIG. 26 includes graphs of room temperature relative dielectric constant and voltage tunability curves for Pt/BST buffer/(Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ-γ N γ —(Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ /BST buffer/Pt/TiO x /Sapphire samples having thicknesses of about 100 nm to about 150 nm with different GdZrOx amounts deposited with a fixed N 2 /O 2 gas ratio of about 45 deposited by RF sputtering, measured from approximately 500 μm diameter size top electrode structures. [0050] FIG. 27 includes graphs of room temperature relative dielectric constant and voltage tunability curves for Pt/BST buffer/(Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ-γ N γ —(Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ /BST buffer/Pt/TiO x /Sapphire samples having thicknesses of about 100 nm to about 150 nm with different GdZrOx amounts deposited with a fixed N 2 /O 2 gas ratio of zero (no N-doping) deposited by RF sputtering, measured from approximately 500 μm diameter size top electrode structures. [0051] FIG. 28 includes graphs of room temperature voltage tunability under approximately 450 kV/cm and approximately 500 kV/cm electric field biases curves for Pt/BST buffer/(Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ-γ N γ —(Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ /BST buffer/Pt/TiO x /Sapphire samples having different film thicknesses with a fixed N 2 /O 2 gas ratio of about 22 during deposition by RF sputtering, measured from approximately 500 μm diameter size top electrodes structures. Very fast saturation of the voltage tunability of close to about 6:1 can be observed for BSTON samples having an approximately 300 nm thickness. [0052] FIG. 29 includes graphs of room temperature voltage tunability under approximately 450 kV/cm and approximately 500 kV/cm electric field biases curves for Pt/BST buffer/(Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ-γ N γ —(Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ /BST buffer/Pt/TiO x /Sapphire samples having different film thicknesses with a fixed N 2 /O 2 gas ratio of about 45 during deposition by RF sputtering, measured from approximately 500 μm diameter size top electrodes structures. Continuous increase of the voltage tunability can be observed for BSTON samples having about 100 nm to about 800 nm thicknesses. [0053] FIG. 30 includes graphs showing polarization hysteresis loops vs. applied Electric field (P-E) curves for an as-deposited Pt/BST buffer/BSTO(1%O 2 +Ar)/BST buffer/Pt/TiO x /Sapphire sample and for the same sample after about 640° C. for about 15 min in 100% O 2 . [0054] FIG. 31 is a graph showing polarization hysteresis loop vs. applied Electric field (P-E) curves for an as-deposited approximately 150 nm Pt/BST buffer/(Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ-γ N γ —(Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ (N 2 /O 2 =22+Ar)/BST buffer/Pt/TiO x /Sapphire sample, measured from approximately 500 μm diameter size top electrode structures. [0055] FIG. 32 is a graph showing polarization hysteresis loop vs. applied Electric field (P-E) curves for an as-deposited approximately 800 nm Pt/BST buffer/(Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ-γ N γ —(Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ (N 2 /O 2 =22+Ar)/BST buffer/Pt/TiO x /Sapphire sample, measured from approximately 500 μm diameter size top electrode structures. [0056] FIG. 33 is a graph showing leakage current density vs. applied Electric field (J-E) curves up to the breakdown fields for Pt/BST(1%O 2 +Ar)/Pt/TiO x /Sapphire and Pt/BST buffer/(Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ-γ N γ —(Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ (N 2 /O 2 =22+Ar)/BST buffer/Pt/TiO x /Sapphire capacitor samples, measured for approximately 500 μm size diameter circular electrode capacitors without a protective layer or passivation. The BST:N sample had a higher breakdown voltage (not shown)>32 Volts for the same approximately 150 nm thick dielectric thicknesses. [0057] FIG. 34 is a graph showing normalized 5V DC bias tunability vs. temperature curves for the Pt/BSTbuffer/(Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ-γ N γ —(Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-8 (N 2 /O 2 =22+Ar)/BST buffer/Pt/TiO x /Sapphire sample. The BST(1%O 2 +22% N 2 ) sample is annealed for about 5 min in a N 2 atmosphere at about 600° C. As can be seen, the voltage tunability has very little temperature dependence from about −55° C. to about 105° C. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS [0058] A highly tunable ferroelectric variable capacitor (varactor) structure according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention, as shown in FIG. 3 , preferably includes a single layer or multiple layers of crystalline composite paraelectric material including nano-regions containing rich N 3− anions dispersed in a nano-grain sized matrix of crystalline oxide perovskite material, wherein (ABO 3-δ ) α -(ABO 3-δ-γ N γ ) 1-α (0.01<γ<1.5) or (Ba 1-x ,Sr x )TiO 3-δ ) α —(Ba 1-x ,Sr x )TiO 3-δ-γ N γ ) 1-α or BSTON-BSTO (0.5<1-x<0.8), or a multilayer combination of such oxide or oxynitride nanocomposite perovskites, deposited between bottom and top electrode layers. [0059] FIG. 3 and FIG. 4 are schematic cross-sections of the highly tunable ferroelectric variable capacitor including a substrate 1 preferably made of sapphire, LiNbO 3 , LiTaO 3 , Al 2 O 3 ceramic, LTCC, Si, (silicon on insulator) SOI, GaAs, SiC, GaN, or other suitable materials, for example. On the substrate 1 , a highly crystalline and very thin adhesion layer preferably having a thickness of about 10 nm to about 30 nm, for example, is deposited before the bottom electrode deposition. The adhesion layer may preferably be RF or DC sputtered at low temperatures of about 100° C. to about 300° C., for example, from Ti target with O 2 +Ar gas mixture and then loaded in a high vacuum and heated-up to sufficiently high temperatures of 550° C. to about 700° C., for example, similar to the deposition temperature of the bottom electrode layer. The deposition of the TiO x adhesion layer on the substrate is followed by the deposition of bottom electrode layer preferably having a thickness of about 80 nm to about 400 nm, for example, at high temperatures of about 500° C. to about 700° C., for example, using RF sputtering with N 2 +Ar mixtures. Before actual deposition, the TiO x layer is exposed for about 10 min. to about 20 min. at such temperatures in high vacuum of about 2×10 −5 Pa, for example, which obtains a highly oriented rutile phase with predominant (101) XRD peak with 2-theta of approximately 36 degrees, for example, that also produces an improved crystalline quality of a Pt(111) film with sufficient surface roughness stability in the sequential deposition of the perovskite thin films. [0060] An optional core bottom electrode 2 is either recessed and planarized to the substrate level or conventionally deposited and patterned by ion milling, for example. The core bottom electrode 2 is preferably made of a highly conductive metal or metallic alloy including Cu, Al, W, Ag, Au, other suitable metallic material, for example, that is capped with a diffusion barrier conductive layer such, as TiN, TaN, ZrN, TaSiN, TiAlN, for example, and finally coated with an additional different type of electrode material 3 (e.g., Pt). [0061] A high dielectric constant, preferably greater than 100, dielectric bottom buffer layer 4 is preferably arranged near the bottom electrode with a given lattice expansion ratio and deposited with controlled oxygen partial pressure of about 1% to about 5% O 2 in Ar, for example, to ensure optimal oxygen stoichiometry and sufficient crystallinity. This buffer layer may be deposited using the same material as the main nonlinear dielectric layer 5 , such as (Ba 1 -x,Sr x )TiO 3-δ ) α —(Ba 1-x ,Sr x )TiO 3-δ-γ N γ ) 1-α or BSTON-BSTO (0.5<1-x<0.8) or a multilayer combination of such nanocomposite oxynitride perovskites or oxide perovskite material (Ba 1-x ,Sr x )TiO 3-δ . [0062] A thin electrode material 3 that is stable at high temperatures, such as Pt, Ru, Ir, Ni, for example, or a conductive oxide or oxynitride material, such as LaNiO 3 , SrRuO 3 , SrIrO3, LaTiO 2 N 1 , (La,Sr)TiOxNy, for example, may be used as an upper portion of the bottom electrode 2 . [0063] The main layer 5 with nonlinear dielectric dependence of the dielectric constant and high voltage tunability which is a crystalline composite paraelectric material preferably includes nano-regions containing rich N 3− anions dispersed in a nano-grain sized matrix of crystalline oxide perovskite material, wherein (ABO 3-δ ) α -(ABO 3-δ-γ N γ ) 1-α (0.01<γ<1.5) or (Ba 1-x ,Sr x )TiO 3-δ ) α —(Ba 1-x Sr x )TiO 3-δ-γ N γ ) 1-α or BSTON-BSTO (0.5<1-x<0.8) and/or a multilayer combination of such perovskites that is partially anion substituted (nitrogen, boron, fluorine, or their combinations) and/or includes nitrogen with deferent valence states (e.g., N 3− and N 2− ) and/or ABO 3 material with controllable modification of the lattice parameters that can be achieved by the addition of a different gas mixture including nitrogen (N 2 , N 2 O, NH 3 or other N-containing gas or organic compound containing NH 2 — groups), Kr, Ne, He or other gases. Preferably, the main nonlinear dielectric layer 5 is RF sputtered or deposited by any other suitable PVD method at intermediate to high temperatures of about 500° C. to about 750° C., for example, with Ar/O 2 /N 2 gas or other gases, e.g., Kr, He, Ne, N 2 O, for example, and their mixtures with appropriate N 2 /O 2 ratios that are preferably between about 22 and about 58, and more preferably between about 40 and about 48, for example, which enables appropriate oxygen and nitrogen partial pressures to be obtained. The RF power densities are typically from about 4.4 W/cm 2 to about 5.5 W/cm 2 and sputtering pressures from about 0.3 Pa to about 1 Pa, for example. [0064] The high dielectric constant (>100) dielectric top buffer layer 6 near the top electrode is preferably deposited with controlled oxygen partial pressure to ensure some oxygen non-stoichiometry and low surface roughness. This buffer layer may preferably be deposited as the same material as the main nonlinear dielectric layer such as (Ba 1-x ,Sr x )TiO 3-δ ) α —(Ba 1-x ,Sr x )TiO 3-δ-γ N γ ) 1-α or BSTON-BSTO (0.5<1-x<0.8) or as a multilayer combination of such nanocomposite oxynitride perovskites or oxide perovskite material (Ba 1-x ,Sr x )TiO 3-δ , and/or a multilayer combination of any suitable oxide or anion-substituted perovskites. The oxygen partial pressure used for the top buffer 6 layer deposition is preferably much lower than the one used for the bottom buffer layer 4 in order to enable formation of symmetrical Schottky barriers between the perovskite and metal electrode interface which also produces symmetrical C-V characteristics even as deposited without any post-annealing, since the deposition temperatures used for the top and bottom electrodes are very different. [0065] A top electrode material 7 , such as Pt, Ru, Ir, Ni, for example, and/or a conductive oxide or oxynitride material, such as LaNiO 3 , SrRuO 3 , SrIrO 3 , LaTiO 2 N 1 , (La,Sr)TiOxNy, for example, as a lower portion of the upper electrode layer 10 that can also function as a low resistivity metal interconnect layer is preferably provided. The top electrode material 7 is preferably deposited by DC sputtering at about 100° C. to about 200° C., for example, directly on the top buffer perovskite layer. Preferably using photolithography and other patterning techniques, such as ion milling, a mesa-structure is formed and high tunability of the capacitance thin film variable capacitors (varactors) can be formed as shown on FIG. 4 . The thickness of the top electrode layer is preferably about 200 nm to about 400 nm, for example. [0066] An Interlayer dielectric (ILD) 8 is preferably provided that functions as an insulation layer between top and bottom electrodes. The ILD 8 can preferably be made of Al 2 O 3 , SiO 2 , SiN X , or other type of low dielectric constant insulating material, for example, and can preferably be deposited by sputtering, e-beam evaporation, or plasma enhanced CVD (PECVD) or low pressure CVD (LPCVD), for example. The thickness of the Interlayer dielectric (ILD) 8 is preferably about 200 nm to about 600 nm, for example, and it is preferably deposited at low temperatures of about 100° C. to about 300° C. [0067] Low resistivity (low loss) metal interconnect layers 9 and 10 are preferably arranged to connect the bottom and top electrodes to other integrated passive devices or to the I/O pads of the ferroelectric device. The material of the interconnect layers 9 and 10 can preferably be Al, Cu, Au, for example, with sufficient thickness of about 1 um to about 5 um, for example. [0068] More specifically, a perovskite dielectric thin film varactor structure according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention preferably includes a deposition at medium temperature of a crystalline adhesion layer, such as TiN, TiO 2 , or other suitable adhesion layer, for example, deposition at medium temperatures of about 200° C. to about 450° C. and vacuum annealing or directly annealing at high temperatures of about 600° C. to about 800° C., for example, thus enabling the bottom electrode layer of conductive material to have a high crystalline quality with crystals oriented predominantly along (111) crystallographic plane of a highly conductive metal, such as Pt, Ni, Cu, Ag, Al, or other multilayers separated by appropriate barrier layer(s), for example, a perovskite buffer (seed) ABO 3 layer with a controlled value of its lattice constant, typically greater than the bulk value. In the case of the BST bottom buffer, the lattice constant will preferably be about 3.997 Å to about 4.00 Å, for example, which is greater than the bulk value of a Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 TiO 3 target, that has a cubic lattice constant a of about 3.974 Å, deposited at intermediate (about 300° C. to about 400° C.) to high temperatures (about 500° C. to about 800° C.) by PVD method (RF sputtering) using an Ar/O 2 atmosphere with a given range of oxygen partial pressures preferably of about PO 2 >10 −6 atm, for example, deposited on top of the bottom electrode layer. A main crystalline composite paraelectric material includes nano-regions containing rich N 3− anions dispersed in a nano-grain sized matrix of crystalline oxide perovskite material, wherein a (ABO 3-δ ) α -(ABO 3-δ-γ N γ ) 1-α (0.01<γ<1.5) or (Ba 1-x ,Sr x )TiO 3-δ ) α —(Ba 1-x ,Sr x )TiO 3-δ-γ N γ ) 1-α or a BSTON-BSTO (0.5<1-x<0.8) nanocomposite film is deposited at high temperatures of about 550° C. to about 700° C., for example, on top of the buffer (seed) layer preferably in a different gas mixture including nitrogen (N 2 ), or N 2 O, NH 3 or other N-containing gas or organic compound containing NH 2 — groups, for example, with an effectively non-cubically distorted lattice constant (c/a ratio) that is much greater than that of the buffer (seed) layer. Preferably, the quasicubic-lattice or the c-lattice (noncubic crystal) is increased by about 3% to about 5-7%, e.g., about 4.065 Å for BSTON-BSTO(1-x(Ba)=0.7, as compared to the bottom buffer layer. Therefore, the tetragonality ratio c/a of the BSTON-BSTO nanocomposite layer can preferably be as high as about 1.03 deposited under the typical N 2 /O 2 ratios, followed by an additional top buffer layer deposited with very low or close to zero oxygen partial pressures, e.g., PO 2 <10 −6 atm, and a top electrode layer of conductive electrode material 7 on top of the dielectric layer deposited at low temperatures of about 100° C. to about 300° C., for example. The lattice constant of about 4.065 Å for the BSTON-BSTO main dielectric layer (1-x(Ba)=0.7) is significantly expanded as compared to the oxide perovskite buffer layer which remains closer to the bulk BST ceramic(1-x(Ba)=0.7) cubic crystal of about 3.974 Å. Preferably, the lattice constant of the buffer layer is in the range of about 3.990 Å to about 4.00 Å, and c/a=1.005, for example. In another preferred embodiment of the present invention, the lattice constant of about 3.995 Å for the BSTON-BSTO main dielectric layer (1-x(Ba)=0.5) is significantly expanded as compared to the oxide perovskite buffer layer which remains closer to the bulk BST ceramic(1-x(Ba)=0.5) cubic crystal of about 3.9537 Å. Typically, the lattice constant of the buffer layer is in the range of about 3.973 Å to about 3.982 Å, for example. [0069] The inventors the present invention observed that an increase in the lattice parameter or lattice volume with an N 2 /O 2 gas flow ratio may be a result of the lattice strain due to defects in the film, bottom layer(s) misfit strain, film stress (ion bombardment or gas incorporation in to the film), and/or a change in the lattice induced by a change of the Ti—N bond length during the partial substation of O—Ti—O with O—Ti—N incorporated into the BSTON-BSTO nancomposite crystalline layer. In this regard, by using density functional theory (DFT) generalized gradient approximation (GGA), it had been estimated that the ideal tetragonal lattice volumes from which to extract the quasi-cubic lattices for Ba 0.5 Sr 0.5 TiO 3 , Ba 0.5 Sr 0.5 TiO 2.5 N 0.2 and BaSrTiO 2 N 1 , as summarized in FIG. 5 and FIG. 6 , which show that with an increase of the N amount into the Ba 0.5 Sr 0.5 TiO 3 , the quasi-cubic lattice parameter a c will increase monotonically with the increase of the N/O ratio of the ABO x N y lattice from about 3.964 to about 4.070 for nitrogen concentrations from about 0 to about 0.081, which also correlates with an increase of the tetragonality ratio c/a from about 1.0045 to about 1.058, as shown in FIG. 6 . Experimentally observed c/a for the BSTON-BSTO main dielectric layer (1-x(Ba)=0.7) is not significantly different (about 1.025 to about 1.03) for the average nitrogen concentration (estimated from XPS N peak) of about 0.024. [0070] The observed enlargement of the unit-cell volume for the BSTO films sputtered with approximately 25%-50% N 2 in the plasma while maintaining the oxygen partial pressure almost constant between about 0.5% and about 0.8% showed some tendency which is very consistent in comparison to the theoretical modeling, and that alone cannot be associated with the commonly observed phenomena for conventionally sputtered BSTO films while the oxygen partial pressure is reduced by orders to be able produce such lattice expansion phenomenon. Some type of chemical interaction of N occurs within the BSTO lattice, and it is actually incorporated into the BSTO lattice or localized areas, since under the same N 2 /O 2 ratio of about 40 to about 58 at deposition temperatures of less than about 600° C., the BSTO lattice is still somehow expanded, but the tetragonality ratio is not significantly deviated from the bulk level of about 1.006. The lower tetragonality ratio also correlates with non-enhancement of the dielectric constant of the BSTO which is the case for BSTO that is deposited at about 550° C. For temperatures greater than about 600° C., higher N 2 /O 2 ratios lead not only to lattice volume enlargement, but also to a significant increase of the tetragonality ratio up to about 1.025. [0071] Usually thicker (about 300 nm to about 800 nm) sputtered conventional BSTO films tend to have larger tetragonality, e.g., about 1.012, for example, but that is not the case for thinner (about 100 nm to about 150 nm) conventionally sputtered BSTO films. Therefore, the observed large tetragonality of BSTON-BSTO nancomposite films as high as about 1.030 on Pt/TiOx/sapphire substrates most definitely originates from the chemical incorporation of N into some of the Ti—O bonds of the BSTO lattice. [0072] As shown by STEM (Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy) cross-sectional analysis with “dark” spots of (Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ-γ N 7 correlates well with EELS (Electron energy loss spectroscopy) maps for the nano-regions with higher N concentration within (Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ .matrix. FIGS. 11-13 show typical STEM-EELS (Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy—Electron energy loss spectroscopy) cross-sectional mappings of Pt/(Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ-γ N γ —(Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 )TiO 3-δ /Pt(111)/TiOx/sapphire samples showing the distribution maps (concentrations) of the nitrogen (K-line), Ti (L-line), Oxygen (K-line) and Ba(M-line) across the different nano-regions (labeled as A, B, C, D, E, F, G) of the perovskite composite film. Significant variations of the nitrogen peak intensity in the EELS N K line can be clearly observed and that correlates well with the ADF maps (darker areas that are with higher N concentration). [0073] The observed presence of bonded N—Ti—N in BSTON-BSTO nancomposite crystalline layer by the EELS is also supported by the observed strong N 1s XPS peak, as shown in FIG. 14A , which also corresponds to the Ti—N line with a binding energy of about 395.0 eV as observed in many TiO2-xNx nanoparticles and films. That XPS N1 1s peak is very different from the physically adsorbed N 1s peak which has a very different bonding energy of about 404.3 eV (see FIG. 14B ). [0074] As shown in FIGS. 15-17 , the positions for the oxide cubic perovskite region and for the displacement positions of Ti and O(N) atoms of the oxynitride perovskite nano-region have different contrasts for the very high resolution STEM images. The BSTO and BSTON lattice differences can be clearly observed from their different displacement positions as shown in 1D real space along a single line analyzed and plotted as intensity obtained from the inverse Fourier transformed image of the ABF-STEM image taken from FIG. 16 . It can be clearly seen that on the right side (N-rich “dark” region”) have Ti—O(N) positions (bond lengths) which are elongated as compared to the left side Ti—O positions which are expected to originate primarily from the typically shorter Ti—O bond lengths. [0075] Immediately after deposition of the top electrode layer and the formation of a shadow mask dot structure or after ion milling of the top electrode, the C-V characteristics of the BSTON-BSTO nancomposite films can be directly evaluated. This is because the top Pt electrode deposition at about 100° C. to about 300° C. does not seem to cause any observable damage near the top BST interface. There are a few factors contributing to this. First, the sputtered perovskite films are much denser than films that are deposited using chemical solution decomposition (CSD). Second, the effective use of very low O 2 partial pressures to form the top BST buffer layer, the low surface roughness of the top layer of the BST film, and the use of moderate temperatures for the top Pt electrode deposition, all lead to a significantly reduced degree of damage to the BST interface with the top Pt electrode interface area. The sputtered BSTO buffer is arranged to cover the main BSTON-BSTO nancomposite layer. As-deposited BSTON-BSTO films enabled direct evaluation of insulation resistance, dielectric loss, and C-V asymmetry, while for conventionally sputtered BST samples, their C-V remained very unstable under high positive DC biases as shown in FIG. 22 even when the same top buffer layer had been applied for the BSTO films and for all BSTON films. BSTON-BSTO nancomposite films remained very stable under higher DC bias voltages, e.g., from about −12.5V to about +11V as shown in FIG. 23 , and with extremely low leakage. Pt/BSTON-BSTO/Pt MIM capacitor structures also are very symmetrical and have low frequency dispersion of C-V curves from about 1 KHz to about 500 KHz. The dielectric loss factor is somehow greater for N-doped BSTON-BSTO films as compared to the BST samples with the same partial pressure control samples of about 0.5%-0.75%O 2 : typically in the range of about 0.025 at about 1 KHz as compared to about 0.01 for the undoped BST films (both as-deposited without any post-anneals). [0076] The observed dielectric constants in the range of about 800 to about 1100 from BSTON-BSTO nancomposite films according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention as compared to about 400 to about 500 for the conventional BSTO films show a similar trend of enhancement of their voltage tunabilities from about 2.1:1 to about 5.7-6.0:1 times under the same electric fields of about 500 kV/cm as shown in FIG. 21 . [0077] Particular attention should be paid about the synergy of co-interactions of multiple dopants applied together with the anion doping. For this particular preferred embodiment of the present invention, when the inventors of the present invention perform co-sputtering from Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 TiO 3 and Gd 2 Zr 2 O 7 targets simultaneously with different RF power ratios to enable formation of BSTON-BSTO-GZO solid solution nancomposite films under Ar+O 2 +N 2 atmospheres which induce even further additional tetragonal distortion of the BSTO lattice as compared to pure BSTON-BSTO films, the BSTON-BSTO-GZO films have higher insulation resistance than the BSTON films and also have higher voltage tunabilities of greater than about 6.5:1 at about 6.5 Volts as shown in FIGS. 24-29 . The explanation for such additional enhancement of the voltage tunability is likely associated with the fact that a GdZrO 2 N 1 oxynitride perovskite compound, as theoretically predicted, has one of the largest tetragonality ratios on the order of about 1.35 among other ABO 2 N 1 class compounds as compared to about 2.33 for the BSTON. [0078] (Gd, Zr, N) triple doped BSTO films according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention are shown to have enhanced tetragonality ratios and lattice volumes as compared to BSTO or BSTON-BSTO films. An additional important finding is that, for the first time, there is suppression of a direct correlation dependence between the tunability and dielectric constant for (Gd, Zr) co-doped BSTON film when the N 2 /O 2 ratio is greater than about 40 as shown in FIG. 29 . [0079] Another important performance of the shadow mask BSTON-BSTO highly tunable thin film capacitors according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention is their polarization hysteresis loop vs. applied Electric field (P-E) characteristics. In FIGS. 30-32 , the P-E curves of Pt/BSTO/Pt/TiO x /Sapphire and Pt/BSTON-BSTO/Pt/TiO x /Sapphire capacitor samples are shown. Typical behavior originating from the superparaelectric state of the BSTON-BSTO films at room temperature is similar to that of SrTiO 3 bulk and thin film samples measured below about 100K. [0080] As shown on FIG. 33 , BSTON-BSTO nanocomposite films according to various preferred embodiments of the present invention have very high breakdown voltages in the range of about 32 Volts. Such high breakdown voltages were observed for the first time for BSTON-BSTO films samples having high dielectric constant of greater than about 1000 with the thickness from about 90 nm to about 150 nm. Based on the commonly reported data, sputtered undoped Ba 0.7 Sr 0.3 TiO 3 samples with dielectric constant of about 700 to about 8000 and similar thicknesses only have breakdown voltages of about 20 to about 22 Volts. The leakage current of BSTON-BSTO films capacitors is also very low at about 200 kV/cm electric field or less. [0081] The normalized 5V DC bias tunability vs. temperature curves for the BSTON-BST) film capacitor is shown in FIG. 34 . As shown in FIG. 34 , the voltage tunability has very little temperature dependence from about −55° C. to about 105° C. in the range of only about +6% to about −8%. [0082] Some benefits and advantages of the perovskite structure nonlinear dielectric thin film capacitor (varactor) having a high voltage tunability at lower DC bias voltages and the method of manufacturing the same according to preferred embodiments of the present invention include the capability to combine multiple technologies, such as physical vapor deposition, co-sputtering to form multiple cathodes ensuring a high deposition rate and a high throughput suitable for high volume manufacturing; deposition of perovskite films with very low oxygen pressures which enables the use of low cost and high conductivity electrode materials; controlling the lattice parameters of materials with the perovskite structure which enables tuning of their voltage dependences of their dielectric constant at low electric fields; maintaining low dielectric loss, low leakage currents at operation voltages, and high breakdown strengths of the N-doped or oxynitride perovskites; maintaining low temperature dependence of zero bias dielectric constant as well as low temperature dependence of voltage tunabilities; and concurrent monolithic integration with high precision capacitor, resistor, and inductor networks capable of providing low loss high performance at high frequencies in tunable circuits, such as tunable band-pass filters, antenna matching, phase shifters, and other suitable circuits, for example. [0083] A method of fabricating a perovskite dielectric thin film capacitor (varactor) according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention preferably includes two generalized steps: (1) forming a highly tunable device structure with appropriate electrodes on top of a substrate; and (2) integrating the highly tunable device structure with other thin film devices, such as, for example, SAW duplexers, RF-MEMS based switches, piezoelectrically actuated MEMS air gap varactors, fixed (low tunability) high density thin film capacitors, TFBAR circuits, resistors, inductors, and oxide based TFT and/or sensors, for example. Other thin film devices, such as well known passive components, for example, can also be used and the above specific examples are non-limiting. [0084] While preferred embodiments of the present invention have been described above, it is to be understood that variations and modifications will be apparent to those skilled in the art without departing from the scope and spirit of the present invention. The scope of the present invention, therefore, is to be determined solely by the following claims.

A crystalline perovskite crystalline composite paraelectric material includes nano-regions containing rich N 3− anions dispersed in a nano-grain sized matrix of crystalline oxide perovskite material, wherein (ABO 3-δ ) α -(ABO 3-δ-γ N γ ) 1-α . A represents a divalent element, B represents a tetravalent element, γ satisfies 0.005≦γ≦1.0, 1-α satisfies 0.05≦1-α≦0.9, and 1-α is an area ratio between the regions containing rich N 3− anions and the matrix of remaining oxide perovskite material.

[0001] This application claims priority to applicant's copending U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/188,183 titled “FOLDING CHARCOAL GRILL AND STARTER DEVICE AND METHOD OF USE” filed Mar. 10, 2000, and copending U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/235,888 titled “FOLDING CHARCOAL STARTER DEVICE AND METHOD OF USE”filed Sep. 28, 2000. The entirety of these two provisional applications are incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] 1. Field of the Invention [0003] This invention relates to charcoal grills and charcoal lighting devices, and in particular, to folding charcoal grills and lighting devices arrangeable into multiple configurations to facilitate lighting of coals, for use as or in conjunction with grills, and to facilitate handling and carrying. [0004] 2. Background of the Technology [0005] Grilling of foods using fuel driven grills, such as charcoal grills, is well known. The ignition of the fuels is necessary in order to allow such grills to be used. It is known to use a lighting initiator, such as lighter fluid poured on charcoal to allow easier lighting. This approach presents several problems. For example, the use of an initiator, such as lighter fluid, is typically dangerous because such initiators are generally volatile, producing a hazard for burning of the user and toxicity through inhalation. These initiators are also often toxic or harmful to the user's skin and eyes, and may be subject to environmental or other restrictions, such as air pollution regulations. Further, the use of lighter fluid can often necessitate additional cleanup because of spillage, and many people find these initiators to have an adverse effect on the taste of grilled foods. [0006] It is also known to use a chimney, such as a coffee can with the ends removed and vent holes added, to facilitate lighting of fuels. With these devices, paper or another ignition enhancer is placed in the bottom of the chimney, and the charcoal or other fuel is placed on top of the paper. The paper is then lit using the vent holes in the can, which also enhance air flow to increase the speed of lighting of the charcoal. This approach also presents several problems. The chimney typically becomes hot to the touch and is difficult to remove once the charcoal is lit. The chimney must also be carried separately from the grill and remembered when the grill is relocated. [0007] There thus remains an unmet need to provide devices and methods for lighting grill fuels in simpler and more self-contained manners than the existing approaches to fuel lighting. There is a further unmet need to provide a simple manner for transporting and storing such grills and lighting devices without such devices becoming unwieldy. There is yet a further unmet need for improved devices, methods, and systems for transporting grills and lighting equipment. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0008] It is an advantage of the present invention to meet these needs, and others, by providing rearrangeable grill and lighting devices that are easily transported. It is a further advantage of the present invention to provide variations of grills having at least two sides and a bottom, with adjustable legs and handles, that are rearrangeable into closed lighting positions and into upright grilling positions. It is a further advantage of the present invention to provide such rearrangeable grills that allow rearranging without spilling lit fuel. [0009] It is a further advantage of the present invention to provide rearrangeable charcoal lighting devices that are easily transported and that are usable in conjunction with existing grills. It is a further advantage of the present invention to provide a lighting device having sides and a bottom, with one or more adjustable handles, that is rearrangeable into a closed lighting position and into a slim profile, folded configuration for easy carrying, storage, and handling. It is a further advantage of the present invention to provide such a rearrangeable lighting device that allows easy transfer of the lit fuel to the grill without spilling the lit fuel. [0010] It is yet another advantage of the present invention to provide rearrangeable grill devices that are further rearrangeable into slim profile, folded configurations for easy carrying, storage, and handling. [0011] It is yet a further advantage of the present invention to provide rearrangeable grill and lighting devices that, in closed lighting positions, include internal racks to hold fuel above an initiator, and vent openings to facilitate lighting of the fuel. [0012] It is yet a further advantage of the present invention to provide rearrangeable grill and lighting devices that include insulated handles to reduce the likelihood of burning or other injury and to facilitate handling, rearrangement, and carrying of the devices. [0013] A first embodiment of the present invention comprises a self-contained, easily foldable and rearrangeable charcoal lighting device and grill. In an embodiment of the present invention, the grill includes three distinct configurable arrangements, these arrangements facilitating the following: 1) carrying of the grill; 2) igniting of charcoal within the grill; and 3) distributing the charcoal and providing a suitably designed grill for cooking meat or other foods. [0014] In the first embodiment, the grill is configurable into a first arrangement, in which the grill presents a thin profile for easy carrying via one or more attached handles. Rearranged from the first configuration into a second configuration for charcoal lighting, the grill forms a three sided closed shape with openings to receive an ignition source, such as matches, and a triangularly shaped rack bottom trap door to support charcoal for lighting. In this second configuration, an ignition fuel, such as crumpled paper is placed beneath the grill and beneath the rack bottom trap door. Charcoal is placed on top of the rack bottom trap door within the grill, and the fuel is ignited, which, in turn, ignites the contained charcoal. Upon suitable lighting of the charcoal, the grill is rearranged via the handles into a third configuration, in which the grill has a generally U-shaped profile, with extended legs and one or more side handles. The rearrangement into the third configuration causes the grill bottom trap door to sweep and distribute the lit charcoal into the interior portion of the U-shaped grill, with a bottom rack serving as a base for containing the charcoal. In one embodiment, a separate grill rack is placed above the distributed coals to serve as a cooking surface for meats or other grilled foods placed thereupon. [0015] In a second embodiment of the rearrangeable grill device, the grill is configurable into a first arrangement, in which the grill presents a thin profile for easy carrying via one or more attached handles. Rearranged from the first configuration into a second configuration for charcoal lighting, the grill forms a four sided closed shape with openings to receive an ignition source, such as matches, and a square shaped rack bottom trap door to support charcoal for lighting. As with the first embodiment, in this second configuration, an ignition fuel, such as crumpled paper is placed beneath the grill and beneath the rack bottom trap door. Charcoal is placed on top of the rack bottom trap door within the grill, and the fuel is ignited, which, in turn, ignites the contained charcoal. Upon suitable lighting of the charcoal, the grill is rearranged via the handles into a third configuration, in which the grill has a generally U-shaped profile, with extended legs and one or more side handles. In this configuration, this embodiment has a two-piece grill bottom, in contrast to the first embodiment, which has a one-piece grill bottom. In one embodiment, a separate grill rack is placed above the distributed coals to serve as a cooking surface for meats or other grilled foods placed thereupon. [0016] Another embodiment of the present invention comprises a self-contained, easily foldable and rearrangeable charcoal lighting device. In one embodiment, this device includes two distinct configurable arrangements, these arrangements facilitating the following: 1) carrying of the grill; 2) igniting of charcoal within the device; and 3) easily transferring and distributing the lit charcoal to a grill for cooking meat or other foods. [0017] This embodiment of the lighting device is configurable into a first arrangement, in which the grill presents a thin profile for easy carrying via one or more attached handles. Rearranged from the first configuration into a second configuration for charcoal lighting, the device forms a four sided closed shape with openings to receive an ignition source, such as matches, and a square shaped rack bottom trap door and extending support for charcoal for lighting. In this second configuration, an ignition fuel, such as crumpled paper is placed beneath the rack bottom trap door. Charcoal is placed on top of the rack bottom trap door within the device, and the fuel is ignited, which, in turn, ignites the contained charcoal. In use, the charcoal lighting device is placed within a grill or other location for cooking or other use, such as heating, prior to lighting the fuel. Upon suitable lighting of the charcoal, the device is simply lifted by its handle, causing the bottom trap door to open and dump and distribute the lit charcoal into the grill or other cooking or heating location. [0018] A second embodiment of the lighting device of the present invention is usable in conjunction with both rearrangeable and non-rearrangeable existing grill devices. In this embodiment, the lighting device includes an initiator holding tray portion, a rack top trap door, and a two piece fuel containment portion. The two piece fuel containment portion includes two pivotably connected doors that are arrangeable within an existing grill having grill sides so as to form a containment area within the existing grill above the initiator holding tray. A trap door rack is located on the top of the initiator holding tray. In use, fuel initiator is placed within the initiator holding tray portion, which includes openings for allowing lighting of the initiator and air flow to the initiator. The trap door rack on the initiator holding tray is placed or pivotably moved so as to cover the initiator holding tray portion, and the pivotably connected doors are arranged and connected to the existing grill sides so as to form a fuel containment area within a comer of the existing grill. In one embodiment, the pivotably connected doors are connected to the existing grill sides using one or more locator pins. Fuel, such as charcoal, is then placed in the fuel containment area, and the initiator is ignited, such that the fuel is able to light. Upon lighting of the fuel, the pivotably connected doors are rearranged, so that the lit fuel is dispersed within the existing grill and grilling can begin. [0019] In one embodiment, the existing grill is altered for use with the second embodiment of the lighting device of the present invention. In this embodiment, an opening is made, such as by cutting, in one corner area of the bottom of the existing grill. The initiator holding tray portion is then attached to the existing grill, so as to be suspended beneath the bottom of the existing grill. In one embodiment, the initiator holding tray portion is detachable, to allow, for example, more compact storage of the altered existing grill device. [0020] In one embodiment, the two pivotably connected doors are connected to the existing grill bottom by a second pivotable connection via one of the two doors. In this embodiment, the pivotably connected doors are moveable between two positions. In a first position, the two doors are pivoted so as to be perpendicular to the bottom of the existing grill bottom. A first door is pivotably attached to the bottom, and the second door is pivotably attached to the first door. The second door is pivoted relative to the first door, so that the two doors are arrangeable to form an approximately right angle to one another. The second door is attached to a side of the existing grill, such as by a pin, and the two connected doors in conjunction with two adjacent sides of the existing grill form a generally square cross sectional containment subportion of the grill area in one comer of the existing grill bottom. In a second position, the first and second doors are coplanar, parallel to the grill bottom, and adjacent the grill bottom; thus, the two doors rest on top of the grill bottom and adjacent one another in this position. [0021] To achieve the stated and other advantages of the present invention, as embodied and described below, the invention includes a reconfigurable self-contained grill and fuel lighting device, comprising: a grill housing, the grill housing including at least a first side portion, a bottom portion, and a second side portion, and at least a first hingeable coupling and a second hingeable coupling, the first hingeable coupling attaching the first side portion to the bottom portion, and the second hingeable coupling attaching the bottom portion to the second side portion; at least one handle adjustably attached to the grill housing; and at least one extendable leg attached to the grill housing for supporting the grill; wherein the grill housing is reconfigurable via at least the first hingeable coupling and the second hingeable coupling into a first grill configuration, wherein, in the first position, the first side portion, the bottom portion, and the second side portion closeably form an enclosure, the enclosure enhancing fuel ignition; and wherein the grill housing is reconfigurable via at least the first hingeable coupling and the second hingeable coupling to a second grill configuration, wherein the first side portion, the bottom portion, and the second side portion form a structure having an open top. [0022] To achieve the stated and other advantages of the present invention, as embodied and described below, the invention further includes a reconfigurable self-contained grill and fuel lighting device, comprising: a first grill housing side; a grill housing bottom coupled to the first grill housing side via a first pivotable coupling; a second grill housing side coupled to the grill housing bottom via a second pivotable coupling; and a location fixing device for fixably positioning the first grill housing side, second grill housing side, and the grill housing bottom in at least one position; wherein the device is reconfigurable via the first pivotable coupling and the second pivotable coupling into a first configuration, wherein, in the first configuration, the first grill housing side, the second grill housing side, and the grill housing bottom closeably form an enclosure, the enclosure enhancing ignition of fuel placed within the enclosure; and wherein the device is reconfigurable via the first pivotable coupling and the second pivotable coupling to a second configuration, wherein the first grill housing side, the second grill housing side, and the grill housing bottom form a structure having an open top for grilling. [0023] To achieve the stated and other advantages of the present invention, as embodied and described below, the invention further includes a method for configuring and reconfiguring a self-contained grill and fuel lighting device, the grill and fuel lighting device comprising a first grill housing side; a grill housing bottom coupled to the first grill housing side via a first pivotable coupling; a second grill housing side coupled to the grill housing bottom via a second pivotable coupling; and a location fixing device for fixably positioning the first grill housing side, second grill housing side, and the grill housing bottom in at least one position; the method comprising: configuring the grill and fuel lighting device in a first configuration, configuring in the first configuration including: moving the first side to a first configuration first side position via the first pivotable coupling; and moving the second side to a first configuration second side position via the second pivotable coupling; wherein, in the first configuration, the first side, the second side, and the bottom closeably form an enclosure, the enclosure enhancing ignition of fuel placed within the enclosure; and reconfiguring the grill and fuel lighting device via the first pivotable coupling and the second pivotable coupling to a second configuration, reconfiguring to the second configuration including: moving the first side to a second configuration first side position via the first pivotable coupling; and moving the second side to a second configuration second side position via the second pivotable coupling; wherein the first side, the second side, and the bottom form a three sided structure having an open top for grilling. [0024] To achieve the stated and other advantages of the present invention, as embodied and described below, the invention further includes a reconfigurable fuel lighting device, comprising: a housing, the housing including a first side having a first hinge coupling to a second side, the second side having a second hinge coupling to a third side, and the third side having a third hinge coupling to a fourth side; at least one handle adjustably attached to the housing; and a positionable rack for holding fuel; wherein the housing is reconfigurable via the first hinge coupling, the second hinge coupling, and the third hinge coupling into a first configuration, wherein, in the first position, the first side, the second side, the third side, and the fourth side closeably form an enclosure, the enclosure enhancing ignition of the fuel; and wherein the housing is reconfigurable via the first hinge coupling, the second hinge coupling, the third hinge coupling to a second configuration, wherein the first side, the second side, the third side, and the fourth side are generally parallel, the second configuration having a thin profile. [0025] To achieve the stated and other advantages of the present invention, as embodied and described below, the invention also includes a reconfigurable fuel lighting device, comprising: a first housing side; a rack coupled to the first housing side via a first pivotable coupling; a second housing side coupled to the first housing side via a second pivotable coupling; a third housing side coupled to the second housing side via a third pivotable coupling; a fourth housing side coupled to the third housing side via a third pivotable coupling; and a location fixing device for fixably positioning the first housing side, the second housing side, the third housing side, and the fourth housing side in at least one position; wherein the device is reconfigurable via the first pivotable coupling, the second pivotable coupling, the third pivotable coupling, and the fourth pivotable coupling into a first configuration, wherein, in the first configuration, the first housing side, the second housing side, the third housing side, and the fourth housing side closeably form an enclosure, the enclosure enhancing ignition of fuel placed within the enclosure; and wherein the device is reconfigurable via the first pivotable coupling, the second pivotable coupling, the third pivotable coupling, and the fourth pivotable coupling to a second configuration, wherein the first grill side, the second housing side, the third housing side, and the fourth housing side are generally parallel, such that the device has a thin profile. [0026] To achieve the stated and other advantages of the present invention, as embodied and described below, the invention also includes a method for configuring and reconfiguring a fuel lighting device, the fuel lighting device comprising a first housing side; a second housing side coupled to the first housing side via a first pivotable coupling; a third housing side coupled to the second housing side via a second pivotable coupling; a fourth housing side coupled to the third housing side via a third pivotable coupling; and a rack coupled to at least one of the first housing side, the second housing side, the third housing side, and the fourth housing side via a fourth pivotable coupling; the method comprising: configuring the fuel lighting device in a first configuration, configuring in the first configuration including: moving the first side and the second side to a first configuration first side position via the first pivotable coupling; moving the third side to a first configuration third side position via the second pivotable coupling; moving the fourth side to a first configuration fourth side position via the third pivotable coupling; and moving the rack to a first configuration rack position via the fourth pivotable coupling; wherein, in the first configuration, the first side, the second side, the third side, and the fourth side closeably form an enclosure bounding the rack, the enclosure enhancing ignition of fuel placed within the enclosure; and wherein the fuel lighting device is reconfigurable via the first pivotable coupling the second pivotable coupling, the third pivotable coupling, and the fourth pivotable coupling to a second configuration wherein the first side, the second side, the third side, the fourth side, and the rack are generally parallel, the device thereby having a generally thin profile. [0027] To achieve the stated and other advantages of the present invention, as embodied and described below, the invention also includes a reconfigurable fuel lighting device attachable to a grill device, the reconfigurable fuel lighting device including: an ignition containment housing, the ignition containment housing having at least three sides and a bottom, the ignition containment housing being suspendable from the grill device, the grill device having at least three grill sides and a grill bottom; a rack for holding fuel, the rack being positionable above the ignition containment housing; and at least one door portion, the at least one door portion being arrangeable into at least two positions; wherein in a first one of the at least two positions, the at least one door portion is arranged in conjunction with at least two of the grill sides so as to form an enclosure, the enclosure including the rack, such that fuel is placeable within the enclosure above the rack and above the ignition containment housing. [0028] Additional advantages and novel features of the invention will be set forth in part in the description that follows, and in part will become more apparent to those skilled in the art upon examination of the following or upon learning by practice of the invention. [0029] BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES [0030] In the drawings: [0031] [0031]FIG. 1 presents the grill device configured for grilling in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; [0032] [0032]FIGS. 2A and 2B present views of the grill configured for lighting of fuel, such as charcoal, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; [0033] [0033]FIG. 3 is a view of the grill in a folded configuration for carrying, storage, and other handling in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; [0034] [0034]FIG. 4 shows an overhead view of the two bottom tray portions of the second embodiment of the rearrangeable grill device of the present invention; [0035] [0035]FIG. 5A and 5B present views of the device of FIG. 4, arranged into the second configuration for charcoal lighting; [0036] [0036]FIG. 6 shows the device of FIGS. 5A and 5B arranged into the third configuration for grilling; [0037] [0037]FIGS. 7A and 7B present the latch and a closeup of the latch, respectively, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; [0038] [0038]FIG. 8 shows a side view of the device of FIG. 6 arranged into a first, folded configuration; [0039] [0039]FIG. 9 shows the device of FIGS. 6 and 8 in a partially folded position between the third and first configurations; [0040] [0040]FIG. 10 presents an end view of the folded configuration of the device of FIGS. 6 and 8; [0041] [0041]FIG. 11A presents a charcoal lighting device configured for lighting charcoal in accordance with a third embodiment of the present invention; [0042] [0042]FIG. 11B shows an overhead view of the charcoal lighting device configured in accordance with the embodiment of FIG. 11A; [0043] [0043]FIG. 12 is a view of the lighting device in a folded configuration for carrying, storage, and other handling in accordance with the embodiment of FIGS. 11A and 11B; [0044] [0044]FIG. 13A presents a view of one side of the lighting device of FIGS. 11A and 11B configured with all four sides extended flat; [0045] [0045]FIG. 13B presents a view of the reverse side of the device configuration of FIG. 13A; [0046] [0046]FIG. 13C presents another embodiment of the lighting device as configured in FIG. 13A, the embodiment having angle cut edges, rather than circular openings for lighting and air flow; [0047] [0047]FIG. 14 shows an embodiment of the lighting device of FIGS. 11A and 11B with the rack for holding charcoal during lighting collapsed for release of the lit charcoal; [0048] [0048]FIG. 15 presents a reconfigurable lighting device modification to an existing grill in accordance with a fourth embodiment of the present invention; [0049] [0049]FIG. 16 shows the reconfigurable lighting device modification to an existing grill in accordance with the embodiment of FIG. 15, but with a grill surface placed atop the grill device; [0050] [0050]FIGS. 17 and 18 present overhead views of configurations of the fuel lighting components of the device of FIGS. 15 and 16; and [0051] [0051]FIG. 19 presents a perspective closeup view of the arrangement of the fuel lighting device of the fourth embodiment of the present invention shown in FIG. 18. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0052] The present invention comprises several devices and methods for igniting charcoal or other fuel that incorporate features allowing the devices to be configured to provide a chimney for lighting of fuel and then reconfigured into or for use with grills. [0053] A first embodiment comprises a reconfigurable combination grill and lighting device. A second embodiment comprises a variation on the first embodiment, also comprising a combination grill and lighting device. A third embodiment is a reconfigurable lighting device for use with an existing grill. A fourth embodiment is a reconfigurable lighting device modification to an existing grill. [0054] The first embodiment comprises a device and method for igniting charcoal or other fuel that incorporates features allowing the device to be reconfigured to serve as a chimney for lighting of fuel and then reconfigured into a grill. The device is also reconfigurable into a generally flat profile that facilitates carrying and storage when not in use. From the flat position, handles incorporated into the device are pivoted or otherwise moved to a position approximately perpendicular to the two sides, and the two sides are in turn partially opened by pivoting upon, for example, hinges, so that the shape of the device forms a generally triangular shape. Arranging the device in this configuration also holds in place a triangle shaped grill trap door inside the device, upon which charcoal or other fuel is placed and under which newspaper or another easily ignited initiator for the fuel is positioned. [0055] In operation, upon arrangement in the triangular configuration, the device is moved to an upright position, so that the device rests on one triangular end with the trap door toward the bottom and openings in one or more of the grill sides, also located near the bottom. In one embodiment, additional similarly located openings are also included in the grill bottom. The charcoal or other fuel is then placed into the device from the top, coming to rest on the trap door. The paper or other initiator is placed inside the device beneath the trap door. The paper is then lit through the openings at the base of the device. These openings, in addition to facilitating initial lighting of the paper, allow air to circulate freely, encouraging the efficient transfer of heat from the burning initiator to the charcoal or other fuel. [0056] When the charcoal is sufficiently lit, attached legs are opened, by for example pivoting the legs on hinges or pivots, such as bolts or screws, that attach the legs to the bottom side of the grill, and the device is reoriented to rest on the extended legs. Using the handles, the two sides are pivotably or otherwise opened such that the sides are approximately perpendicular to the base, and the device thus assumes a generally U-shaped profile as formed by the sides and bottom of the grill, viewed from an end of the device. In an embodiment of the present invention, opening of the two sides also releases the trap door, allowing the trap door to collapse to a flat position against a bottom rack that contains the charcoal or other fuel when the grill is in the grilling configuration. The transfer of the fuel from the trap door to the bottom rack enables the charcoal or other fuel to be spread evenly over the bottom rack, facilitating even grilling. Lastly, in one embodiment, a separate grill top surface is emplaced so as to span the two opened sides over the lit fuel, completing the reconfiguration of the grill in a cooking position. [0057] The second embodiment is a variation of the combination reconfigurable grill device of the first embodiment. The device of this embodiment includes two bottom tray portions coupled to each other via one or more pivotable couplings, such as hinges. Attached to each of the bottom tray portions is a handle, a door portion (also referred to as a side portion), and a leg portion. Pivotably attached to one of the bottom tray portions is a rack portion. The device also includes a separable top grill portion. [0058] As with the first embodiment, the device of the second embodiment is configurable into a first arrangement, a second arrangement, and a third arrangement, the first arrangement having a thin profile to facilitate handling and storage of the device. However, in the second arrangement, instead of forming a generally triangular cross-sectional shape, the second embodiment of the grill device of the present invention forms a generally square cross-sectional shape. When arranged into the third arrangement, the two bottom tray portions are latched or locked into a flat arrangement using, for example, a catch. In one embodiment, the catch includes a hooked extension on a first tray portion and a slit opening in a second tray portion, such that, in the latched position, the hooked extension fits into the slit opening to lock the trays in the flat position. [0059] The third embodiment of the present invention comprises a device and method for igniting charcoal or other fuel that incorporates features allowing the device to be configured to provide a chimney for lighting of fuel and then folded into an easily carried and stored configuration having a generally flat profile. From the flat position, a handle or handles incorporated into the device are pivoted or otherwise moved to a position approximately perpendicular to an adjacent side. The sides are then partially opened by pivoting upon, for example, hinges, so that the shape of the device forms a generally square cross-sectional shape bounded by the sides. Arranging the device in this configuration also allows a square shaped grill trap door to be surrounded by the sides of the device. Charcoal or other fuel is then placed on the trap door, and newspaper or another easily ignited initiator for the fuel is positioned beneath the trap door. A leg or other extension attached to the trap door holds the trap door in place generally perpendicular to the sides when the device is in the square shaped configuration. [0060] In operation, upon arrangement in the square cross-sectional configuration, the device is moved to an upright position, so that the device rests on one end with the trap door toward the bottom, suspended by the leg or other extension, and openings in one or more of the device sides, also located near the bottom. The device is placed inside a grill or at another location that will hold the charcoal upon being lit. The paper or other initiator is then placed inside the device beneath the trap door, and the charcoal or other fuel is placed into the device from the top, coming to rest on the trap door. The paper is then lit through the openings at the base of the device. These openings, in addition to facilitating initial lighting of the paper, allow air to circulate freely, encouraging the efficient transfer of heat from the burning initiator to the charcoal or other fuel. [0061] When the charcoal is sufficiently lit, the device is simply lifted by its handle, allowing the trap door to swing downward via, for example hinges attaching the trap door by one side. The leg or other extension, which is also pivotable, similarly swings downward, allowing the lit charcoal to dump from the bottom of the device into the grill or other location for containing the lit charcoal. [0062] The fourth embodiment is a reconfigurable lighting device modification to an existing grill. In this embodiment, the lighting device includes an initiator holding tray portion, a rack top trap door, and a two piece fuel containment portion. The two piece fuel containment portion includes two pivotably connected doors that are arrangeable within an existing grill having grill sides so as to form a containment area within the existing grill above the initiator holding tray. A trap door rack is located on the top of the initiator holding tray. In use, fuel initiator is placed within the initiator holding tray portion, which includes openings for allowing lighting of the initiator and air flow to the initiator. The trap door rack top for the initiator holding tray is placed or pivotably moved so as to cover the initiator holding tray portion, and the pivotably connected doors are arranged and connected to the existing grill sides so as to form a fuel containment area within a corner of the existing grill. In one embodiment, the pivotably connected doors are connected to the existing grill sides using one or more locator pins. Fuel, such as charcoal, is then placed in the fuel containment area, and the initiator is ignited, such that the fuel is able to light. Upon lighting of the fuel, the pivotably connected doors are repositioned, so that the lit fuel is dispersed within the existing grill and grilling can begin. [0063] In one embodiment, the existing grill is altered for use with the second embodiment of the lighting device of the present invention. In this embodiment, an opening is made, such as by cutting, in one corner area of the bottom of the existing grill. The initiator holding tray portion is then attached to the existing grill, so as to be suspended beneath the bottom of the existing grill. In one embodiment, the initiator holding tray portion is detachable, to allow, for example, more compact storage of the altered existing grill device. [0064] In one embodiment, the two pivotably connected doors are connected to the existing grill bottom by a second pivotable connection via one of the two doors. In this embodiment, the pivotably connected doors are moveable to two positions. In a first position, the two doors are pivoted so as to be perpendicular to the existing grill bottom. A first door is pivotably attached to the bottom, and the second door is pivotably attached to the first door. The second door is pivoted relative to the first door, so that the two doors are positioned at an approximately right angle to one another. The second door is attached to a side of the existing grill, and the two connected doors in conjunction with two adjacent sides of the existing grill form a generally square cross sectional containment subportion of the grill area in one corner of the existing grill bottom. In a second position, the first and second doors are coplanar, parallel to the grill bottom, and adjacent the grill bottom; thus, the two doors rest on top of the grill bottom and adjacent one another in this position. [0065] References will now be made in detail to embodiments of the present invention, examples of which are illustrated in the accompanying drawings. [0066] [0066]FIG. 1 presents the grill device of the first embodiment configured for grilling in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. As shown in FIG. 1, the grill 1 , as arranged or configured for grilling, includes grill sides 2 , 3 and grill bottom 4 , handles 5 , 6 , legs 7 a , 7 b, a grill surface 8 , and a bottom rack 9 to support fuel, such as charcoal. In this embodiment, the grill 1 is arranged so that the legs 7 a , 7 b are extended to support the grill 1 , and the handles 5 , 6 are moved to a position extending approximately perpendicularly to the sides 2 , 3 , for example, to facilitate easy handling of the grill 1 . In one embodiment, the grill surface 8 comprises a separable component placeable in the position shown in FIG. 1 when the grill 1 is arranged for grilling. In another embodiment, the grill surface 8 , is pivotably or otherwise movably linked to the grill 1 , such as by attachment to one or more of the grill sides 2 , 3 . In an embodiment of the present invention, the portions of the grill 1 , other than the grill surface 8 , are movably or pivotably linked, such as by bolts, hinges, or screws, to allow the grill 1 to be arrangeably configured in various positions, such as the grilling arrangement shown in FIG. 1. [0067] In one embodiment, the handles 5 , 6 and legs 7 a , 7 b are rotatably positionable and are held in place via, for example, frictional attachment devices, such as bolts and nuts or screws, and optionally further including features for locking the handles 5 , 6 and legs 7 a , 7 b in various positions, as appropriate for each of the various arrangements of the device, and extensions, brackets, or other features are included to support the various moveable or pivotable components when located in fixed positions for the various arrangements. In an embodiment of the present invention, the sides 2 , 3 , and optionally the bottom 4 include one or more openings 2 a , 2 b , 2 c and in one embodiment, some of the components, such as the legs and one or more pivoting grill portions, such as the grill surface 8 , are biasedly attached, such as by a spring, to facilitate movement or pivoting among positions. [0068] [0068]FIGS. 2A and 2B present views of the grill configured for lighting of fuel, such as charcoal, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. As shown in FIG. 2A, the grill 1 is arranged such that the sides 2 , 3 , and bottom 4 form a triangular, closed unit, with openings 2 a , 2 b , 2 c , 3 a , 3 b , 3 c oriented near the bottom of the standing grill device 1 , as shown in FIG. 2A. In the lighting arrangement, grill sides 2 , 3 are movably relocated, such as via pivoting devices, such that edges 2 a , 3 a of sides 2 , 3 are positioned in close proximity. [0069] [0069]FIG. 2B presents an overhead view of the grill arrangement of FIG. 2A. As shown in FIG. 2B, the triangular shape of this configuration of the grill 1 is formed by the sides 2 , 3 and the bottom 4 . A moveable fuel rack 10 , such as a triangularly shaped rack, as shown in outline in FIG. 2A and as shown in FIG. 2B, is positioned within the enclosed triangular grill arrangement above the position of the openings 2 a , 2 b , 2 c , 3 a , 3 b , 3 c , as shown in FIG. 2A. In an embodiment of the present invention, the triangular shaped rack 10 is pivotably or otherwise moveable to the position shown in FIGS. 2A and 2B, and is pivotably or otherwise moveable so as to be approximately parallel to the bottom rack 9 in the configuration shown in FIG. 1. In an embodiment of the present invention, the triangular rack 10 has attached pivots, hinges, or other devices for allowing pivoting or movement, these devices being located on one of the sides of the triangular rack 10 and also being attached to the bottom of the grill device 4 , and extensions, brackets, or other support devices are located on one or more of the sides of the grill device 2 , 3 in order to support the pivoted triangular rack 10 when in the lighting position shown in FIGS. 2A and 2B. [0070] In operation for lighting of fuel, such as charcoal, in the arrangement shown in FIGS. 2A and 2B, the fuel is placed on top of the triangular rack 10 , and ignition of the fuel occurs via use of the openings 2 a , 2 b , 2 c , 3 a , 3 b , 3 c , such as by placement of an easily combustible fuel starter, such as crumpled paper beneath the triangular rack 10 , as shown in FIG. 2A. The fuel starter is ignited, such as by a match or other source of ignition, and the ignited fuel starter in turn ignites the fuel on top of the triangular rack 10 . The openings 2 a , 2 b , 2 c , 3 a , 3 b , 3 c allow the fuel starter to be ignited, such as by inserting the match through one of the openings 2 a, 2 b , 2 c , 3 a , 3 b , 3 c . The openings 2 a , 2 b , 2 c , 3 a , 3 b , 3 c also enhance ignition of the fuel by allowing an air flow to the fuel. [0071] In an embodiment of the present invention, the grill handles 5 , 6 include an insulated section 5 a , 6 a , respectively, such as sections made of wood, to prevent burning during handling of the grill 1 following the lighting of the fuel. [0072] [0072]FIG. 3 is a view of the grill in a folded configuration for carrying, storage, and other handling in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. As shown in FIG. 3, the folded grill 1 has closed and overlapping sides 2 , 3 and handles 5 , 6 pivotably moved to the ends of the sides 2 , 3 , allowing, for example, reduced storage size and easy carrying and handling. In one embodiment, the separate grill surface 8 is contained within the interior of the folded grill. In an embodiment of the present invention, the grill includes latching devices or other features for biasedly maintaining the grill 1 in the folded configuration shown in FIG. 3. [0073] [0073]FIG. 4 shows an overhead view of the two bottom tray portions of the second embodiment of the rearrangeable grill device of the present invention. As shown in FIG. 4, the two bottom tray portions 21 , 22 are pivotably connected via one or more couplings 23 , 24 , such as hinges. [0074] [0074]FIG. 5A and 5B present views of the device of FIG. 4, arranged into the second configuration for charcoal lighting. As shown in FIG. 5A, an overhead view of the device 20 , and FIG. 5B, a perspective view of the device 20 , the two bottom tray portions 21 , 22 have been arranged at an approximately right angle relative to each other, via the pivotable couplings 23 , 24 . Attached to each of the bottom tray portions 21 , 22 , are handles 25 , 26 , respectively, door portions 27 , 28 , respectively, and leg portions 30 , 31 , respectively. Each of the handles, 25 , 26 , the door portions 27 , 28 , and the leg portions 30 , 31 are movable relative to the bottom tray portions 21 , 22 . Pivotably attached to one of the bottom tray portions 21 is a rack portion 32 . [0075] As further shown in FIG. 5A and 5B, the two bottom tray portions 21 , 22 and the two door portions 27 , 28 have been positioned so as to form a four sided closed shape. The rack portion 32 is pivotably moved so as to form a ledge within the grill device 20 , so as to support fuel placed on the rack portion 32 . In an embodiment of the present invention, the rack portion 32 , when placed so as to support fuel, rests on an extension extending from the second bottom tray portion 22 , the extension being, for example, a reversed hinge, the hinge being lockable in an extended position to support the rack portion 32 , and the hinge being further pivotable to a folded position against the second bottom tray portion 22 when the hinge is not extended to support the rack portion 32 . Openings 35 a , 35 b , 35 c , 36 a , 36 b , 36 c facilitate lighting of fuel initiator placed below the rack portion 32 and allow air flow to the fuel initiator and the fuel. [0076] [0076]FIG. 6 shows the device 20 of FIGS. 5A and 5B arranged into the third configuration for grilling. As shown in FIG. 6, the legs 30 , 31 provide support for the grill 20 , with handles 25 , 26 positioned as shown, and separate grill surface rack 40 spanning and supported by the door/side portions 27 , 28 . The two bottom tray portions 21 , 22 are aligned in the same plane via pivoting, and latched or locked together using, for example, a latch 39 . In one embodiment, the latch 39 comprises a bent metal extension attached to one of the bottom tray portions 21 via a first end of the latch 39 . The second end of the latch 39 includes a bent end portion that is insertable into an opening in the second bottom tray portion 22 when the two bottom tray portions 21 , 22 are arranged as shown in FIG. 6. The latch 39 thus latches the two bottom tray portion 21 , 22 together when in the third configuration. [0077] [0077]FIGS. 7A and 7B present the latch and a closeup of the latch, respectively, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. As shown in FIGS. 7A and 7B, the latch 39 includes a main body portion 39 a connected at a first end to one of the bottom tray portions 21 via a connector 39 b , such as a rivet, screw, or bolt. At the second end of the main body portion 39 a is a bent end portion 39 c for insertion into a slot 39 d in the second bottom tray portion 22 . Also attached to the main body portion 39 a, is a handle portion 39 e. [0078] [0078]FIG. 8 shows a side view of the device 20 of FIG. 6 arranged into the first, folded configuration. As shown in FIG. 8, the handle 25 is retracted, and the leg 30 is pivotably folded so as to abut the bottom tray portion 21 . In one embodiment, the handle 25 is held to the bottom tray portion 21 by two or more brackets 25 a , 25 b , 25 c , 25 d . The handle 25 is extendable and retractable relative to the bottom tray portion 21 via, for example, sliding within the brackets 25 a , 25 b , 25 c , 25 d. [0079] [0079]FIG. 9 shows the device 20 of FIGS. 6 and 8 in a partially folded position between the third and first configurations. FIG. 10 presents an end view of the folded configuration of the device 20 of FIGS. 6 and 8. [0080] [0080]FIG. 11A presents the lighting device of the third embodiment of the present invention configured for lighting. As shown in FIG. 11A, the grill 51 , as arranged or configured for lighting, includes sides 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 handle 56 , and a trap door bottom rack 60 to support fuel, such as charcoal. The device 51 also includes openings 52 a , 52 b , 52 c , 53 a , 53 b , 53 c in the sides 52 , 53 , as well as openings 54 a , 54 b , 54 c , 55 a , 55 b , 55 c in sides 54 , 55 , as best seen in FIG. 13A. In this embodiment, the device 51 is arranged so that the trap door bottom rack 60 , as shown in outline in FIG. 11A, is held generally perpendicular to the sides 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 by a leg or other extension 60 a . The handle 56 is moved so as to extend generally perpendicularly to adjacent side 52 , for example, to facilitate easy handling of the device 51 . In an embodiment of the present invention, the portions of the device 51 , are movably or pivotably linked, such as by bolts, hinges, or screws, to allow the device 51 to be arrangeably configured in various positions, such as the lighting arrangement shown in FIG. 11A. [0081] In one embodiment, the handle 56 is rotatably positionable and are held in place via, for example, frictional attachment devices, such as bolts and nuts or screws, and optionally further including features for locking the handle 56 in different positions, as appropriate for each of the various arrangements of the device, and extensions, brackets, or other features are included to support the various moveable or pivotable components when located in fixed positions for the various arrangements. [0082] [0082]FIG. 11B presents an overhead view of the device of FIG. 11A, as configured for lighting. As shown in FIG. 11B, the square shape of this configuration of the device 51 is formed by the sides 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , with an edge of side 52 and an edge of side 53 forming a comer. The moveable trap door fuel rack 60 , such as a square shaped rack, as shown in outline in FIG. 11A and as shown in FIG. 11B, is positioned within the enclosed square arrangement of the sides 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 above the position of the openings 52 a , 52 b , 52 c , 53 a , 53 b , 53 c , as shown in FIG. 11A. In an embodiment of the present invention, the square shaped rack 60 is pivotably or otherwise moveable to the position shown in FIGS. 1 1 A and 1 B, and is pivotably or otherwise moveable so as to be approximately parallel to one of the sides 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 upon the device 51 being placed in the folded, thin profile configuration. In an embodiment of the present invention, the square rack 60 has attached pivots, hinges, or other devices for allowing pivoting or movement, these devices being located on one of the edges of the rack 60 and also being attached to one of the sides 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 of the device 51 , and extensions, brackets, or other support devices are located on one or more of the sides 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 in order to support the pivoted rack 60 on one edge when in the lighting position shown in FIGS. 11A and 11B. The pivoted rack 60 is also supported by a leg or other extension 60 a , as shown in outline in FIG. 11A. [0083] In operation for lighting of fuel, such as charcoal, in the arrangement shown in FIGS. 11A and 11B, the fuel is placed on top of the rack 60 , and ignition of the fuel occurs via use of the openings 52 a , 52 b , 52 c , 53 a , 53 b , 53 c , such as by placement of an easily combustible fuel starter, such as crumpled paper beneath the rack 60 , as shown in FIG. 11A. The fuel starter is ignited, such as by a match or other source of ignition, and the ignited fuel starter in turn ignites the fuel on top of the rack 60 . The openings 52 a , 52 b , 52 c , 53 a , 53 b , 53 c allow the fuel starter to be ignited, such as by inserting the match through one of the openings 52 a , 52 b , 52 c , 53 a , 53 b , 53 c . The openings 52 a , 52 b , 52 c , 53 a , 53 b , 53 c also enhance ignition of the fuel by allowing an air flow to the fuel. [0084] In an embodiment of the present invention, the handle 56 includes an insulated section 56 a such as a section made of wood, to prevent burning of the user during handling of the grill 51 following the lighting of the fuel. [0085] [0085]FIG. 12 is a view of the device of FIGS. 11A and 11B in a folded configuration for carrying, storage, and other handling in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. As shown in FIG. 12, the folded device 51 has a closed and overlapping side 52 and a handle 56 pivotably moved to the end of the side 52 , allowing, for example, reduced storage size and easy carrying and handling. In an embodiment of the present invention, the device includes latching or other features for biasedly maintaining the device 51 in the folded configuration shown in FIG. 12. [0086] [0086]FIG. 13A presents a view of the device 51 of FIGS. 11A and 11B in a fully unfolded position with each of the sides 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 extended. As shown in the embodiment of FIG. 13A, the sides 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 include openings 52 a , 52 b , 52 c , 53 a , 53 b , 53 c , 54 a , 54 b , 54 c , 55 a , 55 b , 55 c , respectively. FIG. 13B shows the reverse side of the embodiment of FIG. 13 A, with rack 60 and attached leg 60 a extended from side 55 . FIG. 13C is an embodiment of the device 51 , in which angled slots 52 d , 52 e , 52 f , 53 d , 53 e , 53 f , 54 d , 54 e , 54 f , 55 d , 55 e , 55 f are provided is sides 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 for lighting and air flow, rather than round openings. [0087] [0087]FIG. 14 shows the embodiment of FIGS. 11A and 11B with the rack 60 and attached leg 60 a shown in the released position, occurring, for example, following the release of fuel after lighting. In the position shown in FIG. 11A, the attached leg 60 a supports the rack 60 in a position generally perpendicular to sides 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , with the device 51 resting on the ends of the sides 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , at the lower end of the device 51 , as shown in FIG. 11 A. During lighting, fuel, such as charcoal, is placed above the rack 60 , as shown in FIG. 11A. To reach the position shown in FIG. 14, the device 51 is lifted by the handle 56 , and the rack 60 pivots to the position shown in FIG. 14, such that the rack 60 is generally approximately parallel with side 53 . Attached leg 60 , also pivots, such that it extends downward, as shown in FIG. 4. The pivoting of the rack 60 and attached leg 60 a results in release of the fuel from the lower end of the device 51 , as shown in FIG. 14. [0088] [0088]FIG. 15 presents a reconfigurable lighting device modification to an existing grill in accordance with a fourth embodiment of the present invention. The lighting device 71 shown in FIG. 15 includes an initiator holding tray portion 80 having openings 80 a to facilitate lighting of and airflow to fuel initiator contained in the initiator holding tray portion 80 . In one embodiment, the initiator holding tray portion is attachable and detachable to an existing grill device 71 , which includes, for example, sides 72 , 73 , 75 , 76 , and legs 77 a , 77 b. [0089] [0089]FIG. 16 shows the reconfigurable lighting device modification to an existing grill in accordance with the embodiment of FIG. 15, but with a grill surface 78 placed atop the grill device 71 . This arrangement is useful for cooking food, for example, following lighting of fuel within the grill device 71 . [0090] [0090]FIGS. 17 and 18 present overhead views of configurations of the fuel lighting components of the device of FIGS. 15 and 16. As shown in FIGS. 17 and 18, these lighting components further include a rack top trap door 81 , and a two piece fuel containment portion 82 , 83 . The two piece fuel containment portion 82 , 83 includes two doors 82 , 83 pivotably connected by, for example, a hinge 86 , that are arrangeable within the existing grill sides 72 , 73 so as to form a containment area above the initiator holding tray 80 , as viewed in FIG. 15. In use, fuel initiator is placed within the initiator holding tray portion 80 , as shown in FIG. 15, which includes openings 80 a for allowing lighting of the initiator and air flow to the initiator. The trap door rack top 81 for the initiator holding tray 80 is placed or pivotably moved via, for example, one or more hinges 84 , so as to cover the initiator holding tray portion 80 , and the pivotably connected doors 82 , 83 are arranged and connected to at least one existing grill side 73 so as to form a fuel containment area within a corner of the existing grill 71 . [0091] In one embodiment, at least one pivotably connected door 83 is connected to the existing grill sides using at least one locator pin 87 , as further shown in the closeup perspective view of FIG. 19. Fuel, such as charcoal, is then placed in the fuel containment area, and the initiator is ignited, such that the fuel is able to light. Upon lighting of the fuel, the pivotably connected doors are repositioned, so that the lit fuel is dispersed within the existing grill and grilling can begin. [0092] In one embodiment, the existing grill 71 is altered for use with the second embodiment of the lighting device of the present invention. In this embodiment, an opening is made, such as by cutting, in one comer area of the bottom 79 of the existing grill 71 . The initiator holding tray portion 80 is then attachably suspended from the existing grill 71 , as shown in FIG. 15. In one embodiment, the initiator holding tray portion 80 is detachable, to allow, for example, more compact storage of the altered existing grill device 71 . [0093] In one embodiment, the two pivotably connected doors 82 , 83 are connected to the existing grill bottom 79 by a second pivotable connection 85 , such as one or more hinges, via one of the two doors 82 . In this embodiment, the pivotably connected doors 82 , 83 are moveable between two positions. In a first position, as shown in FIGS. 18 and 19, the two doors 82 , 83 are pivoted so as to be perpendicular to the bottom 79 of the existing grill 71 . A first door 82 is pivotably attached to the bottom 79 , and the second door 83 is pivotably attached to the first door 82 by, for example, one or more hinges 86 . The second door 83 is pivoted relative to the first door 82 , so that the two doors 82 , 83 are positioned at an approximately right angle to one another. The second door 83 is attached to a side 73 of the existing grill 71 , and the two connected doors 82 , 83 in conjunction with portions of two adjacent sides 72 , 73 of the existing grill 71 form a generally square cross sectional containment subportion of the grill area in one corner of the existing grill bottom 79 . In a second position, as shown in FIG. 17, the first and second doors 82 , 83 are coplanar, parallel to the grill bottom 79 , and adjacent the grill bottom 79 ; thus, the two doors 82 , 83 rest on top of the grill bottom 79 and adjacent one another in this position. [0094] Example embodiments of the present invention have now been described in accordance with the above advantages. It will be appreciated that these examples are merely illustrative of the invention. Many variations and modifications will be apparent to those skilled in the art.

A self-contained, easily foldable and reconfigurable charcoal lighting and/or grill device. In some variations, the lighting and/or grill device is arrangeable into multiple configurations: 1) in which the device has a thin profile for easy carrying and storage; 2) in which the device facilitates fuel lighting by forming an enclosure; and 3) for the combination charcoal and grill device only, in which the device has a generally U-shaped profile, with extended legs and one or more side handles for grilling foods. Another variation of the device includes an ignition enhancer housing that is suspendably attached to an existing grill. A rack is positioned above the housing, and one or more doors are used in conjunction with the existing grill sides to form an enclosure to enhance lighting of fuel. Upon lighting, the one or more doors are rearrangeable such that the grill may be used normally.

BACKGROUND This invention relates to reducing energy loss and noise in power converters. As shown in FIGS. 1 and 2 , in a typical PWM non-isolated DC-to-DC shunt boost converter 20 operated in a discontinuous mode, for example, power is processed in each of a succession of power conversion cycles 10 . During a power delivery period 12 of each power conversion cycle 10 , while a switch 22 is open, power received at an input voltage Vin from a unipolar input voltage source 26 is passed forward as a current that flows from an input inductor 21 through a diode 24 to a unipolar load (not shown) at a voltage Vout. Vout is higher than the input voltage, Vin. FIGS. 2A and 2B show waveforms for an ideal converter in which there are no parasitic capacitances or inductances and in which the diode 24 has zero reverse recovery time. During the power delivery period 12 , the current in the inductor falls linearly and reaches a value of zero at time tcross. At tcross, the ideal diode immediately switches off, preventing current from flowing back from the load towards the input source, and the current in the inductor remains at zero until the switch 22 is closed again at the next time ts 1 off. Thus, no energy is stored in the inductor 21 between times tcross and ts 1 on. During another, shunt period 14 of each cycle, while switch 22 is closed, the voltage at the left side of the diode (node 23 ) is grounded, and no current flows in the diode. Instead, a shunt current (Is) is conducted from the source 26 into the inductor 21 via the closed switch 22 . In a circuit with ideal components, the current in the inductor would begin at zero and rise linearly to time ts 1 off, when switch 22 is turned off to start another power delivery period 12 . In a non-ideal converter, in which there are parasitic circuit capacitances and the diode is non-ideal (e.g., for a bipolar diode there will be a reverse recovery period and for a Schottky diode there will be diode capacitance), an oscillatory ringing will occur after tcross. In one example, waveforms for a non-ideal converter of the kind shown in FIG. 1 are shown in FIGS. 2C and 2D . Because of the reverse recovery characteristic of the diode, the diode does not block reverse current flow at time tcross. Instead, current flows in the reverse direction through the diode 24 and back into the inductor 21 during a period 18 . At time tdoff, the diode snaps fully off and the flow of reverse current in the diode goes to zero. Because of the reverse flow of current in the diode during the diode recovery period, energy has been stored in the inductor as of the off time tdoff (the “recovery energy”). In addition, parasitic circuit capacitances (e.g., the parasitic capacitances of the switch 22 , the diode 24 , and the inductor 24 , not shown) also store energy as of time tdoff (e.g., the parasitic capacitance of switch 22 will be charged to a voltage approximately equal to Vout). After time tdoff, energy is exchanged between the inductor and parasitic capacitances in the circuit. As shown in FIGS. 2C and 2D , the energy exchange causes oscillatory ringing noise in the circuit. Furthermore, the presence of oscillatory current will generally result in energy being dissipated wastefully in the circuit at the start of the next shunt period when the switch is closed at time ts 1 on. The energy loss can amount to several percent of the total energy processed during a cycle. SUMMARY In general, in one aspect, the invention features apparatus that includes (a) switching power conversion circuitry including an inductive element connected to deliver energy via a unidirectional conducting device from an input source to a load during a succession of power conversion cycles, and circuit capacitance that can resonate with the inductive element during a portion of the power conversion cycles to cause a parasitic oscillation, and (b) clamp circuitry connected to trap energy in the inductive element and reduce the parasitic oscillation. Implementations of the invention may include one or more of the following. The power conversion circuitry comprises a unipolar, non-isolated boost converter comprising a shunt switch. The power conversion circuitry is operated in a discontinuous mode. The clamp circuitry is configured to trap the energy in the inductor in a manner that is essentially non-dissipative. The clamp circuitry comprises elements configured to trap the energy by short-circuiting the inductor during a controlled time period. The inductive element comprises a choke or a transformer. The elements comprise a second switch connected effectively in parallel with the inductor. The second switch is connected directly in parallel with the inductor or is inductively coupled in parallel with the inductor. The second switch comprises a field effect transistor in series with a diode. The power conversion circuitry comprises a unipolar, non-isolated boost converter comprising a shunt switch and a switch controller, the switch controller being configured to control the timing of a power delivery period during which the shunt switch is open and a shunt period during which the shunt switch is closed. The shunt switch is controlled to cause the power conversion to occur in a discontinuous mode. The second switch is opened for a period before the shunt switch is closed in order to discharge parasitic capacitances in the apparatus. The power conversion circuitry comprises at least one of a unipolar, isolated, single-ended forward converter, a buck converter, a flyback converter, a zero-current switching converter, a PWM converter, a bipolar, non-isolated, boost converter, a bipolar, non-isolated boost converter, a bipolar, non-isolated buck converter, a bipolar, isolated boost converter, or a bipolar, isolated buck converter. In general, in another aspect, the invention features, a method that reduces parasitic oscillations by trapping energy in the inductive element during a portion of the power conversion cycles. Implementations of the invention include releasing the energy from the inductor essentially non-dissipatively. The energy is trapped by short-circuiting the inductive element during a controlled time period. The short-circuiting is done by a second switch connected effectively in parallel with the inductive element. The second switch is opened for a portion of the power conversion cycle in order to discharge parasitic capacitances. The invention reduces undesirable ringing noise generated in a power converted by oscillatory transfer of energy between inductive and capacitive elements in the converter and recycles this energy to reduce or eliminate the dissipative loss of energy associated with turn-on of a switching element in the converter. Other advantages and features will become apparent from the following description and from the claims. DESCRIPTION FIG. 1 shows a power conversion circuit. FIGS. 2A-2D shows timing diagrams. FIGS. 3 , 5 and 6 show power conversion circuits with recovery switches. FIG. 4 shows a timing diagram. FIG. 7 shows a PWM, unipolar, isolated buck converter comprising a clamp circuit. FIGS. 8A and 8B show waveforms for the converter of FIG. 7 . FIGS. 9A , 9 B, 9 C, and 9 D show isolated, single-ended converters which comprise a clamp circuit. With reference to FIGS. 1 , 2 C and 2 D, at time tdoff the parasitic capacitance across the switch 22 is charged to a voltage (approximately equal to Vout) which is greater than Vin and a current flows in L 1 owing to the reverse recovery of the diode 24 . After tdoff, with the switch 22 open and the diode non-conductive, energy stored in the resonant circuit formed by the circuit parasitic capacitances and inductor L 1 causes oscillatory ringing in Iin and Vs. This oscillation (referred to herein as “parasitic oscillation” or simply “noise”) is unrelated to the power conversion process, and may require that noise filtering components be added to the converter (not shown). In addition, closure of the switch 22 after tdoff will result in a wasteful loss of some or all of this energy (“switching loss”). By providing mechanisms for clamping the circuit voltages, the noise can be reduced or eliminated, and the stored energy can be trapped in an inductor and then released essentially losslessly back to the circuit. Generally, the capturing and later release of the energy is achieved by effectively shorting and then un-shorting the two ends of an inductor at controlled times. As shown in FIG. 3 , in one implementation, a unipolar, non-isolated, discontinuous boost converter circuit 28 includes a series circuit, comprising a recovery switch Rs 30 and a diode 32 , that is connected across the ends of the inductor 34 , and a controller 36 that regulates the on and off periods of both the recovery switch 30 and the shunt switch 22 . The recovery switch 30 is turned on and off in the following cycle. The switch may be turned on any time during the power delivery period 12 when the voltage across the inductor, VB (FIG. 3 ), is negative, because this will result in diode 32 being reverse biased. During the reverse recovery period, the diode 32 prevents the current that is flowing backward from the diode 38 from flowing in recovery switch 30 . Instead, the reverse recovery energy is stored in the inductor. After the diode snaps off, the energy stored in circuit parasitic capacitances will be exchanged with the inductor and the voltage, Vs, across shunt switch 22 will ring down. When the input voltage Vs rings down to the input voltage, Vin, the voltage VB will equal zero, the recovery diode 32 will conduct and the recovery switch 30 and the diode 32 will short the ends of the inductor 34 . In that state, the inductor 34 cannot exchange energy with any other circuit components. Therefore, the energy is “trapped” in the inductor and ringing in the main circuit is essentially eliminated. Later, prior to the shunt switch being closed to start the shunt period, the recovery switch is opened. Because the current trapped in the inductor flows in the direction back toward the input source, opening the recovery switch 30 will result in an essentially lossless charging and discharging of parasitic circuit capacitances and a reduction in the voltage, Vs, across the shunt switch. By providing for a reduction in shunt switch voltage, Vs, the loss in the shunt switch associated with discharging of parasitics (“turn-on loss”) can be reduced or, in certain cases, essentially eliminated. As shown in FIG. 4 , the delay between the opening of the recovery switch 30 and the closing of the shunt switch 22 may be adjusted so that the closure of the shunt switch corresponds in time to approximately the time of occurrence of the first minimum in the voltage Vs following the opening of the recovery switch at time trsoff (the dashed line in the Figure shows how the voltage Vs would continue to oscillate after ts 1 on if the shunt switch 22 were not turned on at that time). In case where the voltage rings all the way down to zero (not shown in the Figure) the turn-on loss in the shunt switch can be essentially eliminated. Since capacitance energy is proportional to the square of the voltage, however, any amount of voltage reduction is important. As shown in FIG. 5 , in another approach, instead of wiring the recovery switch and diode directly across the inductor, a recovery switch 50 and a diode 52 are connected in series with a secondary winding 54 that is transformer-coupled to the inductor. The series circuit is connected to the ground side of the circuit for convenience in controlling the switch. The control switch may be implemented as a MOSFET in series with a diode. Turn-on losses will occur as a result of the body capacitor of the switch 50 , but they are relatively small because the switch die is relatively small. As shown in FIG. 6 , in another implementation, a bipolar discontinuous boost converter 60 operating from a bipolar input source, Vac, uses the transformer-coupled switching technique of FIG. 5 , but includes two recovery switches 62 , 64 connected to respective ends of the winding 66 . One of the recovery switches is always on for one polarity of input source Vac, and the other recovery switch is turned on and off using the same strategy as in FIG. 5 . The scenario is reversed when the polarity of the input source reverses. Care must be taken not to have the shunt switch and the recovery switch on at the same time, which would short-circuit the source. The energy-trapping technique may be applied to any power converter, isolated or non-isolated, PWM or resonant, in which energy storage in inductive and capacitive circuit elements results in parasitic oscillations within the converter. FIG. 7 , for example, shows a PWM, unipolar, isolated buck converter 70 comprising a clamp circuit 76 . In such a converter, the voltage delivered by the input source 72 , Vin, is higher than the DC output voltage, Vout, delivered to the load 81 . In a first part of a converter operating cycle, the switch 74 is closed and energy is delivered to the load from the input source 72 via the output inductor 82 . In a second part of a converter operating cycle, the switch is open and energy stored in the inductor 82 flows as output current, Io, to the load via the diode 75 . For load values above some lower limit, the output current, Io, flows continuously in the output inductor Lout 82 . Below that lower limit, however, the instantaneous current in the output inductor 82 drops to zero and attempts to reverse. Under these circumstances the diode will block and, in the absence of the clamp circuit 76 , an oscillation will begin as energy is transferred back and forth between the inductor 82 and circuit parasitic capacitances (e.g., the parasitic capacitances of the switch 74 , the diode 75 , the inductor 82 and the clamp circuit 76 , not shown). Waveforms for the converter of FIG. 7 , with the clamp circuit, are shown in FIGS. 8A and 8B . In FIGS. 8A and 8B , the switch 74 is on at time t=0, the voltage VD is approximately equal to Vin, and the current Io is increasing owing to the polarity of the voltage impressed across Lout. At time tsoff, switch 74 turns off and the voltage VD drops to essentially zero volts as the parasitic capacitances across the diode 75 are discharged and the diode conducts. The clamp switch 78 may be turned on any time after the voltage VD drops below Vout. At time tcross the current Io declines to zero and attempts to reverse. After the diode 75 ceases conducting, the voltage VD rings up until the clamp diode 80 begins to conduct at time tc, when the voltage VD is approximately equal to Vout. Between times tc and tcoff the clamp circuit clamps the inductor and prevents parasitic oscillations. At time tcoff, the clamp switch is opened and the voltage VD rings up toward Vin. At time tson the switch 74 is closed, initiating another converter operating cycle. A switch controller 77 controls the relative timing of the two switches 74 , 78 . As for the timing discussed in FIG. 4 , the delay between the opening of the clamp switch 78 and the closing of the switch 74 is adjusted so that the closure of switch 74 corresponds in time to approximately the time of occurrence of the first maximum in the voltage Vs following the opening of the clamp switch 78 . This minimizes or eliminates the switching loss associated with closure of switch 74 . The transformer coupled clamp circuit of FIG. 5 may be used in the converter of FIG. 7 . Other embodiments are within the scope of the following claims. For example, the technique may be applied to any switching power converter in which there is a time period during which undesired oscillations occur as a result of energy being transferred back and forth between unclamped inductive and capacitive energy storing elements. For example, FIGS. 9A through 9D show isolated, single-ended converters which comprise a clamp circuit 76 according to the invention. FIG. 9A is a unipolar, single-ended, forward PWM converter; FIG. 9B is a unipolar, single-ended, zero-current switching forward converter (as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,415,959, incorporated by reference); FIG. 9C is a unipolar, single-ended, flyback converter with a clamp circuit 76 connected to the primary winding 105 of the flyback transformer; and FIG. 9D is a unipolar, single-ended, flyback converter with a clamp circuit 76 connected to the secondary winding 104 of the flyback transformer. The clamp circuit may be modified to be of the magnetically coupled kind shown in FIG. 5 , above. Other topologies to which the technique may be applied include resonant and quasi-resonant non-isolated, boost, buck and buck-boost converters. By use of bipolar clamp circuitry of FIG. 6 , or equivalent circuitry, the technique may be applied to bipolar equivalents of unipolar PWM, resonant and quasi-resonant non-isolated, boost, buck and buck-boost converters.

An apparatus includes (a) switching power conversion circuitry including an inductive element connected to deliver energy via a unidirectional conducting device from an input source to a load during a succession of power conversion cycles, and circuit capacitance that can resonate with the inductive element during a portion of the power conversion cycles to cause a parasitic oscillation, and (b) clamp circuitry connected to trap energy in the inductive element and reduce the parasitic oscillation.

RELATED APPLICATIONS This patent application claims benefit and priority to, under 35 U.S.C. 120, and is a continuation of United States Patent Application entitled “A Method and System for Generating a Linear Machine Learning Model for Predicting Online User Input Actions”, having Ser. No. 13/018,303 and filed on Jan. 31, 2011, which is a continuation of United States Patent Application entitled “Granular Data for Behavioral Targeting Using Predictive Models” having Ser. No. 11/770,413 and filed on Jun. 28, 2007 and issued as U.S. Pat. No. 7,921,069, all of which are expressly incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed towards the field of targeting, and more particularly toward granular data for behavioral targeting. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The Internet provides a mechanism for merchants to offer a vast amount of products and services to consumers. Internet portals provide users an entrance and guide into the vast resources of the Internet. Typically, an Internet portal provides a range of search, email, news, shopping, chat, maps, finance, entertainment, and other Internet services and content. Yahoo, the assignee of the present invention, is an example of such an Internet portal. When a user visits certain locations on the Internet (e.g., web sites), including an Internet portal, the user enters information in the form of online activity. This information may be recorded and analyzed to determine behavioral patterns and interests of the user. In turn, these behavioral patterns and interests may be used to target the user to provide a more meaningful and rich experience on the Internet, such as an Internet portal site. For example, if interests in certain products and services of the user are determined, advertisements, pertaining to those products and services, may be served to the user. A behavior targeting system that serves advertisements benefits both the advertiser, who provides their message to a target audience, and a user that receives advertisements in areas of interest to the user. Currently, advertising through computer networks such as the Internet is widely used along with advertising through other mediums, such as television, radio, or print. In particular, online advertising through the Internet provides a mechanism for merchants to offer advertisements for a vast amount of products and services to online users. In terms of marketing strategy, different online advertisements have different objectives depending on the user toward whom an advertisement is targeted. Often, an advertiser will carry out an advertising campaign where a series of one or more advertisements are continually distributed over the Internet over a predetermined period of time. Advertisements in an advertising campaign are typically branding advertisements but may also include direct response or purchasing advertisements. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION A method of targeting receives several granular events and preprocesses the received granular events thereby generating preprocessed data to facilitate construction of a model based on the granular events. The method generates a predictive model by using the preprocessed data. The predictive model is for determining a likelihood of a user action. The method trains the predictive model. A system for targeting includes granular events, a preprocessor for receiving the granular events, a model generator, and a model. The preprocessor has one or more modules for at least one of pruning, aggregation, clustering, and/or filtering. The model generator is for constructing a model based on the granular events, and the model for determining a likelihood of a user action. The system of some embodiments further includes several users, a selector for selecting a particular set of users from among the several users, a trained model, and a scoring module. The trained model is for receiving the users and providing a metric that indicates a relationship of each user to the user action. The scoring module is for organizing a set of metrics associated with each user in the set of users. Hence, some embodiments select a user from among several users, apply the predictive model to the selected user, and score the user by using the predictive model. By using the scoring, users are conveniently ranked in relation to other users to generate a set of ranked users. From the ranked set of users, a subset of ranked users is advantageously identified for various uses, such as for additional targeting steps. In a particular embodiment, the preprocessing includes clustering by data type. The data type preferably includes at least one of: search, search-click, sponsored search-click, page view, advertisement view, and ad-click. The clustering preserves information about a predicted target, and typically involves an automated process. Alternatively, or in conjunction with the clustering, the preprocessing further selectively includes pruning, aggregating, and/or filtering the received granular events, prior to the modeling. Some implementations classify the user action into one or more classes that form a distribution based on the received granular events. For instance, some implementations classify into a binary distribution. Preferably, the granular event is one or more of: viewing a web page, clicking on a link in the page, clicking on an advertisement in the page, issuing a search query, such as by using a search engine, filling out a form, posting, rating a page, rating a product, and/or performing a transaction. When the granular events involve searches, for instance, embodiments of the invention track a number of clicks on one or more of the search result(s). When the granular events include page views, a number of page views is counted, for each page in a set of pages. Some embodiments use the predictive model to predict, for a predetermined period of time, the number of user ad clicks and/or ad views. The predictive model uses one or more of a support vector machine, a Bayesian type machine, a maximum entropy network, a logistic regression machine, and a linear regression model. Preferably, the predictive model has a weight for each granular event that is determined by training. A particular embodiment uses a Poisson type model with a parameter that has a linear combination of granular event counts. The event counts are typically stored and/or retrieved from a behavioral history. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The novel features of the invention are set forth in the appended claims. However, for purpose of explanation, several embodiments of the invention are set forth in the following figures. FIG. 1 illustrates a generalized behavioral targeting system. FIG. 2 is a process of predictive model generation and training. FIG. 3 is a process of scoring and/or ranking. FIG. 4 illustrates a system for model generation. FIG. 5 illustrates a system for scoring. FIG. 6 illustrates a clustering performed by some embodiments. FIG. 7 illustrates a network environment, in accordance with some embodiments. FIG. 8 illustrates a targeting system according to embodiments of the invention. FIG. 9 illustrates a table including a list of non-limiting example categories according to embodiments of the instant disclosure. DETAILED DESCRIPTION In the following description, numerous details are set forth for purpose of explanation. However, one of ordinary skill in the art will realize that the invention may be practiced without the use of these specific details. In other instances, well-known structures and devices are shown in block diagram form in order not to obscure the description of the invention with unnecessary detail. In general, Behavioral Targeting (BT) as applied to the Internet refers to the targeting of activities, such as advertisements, to users based on online behavioral history. Embodiments of the invention focus on behavioral data comprising many user activities or events tracked across a network of web sites and logged by various web servers. Activities pertaining to a user include all, but are not limited to: viewing a web page, clicking on a link in the page, clicking on an advertisement in the page, issuing a search query such as by using a search engine, filling out a form, posting a piece of text, rating a page and/or a product, and executing a transaction, for example. Each of these activities is referred to herein as a granular event and typically, there are millions of such granular events of user behavior during a given period of time. Behavioral Targeting models are predictive models that are built for the purpose of identifying and/or ranking a target set of users for presentation with a particular advertisement or set of ads. These behavioral targeting models utilize automatically learned user behavioral-patterns from historical user data to predict future event responses. Some event responses that are desirably predicted include future ad clicks, page views, and/or advertiser conversions. Due to the huge volume, high dimensionality, and the sparseness of behavioral data, granular events are conventionally grouped into specific business categories. The business categories are often within a predefined taxonomy and predictive models are then built on this category-aggregated data. An example of a categorized event includes performing one of the granular events described above in relation to a particular category, such as viewing a page within the category “Automobiles,” for example. Another example of a categorized event includes issuing a search query in the category “Finance/Mortgage.” Other additional categorized events may be used without deviating from the spirit or scope of the invention. The number of such categories is much smaller than the total number of different possible events. Hence, the categories simplify the management and/or tabulation of events within each category. However, one drawback of the categorization approach is that important information is lost during the categorization process. For example, the grouping of events into arbitrary business categories necessarily compacts several individual events into larger category-level events, which results in a loss of data resolution. Since the design of the categories themselves involves grouping that is often business-driven rather than problem-driven, there is an even greater likelihood for a loss of information. Furthermore, the categorization must often be carried out in an automated manner in which case there is a risk of an incorrect categorization or of no category at all, which undesirably results in a low or no confidence categorization. An additional drawback is that it is difficult to include new event types into the categorization scheme since an appropriate categorization methodology must be adapted for every new data stream, which is often difficult and time-consuming. In view of the foregoing, embodiments of the invention include a methodology for building predictive behavioral targeting models. The models are for identifying and/or ranking a target set of users for a target objective, such as presentation of a particular advertisement, or subset of advertisements. Preferably, the models are based on granular events. Advantageously, the models generated by using granular events do not utilize any predefined set of business categories for the grouping of such events. Particular embodiments build models directly from the granular events, or alternatively, sets of granular events are first grouped and then the models are built from the grouped granular events, or are built by using a combination of granular events and groups. Some embodiments automatically group granular events in a problem-driven manner and/or by using knowledge learned from historical data. Preferably, these embodiments are not dependent on the availability of a predefined set of business categories or on procedures for mapping every event type into any particular category set. Moreover, these embodiments are generally applicable for the prediction of any type of event using historical behavioral data such as, for instance, predicting advertising related events such as advertisement targeting. Formulation and Implementation As mentioned above, the goal of behavioral targeting is to identify and/or rank a target set of users for a target objective, such as presentation of a particular advertisement or a subset of advertisements. The problem of behavioral targeting is divided or re-formulated in different ways. One useful formulation is to characterize a relationship between a multitude of granular events and a desirable result. The relationship is typically expressed by using one or more models. One particularly useful desirable result to model relates to the granular event of advertisement clicking. More specifically, this particular formulation seeks to predict the click propensity of a user for an advertisement or set of advertisements given one or more users' event history. Additional factors are optionally included such as, for example, a user's click propensity is measured over a specific period of time. Similarly, the event history data is collected over a selected period of time. For instance, in an implementation of the specific desirable result of ad clicking, P (U,A) designates the click propensity of a user U for a given advertisement or group of advertisements A. In this implementation, A is a set of parameters associated with some parametric predictive model, f. Hence, conveniently, the click propensity P (U,A) expresses a function of U, A, and A: ⁢ where U is represented by the set of granular events associated with the user, A is an identifier for an advertisement or an ad group, and f(.) is a mapping function. The set of parameters A is estimated from historical data by optimizing an appropriate criterion. One of ordinary skill recognizes that the foregoing illustrates a specific implementation relating to click propensity for a particular advertisement, and that the formulation of P (U,A) alternatively represents the relationship of the user U to a variety of desirable results. Further, given the huge number of granular events that include, for example, views, accesses, and/or downloads of millions of web pages, tens of millions of search queries and/or keywords, and millions of advertisements, some embodiments perform particular advantageous steps. For instance, particular embodiments preprocess the many granular events to generate a limited number of features that are used for a modeling phase. Some of these embodiments then employ an efficient modeling technique for which both learning the parameters from a large amount of historical data and scoring new users is optimized. In these implementations, both model training and user scoring preferably scales linearly with the number of training examples as well as with the number of input features. Some embodiments include implementations that incorporate one or more of three components: (1) preprocessing of granular events, (2) modeling, learning model parameters, and/or training, and (3) scoring and/or ranking users based on the learned or trained models. Some of these method implementations are further described below, with reference, where appropriate, to the ad click propensity example given above. Accordingly, FIG. 2 illustrates a process 200 of model generation and/or training. As shown in this figure, the process 200 begins at the step 210 , where data are collected and/or received. Preferably the data comprise many granular events as described above. Once the data are collected at the step 210 , the process 200 transitions to the step 220 , where preprocessing is performed. Due to the volume of granular events that occur, the preprocessing of some implementations is critical for efficient and/or practical application. Preprocessing of Granular Events More specifically, embodiments of the invention advantageously perform one or more of the following preprocessing steps to reduce the number of features prior to the modeling phase: (1) pruning of sparse granular events, (2) aggregating of events over time, and/or (3) clustering. (1) Pruning of sparse granular events. To reduce the number of events to be modeled, some implementations advantageously prune “noise” or events that occur across fewer than m users, where m is advantageously user-defined, pre-defined and/or selected. (2) Aggregating over time. Particular embodiments advantageously keep one total count for each event over a predetermined training time period. The total count is optionally a time-weighted aggregate, which permits down-weighting, or reduced weight values for certain events such as older or stale events, for example. (3) Clustering of granular events. Preferably, for each type of event, events are clustered into an advantageous number of groups k based on the event's information content for target prediction. The information that an event E has about the target is advantageously captured by the empirical target distribution from all users who had the event E. In relation to clustering, an example of an event E, is issuing a search query having search terms such as the terms “digital camera.” An example of the event information content includes the number of clicks on an advertising category such as the category “Finance.” A sample empirical target distribution for this example then has a set of distribution values such as, 50% for no clicks, 30% for one click, 10% for two clicks, and 10% for four clicks. One of ordinary skill realizes that these values are used herein for the purpose of illustration only, and further recognizes additional distribution values. Preferably, the distance between two of such distributions is measured by KL (Kullback-Leibler) divergence. Clustering events in this way tends to preserve the predictive information about the target that is associated with the event. The parameter k is advantageously user-defined, predefined, and/or selected. After clustering, each cluster generates one input feature that is aggregated over all granular events in the cluster. In addition to dimensionality reduction, there are other advantages for clustering granular events. For instance, new events are advantageously assigned to existing clusters. Moreover, clusters are optionally updated automatically and/or incrementally. Hence, these implementations cluster granular events in an information-preserving manner. Some embodiments perform additional preprocessing functions at the step 220 , alternatively or in conjunction with the pruning, aggregating, and/or clustering functions described above. For instance, additional filtering is optionally performed to further preprocess the granular event data into preprocessed data that are more suitable to modeling. Once preprocessing is performed at the step 220 , one or more models are constructed at the step 230 . As mentioned above, the preprocessing phase preferably further facilitates the model building at the step 230 . Particular instances of model generation are further described below. For instance, the example below illustrates the construction of a particular model in relation to a selected type of granular event. More specifically, the following example describes modeling click propensity by using generalized linear models. Hence, in the present example, after preprocessing at the step 220 , each user U is represented by a set of input features {x} whose cardinality is smaller than before preprocessing, but is still quite large. A natural and efficient approach for handling high dimensional data is to use generalized linear models, where the model parameters are linear combinations of the input features. Two modeling approaches are then available, in this example. The first approach is to formulate the problem as a classification problem. In the classification problem, some implementations learn a linear model. The linear model of some of these implementations is then advantageously employed to distinguish a set of users based on predicted behavior, such as to distinguish clickers from non-clickers, for instance. In this instance, the target is binary, and represented by two click-classes, one class for clickers and another class for non-clickers. The target is then learned by applying any standard linear machine-learning model to the historical data, or stated differently, by training. As recognized by one of ordinary skill, linear learning machines include Support Vector Machines (SVM), Naïve Bayes machines, Maximum Entropy, logistic regression, and/or linear regression models. For the support vector machines, the logistic regression and the linear regression models, the parameters are typically a set of linear weights (w (x,A) ), one for each individual input feature x and each advertisement, or ad group A. For Naïve Bayes and Maximum Entropy models, there are typically two sets of probability weights for each advertisement, or ad group A: { P ( x|A ,clicker)} and { P ( x|A ,non-clicker)}. Preferably, each set of probability weights is learned with maximum likelihood and maximum entropy principles, respectively. The second modeling approach is to learn a linear model for either the click-through rate (CTR) or for the number of ad clicks directly. Ad click propensity is often measured by click through rate (=number-of-ad-clicks/number-of-ad-views), which is a ratio and thus not linear in the input features. For instance, a user who views more pages does not necessarily have a higher click through rate. For this reason, the number-of-ad-clicks and the number-of-ad-views are advantageously modeled separately. Further, separately, each of these is more reasonably modeled as a linear combination of input features. Accordingly, some implementations use a generalized linear model with a Poisson distribution for the number-of-ad-clicks quantity. Thus, the probability of seeing n clicks for a certain advertisement, or ad group, A from the user U is defined as: P ⁡ ( n | U , A , Λ ) = λ ( U , A ) n ⁢ e - λ ( U , A ) n ! , where λ ( U , A ) = ∑ x ∈ U ⁢ w ( x , A ) ⁢ x is the expectation, or mean, of the distribution for the user U as represented by input features {x}, and the advertisement, or ad group, A. The weights {w (x,A) } are the set of actual model parameters to be estimated from historical data and are preferably estimated by using a maximum likelihood approach: max { w ( x , A ) } ⁢ ∏ U ⁢ P ⁡ ( n | U , A , Λ ) . The number-of-ad-views is optionally modeled in the same way, or calculated based on history directly, such as, for example, as a recency-weighted average of the number-of-ad-views in the past/days, where/is preferably predetermined and/or selected by empirical data. Next, regardless of the particular model constructed at the step 230 , the model is preferably trained at the step 240 . For those models that employ a system of weights, training preferably results in tuning the weighting to optimize the performance of the model. Then, after the step 240 , the process 200 concludes. In specific cases, predictive modeling is implemented based on clicks of a link and/or views of a page, for which clicks and/or views it is desirable to make determinations. For instance, some implementations binary-ize the data and/or target into 1 and 0. For the case where the determination is for clickers versus nonclickers, binary 1 is arbitrarily assigned to clicker, and 0 is assigned to nonclicker. The model construction described above typically includes a training phase, while the constructed model is preferably used for a separate scoring phase. The classification to separate the clickers is preferably established at the training stage. Also preferably, separate models are constructed for different data types. For instance, one model and/or type of model is constructed to predict how many clicks a user is expected to generate. Another model is constructed to model and/or predict how many views a user is expected to generate for a specific advertisement or ad group. Scoring/Ranking Users Once a behavioral targeting model is constructed and/or trained by using the various means described above, the model is advantageously applied in various ways. FIG. 3 illustrates a process 300 for scoring and/or ranking users. As shown in this figure, the process 300 begins at the step 310 , where one or more users are selected for scoring. At the step 320 a model is applied to the selected user(s). Some embodiments use the trained model of FIG. 2 . Then, the users are scored at the step 330 , by using the model. At the scoring phase, a user is scored over a predetermined time period. In some cases the scoring time period is ongoing, unlimited, and/or infinite. In these cases, time-decayed event counts and/or time-decayed scores are preferably used. Further, the time period can go back to whenever calculation of the time-weighted granular event counts started. In a particular embodiment, such counts are incrementally updated on a daily basis. Some implementations track events by using one count for each type of event such as, for example, number of searches, number of page views, number of ad views, and/or number of ad clicks. These implementations count, track, and/or store a quantity of occurrences for the event. Hence, for searching, these embodiments store a number that represents the number of searches performed on the particular search term. Hence, this type of implementation advantageously collects data at a highly granular level. For example, taking into account one search at the granular level, the number of searches for a specific query term is tracked. The count is preferably recorded for each user over a period of time, such as one month, to provide a set of comparable scores for each of the users. Also at the scoring stage, some implementations output a continuous score that is optionally used to rank users. Some of these implementations further target the top users, based on ranking for additional targeting activities. For instance, when the desirable result or metric includes click through rate (CTR), some embodiments identify and/or select the top 10% or, as another example, the top 1% of users based on click through rates. Typically, there is a tradeoff between targeting users with higher click through rate, and reach, in the number of users targeted. Commercially, it is advantageous to provide targeting selections for both greater click through rate, and/or reach, and to charge for each type of targeting, accordingly. For the case of the binary target given above (1 for clickers and a 0 for non-clickers), some embodiments simply score each user by using one or more learned linear models, and thus as a linear combination of input features. For instance: Score ( U , A ) = ∑ x ∈ U ⁢ w ( x , A ) ⁢ x For Naïve Bayes and Maximum Entropy models, users are instead advantageously scored by using: ∏ x ⁢ P ⁡ ( x | A , clicker ) ∏ x ⁢ P ⁡ ( x | A , nonclicker ) , or for a more practical implementation, by using: ∑ x ⁢ [ log ⁡ ( P ⁡ ( x | A , clicker ) ) - log ⁡ ( P ⁡ ( x | A , nonclicker ) ) ] . For Poisson type models, the ratio between predicted number of ad clicks and number of ad views is preferably used to score each user. Hence, for each user U and each advertisement or ad group A, the predicted click through rate (CTR) is calculated as: CTR _ ⁡ ( U , A ) = λ ( U , A ) ( c ) λ ( U , A ) ( v ) , where the numerator is a prediction for the number of ad clicks and the denominator is a prediction for the number of ad views. For infrequent users, this ratio is often undesirably unstable and inaccurate. Hence, the estimation is preferably enhanced in various embodiments instead to be: CTR _ ⁡ ( U , A ) = λ ( U , A ) ( c ) + λ 0 ( c ) λ ( U , A ) ( v ) + λ 0 ( v ) , where λ 0 (c) and λ 0 (v) are prior counts for clicks and views, respectively. The prior counts are then selected to achieve the best user ranking. Regardless of the particular scoring method and/or formula used for scoring at the step 330 , the score is then used at the step 340 . For instance, some embodiments rank the users in sorted decreasing order and/or identify particular users for additional processing. Then, at the step 350 , it is determined whether the process 300 should continue. If the process 300 should continue, as part of a real time process, for example, then the process 300 returns to the step 310 . Otherwise, the process 300 concludes. FIGS. 4 and 5 illustrate system implementations 400 and 500 , in accordance with the processes 200 and 300 described above. As shown in FIG. 4 , the system 400 includes a number of granular events 402 that are collected and/or stored by the system 400 . Hence, some systems include data storages for the monitoring, collection, storage and/or retrieval of the granular events 402 . As described above, the granular events are typically numerous and include such user activities as viewing a web page, clicking on a link in the page, clicking on an advertisement in the page, issuing a search query, such as by using a search engine, filling out a form, posting, rating a page, rating a product, and/or performing a transaction. The various granular events 402 are received by the preprocessor 404 , which performs one or more of the preprocessing functions described above such as pruning, aggregating, and/or clustering of the data, for example. Some implementations further perform additional filtering functions to preprocess the granular data into preprocessed data for modeling. The preprocessor 404 preferably includes one or more modules 406 and 408 for performing the various tasks. For instance, FIG. 6 conceptually illustrates the clustering performed by some embodiments. In FIG. 6 , a system 600 employs a module 606 to cluster granular event data about particular targets. As described above, the targets are related to a variety of user behaviors such as, for example, searching regarding particular terms, viewing and/or clicking certain web pages, search results, and/or advertisements. Moreover, the clustering preferably occurs without the need and/or independent of categories and/or categorization. Hence, regardless of the specific target, the exemplary clusters 622 and 624 advantageously retain information associated with the clustered granular events. Returning to the more general implementation illustrated by FIG. 4 , the preprocessor 404 outputs, to a model generator 410 , preprocessed data in the form of feature data that is based on the granular events. The model generator 410 is used for the creation of various types of models, as described above. For instance, some model generators 410 include a feature space, for model construction and/or training. Preferably, the system 400 outputs a trained model 412 , for use in scoring one or more users. Such a use is further described in relation to FIG. 5 . FIG. 5 illustrates a system 500 that scores and/or ranks one or more users. As shown in this figure, the system 500 includes one or more users that are selected by a selector 511 for the system 500 . For instance, the selector 511 of a specific implementation selects users based on group membership or demographic information. As with granular events, the users generating the granular events are typically numerous. However, the users preferably each have a unique identifier for tracking. The selector 511 outputs the selected users by using the unique identifiers to a model engine 512 that has one or more constructed and/or trained models. Typically, the model(s) are trained to indicate a relationship to a desired result. Some embodiments employ the model constructed and/or trained by the systems and methods described above. The model engine 512 of some embodiments outputs to a scoring module 514 that preferably tracks scores for several users. Some of these embodiments further rank the scored users in relation to each other to further permit determinations regarding targeting. For instance, in an implementation regarding propensity to click on a certain advertisement, the scoring module 514 identifies higher propensity users for targeting. These users are selectively passed to other components of the system 500 or other systems for further targeting. Use in Conjunction with Targeting System As described above, a behavioral targeting system has application to identify interests and behavior of online users for one or more target objectives. Embodiments of the invention are advantageously incorporated into such a user targeting system. FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating a generalized behavioral targeting system 100 . In general, the behavior targeting system 100 profiles interests and behavior of Internet users based on the user's online activities. As shown in FIG. 1 , user input 110 is captured by behavioral targeting processing 120 . In one embodiment, user input comprises one or more events that are often highly granular and/or numerous. The behavioral targeting processing 120 preferably employs one or more of the implementations described above, and optionally outputs to additional targeting system components. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 1 , the behavioral targeting system 100 outputs to components for direct response advertising 130 , brand awareness advertising 150 , purchase intention activities 180 and/or intra-company business unit marketing 190 . Network Environment FIG. 7 illustrates an embodiment of a network environment 700 for operation of the behavioral targeting system of some embodiments. The network environment 700 includes a client system 720 coupled to a network 730 , such as the Internet, an intranet, an extranet, a virtual private network, a non-TCP/IP based network, any LAN or WAN, or the like, and server systems 740 1 to 740 N . A server system includes a single server computer or, alternatively, a number of server computers. The client system 720 is configured to communicate with any of server systems 740 1 to 740 N , for example, to request and receive base content and additional content, for instance, in the form of a web page. The client system 720 includes a desktop personal computer, workstation, laptop, PDA, cell phone, any wireless application protocol (WAP) enabled device, or any other device capable of communicating directly or indirectly to a network. The client system 720 typically runs a web browsing program that allows a user of the client system 720 to request and receive content from the server systems 740 1 to 740 N over the network 730 . The client system 720 typically includes one or more user interface devices 722 , such as a keyboard, a mouse, a roller ball, a touch screen, a pen or the like, for interacting with a graphical user interface (GUI) of the web browser on a display (e.g., monitor screen, LCD display, etc.). In some embodiments, the client system 720 and/or the system servers 740 1 to 740 N are configured to perform the methods described herein. The methods of some embodiments may be implemented in software or hardware configured to optimize the selection of additional content to be displayed to a user. FIG. 8 shows a conceptual diagram of a targeting system 800 . The targeting system 800 includes a client system 805 , a base content server 810 for containing base content, an additional content server 815 for additional content, a database of user profiles 820 , and behavioral targeting server 835 . The behavioral targeting server 835 comprises an optimizer module 838 that receives event information. The targeting system 800 is configured to select additional content to be sent to a user based on the user's profile. The client system 805 is configured to receive the base and additional content and display the base and additional content to the user (e.g., as a published web page). Various portions of the optimization system may reside in one or more servers such as servers 740 1 to 740 N of FIG. 7 and/or one or more client systems, such as the exemplary client system 720 . The user profile database 820 stores user profiles for a plurality of users/client systems, each user profile having a unique user-identification number assigned for a particular client system 805 used by a user. The user-identification number may be stored, for example, on the client system 805 used by the user. When a user requests content from a base content server 810 , the targeting server 835 selectively uses the user-identification number to retrieve the particular user profile from the user profile database 820 . The targeting system may be implemented in either hardware or software. For the software implementation, the targeting system is software that includes a plurality of computer executable instructions for implementation on a general-purpose computer system. Prior to loading into a general-purpose computer system, the targeting system software may reside as encoded information on a computer readable medium, such as a magnetic floppy disk, magnetic tape, and compact disc read only memory (CD-ROM). Advantages Some of the embodiments described above are relevant to the field of behavioral targeting, which is further described in the U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/394,343, to Joshua Koran, et al., filed 29 Mar. 2006, which is incorporated herein by reference. Particular embodiments advantageously reduce some constraints for the difficult process of modeling. As mentioned above, conventional targeting systems rely heavily upon categorization prior to modeling, which undesirably results in significant information loss. User behavior data tends to be highly granular, having many input features, and typically millions of inputs, and events. In contrast, categorization involves only a few selected categories. Taking one example of a user behavior event in the form of searching, for instance, many search queries simply do not fit neatly into a category. Hence, by some estimates, at least 40% of search queries are not categorized, and thus the information associated with these events is undesirably lost. Table 1 illustrates a list of example categories. Although Table 1, comprises a number of categories, and though many additional categories can be implemented, one of ordinary skill recognizes the disadvantages of limiting granular data within such categories. Accordingly, some embodiments employ an efficient modeling system that handles high dimension inputs such as millions of inputs, for example. These embodiments advantageously preprocess the many granular events, without the need for categorization. One type of preprocessing, applies clustering to the granular features, rather than categorizing the features into a fixed taxonomy. In contrast to fixed categories, the preprocess step of clustering advantageously retains every input feature. Clustering, for example, aggregates search queries based on a target, and/or based on predictive power on the target. Embodiments that apply clustering are capable of ranking users based on a variety of granular user behavior events. For instance, some embodiments identify clickers versus nonclickers, while some embodiments rank users based on numbers of clicks. For the user event of searching, each search using a specific query represents a granular event, and embodiments advantageously measure a distribution on the target of the query, to find similarities in the distribution. Based on the target distribution, certain useful probabilities are determined such as user propensities. In the binary example above, the probabilities of being a clicker and a nonclicker are preferably determined, while in the nonbinary example, the probability of some number of clicks N being exhibited, is preferably determined. In the example of search-clicks given above, clustering is performed for the search data type. However, additional embodiments perform clustering for other data types. For instance, when the data type comprises Internet pages, the granular events of page views are advantageously clustered. Similarly, when the data type comprises online advertisements, advertisement views and/or ad clicks are preferably clustered for the particular advertisement of interest. The foregoing embodiments advantageously preserve and/or maximize predictive power on the target by using clustering. These embodiments have multiple benefits in the form of both incorporating predictive power of behavioral events, and retaining many granular events rather than undesirably discarding events and the potentially useful information associated with the discarded events. Accordingly, alternative embodiments employ models that are based on a user, an advertisement, and/or on a group of advertisements. As sufficient granular event data pertaining to each user are collected, some embodiments further build for each user, a model that closely represents the user's behavior. At the preprocessing stage, some implementations perform other functions, in addition to clustering. For example, some implementations also perform filtering of the numerous granular event data. In the case of searching, for instance, some embodiments will filter searches that are performed less than a threshold, such as fewer than three times in a month, for instance. These low frequency events are preferably filtered before modeling. As users generate various granular events, they are mapped onto a predictive model. Preferably, the modeling includes a training phase and a scoring phase. In the scoring phase for each user, some embodiments count for a selected data type, a number of occurrences of granular events. For instance, alternative embodiments track and/or record a number of searches for a particular search query, a number of page views for a specific page, a number of advertisement views, and/or a number of ad clicks, for a selected advertisement. Hence, data are recorded at a highly granular level that advantageously retains much or all of the event information. Taking the data type of searching for example, at the granular level, some embodiments record a number of searches for a specific search query. Typically, the counting is for each user over a period of time, such as one month. These embodiments preferably do not rely on any taxonomy and categorization, and thus alleviate some of the burden of modeling large data sets that are customary with granular data. These embodiments thus produce more accurate predictive models. Conventionally, each data type requires its own categorizer. As mentioned above the data types typically include: searches, search clicks such as the number of clicks after each search, sponsored search clicks, page views, advertisement views, and ad clicks. Moreover, as data arises from new areas, new categorizers must be built for each data type from each new area. As also mentioned above, the categories are potentially numerous and varied. Yahoo, for example, has such categories as Automobiles, Finance, Yahoo Groups, among many other categories. Conveniently, however, embodiments of the invention take into account granular events, directly and without the need for categorization, which enables these embodiments to employ a much simpler architecture over the art. While the invention has been described with reference to numerous specific details, one of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that the invention can be embodied in other specific forms without departing from the spirit of the invention. For instance, the examples given above often relate to clicking on advertisements, and/or click rates. However, targeting across a range of behavioral activities and granular event types is contemplated as well. Thus, one of ordinary skill in the art would understand that the invention is not to be limited by the foregoing illustrative details, but rather is to be defined by the appended claims.

A method of targeting receives several granular events and preprocesses the received granular events thereby generating preprocessed data to facilitate construction of a model based on the granular events. The method generates a predictive model by using the preprocessed data. The predictive model is for determining a likelihood of a user action. The method trains the predictive model. A system for targeting includes granular events, a preprocessor for receiving the granular events, a model generator, and a model. The preprocessor has one or more modules for at least one of pruning, aggregation, clustering, and/or filtering. The model generator is for constructing a model based on the granular events, and the model is for determining a likelihood of a user action. The system of some embodiments further includes several users, a selector for selecting a particular set of users from among the several users, a trained model, and a scoring module.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an optical connector and an optical module, particularly to a technique for realizing optical coupling between an optical element mounted on a board and an optical fiber at low cost. 2. Description of the Related Art As the bit rate increases in an information device such as a computer, in-board optical coupling for connecting LSIs such as CPUs or memories by an optical fiber or optical waveguide is considered promising. In in-board optical coupling, an LSI having an optical-signal input/output function is used. Optical signals inputted to or outputted from the LSI are transmitted through an optical fiber or optical waveguide. When LSIs mounted on a board are optically coupled to each other by an optical fiber or optical waveguide, handling of the extra length of the optical fiber or optical waveguide may be complicated. Therefore, it is preferable that an LSI and optical fiber or optical waveguide be detachable from each other. An optical module to which an optical fiber is removably attached is described in General Assembly Lecture Collected Papers C-3-123-C-3-127 (hereafter referred to as “prior document”) of The Institute of Electronics 2003. FIG. 1 shows a sectional view of an optical module described in the prior document As shown in FIG. 1 , vertical cavity surface emitting laser (VCSEL) 182 , laser diode driver (LDD) 183 for driving VCSEL 182 , and AC-connecting capacitor 186 are mounted on transparent resin board 181 . VCSEL 182 and LDD 183 are covered with metallic shielding frame 188 . Light (optical signal) emitted from VCSEL 182 enters reflection mirror 190 that is tilted to 45° through condenser lens (lens array) 184 . The light entering reflection mirror 190 is reflected by reflection mirror 190 and enters optical fiber 192 . Condenser lens 184 is provided in optical I/O connector holder 185 . Reflection mirror 190 and optical fiber 192 are provided in optical I/O connector 191 . By changing the direction of the light that is emitted from VCSEL 182 to the direction parallel with board 181 by reflection mirror 190 , it is possible to lower the height of the space above board 181 . LDD 183 is electrically connected with a multilayer board (BGA board 189 ) through a resin board (interposer 187 ) having a via-plug. A solder bump is used for making electrical connection between interposer 187 and BGA board 189 . Optical I/O connector 191 having reflection mirror 190 and optical fiber 192 is removably attached to optical connector holder 185 . The optical axis between optical I/O connector 191 and optical connector holder 185 is adjusted by means of a not-illustrated guide pin and a through-hole formed on condenser lens 184 . In this case, because the effective optical-path length from the exit plane of VCSEL 182 up to the incident plane of optical fiber 192 is large, it is difficult to obtain sufficient coupling efficiency without using a lens. In the optical module described in the prior document, sufficient coupling efficiency is secured by using condenser lens 184 . Moreover, in the optical module described in the prior document, condenser lens 184 is provided on transparent resin board 181 on which VCSEL 182 is mounted. Therefore, even if the optical axis of optical fiber 192 is displaced due to insertion or removal of optical I/O connector 191 , optical coupling and connection separation are performed by using a large optical beam diameter. As a result, stable optical coupling efficiency can be obtained. However, because a reflection mirror is indispensable for the optical module described in the prior document, fabrication costs increase. Moreover, fabrication costs increase because angle adjustment of the reflection mirror is necessary. Furthermore, it is necessary to use a lens in order to obtain stable optical coupling efficiency. However, the lens is expensive and lens mounting work is costly. To reduce the cost of the optical module, it is important to reduce the number of parts and the assembly man-hours. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is an object of the present invention to realize highly efficient optical coupling between an optical element and an optical fiber or optical waveguide at a low cost. A first optical connector of the present invention is an optical connector for removably connecting a board on which an optical element is mounted and a second optical fiber. This optical connector has an optical waveguide or first optical fiber, support and connector. One end of the above optical waveguide or first optical fiber is optically connected with the light exit plane and/or light incidence plane of an optical element and the other end is optically connected with the second optical fiber. The above support supports the optical waveguide or first optical fiber. The above connector mechanically connects the support and the second optical fiber. The support supports the optical waveguide or first optical fiber so that the traveling direction of the light entering the optical waveguide or first optical fiber is changed to a predetermined direction. Specifically, the traveling direction of the light incoming from one end of the optical waveguide or first optical fiber is changed so the light is emitted in a direction substantially parallel with board surface from the other end of the optical waveguide or first optical fiber. Moreover, the traveling direction of the incoming light substantially parallel with the board surface from the other end of the optical waveguide or first optical fiber is changed so that the light is emitted to an optical element from one end of the optical waveguide or first optical fiber. A first optical module of the present invention has a board on which an optical element is mounted and has the first optical connector of the present invention. In the above first optical connector, the optical element is optically connected with the second optical fiber by the optical waveguide or first optical fiber. Therefore, optical components such as a lens and reflection mirror are unnecessary. Moreover, light enters and exits substantially parallel to the board on which an optical element is mounted so as to optically connect the element to the second optical fiber. Therefore, the board does not have bulk. Furthermore, because a connector for connecting a support with the second optical fiber is used, it is possible to easily perform optical rewiring with an optical fiber. A coaxial via-plug which passes through a support may be formed to direct an electrical signal from a board to a circuit board. The coaxial via-plug formed on the support may help reduce the number of electrical wiring substrates such as resin substrates respectively provided with a coaxial via-plug. Moreover, because the coaxial via-plug penetrates the support and is able to connect with an electrical socket provided on the above circuit board, a board on which an optical element is mounted can be separated from a circuit board and a component can be easily replaced upon failure. As a result, it is possible to reduce the cost of a board or apparatus on which an optical module is mounted. A second optical connector of the present invention is an optical connector for removably connecting a board on which an optical element is mounted with a second optical fiber. The optical connector has an optical waveguide or first optical fiber that is provided in the above described board and connector for mechanically connecting the above mentioned board with the second optical fiber. One end of the above optical waveguide or first optical fiber optically connects with the light exit plane and/or light incidence plane of the optical element, and the other end of the above optical waveguide or first optical fiber optically connects with the above second optical fiber. The above board supports the optical waveguide or first optical fiber so that the traveling direction of light entering the optical waveguide or first optical fiber is changed in a predetermined direction. Specifically, the traveling direction of the light incoming from one end of the optical waveguide or first optical fiber is changed so that light is emitted in a direction substantially parallel with the board surface from the other end of the optical waveguide or first optical fiber. Moreover, the traveling direction of incoming light substantially parallel with the board surface from the other end of the optical waveguide or first optical fiber is changed so that light is emitted toward the optical element from the one end of the optical waveguide or first optical fiber. In the above second optical connector, an optical element is optically connected with a second optical fiber by the optical waveguide or first optical fiber that is provided in a substrate on which an optical element is mounted. Therefore, an optical component such as a lens or reflection mirror is unnecessary. Moreover, because the optical element is mounted on the board in which the optical waveguide or first optical fiber is built, it is possible to mount the optical element while confirming the position of light entrance portion of the optical waveguide or first optical fiber. Therefore, it is possible to easily and accurately assemble the optical connector. On a substrate on which an optical element is mounted, it is possible to form a plurality of coaxial via-plugs that are electrically connected with an electrical element for driving the above optical element and that penetrate the face of the substrate on which the above optical element is mounted and the other face of the substrate. By forming the coaxial via-plug on the board on which the optical element is mounted, it is possible to reduce the number of electrical wiring substrates such as resin substrates respectively provided with a coaxial via-plug. Because the above coaxial via-plug penetrates the board on which the optical element is mounted and is able to connect with an electrical socket provided on the circuit board, the board on which the optical element is mounted can be separated from the circuit board, and components when a problem occurs can be easily replaced. As a result, it is possible to reduce the cost of a board or apparatus on which an optical module is mounted. The above and other objects, features and advantage of the present invention will become apparent from the following description with reference to the accompanying drawings which illustrate examples of the present invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a side view of the optical module of a conventional example; FIG. 2A is a side view of the optical module of the first embodiment and FIG. 2B is a top view of the first embodiment; FIG. 3 is a decomposed view of the optical module of the first embodiment; FIG. 4 is a decomposed perspective view of the optical module of the first embodiment; FIG. 5A is a side view of the optical module of second embodiment and FIG. 5B is a top view of the optical module of the second embodiment; FIG. 6 is a decomposed side view of the optical module of the second embodiment; FIG. 7 is a top view of the transparent resin board shown in FIG. 6 ; FIG. 8 is a decomposed side view of the optical module of the second embodiment; and FIG. 9 is a decomposed side view of the optical module of the third embodiment. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS This application is based upon and claims the benefit of priority from Japanese Patent Application No. 2006-098483 filed on Mar. 31, 2006, the content of which is incorporated be reference. First Embodiment FIG. 2A is a side view of optical module 10 of this embodiment and FIG. 2B is a top view. FIG. 3 is a decomposited side view of optical module 10 of this embodiment. FIG. 4 is a decomposited perspective view of optical module 10 of this embodiment. As shown in FIGS. 2A and 2B , 3 , and 4 , optical module 10 has optical element 11 , electrical element 12 , transparent resin board 13 , circuit board 26 , interposer 15 , transparent-resin-board holding table 16 , and metallic shielding frame 17 . Optical element 11 of this embodiment is a light emitting element. More specifically, optical element 11 is an array-shaped surface-emitting laser. Electrical element 12 of this embodiment is a laser diode driver. Optical element 11 and electrical element 12 are flip-chip-mounted on transparent resin board 13 . Interposer 15 is a resin board provided with a coaxial via-plug for introducing an electrical signal to circuit board 26 from transparent resin board 13 . Transparent-resin-board holding table 16 helps to improve the accuracy for aligning optical connector 30 and helps to enhance strength and heat dissipation of optical module 10 . Metallic shielding frame 17 serves to prevent electrical crosstalk, to strengthen reinforcement of optical module 10 , and to dissipate heat. Optical element 11 can be replaced with a light-receiving element. Both light-emitting and light-receiving elements may be mounted as optical element 11 . As an example of a light-receiving element, an array-shaped photodiode is used. When the photodiode is mounted, a photodiode receiver is mounted as electrical element 12 . Optical module 10 is provided with optical connector 30 constituted of optical waveguide 19 for introducing an optical signal output from optical element (light-emitting element) 11 to optical fiber 18 , optical waveguide support 20 for holding optical waveguide 19 and holding plate 21 . When optical element 11 is a light-receiving element, optical waveguide 19 introduces an optical signal that is outputted from optical fiber 18 to optical element (light-receiving element) 11 . Thickness L of optical connector 30 is preferably in the order of 5 to 15 mm. Thickness L of optical connector 30 of this embodiment is approximately 10 mm. As shown in FIG. 4 , support 20 has optical waveguide guide 20 c . Optical waveguide guide 20 c has an opening through which an end of optical waveguide 19 contacts with transparent resin board 13 . Holding plate 21 serves as support of optical waveguide 19 and MT connector 28 . Positioning hole 22 a is formed on transparent resin board 13 of optical module 10 . Optical connector 30 has pin 22 b which can be fitted to positioning hole 22 a . Optical connector 30 is directly connected to transparent resin board 13 , and an optical signal output from optical element (light-emitting element) 11 is introduced to optical fiber 18 . When optical element 11 is a light-receiving element or the light-receiving element is included in optical element 11 , an optical signal output from optical fiber 18 is introduced to the optical element. Transparent-resin-board holding plate 16 encloses three sides of optical connector 30 and positions optical connector 30 from the outside. It is also possible to set positioning hole 22 a to optical connector 30 and to set pin 22 b to transparent resin board 13 . Moreover, it is possible to set positioning hole 22 a or pin 22 b to transparent board holding plate 16 . Because optical waveguide 19 and transparent resin board 13 directly contact each other, an optical component such as a lens is not necessary. Therefore, the number of components constituting an optical module and optical connector is reduced and it is possible to fabricate an optical module at a low cost. Transparent resin board 13 has permeability to the wavelength of the light inputted to or outputted from optical element 11 . Transparent resin board 13 includes electrical wiring 23 for transmitting an electrical signal to control a laser diode driver and photodiode receiver, and includes electrical element 24 such as a capacitor, dielectric layer, and polyimide layer (protective layer). It is unnecessary that the entire of transparent resin board 13 be transparent. It is sufficient that board 13 be optically transparent for an optical signal inputted to or outputted from the optical element. Therefore, it is sufficient that at least the region of transparent resin board 13 facing optical element 11 be transparent. The same is true for other embodiments. The electrical signal is transmitted from electrical wiring 23 of transparent resin board 13 to circuit board 26 through coaxial via-plug 14 of interposer 15 and bump 25 . Because transparent resin board 13 is directly connected with optical waveguide 19 , it is preferable that the thickness of board 13 be tens of microns. It is also preferable that the distance between transparent resin board 13 and optical element 11 that is flip-chip-mounted on board 13 be tens of microns. It is possible to adjust the distance between transparent resin board 13 and optical element 11 by changing the diameter of metallic (Au) bump 27 . When considering optical loss, it is preferable that the thickness of transparent resin board 13 be minimized. It is preferable to form reflection preventive film 32 on a face of transparent resin board 13 to which optical waveguide 19 is directly connected, as shown in FIG. 3 . Or, it is preferable to fill the gap between transparent resin board 13 and optical waveguide 19 with solvent (matching oil) 33 or adhesive 33 having substantially the same refractive index as transparent resin board 13 and optical waveguide 19 . Moreover, to restrain the light emission angle from board 13 by decreasing the gap (optical path length) between optical element 11 and transparent resin board 13 , it is preferable to fill the gap between board 13 and optical element 11 with under-fill agent 34 ( FIG. 2A ) having a refractive index higher than that of air. By using under-fill agent 34 , which is transparent to the wavelength of light inputted/outputted to and from optical element 11 and has a refractive index substantially equal to that of transparent resin board 13 , it is possible to restrain the reflection between transparent resin board 13 and optical element 11 . As shown in FIG. 3 , support 20 can be connected with optical fiber 18 . Support 20 has a positioning structure compatible with a standard connector mounted on optical fiber 18 . Support 20 of this embodiment has positioning hole 29 a into which pin 29 of MT (Mechanically Transferable) connector 28 can be inserted and has MT connector support portion 31 . Pin 29 may also be provided to support 20 and positioning hole 29 a may be provided to MT connector 28 . In FIG. 4 , MT connector support portion 31 is omitted. A connector is not restricted to the MT connector. Connectors other than the MT connector can also be used. Support 20 directly contacts transparent resin board 13 . It is preferable to fix support 20 and transparent resin board 13 by using the above adhesive 33 or the like. As shown in FIGS. 3 and 4 , optical waveguide guide 20 c is provided to support 20 for supporting optical waveguide 19 in order to accurately attach optical waveguide 19 . The optical waveguide 19 is bent along optical waveguide guide 20 c. By using optical waveguide 19 formed of a soft material such as polymer, bend loss is kept within 1 dB even if optical waveguide 19 is bent in the range of a curvature radius between 2 mm and 10 mm. By ensuring that optical waveguide guide 20 c and positioning hole 22 a are accurate, optical connector 30 and optical element 11 can be accurately positioned and it is possible to easily optically connect optical waveguide 19 with optical element 11 . As described above, by providing optical element 11 and electrical element 12 to drive optical element 11 to one face of transparent resin board 13 , and by positioning one face of bent optical waveguide (curved waveguide) 19 so as to contact the other face of transparent resin board 13 , it is possible to omit a lens and reflection mirror. For example, the thickness of transparent resin board 13 is set to 20 μm. Optical element 11 having a radiation angle of 30° is flip-chip-mounted on the component side of transparent resin board 13 . The gap between optical element 11 and the component sides of transparent resin board 13 is set to 10 μm. Under the above conditions, the diameter of the light flux after passes through the transparent resin board 13 becomes approximately 20 μm. Therefore, by setting the diameter of optical waveguide 19 to 50 μm, it is possible to realize optical coupling of the light output from optical element 11 to optical waveguide 19 with sufficient tolerance. Therefore, a lens for optically coupling the light output from optical element 11 with optical waveguide 19 is unnecessary. The reflection mirror is replaced by curved waveguide 19 . Curved waveguide 19 can be easily formed by bending a rectilinear waveguide made of a soft material such as inexpensive polymer waveguide or film waveguide at a curvature radius of 2 to 10 mm. Moreover, it is possible to accommodate an optical module on which many optical elements are mounted by bending a rectilinear waveguide having an array structure similarly to the above described. Therefore, it is unnecessary to prepare a curved waveguide having a particular structure. It is possible to form a curved waveguide by using a commercial polymer waveguide, a fiber sheet, or a ribbon fiber. To accurately fix optical waveguide 19 to support 20 , it is preferable that a recess for alignment be formed on support 20 , as shown in FIG. 4 . It is preferable that the end of optical waveguide 19 that contacts transparent resin board 13 be mirror-polished or that a reflection preventive film be formed on the end. As described above, optical module 10 of this embodiment realizes high-efficiency optical coupling without using lens 184 or reflection mirror 190 shown in FIG. 1 . Therefore, the number of components is reduced and the cost for mounting the lens and reflection mirror is reduced. Because a standard connector such as the MT connector mounted on optical fiber 18 can be removably attached to optical connector 30 , it is possible to easily change the destination of an optical signal. Second Embodiment In optical module 10 of the first embodiment, optical connector 30 in which optical waveguide 19 is built is set on transparent resin board 13 . In the optical module of this embodiment, a recess is formed on a transparent resin board and an optical waveguide is provided in the recess. Transparent resin board 13 of the first embodiment is directly connected to optical waveguide 19 . Therefore, to reduce optical loss, it is preferable to set the thickness of transparent resin board 13 to tens of microns, Moreover, it is preferable that the distance between transparent resin board 13 and optical element 11 be tens of microns. However, it is sufficient that only the region on which an optical element is mounted be thin. That is, it is sufficient that a region to or from which an optical signal is input or output have a thickness that is small. It is better that the thickness of the region of transparent resin board 13 other than the region to or from which an optical signal is input or output is large because this is advantageous in strength, radiation characteristic, and working accuracy. Moreover, by setting the thickness of transparent resin board 13 to approximately 10 mm, it is possible to omit support 20 and to use transparent resin board 13 for holding an optical waveguide 19 . Therefore, the number of components is further reduced and cost can be reduced. FIG. 5A shows a side view of optical module 40 of this embodiment. FIG. 5B shows a top view of optical module 40 . FIG. 6 is a decomposed side view of optical module 40 . FIG. 7 is a top view of transparent resin board 41 . FIG. 8 is a decomposed perspective view of optical module 40 . The same material as the material shown in FIGS. 2 to 4 is provided with the same symbol. An optical connector is constituted of transparent resin board 41 , MT connector 28 , optical waveguide 19 , and transparent resin board holding plate 42 . Optical module 40 is constituted of the optical connector on which optical element 11 and electrical element 12 are mounted and interposer 15 which is connected to the optical connector. Optical module 40 of this embodiment has optical element 11 , electrical element 12 , transparent resin board 41 , circuit board 26 , interposer 15 , transparent resin board holding plate 42 , and metallic shielding frame 17 . Optical element 11 of this embodiment is a light-emitting element. More specifically, optical element 11 is an array-shaped face-emitting laser. Electrical element 12 of this embodiment is a laser diode driver. Optical element 11 and electrical element 12 are flip-chip-mounted on transparent resin board 41 . Interposer 15 is a resin board provided with a coaxial via-plug for introducing an electrical signal from transparent resin board 41 to circuit board 26 . Transparent resin board holding plate 42 serves to hold optical waveguide 19 , to strengthen reinforcement of optical module 40 , and to dissipate heat. Metallic shielding frame 17 serves to prevent electrical crosstalk, to strengthen reinforcement of optical module 40 , and to dissipate heat. Optical element 11 can be changed to a light-receiving element. Moreover, it is possible to mount both light-emitting element and light-receiving element as optical element 11 . The light-receiving element is, for example, an array-shaped photodiode. When the photodiode is mounted, a photodiode receiver is mounted as electrical element 12 . As shown in FIGS. 6 and 7 , thickness L 1 of transparent resin board 41 is approximately 10 mm. Transparent resin board 41 has a structure for holding optical waveguide 19 . The thickness of transparent resin board 41 in the portion between the ends of optical element 11 and optical waveguide 19 is reduced up to tens of microns in order to introduce an optical signal to optical waveguide 19 from optical element 11 . Optical coupling between optical waveguide 19 and optical fiber 18 is performed by connecting MT connectors 28 by pin 29 . Optical waveguide 19 is fixed along recess 44 of transparent resin board 41 . Specifically, the front end of optical waveguide 19 is fixed to recess 44 by a fixing agent (adhesive). Thereafter, optical waveguide 19 is bent along recess 44 to fix the bent optical waveguide 19 to recess 44 . MT connector 28 or the like is attached to an end to be connected with optical fiber 18 of optical waveguide 19 . As described above, by setting optical waveguide 19 in transparent resin board 41 , it is not only a lens and reflection mirror but also support 20 of the first embodiment becomes unnecessary and the number of components is reduced. Therefore, it is possible to fabricate an optical module at lower cost. Moreover, in this embodiment, it is possible to mount an optical element after mounting (bonding) optical waveguide 19 on transparent resin board 41 . Therefore, because optical element 11 can be mounted after confirming the position of optical input portion of optical waveguide 19 , it is possible to easily and securely improve optical coupling efficiency. Third Embodiment In the second embodiment, transparent resin board holding plate 42 , interposer 15 , and circuit board 26 face both sides of transparent resin board 41 . The electrical connection of circuit board 26 is secured by a coaxial via-plug provided to interposer 15 . FIG. 9 shows a side view of optical module 50 of this embodiment. As shown in FIG. 9 , in optical module 50 of the embodiment, coaxial vie-plug 53 is provided to transparent resin board 51 . Moreover, electrical socket 52 is provided on the same side as the side at which transparent resin board holding plate 54 is provided. Furthermore, the electrical connection of electrical socket 52 is secured by coaxial via-plug 53 provided to transparent resin board 51 . The same material as the material described above is provided with the same symbol in FIG. 9 . The structure of transparent resin board 51 is the same as that of transparent resin board 41 shown in FIGS. 5 to 7 except for coaxial via-plug 53 . Optical element 11 of this embodiment is a light-emitting element. More specifically, element 11 is an array-shaped surface-emitting laser. Electrical element 12 of this embodiment is a laser diode driver. Optical element 11 and electrical element 12 are flip-chip-mounted on transparent resin board 51 . Optical waveguide 19 is provided in transparent resin board 51 . Moreover, coaxial via-plug 53 for transmitting an electrical signal to electrical socket 52 is formed on transparent resin board 51 . It is possible to change electrical socket 52 to an adapter and a circuit board to be connected with coaxial via-plug 53 . The illustrated transparent resin board holding plate 54 serves to hold optical waveguide 19 and coaxial via-plug 54 , to strengthen reinforcement of optical module 10 and to dissipate heat. Metallic shielding frame 17 serves to prevent electrical crosstalk, to strengthen reinforcement of optical module 50 , and to dissipate heat. Optical element 11 can be changed to a light-receiving element. Moreover, it is possible to mount both light-emitting element and light-receiving element as optical element 11 . The light-receiving element is, for example, an array-shaped photodiode. When the photodiode is mounted, a photodiode receiver is mounted as electrical element 12 . Optical waveguide 19 in transparent resin board 51 is a curved waveguide. Optical waveguide 19 is directly mounted on transparent resin board 51 and is able to efficiently fetch an optical signal output from optical element 11 in the direction parallel with electrical socket 52 . By forming coaxial via-plug 53 on transparent resin board 51 , it is possible to omit interposers 15 of the first and second embodiments. Therefore, it is possible to omit not only optical components such as a lens and reflection mirror but also an electrical wiring board such as an interposer. Moreover, the stiffness of optical module 50 is reinforced because metallic shielding frame 17 , thick transparent resin board 51 , and transparent resin board holding plate 54 are present. Therefore, optical module 50 of this embodiment can sufficiently withstand stress produced when attaching and removing optical module 50 to or from electrical socket 52 . Moreover, by mounting electrical socket (adapter) 52 to a circuit board (not-illustrated), it is possible to change optical module 50 by only setting or removing coaxial via-plug 53 . Because coaxial via-plug 53 penetrates transparent resin board 51 and is able to connect with an electrical socket on the circuit board, transparent resin board 53 and a circuit board can be easily separated from each other. Therefore, components can be easily replaced when a problem occurs and it is possible to reduce the cost of a board or apparatus on which an optical module is mounted. Optical module 50 of this embodiment having transparent resin board 51 on which optical waveguide 19 and coaxial via-plug 53 are mounted can be fabricated at a lower cost than that of optical modules 10 and 40 of the above embodiment. Therefore, an apparatus or circuit board on which optical module 50 of this embodiment is mounted is reduced in cost. In optical module 50 of this embodiment, optical waveguide 19 is provided in transparent resin board 51 on which optical element 11 is mounted. However, as shown in the first embodiment, it is permissible to use a support separately from a transparent resin board and to provide a coaxial via-plug to an optical waveguide support. While preferred embodiments of the present invention have been described using specific terms, such description is for illustrative purposes only, and it is to be understood that changes and variations may be made without departing from the spirit or scope of the following claims.

An optical waveguide or first optical fiber whose one end optically connects with a light exit plane and/or light incidence plane of an optical element and whose other end optically connects with an second optical fiber and a connector for mechanically connecting the optical waveguide or the first optical fiber and the second optical fiber are included. The optical waveguide or first optical fiber is bent in order to change the traveling direction of light so that the light incoming from one end is emitted from the other end substantially in parallel with a board and the light incoming substantially in parallel with the board to the optical waveguide or first optical fiber from the other end is emitted from one end toward the optical element.

RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is related to an application entitled “Spinal Implant Apparatuses and Methods of Implanting and Using Same”, filed on the same date of Dec. 17, 2010 in the United States Patent and Trademark Office, with the same named inventors, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Implants are widely used to replace a missing biological structure, support a damaged biological structure, or enhance an existing biological structure. Medical implants are man-made devices, in contrast to a transplant, which is a transplanted biomedical tissue. The surface of implants that contact the body might be made of a biocompatible material such as titanium or silicone depending on what is the most functional. In the case of orthopedic implants, like spinal implants, the manner in which the implant is attached to the patient is an important consideration. In many situations, screws are used to secure the implant to hard tissue (e.g. bone) of the patient. One consideration in using screws during orthopedic implantation procedures is ensuring proper screw orientation with respect to the implant when the screw is advanced into the bone. Another consideration is easing the implantation process for an attending medical professional, for example a surgeon installing the implant. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An aspect of an embodiment of the invention relates to providing a locking spring screw with a spring member which locks the screw into place with respect to an implantable device while still being able to rotate for attaching the implantable device to an implantation site. In an embodiment of the invention, the implantable device is provided with at least one screw hole, a portion of which is adapted to act as a counterpart to components of the spring screw in order to lock the screw into place with respect to the implantable device. For example, in an embodiment of the invention a portion of the screw hole is adapted to provide a flange which acts as a counterpart to a flange slot created by components of the screw, wherein the flange fits within the flange slot, locking the spring screw substantially within a plane but still allowing rotation of the screw about its vertical axis. In an embodiment of the invention, a spring member is used as at least one of the components for creating the flange slot in which the flange fits. In an embodiment of the invention, a ridge on the head of the screw forms a side of the flange slot opposite the spring member. In an embodiment of the invention, the spring screw and the implantable device are jointly adapted to provide the screw with substantial movement in only one degree of freedom once locked into the implantable device. Optionally, the one degree of freedom is around the vertical axis of the screw. In an embodiment of the invention, the spring member is inserted into a tool slot provided to the head of the spring screw in a flexed state and upon insertion into the tool slot, the spring member assumes an expanded state. Optionally, the spring member is placed into the head of the spring screw during manufacture. Optionally, the spring member is provided with at least one tongue which protrudes through an outlet located on the screw head thereby securing the spring member to the screw head. In an embodiment of the invention, the outlet is located on the screw head above the floor of the tool slot such that the spring member can be flexed towards the floor by a tool. In an embodiment of the invention, the distance the spring member can flex towards the floor and the length of the at least one tongue are correlated to allow for the spring screw to be inserted into the screw hole (while the spring member is flexed) but not to allow the spring member to slip out of the outlet towards the vertical axis of the screw. In an embodiment of the invention, the tool slot also doubles as the interface between the screw and the tool used by the attending medical professional to tighten or loosen the screw with respect to the implantation site. In some embodiments of the invention, the tool slot shape and/or size is varied to accommodate different tools. In some embodiments of the invention, the spring member shape and/or size is varied to accommodate different sized tool slots. In an embodiment of the invention, the cylindrical body of the spring screw is adapted to be driven into an implantation site. For example, the body is provided with threading. In some embodiments of the invention, the implantation site is comprised of hard body tissue, such as bone. Optionally, the spring member remains flexed while the tool is used to drive the screw into the implantation site. A further aspect of an embodiment of the invention relates to a method of using a screw provided with a spring member to secure an implantable device to an implantation site. In an embodiment of the invention, the method uses a screw adapted to lock the screw into place with respect to an implantable device while still allowing the screw to rotate for attaching the implantable device to the implantation site. In an embodiment of the invention, the screw is inserted in a screw hole located on the implantable device while the spring member is flexed towards the floor of a tool slot in the screw head using a tool. In an embodiment of the invention, the screw is advanced fully until a ridge of the head of the screw abuts a flange of the screw hole. The spring member is released by the tool which results in expansion of the spring member such that a tongue portion of the spring member extends out of an outlet in the screw head, trapping the flange of the screw hole in a flange slot formed in between the tongue portion of the spring member and the ridge of the screw head. In an embodiment of the invention, the spring screw is substantially prohibited from moving linearly along its vertical, central axis, however the spring screw is still permitted to rotate around its central axis, for example to be screwed into the implantation site. In some embodiments of the invention, the tool is used to screw the spring screw into the implantation site, thereby securing the implant to the implantation site, while the spring member is still flexed. In some embodiments of the invention, a plurality of spring screws is locked to an implantable device where it is desirable to attach the implantable device to the implantation site at a plurality of locations. In an embodiment of the invention, the implantable device is placed over the implantation site with the at least one screw positioned over a location at the implantation site where it is to be secured to the patient's anatomy. The screw is then turned, drawing the implantable device towards the patient's anatomy until the implantable device is in the desired position relative to the patient. Optionally, the at least one screw is turned until the implantable device abuts the patient's anatomy. In an embodiment of the invention, the implantation site is a vertebra. In some embodiments of the invention, a location is a pedicle of the vertebra. In some embodiments of the invention, a location is a facet of the vertebra. In some embodiments of the invention, a location is a lateral mass of the vertebra. An aspect of an embodiment of the invention relates to a system for interlocking a screw and an implant. In an embodiment of the invention, the system comprises a spring member on the screw which in part defines a flange slot which acts as a counterpart to a flange on the implant, wherein when the flange is inserted into the flange slot, the screw and implant are interlocked. There is therefore provided in an embodiment of the invention, a locking spring screw, comprising: a cylindrical screw body; a flexible spring member; and, a screw head attached to the cylindrical screw body, wherein the screw head comprises a tool slot adapted for receipt of the spring member, at least one outlet adjacent to the tool slot adapted for passage therethrough of a tongue of the spring member, and, a ridge located opposite the at least one outlet from the cylindrical screw body and at least partially around the circumference of the screw head. In an embodiment of the invention, the cylindrical screw body is threaded. In an embodiment of the invention, the tongue of the spring member and the ridge form a slot when the tongue is passed through the outlet. In an embodiment of the invention, the length of the spring member is correlated to the amount of spring member flex allowed by a floor of the tool slot such that upon maximum flex of the spring member towards the floor, the tongue retracts at least partially into outlet. In an embodiment of the invention, the maximum flex is no more than 20 thousandths of an inch. In an embodiment of the invention, the tool slot and the spring member are formed as counterparts. In an embodiment of the invention, the tongue and outlet diameter are narrower than the spring member. In an embodiment of the invention, the ridge is sloped, increasing in size moving away from the cylindrical screw body. In an embodiment of the invention, the at least one of the flexible spring member, cylindrical screw body and screw head are constructed of at least one of titanium, stainless steel, cobalt chrome, ceramic, polymer, or PEEK Optima. In an embodiment of the invention, the screw length along its central axis is 8.0 mm-60.0 mm. In an embodiment of the invention, the screw head is 3.5 mm-9.0 mm in diameter. There is further provided in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention, a system for interlocking a screw and an implant wherein the screw has motion in only one degree of freedom, comprising: an implant provided with at least one screw hole provided with a flange; and, a spring screw comprising a flexible spring member, and, a screw head attached to the cylindrical screw body, wherein the screw head comprises a tool slot adapted for receipt of the spring member, at least one outlet adjacent to the tool slot adapted for passage therethrough of a tongue of the spring member, and, a ridge located opposite the at least one outlet from the cylindrical screw body and at least partially around the circumference of the screw head, wherein when the spring member is un-flexed the tongue and the ridge form a flange slot adapted for receipt of the flange therein. In an embodiment of the invention, the system further comprises a tool adapted to be a counterpart to the tool slot. In an embodiment of the invention, the tool is provided with a tool hub for flexing the spring member upon insertion of the tool into the tool slot. In an embodiment of the invention, the tool is provided with at least one ridge for providing torque to the spring screw for attaching the spring screw to the implantation site. In some embodiments of the invention, length of the spring member is correlated to the amount of spring member flex allowed by a floor of the tool slot such that upon maximum flex of the spring member towards the floor, the tongue retracts at least partially into outlet allowing tongue to pass flange. In some embodiments of the invention, the one degree of freedom is around a central axis of the spring screw. There is further provided in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention, a method of using a spring screw provided with a spring member to secure an implantable device to an implantation site, comprising: inserting the spring screw in a screw hole located on the implantable device while the spring member is flexed towards the floor of a tool slot in the screw head using a tool; advancing the spring screw until a ridge of the screw head abuts a flange of the screw hole; driving the spring screw into the implantation site; retracting the tool from the spring screw, resulting in expansion of the spring member such that a tongue portion of the spring member extends out of an outlet in the screw head, trapping the flange of the screw hole in a flange slot formed in between the tongue portion of the spring member and the ridge of the screw head. In an embodiment of the invention, the method further comprises repeating inserting, advancing, driving and retracting for a plurality of spring screws. In an embodiment of the invention, trapping the flange of the screw in the flange slot substantially restricts the spring screw to movement in only one degree of freedom, around its central axis. In an embodiment of the invention, the implantation site is at least one of a vertebra, a pedicle of the vertebra, a facet of the vertebra, or a lateral mass of the vertebra. These and other features and their advantages will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art of spinal implants from a careful reading of the Detailed Description of Exemplary Embodiments, accompanied by the following drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Embodiments of the invention are herein described, by way of example only, with reference to the accompanying drawings. In this regard, the description taken along with the drawings makes apparent to those skilled in the art how embodiments of the invention may be practiced. It should also be understood that drawings may not be to scale. In the figures, FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a spring screw with a flexed spring member, in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention; FIG. 2 is a perspective view of a spring screw with an expanded spring member, in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention; FIG. 3 is a cross-sectional view of a spring screw with an expanded spring member, in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention; FIG. 4 is a top, perspective view of a sliding spinal implant used in conjunction with at least one spring screw, in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention; FIG. 5 is a side view of a sliding spinal implant used in conjunction with at least one spring screw, in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention; FIG. 6 is a cross-sectional view of a sliding spinal implant used in conjunction with at least one spring screw, in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention; FIG. 7 is a flowchart showing a method of using a spring screw in conjunction with a spinal implant, in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention; FIG. 8 is a perspective view of a spring screw and a tool used for locking and/or unlocking the spring screw, in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention; and, FIG. 9 is a cross-sectional view of a spring screw and a tool used for locking and/or unlocking the spring screw flexing the spring member to unlock the spring screw, in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS Throughout the application, reference is made to flexed spring member 106 a and/or un-flexed spring member 106 b , it should be understood that these references are to the same structural element which takes two forms depending on its current state of usage with spring screw 100 . In some portions of the application, the spring member is assigned reference number 106 , it should be understood that in such instances “spring member 106 ” is referring to the element generally, whether flexed 106 a or un-flexed 106 b. FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a spring screw 100 with a flexed spring member 106 a , in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention. In an embodiment of the invention, spring screw 100 is comprised of at least two general sections, a screw head 102 and a cylindrical body 104 . The cylindrical body 104 , as with most conventional screws, is the portion of the screw which is driven in to a specific attachment location at the implantation site. In some embodiments of the invention, cylindrical body 104 is provided with threading. Optionally, the threading is adapted for the type of material into which the screw will be driven. Screw head 102 is provided with a tool slot 114 which is adapted for receipt of spring member 106 a and/or to interface with a tool used for tightening and/or loosening the screw with respect to the attachment location, in an embodiment of the invention. Spring member 106 a is shown flexed in FIG. 1 , but it should be understood that in an embodiment of the invention, the spring member is adapted to be elastically deformed for insertion into tool slot 114 during manufacture and/or flexing during the insertion of the spring screw 100 into a spinal implant 400 , shown and described in more detail with respect to FIG. 4 . In an embodiment of the invention, upon insertion into tool slot 114 , the spring member 106 returns to its un-flexed form 106 b , such as shown and described with respect to FIGS. 2 and 3 . In an embodiment of the invention, spring member 106 is provided with an enlarged portion, shaped like a circle in FIGS. 1 and 2 , which prevents spring member 106 from sliding out of the at least one outlet 110 . Alternatively, additionally and/or optionally, spring member 106 is designed to be wider than outlet 110 , except the tongue 108 , which prevents spring member 106 from sliding out of outlet 110 . IN an embodiment of the invention, the spring screw 100 is designed with a tight tolerance between the tool slot 114 and the enlarged portion of spring member 106 . Optionally, the tolerance is about +/−1.5 thousands of an inch, to make sure that the screw will lock on both sides. Other shapes are usable, besides circular, in alternative embodiments of the invention. A ridge 112 is provided to screw head 102 at a level where it is desired that the screw be prevented from any further insertion into the screw hole 402 , in an embodiment of the invention. In some embodiments of the invention, the ridge 112 is shaped to match a flange 404 of the screw hole 402 , the flange 404 shown and described in more detail with respect to FIGS. 4 and 6 . For example, in an embodiment of the invention, the ridge 112 and flange 404 of the screw hole 402 are each sloped to act as complementary parts preventing over-insertion of the spring screw 100 through the screw hole 402 and/or also providing a slidable interface between the two to allow for rotation of the spring screw 100 about its vertical axis 116 . Spring member 106 is provided with at least one tongue 108 which is adapted for insertion into an outlet 110 located on screw head 102 , in an embodiment of the invention. Outlet 110 is positioned on screw head 102 such that when screw head 102 is advanced fully into the screw hole 402 , the outlet 110 is positioned below the level of ridge 112 , in an embodiment of the invention. Thus, in an embodiment of the invention, when tongue 108 protrudes out of outlet 110 it creates a space between the tongue 108 and the ridge 112 for insertion of the flange 404 . In an embodiment of the invention, tongue 108 is narrower than the outlet 110 but overall spring member 106 is wider than outlet 110 so that spring member 106 cannot completely slide out of outlet 110 , only tongue 108 can. FIG. 2 is a perspective view of spring screw 100 with an expanded spring member 106 b placed within slot 114 , in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention. From this perspective, it can be seen that in some embodiments of the invention, slot 114 and spring member 106 are shaped as counterparts such that spring member 106 fits snugly within the slot 114 , particularly when the spring member is in its un-flexed form 106 b . Also seen from this perspective view is the ridge 112 on the screw head 102 . In some embodiments of the invention, the ridge 112 only extends partially around the circumference of the screw head 102 , such as depicted in FIG. 2 , however in some embodiments of the invention, the ridge 112 could extend fully around the circumference of the screw head 102 . FIG. 3 is a cross-sectional view of spring screw 100 with an expanded and/or un-flexed spring member 106 b , in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention. Shown in more detail is the relationship between spring member 106 b , the at least one tongue 108 of the spring member 106 and the outlet 110 adapted for passage of the tongue 108 therethrough, in an embodiment of the invention. The at least one tongue 108 transits through the outlet 110 when spring member 106 a un-flexes to form spring member 106 b after insertion of the spring member 106 sufficiently deep into the slot 114 . The expansion of the spring member 106 urges the at least one tongue 108 into and/or extending out of the outlet 110 . It can be seen that once the at least one tongue 108 is extended through the outlet 110 , a space 302 is created between the ridge 112 of the screw head 102 and the tongue 108 , the space being adapted and/or sized for receipt of the flange 404 , shown in more detail in FIGS. 4 and 6 . In an embodiment of the invention, spring member 106 is located above the floor 304 , of the tool slot 114 to allow for the flexing of spring member 106 during placement of the spring screw 100 into the implant 400 . In an embodiment of the invention, spring member 106 flexes approximately 20 thousands of an inch towards floor 304 during compression of spring member 106 by tool 800 . In an embodiment of the invention, at least a portion of spring screw 100 , including spring member 106 , is comprised of at least one of titanium, stainless steel, cobalt chrome, ceramic, polymer (e.g. PLA, PGA), or PEEK Optima. In some embodiments of the invention, the spring screw is 8.0 mm-60.0 mm in length along the central axis 116 and/or 3.5 mm-9.0 mm in diameter (i.e. the screw head 102 ). It should be understood, however, that the spring screw 100 can be scalably sized for any application and that these size ranges are merely examples. FIG. 4 is a top, perspective view of a sliding spinal implant 400 used in conjunction with at least one spring screw 100 , in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention. In an embodiment of the invention, flange 404 is a part of spinal implant 400 , for example as shown in FIG. 4 , where the flange 404 is provided around the inner circumference of screw hole 402 so that the spring screw 100 is inserted therein until the ridge 112 hits the flange 404 , in an exemplary embodiment of the invention. Also shown is a spring screw 100 inserted into a screw hole 402 , in an exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 5 is a side view of a sliding spinal implant 400 used in conjunction with at least one spring screw 100 , in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention. From this side view, a cross-sectional is taken, which is reflected in FIG. 6 . FIG. 6 is a cross-sectional view of a sliding spinal implant 400 used in conjunction with at least one spring screw 100 , in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention. From this view, it can be seen that the spring member 106 b and the ridge 112 form a space wherein the flange 404 of the spinal implant 400 is accommodated, in an embodiment of the invention. The ridge 112 prevents the spring screw 100 from being over-inserted into the screw hole 402 and the spring member 106 prevents the spring screw 100 from being withdrawn, in essence locking the spring screw 100 into a plane relative to the spinal implant 400 . FIG. 7 is a flowchart 700 showing a method of using a spring screw 100 in conjunction with a spinal implant 400 , in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention. In an embodiment of the invention, spring screw 100 is inserted ( 702 ) into screw hole 402 with the spring member 106 flexed by the tool 800 , shown and described in more detail with respect to FIG. 8 . Spring screw 100 is advanced ( 704 ) into screw hole 402 until ridge 112 of screw head 102 abuts flange 404 of implant 400 . As described elsewhere in the application, spring screw 100 is adapted so that when ridge 112 abuts flange 404 , outlet 110 is properly aligned such that when tongue 108 of un-flexed spring member 106 b extends out of outlet 110 , flange 404 is bracketed by tongue 108 and ridge 112 . In some embodiments of the invention, spring screw 100 is driven ( 706 ) into the hard tissue at the implantation site to attach the implant 400 to the patient, for example by using tool 800 to screw spring screw 100 into place. Optionally, spring member 106 remains flexed during the driving, although in some embodiments of the invention, the tool is retracted slightly prior to commencing the driving. Tool 800 is retracted ( 708 ) from tool slot 114 , causing spring member 106 to un-flex and projecting at least one tongue 108 through outlet 110 , locking spring screw 100 into a plane corresponding to the flange 404 , in an embodiment of the invention. In some embodiments of the invention, depending on how many screw holes are present on the implant and/or depending on the specific implantation needs of the implant with respect to the patient, more than one screw is used to secure the implant to the patient. Accordingly, inserting ( 702 ), advancing ( 704 ), driving ( 706 ) and retracting ( 708 ) are optionally repeated ( 710 ) for each screw in some embodiments of the invention. It should be understood that in some embodiments of the invention, screw is not necessarily advanced ( 704 ) until ridge 112 abuts flange 404 but rather is advanced ( 704 ) only as far as required to place outlet 110 past flange 404 such that when tongue protrudes out of screw head 102 the flange 404 is bracket by tongue 108 and ridge 112 . It should also be understood that implant 400 is merely exemplary and that spring screw 100 could be used with any implant or device adapted for use with the spring screw 100 . For example, any implant or device with a flange in a screw hole which could be bracketed by ridge 112 and tongue 108 . Referring to FIG. 8 , a perspective view of spring screw 100 and a tool 800 used for locking and/or unlocking spring screw 100 is shown, in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention. In an embodiment of the invention, tool 800 is adapted to act as a counterpart to tool slot 114 in spring screw head 102 to tighten and/or loosen spring screw 100 and/or to flex spring member 106 for locking spring screw 100 to implant 400 . For example, a tool nub 802 is provided to tool 800 wherein tool nub 802 is sized to fit within tool slot 114 located in spring screw 100 and extend at least as far into tool slot 114 as is required to flex spring member 106 to floor 304 , in an exemplary embodiment of the invention. Ridges 804 also be provided to tool 800 which assist in applying torque to spring screw 100 during tightening and/or loosening of the spring screw 100 from the implantation site. It should be understood, that tool 800 is merely an example of what could be used for flexing the spring member 106 and/or driving the screw into the implantation site. For example, any tool which fits within the slot (which as described above is variable in shape), is capable of extending into the slot far enough to flex the spring and/or is capable of applying torque to the screw sufficient for securing it to the implantation site, could be used. FIG. 9 is a cross-sectional view of spring screw 100 and tool 800 used for locking and/or unlocking spring screw 100 by flexing the spring member 106 to unlock the spring screw 100 into implant 400 , in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention. It can be seen that tool nub 802 of tool 800 exerts a force on spring member 106 such that it flexes towards floor 304 . The flexing of spring member 106 causes its overall length relative to spring screw 100 to shorten, withdrawing the at least one tongue 108 into outlet 110 , but not so far as to cause spring member 106 to become dislodged from the outlet 110 . The retraction of spring member 106 allows for outlet 110 of spring screw 100 to be inserted into implant 400 past flange 404 , in an embodiment of the invention. Unless otherwise defined, all technical and/or scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which the invention pertains. Although methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of embodiments of the invention, exemplary methods and/or materials are described below. In case of conflict, the patent specification, including definitions, will control. In addition, the materials, methods, and examples are illustrative only and are not intended to be necessarily limiting. The terms “comprises”, “comprising”, “includes”, “including”, “having” and their conjugates mean “including but not limited to”. This term encompasses the terms “consisting of” and “consisting essentially of”. The phrase “consisting essentially of” means that the composition or method may include additional ingredients and/or steps, but only if the additional ingredients and/or steps do not materially alter the basic and novel characteristics of the claimed composition or method. As used herein, the singular form “a”, “an” and “the” include plural references unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. For example, the term “a compound” or “at least one compound” may include a plurality of compounds, including mixtures thereof. Throughout this application, various embodiments of this invention may be presented in a range format. It should be understood that the description in range format is merely for convenience and brevity and should not be construed as an inflexible limitation on the scope of the invention. Accordingly, the description of a range should be considered to have specifically disclosed all the possible subranges as well as individual numerical values within that range. For example, description of a range such as from 1 to 6 should be considered to have specifically disclosed subranges such as from 1 to 3, from 1 to 4, from 1 to 5, from 2 to 4, from 2 to 6, from 3 to 6 etc., as well as individual numbers within that range, for example, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. This applies regardless of the breadth of the range. Whenever a numerical range is indicated herein, it is meant to include any cited numeral (fractional or integral) within the indicated range. The phrases “ranging/ranges between” a first indicate number and a second indicate number and “ranging/ranges from” a first indicate number “to” a second indicate number are used herein interchangeably and are meant to include the first and second indicated numbers and all the fractional and integral numerals therebetween. As used herein the term “method” refers to manners, means, techniques and procedures for accomplishing a given task including, but not limited to, those manners, means, techniques and procedures either known to, or readily developed from known manners, means, techniques and procedures by practitioners of the chemical, pharmacological, biological, biochemical and medical arts. It is appreciated that certain features of the invention, which are, for clarity, described in the context of separate embodiments, may also be provided in combination in a single embodiment. Conversely, various features of the invention, which are, for brevity, described in the context of a single embodiment, may also be provided separately or in any suitable subcombination or as suitable in any other described embodiment of the invention. Certain features described in the context of various embodiments are not to be considered essential features of those embodiments, unless the embodiment is inoperative without those elements. Although the invention has been described in conjunction with specific embodiments thereof, it is evident that many alternatives, modifications and variations will be apparent to those skilled in the art. Accordingly, it is intended to embrace all such alternatives, modifications and variations that fall within the spirit and broad scope of the appended claims. All publications, patents and patent applications mentioned in this specification are herein incorporated in their entirety by reference into the specification, to the same extent as if each individual publication, patent or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated herein by reference. In addition, citation or identification of any reference in this application shall not be construed as an admission that such reference is available as prior art to the present invention. To the extent that section headings are used, they should not be construed as necessarily limiting Those familiar with implantable devices and apparatuses and methods for attaching them to a patient's anatomy will appreciate that many modifications and substitutions can be made to the foregoing preferred embodiments of the present invention without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention, defined by the appended claims.

Disclosed is a locking spring screw formed from a cylindrical screw body having a screw head that includes a tool slot adapted for receipt of a flexible spring member. The tool slot includes at least one outlet formed adjacent to the tool slot which is adapted for passage therethrough of a tongue extending outwardly from the spring member. A ridge is located opposite the outlet from the cylindrical screw body and formed at least partially around the circumference of the screw head wherein the spring member is retracted during installation and, upon the ridge engaging a flange, the spring member is released preventing screw head removal by entrapping the flange between the ridge and the tongue of the spring member.

CROSS REFERENCE OF RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] The present application claims the priority of the Chinese Patent Application No. 200610067177.9, filed on Apr. 6, 2006, and the Chinese Patent Application No. 200610113864.X, filed on Oct. 20, 2006, which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety and for all purposes. FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0002] The present invention relates to spherical magnesium halide complexes comprising a magnesium halide, an alcohol and a gem-dihydrocarbyloxy hydrocarbon, to spherical catalyst components and catalysts prepared from the spherical magnesium halide complexes, and to use of the catalysts in the polymerization of α-olefin CH 2 ═CHR or a mixture thereof, in which R is H, or alkyl or aryl having 1 to 12 carbon atoms. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0003] Spherical magnesium halide-alcohol complexes and spherical Ziegler-Natta catalysts prepared by supporting titanium compounds and electron donor compounds thereon are well-known in the art. When used in olefin polymerization, in particular, propylene polymerization, such spherical catalysts exhibit relatively high catalytic activities and isotacticities, and the resultant polymers have good particle morphology and higher bulk densities. [0004] Most of the known magnesium halide complexes are magnesium chloride-alcohol complexes comprising generally binary components of magnesium chloride and alcohol, and in some cases, the magnesium halide complexes further comprise a minor amount of water. Such magnesium halide complexes may be prepared by known processes, such as spray drying process, spray cooling process, high-pressure extruding process, or high-speed stirring process. The magnesium chloride-alcohol complexes are described in, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,421,674, U.S. Pat. No. 4,469,648, WO 87/07620, WO 93/11166, U.S. Pat. No. 5,100,849, U.S. Pat. No. 6,020,279, U.S. Pat. No. 4,399,054, EP 0 395 383, U.S. Pat. No. 6,127,304 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,323,152. [0005] When the catalysts prepared from such magnesium chloride-alcohol complexes are used in olefin polymerization, a cracking phenomenon of the catalyst particles takes place easily so that there are many polymer fines. The main reason might be that catalytic active sites formed in the complex supports by reacting the complexes with titanium halides and electron donor compounds are not uniformly distributed. In order to overcome this drawback, it has been attempted to incorporate electron donor compounds in the course of the preparation of the magnesium chloride-alcohol complex supports. For example, the techniques as disclosed in Chinese Patent ZL02136543.1 and CN1563112A introduce internal electron donors well-known in the art, such as phthalates, in the preparation of the supports so as to form spherical “magnesium chloride-alcohol-phthalate” multi-component supports, which react then with titanium tetrachloride to form catalysts. However, because the spherical multi-component supports are likely viscous during the preparation thereof, it is difficult to form spherical particles having a desired particle diameter (the disclosed spherical supports have average particle sizes, D50, in the range of from 70 to 200 microns). Furthermore, when used in propylene polymerization, the catalysts exhibit a catalytic activity of 406 gPP/gcat. Therefore, the catalysts are not satisfied. [0006] Moreover, when used in propylene polymerization, the catalysts prepared from the above magnesium chloride-alcohol complex supports exhibit un-satisfied hydrogen response so that they cannot meet the requirement of industrial scale production of polypropylene. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0007] The inventors diligently studied to solve the aforementioned problems. As a result, they have found out that introducing a gem-dihydrocarbyloxy hydrocarbon compound in the preparation of a magnesium halide complex may provide a novel particulate magnesium halide complex, which not only has a narrower particle size distribution and an easily controlled average particle size but also can be prepared by a simple process (this facilitates the industrial scale production of the complex). Meanwhile, when used in olefin polymerization, especially propylene polymerization, the olefin polymerization catalysts prepared therefrom exhibit very high activities and isotacticities, and better hydrogen response, and the resulting polymers have good particle morphology and less fines so that the catalysts are quite suitable for the industrial scale production of polypropylene. Furthermore, catalysts based on the combination of the supports of the invention and diether type internal electron donors have a characteristic that the polymerization rate decreases more slowly when used in propylene polymerization. [0008] Thus, an object of the invention is to provide a spherical magnesium halide complex comprising a magnesium halide, an alcohol and a gem-dihydrocarbyloxy hydrocarbon. [0009] Another object of the invention is to provide a process for preparing the spherical magnesium halide complex according to the invention. [0010] Still another object of the invention is to provide a titanium-containing catalyst component for olefin polymerization, which is a reaction product of the spherical magnesium halide complex of the invention, at least one titanium compound, and optionally an internal electron donor. [0011] Still another object of the invention is to provide a catalyst for olefin polymerization, comprising a reaction product of the following components: [0012] a) the titanium-containing catalyst component according to the invention; [0013] b) an alkylaluminum cocatalyst; and [0014] c) optionally, an external electron-donor. [0015] Still another object of the invention is to provide a process for polymerizing olefin CH 2 ═CHR, in which R is H, or alkyl or aryl having 1 to 12 carbon atoms, comprising contacting the olefin(s) with the catalyst according to the invention under polymerization conditions. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0016] FIG. 1 plots activities of the catalyst of Example 5 according to the invention and that of Comparative Example 3 at different polymerization time. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS [0017] In the first aspect, the present invention provides a spherical magnesium halide complex comprising a magnesium halide, an alcohol and a gem-dihydrocarbyloxy hydrocarbon. [0018] In an embodiment, the spherical magnesium halide complex has a composition represented by the formula (I): [0000] MgX 2 .m ROH. n E. p H 2 O  (I) [0000] wherein [0019] X is chloride or bromide or a C 1 -C 14 alkoxy or aryloxy, preferably chloride; [0020] R is C 1 -C 12 alkyl, C 3 -C 10 cycloalkyl or C 6 -C 10 aryl, preferably C 1 -C 4 alkyl; [0021] E is a gem-dihydrocarbyloxy hydrocarbon represented by the formula (II): [0000] [0000] wherein R 1 and R 2 , which are identical or different, are hydrogen or C 1 -C 10 linear or branched alkyl, C 3 -C 10 cycloalkyl, C 6 -C 10 aryl, C 7 -C 10 alkylaryl or arylalkyl, said aryl, alkylaryl and arylalkyl being optionally substituted by one or more halogen atoms on aromatic ring; R 1 and R 2 are optionally bonded to each other to form a ring or a fused ring system; R 3 and R 4 have the same meanings as defined for R 1 and R 2 other than hydrogen; [0022] m is in a range of from 1 to 5, preferably from 1.5 to 3.5; [0023] n is in a range of from 0.005 to 1.0, preferably from 0.02 to 0.3; and [0024] p is in a range of from 0 to 0.8. [0025] In a preferred embodiment, in the gem-dihydrocarbyloxy hydrocarbon compounds of the formula (II), the R 1 and R 2 , which are identical or different, are C 1 -C 10 linear or branched alkyl. In another preferred embodiment, in the gem-dihydrocarbyloxy hydrocarbon compounds of the formula (II), the R 3 and R 4 , which are identical or different, are C 1 -C 10 linear or branched alkyl, or C 6 -C 10 aryl. In another preferred embodiment, the R 1 , R 2 , R 3 and R 4 are independently methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, isobutyl, tert-butyl, pentyl, isopentyl, cyclopentyl, hexyl, cyclohexyl, phenyl, halogen-substituted phenyl, tolyl, halogen-substituted tolyl, indenyl, benzyl or phenethyl. More preferably, the R 1 and R 2 are independently methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, isopropyl, isobutyl, or isopentyl. [0026] Examples of the gem-dihydrocarbyloxy hydrocarbon compounds of the formula (II) include, but are not limited to, 2,2-dimethoxy propane, 2,2-dimethoxybutane, 2,2-dimethoxypentane, 3,3-dimethoxypentane, 2,2-diethoxypropane, 2,2-diethoxybutane, 2,2-diethoxypentane, 3,3-diethoxypentane, 2,2-diphenoxypropane, 1,1-dimethoxycyclopentane, 1,1-diethoxycyclopentane, 1,1-dimethoxycyclohexane, 1,1-diethoxycyclohexane, 2,2-dimethyl-1,3-dioxolane, 2-ethyl-2-methyl-1,3-dioxolane, 1,4-dioxa-spiro[4,4] nonane, 1,4-dioxa-spiro[4.5] decane, 2,2-dimethyl-1,3-dioxane, 2-ethyl-2-methyl-1,3-dioxane, 6,10-dioxa-spiro[4.5] decane, 1,5-dioxa-spiro[5,5]undecane, 2-methyl-1,4-dioxa-spiro[4,4] nonane, 2-methyl-1,4-dioxa-spiro[4,5] decane. [0027] In a particularly preferred embodiment, the magnesium halide complex according to the invention has a composition represented by the formula (I), [0000] MgX 2 .m ROH. n E. p H 2 O  (I) [0000] wherein X is chloride, R is a C 1 -C 4 alkyl, m is in a range of from 1.5 to 3.5, n is in a range of from 0.02 to 0.3, and E and p are as defined above. [0028] The magnesium halide complex according to the invention can be prepared by processes known in the art for preparing magnesium halide-alcohol complexes, such as spray drying process, spray cooling process, high-pressure extruding process, or high-speed stirring process. Typically, a magnesium halide, an alcohol and a gem-dihydrocarbyloxy hydrocarbon compound contact and react with each other under heating condition, with the final reaction temperature being high enough to molten the complex of the magnesium halide, the alcohol and the gem-dihydrocarbyloxy hydrocarbon compound to form a melt, preferably reaching 100 to 140° C., and then the melt of the complex is solidified to form solid particles. The contacting and reaction between the magnesium halide, the alcohol and the gem-dihydrocarbyloxy hydrocarbon compound are optionally performed in an inert liquid medium. The inert medium is generally an inert liquid aliphatic hydrocarbon solvent, such as kerosene, paraffin oil, vaseline oil, white oil, and the like, and when necessary, contains optionally some amount of an organic silicon compound or a surfactant, such as dimethyl silicone oil or the like. [0029] The magnesium halides useful in the preparation of the magnesium halide complex according to the invention include magnesium dichloride, magnesium dibromide, and derivatives of magnesium dichloride and magnesium dibromide formed by replacing one or two halogen atoms of magnesium dichloride or magnesium dibromide with C 1 -C 14 alkyl, aryl, alkoxy or aryloxy. Examples of the magnesium halides include, but are not limited to, magnesium dichloride, magnesium dibromide, phenoxy magnesium chloride, isopropoxy magnesium chloride, and butoxy magnesium chloride, with magnesium dichloride being preferred. The magnesium halides may be used alone or in combination. [0030] The alcohols useful in the preparation of the magnesium halide complex according to the invention may be represented by formula ROH, wherein R is C 1 -C 12 alkyl, C 3 -C 10 cycloalkyl or C 6 -C 10 aryl, preferably C 1 -C 4 alkyl. Examples of the alcohols include, but are not limited to, methanol, ethanol, n-propanol, iso-propanol, n-butanol, iso-butanol, n-pentanol, iso-pentanol, n-hexanol, n-octanol, 2-ethylhexanol, ethylene glycol and propylene glycol. [0031] In a preferred embodiment, the magnesium halide complex according to the invention may be prepared by a process comprising the steps of: [0032] (i) preparing a melt of a magnesium halide complex by: [0033] in a closed reactor, mixing the magnesium halide, the alcohol, the gem-dihydrocarbyloxy hydrocarbon compound and an inert medium, and heating the resultant mixture to a temperature of from 100 to 140° C. while stirring, to form a melt of a magnesium halide complex, [0034] wherein the magnesium halide is added in an amount of from 0.1 to 1.0 mol/liter of the inert medium, and the alcohol and the gem-dihydrocarbyloxy hydrocarbon compound are added in an amount of from 1 to 5 moles and from 0.005 to 1 mole, respectively, with respect to one mole of the magnesium halide; [0035] wherein the inert medium is generally an inert aliphatic hydrocarbon solvent, such as kerosene, paraffin oil, vaseline oil and white oil, and when necessary, contains optionally an organic silicon compound, such as organic silicon oil, for example, dimethyl silicone oil or the like; and [0036] wherein a trace amount of water contained in the magnesium halide and the alcohol may participate in the reaction for forming the complex; and during the preparation of the magnesium halide complex, the order of the addition of individual raw materials is arbitrary; and [0037] (ii) forming spherical particles of the magnesium halide complex by: [0038] applying shearing action on the above melt of the magnesium halide complex and then discharging it into a cooling medium, to form spherical particles of the magnesium halide complex, [0039] wherein the application of the shearing action may be accomplished by a conventional method, such as by a high-speed stirring process (see, for example, CN 1330086) or a spraying process (see, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,020,279), or through a super-gravity rotary bed (see, for example, CN 1580136A) or an emulsification apparatus (see, for example, CN 1463990A); [0040] wherein the cooling medium may be an inert hydrocarbon solvent having a relatively low boiling point, such as pentane, hexane, heptane, gasoline, petroleum ether, and the like, and may be controlled at a temperature of from −60° C. to 30° C., preferably from −40° C. to 0° C., prior to its contacting with the magnesium halide complex melt stream. [0041] After washed with an inert hydrocarbon solvent and dried, the above-prepared spherical particles of the magnesium halide complex may be used in the preparation of catalyst components for olefin polymerization. [0042] In the second aspect, the present invention provides a titanium-containing catalyst component for olefin polymerization, which comprises a reaction product of the spherical magnesium halide complex of the invention, at least one titanium compound, and optionally an internal electron donor. [0043] The titanium compound may be selected from those represented by formula TiX 3 or Ti(OR 3 ) 4-m X m , in which R 3 (s) is/are independently C 1 -C 14 aliphatic hydrocarbyl group, X(s) is/are independently F, Cl, Br or I, and m is an integer of from 1 to 4. Examples of the titanium compound include, but are not limited to, titanium tetrachloride, titanium tetrabromide, titanium tetraiodide, tetrabutoxy titanium, tetraethoxy titanium, tributoxy titanium chloride, dibutoxy titanium dichloride, butoxy titanium trichloride, triethoxy titanium chloride, diethoxy titanium dichloride, ethoxy titanium trichloride, titanium trichloride, and mixtures thereof, with titanium tetrachloride being preferred. [0044] Use of internal electron donor compounds in catalyst components for olefin polymerization is well known in the art. In particular, the incorporation of an internal electron donor compound in a catalyst component for propylene polymerization may be quite necessary, in order to obtain propylene polymers having high isotacticity. All internal electron-donor compounds commonly used in the art can be used in the present invention. [0045] Suitable internal electron donor compounds include esters, ethers, ketones, amines, silanes, and the like. [0046] Preferred ester compounds include esters of aliphatic and aromatic mono- and poly-basic carboxylic acids, such as benzoates, phthalates, malonates, succinates, glutarates, pivalates, adipates, sebacates, maleates, naphthalene dicarboxylates, trimellitates, benzene-1,2,3-tricarboxylates, pyromellitates and carbonates. Examples include ethyl benzoate, diethyl phthalate, di-iso-butyl phthalate, di-n-butyl phthalate, di-iso-octyl phthalate, di-n-octyl phthalate, diethyl malonate, dibutyl malonate, diethyl 2,3-di-iso-propylsuccinate, di-iso-butyl 2,3-di-iso-propylsuccinate, di-n-butyl 2,3-diisopropylsuccinate, dimethyl 2,3-di-iso-propylsuccinate, di-iso-butyl 2,2-dimethylsuccinate, di-iso-butyl 2-ethyl-2-methylsuccinate, diethyl 2-ethyl-2-methylsuccinate, diethyl adipate, dibutyl adipate, diethyl sebacate, dibutyl sebacate, diethyl maleate, di-n-butyl maleate, diethyl naphthalene dicarboxylate, dibutyl naphthalene dicarboxylate, triethyl trimellitate, tributyl trimellitate, triethyl benzene-1,2,3-tricarboxylate, tributyl benzene-1,2,3-tricarboxylate, tetraethyl pyromellitate, tetrabutyl pyromellitate, etc. [0047] Preferred ester compounds further include esters of polyols represented by the general formula (III), [0000] [0000] wherein R 1 to R 6 and R 1 to R 2n , which are identical or different, are hydrogen, halogen, or optionally substituted linear or branched C 1 -C 20 alkyl, C 3 -C 20 cycloalkyl, C 6 -C 20 mono-ring or multi-ring aryl, C 7 -C 20 alkylaryl, C 7 -C 20 arylalkyl, C 2 -C 10 alkenyl, or C 2 -C 10 ester group, with the proviso that R 1 and R 2 are not hydrogen; R 3 to R 6 and R 1 to R 2n optionally comprise one or more heteroatoms, which are selected from the group consisting of nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, silicon, phosphorus and halogen, replacing carbon or hydrogen or the both; and one or more of R 3 to R 6 and R 1 to R 2n are optionally linked to form a ring; and n is an integer ranging from 0 to 10. [0048] Such ester compounds of polyols are disclosed in detail in WO 03/068828 and WO 03/068723, all relevant contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. [0049] Among said ester compounds of polyols, the preferred are those of the general formula (IV), [0000] [0000] wherein R 1 to R 6 and R 1 to R 2 are as defined in the general formula (III). [0050] For the ester compounds of polyols represented by the general formulae (III) and (IV), it is preferred that R 3 , R 4 , R 5 and R 6 are not simultaneously hydrogen, and at least one of R 3 , R 4 , R 5 and R 6 is selected from the group consisting of halogen, C 1 -C 10 linear or branched alkyl, C 3 -C 10 cycloalkyl, C 6 -C 10 aryl, C 7 -C 10 alkylaryl and arylalkyl. [0051] Among said ester compounds of polyols of the formula (III), the preferred are also those of the general formula (V): [0000] [0000] wherein R 1 -R 6 are as defined in the general formula (III); R's are identical or different, and are hydrogen, halogen, linear or branched C 1 -C 20 alkyl, C 3 -C 20 cycloalkyl, C 6 -C 20 aryl, C 7 -C 20 alkylaryl, or C 7 -C 20 arylalkyl. [0052] For the ester compounds of polyols represented by the formulae (III), (IV) and (V), it is preferred that at least one of R 1 and R 2 is selected from the group consisting of phenyl, halophenyl, alkylphenyl and haloalkyl-phenyl. [0053] The preferred ether compounds include 1,3-diether compounds represented by the general formula (VI): [0000] [0000] wherein R I , R II , R III , R IV , R V and R VI , which are identical or different, are selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, halogen, linear or branched C 1 -C 20 alkyl, C 3 -C 20 cycloalkyl, C 6 -C 20 aryl, C 7 -C 20 alkylaryl and C 7 -C 20 arylalkyl; and R VII and R VIII , which are identical or different, are selected from the group consisting of linear or branched C 1 -C 20 alkyl, C 3 -C 20 cycloalkyl, C 6 -C 20 aryl, C 7 -C 20 alkylaryl and C 17 -C 20 arylalkyl; and two or more of R I to R VI may be bonded to each other to form a ring. Those 1,3-diethers wherein R VII and R VIII are independently C 1 -C 4 alkyl are preferred. Such 1,3-diether compounds are disclosed in Chinese Patent ZL89108368.5 and CN1141285A, the relevant contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. [0054] The titanium-containing catalyst component for olefin polymerization according to the invention may be prepared by methods known in the art, for example, by reacting the particulate magnesium halide complex with a titanium compound. In a preferred embodiment, the titanium-containing catalyst component for olefin polymerization according to the invention is prepared by a method comprising the steps of: suspending the magnesium halide complex of the invention in chilled titanium tetrachloride or a mixture of titanium tetrachloride and an inert solvent, with the temperature of the liquid being generally in a range of from −30° C. to 0° C., preferably from −20° C. to −10° C.; then heating the resulting mixture to a temperature of from 40° C. to 130° C., preferably from 60° C. to 120° C., and maintaining at that temperature for 0.5 to 2.0 hours; and then filtering off the liquid and recovering the solids. Such treatment with titanium tetrachloride may be performed for one or more times, and preferably for 2 to 4 times. The inert solvent is preferably an aliphatic or aromatic hydrocarbon, such as hexane, heptane, octane, decane, toluene, and the like. [0055] Before, during or after the reaction between the particulate magnesium halide complex and the titanium compound, at least one internal electron donor compound may be used to treat the magnesium halide complex. [0056] In the preparation of the titanium-containing catalyst component according to the invention, the titanium compound is used in an amount of from 5 to 50 moles, with respect to one mole of magnesium halide in the magnesium halide complex; and the internal electron donor compound is used in an amount of from 0 to 1.0 mole, preferably from 0.01 to 0.5 moles, with respect to one mole of magnesium halide in the magnesium halide complex. [0057] In the third aspect, the present invention provides a catalyst for olefin polymerization, comprising a reaction product of the following components: [0058] a) the titanium-containing catalyst component according to the present invention (active component); [0059] b) an alkylaluminum cocatalyst, represented by formula AlR 1 n X 3-n , wherein R 1 (s) is/are independently C 1 -C 8 linear, branched or cyclic alkyl; X is halide, preferably chloride; and n=1, 2 or 3. The preferred are triethyl aluminum, triisobutyl aluminum, tri-n-butyl aluminum, tri-n-hexyl aluminum, tri-n-octyl aluminum, alkyl aluminum chlorides, such as AlEt 2 Cl, etc. These alkylaluminum compounds can be used alone or in combination. In general, the alkylaluminum compounds are used in such an amount that molar ratio of Al/Ti is in a range of from 1 to 1000; and [0060] c) optionally, an external electron-donor compound, such as mono- or multi-functional carboxylic acids, carboxylic anhydrides, and esters of carboxylic acids, ketones, ethers, alcohols, lactones, organic phosphorus compounds, and organic silicon compounds, in an amount ranging from 0.005 to 0.5 moles, preferably from 0.01 to 0.25 moles, with respect to one mole of the alkylaluminum compound. [0061] Preferred external electron-donor compounds include silicon compounds of formula R 1 a R 2 b Si(OR 3 ) c , wherein a and b are independently an integer of from 0 to 2, c is an integer of from 1 to 3, and the sum of (a+b+c) is 4; R 1 , R 2 and R 3 are independently C 1 -C 18 hydrocarbyl optionally containing heteroatom(s). Among these silicon compounds, those wherein a is 1, b is 1, c is 2, at least one of R 1 and R 2 is selected from the group consisting of branched alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl or aryl having 3 to 10 carbon atoms and optionally containing heteroatom(s), and R 3 is a C 1 -C 10 alkyl, especially methyl, are particularly preferred. Examples of such silicon compounds include cyclohexyl methyl dimethoxy silane, diisopropyl dimethoxy silane, di-n-butyl dimethoxy silane, di-iso-butyl dimethoxy silane, diphenyl dimethoxy silane, methyl tert-butyl dimethoxy silane, dicyclopentyl dimethoxy silane, 2-ethylpiperidino tert-butyl dimethoxy silane, 1,1,1-trifluoro-2-propyl 2-ethylpiperidino dimethoxy silane and 1,1,1-trifluoro-2-propyl methyl dimethoxy silane. Additionally, those silicon compounds wherein a is 0, c is 3, R 2 is a branched alkyl or cycloalkyl optionally containing heteroatom(s), and R 3 is methyl are also preferred. Examples of such silicon compounds include cyclohexyl trimethoxy silane, tert-butyl trimethoxy silane and tert-hexyl trimethoxy silane. [0062] Preferred external electron-donor compounds include also the aforementioned 1,3-diether compounds of the formula (VI), among which 2-isopentyl-2-isopropyl-1,3-dimethoxypropane and 9,9-bis(methoxymethyl)fluorene are particularly preferred. [0063] The alkyl aluminium cocatalysts b) and the optional external electron-donor compounds c) can contact and react with the active component a) separately or as a mixture. [0064] The catalysts of the invention are useful in polymerization of olefin CH 2 ═CHR (wherein R is H, or alkyl or aryl having 1 to 12 carbon atoms) or a feed containing said olefin and a small amount of diene, if necessary. [0065] Thus, in the fourth aspect, the present invention provides a process for polymerizing olefin, comprising contacting an olefin of formula CH 2 ═CHR, wherein R is H, or alkyl or aryl having 1 to 12 carbon atoms, and optionally another kind of said olefin as comonomer, and optionally a diene as a second comonomer, with the catalysts of the invention under polymerization conditions. [0066] The polymerization of olefin(s) is carried out in liquid phase of liquid monomer or a solution of monomer in an inert solvent, or in gas phase, or in a combination of gas phase and liquid phase, according to the known processes. The polymerization is generally carried out at a temperature of from 0° C. to 150° C., preferably from 60° C. to 100° C., and at normal or higher pressure. [0067] Without limited by any theory, it is believed that, because the active sites in the catalysts prepared from the spherical magnesium halide complexes of the invention are distributed uniformly, polymer fines, which are generally considered as being resulted from cracking of catalyst particles, are substantially reduced, when the catalysts are used in olefin polymerization, especially propylene polymerization. Meanwhile, the catalysts exhibit better hydrogen response, and very high activities and isotacticities. EXAMPLES [0068] The following examples are provided to further illustrate the present invention and by no means intend to limit the scope thereof. Testing Methods: [0069] 1. Melt index of polymers: ASTM D 1238-99. [0070] 2. Isotacticity of polymers: measured by heptane extraction method carried out as follows: 2 g of dry polymer sample is extracted with boiling heptane in an extractor for 6 hours, then the residual substance is dried to constant weight, and the ratio of the weight of the residual polymer (g) to 2 is regarded as isotacticity. [0071] 3. Particle size distribution: average particle size and particle size distribution of the particulate magnesium halide complexes are measured on Masters Sizer Model 2000 (manufactured by Malvern Instruments Co., Ltd.). Example 1 A. Preparation of Spherical Magnesium Chloride Complex [0072] To a 1 L autoclave were charged with 110 ml of white oil (having a rotational viscosity of 13-16 m/s at 25° C., obtained from Hengshun Petroleum and Chemical Corp., Fushun, Liaoning), 220 ml of dimethyl silicone oil (having a rotational viscosity of 350-400 m/s at 25° C., obtained from the Second Chemical Factory of Beijing, Beijing), 15 g of magnesium chloride, 28 ml of ethanol and 4 ml of 2,2-dimethoxy propane. The mixture was heated to 125° C. while stirring at 300 rpm and maintained at that temperature for 3 hours. Then the mixture was passed through an emulsifier in line (Model WL 500 CY emulsifier obtained from Shanghai High-shearing Homogenizer Co., Ltd.) and discharged into 3 liters of hexane which had previously been cooled to −30° C. After filtering off the liquid, the solids were washed with hexane thrice and then dried under vacuum, to give 30.3 g of spherical magnesium chloride complex, which was found to have an average particle diameter of 50 microns. B. Preparation of Spherical Catalyst Component [0073] To a 300 ml glass reactor was charged with 100 ml of titanium tetrachloride, and the content was cooled to −20° C. Then 8 g of the above-prepared spherical magnesium chloride complex was added to the reactor, and the reaction mixture was heated to 100° C. over 3 hours, and 1.5 ml of di-iso-butyl phthalate was added thereto during the heating. Then the mixture was maintained at 100° C. for 0.5 hours, followed by filtering off the liquid. The residual solids were washed with titanium tetrachloride twice and with hexane thrice, and then dried under vacuum, to give a spherical catalyst component. C. Propylene Polymerization [0074] To a 5 L autoclave were added 2.5 liters of propylene, 1 mmol of triethyl aluminium, 0.05 mmol of cyclohexyl methyl dimethoxy silane (CHMMS), 10 mg of the above spherical catalyst component, and 1.5 liters (standard volume) of hydrogen gas. Then the content was heated to 70° C. and allowed to polymerize for 1 hour. The results are shown in the below Table 1 and Table 2. Example 2 [0075] Propylene polymerization was carried out using the catalyst component prepared in Example 1 according to the same procedure as described in Example 1.C, except for that the amount of hydrogen gas was changed to 5.0 liters (standard volume). The results are shown in the below Table 1 and Table 2. Example 3 A. Preparation of Spherical Magnesium Chloride Complex [0076] A spherical magnesium chloride complex was prepared according to the same procedure as described in Example 1.A, except for that the amount of 2,2-dimethoxy propane was changed to 6 ml. 31 Grams of spherical magnesium chloride complex were obtained and found to have an average particle diameter of 61 microns. B. Preparation of Spherical Catalyst Component [0077] A spherical catalyst component was prepared according to the same procedure as described in Example 1.B, except for that the spherical magnesium chloride complex as prepared in the above A was used to replace the spherical magnesium chloride complex as prepared in Example 1.A. C. Propylene Polymerization [0078] Propylene polymerization was carried out using the catalyst component prepared in the above B according to the same procedure as described in Example 1.C. The results are shown in the below Table 1 and Table 2. Example 4 [0079] Propylene polymerization was carried out using the catalyst component prepared in Example 3 according to the same procedure as described in Example 1.C, except for that the amount of hydrogen gas was changed to 5.0 liters (standard volume). The results are shown in the below Table 1 and Table 2. Comparative Example 1 A. Preparation of Spherical Magnesium Chloride Complex [0080] A spherical magnesium chloride complex was prepared according to the same procedure as described in Example 1.A, except for that no 2,2-dimethoxy propane was used B. Preparation of Spherical Catalyst Component [0081] A spherical catalyst component was prepared according to the same procedure as described in Example 1.B, except for that the spherical magnesium chloride complex as prepared in the above A was used to replace the spherical magnesium chloride complex as prepared in Example 1.A. C. Propylene Polymerization [0082] Propylene polymerization was carried out using the catalyst component prepared in the above B according to the same procedure as described in Example 1.C. The results are shown in the below Table 1 and Table 2. Comparative Example 2 [0083] Propylene polymerization was carried out using the catalyst component prepared in Comparative Example 1 according to the same procedure as described in Example 1.C, except for that the amount of hydrogen gas was changed to 5.0 liters (standard volume). The results are shown in the below Table 1 and Table 2. [0000] TABLE 1 Properties of the Catalysts Activity Isotacticity Index MI of Polymer Example No. kgPP/gcat of Polymer % g/10 min Example 1 47.0 98.5 3.9 Example 2 54.2 97.1 26 Example 3 47.1 98.1 4.8 Example 4 54.7 97.3 30 Comparative Example 1 48.2 98.2 2.9 Comparative Example 2 51.3 97.1 21 [0000] TABLE 2 Particle Size Distribution of Polymers Above 0.9 to 0.43 0.43 to 0.3 Below 2 mm 2 to 0.9 mm mm mm 0.3 mm Example No. wt % wt % wt % wt % wt % Example 2 18.3 67.5 10.9 1.6 1.7 Example 4 22.8 69.3 7.0 0.4 0.5 Comparative 10.0 37.3 42.1 4.5 6.6 Example 2 [0084] From the data shown in the Table 1, it can be seen that, when used in propylene polymerization, the catalysts prepared from the magnesium chloride complexes according to the invention exhibit higher catalytic activities, and in particular, better hydrogen response. [0085] From the data shown in the Table 2, it can be seen that the polymers, which are obtained from propylene polymerization using the catalysts prepared from the magnesium chloride complexes according to the invention, have less fines, that indicates that cracking of the catalyst particles is substantially reduced. Example 5 A. Preparation of Spherical Magnesium Chloride Complex [0086] To a 150 L reactor were charged with 20 liters of white oil (having a rotational viscosity of 13-16 m/s at 25° C., obtained from Hengshun Petroleum and Chemical Corp., Fushun, Liaoning), 80 liters of dimethyl silicone oil (having a rotational viscosity of 350-400 m/s at 25° C., obtained from the Second Chemical Factory of Beijing, Beijing), 7 Kg of magnesium chloride, 11.3 liters of ethanol and 1.8 liters of 2,2-dimethoxy propane. The mixture was heated to 125° C. while stirring and maintained at that temperature for 3 hours. Then the mixture was passed through a super-gravity rotary bed (from Beijing Research Institute of Chemical Industry, Sinopec., Beijing) and discharged into 1000 liters of hexane which had previously been cooled to −30° C. After filtering off the liquid, the solids were washed with hexane thrice and then dried under vacuum, to give a spherical solid magnesium chloride complex. B. Preparation of Spherical Catalyst Component [0087] To a 300 ml glass reactor was charged with 100 ml of titanium tetrachloride, and the content was cooled to −20° C. Then 8 g of the above-prepared spherical magnesium chloride complex was added to the reactor, and the reaction mixture was heated to 110° C. over 3 hours, and 1.5 ml of 2-isopentyl-2-isopropyl-1,3-dimethoxy propane was added thereto during the heating. After filtering off the liquid, the residual solids were washed with titanium tetrachloride twice and with hexane thrice, and then dried under vacuum, to give a spherical catalyst component. C. Propylene Polymerization [0088] To a 5 L autoclave were added 2.5 liters of propylene, 1 mmol of triethyl aluminium, 0.05 mmol of CHMMS, 10 mg of the above spherical catalyst component, and 1.5 liters (standard volume) of hydrogen gas. Then the content was heated to 70° C. and allowed to polymerize for 1 hour. The results are shown in the below Table 3. Example 6 [0089] Propylene polymerization was carried out using the catalyst component prepared in Example 5 according to the same procedure as described in Example 5.C, except for that the amount of hydrogen gas was changed to 5.0 liters (standard volume). The results are shown in the below Table 3. Example 7 [0090] Four runs of propylene polymerization were carried out using the catalyst component prepared in Example 5 according to the same procedure as described in Example 5.C, except for that the polymerization time was changed to 0.5, 2, 3, and 4 hours, respectively. The results are shown in the below Table 3. Comparative Example 3 A. Preparation of Spherical Magnesium Chloride Complex [0091] To a 150 L reactor were charged with 20 liters of white oil, 80 liters of dimethyl silicone oil, 7 Kg of magnesium chloride, and 11.3 liters of ethanol. The mixture was heated to 125° C. while stirring and maintained at that temperature for 3 hours. Then the mixture was passed through a super-gravity rotary bed (from Beijing Research Institute of Chemical Industry, Sinopec., Beijing) and discharged into 1000 liters of hexane which had previously been cooled to −30° C. After filtering off the liquid, the solids were washed with hexane thrice and then dried under vacuum, to give a spherical solid magnesium chloride complex. B. Preparation of Spherical Catalyst Component [0092] A spherical catalyst component was prepared according to the same procedure as described in Example 5.B, except for that the spherical magnesium chloride complex as prepared in the above A was used to replace the spherical magnesium chloride complex as prepared in Example 5.A. C. Propylene Polymerization [0093] Propylene polymerization was carried out using the catalyst component prepared in the above B according to the same procedure as described in Example 5.C. The results are shown in the below Table 3. Comparative Example 4 [0094] Propylene polymerization was carried out using the catalyst component prepared in Comparative Example 3 according to the same procedure as described in Example 5.C, except for that the amount of hydrogen gas was changed to 5.0 liters (standard volume). The results are shown in the below Table 3. Comparative Example 5 [0095] Four runs of propylene polymerization were carried out using the catalyst component prepared in Comparative Example 3 according to the same procedure as described in Example 5.C, except for that the polymerization time was changed to 0.5, 2, 3, and 4 hours, respectively. The results are shown in the below Table 3. [0000] TABLE 3 Properties of the catalysts Hydrogen Polymerization MI of added in the time Activity I.I of polymers Example No. polymerization L hr kgPP/gcat polymers % g/10 min Example 5 1.5 1 54.2 98.9 5.1 Example 6 5.0 1 79.9 97.8 42 Example 7 1.5 0.5 37.5 97.9 7.2 1.5 2 65.7 98.5 4.8 1.5 3 100 98.6 6.3 1.5 4 144 98.3 8.6 Comparative 1.5 1 45.5 98.6 7.7 Example 3 Comparative 5.0 1 76.5 97.3 51 Example 4 Comparative 1.5 0.5 42.2 97.9 6.5 Example 5 1.5 2 85.7 98.1 4.1 1.5 3 103 98.6 6.9 1.5 4 114 98.7 7.9 [0096] From the data shown in the Table 3, it can be seen that the catalyst based on the combination of the support according to the invention and the diether type internal electron donor remains the characteristics of catalysts containing a diether type internal electron donor, such as higher activity and better hydrogen response, when the catalyst is used in propylene polymerization. [0097] From the data shown in the Table 3 and FIG. 1 , it can be seen that, when used in propylene polymerization, the catalyst based on the combination of the support according to the invention and the diether type internal electron donor has a characteristic that the polymerization rate decreases more slowly so that it is particularly suitable for a polymerization process having multiple reactors in series, facilitating to make productivities of the reactors matching and enhance output of polypropylene plants. [0098] The patents, patent applications and testing methods cited in the specification are incorporated herein by reference. [0099] While the invention has been described with reference to exemplary embodiments, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes and modifications may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. Therefore, the invention is not limited to the particular embodiments disclosed as the best mode contemplated for carrying out this invention, but the invention will include all embodiments falling within the scope of the appended claims.

The component of magnesium halide adduct is represented by MgX 2 mROH nE pH 2 O, in which X is chlorine, bromine, C 1 -C 14 alkoxy or aryloxy; R is C 1 -C 12 alkyl, C 3 -C 10 cycloalkyl or C 6 -C 10 aryl; E is represented by the general formula (II), wherein R 1 and R 2 which can be the same or different to each other, are hydrogen or linear or branched C 1 -C 10 hydrocarbon groups, C 3 -C 10 cycloalkyl, C 6 -C 10 aryl, C 7 -C 10 alkaryl or aralkyl, optionally, the said aryl or alkylaryl or arylalkyl is substituted by one or more halogen in the aromatic ring, R 1 and R 2 can form ring or fused ring. R 3 and R 4 have the same meaning of R 1 and R 2 except that they can't be hydrogen, m is 1-5, n is 0.005-1.0, and p is 0-0.8. Spherical catalyst component and catalyst made from the above spherical magnesium halide adduct and their use in polymerising the alpha-olefins CH2=CHR and their mixture are provided, in which R is hydrogen or C 1 -C 12 alkyl or aryl.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION(S) [0001] The present application is a continuation application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/614,058 filed Nov. 6, 2009. The content of the foregoing application is incorporated by reference in its entirety. BACKGROUND [0002] Digital channels can be broadcast to subscribers via a network. The network may communicate the digital channels to node groups, which correspond to a group of subscribers located near one another (e.g., within a neighborhood). In some instances, only a portion of the channels are being simultaneously watched by the subscribers of a single node group, resulting in bandwidth being used to transport unwatched channels. SUMMARY [0003] The following presents a simplified summary in order to provide a basic understanding of some aspects as described herein. The summary is not an extensive overview of all aspects. It is neither intended to identify key or critical elements nor to delineate the scope of the present disclosure. The following summary merely presents various example concepts in a simplified form as a prelude to the more detailed description below. [0004] According to some aspects, systems and methods may include, responsive to a request by a client device identifying a video program, determining different first and second network paths for delivery of the video program from a content source; delivering the video program via the first network path to the client device; and responsive to a change in status of the video program being delivered via the first network path, delivering the video program via the second network path to the client device. [0005] According to some aspects, systems and methods may include, responsive to a request by a client device identifying a video program, determining different first and second network paths for delivery of the video program from first and second content sources; delivering the video program via the first network path from the first content source to the client device; and responsive to a change in status of the video program being delivered via the first network path, delivering the video program via the second network path from the second content source to the client device. [0006] According to some aspects, systems and methods may include, responsive to a request by a client device identifying a video program, determining a redundant join type based on at least one of the following: whether multiple sources are available that provide the video program, a present balance of traffic on one or more video interface inputs of an edge device, or a subscriber service level; and generating and communicating a program setup request comprising the redundant join type to the edge device. [0007] These and other aspects of the disclosure will be apparent upon consideration of the following detailed description. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0008] A more complete understanding of the present disclosure and the potential advantages of various aspects described herein may be acquired by referring to the following description in consideration of the accompanying drawings, in which like reference numbers indicate like features, and wherein: [0009] FIG. 1 is a functional block diagram of an illustrative system for providing redundant multicast service to one or more client devices; [0010] FIG. 2 is a functional block diagram of an illustrative computer, which may embody any of the functional blocks of FIG. 1 ; [0011] FIGS. 3A-D are signaling diagrams showing illustrative interactions between functional blocks of FIG. 1 ; and [0012] FIG. 4 is a flow chart showing illustrative steps that may be performed by the system of FIG. 1 . DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0013] FIG. 1 is a functional block diagram of an illustrative system for providing redundant multicast service to one or more client devices. In this example, the system includes one or more content sources 104 (e.g., sources A, B, and C), a network 101 , and one or more client devices 110 (e.g., client devices 110 A-D). The system as shown also includes a head end 150 , which may include, for example, an edge resource manager (ERM) 102 or other type of edge device controller, routers 106 A and 106 B, one or more edge devices such as quadrature amplitude modulation devices (QAMs) 108 A and 108 B, and a switched digital video session manager (SDVSM) 103 . The system may also include other head ends similar to or different from head end 150 , each serving other client devices. The interconnections between the various functional blocks in FIG. 1 may be unidirectional or bidirectional as desired. [0014] The system may act to provide content (e.g., video and/or audio content) from one or more of sources 104 to one or more of client devices 110 . In some embodiments, the system may be a television content distribution system or an Internet Protocol television (IPTV) distribution system. Accordingly, the content may include television shows, movies, advertisements, etc. The content may be delivered to client devices 110 via switched video techniques, which is also known as switched digital video (SDV). [0015] In a typical television or IPTV distribution system, content is provided over a plurality of different channels. Using SDV, the physical distribution path between head end 150 and one or more of client devices 110 carries only a subset of available channels based on channel requests by those client devices. For instance, only those channels requested by the client devices at any given time may be carried on the distribution path. While those channels not requested may still be available by the system, those non-requested channels may not be propagated into the distribution path. Because only a subset of the channels are typically requested at any given time, and because only a subset of the client devices will be in use at any given time, SDV may allow more available channels to be provided without necessarily increasing the actual maximum available bandwidth of the distribution path. [0016] Thus, the use of SDV typically means that the network paths through which content is delivered (e.g., multicast video content) dynamically changes depending upon which content the various network clients are requesting at any given time. In contrast, non-SDV systems typically provide static delivery paths for content. Moreover, it is generally desirable to provide for path and/or content redundancy, in the event that there is a point of failure somewhere along a delivery path. While path redundancy may be fairly straightforward in a static path environment, this is less easy to accomplish in a dynamic path environment such as an SDV delivery network. Various techniques for providing such redundancy will be described later in the present disclosure. [0017] Any of the above-mentioned functional blocks, including ERM 102 , SDVSM 103 , routers 106 A-B, QAMs 108 A-B, and client devices 110 , may each be implemented, for example, as a computer or as a system or device that includes a computer. The term “computer” as referred to herein broadly refers to any electronic, electro-optical, and/or mechanical device, or system of multiple physically separate or physically joined such devices, that is able to process and manipulate information, such as in the form of data. Non-limiting examples of a computer include one or more personal computers (e.g., desktop or laptop), servers, smart phones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), television set top boxes, and/or a system of these in any combination or subcombination. In addition, a given computer may be physically located completely in one location or may be distributed amongst a plurality of locations (i.e., may implement distributive computing). A computer may be or include a general-purpose computer and/or a dedicated computer configured to perform only certain limited functions. [0018] A computer typically includes hardware that may execute software and/or be configured in hardware to perform specific functions. The software may be stored on a computer-readable medium in the form of computer-readable instructions. A computer may read those computer-readable instructions, and in response perform various steps as defined by those computer-readable instructions. Thus, any functions attributed to any of the functional blocks of FIG. 1 as described herein may be implemented, for example, by reading and executing such computer-readable instructions for performing those functions, and/or by any hardware subsystem (e.g., a processor) from which the computer is composed. [0019] The term “computer-readable medium” as used herein includes not only a single physical medium or single type of medium, but also a combination of one or more physical media and/or types of media. Examples of a computer-readable medium include, but are not limited to, one or more memories, hard drives, optical discs (such as CDs or DVDs), magnetic discs, and magnetic tape drives. [0020] Such a computer-readable medium may store computer-readable instructions (e.g., software) and/or computer-readable data (i.e., information that may or may not be executable). In the present example, a computer-readable medium (such as memory) may be included in any one or more of the functional blocks shown in FIG. 1 and may store computer-executable instructions and/or data used by any of those functional blocks. Alternatively or additionally, such a computer-readable medium storing the data and/or software may be physically separate from, yet accessible by, any of the functional blocks shown in FIG. 1 . [0021] Network 101 may be any type of network, and may be a single network or a combination of multiple networks, such as a cable and/or fiber optic and/or satellite television distribution network, a telephone network, and/or the Internet. Physically, network 101 may be embodied, for example, as multiple computers communicatively coupled together as a plurality of nodes in a wired and/or wireless manner. [0022] An example functional block diagram of a computer is shown in FIG. 2 , in which the computer is shown to include a processor 201 , a communications interface 202 , storage 203 , and a user interface 204 . In this example, the computer-readable medium may be embodied by storage 203 , and processor 201 may execute computer-executable instructions stored by storage 203 . Communications interface 202 may provide for unidirectional or bidirectional communications with any network or device external to that computer. For example, communications interface 202 as embodied in router 106 A may provide communications between network 101 and router 106 A, as well as between router 106 A and QAMs 108 A and B. User interface 204 may allow for unidirectional or bidirectional information transfer between the computer and a human user, such as via a display or a keyboard. Again, any of the functional blocks of FIG. 1 may be implemented as a computer such as shown in FIG. 2 . [0023] FIGS. 3A-D are signaling diagrams showing illustrative interactions between functional blocks of FIG. 1 , and FIG. 4 is a flow chart showing illustrative steps that may be performed by the system of FIG. 1 . [0024] With reference to FIGS. 1-4 , in block 401 ( FIG. 4 ), the flow diagram may include one of the client devices 110 requesting a video program by communicating a program request 302 to SDVSM 103 . In FIGS. 3A-D , the program request 302 may include a source identifier (source ID) of the requested source providing the video program of interest. Table I, below, provides information on example sources 104 and the services offered by each. Sources A and B, for instance, both provide the same Entertainment programming but have different source Internet Protocol (IP) addresses. [0000] TABLE I Source Multicast Group Source IP Program Source Service ID IP address address Number A Entertain-  4163 232.96.36.39:  69.240.57.203 1 ment 4039 program- ming B Entertain-  4163 232.96.36.39: 169.240.57.203 1 ment 4039 program- ming C News 12153 232.96.36.1:  69.240.57.194 1 program- 4001 ming [0025] To request a particular program, the client device 110 may, for example, communicate the program request 302 to the SDVSM 103 , requesting to tune to source ID 12153 (which identifies a News program from source C). The Source IP address may be a network address of a source 104 providing a multicast transporting the requested program. The Multicast Group IP address may be a destination network address of the group receiving the multicast, and the program number may be a place holder for an MPEG program number [0026] In block 402 , the flow diagram may include the SDVSM 103 processing the program request 302 and communicating an ERM program setup request 304 to the ERM 102 . In an example embodiment, the SDVSM 103 may determine whether the requested source ID is already being switched (i.e., not being provided) to another client device 110 of the same head end 150 . If not, then the SDVSM 103 sends the ERM program setup request 304 to the ERM 102 including the source ID of the source 104 providing the requested program. [0027] In block 403 , the flow diagram may include the ERM 102 processing the ERM program setup request 304 and determining a redundant join type for the requested program. In an example embodiment, the ERM 102 may determine one of four redundant join types: (1) a single-source multicast, concurrent join as described in connection with blocks 404 a - 409 a of FIG. 4 and FIG. 3A ; (2) a single-source multicast, serial join as described in connection with blocks 404 b - 409 b of FIG. 4 and FIG. 3B ; (3) a dual-source multicast, concurrent join as described in connection with blocks 404 c - 409 c of FIG. 4 and FIG. 3C ; or a (4) a dual-source multicast, serial join as described in connection with blocks 404 d - 409 d of FIG. 4 and FIG. 3D . [0028] The ERM 102 may determine the redundant join type based on various factors such as, but not limited to, whether multiple sources are available that provide the same requested program, the present balance of traffic on video interface inputs X, Y, and Z of the QAM 108 and/or in the network 101 and/or the head end 150 , and a service level purchased by a subscriber associated with the requesting client device 110 . [0029] In a concurrent join, as further described below, the QAM 108 is concurrently joined to, and therefore simultaneously receives, two redundant multicasts carrying the same program. If the QAM 108 fails to receive one of the two multicasts, the QAM 108 can rapidly switch and provide the other multicast, already being received by the QAM 108 , to the client device 110 with minimal or no service disruption. In comparison, in a serial join, the QAM 108 is initially joined to, and thus only initially receives, a single multicast carrying a program. If the multicast fails, the QAM 108 may request that a second multicast be provided over a different path and/or from a different source 104 . While a serial join can consume less bandwidth than a concurrent join, a larger service disruption may occur in a serial join before the second multicast can be established, as compared with a concurrent join. For this reason, a serial join may correspond to a lower service level than a concurrent join. Single-Source Multicast, Concurrent Join [0030] Where a single-source multicast, concurrent join is chosen in block 403 , the flow diagram may include in step 404 a the ERM 102 requesting the QAM 108 to set up a single-source multicast concurrent join. Referring to FIG. 3A , this request is represented by the ERM 102 communicating a QAM program setup request 306 identifying a join type instructing the QAM 108 to set up a single-source multicast, concurrent join. [0031] In response to the setup request 306 , the QAM 108 may, in block 405 a , join two multicasts that each transport the requested program and that are received via different paths, hereafter referred to respectively as primary and secondary paths. Prior to joining the multicasts in this manner, the QAM 108 may configure two of its video interface inputs (e.g., X and Z) to respectively receive primary and secondary multicasts. The multicast received over the primary path will be referred to herein as a primary multicast 312 P, and the multicast received over the secondary path will be referred to herein as a secondary multicast 312 S. The primary and secondary paths may be different paths across the system between the source 104 providing the multicast and the QAM 108 receiving the multicast. For example, the multicasts 312 P and 312 S may pass through different routers 106 . In FIG. 1 , for instance, source 104 A may provide a primary multicast 312 P routed through router 106 A and received at video interface input X of QAM 108 A, and a secondary multicast 312 S routed through router 106 B and received at video interface input Z of QAM 108 A. In another example, the primary and secondary paths may both pass through the same router (e.g., router 106 A), but may be forwarded to different video interface inputs (e.g., X and Y) of QAM 108 A via different links. While the former example provides less opportunities for a single point of failure, either configuration is possible. As such, the primary and secondary paths may pass through one or more common network elements and links, but the paths taken by those multicasts may differ in at least some way. [0032] To join a multicast, the QAM 108 may communicate a join request 308 to the source 104 via the network 101 , identifying a multicast to join that transports the requested program and the video interface inputs configured to receive the primary and secondary multicasts 312 P and 312 S. The QAM 0108 may also communicate an ERM program setup response 310 to the ERM 102 , but may or might not include multicast transport headers for both the primary and secondary multicasts 312 P and 312 S and the video interface inputs configured to receive the multicasts 312 P and 312 S. The ERM program setup response 310 may include a frequency and program number used by the client device 110 to tune to the requested program. The ERM 102 also might not respond to the ERM program setup response 310 from the QAM 108 when operating in pessimistic mode until receiving a multicast transporting the requested video. For example, in optimistic session setup, the QAM 108 may return the ERM program setup response 310 to the ERM 102 before it has acquired video even though no video is yet present on its output. In pessimistic session setup, the QAM 108 may not return the session setup response to the ERM 102 until it has acquired video and video is present on its output. [0033] Next, in block 406 a , the client device 110 receives the requested program. In an illustrative embodiment, the source 104 may communicate the primary multicast 312 P of the requested program to the head end 150 via the network 101 . The source 104 may also communicate the secondary multicast 312 S of the requested program to the head end 150 via the network 101 . For example, to generate the primary and secondary multicasts 312 P and 312 S, the single source 104 may provide the primary and secondary multicasts 312 P and 312 S to different network ports on different routers. Also, the primary and secondary multicasts 312 P and 312 S may be of different quality of video, with one being of higher quality than the other. The multicasts 312 P and 312 S may traverse different network paths when transmitted via a UDP datagram, which may propagate through the network 101 via multiple paths, and may arrive in a pseudo-random, or even a random order. [0034] The QAM 108 may detect data of the primary multicast 312 P on the video interface input configured to receive the primary multicast 312 P, and may forward the primary multicast 312 P to the client device 110 . The QAM 108 may also convert that primary multicast 312 P to a radio frequency (RF) video signal and transmit the RF video signal to the client device 110 . In response to initially detecting receipt of multicasts 312 P and 312 S, the QAM 108 may send an announce message 314 to the ERM 102 including a multicast header of each of the primary and secondary multicasts 312 P and 312 S successfully joined over the primary and secondary paths. In an example, a multicast header may include one or more of a multicast address of the requested program or service, a multicast port of the requested program or service, a multicast program of data within a transport stream (e.g., MPEG-2 stream), a source address from which data of the multicast is streamed, bandwidth (e.g., bits per second), and a destination address of a physical port on which a join request is sent. The ERM 102 may send an announce response 316 to the QAM 108 and respond to the SDVSM 103 with an SDVSM program setup response 318 . The SDVSM 103 may communicate a program confirm message 320 in response to receiving the SDVSM program setup response 318 . The program confirm message 320 may include a frequency and a program number, which the client device 110 may use to tune to the requested source ID transporting the requested program. [0035] At some point during providing the primary multicast to the requesting client device, the QAM 108 may detect a failure of the primary multicast at block 407 a . The failure may be of a link or some network element between the source 104 and the QAM 108 on the primary path, or of the video interface input receiving the primary multicast 312 P. To determine that a failure has occurred, the QAM 108 may determine that the primary multicast 312 P has not been received for a predetermined amount of time, such as for at least one millisecond, or for at least one second. Thus, a problem with the primary multicast signal that does not occur for at least the predetermined period of time may not be considered to qualify as a failure. A failure may be considered to have occurred not only based on a loss of the primary multicast signal, but alternatively based on a reduction in quality of the received video program carried by the primary multicast signal. [0036] In response to detecting the failure, the QAM 108 may fail over in block 409 a to the secondary multicast 312 S, and may begin forwarding the already-joined secondary multicast 312 S to the requesting client device 110 . Because the primary and secondary multicasts 312 P and 312 S are concurrently joined, the QAM 108 is already receiving the secondary multicast 312 S at the time of the failure and can quickly begin providing the secondary multicast 312 S to the client device 110 to reduce or eliminate a disruption in service. The QAM 108 may also communicate an announce failover message 322 to the ERM 102 that includes the multicast transport header of the secondary multicast 312 S. The ERM 102 may respond with an announce failover response 324 . [0037] If the QAM 108 initially detects a failure prior to being capable of forwarding the primary multicast 312 P to the client device 100 , the QAM 108 may failover to the secondary multicast 312 S. In such a scenario, with reference to FIG. 3A , the QAM 108 may not communicate announce message 314 and may not receive announce response 316 . Instead, upon detecting the failure, the QAM 108 may forward the secondary multicast 312 S to the client device 110 , and may communicate the announce failover message 322 to the ERM 102 . The ERM 102 may respond with the announce failover response 324 and may communicate the SDVSM program setup response 318 to the SDVSM 103 . The SDVSM 103 may then communicate the program confirm message 320 to the client device 110 , as discussed above. Further, if there is the single source 104 A fails, then the client device 110 may signal loss of the channel to the SDVSM 103 , and the SDVSM 103 may instruct the client device 110 to tune to a safe channel. Single-Source Multicast, Serial Join [0038] Referring again to FIG. 4 , in block 403 , the ERM may alternatively determine a join type of a single-source multicast, serial join for a requested program and so in block 404 b , the ERM 102 may request the QAM 108 to set up a single-source multicast, serial join, which is also described in FIG. 3B . FIG. 3B differs from FIG. 3A as to when the secondary multicast 312 S is joined. In FIG. 3A , the QAM 108 attempts to join the secondary multicast 312 S when (or shortly after) joining the primary multicast 312 P, without waiting for a failure of the primary multicast 312 P, and hence the QAM 108 may concurrently receive the primary and secondary multicasts 312 P and 312 S prior to such a failure. In FIG. 3B , the QAM 108 does not join the secondary multicast 312 S until a failure is identified for the primary multicast 312 P. [0039] Next, in block 405 b , the QAM 108 may join a primary multicast 312 P. In an example embodiment, the QAM 108 may configure two of its video interface inputs (e.g., X and Z) to respectively receive the primary and secondary multicasts 312 P and 312 S via the primary and secondary paths. Once configured, the QAM 108 may communicate a join request 308 A to the source 104 via the network 101 to join the primary multicast 312 P, but does not yet request to join the secondary multicast 312 S. The QAM 108 may also communicate an ERM program setup response 310 to the ERM 102 , but may or might not include a multicast transport header for the primary multicast 312 P and the video interface inputs configured to receive multicast 312 P. The ERM 102 also might not respond to the ERM program setup request 310 from the QAM 108 when operating in pessimistic mode until receiving a multicast transporting the requested video. [0040] Next, in block 406 b , the client device 110 may receive the program. In an example embodiment, the source 104 may provide the primary multicast 312 P of the requested program to the head end 150 via the network 101 . The QAM 108 may detect primary multicast 312 P on the video interface input specified in the join request 308 , and may forward the primary multicast 312 P to the client device 110 . In response to initially detecting receipt of multicast 312 P, the QAM 108 may send an announce message 314 to the ERM 102 including a multicast header of the primary multicast 312 P. The ERM 102 may then send an announce response 316 to the QAM 108 and respond to the SDVSM 103 with an SDVSM program setup response 318 . The SDVSM 103 may communicate the program confirm message 320 in response to the SDVSM program setup response 318 , as discussed above. [0041] Next, in block 407 b , the QAM 108 may detect a failure of the primary multicast, in the same manner as discussed above with regard to block 407 a. [0042] In block 408 b , in response to detecting the failure, the QAM 108 may join the secondary multicast 312 S, and may communicate a second join request 308 B to the source 104 . The second join request 308 B may specify the video interface input (e.g., input Z) previously allocated in block 405 b to receive the secondary multicast 312 S. The QAM 108 may then receive the secondary multicast 312 S from the source 104 over the secondary path. [0043] In block 409 b , once joined to the secondary multicast 312 S, the QAM 108 may then fail over to the secondary multicast 312 S via the secondary path, and may output the secondary multicast 312 S to the client device 110 . The QAM 108 may also communicate an announce failover message 322 to the ERM 102 that includes the multicast transport header of the secondary multicast 312 S. The ERM 102 may send an announce response 316 to the QAM 108 and respond to the SDVSM 103 with an SDVSM program setup response 318 . [0044] If the QAM 108 initially detects a failure prior to being capable of forwarding the primary multicast 312 P to the client device 100 , the QAM 108 may failover to the secondary multicast 312 S. In such a scenario, with reference to FIG. 3B , the QAM 108 may not communicate announce message 314 and may not receive announce response 316 from the ERM 102 . Instead, upon detecting the failure, the QAM 108 may send join request 308 B to the source 104 , and may begin receiving the secondary multicast 312 S. The QAM 108 may forward the secondary multicast 312 S to the client device 110 , and may communicate the announce failover message 322 to the ERM 102 . The ERM 102 may respond with the announce failover response 324 and may communicate the SDVSM program setup response 318 to the SDVSM 103 . The SDVSM 103 may then communicate the program confirm message 320 to the client device 110 , as discussed above. Dual-Source Multicast, Concurrent Join [0045] Referring again to FIG. 4 , in block 403 , the ERM may alternatively determine a join type of a dual-source multicast, concurrent join for a requested program, and so in block 404 c , the ERM 102 may request the dual-source multicast, concurrent join, which is also described in FIG. 3C . FIG. 3C differs from FIGS. 3A-B by including two different sources 104 A and 104 B providing the primary and secondary multicasts 312 P and 312 S, respectively, instead of a single source providing both the primary and secondary multicasts 312 P, 312 S. [0046] In block 405 c , in this case the QAM 108 may join primary and secondary multicasts 312 P and 312 S, respectively, being provided by different sources 104 A and 104 B. In an example embodiment, the QAM 108 may configure two of its video interface inputs (e.g., X and Z) to respectively receive the multicasts 312 P and 312 S via the primary and secondary paths. As above, the multicasts 312 P and 312 S may transport the same program, even though the program is being received from different sources 104 A and 104 B. Alternatively, the multicasts 312 P and 312 S may be related to each other, such as one being a national advertising version of a video program and the other being a local advertising version of the same video program. Once the video interface inputs are configured, the QAM 108 may communicate join request 308 A to source 104 A and join request 308 B to source 104 B. Each join request 308 A and 308 B may specify the multicast to join and a video interface input over which to receive the multicast. The QAM 108 may also communicate an ERM program setup response 310 to the ERM 102 , but may or might not include multicast transport headers for each of the primary and secondary multicasts 312 P and 312 S and the video interface inputs configured to receive multicasts 312 P and 312 S. The ERM 102 also might not respond to the ERM program setup request 310 from the QAM 108 when operating in pessimistic mode until receiving a multicast transporting the requested video. [0047] In block 406 c , the client device 110 may receive the video program. In an illustrative embodiment, the source 104 A may provide the primary multicast 312 P of the requested program to the head end 150 via the network 101 . The source 104 B may also provide the secondary multicast 312 S of the requested program to the head end 150 via the network 101 . The QAM 108 may detect the primary multicast 312 P on its video interface input specified in the join request 308 A, and may forward the primary multicast 312 P to the client device 110 . In response to initially detecting receipt of multicasts 312 P and 312 S, the QAM 108 may send an announce message 314 to the ERM 102 including a multicast header for each of the successfully joined multicasts 312 P and 312 S. The ERM 102 may send an announce response 316 to the QAM 108 and respond to the SDVSM 103 with an SDVSM program setup response 318 . The SDVSM 103 may communicate the program confirm message 320 in response to the SDVSM program setup response 318 , as discussed above. [0048] In block 407 c , the QAM 108 may detect a failure, in a manner as already described above. [0049] In block 409 c , in response to detecting a failure, the QAM 108 may fail over to the secondary multicast, and may output the secondary multicast 312 S to the client device 110 . The QAM 108 may also communicate an announce failover message 322 to the ERM 102 that includes the multicast transport header of the secondary multicast 312 S. The ERM 102 may respond with an announce failover response 324 . [0050] If the QAM 108 initially detects a failure prior to being capable of forwarding the primary multicast 312 P to the client device 100 , the QAM 108 may failover to the secondary multicast 312 S. In such a scenario, with reference to FIG. 3C , the QAM 108 may not communicate announce message 314 and may not receive announce response 316 . Instead, upon detecting the failure, the QAM 108 may forward the secondary multicast 312 S to the client device 110 , and may communicate the announce failover message 322 to the ERM 102 . The ERM 102 may respond with the announce failover response 324 and may communicate the SDVSM program setup response 318 to the SDVSM 103 . The SDVSM 103 may then communicate the program confirm message 320 to the client device 110 , as discussed above. Dual-Source Multicast, Serial Join [0051] Referring again to FIG. 4 , in block 403 , the ERM may determine a join type of a dual-source multicast, serial join for a requested program, and so in block 404 d , the ERM 102 may request QAM 108 set up the dual-source multicast, serial join, which is also described in FIG. 3D . In FIG. 3D , the ERM 102 may, for example, communicate a QAM program setup request 306 identifying a join type instructing the QAM 108 to set up a dual-source multicast, serial join. [0052] In block 405 d , the QAM 108 may join a primary multicast 312 P via a primary path. In an example embodiment, the QAM 108 may configure two of its video interface inputs (e.g., X and Z) to respectively receive the multicast via the primary and secondary paths. Once configured, the QAM 108 may communicate a join request 308 A to the source 104 A via the network 101 specifying the multicast to join and a video interface input (e.g., input X). The QAM 0108 may also communicate an ERM program setup response 310 to the ERM 102 , but may or might not include a multicast transport header for the primary multicast 312 P and the video interface input configured to receive the multicast 312 P. The ERM 102 also might not respond to the ERM program setup request 310 from the QAM 108 when in pessimistic mode until receiving a multicast transporting the requested video. [0053] In block 406 d , the client device 110 may receive the program. In an example embodiment, the source 104 may provide the primary multicast 312 P of the requested program to the head end 150 via the network 101 . The QAM 108 may detect data of the primary multicast 312 P on the video interface input specified in the join request 308 A, and may forward the primary multicast 312 P to the client device 110 . In response to initially detecting receipt of multicast 312 P, the QAM 108 may send an announce message 314 to the ERM 102 including a multicast header of primary multicast 312 P. The ERM 102 may also send an announce response 316 to the QAM 108 and respond to the SDVSM 103 with an SDVSM program setup response 318 . The SDVSM 103 may communicate the program confirm message 320 in response to the SDVSM program setup response 318 , as discussed above. [0054] In block 407 d , the QAM 108 may detect a failure, in a manner as already discussed above. [0055] In block 408 d , and in response to detecting the failure, the QAM 108 may join the secondary multicast 312 S, and may communicate a second join request 308 B to the source 104 B. The second join request 308 B may specify the video interface input (e.g., input Z) previously allocated in block 405 d to receive the secondary multicast 312 S. The QAM 108 may then receive the secondary multicast 312 S from source 104 B. [0056] In block 409 d , the QAM 108 may fail over to the secondary multicast, and may output the secondary multicast 312 S to the client device 110 . The QAM 108 may also communicate an announce failover message 322 to the ERM 102 that includes the multicast transport header of the secondary multicast 312 S. The ERM 102 may respond with an announce failover response 324 . [0057] If the QAM 108 initially detects a failure prior to being capable of forwarding the primary multicast 312 P to the client device 100 , the QAM 108 may failover to the secondary multicast 312 S. In such a scenario, with reference to FIG. 3D , the QAM 108 may not communicate announce message 314 and may not receive announce response 316 . Instead, upon detecting the failure, the QAM 108 may send join request 308 B to the source 104 B, and may begin receiving the secondary multicast 312 S. The QAM 108 may forward the secondary multicast 312 S to the client device 110 , and may communicate the announce failover message 322 to the ERM 102 . The ERM 102 may respond with the announce failover response 324 and may communicate the SDVSM program setup response 318 to the SDVSM 103 . The SDVSM 103 may communicate the program confirm message 320 to the client device 110 , as discussed above. [0058] One or more aspects of the above examples may be embodied in computer-executable instructions, such as in one or more program modules, executed by one or more computers or other devices such as by any of the blocks in FIG. 1 . Generally, program modules include routines, programs, objects, components, data structures, etc. that perform particular tasks or implement particular abstract data types when executed by a processor in a computer or other device. The computer executable instructions may be stored on a computer readable medium such as a hard disk, optical disk, removable storage media, solid state memory, RAM, etc. As will be appreciated by one of skill in the art, the functionality of the program modules may be combined or distributed as desired in various embodiments. In addition, the functionality may be embodied in whole or in part in firmware or hardware equivalents such as integrated circuits, field programmable gate arrays (FPGA), application specific integrated circuits (ASIC), and the like. [0059] While embodiments have been described with respect to specific examples including presently preferred modes of carrying out the invention, those skilled in the art will appreciate that there are numerous variations and permutations of the above described systems and techniques. Thus, the spirit and scope of the invention should be construed broadly as set forth in the appended claims.

A method and system for delivering content is provided. In one example, responsive to a request by a client device identifying a video program, the system is configured to determine different first and second network paths for delivery of the video program from a content source; deliver the video program via the first network path to the client device; and responsive to a change in status of the video program being delivered via the first network path, deliver the video program via the second network path to the client device.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a U.S. National Phase Application under 35 U.S.C. §371 of International Patent Application No. PCT/US2006/046405, filed Dec. 5, 2006, entitled “SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR PROCESSING A FILM, AND THIN FILMS,” which claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. §119(e) of the following application, the entire contents of each are incorporated herein by reference: U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/742,276, filed Dec. 5, 2005 and entitled “Scheme for Crystallizing Films Using a Continuous-Wave Light Source Compatible With Glass Substrates And Existing Precision Stages.” FIELD Systems and methods for processing a film, and thin films, are provided. BACKGROUND In recent years, various techniques for crystallizing or improving the crystallinity of an amorphous or polycrystalline semiconductor film have been investigated. Such crystallized thin films may be used in the manufacture of a variety of devices, such as image sensors and active-matrix liquid-crystal display (“AMLCD”) devices. In the latter, a regular array of thin-film transistors (“TFTs”) is fabricated on an appropriate transparent substrate, and each transistor serves as a pixel controller. Crystalline semiconductor films, such as silicon films, have been processed to provide pixels for liquid crystal displays using various laser processes including excimer laser annealing (“ELA”) and sequential lateral solidification (“SLS”) processes. SLS is well suited to process thin films for use in AMLCD devices, as well as organic light emitting diode (“OLED”) devices. In ELA, a region of the film is irradiated by an excimer laser to partially melt the film, which subsequently crystallizes. The process typically uses a long, narrow beam shape that is continuously advanced over the substrate surface, so that the beam can potentially irradiate the entire semiconductor thin film in a single scan across the surface. The Si film is irradiated multiple times to create the random polycrystalline film with a uniform grain size. ELA produces small-grained polycrystalline films; however, the method often suffers from microstructural non-uniformities, which can be caused by pulse-to-pulse energy density fluctuations and/or non-uniform beam intensity profiles. FIG. 6A illustrates a random microstructure that may be obtained with ELA. This figure, and all subsequent figures, are not drawn to scale, and are intended to be illustrative in nature. SLS is a pulsed-laser crystallization process that can produce high quality polycrystalline films having large and uniform grains on substrates, including substrates that are intolerant to heat such as glass and plastics. SLS uses controlled laser pulses to fully melt a region of an amorphous or polycrystalline thin film on a substrate. The melted regions of film then laterally crystallize into a solidified lateral columnar microstructure or a plurality of location-controlled large single crystal regions. Generally, the melt/crystallization process is sequentially repeated over the surface of a large thin film, with a large number of laser pulses. The processed film on substrate is then used to produce one large display, or even divided to produce multiple displays, each display being useful for providing visual output in a given device. FIGS. 6B-6D shows schematic drawings of TFTs fabricated within films having different microstructures that can be obtained with SLS. SLS processes are described in greater detail below. The potential success of SLS systems and methods for commercial use is related to the throughput with which the desired microstructure and texture can be produced. The amount of energy and time it takes to produce a film having the microstructure is also related to the cost of producing that film; in general, the faster and more efficiently the film can be produced, the more films can be produced in a given period of time, enabling higher production and thus higher potential revenues. SUMMARY The application describes systems and methods for processing thin films, and thin films. In some embodiments, a method of processing a film is provided, the method comprising defining a plurality of spaced-apart regions to be pre-crystallized within the film, the film being disposed on a substrate and capable of laser-induced melting; generating a laser beam having a fluence that is selected to form a mixture of solid and liquid in the film and where a fraction of the film is molten throughout its thickness in an irradiated region; positioning the film relative to the laser beam in preparation for at least partially pre-crystallizing a first region of said plurality of spaced-apart regions; directing the laser beam onto a moving at least partially reflective optical element in the path of the laser beam, the moving optical element redirecting the beam so as to scan a first portion of the first region with the beam in a first direction at a first velocity, wherein the first velocity is selected such that the beam irradiates and forms the mixture of solid and liquid in the first portion of the first region, wherein said first portion of the first region upon cooling forms crystalline grains having predominantly the same crystallographic orientation in at least a single direction; and crystallizing at least the first portion of the first region using laser-induced melting. Some embodiments include one or more of the following features. The laser beam is continuous-wave. Further comprising re-positioning the film relative to the laser beam in preparation for at least partially pre-crystallizing a second region of the plurality of spaced-apart regions; and moving the optical element so as to scan a first portion of the second region with the laser beam in the first direction at the first velocity, wherein the first portion of the second region upon cooling forms crystalline grains having predominantly the same crystallographic orientation in said at least a single direction. Said first velocity is further selected such that heat generated by the beam substantially does not damage the substrate. The moving optical element comprises a rotating disk that comprising a plurality of facets that reflect said laser beam onto the film. The first velocity is at least about 0.5 m/s. The first velocity is at least about 1 m/s. The method of claim 1 , further comprising, after redirecting the beam with the moving optical element so as to scan the first portion of the first region, translating the film relative to the laser beam in a second direction so as to scan a second portion of the first region with the laser beam in the first direction at the first velocity, wherein the second portion of the first region upon cooling forms crystalline grains having predominantly the same crystallographic orientation in said at least a single direction. The second portion of the first region partially overlaps the first portion of the first region. Continuously translating the film in the second direction with a second velocity selected to provide a pre-determined amount of overlap between the first and second portions of the first region. Continuously translating the film in the second direction with a second velocity for a period of time selected to sequentially irradiate and a plurality of portions of the first region, wherein each of said plurality of portions upon cooling forms crystalline grains having predominantly the same crystallographic orientation in said at least a single direction. Said crystallographic orientation in said at least a single direction is substantially normal to the surface of the film. Said crystallographic orientation in said at least a single direction is a <100> orientation. Crystallizing at least the first portion of the first region comprises performing uniform sequential lateral crystallization. The uniform sequential lateral crystallization comprises line-scan sequential lateral crystallization. Crystallizing at least the first portion of the first region comprises performing Dot sequential lateral crystallization. Crystallizing at least the first portion of the first region comprises performing controlled super-lateral growth crystallization. Crystallizing at least the first portion of the first region comprises forming crystals having a pre-determined crystallographic orientation suitable for a channel region of a driver TFT. Further comprising fabricating at least one thin film transistor in at least one of the first and second regions. Further comprising fabricating a plurality of thin film transistors in at least the first and second regions. Defining the plurality of spaced-apart regions comprises defining a width for each spaced-apart region that is at least as large as a device of circuit intended to be later fabricated in that region. Defining the plurality of spaced-apart regions comprises defining a width for each spaced-apart region that is at least as large as a width of a thin film transistor intended to be later fabricated in that region. The spaced-apart regions are separated by amorphous film. The film comprises at least one of a conductor and a semiconductor. The film comprises silicon. The substrate comprises glass. Shaping said laser beam using focusing optics. Some embodiments provide a system for processing a film, the system comprising a laser source providing a laser beam having a fluence that is selected to form a mixture of solid and liquid in the film and where a fraction of the film is molten throughout its thickness in an irradiated region; a movable at least partially reflective optical element in the path of the laser beam capable of controllably redirecting the path of the laser beam; a stage for supporting the film and capable of translation in at least a first direction; and memory for storing a set of instructions, the instructions comprising defining a plurality of spaced-apart regions to be pre-crystallized within the film, the film being disposed on a substrate and capable of laser-induced melting; positioning the film relative to the laser beam in preparation for at least partially pre-crystallizing a first region of said plurality of spaced-apart regions; moving the movable optical element so as to scan a first portion of the first region with the beam in the first direction at a first velocity, wherein the first velocity is selected such that the beam forms a mixture of solid and liquid in the film and where a fraction of the film is molten throughout its thickness in the first portion of the first region, wherein said first portion of the first region upon cooling forms crystalline grains having predominantly the same crystallographic orientation in at least a single direction. Some embodiments include one or more of the following features. The laser beam is continuous-wave. Re-positioning the film relative to the laser beam in preparation for at least partially re-crystallizing a second region of the plurality of spaced-apart regions; and moving the movable optical element so as to scan a first portion of the second region with the beam in the first direction at the first velocity, wherein the first portion of the second region upon cooling forms crystalline grains having predominantly the same crystallographic orientation in said at least a single direction. The first velocity is further selected such that heat generated by the beam substantially does not damage the substrate. The movable optical element comprises a disk comprising a plurality of facets that at least partially reflect said laser beam onto the film. The first velocity is at least about 0.5 m/s. The first velocity is at least about 1 m/s. The memory further includes instructions to, after moving the movable optical element so as to scan the first portion of the first region, translate the film relative to the laser beam in a second direction so as to scan a second portion of the first region with the laser beam in the first direction at the first velocity, wherein the second portion of the first region upon cooling forms crystalline grains having predominantly the same crystallographic orientation in said at least a single direction. The memory further includes instructions to partially overlap the first and second portions of the first region. The memory further includes instructions to continuously translate the film in the second direction with a second velocity selected to provide a pre-determined amount of overlap between the first and second portions of the first region. The memory further includes instructions to continuously translate the film in the second direction with the second velocity for a period of time selected to sequentially irradiate and partially melt a plurality of portions of the first region, wherein each of said plurality of portions upon cooling forms crystalline grains having predominantly the same crystallographic orientation in said at least a single direction. The memory further includes instructions to perform uniform sequential lateral crystallization in at least the first region. The memory further includes instructions for defining a width for each spaced-apart region that is at least as large as a device or circuit intended to be later fabricated in that region. The memory further includes instructions for defining a width for each spaced-apart region that is at least as large as a width of a thin film transistor intended to be later fabricated in that region. The film comprises at least one of a conductor and a semiconductor. The film comprises silicon. The substrate comprises glass. Further comprising laser optics to shape said laser beam. Some embodiments provide a thin film, the thin film comprising columns of pre-crystallized film positioned and sized so that rows and columns of TFTs can later be fabricated in said columns of pre-crystallized film, said columns of pre-crystallized film comprising crystalline grains having predominantly the same crystallographic orientation in at least a single direction; and columns of untreated film between said columns of pre-crystallized film. Some embodiments include one or more of the following features. Said crystallographic orientation in said at least a single direction is substantially normal to the surface of the film. Said crystallographic orientation in said at least a single direction is a <100> orientation. The columns of untreated film comprise amorphous film. Some embodiments provide a method of processing a film, the method comprising defining at least one region within the film, the film being disposed on a substrate and capable of laser-induced melting; generating a laser beam having a fluence that is selected to form a mixture of solid and liquid in the film and where a fraction of the film is molten throughout its thickness in an irradiated region; directing the laser beam onto a moving optical element that is at least partially reflective, said moving optical element directing the laser beam across a first portion of the first region in a first direction at a first velocity; moving the film relative to the laser beam in a second direction and at a second velocity to displace the film along the second direction during laser irradiation of the first portion while moving the optical element, wherein said first portion of the first region upon cooling forms crystalline grains having predominantly the same crystallographic orientation in at least a single direction, wherein the first velocity is selected such that the beam irradiates and forms a mixture of solids and liquid in the first portion of the film; and repeating the steps of moving the optical element and moving the film at least once to crystallize the first region. Some embodiments include one or more of the following features. The laser beam is continuous-wave. Further comprising re-positioning the film relative to the laser beam in preparation for at least partially pre-crystallizing a second region of the plurality of spaced-apart regions; and moving the optical element so as to scan a first portion of the second region with the laser beam in the first direction at the first velocity, wherein the first portion of the second region upon cooling forms crystalline grains having predominantly the same crystallographic orientation in said at least a single direction. Said first velocity is further selected to avoid heat generation by the beam that damages the substrate. Directing the moving optical element comprises rotating a disk that comprises a plurality of facets that reflect said laser beam onto the film. The first velocity is at least about 0.5 m/s. The first velocity is at least about 1 m/s. The steps of moving the optical element and moving the film provide first and second portions of the first region having predominantly the same crystallographic orientation and the second portion of the first region partially overlaps the first portion of the first region. Continuously translating the film in the second direction with a second velocity selected to provide a pre-determined amount of overlap between the first and second portions of the first region. Continuously translating the film in the second direction with a second velocity for a period of time selected to sequentially irradiate and partially melt a plurality of portions of the first region, wherein each of said plurality of portions upon cooling forms crystalline grains having predominantly the same crystallographic orientation in said at least a single direction. Said crystallographic orientation in said at least a single direction is substantially normal to the surface of the film. Said crystallographic orientation in said at least a single direction is a <100> orientation. Further comprising subjecting the film to a subsequent sequential lateral crystallization process to generate location controlled grains having wherein crystallizing at least the first portion of the first region comprises performing uniform sequential lateral crystallization. The uniform sequential lateral crystallization comprises line-scan sequential lateral crystallization. Crystallizing at least the first portion of the first region comprises performing Dot sequential lateral crystallization. Crystallizing at least the first portion of the first region comprises performing controlled super-lateral growth crystallization. Crystallizing at least the first portion of the first region comprises forming crystals having a pre-determined crystallographic orientation suitable for a channel region of a driver TFT. Further comprising fabricating at least one thin film transistor in at least one of the first and second regions. Further comprising fabricating a plurality of thin film transistors in at least the first and second regions. Defining the plurality of spaced-apart regions comprises defining a width for each spaced-apart region that is at least as large as a device or circuit intended to be later fabricated in that region. Defining the plurality of spaced-apart regions comprises defining a width for each spaced-apart region that is at least as large as a width of a thin film transistor intended to be later fabricated in that region. The spaced-apart regions are separated by amorphous film. The film comprises at least one of a conductor and a semiconductor. The film comprises silicon. The substrate comprises glass. Shaping said laser beam using focusing optics. DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS In the drawing: FIG. 1 illustrates a thin film with regions pre-crystallized with high throughput pre-crystallization according to some embodiments. FIG. 2 illustratively displays a method for the high throughput pre-crystallization of a thin film and optional subsequent TFT fabrication according to some embodiments. FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram of an apparatus for high throughput pre-crystallization of a thin film according to some embodiments. FIG. 4A-4B illustrates the pre-crystallization of a TFT region using a high throughput pre-crystallization apparatus according to some embodiments. FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram of an apparatus for sequential lateral crystallization of a semiconductor film according to some embodiments. FIG. 6A illustrates crystalline microstructures formed by excimer laser annealing. FIGS. 6B-6D illustrate crystalline microstructures formed by sequential lateral crystallization. FIGS. 7A-7D illustrate schematically processes involved in and microstructures formed by sequential lateral crystallization according to some embodiments. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Systems and methods described herein provide pre-crystallized thin films having controlled crystallographic texture. The textured films contain grains having predominantly the same crystallographic orientation in at least a single crystallographic orientation. The thin films are suitable for further processing with SLS or other lateral growth processes, as discussed in greater detail below. In SLS, the crystal orientation of lateral growth during SLS depends on the orientation of the material at the boundary of the irradiated region. By pre-crystallizing the film before performing SLS, the crystals that laterally grow during SLS adopt the crystalline orientation generated during pre-crystallization, and thus grow with an improved crystalline orientation relative to crystal grains grown without pre-crystallization. The pre-crystallized and laterally crystallized film can then be processed to form TFTs, and ultimately be used as a display device. When a polycrystalline material is used to fabricate devices having TFTs, the total resistance to carrier transport within the TFT channel is affected by the combination of barriers that a carrier has to cross as it travels under the influence of a given potential. Within a material processed by SLS, a carrier crosses many more grain boundaries if it travels perpendicularly to the long grain axes of the polycrystalline material, and thus experiences a higher resistance, than if it travels parallel to the long grain axes. Thus, in general, the performance of TFT devices fabricated on SLS-processed polycrystalline films depends on the microstructure of the film in the channel, relative to the film's long grain axes. However, SLS is not able to fully define the crystallographic texture of those grains, because they grow epitaxially from existing grains that do not themselves necessarily have a well-defined crystallographic texture. Pre-crystallizing a thin film can improve the crystal alignment, e.g., texture, obtained during subsequent lateral crystallization processes, and can allow separate control and optimization of the texture and the microstructure of the film. Pre-crystallizing the film generates a textured film having crystal grains with predominantly the same crystallographic orientation in at least one direction. For example, if one crystallographic axis of most crystallites in a thin polycrystalline film points preferentially in a given direction, the film is referred to as having a one-axial texture. For many embodiments described herein, the preferential direction of the one-axial texture is a direction normal to the surface of the crystallites. Thus, “texture” refers to a one-axial surface texture of the grains as used herein. In some embodiments, the crystallites have a (100) texture. The degree of texture can vary depending on the particular application. For example, a high degree of texture can improve the performance of thin film transistor (TFT) being used for a driver circuit, but not provide as significant a benefit to a TFT that is used for a switch circuit. One method that can be used to pre-crystallize a film is known as mixed-phase zone-melt recrystallization (ZMR), which, in some embodiments, uses a continuous wave (CW) laser beam to partially melt a silicon film and thus produce a film having a desired texture, e.g., (100) texture. In ZMR, irradiation causes some parts of the film to completely melt while others remain unmelted, forming a “transition region” which exists as a result of a significant increase in reflectivity of Si upon melting (a semiconductor-metal transition). Crystal grains having (100) texture form in this transition region. For further details, see U.S. Patent Publication No. 2006/0102901, entitled “Systems and Methods for Creating Crystallographic-Orientation Controlled poly-Silicon Films,” the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. The texture of a pre-crystallized film can be further improved by scanning the film multiple times, as preferably oriented grains get enlarged at the expense of less preferably oriented grains. For further details, see U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/707,587, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. For further general details on ZMR, see M. W. Geis et al., “Zone-Melting recrystallization of Si films with a movable-strip-heater oven,” J. Electro-Chem. Soc. 129, 2812 (1982), the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. However, pre-crystallizing an entire panel to get (100) large-grain material can be time consuming, as typical CW laser sources have limited power. Additionally, pre-crystallizing a silicon film with a CW laser can significantly heat the film and underlying substrate due to the continuous radiation. For glass substrates, sufficient heat can be generated to cause the substrate to warp or actually melt and damage the substrate. In general, a glass substrate benefits from a scan velocity of at least about 1 m/s in order to avoid damage. However, as substrate sizes increase, this velocity becomes increasingly difficult to achieve; for example, current panel sizes in so-called low-temperature polycrystalline silicon (LTPS) technology, commonly used for mobile (small-display) applications, are up to ˜720 mm×930 mm (which can be divided into 4 or more devices) or larger. Currently available stage technology typically limits scan velocities to a few cm/s or a few 10's of cm/s, as is used in normal SLS processes. Thus, conventional pre-crystallization using a CW laser is not readily applied to large substrates. Although heat-resistant substrates can be used, they are more costly and are less attractive for large-area electronic applications. The pre-crystallization systems and methods described herein allow the film to be scanned at high scan velocities, which helps to prevent heat damage to the underlying substrate. The systems can use conventional (e.g., relatively slow) handling stages to move large substrates, and at the same time can provide scan velocities of about 1 m/s, or even higher. Specifically, a handling stage moves the film and substrate at a typical scan velocity in one direction, while moving optics scan a laser beam across the film at a much higher velocity in a different, e.g., perpendicular, direction. The motions of the stage and laser beam are coordinated so that defined regions of the film are pre-crystallized, and other regions are left untreated. This increases the effective scanning velocity of the film above a threshold at which the substrate would be damaged, and greatly improves the efficiency of pre-crystallizing the film. The systems and methods also are capable of reducing the overall time to process the film. Specifically, the film is pre-crystallized in regions of the film where devices that benefit from controlled crystallographic texture, e.g., regions that contain the most demanding circuitry, will be fabricated. In some embodiments, these regions are on the periphery of a display, where the integration TFTs will be fabricated. Regions of the film where such devices will not be located, or devices not requiring controlled crystallographic texture, are not pre-crystallized. In some embodiments, the speed with which panels are pre-crystallized are approximately matched to the throughput rate of SLS systems and methods, with which the pre-crystallization systems and methods can be incorporated. FIG. 1 illustrates an embodiment of a silicon film 300 that is pre-crystallized in defined regions, and left untreated in other regions. The defined regions can be selected for a variety of reasons, such as that devices benefiting from improved crystalline texture will eventually be fabricated there. In some embodiments, the defined regions correspond to TFT channels. The film includes areas of pre-crystallized silicon 325 , and areas of untreated silicon 310 . The areas are positioned and sized so that rows and columns of TFTs can optionally be subsequently fabricated within the areas of pre-crystallized silicon 325 , e.g., with SLS and other processing steps. The untreated regions 310 can be uncrystallized silicon, e.g., amorphous silicon, or can be, e.g., polycrystalline silicon. Although the areas of untreated and pre-crystallized silicon are illustrated to have approximately the same width, the area widths and relative spacing can vary, depending on the desired area of the display and the width of the integration regions. For example, the integration regions can be only several mm wide for a display that can have a diagonal of several inches. In this case, the pre-crystallized silicon columns 325 can be fabricated to be substantially narrower than the untreated areas 310 . This will further improve the efficiency with which the film can be processed, because large regions of the film will not need to be pre-crystallized. In general, the width of the pre-crystallized regions needs only to be long enough to cover the area for integration circuits. FIG. 2 illustratively displays a method 400 for the high throughput pre-crystallization, and optional subsequent processing of a semiconductor film to form TFTs, according to certain embodiments. First, the regions to be pre-crystallized are defined ( 410 ). The defined regions optionally correspond to areas in which TFT circuits will be fabricated, as described above. The area widths and spacings are selected according to the requirements of the device that will eventually be fabricated using the film. Then, the film is pre-crystallized in the defined regions ( 420 ). In some embodiments, this is done with a continuous wave (CW) laser as described in greater detail below. The laser partially melts the film, which crystallizes to have a desired texture. The textured film contains grains having predominantly the same crystallographic orientation in at least a single direction. However, the grains are randomly located on the film surface, and are of no particular size. Then, the film is optionally laterally crystallized ( 430 ). In many embodiments, this is done with SLS processes, for example as described in greater detail below. For further details and other SLS processes, see U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,322,625, 6,368,945, 6,555,449, and 6,573,531, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. Then, TFTs are optionally fabricated within the defined regions ( 440 ). This can be done with silicon island formation, in which the film is etched to remove excess silicon except where the TFTs are to be fabricated. Then, the remaining “islands” are processed using techniques known in the art to form active TFTs, including source and drain contact regions as illustrated in FIG. 6A . Note that in general, even if defined regions of a given film are pre-crystallized and the remaining regions left untreated, the SLS process need not be performed solely within the pre-crystallized regions. For example, the entire film, or portions thereof, can be laterally crystallized with SLS. Then, TFTs can be fabricated at desired locations within the laterally crystallized regions of the film, such that some or all of the TFTs are fabricated within the regions that were originally pre-crystallized. Determining which steps to perform on a given region of the film depends on the performance requirements of the finished device. FIG. 3 schematically illustrates an embodiment of a system that can be used for precrystallizing a thin film. The system includes a rotating disk with a plurality of facets, each of which is at least partially reflective for the laser beam wavelength. The laser beam is directed at the rotating disk, which is arranged such that the facets redirects the laser beam so that it irradiates the film. As the disk rotates, it causes the laser beam to scan the surface of the film, thus pre-crystallizing successive portions of the film. As the disk continues to rotate, each new facet that reflects the laser beam effectively “re-sets” the position of the beam relative to the film in the direction of rotation, bringing the laser beam back to its starting point on the film in that direction. At the same time, the film is translated in another direction, e.g., perpendicular to the scan direction, so that as the disk continues to rotate, new facets reflect the laser beam onto successive portions of the film that are displaced from each other in the second direction. Thus, an entire region of the thin film can be pre-crystallized. As illustrated in FIG. 3 , pre-crystallization system 500 that can be used to pre-crystallize a thin film 515 within defined region 520 . A laser (not shown), e.g., an 18 W, 2ω Nd:YVO 4 Verdi laser from Coherent Inc., generates a CW laser beam 540 . One or more optics (also not shown) shape laser beam 540 so that it forms a thin line beam. In some embodiments, the beam has a length of between about 1-15 mm, a width of between about 5-50 μm, and a fluence of between about 10-150 W/mm of beam length. Note, however, that the beam may have any desired length, and in some cases may be a “line beam” having a very high length to width aspect ratio (e.g., about 50-10 5 ), and may even extend for the full length of the panel being irradiated. In this case, the film need not be scanned in the second direction, because the entire length of a given region will be irradiated at once. In some embodiments, the beam has approximately uniform energy along the long axis, although in other embodiments the beam will have other energy profiles such as Gaussian or sinusoidal. In some embodiments, the beam along the short axis has a “top hat” energy profile, i.e., having substantially equal energy across the short axis profile of the beam, and in other embodiments, the beam has a tightly focused Gaussian profile along the short axis. Other energy profiles, and other beam sizes, are possible and can be selected according to the performance requirements of the finished device. The overall beam power, as well as the size of the beam, is selected to provide a sufficient energy density to partially melt the film 515 so that it recrystallizes with the desired amount of texture. One of skill in the art would be able to readily select appropriate lasers and optics to achieve a desired beam profile, wavelength, and energy. Note that the laser beam need not be CW, but can also have any suitable temporal profile, for example sufficiently long pulses to partially melt the irradiated regions, or have a relatively high repetition rate (“quasi-CW”). The laser beam is directed towards a rotating disk 560 having a plurality of at least partially reflective surfaces or facets 580 . Reflective facets 580 of disk 560 are positioned relative to film 575 so as to direct laser beam 540 towards the film surface. Specifically facets 580 are arranged so as to redirect laser beam 540 so that it irradiates film 515 within defined region 520 . Where the laser beam irradiates region 520 , it partially melts the film, which crystallizes upon cooling as described in greater detail in U.S. Patent Publication No. 2006/0102901. Disk 560 rotates about axis 570 . This rotation moves facets 580 relative to laser beam 540 , so that they behave as a moving mirror for the laser beam, and guide the beam in a line across the substrate. The movement of facets 580 move laser beam 540 rapidly relative to film 515 in the (−y) direction. The relative velocity v scan of the beam relative to the film 515 in the (−y) direction is determined by the speed of rotation of disk 560 . The velocity of the beam imparted by the disk is substantially higher than could be generated by moving the substrate with a typical mechanical stage. At the same time, stage 518 moves film 515 in the (+x) direction with a velocity v stage , perpendicular to the direction of beam motion. Thus, the total beam velocity relative to a given point of the film can be substantially higher than normally achievable using stage 518 alone. Furthermore the irradiation pattern of the film surface is defined by the state scanning speed and direction as well as the facet size and rotation rate of the disk, as well as the distance between the disk and the film. While FIG. 3 shows faceted disk 560 with eight facets 580 , this number of facets is meant to be illustrative only. In general, other ways of deflecting the beam in order to provide high velocity scanning are contemplated, for example, a single movable mirror. Or, for example, other numbers of facets can be used, according to the desired processing speed and size of pre-crystallized regions 520 . FIG. 4A illustrates a detailed view of the path of laser beam 540 relative to the substrate 610 . As disk 560 rotates, a first facet 580 reflects beam 540 so that it first irradiates substrate 610 at a first edge 621 of the defined film region 620 to be pre-crystallized, starting a “first scan” of the region. Disk 560 continues to rotate the given facet 580 , so that the beam moves across film region 620 in the (−y) direction with a velocity v scan . At the same time, stage 518 moves substrate 610 in the (+x) direction with a velocity v stage resulting in a diagonal crystallization path. Wherever beam 540 irradiates defined film region 620 , it partially melts the film, which upon cooling recrystallizes with texture as described above. Thus, as can be seen in FIG. 6A , the width w scan of a particular scanned region is defined by the length of the laser beam in that region, and the edge of the scanned region follows a “diagonal” path relative to the substrate, defined by v scan and v stage , as described in greater detail below. As disk 560 continues to rotate, the first facet 580 eventually rotates far enough that it no longer reflects beam 540 . When this happens, the beam stops irradiating the defined region 620 at second edge 622 which coincides with the other edge defining the preselected region 620 . With continued rotation of disk 560 , the laser beam 540 is directed onto a second facet 580 . Second facet 580 redirects laser beam 540 so that it irradiates substrate 610 at a first edge 621 of the defined film region 620 , starting a “second scan” of the region. At the beginning of the second scan, the stage has moved the substrate 610 by a predetermined distance (based on stage velocity) in the (+x) direction relative to where it was at the beginning of the first scan. This yields an offset in the (+x) between the edge of the first scan and the edge of the second scan that is determined by stage speed v stage . This offset can be chosen to provide a desired amount of overlap between the first and second scans. As mentioned above, pre-crystallizing a film multiple times can enlarge the size of preferably oriented grains, so it may be desirable to use a relatively small offset to provide a large amount of overlap between the first and second scanned areas. As disk 560 continues to rotate, second facet 580 moves the beam 540 across region 620 in the (−y) direction, and stage 518 moves substrate 610 in the (+x) direction. Eventually the second facet 580 moves out of the path of beam 540 , and a third facet 580 reflects the beam 540 to irradiate region 620 , again offset in the (+x) direction by an amount determined by speed v stage . In this way, as disk 560 continues to rotate and stage 518 moves the substrate 610 , defined film region 620 is substantially pre-crystallized, while other regions of substrate 610 are not pre-crystallized and remain, e.g., amorphous silicon. After completing the pre-crystallization of region 620 , the stage moves the substrate 610 in the (−x) and (+y) or (−y) direction, so that a new region can be pre-crystallized as described above. Although FIG. 4A shows a non-pre-crystallized area at the bottom of defined film region 620 , resulting from the “diagonal” motion of the beam relative to the substrate, this area can be pre-crystallized by simply starting the first scan below the edge of the substrate. Alternately, the bottom of the substrate can be trimmed, or TFTs simply not fabricated on that particular area. As illustrated in FIG. 4B , the combination of beam velocity v scan in the (−y) direction and stage velocity v stage in the (+x) direction yields an effective scan velocity v scan,eff . This velocity v scan,eff is selected so that the beam travels fast enough not to damage the substrate 610 , but slow enough to partially melt the defined film region 620 to the desired degree. Assuming that the beam 540 moves in only one direction (although it can be bidirectional), and continuously irradiates the film, the frequency of scanning f scan is given by: f scan = v scan l scan where v scan is the scan velocity, as described above, and l scan is the length of the region to be scanned, i.e., the y-dimension of the pre-treated area. As an example, for a scan velocity v scan of 1 m/s and a scan length lscan of 4 mm, the scan frequency will be 250 Hz. For a certain number of scans per unit area n, the beam width w scan follows from: w scan = n · v stage f scan where v stage is the velocity of the stage. So, in addition to the exemplary numbers above, if n=10 scans per unit area are desired and the stage velocity v stage is approximately 20 cm/s, then the beam width w scan is approximately 8 mm. In order to remain within the margins of the partial melting regime, the scanning velocity is held to be substantially constant, as opposed to following, for example, a sinusoid trace. In the described embodiment, disk 560 rotates at a substantially constant speed, which causes beam 540 to also move at a substantially constant speed. Translation of the stage allows a new region to be pre-crystallized. In some embodiments, the semiconductor film is first pre-crystallized in defined regions, and then laterally crystallized everywhere. The pre-crystallized regions will have more highly aligned crystals than the non-pre-crystallized regions, although all the regions of the film will be laterally crystallized. The regions that are both pre-crystallized and laterally crystallized can be used to fabricate devices that are particularly sensitive to microstructure, such as integration TFTs; the non-pre-crystallized regions can be used to fabricate devices that are less sensitive to microstructure, but still benefit from lateral crystals, such as pixel TFTs. Pre-crystallizing the film only in regions needing improved crystalline alignment can save time and energy over pre-crystallizing the entire semiconductor film. In some embodiments, the semiconductor film is laterally crystallized following pre-crystallization. One suitable protocol, referred to herein as “uniform-grain sequential lateral solidification,” or “uniform SLS,” may be used to prepare a uniform crystalline film characterized by repeating columns of laterally elongated crystals. Uniform crystal growth is described with reference to FIGS. 7A-7D . The crystallization protocol involves advancing the film by an amount greater than the characteristic lateral growth length, e.g., δ>LGL, where δ is the translation distance between pulses, and less than two times the characteristic lateral growth length, e.g., δ<2 LGL. The term “characteristic lateral growth length” (LGL) refers to the characteristic distance the crystals grow when cooling. The LGL is a function of the film composition, film thickness, the substrate temperature, the laser pulse characteristics, the buffer layer material, if any, and the optical configuration. Fro example, a typical LGL for 50 nm thick silicon films is approximately 1-5 μm or about 2.5 μm. The actual growth may be limited by other laterally growing fronts, e.g., where two fronts collide as illustrated below. Referring to FIG. 7A , a first irradiation is carried out on a film with a narrow, e.g., less than two times the lateral growth length, and elongated, e.g., greater than 10 mm and up to or greater than 1000 mm, laser beam pulse having an energy density sufficient to completely melt the film. As a result, the film exposed to the laser beam (shown as region 400 in FIG. 7A ), is melted completely and then crystallized. In this case, grains grow laterally from an interface 420 between the unirradiated region and the melted region. As noted above, the grains grow epitaxially from the solidus boundaries on either side of the melted region. Thus, the laterally growing grains adopt the texture of the pre-crystallized film, formed as described above. By selecting the laser pulse width so that the molten zone width is less than about two times the characteristic LGL, the grains growing from both solid/melt interfaces collide with one another approximately at the center of the melted region, e.g., at centerline 405 , and the lateral growth stops. The two melt fronts collide approximately at the centerline 405 before the temperature of the melt becomes sufficiently low to trigger nucleation. Referring to FIG. 7B , after being displaced by a predetermined distance δ that is at least greater than about LGL and less than at most two LGL, a second region of the substrate 400 ′ is irradiated with a second laser beam pulse. The displacement of the substrate, δ, is related to the desired degree of overlap of the laser beam pulse. As the displacement of the substrate becomes longer, the degree of overlap becomes less. It is advantageous and preferable to have the overlap degree of the laser beam to be less than about 90% and more than about 10% of the LGL. The overlap region is illustrated by brackets 430 and dashed line 435 . The film region 400 ′ exposed to the second laser beam irradiation melts completely and crystallizes. In this case, the grains grown by the first irradiation pulse serve as crystallizing seeds for the lateral growth of the grains grown from the second irradiation pulse. FIG. 7C illustrates a region 440 having crystals that are laterally extended beyond a lateral growth length. Thus, a column of elongated crystals are formed by two laser beam irradiations on average. Because two irradiation pulses are all that is required to form the column of laterally extended crystals, the process is also referred to as a “two shot” process. Irradiation continues across the substrate to create multiple columns of laterally extended crystals. FIG. 7D illustrates the microstructure of the substrate after multiple irradiations and depicts several columns 440 of laterally extended crystals. Thus, in uniform SLS, a film is irradiated and melted with a low number of pulses, e.g., two. The crystals that form within the melted regions preferably grow laterally and with a similar orientation, and meet each other at a boundary within the particular irradiated region of film. The width of the irradiation pattern is preferably selected so that the crystals grow without nucleation. In such instances, the grains are not significantly elongated; however, they are of uniform size and orientation. For further details on variations of uniform SLS processes, see U.S. Pat. No. 6,573,531, the contents of which are incorporated herein in their entirety by reference, and PCT Publication No. WO 2006/107926, entitled “Line Scan Sequential Lateral Solidification of Thin Films,” the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. Other lateral crystallization methods that provide relatively short elongations of crystal grains are also suitable, for example so-called “Dot-SLS” methods as described in U.S. Patent Publication number 2006/0102901, as well as controlled super-lateral growth, or “C-SLG” methods, as described in PCT Publication No. WO US03/25947, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. FIG. 5 illustrates an SLS system according to some embodiments. A light source, for example, an excimer laser 710 generates a laser beam which then passes through a pulse duration extender 720 and attenuator plates 725 prior to passing through optical elements such as mirrors 730 , 740 , 760 , telescope 735 , homogenizer 745 , beam splitter 755 , and lens 765 . The laser beam pulses are then passed through a mask 770 , which may be on a translation stage (not shown), and projection optics 795 . The mask can be a slit, which shapes the laser beam into a “line beam,” although the system is capable of making more complex beam shapes depending on the choice of mask. The projection optics reduce the size of the laser beam and simultaneously increase the intensity of the optical energy striking substrate 799 at a desired location. The substrate 799 is provided on a precision x-y-z stage 800 that can accurately position the substrate 799 under the beam and assist in focusing or defocusing the image of the mask 770 produced by the laser beam at the desired location on the substrate. As described in U.S. Patent Publication No. 2006/0102901, the firing of the laser can be coordinated with the motion of x-y-z stage 800 to provide location-controlled firing of pulses. Although the discussion above refers to the processing of silicon thin films, many other kinds of thin films are compatible. The thin film can be a semiconductor or a conductor, such as a metal. Exemplary metals include aluminum, copper, nickel, titanium, gold, and molybdenum. Exemplary semiconductor films include conventional semiconductor materials, such as silicon, germanium, and silicon-germanium. Additional layers situated beneath or above the metal or semiconductor film are contemplated, for example, silicon oxide, silicon nitride and/or mixtures of oxide, nitride, or other materials that are suitable, for example, for use as a thermal insulator to further protect the substrate from overheating or as a diffusion barrier to prevent diffusion or impurities from the substrate to the film. See, e.g., PCT Publication No. WO 2003/084688, for methods and systems for providing an aluminum thin film with a controlled crystal orientation using pulsed laser induced melting and nucleation-initiated crystallization. In view of the wide variety of embodiments to which the principles of the present invention can be applied, it should be understood that the illustrated embodiments are illustrative only, and should not be taken as limiting the scope of the present invention.

In some embodiments, a method of processing a film is provided, the method comprising defining a plurality of spaced-apart regions to be pre-crystallized within the film, the film being disposed on a substrate and capable of laser-induced melting; generating a laser beam having a fluence that is selected to form a mixture of solid and liquid in the film and where a fraction of the film is molten throughout its thickness in an irradiated region; positioning the film relative to the laser beam in preparation for at least partially pre-crystallizing a first region of said plurality of spaced-apart regions; directing the laser beam onto a moving at least partially reflective optical element in the path of the laser beam, the moving optical element redirecting the beam so as to scan a first portion of the first region with the beam in a first direction at a first velocity, wherein the first velocity is selected such that the beam irradiates and forms the mixture of solid and liquid in the first portion of the first region, wherein said first portion of the first region upon cooling forms crystalline grains having predominantly the same crystallographic orientation in at least a single direction; and crystallizing at least the first portion of the first region using laser-induced melting.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0001] 1. Field of the Invention [0002] The present invention relates to a tool having a working device which includes prongs for extracting an element to be pried and a positioning device adapted for positioning the prying device at various angles with respect to a handle of the tool. [0003] 2. Description of the Related Art [0004] A tool, generally known as crowbar, includes a straight bar and a working end slightly bent with respect to the bar and forked. In operation, the working end is engaged with an element to be extracted and the straight bar is used as a lever to pivot about a fulcrum. [0005] However, the working end is usually fixed to the straight bar and cannot be adjustably connected to the straight bar at various angles. It's not convenient to be used in various slopes. The present invention is, therefore, intended to obviate or at least alleviate the problems encountered in the prior art. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0006] According to the present invention, a tool includes a handle and a prying device pivotally connected to the handle and positionable at various pivoting positions with respect to the handle. The prying device is engagable with an object to be pried and the handle is utilized as a lever to extract the object efficiently. The tool also includes a hammering portion. [0007] It is an aspect of the present invention that the toot is usable for prying an object and used as a hammer. [0008] It is another aspect of the present invention that the tool has a simple structure and is manufactured cost-effectively. [0009] There has thus been outlined, rather broadly, the more important features of the invention in order that the detailed description thereof that follows may be better understood, and in order that the present contribution to the art may be better appreciated. There are additional features of the invention that will be described hereinafter and which will form the subject matter of the claims appended hereto. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0010] FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a tool in accordance with the first embodiment of the present invention. [0011] FIG. 2 is an exploded perspective view of the tool shown in FIG. 1 . [0012] FIG. 3 is a cross-sectional view taken along line 3 - 3 of FIG. 1 . [0013] FIG. 4 is a cross-sectional view taken along line 4 - 4 of FIG. 1 . [0014] FIG. 5 is another cross-sectional view similar to FIG. 3 . [0015] FIG. 6 is another cross-sectional view similar to FIG. 4 . [0016] FIG. 7 is a side view of the tool shown in FIG. 1 . [0017] FIG. 8 is a perspective view of a tool in accordance with the second embodiment of the present invention. [0018] FIG. 9 is an exploded perspective view of the tool shown in FIG. 8 . [0019] FIG. 10 is another perspective view of the tool shown in FIG. 8 . [0020] FIG. 11 is a perspective view of a tool in accordance with the third embodiment of the present invention. [0021] FIG. 12 is an exploded perspective view of the tool shown in FIG. 11 . [0022] FIG. 13 is a partial, cross-sectional view of the tool shown in FIG. 11 . [0023] FIG. 14 is another partial, cross-sectional view of the tool shown in FIG. 11 . [0024] FIG. 15 is another partial, cross-sectional view of the tool similar to FIG. 13 . [0025] FIG. 16 is another perspective view of the tool shown in FIG. 11 . DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT [0026] FIGS. 1 through 7 show a tool usable for prying in accordance with a first embodiment of the present invention. The tool includes a handle 10 a, working device 20 a and a positioning device 30 which is moveable between a fixing position and an adjusting position. And while the positioning device 30 is in the fixing position, the handle 10 a is fixed in position with respect to the working device 20 a. While the positioning device 30 is in the adjusting position, the handle 10 a is able to pivot with respect to the working device 20 a. [0027] The handle 10 a includes a pivotal end 101 a and a grip end 102 a. A flat coupled portion 11 a is defined at the pivotal end 101 a and a hammering portion 12 a extends from the distal of the pivotal end 101 a treated as a hammer. The coupled portion 11 a includes a hexagonal through-hole 13 a transversely formed thereon and two limited portions 14 a formed on two sides thereof and proximal to the hammering portion 12 a. [0028] The working device 20 a includes first and second ends 201 a, 202 a. The second end 202 a is in form of pry. A positioned hole 21 a, a slot 22 a and a cavity 23 a are formed at the first end 201 a and communicate with one another in sequence. The slot 22 a, which is sandwiched between the positioned hole 21 a and the cavity 23 a and extends from the first end 201 a to the second end 202 a, is mounted on the pivotal end 101 a of the handle 10 a. The positioned hole 21 a corresponds to the through-hole 13 a and has a plurality of positioning sections 211 a defined on the periphery thereof as to form the positioned hole 21 a to be a ratchet hole preferably. In this case, the cavity 23 a is in form of circle hole. Moreover, in other embodiment, attachment of the handle 10 a and the working device 20 a can be achieved via the coupled portion 11 a is mounted on the first end 201 a of the working device 20 a. [0029] The positioning device 30 is disposed at the through-hole 13 a, the positioned hole 21 a and the cavity 23 a and consists of a controller 31 , a resilient member 32 and a retaining member 33 . The controller 31 includes a cap 311 , a plurality of detents 312 , first and second body sections 313 , 314 and a joint 315 . The controller 31 is inserted through the pivotal end 101 a and adapted to connect the working device 20 a to the handle 10 a. The cap 311 exposes from the positioned hole 21 a and the plurality of detents 312 are removably meshed with the plurality of positioning sections 211 a. The first body section 313 is adjacent to the cap 311 and has a hexagonal cross-section as to correspond to and engage with the trough-hole 13 a. The second body section 314 is adjacent to the joint 315 and inserted through the resilient member 32 in the cavity 23 a. The joint 315 is attached to the retaining member 33 in an adhesive manner or a screw manner for preventing the controller 31 removing from the working device 20 a. [0030] While the positioning device 30 is in the fixing position, the detents 312 are engaged with the positioning sections 211 a of the working device 20 a so that the handle 10 a is fixed with respect to the working device 20 a. The profile of the first body section 313 corresponds to that of the through-hole 13 a so that the controller 31 cannot rotate with respect to the handle 10 a. The resilient member 32 and the retaining member 33 are limited in the cavity 23 a and the positioning device 30 is restricted at the handle 10 a and working device 20 a via the cap 311 and the retaining member 33 . [0031] While the positioning device 30 is in the adjusting position, the handle 10 a is able to rotate with respect to the working device 20 a. Users push the retaining member 33 of the positioning device 30 to press the resilient member 32 and further the controller 31 . And then, the detents 312 are disengaged from the positioning sections 211 a of the positioned hole 21 a. Therefore, users can adjust the working device 20 a to a desired angle with respect to the handle 10 , next, to release the retaining member 33 as to return the positioning device 30 to be in the fixing position. [0032] The limited portions 14 a are adapted to restrict rotation of the working device 20 a with respect to the handle 10 a. As shown in FIG. 7 , the limited portions 14 a prevents the working device 20 a rotating over the hammering portion 12 a. Further, while the working device 20 a is used to extract an element to be pried, the limited portions 14 a provide a support force to the working device 20 a and prevent the working device 20 a detaching from the handle 10 a. [0033] FIGS. 8 through 10 show that a tool is usable for prying in accordance with a second embodiment of the present invention and similar to the first embodiment except that a handle 10 b replaces the handle 10 a. The handle 10 b includes a pivotal end 101 b and a grip end 102 b. A flat coupled portion 11 b is defined at the pivotal end 101 b and a hexagonal through-hole 13 b is transversely formed on the coupled portion 11 b and corresponds to the positioned hole 21 a. And the positioning device 30 is disposed at the through-hole 13 b. [0034] FIGS. 11 through 16 show that a tool is usable for prying in accordance with a third embodiment of the present invention and similar to the second embodiment except that a working device 20 b replaces the working device 20 a and a prying device 40 is further attached to the working device 20 b for extracting an element to be pried. The working device 20 b has first and second ends 201 b, 202 b and a pressed portion 203 b formed on the outer periphery thereof between the first and second ends 201 b, 202 b. The prying device 40 is coupled to the second end 202 b. A positioned hole 21 b, a slot 22 b and a cavity 23 b are formed at the first end 201 b and communicate with one another in sequence. The slot 22 b, which is sandwiched between the positioned hole 21 b and the cavity 23 b and extends from the first end 201 b to the second end 202 b, is mounted on the pivotal end 101 b of the handle 10 b. The positioned hole 21 b corresponds to the through-hole 13 b and has a plurality of positioning sections 211 b defined on the periphery thereof as to form the positioned hole 21 b to be a ratchet hole preferably. In this case, the cavity 23 b is in form of circle hole. A hexagonal coupled hole 24 b is transversely formed at the second end 202 b and communicates with the slot 22 b. The coupled hole 24 b is spaced from the positioned hole 21 b. [0035] The prying device 40 consists of a shaft 41 adapted for inserted through the coupled hole 24 b, two pry elements 42 and two positioning units 43 . A notch 411 is formed on the outer periphery of the center of the shaft 41 . A plurality of positioning sections 412 are respectively provided on the outer periphery of two ends of the shaft 41 in transverse line arrangement. [0036] Each pry element 42 has first and second ends 4201 , 4202 . First and second connected holes 421 , 422 are formed on the first end 4201 and communicate with each other. The first connected hole 421 is preferably being a polygon hole and perpendicular to the second connected hole 422 . The second hole 422 has first and second sections 4221 , 4222 , and a diameter of the first section 4221 is larger than that of the second section 4222 . The second end 4202 is treated as a pry. [0037] Each positioning unit 43 is adapted to removably fix the related pry element 42 to the related end of the shaft 41 and consists of a control member 431 , a resilient member 432 and a detent 433 . The control member 431 is inserted into the second connected hole 422 and has a head 4311 and a body 4312 . A recess 4313 and an abutting section 4314 are formed on the body 4312 . The resilient member 432 is mounted on the body 4312 and restricted at the first section 4221 of the second connected hole 422 . The detent 433 is restricted between the recess 4313 and the abutting section 4314 and positioned at the second section 4222 of the second connected hole 422 . The detent 433 is moveable between the selected one positioning section 412 and the recess 4313 and selectively engaged with the selected one positioning section 412 or the recess 4313 as to fix the pry elements 42 to the shaft 41 or not. While the detent 433 that is in a first position and engaged with the selected one positioning section 412 and against the abutting section 4314 , it prevents the pry elements 42 from rotating with respect to the shaft 41 . While the detent 433 is driven to be in a second position by pressing the head 4311 of the control member 431 , the resilient member 432 is pressed via the control member 431 and the detent 433 is disengaged from the abutting section 4314 and the selected one positioning section 412 , both. Then, the detent 433 is engaged with the recess 4313 so that the pry elements 42 are moveable with respect to the shaft 41 . [0038] Moreover, the distal of the pivotal end 101 b is inserted into the notch 411 on the center of the shaft 41 . Therefore, the handle 10 b can be aligned with the center of the shaft 41 . [0039] To operate the positioning device 30 (as shown in FIG. 16 ), the working device 20 b is able to rotate with respect to the handle 10 b till the pressed portion 203 b is driven to be positioned opposite to the handle 10 b with respect to the shaft 41 so that the pressed portion 203 b can be adapted to be used for abutting with the ground or any item. [0040] While the specific embodiments have been illustrated and described, numerous modifications come to mind without significantly departing from the spirit of invention and the scope of invention is only limited by the scope of accompanying claims.

A tool adapted for prying comprises a handle including a pivotal end and a grip end, with the pivotal end having a through-hole; a working device having first and second ends, with the first end of the working device pivotally connected to the pivotal end of the handle and including a positioned hole formed transversely and a cavity formed longitudinally and communicating with the positioned hole, with the positioned hole corresponding to the through-hole; and a positioning device disposed at the through-hole, the positioned hole and the cavity and moveable between a fixing position and an adjusting position.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention is in the field of manufacturing plates of hard-to-work metals, such as chromium and its alloys, by powder-metallurgy. The most common metal-working or fabrication processes for producing plate-like products are rolling and forging. In both these processes, a thick metal preform formed by casting or other methods is shaped into a relatively thin product by plastic deformation under the influence of applied stresses. The metal elements and alloys in use today exhibit a very wide range of work-ability characteristics. Some of these, such as copper, aluminum, and mild steel, are very easy to work, whereas others, such as chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, and their alloys, and some complex superalloys, are very difficult to fabricate. Processes such as open-die forging and rolling generate tensile stresses leading to tensile deformation and reduction in thickness. If the metal or alloy being worked or deformed is not sufficiently ductile under the working conditions, it will tend to fracture or develop surface or end cracks. With hard-to-work alloys, fracturing and cracking account for the greatest material loss in the fabrication process. Open specific use of a metal plate is as a target in a sputtering apparatus, such as that described by John S. Chapin, "The Planar Magnetron", Research/Development, Vol. 25, No. 1, pp 37-40 (January 1974). In a sputtering process, an anode and a cathode or target comprising a layer of metal to be sputtered are placed in a chamber containing an ionizable gas at a reduced pressure. When the electrodes are connected to a source of electric potential, metal is removed from the target and deposited as a thin film on a substrate disposed nearby. The currently available methods for preparing large-area sputtering targets of chromium, its alloys, and similar hard-to-work materials have distinct disadvantages. One such method involves casting plates of the sputtering material, machining them to the proper shape, and mounting one or more in an array to obtain a target of the desired size. This method is disadvantageous for the reasons that castings of chromium and the like are quite brittle, thus being very difficult to machine and tending to crack under high temperature gradients which arise during sputtering at high powers. Such cracking can cause leakage of circulating water which is used to cool the cathode during the sputtering process. Similarly, brazing or other bonding of a rolled sheet of the sputtering metal to a backing plate is disadvantageous because of the difficulty in working such materials without developing cracks and fractures. Another method involves electroplating chromium onto a backing plate. This is disadvantageous because it is exceedingly difficult to electroplate many metal elements and most alloys. Many of the difficulties associated with the normal casting procedures for producing chromium and chromium-alloy plates can be overcome by a powder-metallurgy technique such as described by R. W. Fountain, author of Chapter 7, "Chromium", at page 106 of Rare Metals Handbook, 2nd Edition (1961), edited by Clifford A. Hampel, and published by Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Briefly, this technique involves cold-compacting the powder, usually with a binder, at pressures of 40,000 to 60,000 lb/in 2 , and vacuum-sintering in two steps at temperatures of 2400° F. (1315° C.) and above. Typically, the product has a relatively low density, such as less than 90% of the theoretical maximum. The process requires specialized equipment, and is limited to products of relatively small areas because of the pressure required in the compacting step. The pressure required to consolidate powder can be greatly reduced by pressing the powder while it is hot. In a paper, "Fabrication of Beryllium Sheet from Hot Pressed Powder", which appeared at pp 5-11 of Vol. 17 of "Progress in Powder Metallurgy" (Metal Powder Industries Federation 1961), B. H. Hessler and J. P. Denny describe a technique for forming billets by hot-pressing beryllium powder in a mild steel die. A billet is then machined to form a slab, encapsulated in mild steel for protection and restraint, and rolled to form a sheet of the desired thickness. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention is primarily concerned with a powder-metallurgy process and an assembly for producing large-area, high-density, substantially crack-free plates or laminates of hard-to-work metal elements and alloys, such as chromium and the like. A more particular object of the invention is the manufacture of sputtering targets of hard-to-work metals. Very briefly, these and other objects are attained by placing a metal powder into the cavity of a die and disposing at least one punch so as to partially intrude and partially protrude from the die. The assembly, comprising the punch, die, and enclosed powder, is heated and compressed by applying pressure to the punch to consolidate and elongate the powder. Preferably, the compressing step is accomplished by rolling the assembly in a conventional rolling mill. In a preferred embodiment of the invention, the die is a hollow, rectangular structure and two punches are of such a length and width that they just fit within two rectangular cavity openings at opposite ends of the die. A layer of metal powder is placed into the cavity, and the pair of punches is disposed to intrude into the die from opposite directions. The assembly facilitates several preliminary steps which may be performed prior to consolidating the powder. The initial density of the powder is typically only 55% or less of the theoretical maximum density. Preferably, the powder is compacted by applying pressure to the punches to increase the density to about 65% of the theoretical maximum. After compacting, each punch protrudes a distance d p and intrudes a distance d i with respect to the end of the die. Preferably, the intrusion ratio i ≡ d i /d p is 0.5 to 2, and each punch is fixed in that position by interposing weld metal between the die and the periphery of the punch. The chemical composition of the powder may be modified by passing a reactive gas through the assembly. Preferably, the assembly is evacuated to outgas the powder and then sealed with the powder under vacuum. After these prelimiary steps, the assembly is heated and compressed utilizing temperatures and pressures sufficient to consolidate the powder. The compressing step is believed best accomplished in two stages. In the first stage, the powder compresses without substantial elongation until the density is at least 90% of the theoretical maximum. Further densification requires much higher compressive stresses or a second stage in which compressive and shearing stresses combine to reduce the thickness and elongate the powder layer. It appears that once the density of the consolidated powder layer exceeds about 90%, the layer can be deformed by shearing stresses with much less likelihood of cracking than if the density is less than 90%. The compressing step is preferably accomplished by rolling the assembly in a conventional rolling mill. Rolling is preferred because it is possible to process large-area plates without the use of extremely high forces. This results because only a small volume of material is deformed at any instant. If the rolling mill is capable of applying sufficient pressure, the two compressing stages can be combined in a single pass. The required forces can be reduced by rolling in several passes. In order to reduce the incidence of cracking, it is preferred that the density of the consolidated powder be increased to at least 90% of the theoretical maximum before there is substantial elongation. The density resulting from the first pass is increased either by increasing the total distance P which the punches (or punch) protrude from the die or decreasing the gap G between the rolls. Preferably, the protrusion ratio p ≡ P /(1-ρ c )T M is greater than about 1, and the gap ratio g ≡ G/T D is less than about 1, where T D is the thickness of the die, T M is the thickness of the enclosed powder, ρ c is the density of the powder expressed as a fraction of the maximum theoretical density, and all quantities have the values measured just prior to rolling. A protrusion ratio p in the range 1.2 to 2 and a first-pass gap ratio g in the range 0.95 to 1.05 are even more preferred in order to ensure that the density of the consolidated powder exceeds 90% before the powder is subjected to substantial shearing stresses. If a higher density or a larger area than is obtained by a first rolling is desired, the assembly is subjected to additional passes with progressively decreasing roll gaps. Such rolling substantially reduces the thickness of the die and generates shearing stresses which elongate and increase the density of the consolidated powder. After such additional rolling, the density is usually at least 95% of the theoretical maximum, and 99% has been obtained. After the compressing step, the composite product is cooled slowly and cut carefully to minimize residual stresses and prevent cracking. Part or all of the material derived from the punches and die is removed as desired. Although the present invention is particularly adapted to the fabrication of large-area plates and laminates of chromium and its alloys, it will be understood that the invention is not limited to those metals in particular, but may be useful in the fabrication of any metals which are difficult to work or fabricate at high temperature. These include almost all of the transition metal elements belonging to columns III B, IV B, V B, VI B, VII B, and VIII of the periodic table, and their alloys. Among the commercially important elements included in the transition metals are titanium, zirconium, niobium, tantalum, chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, rhenium, iron, osmium, cobalt, rhodium, iridium, nickel, palladium, and platinum. Their alloys include stainless steels, heat-resistant superalloys, refractory alloys, and others. The present invention is also applicable to a metallic anisotropic material which tends to break apart when cast and rolled in the normal manner. Beryllium is one example of such a material. Further, the present invention is applicable to special compositions, such as dispersion-strengthened alloys and mixtures of metal elements and non-metallic compounds which are usually made only by powder-metallurgy processes. It is contemplated that the principles of the present invention will apply to materials which are hard-to-work at high temperatures. Herein, a "high temperature" is a temperature which exceeds 50% of the absolute melting point of the material. In general, the workability of metals and alloys increases with increasing temperature. However, there is no single standard or universal test which can be used to determine how a given material will behave during fabrication or working involving tensile stresses at high temperatures. For the purposes of the present invention, hot-tensile tests provide an adequate measurement of workability. Such tests provide quantitative data which indicate behaviour varying from brittle to highly ductile. A convenient indicator of workability of a metal at a given temperature is the percentage reduction-in-area-at-fracture. To illustrate, it is already known that superalloys exhibiting reduction-in-area-at-fracture of 30% or less in hot-tensile tests are characterized by poor hot-workability, and those exhibiting reductions of greater than 50% are characterized by good hot-workability. Superalloys and other materials having reduction-in-area-at-fracture of less than 50% are considered hard-to-work, and are therefore in the category to which the techniques of the present invention are especially adapted. The punch and die utilized in the present invention are formed from materials which are substantially more ductile and workable than the material of the consolidated powder when essentially fully dense. The reduction-in-area-at-fracture of the punch and die materials are preferably at least 10% greater than that of the material of the consolidated powder at temperatures within the working range of the compressing step. The punch and die materials must have sufficient strength and rigidity to effectively transfer stresses directly to the powder mass at the temperatures employed during compressing. The flow strength of the punch and die materials is preferably not less than one-third nor greater than three times the flow strength of the consolidated powder material at the rolling temperature. The punch and die may be formed from the same or different materials, and metals are preferred. Among the advantages of the present invention are that the consolidated powder product is characterized by uniform high density, high purity, and freedom from cracks. The method is particularly adapted to the processing of metals which have low ductility and are therefore difficult to work. The process is easily adapted to conventional rolling mills because the powder is enclosed in a heat-retaining assembly whereby the temperature of the powder remains in a narrow range even when the rolls are at a much lower temperature. The process is very efficient with much less waste of material than most conventional rolling and forging methods and other powder-metallurgy processes. Further, the technique of the present invention is simple to perform, and does not require an operator having special metal-working skills. The large-area, plate-like product may consist either of a single consolidated powder layer or a metallurgically bonded laminate of several layers of consolidated powder and other metal. One or more auxiliary plates, such as a sheet, screen, or rod, may be disposed adjacent or within a powder layer, if desired. The punch and die may be rectangular, circular, or some complex shape in order to obtain a desired configuration in the final product. The consolidated powder product can be made to conform to particular characteristics by employing a mixture of powders including a number of different metal elements or alloys in uniform or graduated concentrations. The metal powder may contain a substantial fraction of non-metallic elements or compounds. The assembly protects the enclosed powder from oxidation or other undesirable chemical reactions. The powder may be purified in the assembly, whereby the consolidated powder product contains lesser amounts of non-metallic impurities than the starting powder. Although having many applications, the process and product of the present invention are particularly adapted to the making of sputtering targets of chromium and other hard-to-work materials, in that the final product may comprise a large-area layer of consolidated powder having a specific composition and bonded to an intermediate layer or directly to a backing layer of stainless steel or other easily machinable material. These and other objects, features, and advantages of the invention will be apparent from a detailed study of the specification hereinafter with reference to the attached drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a schematic perspective view of a punch and die set of the type used for the process of the present invention, indicating the length, width, and thickness of each of the parts. FIG. 2 is a longitudinal sectional view of the powder-filled punch and die set of FIG. 1, after the punches have been inserted from opposite ends and welded into position for hot-rolling. FIG. 3 is a longitudinal sectional view of the powder-filled punch and die assembly of FIG. 2 in the course of passing through a rolling mill. FIGS. 4 and 5 are plan and sectional views, respectively, of a typical sputtering target formed by the process of the present invention. FIG. 6 shows, in section, an alternative product in which an intermediate layer is interposed between a backing layer and a consolidated powder layer. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS FIG. 1 of the drawings shows a preferred form of a punch and die suitable for the purpose of the present invention. Die 1 has a cavity 2 which is rectangular with sides parallel to the external walls of the die. The overall length, width, and thickness of the die are designated L D , W D , and T D , respectively. Two substantially identical punches, 3 and 4, are shown in FIG. 1. However, the two punches need not be identical nor rectangular, and a single punch may be used. For simplicity of description, punches 3 and 4 are treated as identical, as they are in all but one of the Examples. The length, width, and thickness of the punches are designated L P , W P , and T P , respectively. In the preferred embodiment, L P and W P of each punch are slightly less than the length and width of cavity 2, respectively. In the first method steps, punch 4 is disposed into one end of cavity 2, the cavity is partially filled with a layer of powder 5, and punch 3 is aligned for penetration into the cavity from the opposite end, as shown in FIG. 1. Preferably, the enclosed powder is compacted in a preliminary step. The preferred method, designated the "floating die method", is to apply pressure to the punch or punches with a conventional hydraulic press to compact the powder to a density typically 65% of the theoretical maximum density. Higher density is obtainable only by applying much higher pressure. The floating die method is preferred because it provides uniform density throughout the powder mass. Next, the punches are fixed in place to prevent disassembly of the punch and die during subsequent steps, particularly during rolling. Preferably, punch 3 is fixed in place by a weld 6 between the periphery of the punch and the rim of cavity 2 at one end of die 1, as shown in FIG. 2. Similarly, punch 4 is welded to the other end of die 1. Each weld forms a convenient vacuum-tight seal, if such is desired for subsequent steps. The welding is done in a conventional manner using welding electrodes, preferably having a composition which approximates those of the materials of the punch and die. However, any weld metal which forms a secure bond between the punch and die, and which has a similar coefficient-of-expansion in the temperature range of the compressing step is suitable. Optionally, the chemical composition of the enclosed powder mass is modified by flowing a reactive gas through the punch and die assembly. As shown in FIG. 2, one or more entrance openings 7 and one or more exit openings 8 are provided in the walls of the die through which the reactive gas can flow. Typically, the assembly is heated in a protective atmosphere, such as argon, and the temperature is maintained between 1100° and 1300° C. for 2 to 20 hours while a chemically reducing gas, such as dry hydrogen, flows through the openings at a rate of 5 to 50 liters per minute. The reducing gas flows through the porous network in the powder, and decreases the carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, and other non-metallic interstitial impurities to relatively very low levels. In order to facilitate purification, the density of the compacted powder is preferably less than 75% of the theoretical maximum density so as to provide a continuous network of pores. Usually there is no interconnected porosity for densities exceeding 85% of maximum. If desired, the purification step can be omitted or carried out separately prior to compacting the powder in the punch and die assembly. Preferably, the enclosed powder is outgassed by connecting a tube 17 from one opening 7 to a vacuum pump, sealing any other openings, and evacuating the assembly for about an hour while maintaining the temperature at about 600° C. The remaining opening is completely sealed before the vacuum pump is removed. An opening may be sealed by making a crimp 18 in a tube connected to the opening. Thus, the powder layer is sealed inside the assembly where it is protected from oxidation during storage, heating, and compressing. If the powder is not subject to oxidation or other adverse reaction, it is not necessary to seal the enclosure. Just prior to the compressing step, the upper punch 3 intrudes a distance d i into the cavity 2 of die 1, and protrudes a distance d p , as shown in FIG. 2. Each distance d i , d p is measured from the upper end of the die. Punch 4 intrudes and protrudes from the lower end of the die in a similar manner. The total distance P which the two punches protrude from the die is the sum of the protrusion distances of each punch. Normally, the protrusion distance for punch 4 is approximately equal to that for punch 3, and the total distance P which the two punches protrude from the die is d p + d p = 2d p . The thickness of the layer of powder between the punches is designated T M . Intrusion of the punch into the die facilitates enclosure of the powder. The intrusion ratio i ≡ d i /d p required to keep the punch from being forced out of the die by initial contact with a roll in the compressing step increases as the roll diameter decreases. Use of intrusion ratios much larger than the required minimum increases the difficulty in transmitting applied pressure to the powder layer. Typically, the roll diameter is about 20 in and the intrusion ratio is about 1, Many conventional rolling mills have roll diameters from 35 to 7 in, and the preferred range for the intrusion ratio is from 0.5 to 2. The temperature and pressure applied during the compressing step must be sufficient to consolidate the powder. In the case of chromium or chromium-alloy powders, the temperature should be in the range 1100° to 1300° C., and preferably about 1200° C. Preferably, the dimensions of the assembly and the roll gap for the first pass are such that the punches are depressed so as to compress the powder to at least 90% of the theoretical maximum density before the assembly is substantially elongated. The total protrusion distance P required to obtain the desired densification of the powder increases as the thickness T M increases. It is preferred to keep the protrusion ratio p ≡ P/(1-ρc)T M greater than 1. Here, ρ c is the density of the compacted powder expressed as a fraction (rather than a percentage) of the theoretical maximum density. Usually, values of p less than 1 do not produce sufficient densification unless the gap ratio g is significantly less than 1 and the thickness of the die is substantially reduced. Usually, p must be at least 1.2 in order to obtain 90% density in a single pass with a gap ratio g of about 1. A value of p greater than 2 does not provide any advantage. FIG. 3 shows the assembly of FIG. 2 in the course of passing through a rolling mill. The rolls 9 and 10 have diameter D and are separated by a gap distance G. With the rolls rotating in the direction indicated, the assembly moves in the direction of the arrow 12. Preferably, the roll gap for the first pass is approximately the thickness of the die, as shown, whereby the gap ratio is about 1. The punches are compressed substantially flush with the surface of the die, but the thickness of the die and the elongation of the powder are essentially unchanged. Preferably, the assembly is rolled a second time, at about the same temperature, but with a gap ratio significantly less than 1, whereby the thickness of the assembly is reduced substantially. The resulting shear stresses cause substantial elongation and further densification of the consolidated powder layer. Typically, the second pass gap ratio is 0.85 or less and the die thickness is reduced at least 15%. The ultimate lower limit on g is set by the capability of the rolling mill. It is well known in the rolling art that greater forces and torques are required to produce greater reductions in thickness. It is understood that only one or more than two rolling passes may be employed if deemed necessary to produce the desired density and dimensions in the final powder-compacted product. Further, the hot-rolling may be preceded by hot pressing with a sufficiently large hydraulic press. In such a case, the protrusion ratio p is preferably greater than 1.2 in order that the powder is compressed to a density greater than 90% before it is subjected to shearing forces resulting from elongation of the die. After compressing, the composite product is cooled relatively slowly in order to minimize residual stresses generated by differences between the coefficient of thermal expansion of the consolidated powder layer and that of the remnants of the punch or die. Typically, the cooling rate is 100 deg/hr or less. If the powder contains chromium and the punch iron, the cooling rate is increased to about 1000 deg/hr from about 850° C. to 650° C., in order to avoid the formation of an undesirable brittle intermetallic phase, known as the sigma phase, at the interface. In such case, the cooling rate is reduced to 100 deg/hr or less between 650° C. and room temperature in order to minimize residual stresses. The rate of cooling may be varied in each case to take into account the relative coefficients of thermal expansion of the components, and to minimize residual stresses and resultant cracking. Finally, the composite product is cut and machined to the desired dimensions. In order to prevent cracking, the stresses generated during these operations are minimized. The remnants of the punches and die can be removed or retained as desired. Usually, the consolidated powder and the remnants are strongly bonded together. The largest consolidated powder plates which have been made have areas of about 100 in 2 , but it is believed that much larger plates can be made by this method. FIGS. 4 and 5 are plan and sectional views of a sputtering target made by the method of the present invention. Layer 15 is a dense layer of consolidated chromium or chromium-alloy powder and layer 14 is a backing layer which is derived from a stainless steel punch. The backing layer is easily drilled and tapped to facilitate mounting of the target. FIG. 6 shows a sectional view of an alternative composite product which includes an intermediate layer 16 between backing layer 14 and consolidated powder layer 15. Such an intermediate layer can provide a stronger bond between particular consolidated powder and backing layer materials. Intermediate layer 16 is derived from an auxiliary plate 11, shown by a broken line in FIG. 2, interposed between one punch and the powder at the time the assembly is formed. Typically, the auxiliary plate is 0.06 to 0.12 thick and replaces a portion of the thickness of upper punch 3, so that the combined thickness substantially equals that of lower punch 4. The invention will be more completely understood from a discussion of the following specific examples of its application. EXAMPLES For all of the examples, a rectangular die was formed from 304 stainless steel. Except for Example 5, all of the dies had the shape shown in FIG. 1. For each example, the inital length, width, and thickness of the die are indicated in Table II as L D , W D , and T D in the row for "0" passes. For all except Examples 5 and 8, two identical punches of the shape indicated in FIG. 1 were used. As will be discussed subsequently, Example 5 involved only one punch and Example 8 involved a first punch and an auxiliary plate which combined had the same shape and size as a second punch. For all examples, the initial length and width of the punches are indicated in Table II as L P and W P in the row for "0" Passes. The initial thickness T P for each punch is indicated in Table I. For Examples 1, 5, 6, and 7 the punches were formed from 304 stainless steel. The punches for Examples 2 and 8 were 347 stainless steel. The punches for Examples 3 and 4 were formed from a nickel-base material sold by the International Nickel Company under the name INCONEL 601 alloy. In each example, a metal powder was processed as follows: a powder mass of weight w and initial density ρ i , as indicated in Table I, was placed into the cavity of a metal die as shown in FIG. 1, and enclosed by disposing at least one punch to partially penetrate into the cavity. The enclosed powder was compacted by the floating die method without heating; pressure was applied to the punch with a hydraulic press until the powder had density ρ c , as given in Table I. This compaction was accomplished without apparent change in the dimensions of any punch. Thus, for each example, the length, width, and thickness of the compacted powder were equal to L P , W P and T M as indicated in the row for "0" Passes in Table II. After compaction, each punch intruded a distance d i into the die and protruded a distance d p out of the die, as indicated in Table I and FIG. 2. The punches were fixed in that position by welding with stainless steel electrodes to interpose weld metal between the punches and the die, forming peripheral weld 6 as shown in FIG. 2. The intrusion ratio i and the protrusion ratio p of the resulting assembly are given in Table I. The compacted powder was outgassed by heating the assembly to 600° C. or slightly above for about 1 hour while evacuating the assembly to a pressure of 25 millitorr or slightly less. For all but Example 8, die 1 had a single opening 7 which was fitted with a stainless steel tube 17 having an inside diameter of 0.125 in. The tube was connected to a conventional vacuum pump while the powder was outgassed. After cooling to room temperature, the assembly was sealed by crimping the tube before the vacuum pump was disconnected. The assembly comprising the die, punches, and compacted powder was then heated and compressed by passing one or more times between two rolls as shown in FIG. 3. Sometimes the assembly was re-heated and re-rolled as would be required in most finishing processes. Table II indicates the number of passes, the approximate temperature, and the roll diameter D, for each rolling sequence for each example. The roll gap G and the gap ratio g for the first pass are also indicated. The approximate exterior dimensions of the assembly at the end of each sequence are indicated under L D , W D , and T D . Similarly, where known, the dimensions of the enclosed powder layer are indicated under L P , W P , and T M . The final density ρ f of the consolidated powder layer is indicated in Table I. EXAMPLE 1 In this example, the powder layer was commercially pure chromium powder designated M-788 by Shieldalloy Corporation, the supplier. A chemical analysis indicated the following additional metallic constituents by weight: 0.28% Al, 0.22% Fe, and 0.12% Si. The non-metallic impurities were 223 ppm C, 1655 ppm O, 88 ppm N, and 187 ppm S. The theoretical maximum density is 0.260 lb/in 3 (7.19 g/cm 3 ). The crushed powder had a particle size smaller than 60 mesh. The powder was enclosed in a die with a pair of identical punches, cold-compacted by the floating die method, outgassed, and sealed under vacuum. Three assemblies designated 1A, 1, and 1B were prepared, all having the same die and cavity dimensions but with different intrusion and protrusion ratios, as indicated in Table I. Each assembly was consolidated by heating and rolling as indicated in Table II, and then cooled to room temperature. The stainless steel layer derived from one punch was carefully cut away to allow examination of the surface of the consolidated powder layer. The parameters of assembly 1 gave the best results: the final density ρ f was 95% of the theoretical maximum density and the consolidated chromium had the fewest cracks. These superior results are attributed to the combination of an intrusion ratio i = 2.54, a protrusion ratio p = 1.28, and a first pass gap ratio g = 1.02. Because the roll gap for the first pass was approximately equal to the initial thickness of the die, the protruding ends of each punch were depressed essentially flush with the surfaces of the die. The parameters of assembly 1A are less satisfactory than those of assembly 1 or 1B because the punches popped out of the die during the first pass through the rolls. This is attributed to the use of an intrusion ratio i = 0.5 which is too small for the relatively small-diameter rolls. Further, even though the protrusion ratio p = 3.13 was quite large, the final density was only 74% because the gap ratio g = 1.5 was so much greater than 1. These three assemblies demonstrate that in order to obtain a high-density, crack-free chromium product, the intrusion ratio i must be greater than 0.5 for 10-in diameter rolls, and the protrusion ratio p and the gap ratio g should not both be near 1. EXAMPLE 2 The powder was a uniform mixture of 89% by weight of the chromium powder of Example 1 and 11% by weight of iron powder of grade Atomet 29, manufactured by the Quebec Metal Powder Company, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The iron powder had a particle size less than 100 mesh. The theoretical maximum density is 0.263 lb/in 3 (7.26 g/cm 3 ). The powder was enclosed, compacted, outgassed, and sealed. Three different assemblies, designated 2A, 2, and 2B, were prepared having essentially the same dimensions and weight of powder as indicated in Tables I and II. The intrusion ratio i was about 1.1 and the protrusion ratio p was about 1.8 for all three assemblies. Assembly 2A was heated and rolled once with a gap larger than the thickness of the die and a gap ratio g = 1.07. The thickness of each punch was reduced 10%, to 0.694 in, but the punches were not depressed flush with the ends of the die. The resulting density of the consolidated powder was only 82% of the theoretical maximum. Assembly 2 was heated and rolled as assembly 2A except that the roll gap was approximately equal to the thickness of the die and the gap ratio was 0.97. The thickness of each punch was reduced 16% to 0.653 in, and the punches were depressed flush with the ends of the die. The final density was 90%. Assembly 2B was heated and rolled as assembly 2 except that the gap was significantly less than the thickness of the die, the gap ratio was 0.88, and the thickness of each punch was reduced 21% to 0.607 in. Not only were the punches depressed flush with the die, but the thickness of the die itself was reduced 13% and the length was increased 18%. The final density was 95%. These three assemblies indicated that for a given protrusion ratio, the density after a single pass increases as the roll gap decreases. EXAMPLE 3 The powder was chromium of the composition and size as for Example 1. The powder was enclosed, compacted, outgassed, and sealed. The assembly was heated and rolled once. As can be calculated from the data given in Table II, the powder thickness decreased 43%, each punch thickness decreased 15% to 0.636 in, but the die thickness decreased only 3%. The length and width of the die increased 16% and 3%, respectively, and the length and width of the powder mass increased 18% and 3%. Compared to the increases in length and width, the much greater percentage decrease in thickness of the powder indicates that powder experienced much greater compressive than shearing stresses during the first rolling. One of the two punches was removed for examination of the surface of the consolidated powder. The powder density was 95% and there were no visible surface cracks. This success is attributed to the combination of an intrusion ratio i = 0.91 which is sufficiently high for 20-in diameter rolls, a protrusion ratio p = 1.81, a gap ratio g = 1.00, and a rolling temperature high enough for consolidation of the chromium powder but low enough that the INCONEL 601 punches had sufficient strength to transmit compression stresses to the powder. After the removed punch was replaced and rewelded, the assembly was heated and rolled again. One pass was made parallel to the length and one parallel to the width of the assembly. The two passes increased the length and width of the consolidated powder layer by 75% and 9%, respectively, and decreased the thickness by 54%. The much larger elongation compared to the reduction in thickness indicates that the consolidated powder experienced substantial shear stresses. From the dimensions, the final density ρ f was estimated to be 99%. This was confirmed by metallo-graphic examination of a 8.5 × 7 in piece sawed from the center of the assembly. The examination revealed that the powder product was crack-free with a density of between 98% and 99%. The excellent quality of the final powder product indicates that an assembly containing consolidated chromium powder of density 95% can undergo further elongation and thickness reduction without cracking. EXAMPLE 4 The powder was a uniform mixture of 88% chromium and 12% iron powders similar to Example 2. The powder was enclosed, compacted, outgassed, and sealed. The assembly was heated and rolled three times in rapid succession with a first pass gap ratio g = 1.00, a protrusion ratio p = 1.89, and an intrusion ratio i = 1.05. Removal of one punch revealed that the density of the powder product was 99% and that there was no observable cracks. The punch was replaced and the assembly re-rolled twice as in Example 3. Metallographic examination of a microsection of the consolidated powder showed it to be crack-free and of density between 98% and 99% of maximum. This example illustrates that once a high density is obtained, consolidated chromium-iron powder can undergo elongation and reduction in thickness without cracking. EXAMPLE 5 The powder was FerroTic compound sold by the Sintercast Division of Chromalloy Corporation. This compound comprises an iron-based matrix with 45% by volume titanium carbide. The powder contained the following non-metallic elements by weight: 9.86% C, 1.89% O, and 1416 ppm N. The theoretical maximum density is 0.227 lb/in 3 (6.4 g/cm 3 ). The powder size was less than 325 mesh. The die was a modified version of that of FIG. 2 in which punch 4 was replaced by a closed end. Because only a single punch 3 was used, the total protrusion distance P = d p . The die was 1.292 in thick and the cavity was 0.854 in deep. After compacting, punch 3 was removed to expose the powder. The exposed powder was purified by maintaining the die and powder at approximately 1177C for 6 hours in a dry hydrogen atmosphere (dewpoint -36° C.). After the powder had cooled without oxidation, the punch was reinserted and the assembly was outgassed and sealed. The assembly was heated, rolled twice, then re-heated and re-rolled twice. A metallographic examination after cooling indicated no apparent cracks. The non-metallic elements were found to be 6.3% C, 0.93% O, 567 ppm N, and 200 ppm S. The success of this example indicates both that the single-punch method is workable and that powders containing a substantial fraction of a very hard-to-work, non-metallic compound such as titanium carbide, can be formed into plates by the method of this invention. EXAMPLE 6 The powder was a uniform mixture of 88% chromium and 12% iron powders similar to Example 2. The non-metallic impurities of the mixture were 243 ppm C, 1600 ppm O, 100 ppm N, and 204 ppm S. The powder was enclosed, compacted, outgassed, and sealed. The punch and powder parameters after compacting are indicated in Table I in the upper row for Example 6; the density of the powder was 63%. The assembly was heated, but rather than being rolled, it was pressed using a hydraulic press capable of exerting a force of 1300 ton. Despite the use of applied pressures of 40,000 lb/in 2 , the powder density after two hot-pressings was estimated to be only 86%. Even this uncommonly large press was incapable of increasing the density of the approximately 60 in 2 layer to 90%. The punch and powder parameters after hot-pressing are indicated in Table I in the lower row for Example 6. The pressing temperature and the dimensions of the die and powder after pressing are indicated in the row of Table II in which "Press" appears in the "Roller" column. Next, the assembly was heated and rolled in two sequences as indicated in Table II. The final area of the consolidated powder layer was about 114 in 2 and the density ρ f was 98%. The rolling mill accomplished what the giant hydraulic press could not. A chemical analysis of the consolidated powder layer indicated that the non-metallic impurities were 284 ppm C, 1634 ppm O, 110 ppm N, and 158 ppm S, which indicate that the interstitial impurity content remained essentially the same throughout the processing. Thus, the punch and die enclosure effectively sealed the powder from the atmosphere during storage of the assembly and throughout the subsequent heating and compressing steps. EXAMPLE 7 The powder was chromium of the composition and size as for Example 1. The powder was enclosed, compacted, outgassed, and sealed. The assembly was rolled once with a relatively narrow gap and a gap ratio g = 0.72. The die thickness decreased 43% and the length and width of the assembly increased 34% and 6.5% respectively. This thickness reduction is significantly greater than that made on the first pass in the other examples. An acceptable product with a final density ρ f of 96% was obtained. However, several passes with smaller thickness reductions are preferred in order to make larger-area plates. EXAMPLE 8 The powder was a prepared alloy comprising chromium, 23.4% iron, less that 1% other metallic elements, and non-metallic impurities of 291 ppm C, 4322 ppm O, 653 ppm N, and 31 ppm S. The powder was enclosed as shown in FIG. 1; punch 4 was 0.75 in thick, and punch 3 was 0.625 in thick. A rectangular auxiliary plate 11, shown in FIG. 2, of INCONEL 601 alloy having dimensions 4 × 7 × 0.125 in, was placed between punch 3 and the powder mass 5. The combined thickness of punch 3 and auxiliary plate 11 was equal to that of punch 4. In this example, the single openings 7 and 8 shown in FIG. 1 were each replaced by four parallel openings in order to more uniformly distribute flowing gas through the powder mass. After the powder was compacted, it was chemically reduced by flowing dry hydrogen (dewpoint -65° C.) through the assembly at about 5 liters/minute. While the hydrogen was flowing, the assembly was slowly heated, held at 1200° C. for approximately 15 hours and cooled to room temperature. The assembly was outgassed, sealed, heated and rolled twice. Then it was cooled slowly to about 760° C. at a rate of 110 deg/hr, cooled quickly to 650° C. to avoid formation of the sigma phase, and cooled slowly to room temperature at a rate of about 28 deg/hr. A chemical analysis of the consolidated powder layer indicated that the purification step reduced the non-metallic impurities by significant amounts to 64 ppm C, 1547 ppm O, 46 ppm N, and 10 ppm S. The composite was cut to form an 8 × 4 in sputtering target as shown in FIG. 6. The intermediate layer 16, derived from the INCONEL 601 auxiliary plate, was firmly bonded both to the chromium-iron consolidated powder layer 15 and the 347 stainless steel backing layer 14. The target was mounted to a planar magnetron sputtering source and successfully sputtered to deposit a thin layer of chromium-iron alloy on a substrate. Although the invention has been described with reference to a number of specific examples, the invention is not limited to any of the particular forms or materials disclosed by way of illustration, but only as defined in the claims. TABLE I______________________________________PUNCH PARAMETERS.sup.a AND POWDER DENSITYPUNCHT.sub.P d.sub.i d.sub.p w ρi ρc ρfEx. (mil) (mil) (mil) i p (lb) (%) (%) (%)______________________________________1A 750 250 500 0.50 3.13 4.04 51 58 741 500 359 141 2.54 1.28 3.16 51 60 951B 500 400 100 4.00 1.05 2.81 51 60 922A 767 398 369 1.08 1.79 8.82 55 66 822 775 409 366 1.11 1.86 8.82 55 67 902B 773 412 361 1.14 1.84 8.82 55 67 953 750 358 392 0.91 1.81 8.00 55 66 984 750 384 366 1.05 1.89 8.04 55 69 995 500 200 300 0.67 1.02.sup.b 2.95 40 55 956.sup.c750 368 382 0.96 1.52 12.60 54 63 --639 514 125 4.11 2.12 -- -- 86 987 500 334 166 2.01 1.52 4.13 54 65 968 750.sup.d 375 375 1.00 1.58 5.80 55 62 99______________________________________ .sup.a 1 mil = 10.sup.-3 in. .sup.b Single punch. .sup.c Upper row, before pressing; lower row, after pressing. .sup.d Punch and auxiliary plate combined. TABLE II__________________________________________________________________________HEATING AND ROLLING PARAMETERS ROLLER DIE POWDER Temp. D G L.sub.D W.sub.D T.sub.D L.sub.P W.sub.P T.sub.MExamplePasses (C) (in) (in) g (in) (in) (in) (in) (in) (in)__________________________________________________________________________1A 0 1180 9.63 1.87 1.50 8.5 7.0 1.25 6.0 6.0 0.751 9.0 7.06 1.25 6.9 6.0 0.501 0 1180 9.63 1.3 1.02 8.5 7.0 1.281 6.0 6.0 0.5632 10.0 7.12 1.07 7.5 6.5 0.2631B 0 1180 9.63 1.25 0.97 8.5 7.0 1.29 6.0 6.0 0.491 1180 0.84 9.53 7.0 1.21 6.62 6.03 0.3391 13.31 7.13 0.844 9.18 6.25 0.2032A 0 1210 20 2.15 1.07 10.00 11.00 2.008 6.00 7.00 1.2121 10.56 11.42 1.997 6.57 7.07 0.7662 0 1210 20 1.94 0.97 10.00 11.00 2.012 6.0 7.0 1.1941 11.05 11.44 1.940 6.96 7.17 0.6342B 0 1210 20 1.76 0.88 10.0 11.0 2.010 6.0 7.0 1.1871 11.75 11.57 1.758 7.35 7.24 0.5443 0 1205 20 2.0 1.00 9.5 10.5 2.010 5.500 6.500 1.2941 1205 11.0 10.8 1.942 6.516 6.703 0.7432 19.0 12.5 0.967 11.42 7.31 0.3434 0 1205 20 2.0 1.00 9.5 10.5 2.010 5.500 6.500 1.2423 1205 13.1 11.0 1.598 8.156 6.750 0.5622 17.3 13.5 0.975 10.5 8.5 0.3445 0 1205 20 1.25 0.96 8.5 7.0 1.292 6.0 6.0 0.6542 1205 11.0 8.5 1.015 -- -- --2 14.0 8.5 0.681 -- -- 0.1726 0 1190 Press 1.75 0.83 10.5 9.5 2.100 7.5 7.5 1.3642 1177 16 12.1 11.0 2.13 8.13 8.13 0.8502 1177 13.8 12.5 1.56 -- -- --2 17.0 13.0 1.25 12.0 9.5 --7 0 1210 20 0.93 0.72 8.50 7.25 1.292 6.0 6.5 0.6241 11.75 7.72 0.93 -- -- --8 0 1210 20 1.77 0.88 7.0 9.0 2.0 4.0 7.0 1.252 17.0 9.5 0.826 -- -- --__________________________________________________________________________

A powder-metallurgy process, product, and assembly particularly adapted for manufacturing plates of hard-to-work materials, such as chromium and its alloys, are disclosed. The assembly is formed by placing a metal powder into the cavity of a die and disposing one punch or two opposed punches to intrude into the cavity and enclose the powder. Preferably, the powder is compacted by applying pressure to the punches, and the punches are fixed to the die with their outer ends protruding from the die. The enclosed powder may be purified, outgassed, and sealed under vacuum. The enclosed powder is consolidated and elongated by heating and compressing, preferably by rolling one or more times in a conventional rolling mill. The composite product is cooled slowly and cut to the desired size. Remnants of the die and punch may serve as frame and backing for the consolidated powder layer. The plates have application, for example, as sputtering targets.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to optical wavelength add/drop multiplexers. More specifically, it relates to an optical wavelength add/drop multiplexer operable to add or drop digital optical signals from optical channels that may each be operating at one of two or more data transmission rates. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Broadband telecommunications networks are being configured to carry increasing volumes of voice, data and multimedia information. To meet these increasing volume demands, such networks are being implemented using optical communications systems technology. For example, optical wavelength-division multiplexed (WDM) technology may be used to support dozens of communications channels transported at different wavelengths on a single optical fiber. In WDM optical networks, wavelength add/drop multiplexers (WADMs) have been used to selectively remove and reinsert WDM channels at intermediate points across these networks (see, e.g., C. Randy Giles et al., “The Wavelength Add/Drop Multiplexer for Lightwave Communications Networks,” Bell Labs Technical Journal, January-March 1999, pp. 207-229). For example, WADMs have been constructed using optical multiplexer/demultiplexer pairs that first demultiplex a multi-channel WDM optical signal into individual WDM channels on individual optical paths, and then re-multiplex signals on the individual optical paths back into a single multi-channel WDM optical signal. Single channel WDM signals may be dropped from or added to a selected number of the individual optical paths before the signals are re-multiplexed. Alternatively, in order to avoid demultiplexing and re-multiplexing each of the channels in the WDM signal, a variety of optical filter technologies have been employed in WADM systems to drop signals from or add signals to selected channels in the multi-channel WDM optical signal. Such filter technologies include, for example, fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs), thin film filters and arrayed waveguide gratings. Use of such filter technologies in WADMs is preferred when only a few of many channels in a WDM signal are either being dropped or added. Optical filter characteristics are largely dictated by associated WDM signal characteristics. For example, synchronous optical network (SONET) OC192 channels operating at 10 gigabits per second require filters with an effective bandwidth of at least 48 gigahertz, while SONET OC48 channels operating at 2.5 gigabits per second require filters with an effective bandwidth of at least 10 gigahertz. In addition, OC192 channels require filters that are selective among channels spaced at 100 gigahertz intervals, while OC48 channels require filters that are selective among channels spaced at 50 gigahertz intervals. As a result, WADM filters usable at one WDM data transmission rate are generally unusable at alternate data rates. For increased flexibility, some current WDM systems allow individual channels to be operated at alternate data rates. For example, an OC192 channel with 100 gigahertz spacing may alternatively be replaced by two OC48 channels with 50 gigahertz spacing. This increased flexibility helps to maximize utilization of capacity in WDM systems. To date, such flexible systems have used dedicated WADM filters to filter signals at each data rate. This approach adds cost and reduces inherent flexibility in the selection of channels for a given WADM signal. Accordingly, there is a need to provide a more flexible and cost-effective means for filtering optical channels in a WDM signal with varying data rates. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Flexibility is increased and cost is reduced in an optical wavelength add/drop multiplexer (WADM) configured to add or drop two or more WDM channels that may each be operating at one of either a first data rate or a second data rate. The WADM comprises an optical circulator that is coupled at one port to two or more serially interconnected FBGs, and at another port to a thin film filter including two or more serially interconnected thin film filter elements (TFFEs). Each of the FBGs and TFFEs has an effective bandwidth to filter signals from one of the two or more WDM channels. Bandwidth and dispersion characteristics for the FBGs are selected to minimize anticipated filter performance penalties for operation at both the first and second data rates. FBGs and TFFEs contribute insertion loss to the filtered signals. According to the principles of the present invention, FBGs and TFFEs are configured to approximately equalize the amount of insertion loss associated with each added or dropped channel. Specifically, FBGs and TFFEs are configured such that optical channels are assigned to FBGs in order of the FBGs' increasing optical distance from the circulator, and assigned to TFFEs in order of the TFFEs' decreasing optical distance from the circulator. In a preferred embodiment of the invention supporting a first data rate of no more than 2.5 gigabits per second and a second data rate of 10 gigabits per second, the WADM includes four FBGs and four thin film filters. In order to employ conventional thin film filter elements having an effective bandwidth of 200 gigahertz, each pair of adjacent FBGs and each pair of adjacent thin film filters are selected to have characteristic wavelengths spaced at 200 gigahertz intervals. Bandwidth and dispersion characteristics of the FBGs are selected to enable operation at both the first and second data rates. Specifically, each FBG is selected to have an effective bandwidth (i.e., reflected by a power difference over the bandwidth of no more than 10 dB) of about 0.45 nanometers. Each FBG is further selected with dispersion values that deviate by no more than approximately 150 picoseconds per nanometer from a predetermined reference value at wavelengths no more than 0.1 nanometers above and below a characteristic wavelength, and with deviation increasing above 150 picoseconds per nanometer at a rate no greater than approximately 20,000 picoseconds per square nanometer at wavelengths beyond 0.1 nanometers from the characteristic wavelength. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING The invention will be more fully understood from the following detailed description taken in connection with the accompanying drawing, in which: FIG. 1 depicts a first embodiment of the present invention for dropping optical channels from a WDM signal; FIG. 2 depicts a second embodiment of the present invention for adding optical channels to a WDM signal; FIG. 3 shows WADM employing both the first and second embodiments of FIGS. 1 and 2; FIG. 4 illustrates how the WADM of FIG. 3 may be placed in a WDM network; FIG. 5 illustrates a typical reflection and transmission spectrums for a fiber Bragg grating (FBG) used in the embodiments of FIGS. 1-4; FIG. 6 shows a comparison of reflection spectrums for an FBG and a thin film filter used in the embodiments of FIGS. 1-4; FIGS. 7A and 7B illustrate SPM/XPM penalties for an FBG used in the present invention at OC48 and OC192 data rates, respectively; FIG. 8 illustrates how multiple WADMs may be used to add or drop a series of OC48 and OC192 channels; FIG. 9 shows limits for FBG dispersion levels as a function of wavelength; and FIG. 10 shows dispersion levels for typical FBGs used in the embodiments of FIGS. 1-4. For consistency and ease of understanding, those elements of each figure that are similar or equivalent share identification numbers that are identical in the two least significant digit positions (for example, FBG 132 of FIG. 1 is equivalent to FBG 232 of FIG. 2 ). DETAILED DESCRIPTION Consistent with the principles of the present invention, FIG. 1 depicts a wavelength add/drop multiplexer (WADM) 100 configured to drop optical signals associated with a maximum of four channels in a multi-channel WDM signal. The WDM signal enters an optical circulator 130 in WADM 100 via input 102 . Optical circulator 130 functions to transport optical signals received at input 102 to link 116 and to transport optical signals received via link 116 to link 114 . Optical circulator 130 is an asymmetrical circulator, as it does not further function to transport optical signals received via link 114 to input 102 . Such asymmetrical circulators are well-known in the art and are commercially available, for example, from JDS Uniphase and others. Circulator 130 of FIG. 1 transports the WDM signal from input 102 via link 116 to fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs) 132 , 134 , 136 and 138 . FBGs 132 , 134 , 136 and 138 are responsive to optical signals carried by channels approximately centered at wavelengths λ 1 , λ 3 , λ 5 , and λ 7 , respectively. FBGs 132 , 134 , 136 and 138 are of a type that may be obtained commercially, for example, from JDS Uniphase, Corning, and Sumitomo Electric Lightwave Corp. In order to be suitable for application in the present invention, FBGs 132 , 134 , 136 and 138 are selected to exhibit the bandwidth and dispersion characteristics described further herein. Upon receiving a WDM signal over link 116 , FBG 132 operates to substantially reflect a component of the multi-wavelength WDM signal carried by a channel approximately centered at wavelength λ 1 , and to substantially pass other WDM signal components over link 115 to FBG 134 . Similarly, FBG 134 operates to substantially reflect a component of the multi-wavelength WDM signal carried by a channel approximately centered at wavelength λ 3 and to pass other signal components over link 117 to FBG 136 . FBG 136 substantially reflects a component of the WDM signal carried by a channel approximately centered at wavelength λ 5 while passing other components over link 119 to FBG 138 , and FBG 138 substantially reflects a component of the WDM signal carried by a channel approximately centered at wavelength λ 7 while passing other components to output 104 . As a result of the operation of FBGs 132 , 134 , 136 and 138 , signal components of the input WDM signal carried by channels approximately centered at wavelengths λ 1 , λ 3 , λ 5 , and λ 7 are substantially removed from the WDM signal reaching link 104 . These removed component signals are reflected by FBGs 132 , 134 , 136 and 138 back to circulator 130 , which directs the reflect signals over link 114 to thin film filter 120 . Other WDM signal components not substantially reflected by FBGs 132 , 134 , 136 and 138 are transmitted through the WADM 100 over output 104 . Thin film filter 120 includes thin film filter elements (TFFEs) 122 , 124 , 126 , and 128 . TFFEs may be obtained commercially, for example, from JDS Uniphase, Corning, and DiCon Fiberoptics, Inc. One skilled in the art will readily recognize that other optical signal demultiplexing devices (for, example, such as a star coupler) may alternatively be employed in place of thin film filter 120 without deviating from the principles of the present invention. Low cost and insertion loss characteristics associated with thin film filter 120 suggest that it is particularly well-suited to be selected as the demultiplexing device. TFFEs 122 , 124 , 126 and 128 are responsive to optical signals carried by channels approximately centered at wavelengths λ 1 , λ 3 , λ 5 , and λ 7 , respectively. For example, TFFE 128 receives the removed component signals in channels approximately centered at wavelengths λ 1 , λ 3 , λ 5 , and λ 7 over link 121 , and operates to substantially transmit the component associated with λ 7 over output 106 and to substantially reflect other remaining signal components over link 123 to TFFE 126 . Similarly, TFFE 126 operates to substantially transmit the component associated with wavelength λ 5 over output 110 and to substantially reflect other remaining components over link 125 to TFFE 124 . TFFE 124 substantially transmits the signal component associated with wavelength λ 3 over output 108 , and reflects the final remaining component associated with wavelength λ 1 over link 127 to TFFE 122 . TFFE 122 substantially transmits this final component associated with wavelength λ 1 over output 112 . Accordingly, WDM signal components in channels associated with wavelengths λ 1 , λ 3 , λ 5 , and λ 7 are dropped from the WDM input signal at outputs 112 , 108 , 110 and 106 , respectively. In addition to reflecting signals in channels associated with wavelengths λ 1 , λ 3 , λ 5 , and λ 7 , FBGs 132 , 134 , 136 and 138 may each also reflect signal components associated with adjacent channels. For example, signal drift and jitter may cause signal components at wavelengths normally at the edge of adjacent channels to overlap signals at the edges of the reflected channel. These overlapping signal components introduce adjacent channel crosstalk, which degrades the reflected signal. In the embodiment of FIG. 1, adjacent channel crosstalk is reduced as a result of next-stage filtering performed by TFFEs 122 , 124 , 126 and 128 . FIG. 6 shows a typical FBG reflection profile 632 and a typical TFFE transmission profile 636 consistent with the embodiment of FIG. 1 . Profiles. 632 and 636 are associated with a FBG and a TFFE, respectively, that are each intended to filter a signal at a characteristic wavelength 642 of 1533.6 nanometers. This example may be easily extended to other WDM signals at a variety of characteristic wavelengths. Profile 634 illustrates a shift in FBG profile 634 as the result of signal drift or jitter that causes, for example, in an increase in adjacent channel crosstalk 649 of approximately 10 dB at channel edge 648 (50 gigahertz away from characteristic wavelength 642 ). Beyond channel edge 648 , TFFE profile 636 exhibits an increasing transmission loss. For example, attenuation levels of −10 dB and greater are exhibited by TFFE profile 636 at and beyond wavelengths 647 and 646 which lie approximately 1.4 nanometers away from characteristic wavelength 642 (or approximately 100 gigahertz away from characteristic wavelength 642 ). Thus, at and beyond channel edge 648 , adjacent channel crosstalk transmitted by a TFFE exhibiting profile 636 will be attenuated. WDM signals dropped by, added by or passed through WADM 100 are also subject to insertion losses. For example, insertion losses of approximately 0.2 dB are incurred by WDM signals being reflected or transmitted by one of the FBGs 132 , 134 , 136 and 138 . Insertion losses of approximately 1.5 dB are incurred by WDM signals being transmitted by one of the thin film filter elements 128 , 126 , 124 and 122 . Insertion losses of approximately 0.7 dB are incurred by WDM signals being reflected by one of the thin film filter elements 128 , 126 , 124 and 122 . In addition, signal losses of approximately 0.6 dB per port are incurred by circulator 130 . WADM 100 of FIG. 1 is arranged to minimize the insertion loss experienced by each of the dropped WDM signals by substantially equalizing the number of filter elements each dropped WDM signal interacts with. For a given characteristic wavelength λ 1 , λ 3 , λ 5 , or λ 7 , the position of a TFFE in the series of TFFEs 128 , 126 , 124 and 122 and the position of an associated FBG in the series of FBGs 132 , 134 , 136 and 138 are inverted with respect to circulator 130 . For example, signals associated with wavelength λ 1 are reflected by FBG 132 and transmitted by TFFE 122 . As a result, the dropped signal associated with wavelength λ 1 interacts with five elements (FBG 132 and thin film elements 128 , 126 , 124 and 122 ) between circulator 130 and output 112 . The number of interactions and approximate insertion losses for each of the WDM signals dropped by WADM 100 of FIG. 1 is shown in Table 1. TABLE 1 FBGs reflect- Approx- Character- ing or TFFEs reflect- Total number imate istic transmitt- ing or transmit- of affecting inser- Wavelength ing signal ting signal elements tion loss λ 1 (132) (128, 126, 124, five 5.6 dB 122) λ 3 (132, 134, 132) (128, 126, 124) six 5.3 dB λ 5 (132, 134, 136, (128, 126) seven 5.0 dB 134, 132) λ 7 (132, 134, 136, (128) eight 4.7 dB 138, 136, 134, 132) In the embodiment of FIG. 1, FBGs 132 , 134 , 136 and 138 and TFFEs 128 , 126 , 124 and 122 are selected to filter channels approximately centered at wavelengths λ 1 , λ 3 , λ 5 , and λ 7 . Wavelengths λ 1 , λ 3 , λ 5 , and λ 7 are selected with between-wavelength spacing of 200 gigahertz. As illustrated in FIG. 6, this spacing is consistent with thin film filter transmission profile 636 , which has an effective −10 dB bandwidth (bounded by wavelengths 646 and 647 ) of approximately 1.6 nanometers or 200 gigahertz. Filter spacing of 200 gigahertz also helps to minimize the effects of coherent crosstalk. Coherent crosstalk may arise when two or more copies of a signal are combined in one signal. In WADM 100 of FIG. 1, for example, components of the signal centered at wavelength λ 5 may be reflected by FBGs 132 and 134 before the remaining signal is fully reflected by FBG 136 . Since FBGs 132 and 134 precede FBG 136 in the signal path, any signal component reflected by FBG 132 will have a phase advanced from the signal component reflected by FBG 134 , and any signal component reflected by FBG 134 will have a phase advanced from the signal component reflected by FBG 136 . As all three components recombine before reaching filter 120 , the recombined signal with its component signal phase differences exhibits coherent crosstalk. By spacing FBGs 132 , 134 , 136 and 138 such that adjacent FBGs have characteristic wavelengths that are 200 gigahertz apart, very little of the signal associated with one of the FBGs 132 , 134 , 136 and 138 is reflected by an adjacent FBG. As illustrated in FIG. 5, signals reflected by an FBG as near as 50 gigahertz to the characteristic wavelength (for example, the distance of wavelength 515 from characteristic wavelength 513 ) are reduced in power by nearly −40 dB. Although FBGs 132 , 134 , 136 and 138 in WADM 100 of FIG. 1 have characteristic frequency spacing of 200 gigahertz, WDM signals with characteristic frequency spacing of 50 gigahertz or 100 gigahertz may be effectively filtered by combining a plurality of WADMs in sequence with filters at appropriately selected characteristic wavelengths. FIG. 8 illustrates the effect of such a combination. In FIG. 8, WDM signal 802 has characteristic wavelength spacing of 50 gigahertz, and WDM signal 804 has characteristic wavelength spacing of 100 gigahertz. With 50 gigahertz spacing, for example, WDM signal 802 over spectrum 803 generates sixteen channels centered at wavelengths λ 1 , through λ 16 . Alternatively, with 100 gigahertz spacing, WDM signal 804 over spectrum 813 generates eight channels centered at wavelengths λ 2 , λ 4 , λ 6 , λ 8 , λ 10 , λ 12 , λ 14 , and λ 16 . WADMs 806 , 808 , 810 and 812 are employed to filter signals from WDM channels associated with spectrums 803 and 813 . Each of the WADMs 806 , 808 , 810 and 812 incorporate filters associated with WDM channels having 200 gigahertz characteristic wavelength spacing. For example, WADM 806 incorporates filters responsive to channel spectrum 807 associated with characteristic wavelengths λ 2 , λ 6 , λ 10 and λ 12 . Collectively, WADMs 806 , 808 , 810 and 812 incorporate filters that are responsive to respective channel spectra 807 , 811 , 805 and 809 that together include channel spectrum 813 centered at wavelengths λ 2 , λ 4 , λ 6 , λ 8 , λ 10 , λ 12 , λ 14 , and λ 16 and channel spectrum 803 centered at wavelengths λ 1 through λ 16 . As shown in FIG. 8, channel spectra 803 and 813 are selected to include low frequency channels in WDM signals 802 and 804 . Because cladding-mode resonance produces FBG reflectances at wavelengths below the associated characteristic wavelength (see, e.g., Raman Kashyap, Fiber Bragg Gratings , Academic Press, 1999, pg. 159), selection of these lowest channels helps to reduce the accumulation of cladding-mode resonances. In a second embodiment of the present invention related to the embodiment of FIG. 1, FIG. 2 depicts a WADM 200 configured to add optical signals associated with a maximum of four channels in a WDM signal. WDM signals associated with channels approximately centered at wavelengths λ 1 , λ 3 , λ 5 , and λ 7 are added at inputs 212 , 208 , 210 and 206 , respectively. TFFEs 222 , 224 , 226 and 228 are respectively coupled to inputs 212 , 208 , 210 and 206 to transmit respective signals associated with wavelengths λ 1 , λ 3 , λ 5 , and λ 7 . TFFEs 222 , 224 , 226 and 228 function to reflect WDM signals not associated with respective wavelengths λ 1 , λ 3 , λ 5 , and λ 7 . Accordingly, a WDM signal associated with wavelength λ 1 may be transmitted by the TFFE 222 over link 227 and reflected by the TFFEs 224 , 226 and 228 over respective links 225 , 223 and 221 to reach optical circulator 230 via link 214 . Similarly, a WDM signal associated with wavelength λ 3 may be transmitted by the TFFE 224 over link 225 and reflected by the TFFEs 226 and 228 over respective links 223 and 221 to reach circulator 230 via link 214 . In addition, WDM signals associated with wavelengths λ 5 and λ 7 may be transmitted by TFFEs 210 and 206 , respectively. In this case, the WDM signal transmitted by TFFE 210 will be further reflected by TFFE 206 , and WDM signals associated with wavelengths λ 5 and λ 7 will both travel over links 221 and 214 to reach optical circulator 230 . Optical circulator 230 is an asymmetrical circulator of the same type noted for optical circulator 130 of FIG. 1 . As an asymmetrical circulator, optical circulator 230 does not function to transport any optical signals received at output 204 to link 214 . Signals reflected by TFFEs 222 , 224 , 226 and 228 and forwarded to optical circulator 230 are next forwarded over link 216 to FBG 232 . FBGs 232 , 234 , 236 and 238 are configured to reflect signals associated with channels approximately centered at wavelengths λ 1 , λ 3 , λ 5 and λ 7 respectively. Upon reaching circulator 230 , the signal associated with wavelength λ 1 is transmitted to FBG 232 over link 216 , where it is reflected back by FBG 232 over link 216 through circulator 230 to output 204 . Similarly, the signal associated with wavelength λ 3 is transmitted over links 216 and 215 through FBG 232 to FBG 234 , where it is reflected back by FBG 234 over links 215 and 216 through FBG 232 and circulator 230 to output 204 . Signals associated with wavelengths λ 5 , and λ 7 are reflected by FBGs 236 and 238 , respectively. Signals associated with wavelength λ 7 are reflected by FBG 238 over link 219 through FBG 236 . Signals associated with wavelengths λ 5 , and λ 7 are further transmitted over link 217 through FBG 234 , over link 215 through FBG 232 , and over link 216 though circulator 230 to output 204 . A WDM signal may be input to the WADM 200 at input 202 . As signals associated with wavelengths λ 1 , λ 3 , λ 5 , and λ 7 are intended to be added to the WDM input signal, the WDM signal at input 202 will typically not contain any signal components in channels centered at these wavelengths. As a result, the WDM input signal will pass essentially unaltered over links 219 , 217 , 215 and 216 through FBGs 238 , 236 , 234 and 232 and through circulator 230 to output 204 . However, if signals in channels associated with wavelengths λ 1 , λ 3 , λ 5 , or λ 7 are present in the WDM signal at input 202 , these signals will be essentially reflected back to input 202 by FBGs 232 , 234 , 236 or 238 , respectively, and thereby removed from the WDM signal originating at input 202 . Thus, in either case, signals in channels associated with wavelengths λ 1 , λ 3 , λ 5 , and λ 7 may be effectively added to the WDM signal at output 204 via thin film filter 220 . Like WADM 100 of FIG. 1, WADM 200 of FIG. 2 is arranged to minimize maximum signal insertion loss for the added signals by equalizing the number of filter elements each added signal interacts with. The number of interactions and approximate insertion losses for each of the WDM signals added by WADM 200 of FIG. 2 is shown in Table 2. TABLE 1 TFFEs reflect- Approx- Character- ing or FBGs reflect- Total number imate istic transmitt- ing or transmit- of affecting inser- Wavelength ing signal ting signal elements tion loss λ 1 (222, 224, 226, (232) five 5.6 dB 228) λ 3 (224, 226, 228) (232, 234, 232) six 5.3 dB λ 5 (226, 228) (232, 234, 236, seven 5.0 dB 234, 232) λ 7 (228) (232, 234, 236, eight 4.7 dB 238, 236 234, 232) By way of comparison, signals in through channels (i.e., neither dropped nor added to the signal stream) are transmitted, for example, through the four FBGs 238 , 236 , 234 and 232 as well as through two ports of circulator 230 to accumulate an insertion loss of approximately 2.0 dB. It will be readily apparent to one skilled in the art that the embodiments of FIGS. 1 and 2 may be altered to include a greater or lesser number of FBGs and associated TFFEs. In addition, the WADM embodiments of FIGS. 1 and 2 may be used, for example, in combination to both add signals to and remove signals from the WDM network. FIG. 3 illustrates one possible arrangement of a combination WADM 300 . Combination WADM 300 includes WADM 301 for adding WDM signals at inputs 306 A, 308 A, 310 A and 312 A, and WADM 303 for dropping WDM signals at outputs 306 D, 308 D, 310 D, and 312 D. WADM 300 also includes an optical amplifier (OA) 305 interposed between WADMs 301 and 303 . Because WADMs generally interconnect fiber media spans of significant length (for example, tens of kilometers), WDM signals reaching and traveling beyond WADM 300 may require amplification prior to further processing. OA 305 is employed to amplify through signals received from a predecessor span that travel through WADM 300 on to a next optical fiber span, signals added by WADM 301 that travel on to the next span, and signals received from the predecessor span that are dropped by WADM 303 . In order to minimize the number of OAs required (and thereby decrease cost), a single OA 305 is interposed between WADM 301 and WADM 303 . In this preferred configuration, through signals, added signals and dropped signals are each amplified by OA 305 at an appropriate point in their transit. However, because WDM signals are added at WADM 301 upstream from WADM 303 where WDM signals are dropped, WDM channels associated with the added signals must generally be distinct from channels associated with the dropped signals. Otherwise, channels added by WADM 301 will be immediately dropped by WADM 303 . In practice, this limitation may be overcome by adding an additional WADM SU 300 downstream from output 304 . Since downstream WADM SU 300 adds WDM signals after upstream WADM 303 drops WDM signals, downstream WADM SU 300 may add signals in channels associated with signals dropped by upstream drop WADM 303 . FIG. 4 illustrates a WDM network 400 that employs the WADM SU 300 of FIG. 3 . WADM network 400 is delineated by WDM terminals 402 and 404 . Optical signals are multiplexed by optical multiplexer 401 of terminal 402 to form a WDM signal that is transported over fiber optical links 413 to terminal 404 . At terminal 404 , optical demultiplexer 403 demultiplexes the WDM signal received over links 413 in order to reproduce the optical signals multiplexed at terminal 402 . In addition, terminal 404 also includes an optical multiplexer 401 that multiplexes optical signals to form a WDM signal that is transported over optical links 415 to optical multiplexer 403 in terminal 402 . In this manner, optical signals are sent in two directions over separate fiber optical links 413 and 415 . Optical terminal 402 also incorporates optical amplifiers 405 and 407 to amplify WDM signals sent by optical multiplexer 401 of terminal 402 and to amplify WDM signals received for optical de-multiplexer 403 of terminal 402 . Optical amplifiers 405 and 407 of terminal 404 perform similar functions for optical multiplexer 401 of terminal 404 and optical de-multiplexer 403 of terminal 404 , respectively. Optical links 413 and 415 may each span tens of kilometers, over which significant signal losses will occur. As a result, one or more optical repeaters 408 are placed at prescribed span lengths (for example, of approximately 80 kilometers) along optical links 413 and 415 in order to regenerate WDM signals. Optical repeaters 408 include optical amplifiers 406 , which operate in analogy to optical amplifiers 405 and 407 of terminals 402 and 404 . One or more WADM terminals 410 may also be placed along optical links 413 and 415 to selectively add and drop WDM signals from specified WDM channels. WADM terminals 410 include WADMs 412 for each of the optical fiber links 413 and 415 . Even with optical signal regeneration at, for example, optical repeater 407 , signal to noise degradation limits the absolute number of spans that may be used with WADM terminals 410 . Experience suggests that WADM terminals 410 may be used in WDM networks 400 at OC192 data rates having six or fewer spans along links 413 and 415 . For longer spans, additional hardware is required to convert optical signals to electronic signals which may be retimed and reconverted to optical form for further transmission. Transmission of WDM signals over long distance optical fiber spans at high bit rates requires use of dispersion compensating techniques to mitigate the effects of signal dispersion inherent to optical fiber transmission. For example, for OC192 transmissions over network spans of at least 60 kilometers, signals should be treated to 95 percent span loss compensation (in other words, reducing signal dispersion arising in the transmitted signal by 95 percent). In the network 400 , for example, 95 percent span loss dispersion compensation along optical link 413 is provided by introducing 35 percent pre-compensation at OA 406 in terminal 402 , 95 percent compensation at OAs 405 in repeater 408 and in WADM terminal 412 , and 60 percent post-compensation at OA 407 in terminal 404 . As illustrated in FIG. 3, OA 305 provides dispersion compensation by incorporating dispersion compensating fiber (DCF) 307 within its signal path. DCF 307 introduces negative signal dispersion to compensate for positive signal dispersion arising from transmission of the WDM signal over preceding and subsequent network spans. DCFs of the type employed in DCF 307 are well-known and commercially available, for example, from JDS Uniphase and Corning. Because channels are added by WADM 301 only a short distance from OA 305 and channels are dropped by WADM 303 only a short distance from OA 305 , OA 305 overcompensates for dispersion in the added channels and dropped channels. In order to reduce the effects of this overcompensation, single mode fiber 309 in WADM 301 is positioned between thin film filter 320 A and circulator 330 A to introduce additional positive dispersion in the signal paths for the added channels. Similarly, single mode fiber 311 in WADM 303 is positioned between thin film filter 320 D and circulator 330 D to introduce additional positive dispersion in the signal paths for the dropped channels. Alternatively or additionally, FBGs 332 A, 334 A, 336 A and 338 A in WADM 301 and FBGs 332 D, 334 D, 336 D and 338 D in WADM 303 may be designed to add positive dispersion to the added and dropped WDM signals, respectively. For example, for OC192 signals traveling over single mode optical fiber, WADM 301 of FIG. 3 should incorporate a positive dispersion of approximately 650 picoseconds per nanometer and WADM 303 should incorporate a positive dispersion of approximately 450 picoseconds per nanometer. Of these amounts, approximately 250 picoseconds per nanometer of dispersion may be generated by the FBGs 132 , 134 , 136 and 138 of FIG. 1 and FBGs 232 , 234 , 236 and 238 of FIG. 2 directly. In order to reach desired dispersion levels, an additional 400 picoseconds per nanometer of positive dispersion may be added by single mode fiber 309 and an additional 200 picoseconds per nanometer of positive dispersion may be added by single mode fiber 311 . An objective of the present invention is to be capable of adding or dropping two or more WADM channels that may each carry optical signals transmitted at either a first data rate or a second data rate. Selected attributes of the FBGs and associated TFFEs employed in the present invention are key to achieving this objective. For example, FIG. 5 illustrates a reflection and transmission profile for FBGs employed in the embodiments illustrated by FIGS. 1, 2 and 3 . The FBG represented by FIG. 5 can be used, for example, to filter OC48 WDM signals transmitted at a rate of approximately 2.5 gigabits per second in channels spaced at 50 gigahertz intervals as well as OC192 WDM signals transmitted at a rate of approximately 10 gigabits per second in channels spaced at 100 gigahertz intervals. This embodiment may also be used to filter signals transmitted at lesser data rates (for example, OC-12 signals operating at 622 megabits per second and OC-3 signals operating at 155 megabits per second) In FIG. 5, FBG reflection profiles 502 and 504 are shown for equivalent FBGs associated with add WADM 301 and drop WADM 303 of FIG. 3, respectively. The profiles portray the relative power of reflected signals as compared to input signal power at selected wavelengths within and near the reflection bandwidth. Similarly, FGB transmission profiles 506 and 508 , associated with add WADM 301 and drop WADM 303 , respectively, portray the relative power of transmitted signals as compared to input signal power at selected wavelengths. The effective signal bandwidth for WDM signals transmitted or reflected by the FBG depicted by the profiles of FIG. 5 is demarcated by wavelengths at which the reflected or transmitted power drops by 10 dB with respect to the power of an associated input signal. Accordingly, the effective transmission bandwidth 512 in FIG. 5 is approximately 0.45 nanometers and the effective reflection bandwidth 514 is approximately 0.4 nanometers. In order to function at both OC48 and OC192 signal rates, these effective bandwidths must be sufficiently narrow to avoid adjacent channel crosstalk from closely spaced channels at lower data rates (for example, OC48 channels that are nominally spaced at approximately 0.4 nanometers). In addition, the bandwidths must be wide enough to capture a sufficient portion of signals at higher data rates (for example, OC192 signal carried in channels that are nominally spaced at approximately 0.8 nanometers). An appropriate FBG bandwidth can be selected by analyzing signal power penalties for both signal rates at various effective FBG bandwidths. The use of power penalties in the analysis of signal quality is well-known in the art (see, e.g., Harry J. R. Dutton, Understanding Optical Communications , Prentice-Hall, 1998, pp. 403, 404). Common measures of signal quality include signal to noise ration and inter-symbol interference. FIGS. 7A and 7B illustrate FBG power penalties for OC48 and OC192 signal rates, respectively, at various effective bandwidths. The power penalties are influenced by various transmission impairments present in the WDM signal as it is input to the FBG. These input signal impairments may be characterized by self phase modulation/ cross phase modulation (SPM/XPM) penalty, a pre-FBG power penalty measure with respect to inter-symbol interference. SPM/XPM penalty is influenced, for example, by a variety of WDM system attributes including dispersion characteristics, system architecture, signal chirp and signal power. As illustrated in FIGS. 7A and 7B, FBG power penalty varies non-linearly with SPM/XPM penalty. In FIGS. 7A and 7B, FBG power penalty is shown as a function of effective bandwidth and SPM/XPM penalty. The SPM/XPM penalty present in the input signal ranges from no penalty (“no chirp”) to a penalty of 2.0 dB. Increasing FBG power penalties shown in FIG. 7A for OC48 signal rates reflect the effects of cross talk from neighboring channels at bandwidth upper boundaries and the effects of loss of signal spectrum at the lower boundaries. Similarly, increasing FBG penalties shown in FIG. 7B for OC192 signal rates reflect the effects of loss of signal spectrum at the lower boundaries. Assuming a SPM/XPM penalty of 2.0 dB, an effective bandwidth 722 of approximately 0.38 nanometers appears to minimize the overall power penalty at both OC48 and OC192 signal rates. Since OC192 signals tend to accumulate higher SPM/XPM penalties in a given WDM network than OC48 signals and FBGs may experience significant drift and jitter, our experience suggests that a somewhat larger effective bandwidth 724 of about 0.45 nanometers (approximately 54 gigahertz) provides better overall performance. For OC192 signal rates, signal dispersion becomes a critical issue. As illustrated in FIG. 3 and as previously discussed, dispersion for signals introduced at add WADM 301 and for signals dropped at drop WADM 303 may be nominally adjusted by a variety of means. However, treating nominal conditions alone is insufficient, as FBGs typically exhibit a strongly varying dispersion over their reflection bandwidth. Our experience shows, for example, that dispersion increases dramatically at edge wavelengths as SPM/XPM penalties increase. The effects of these variations must be appropriately limited. FIG. 9 presents a dispersion template with appropriate limits to satisfy requirements for the present invention. For an OC192 signal reflected by an FBG with an effective bandwidth of about 0.45 nanometers, the template graphs allowable limits in dispersion deviation from the nominal value over that bandwidth such that FBG power penalty (including the associated SPM/XPM penalty) is no greater than 2.0 dB. Allowable dispersion limits are shown by limits 910 . Limits 910 define a region 908 applicable to reflected wavelengths within 0.05 nanometers of FBG characteristic wavelength 904 . Within region, 908 , dispersion may vary by no more than 150 picoseconds per nanometer from a nominal FBG dispersion value 902 (for example, 250 picoseconds per nanometer). For reflected wavelengths beyond region 908 , the limit of 150 picoseconds per nanometer may increase from the edges 907 and 909 of region 908 at a rate no greater than 20,000 picoseconds per square nanometer. FBG dispersion variation may in fact increase over time as a result of various FBG aging effects. In order to maintain performance within the boundaries of limits 910 , guard band limits 912 may be established for newly-manufactured FBGs. In the example shown in FIG. 9, guard band limits 912 define a region 906 applicable to reflected wavelengths within 0.1 nanometers of center wavelength 904 . Within region 906 , dispersion may vary by no more than 150 picoseconds per nanometer from nominal dispersion value 902 . For reflected wavelengths beyond region 906 , the limit of 150 picoseconds per nanometer may increase from the edges 903 and 905 of region 906 at a rate no greater than 20,000 picoseconds per square nanometer. Various other guard band limits may be established according to actual experience with FBG aging effects. FIG. 10 illustrates some sample dispersion profiles for FBGs that comply with the dispersion template of FIG. 9 . The exemplary embodiment described above is but one of a number of alternative embodiments of the invention that will be apparent to those skilled in the art in view of the foregoing description. Accordingly, this description is to be construed as illustrative only, and is for the purpose of teaching those skilled in the art the best mode of carrying out the invention. It is therefore to be understood that changes may be made in the particular embodiments of the invention which are within the scope and spirit of the invention as outlined by the appended claims.

An optical wavelength add/drop multiplexer (WADM) is configured to add or drop two or more signals each associated with one of a plurality of channels in a wavelength division multiplexed (WDM) signal. The WADM comprises an optical circulator that is optically coupled at one port to two or more serially interconnected fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs), and is optically coupled at another port to a thin film filter including two or more serially interconnected thin film filter elements. Each of the two or more FBGs is matched with a thin film filter element, both arranged to be responsive to signals associated with one of the plurality of channels. Bandwidth and dispersion properties for the FBGs are selected to permit operation of the WADM at two distinct signal data rates. To equalize associated insertion losses in embodiments of the invention arranged to add or drop two or more signals, the FBGs are matched to the thin film filter elements in inverse order with respect to their optical distance from the optical circulator.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0001] The invention relates generally to semiconductor imaging devices, in particular to silicon imaging devices which can be fabricated using standard CMOS processes, or alternatively, CCD fabrication processes. Particularly, the invention relates to CMOS and CCD imagers and a method of fabricating a CMOS and CCD imagers with improved charge transfer between gates, and furthermore with reduced image lag in CMOS imagers. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] There are a number of different types of semiconductor-based imagers, including charge coupled devices (CCDs), complementary metal oxide semiconductor devices (CMOS), photodiode arrays, charge injection devices and hybrid focal plane arrays. Among these, CCDs and CMOS imagers are the most commonly used in digital applications such as, for example, in cameras, scanners, machine vision systems, vehicle navigation systems, video telephones, computer input devices, surveillance systems, auto focus systems, star trackers, motion detection systems, image stabilization systems and data compression systems for high-definition television. Each type of imaging device has advantages and disadvantages relative to the other. [0003] CCDs imagers have a greater sensitivity to light and have better dynamic range than CMOS imagers, and therefore yield superior quality images. CCDs are also capable of large formats with small pixel size, and produces less noise (visual artifacts). As a result of these advantages, CCDs are the preferred technology for high end imaging applications. [0004] However, CCD imagers also suffer from a number of disadvantages. For example, they are susceptible to radiation damage, exhibit destructive read out over time, require good light shielding to avoid image smear, and have a high power dissipation for large arrays. Additionally, while offering high performance, CCD arrays are difficult to integrate with CMOS processing due in part to a different processing technology and to their high capacitances, which complicates the integration of on-chip drive and signal processing electronics with the CCD array. Further in this regard, CCDs must be manufactured at one of a small number of specialized fabrication facilities, thus greatly increasing production costs and limiting economies of scale. CCDs also must transfer an image by line charge transfers from pixel to pixel, requiring that the entire array be read out into a memory before individual pixels or groups of pixels can be accessed and processed. CCDs may also suffer from incomplete charge transfer from pixel to pixel during charge transfer, which results in image smear. [0005] On the other hand, CMOS imagers have the advantage of being compatible with integrated on-chip electronics (control logic and timing, image processing, and signal conditioning such as A/D conversion). On-chip integration of electronics provides the potential to perform many signal conditioning functions in the digital domain (versus analog signal processing) as well as to achieve a compact system size. CMOS imagers also allow random access to the image data, and have low fabrication costs as compared with CCD imagers since standard CMOS processing techniques can be used. Additionally, CMOS imagers have low voltage operation and low power consumption because only one row of pixels at a time needs to be active during readout and there is no charge transfer (and associated switching) from pixel to pixel during image acquisition. [0006] Both CCD and CMOS imagers perform the necessary functions of (1) photon to charge conversion; (2) accumulation of image charge; (3) transfer of the accumulated image charge; (4) converting the accumulated image charge to a voltage; and (5) output and amplification of the signal voltage representing the charge from each pixel in the imager. Both CCD and CMOS imagers include an array of pixels, each pixel having a substrate and a photosensitive area formed in or on the substrate and which converts photons from the incident light into charge, either electrons or holes. CCD and CMOS imagers differ, however, in their structure and manner of processing accumulated charges after photon to charge conversion. [0007] The basic structure of a pixel within a CCD imager is shown in FIG. 1 and includes a silicon substrate 10 , a thin film of insulating material 11 such as silicon dioxide overlying the substrate surface, and a plurality of gate electrodes 12 a formed of a conductive material, such as doped polysilicon, formed spaced apart from each other on top of the layer of insulating material 11 . As shown in FIG. 1 , additional gate electrodes 12 b are formed between and overlapping electrodes 12 a. Gate electrodes 12 b may also be formed of doped polysilicon. An insulator layer 9 is formed over the surface of electrodes 12 a prior to forming the overlapping electrodes 12 b to prevent shorting between electrodes 12 a and 12 b. [0008] Substrate 10 includes a buried channel 8 formed in the substrate 10 under the electrodes 12 a, 12 b. Typically in a CCD imager, the substrate is doped p-type, whereupon the buried channel is doped n-type. When a voltage is applied to gate electrode 12 b, for example, photons from the incident light are converted to electrical charge in the buried channel 8 under the “activated” gate 12 b, and a well 13 is formed in the substrate in which the charge is accumulated under the activated gate 12 b. Charge is contained in the well by applying appropriate voltages to the gate electrodes 12 a surrounding the activated gate to form zones of higher potential surrounding the well 13 , thus confining the accumulated charge in the well 13 . [0009] The accumulated charge is transferred out of the pixel by “moving” the well from one gate electrode 12 to another in the pixel by alternating the voltages applied to the different electrodes until the charge is moved out of the pixel. In this manner, the pixel charges are moved through the array 15 row by row ( FIG. 2 ). Movement of charge through each pixel and the array is controlled by a clock signal PCLK inputted to each pixel in the array. When the charges reach the last row 17 in the array 15 , the charges are moved horizontally through the row according to the serial clock signal SCLK. After each charge moves through the last pixel position in the last row 17 of the array 15 , the charge is passed through an output amplifier 21 to produce an analog voltage representing the amount of charge, and then is outputted from the pixel array 15 . Once each pixel signal exits the pixel array, the analog voltage signal is converted to a digital signal in analog-to-digital converter 23 . From there, the digital pixel signal is passed to the image processor 25 for compiling the pixel signals into a digital image. [0010] Depending on the number of gates in each pixel within a particular CCD architecture, a complete charge transfer cycle may be completed for each pixel in four phases, three phases or two phases, in accordance with the clock signal PCLK. For example, a timing diagram for a four phase CCD is shown in FIG. 3 . In this pixel, integration time occurs at t 1 when the voltage on the Φ1 and Φ2 gates are held at a high level to form low potential zones while the voltages of the Φ3 and Φ4 gates are held at a low level to form high potential barriers. During this time, photo-induced charge is collected in a potential well which is formed under the Φ1 and Φ2 gates. The well is then moved under the Φ2 and Φ3 gates by applying a high voltage to the Φ2 and Φ3 gates and a low voltage to the Φ1 and Φ4 gates at time t 2 . At time t 3 , the well is similarly moved under the Φ3 and Φ4 gates, and eventually under the Φ1 and Φ2 gates of the next pixel. In this manner, all the collected charge in the pixel array during one integration period is moved through the array until outputted to output amplifier 21 . [0011] An exemplary CMOS imager is described below with reference to FIG. 4 . The circuit described below, for example, includes a photogate for accumulating photogenerated charge in an underlying portion of the substrate. However, it should be understood that the photosensitive element of a CMOS imager pixel may alternatively be formed as a depleted p-n junction photodiode, a photoconductor, or other image-to-charge converting device, in lieu of a field induced depletion region beneath a photogate. It is noted that photodiodes may experience the disadvantage of image lag, which can be eliminated if the photodiode is completely depleted upon readout. [0012] Like a CCD imager, the CMOS imager includes a focal plane array of pixel cells. As shown in FIG. 4 , a simplified circuit for a pixel of an exemplary CMOS imager includes a pixel photodetector circuit 14 and a readout circuit 60 . It should be understood that while FIG. 4 shows the circuitry for operation of a single pixel, that in practical use there will be an M×N array of pixels arranged in rows and columns with the pixels of the array accessed using row and column select circuitry, as described in more detail below. [0013] The photodetector circuit 14 is shown in part as a cross-sectional view of a semiconductor substrate 16 formed typically of a p-type silicon, and having a surface well of p-type material 20 . An optional layer 18 of p-type material may be used if desired, but is not required. Substrate 16 may be formed of, for example, Si, SiGe, Ge, and GaAs. Typically the entire substrate 16 is a p-type doped silicon substrate and may contain a surface p-well 20 (with layer 18 omitted), but many other options are possible, such as, for example p on p− substrates, p on p+ substrates, p-wells in n-type substrates, or the like. [0014] An insulating layer 22 of silicon dioxide, silicon nitride or other suitable material is formed on the upper surface of p-well 20 . A photogate 24 thin enough to pass radiant energy or of a material which passes radiant energy is formed on the insulating layer 22 . The photogate 24 receives an applied control signal PG which causes the initial accumulation of pixel charges underneath the photogate 24 and in n+ region 26 . The n+ type region 26 , adjacent one side of photogate 24 , is formed in the upper surface of p-well 20 . [0015] A transfer gate 28 is formed on insulating layer 22 between n+ type region 26 and a second n+ type region 30 formed in p-well 20 . The n+ regions 26 and 30 and transfer gate 28 form a charge transfer transistor 29 which is controlled by a transfer signal TX. When a transfer signal TX is applied to the transfer gate 28 , the charge accumulated in n+ region 26 is transferred into n+ region 30 . The n+ region 30 is typically called a floating diffusion node, and is also a node for passing charge accumulated thereat to the gate of a source follower transistor 36 described below. [0016] A reset gate 32 is also formed on insulating layer 22 adjacent and between n+ type node 30 and another n+ region 34 which is also formed in p-well 20 . The reset gate 32 and n+ regions 30 and 34 form a reset transistor 31 which is controlled by a reset signal RST. The n+ type region 34 is coupled to voltage source VDD. The transfer and reset transistors 29 , 31 are n-channel transistors as described in this implementation of a CMOS imager circuit in a p-well. It should be understood that it is possible to implement a CMOS imager in an n-well, in which case each of the transistors would be p-channel transistors. It should also be noted that while FIG. 4 shows the use of a transfer gate 28 and associated transistor 29 , this structure provides advantages, but is not required. [0017] Photodetector circuit 14 also includes two additional n-channel transistors, source follower transistor 36 and row select transistor 38 . Transistors 36 and 38 are coupled in series, source to drain, with the source of transistor 36 also coupled over lead 40 to voltage source VDD and the drain of transistor 38 coupled to a lead 42 . The gate of transistor 36 is coupled over lead 44 to n+ region 30 . Charge from the floating diffusion node at the n+ region 30 is typically converted to a pixel output voltage by the source follower output transistor 36 . The drain of row select transistor 38 is connected via conductor 42 to the drains of similar row select transistors for other pixels in a given pixel row. A load transistor 39 is also coupled between the drain of transistor 38 and a voltage source VSS. Transistor 39 is kept on by a signal VLN applied to its gate. [0018] The imager includes a readout circuit 60 which includes a signal sample and hold (S/H) circuit including a S/H n-channel field effect transistor 62 and a signal storage capacitor 64 connected to the source follower transistor 36 through row transistor 38 . The other side of the capacitor 64 is connected to a source voltage VSS. The upper side of the capacitor 64 is also connected to the gate of a p-channel output transistor 66 . The drain of the output transistor 66 is connected through a column select transistor 68 to a signal sample output node VOUTS and through a load transistor 70 to the voltage supply VDD. A sample and hold signal (SHS) briefly turns on the S/H transistor 62 after the charge accumulated beneath the photogate electrode 24 has been transferred to the floating diffusion node 30 , and from there, to the source follower transistor 36 and through row select transistor 38 to line 42 , so that the capacitor 64 stores a voltage representing the amount of charge previously accumulated beneath the photogate electrode 24 . [0019] The readout circuit 60 also includes a reset sample and hold (S/H) circuit including a S/H transistor 72 and a signal storage capacitor 74 connected through the S/H transistor 72 and through the row select transistor 38 to the source of the source follower transistor 36 . The bottom side of the capacitor 74 is connected to the source voltage VSS. The upper side of the capacitor 74 is also connected to the gate of a p-channel output transistor 76 . The drain of the output transistor 76 is connected through a p-channel column select transistor 78 to a reset sample output node VOUTR and through a load transistor 80 to the supply voltage VDD. A sample and hold reset signal (SHR) briefly turns on the S/H transistor 72 immediately after the reset signal RST has caused reset transistor 31 to turn on and reset the potential of the floating diffusion node 30 , so that the capacitor 74 stores the voltage to which the floating diffusion node 30 has been reset. [0020] The readout circuit 60 provides correlated sampling of the potential of the floating diffusion node 30 , first of the reset charge applied to node 30 by reset transistor 31 and then of the stored charge from the photogate 24 . The two samplings of the diffusion node 30 charges produce respective output voltages VOUTR and VOUTS of the readout circuit 60 . These voltages are then subtracted (VOUTS-VOUTR) by subtractor 82 to provide an output signal terminal 81 which is an image signal independent of pixel to pixel variations caused by fabrication variations in the reset voltage transistor 31 which might cause pixel to pixel variations in the output signal. [0021] FIG. 5 illustrates a block diagram for a CMOS imager having a pixel array 90 with each pixel cell being constructed in the manner shown by element 14 of FIG. 4 . While pixel array 90 comprises a plurality of pixels arranged in a predetermined number of columns and rows, FIG. 6 shows a 2×2 portion of pixel array 90 for illustrative purposes in this discussion. The pixels of each row in array 90 are and turned on at the same time by a row select line, e.g., line 86 , and the pixels of each column are selectively output by a column select line, e.g., line 42 . A plurality of rows and column lines are provided for the entire array 90 . The row lines are selectively activated by the row driver 92 in response to row address decoder 94 and the column select lines are selectively activated by the column driver 96 in response to column address decoder 98 . Thus, a row and column address is provided for each pixel. The CMOS imager is operated by the control circuit 95 which controls address decoders 94 , 98 for selecting the appropriate row and column lines for pixel readout, and row and column driver circuitry 92 , 96 which apply driving voltage to the drive transistors of the selected row and column lines. [0022] FIG. 7 shows a simplified timing diagram for the signals used to transfer charge out of photodetector circuit 14 of the FIG. 4 CMOS imager. The photogate signal PG is nominally set to 5V and the reset signal RST is nominally set at 2.5V. As can be seen from the figure, the process is begun at time to by briefly pulsing reset voltage RST to 5V. The RST voltage, which is applied to the gate 32 of reset transistor 31 , causes transistor 31 to turn on and the floating diffusion node 30 to charge to the VDD voltage present at n+ region 34 (less the voltage drop Vth of transistor 31 ). This resets the floating diffusion node 30 to a predetermined voltage (VDD-Vth). The charge on floating diffusion node 30 is applied to the gate of the source follower transistor 36 to control the current passing through transistor 38 , which has been turned on by a row select (ROW) signal, and load transistor 39 . This current is translated into a voltage on line 42 which is next sampled by providing a SHR signal to the S/H transistor 72 , which charges capacitor 74 with the source follower transistor output voltage on line 42 representing the reset charge present at floating diffusion node 30 . The PG signal is next pulsed to 0 volts, causing charge to be collected in n+ region 26 . [0023] A transfer gate voltage pulse TX, similar to the reset pulse RST, is then applied to transfer gate 28 of transistor 29 to cause the charge in n+ region 26 to transfer to floating diffusion node 30 . It should be understood that for the case of a photogate, the transfer gate voltage TX may be pulsed or held to a fixed DC potential. For the implementation of a photodiode with a transfer gate, the transfer gate voltage TX must be pulsed. The new output voltage on line 42 generated by source follower transistor 36 current is then sampled onto capacitor 64 by enabling the sample and hold switch 62 with signal SHS. The column select signal is next applied to transistors 68 and 70 and the respective charges stored in capacitors 64 and 74 are subtracted in subtractor 82 to provide a pixel output signal at terminal 81 . It should also be understood that CMOS imagers may dispense with the transistor gate 28 and associated transistor 29 , or retain these structures while biasing the transfer transistor gate 28 to an always “on” state. [0024] Both CMOS and CCD imagers are susceptible to inefficient charge transfer between gates. In the CMOS imager shown in FIG. 4 , the presence of an n+ region 26 is necessary to electrically couple the photogate 24 to the transfer gate 28 across the relatively wide gap, e.g., 0.25 microns, separating the transfer gate 28 and the photogate 24 . When a signal TX is applied to the transfer gate 28 , the n+ region 26 functions as a conducting channel to pass charges from the doped layer under the photogate into the channel region of the transfer transistor 29 , and then to the floating diffusion node 30 . Incorporation of the n+ region 26 , however, produces excess noise and incomplete charge transfer between gates. Similarly, in CCD imagers, it is known that the transfer of charge from gate to gate and pixel to pixel is never 100% efficient. [0025] In order to improve the charge transfer between gates in both CMOS and CCD imagers, the gates must be spaced as close together as possible. The gates are formed by depositing a single layer of polysilicon (or other suitable conductive material) on the substrate surface (over the insulating layer such as silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, etc.). The individual gates are then patterned from the blanket deposited layer by applying a layer of photoresist over the polysilicon (or other conductive) material, and exposing the photoresist through a reticle to develop the portions of the photoresist where the gates are to be formed. The undeveloped portions of the photoresist are then removed. Once the shaped photoresist layer has been obtained on the blanket deposited layer of conductive material, the gates are shaped by etching the layer of conductive material around the patterned photoresist layer. [0026] The smallest distance between semiconductor structures using known patterning methods such as that mentioned above is subject to the physical limitations of how thin a distinguishable line or gap can be formed in the photoresist layer by patterning with the reticle. Recent advances in technology enable lines and spaces between semiconductor structures to be 0.13 micrometers apart, i.e., about 1300 Angstroms. Even with these measurements, however, the resulting gaps between polysilicon gates still yield incomplete charge transfer. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0027] The present invention addresses the problem of incomplete and inefficient charge transfer between gates formed on a semiconductor substrate in a CMOS or CCD imager. In particular, the present invention provides a method of fabricating a plurality of single layer gates on a CMOS or CCD imager which significantly reduces the gaps between gates, to thereby reduce or eliminate the problem of incomplete charge transfer. [0028] The method includes blanket depositing the conductive material from which the gates will ultimately be formed, as is standard practice in the art, and then blanket depositing a layer of insulator material, such as an oxide or nitride material, and patterning the insulator material in a manner similar to that in which the conductive layers are patterned in the prior art to form the CMOS or CCD pixel gates. The patterned insulator structures are referred to as “caps.” Next, spacers are deposited on the sides of the patterned insulator material to decrease the width of the gaps between caps. Using the spacer-reduced gaps between the insulator caps on top of the conductive layer, the conductive layer is etched, resulting in gate structures which are approximately 300 Angstroms apart. [0029] A variation of this method includes blanket depositing a layer of the conductive material from which the gates are to be formed, and then depositing a layer of resist over the conductive material layer. The resist is patterned according to the desired gate arrangement, and the conductive layer is partially etched to form gate-like structures of the conductive material protruding above the remaining thickness of the conductive material layer. Next, spacers are formed along the sidewalls of the gate-like structures, and the remaining thickness of the conductive layer around the gate-like structures is etched away. During this second etch process, the portion of the conductive material between the spacers is also etched, leaving the resulting gate structures which spaced apart by approximately the distance between the spacers formed on the sidewalls of adjacent gates. [0030] A second aspect of the present invention may be used during the fabrication of CMOS imagers either separately or in conjunction with the method briefly described above, and includes providing a lightly doped region n− between the photogate and an adjacent gate, instead of standard heavily doped region n+. [0031] Additional advantages and features of the present invention will be apparent from the following detailed description and drawings which illustrate preferred embodiments of the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0032] FIG. 1 is an illustration representative of a CCD imager pixel; [0033] FIG. 2 is a block diagram of a CCD imager circuit; [0034] FIG. 3 is an exemplary timing diagram of a four-phase charge transfer through a pixel in a CCD imager. [0035] FIG. 4 is an illustrative diagram of a pixel in a CMOS imager circuit; [0036] FIG. 5 is a block diagram of a CMOS imager circuit; [0037] FIG. 6 is a representative CMOS pixel layout showing a 2×2 portion of an array; [0038] FIG. 7 is a representative timing diagram for the CMOS imager; [0039] FIG. 8 illustrates an interim stage of a standard process for fabricating a CCD or CMOS imager; [0040] FIG. 9 illustrates a processing stage subsequent to that shown in FIG. 8 ; [0041] FIG. 10 illustrates a processing stage subsequent to that shown in FIG. 9 ; [0042] FIG. 11 illustrates a first example of an overlapping gate structure; [0043] FIG. 12 illustrates a second example of an overlapping gate structure; [0044] FIG. 13 illustrates an interim stage of processing for fabricating a semiconductor device according to a first aspect of the present invention; [0045] FIG. 14 illustrates a processing stage of the present invention subsequent to that shown in FIG. 13 ; [0046] FIG. 15 illustrates a processing stage of the present invention subsequent to that shown in FIG. 14 ; [0047] FIG. 16 illustrates a processing stage of the present invention subsequent to that shown in FIG. 15 ; [0048] FIG. 17 illustrates a processing stage of the present invention subsequent to that shown in FIG. 16 ; [0049] FIG. 18 illustrates a n interim stage of processing for fabricating a semiconductor device according to a variant of the first aspect of the present invention; [0050] FIG. 19 illustrates a processing stage of the present invention subsequent to that shown in FIG. 18 ; [0051] FIG. 20 illustrates a processing stage of the present invention subsequent to that shown in FIG. 19 ; [0052] FIG. 21 illustrates a processing stage of the present invention subsequent to that shown in FIG. 20 ; [0053] FIG. 22 illustrates a processing stage of the present invention subsequent to that shown in FIG. 21 ; [0054] FIG. 23 illustrates a semiconductor device formed according to a second aspect of the present invention; and [0055] FIG. 24 illustrates a processor incorporating an imager fabricated according to the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0056] In the following detailed description, reference is made to the accompanying drawings which form a part hereof, and in which is shown by way of illustration specific embodiments in which the invention may be practiced. These embodiments are described in sufficient detail to enable those skilled in the art to practice the invention, and it is to be understood that other embodiments may be utilized, and that structural, logical and electrical changes may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention. [0057] The terms “wafer” and “substrate” used in the description includes any semiconductor-based structure having an exposed surface on which to form the circuit structure used in the invention. “Wafer” and “substrate” are to be understood as including silicon-on-insulator (SOI) or silicon-on-sapphire (SOS) technology, doped and undoped semiconductors, epitaxial layers of silicon supported by a base semiconductor foundation, and other semiconductor structures. Furthermore, when reference is made to a “wafer” or “substrate” in the following description, previous process steps may have been utilized to form regions and/or junctions in the base semiconductor structure or foundation. In addition, the semiconductor need not be silicon-based, but may be based on silicon-germanium, germanium, or gallium arsenide. [0058] To provide a foundation for understanding the present invention, an example of a prior art process for forming the transistor gates for an image sensor is described below with reference to FIGS. 8-10 . As seen in FIG. 8 , a substrate 202 is doped to a first conductivity type, which for exemplary purposes will be described as p-type. An insulating layer 204 is formed over the doped substrate 202 by thermal growth or chemical vapor deposition, or other means. The insulating layer 204 may be silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, or other suitable insulating material. Next, a conductive layer 206 such as a doped polysilicon layer is deposited over the insulating layer 204 . To impart conductivity to the polysilicon layer 206 , the layer is doped either in situ or by subsequent implantation with a dopant after deposition. [0059] A layer of photoresist 208 is then applied over the conductive layer 206 , and the photoresist is developed by exposure to a light through a reticle to produce the desired pattern of the transistor gates. Upon removal of the undeveloped portions of the photoresist, the developed photoresist portions 208 a remain on the conductive layer 206 , as shown in FIG. 9 . [0060] Individual transistor gates 206 a are then formed by etching the conductive layer 206 through to the insulating layer 204 . Conductive layer 206 may be directionally etched by a suitable process such as reactive ion etching, or any other method readily known in the art, including immersion or spray-type wet etching, and plasma, or ion milling. Subsequent to the formation of the transistor gates 206 a, the patterned photoresist is then removed by wet etch or dry etch methods such as exposing the wafer to an oxygen-containing plasma, to obtain the structure shown in FIG. 10 . [0061] The distance between transistor gates 206 a is denoted in FIG. 10 by the reference symbol “d.” The minimum distance “d” is determined by the patterned photoresist which defines the regions in the layers underneath to be exposed or unexposed. Since the photoresist is patterned by shining light through a reticle, the minimum thickness of a line in the pattern is subject to the physical limitations of how thin a line can be formed in the reticle. In the prior art process described above, the minimum achievable distance “d” is 1300 Angstroms, which still results in incomplete charge transfer between gates in both CCD and CMOS image sensors. [0062] To address the problem of incomplete charge transfer, the transistor gates may be formed as double polysilicon structures, such as that shown in FIG. 11 . In the double polysilicon CMOS imager shown in FIG. 11 , a photogate 230 and a reset gate 232 are formed using the same layer of polysilicon 238 (or other conductive material). After formation of spacers 240 , the top surfaces of all polysilicon gates are then oxidized to form an oxide insulation layer 242 , and then a transfer gate 236 is formed from a second layer of polysilicon that overlaps the photogate 230 to some degree. The oxide layer 242 electrically insulates the photogate 230 and the overlapping transfer gate 236 . [0063] FIG. 12 facilitates explanation of an alternative process for fabricating a double polysilicon structure. In this process, after depositing a first gate oxide layer 252 and a first polysilicon layer 254 on a substrate 250 and formation of the gates 256 from the first polysilicon layer, the portions of the gate oxide layer not covered by the polysilicon gates 256 are stripped away using any suitable means, whereupon a second oxide layer 258 is grown over the existing landscape before depositing the second polysilicon layer 260 and patterning the overlapping gates 262 therefrom. The second oxide layer eliminates the need to form spacers on the gates formed from the first polysilicon layer, and to separately oxidize the gates. [0064] Referring back to FIG. 11 , since there is no need to couple the photogate 230 and the transfer gate 236 with a doped region between the gates to enable charge transfer, this more compact structure results in increased charge transfer efficiency of the accumulated charges generated by photogate 230 to the floating diffusion node 246 . However, there are significant processing difficulties in the fabrication methods used to create this semiconductor structure. The oxidation of the photogate stack 230 prior to transfer gate stack 236 formation results in asperities, points, and other defects in the oxide layer insulating the transfer gate from the photogate, resulting in low breakdown of the insulating gate oxide between these two overlying gate structures, improper electrical functioning, and poor processing yield. Additionally, the oxidation of the first polysilicon layer (or other suitable conductive layer), prior to the deposition of the second polysilicon (or other suitable conductive material) layer which will form the transfer gate 236 , forms the second gate oxide under the transfer gate. As device configurations have shrunk to improve performance and yield, the gate oxide must be grown thinner to maintain low threshold voltages and maintain performance in the more compact configurations. The thinning of the second gate oxide continues to cause degradation in the breakdown voltage between these two overlapping gate structures. [0065] Although no doped region is required to couple the photogate 230 with the transfer gate 236 , a doped region 244 may be formed under the photogate 230 to provide a well in which charges generated at photogate 230 can accumulate until transferred to the floating diffusion region 246 . The double polysilicon structure therefore requires careful alignment when performing the implanting of the doped region 244 to ensure that the doped region 244 does not extend across the area to be occupied by transfer gate 236 in a later processing step. [0066] This double polysilicon process also suffers from the fact that all transistors formed by the first polysilicon deposition, including the photogate 230 and the reset gate 232 , cannot be silicided gates, which would improve circuit speed and performance, for at least two reasons: (1) the top silicide layer cannot be oxidized to provide a reliable insulating oxide between the photogate 230 and the transfer gate 236 , and (2) a silicide layer on top of the photogate would block signal light from passing through the photogate into the signal storage region 244 below the photogate. [0067] The invention discussed below also addresses the problem of incomplete charge transfer but without any of the disadvantages discussed heretofore. FIGS. 13-17 illustrate a process for forming transistor gates on a semiconductor substrate for either a CCD imager or a CMOS imager in accordance with a first aspect of the present invention, while FIG. 18 shows a semiconductor device formed according to a second aspect of the invention. [0068] As shown in FIG. 13 , an insulating layer 104 , preferably made of an oxide material, is formed over a substrate 102 , and a conductive layer 106 , preferably a doped polysilicon layer or other transparent conductor, is formed over the insulating layer 104 . The conductive layer 106 may also suitably be formed as a silicide layer, a metal layer, a polysilicon/silicide layer, or a polysicon/metal layer. Substrate 102 is preferably doped to a first conductivity type, preferably p-type. Insulating layer 104 may be any suitable oxide, nitride, oxide nitride, nitride oxide, or metal oxide material, such as silicon oxide, silicon nitride, or silicon oxynitride, for example, and is formed over the substrate 102 by thermal growth or chemical vapor deposition, or other means to a thickness of in the range of approximately 2 to 100 nm. Conductive layer 106 may be formed to any suitable thickness, e.g., in the range of approximately 200 to 5000 Angstroms. [0069] Thus far, the process is similar to the prior art process illustrated in FIG. 8 and discussed above. Instead of forming the transistor gates directly by applying a resist layer and developing the resist layer, however, the present invention next deposits an additional layer of an insulator material 108 over the conductive layer 106 . As with the insulator layer 104 , insulator layer 108 may be formed of an oxide or nitride material or other suitable insulator material. [0070] Next, a resist layer 110 is deposited on the insulator layer 108 and then patterned, whereby the undeveloped resist is removed to leave behind developed portions 110 a, as shown in FIG. 14 . [0071] Exposed portions of the insulator layer 108 are then etched away using a directional etch method such as reactive ion etching, or other suitable removal process such as immersion or spray-type wet etching, and plasma or ion milling, and the remaining resist portions 110 a are removed by wet or dry etch methods to thereby form insulator caps 114 on the surface of conductive layer 106 , as seen in FIG. 15 . As with the prior art, insulator caps 114 are spaced approximately 1300 Angstroms apart. [0072] Referring now to FIG. 16 , after formation of the insulator caps 114 , spacers 116 are formed along the sidewalls of the insulator caps 114 by blanket depositing an insulator material, and then etching the deposited material using an anisotropic dry etch that removes the deposited insulator material from the horizontal surfaces of the insulator caps 114 and the polysilicon layer 106 . Preferably, the spacers 116 are formed to a thickness of about 500 Angstroms each, and the insulating material used to form the spacers 116 may be any suitable insulator material such as an oxide, nitride, oxide nitride, nitride oxide, or metal oxide. [0073] After forming the spacers 116 on the sidewalls of the insulator caps 114 , another etch process is performed to etch through the conductive layer 106 , using the insulator caps 114 and spacers 116 as hard masks, to yield the gate structures 118 as illustrated in FIG. 17 . [0074] Using the process of the present invention, the distance between the conductive gate structures 118 is much smaller than previously achieved using a mask and resist alone. In the example described herein, the smallest achievable distance “z” between insulator caps 114 in FIG. 15 is the same as the smallest achievable distance “d” in FIG. 10 between transistor gates 206 a in the prior art, as both are defined by the minimum spacing in the mask forming technology. Presently, the minimum distance of “d” and “z” achievable using masks is about 1300 Angstroms. By forming spacers on insulator caps 114 , the width of the insulator caps is increased by two times the width of the spacers. If the spacers each have a width of approximately 500 Angstroms, the resulting distance “y” ( FIG. 17 ) between gate structures 118 formed using the insulator caps 114 plus spacers 116 as hard masks is 300 Angstroms. [0075] An alternative method for forming gate structures in accordance with this aspect of the invention is shown in and described with reference to FIGS. 18-22 . This method is similar to the method described above and shown in FIGS. 13-17 in that spacers are used to form the gate structures more closely together than can be achieved with masking techniques. As was the case in the process illustrated by FIG. 13 , an insulating layer 124 is formed over a substrate 122 , and a conductive layer 126 is formed over the insulating layer 124 . The insulating layer 124 and conductive layer 126 may be made of any of the materials mentioned above as being suitable for insulating layer 104 and conductive layer 106 , and the thickness of the conductive layer 126 is comparable to the thickness of conductive layer 106 . [0076] Next, as can be seen in FIG. 18 , a resist layer 128 is deposited on the conductive layer 126 , instead of forming another insulator layer on the conductive layer and then a resist layer on the second insulator layer as described above. The resist 128 is patterned according to the desired gate arrangement, resulting in resist portions 128 a shown in FIG. 19 . [0077] The conductive layer 126 is then partially etched, preferably to approximately half the thickness of the originally deposited conductive layer 126 in the regions not covered by the resist portions 128 a. The resist is removed, leaving the structure shown in FIG. 20 in which gate-like portions 126 a formed of the conductive material protrudes above the surface of the thinned conductive layer 126 . Again, the smallest distance which can be formed between the gate-like portions 126 a is “z,” which corresponds to the final distance between gate structures in the prior art, and the distance between insulator caps 114 shown in FIG. 15 and produced in the method described above. [0078] Referring now to FIG. 21 , spacers 130 are formed along the sidewalls of the gate-like portions 126 a in a manner similar to the formation of spacers 116 in FIG. 16 . The spacers 130 are made of any suitable insulator material such as those mentioned above with respect to the spacers 116 . [0079] After forming the spacers 130 , the conductive layer 126 is etched again. This time, the regions thinned in the previous etch process are removed completely, and the thickness of the gate-like portions 126 a between the spacers 130 is thinned. As seen in FIG. 22 , the width of the resulting gate structures 132 have a width corresponding approximately to the distance from the outside edge of one spacer 130 to the outside edge of the spacer on the opposite side of the respective gate-like portion 126 a, with a distance of “y” between adjacent gate structures 132 . [0080] In addition to the processes described above with reference to FIGS. 13-17 and 18 - 22 , the present invention also encompasses the all gate structures resulting in whole or in part from the disclosed process of manufacture. The process described above and the resulting structures of the present invention are applicable to both CCD image sensors and CMOS image sensors such as CMOS architectures having 3 T, 4 T, 5 T, 6 T and 7 T structures, for example. In both CCD and CMOS image sensors, the present invention enables the transistor gates to be formed in a single layer more closely together than previously possible in the prior art, to thereby enhance the efficiency of charge transfer from one gate to the next, and also to decrease the size of image sensors generally to accommodate the trend towards more compact yet more powerful electronic devices. [0081] In the conventional CMOS imager illustrated in FIGS. 4 and 6 , doped regions 26 and 30 are both n+ type, or heavily doped. When electron charges are generated by photons transmitting through the photogate, the generated charges are attracted to and accumulate at region 26 until the transfer gate is activated to thereby transfer the accumulated charge to the floating diffusion node 30 . In the conventional arrangement, however, the n+ doped region 26 has a tendency to retain photogenerated electrons even during the charge transfer process. The result is an incomplete charge transfer to the floating diffusion node 30 , and loss of a portion of the light data obtained by the photogate. [0082] A second aspect of the present invention addresses this problem, and is applicable in connection with imagers having 3 T, 4 T, 5 T, 6 T or 7 T structure, such as the imager having a photogate, a transfer gate and a reset gate as described above with reference to FIGS. 4 and 6 , and an imager having a photogate adjacent to a storage gate and a floating diffusion node adjacent to the storage gate, which structure has heretofore not been found in prior art CMOS imagers. [0083] According to this aspect of the invention, gates 150 , 152 and 154 are formed over a substrate 164 , as shown in FIG. 23 , according to prior art methods or according to the processes described above with reference to FIGS. 13-17 and 18 - 22 . In this example, it is assumed that gates 150 , 152 and 154 are to function as n-channel gates in the finished semiconductor device, as are photogate 24 , transfer gate 28 and reset gate 32 in FIGS. 4 and 6 . Instead of providing an n+ region between the gates 150 and 152 similar to region 26 in FIGS. 4 and 6 , the present invention provides an n− doped, or lightly doped, region 156 between the gates 150 and 152 . [0084] An n− doped region has a lesser affinity for holding onto electrons than an n+ doped region, resulting in more complete charge transfer out of the n− doped region. Thus, although the region 162 between gates 152 and 154 may be n+ doped as in the prior art CMOS imagers, it is preferably also n− doped. Similarly, the region between any two adjacent transistor gates in a CMOS imager may be lightly doped according to the present invention, wherein such gates may include the photogate, the transfer gate, the reset gate, the source follower gate, the row select gate, and/or the storage gate. [0085] This concept may also be implemented in a CCD imager by providing a lightly doped region between two transistor gates along the charge transfer path of a readout cycle. Preferably, a lightly doped region is formed between each pair of adjacent gates in the charge transfer path of a readout cycle. [0086] The depth and concentration density of the dopant ions implanted into each region 156 , 162 is determined by the implant range and diffusion in the substrate, which in turn is impacted by the temperature during the implantation process and the time duration at that temperature. Generally, however, an n+ doped region has a concentration of about 5·10 14 ions/cm 2 to about 1·10 16 ions/cm 2 , with 1·10 15 ions/cm 2 to about 3·10 15 ions/cm 2 being typical. In the present invention, the n− doped region 156 has a concentration of about 3·10 11 ions/cm 2 to about 1·10 14 ions/cm 2 , with 1·10 12 ions/cm 2 to about being 1·10 13 ions/cm 2 being preferred. For a doped region having a depth of about 1 μ (10 −4 cm) and using a concentration of 1·10 12 ions/cm 2 , therefore, the n− doped region 156 has a concentration density of ρ=(1·10 12 ions/cm 2 )/(10 −4 cm)=1·10 16 ions/cu.cm. [0087] Any suitable doping process may be used to form the n− doped region 156 and the n+ doped region 162 . For example, the regions 156 and 162 may be formed by ion implantation, and may be performed in an ion implanter device by implanting appropriate n-type ions (e.g., arsenic, antimony, phosphorous, etc.) at an energy level of about 10 KeV to about 200 KeV into the substrate 164 to a depth of approximately 200-1000 Angstroms. A resist and mask may be used to shield areas of the substrate which are not to be doped. Since the gates 150 and 152 define the boundary along two sides of region 156 , and the gates 152 and 154 define the boundary along two sides of region 162 , the resist and mask need only define the boundaries of the regions to be doped along the sides not constrained by the gates. Optionally, the n− region 156 may be formed by blanket doping the exposed surfaces of the substrate. [0088] It should be noted that in many transistors, the source and drain are essentially interchangeable, and interconnections specified herein should not be interpreted as solely limited to those described. In addition, while the transistors have been described as n-type or n-channel, it is recognized by those skilled in the art that a p-type or p-channel transistor may also be used if the structures are uniformly oppositely doped from that described. For example, gates 150 , 152 and 154 in FIG. 23 may be p-channel gates instead of n-channel gates as described above, in which case region 156 (and optionally the region 162 ) are p-doped, or lightly doped p-type. The n and p designations are used in the common manner to designate donor and acceptor type impurities which promote electron and hole type carriers respectively as the majority carriers. [0089] Each pixel in the imaging array 15 of FIG. 2 may be constructed according to the first and/or second aspect of the invention. Similarly, each pixel in the array 90 of FIG. 5 may be constructed according to the first and/or second aspects of the invention. The operation of the imagers incorporating the present invention is the same as discussed hereinabove. [0090] The imagers of FIGS. 2 and 5 having pixel structures fabricated according to the present invention can provide real-time or stored image output. A processor based system is exemplary of a system having digital circuits which could include semiconductor-based imager devices. A typical processor-based system, which includes a semiconductor-based imager 542 according to the present invention, is illustrated generally in FIG. 24 . Without being limiting, such a system could include a computer system, camera system, scanner, machine vision system, vehicle navigation system, video telephone, surveillance system, auto focus system, star tracker system, motion detection system, image stabilization system, medical imaging devices, and data compression system for high-definition television, all of which can utilize the present invention. [0091] FIG. 24 illustrates an exemplary processor system 500 which includes or operates in cooperation with the imager 542 . The processor system 500 , such as a computer system, for example, generally comprises a central processing unit (CPU) 544 that communicates with an input/output (I/O) device 546 over a bus 552 . The imager 542 communicates with the system over bus 552 or a ported connection. The processor system 500 also includes random access memory (RAM) 548 , and, in the case of a computer system, may include peripheral devices such as a floppy disk drive 554 and a compact disk (CD) ROM drive 556 which also communicate with CPU 544 over the bus 552 . [0092] The processing system 500 illustrated in FIG. 24 is only an exemplary processing system with which the invention may be used. While FIG. 24 illustrates a processing architecture especially suitable for a general purpose computer, such as a personal computer or a workstation, it should be recognized that well known modifications can be made to configure the processing system 500 to become more suitable for use in a variety of applications. For example, the imagers of the present invention may be incorporated into many different types of electronic devices including, but not limited to audio/video processors and recorders, gaming consoles, digital television sets, wired or wireless telephones, navigation devices (including system based on the global positioning system (GPS) and/or inertial navigation), and digital cameras and/or recorders. The modifications may include, for example, elimination of unnecessary components, addition of specialized devices or circuits, and/or integration of a plurality of devices. [0093] The processes and devices described above illustrate preferred methods and typical devices of many that could be used and produced. The above description and drawings illustrate embodiments, which achieve the objects, features, and advantages of the present invention. However, it is not intended that the present invention be strictly limited to the above-described and illustrated embodiments. Any modifications, though presently unforeseeable, of the present invention that comes within the spirit and scope of the following claims should be considered part of the present invention.

More complete charge transfer is achieved in a CMOS or CCD imager by reducing the spacing in the gaps between gates in each pixel cell, and/or by providing a lightly doped region between adjacent gates in each pixel cell, and particularly at least between the charge collecting gate and the downstream to the charge collecting gate. To reduce the gaps between gates, an insulator cap with spacers on its sidewalls is formed for each gate over a conductive layer. The gates are then etched from the conductive layer using the insulator caps and spacers as hard masks, enabling the gates to be formed significantly closer together than previously possible, which, in turn increases charge transfer efficiency. By providing a lightly doped region on between adjacent gates, a more complete charge transfer is effected from the charge collecting gate.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims is a continuation-in part of co-pending U.S. application Ser. No. 15/046,797, filed Feb. 18, 2016, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/579,829, filed Dec. 22, 2014, entitled: Trans-spinal Direct Current Stimulation Systems, which claims Priority of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. 62/092,214, filed Dec. 15, 2014, entitled: Trans-spinal Direct Current Stimulation Systems, U.S. Provisional Application Ser. 61/925,423, filed Jan. 9, 2014, entitled: Method and Apparatus for Safe Regulation of Muscle Tone, and U.S. Provisional Application Ser. 61/919,806, filed Dec. 22, 2013, entitled: Method and Apparatus for Regulation of Muscle Tone. Priority is also claimed upon U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 62/183,045, filed Jun. 22, 2015, entitled MODULATION OF BLADDER FUNCTION USING tsDCS. All of the foregoing are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety for all purposes whatsoever. FIELD The present invention relates to method and apparatus for modulating and regulating autonomically-innervated effector organs, such as modulation and regulation of bladder function. BACKGROUND The nervous system includes the Central Nervous System (CNS) and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS), the latter including the Somatic Nervous System (SNS) and Autonomic Nervous System (ANS). The CNS includes the brain and the spinal cord. The spinal cord is the main communication route for signals between the body and the brain. The SNS and ANS overlap the CNS and PNS. There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves arising from cervical (8), thoracic (12), lumbar (5), sacral (5) and coccygeal (1) segments. The spinal nerves contain both sensory and motor fibers. Efferent nerves (as opposed to afferent nerves) are the nerves leading from the central nervous system to an effector organ, and efferent neural signals refer to neural signals from the brain that are transmitted via spinal cord pathways to effector organs. Afferent nerves are the nerves leading to the central nervous system, and afferent neural signals refer to neural signals being transmitted to the brain. The ANS consists of two divisions, the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system, FIG. 1 , and is responsible for regulating bodily functions including heart rate, respiration, digestion, bladder tone, sexual response and other functions. Activation of the sympathetic nervous system results in preparation of the body for stressful or emergency situations, while activation of the parasympathetic nervous system results in conservation and restoration and controls body processes during normal situations. For specific organs that are innervated by the autonomic nervous system, it is well known which spinal levels are involved. FIG. 2 shows segmental sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation of various organs. Parasympathetic innervation is either through the vagus nerve (cranial nerve X) or at the sacral levels (S2-S4). Sympathetic preganglionic neurons either synapse in the sympathetic chain ganglia or project through the sympathetic chain ganglia and synapse at various ganglia such as superior mesenteric ganglia or inferior mesenteric ganglia. The post-ganglionic neuron then projects to the end organ that it innervates. Parasympathetic pre-ganglionic neurons (from cranial nerve X and below) synapse very close to the organ they innervate and usually in a nerve plexus attached to the organ, and synapse with a post-ganglionic neuron that sends projections to the organ. The autonomic nervous system includes both sensory and motor neurons. The ability to activate or inhibit either the sympathetic or parasympathetic nervous system would enable the regulation of numerous bodily functions and enable the treatment of specific disorders related to dysfunction of either the sympathetic or parasympathetic system. Normal functions that are potentially regulated by modulation of sympathetic or parasympathetic activity include modulating bronchodilation in the airways, modulating vasoconstriction in the skin and organs, stimulating gluconeogenesis and glucose release from the liver, stimulating secretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine by the adrenal gland, modulation of sweating, slowing or increasing heartrate and pumping efficiency, modulating tidal volume and rate of respiration, slowing or increasing intestinal processes involved with digestion, modulating urine production, modulating bladder contraction, modulating sphincter control, stimulating erection and sexual arousal, and numerous others. Beyond modulating normal functions, there are numerous disorders of the ANS that have been described and are referred to as dysautonomias, and is due to failure or disruption of either the sympathetic or parasympathetic divisions of the ANS. Specific such disorders include autoimmune autonomic ganglionopathy, congenital central hypoventilation syndrome, familiar dysautonomia, Holmes-Adie syndrome, multiple system atrophy, Shy-Drager syndrome, neurally mediated syncope, orthostatic hypotension, postural tachycardia syndrome, striatonigral degeneration and vasovagal syncope. Elevated sympathetic tone has been linked to disorders such as heart failure, hypertension, obesity, obstructive sleep apnea, diabetes, migraine, parkinsonian symptoms, septic shock, primary hyperhidrosis, complex regional pain syndrome and numerous others. As there are many disorders and dysfunctions associated with abnormal regulation of autonomically-innervated effector organs, the ability to regulate the autonomic nervous system would enable important new therapeutic strategies. We have developed novel approaches to modulating the autonomic nervous system using various implementations of trans-spinal direct current stimulation (tsDCS). The bladder is one example of an autonomically controlled organ. The bladder functions as a reservoir and is responsible for storing urine that has been formed by the kidneys in the process of eliminating metabolites and excess water from the blood. The stored urine is released via the urethra in the process of micturition. The pathways mediating neural control of bladder function are well established and include sympathetic, parasympathetic and somatic pathways. Referring to FIG. 3 , sympathetic control of the bladder is from sympathetic efferents from T11-L2 that run via the sympathetic trunk and the splanchnic nerves to the inferior mesenteric ganglion. Post-ganglionic fibers contribute to the hypogastric plexus and reach the bladder where they synapse on the detrusor muscle, and also synapse on the sphincter vesicae at the bladder neck. Parasympathetic control is from parasympathetic fibers that arise from S2-S4 and travel via the pelvic splanchnic nerves to synapse on post-ganglionic neurons located in a dense plexus among the detrusor smooth muscle cells in the wall of the bladder. Post-ganglionic parasympathetic fibers cause contraction of the bladder detrusor muscle and relaxation of the sphincter vesicae. The external urethral sphincter (EUS) consists of striated muscle and is under voluntary control via alpha motor neurons in Onuf's nucleus in the ventral horns of S2-S4. Afferent responses from bladder stretch receptors enter the spinal cord at T11-L2 and also S2-S4 where they travel up to brainstem areas. Sensory fibers in the urethral wall respond to urinary flow by causing firing of their cell bodies located in dorsal root ganglia, which synapse on neurons in the spinal cord dorsal horn. These sensory fibers travel to the spinal cord via the pudendal nerve, and transection of this sensory nerve reduces bladder contraction strength and voiding efficiency. Urinary retention is an inability to empty the bladder completely and can be acute or chronic. Retention can be due to numerous issues, including constipation, prostatic enlargement, urethral strictures, urinary tract stones, tumors, and nerve conduction problems. Such nerve conduction problems are seen in brain and spinal cord injuries, diabetes, multiple sclerosis, stroke, pelvic surgery, heavy metal poisoning, aging and idiopathically. These result in either weak bladder contraction and/or excess sphincter activation. As such, modulation strategies that enable improved emptying of the bladder are of therapeutic interest. Urinary incontinence is loss of bladder control leading to mild leaking all the way up to uncontrollable wetting. It results from weak sphincter muscles, overactive bladder muscles, damage to nerves that control the bladder from diseases such as multiple sclerosis and Parkinson's disease, and can occur after prostate surgery. As such, modulation strategies that treat urinary incontinence are of therapeutic interest. Neurogenic bladder refers to bladder malfunction due to any type of neurological disorder, which can include stroke, multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury, peripheral nerve lesions and numerous other conditions. Following a stroke, the brain often enters a cerebral shock phase, and the urinary bladder will be in retention (or detrusor areflexia). Around 25% of stroke patients develop acute urinary retention. Following the cerebral shock phase, the bladder often shows detrusor hyperreflexia, and the patient will have urinary frequency, urgency and urge incontinence. In multiple sclerosis, the most common urological dysfunction is detrusor hyperreflexia, occurring in as many as 50-90% of patients with MS. Detrusor areflexia is seen in 20-30% of patients, so treatment must be individualized based on urodynamic findings. In spinal cord injuries occurring from motor vehicle or diving accidents, an initial response of spinal shock is seen in which patients experience flaccid paralysis below the level of injury, and experiences urinary retention consistent with detrusor areflexia. Spinal shock phase lasts usually 6-12 weeks but may be prolonged. During this period, the urinary bladder often must be drained with either intermittent catheterization or an indwelling catheter. Following the spinal shock phase, bladder function returns, however with an increase in excitability, and results in detrusor hyperreflexia. Peripheral nerve lesions can be due to diabetes mellitus, herpes zoster, neurosyphilis, herniated lumbar disk disease, pelvic surgery and other conditions, and can result in detrusor areflexia. There is a continuing and unmet need for improved ability to impose beneficial control over behavior of end effectors. Embodiments of the present invention are variously directed to meeting such need. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION As there are many disorders and dysfunctions related to the nervous system, such as those associated with abnormal regulation of autonomically-innervated effector organs, the ability to regulate related parts of the nervous system, such as the autonomic nervous system, enables new therapeutic strategies and interventions. We disclose novel systems, devices, apparatuses and methods for modulating parts of the nervous systems using various implementations of trans-spinal direct current stimulation (tsDCS) and we provide new therapeutic strategies and interventions for modulation of bladder and other organs using trans-spinal direct current stimulation. Therefore the present invention relates to methods and systems utilizing trans-spinal direct current stimulation for modulation of target effector organs. Illustrative embodiments of this disclosure are directed to application of tsDCS to modulation of effector constituents of the autonomic nervous system (ANS), and illustrative embodiments include method and apparatus for treatment of bladder dysfunctions. Such disclosure is by way of illustration and not by way of limitation of the scope of the present invention to other organs. We apply tsDCS in various configurations. In some embodiments, we use tsDCS by itself. In other embodiments, we use coordinated multi-site neurostimulation that incorporates tsDCS together with stimulation at other site(s) along the neural axis. In a double-stimulation configuration, we provide simultaneous spinal tsDCS stimulation together with a second stimulation. In one embodiment we provide tsDCS spinal stimulation combined with direct current peripheral stimulation of a nerve leading to a targeted effector organ. In an alternative double-stimulation configuration, we provide simultaneous spinal stimulation together with a second stimulation that modulates central autonomic outflow. In a triple-stimulation configuration, we provide simultaneous stimulation of cerebral, spinal and peripheral sites serving target effector organs, e.g., organs such as the bladder or external urethral sphincter (EUS). Through such coordinated multi-site neurostimulation, the descending cortical signals are amplified by spinal-level tsDCS to drive stronger responses at the target effector organ. This approach effectively stimulates neural pathways and enables delivery of stronger cortical signals to drive stronger effector responses. In one embodiment, method and system for modulating function of the autonomic nervous system in a vertebrate being is provided, including a primary stimulation component which initiates central autonomic outflow, and a second stimulation component which modulates descending autonomic pathways at the level of the spinal cord. A further embodiment includes a primary stimulation component that includes either transcranial direct current stimulation, transcutaneous vagal nerve stimulation, transcranial magnetic stimulation, cold/hot pressors, oral or transdermal pharmaceutical agents, visual stimuli, auditory stimuli, olfactory stimuli or other forms of stimulation. In some embodiments, the secondary stimulation component comprises trans-spinal direct current stimulation and the autonomic outflow is either sympathetic outflow or parasympathetic outflow. A further method and system for modulating function of the autonomic nervous system in a vertebrate being is provided, including a primary stimulation component which initiates central autonomic outflow, a second stimulation component which modulates descending autonomic pathways at the level of the spinal cord, and a third peripheral stimulation component which stimulates a nerve leading to a target effector organ. In embodiments of the invention we incorporate a wearable tsDCS controller that modulates descending autonomic signals traversing the spinal cord. In some embodiments, this is combined with an implanted electrode that directly stimulates the nerve to a targeted effector organ. The implanted electrode is in wireless communication with the wearable tsDCS controller. This stimulation is selected as either excitatory or inhibitory in practices of the invention. This approach is sufficient for certain applications. In other applications, it is beneficial to directly modulate central autonomic outflow before spinal level modulation via tsDCS. In several practices of the invention, we increase or decrease sympathetic outflow, or increase or decrease parasympathetic outflow. Furthermore, in particular embodiments we provide non-invasive and non-pharmacological modulation of autonomic outflow for control and treatment of autonomically-related functions and disorders. In other embodiments, we provide pharmacological modulation of autonomic outflow for control and treatment of autonomically-related functions and disorders. We apply tsDCS in various configurations. In embodiments of the invention, the stimulation applied to the spine is a continuous constant current direct current signal. For practical reasons, this constant tsDCS signal is ramped at the beginning and end of application to reduce local induced stimulation artifacts. In some embodiments this is a pulsed signal which delivers an equivalent continuous constant-current signal to the stimulation site. In various embodiments, the tsDCS spinal stimulation is applied with an active electrode at the spine being driven as either anode or cathode and cooperating with its complimentary return electrode to define the spinal circuit. The distal neural stimulation, sometimes referred to as peripheral direct current stimulation (pDCS) is applied with the distal active electrode at a nerve to the target effector organ being driven as either anode or cathode at the opposite polarity of the active spinal electrode, and also cooperating with the distal complementary return electrode to define the distal peripheral circuit between these electrodes. These spinal and peripheral stimulation circuits are energized and during such energized state create a resulting circuit between the active spinal electrode and the active neural electrode. This forms an active resulting anode-cathode pair, with the resulting current flow between this energized pair during the stimulation period favorably polarizing the connecting neural pathway down to the nerve at target effector organ. The result of applying such stimulation is to modulate neural transmission from spinal cord to the target effector organ, resulting in modulation of function at the target effector organ. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The above illustrative and further embodiments are described below in conjunction with the following drawings, where specifically numbered components are described and will be appreciated to be thus described in all figures of the disclosure: FIG. 1 shows the two divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System: the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system; FIG. 2 : shows segmental sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation of various organs; FIG. 3 : shows well-known pathways mediating neural control of bladder function; FIG. 4A : shows illustrative stimulator devices in practice of embodiments of the invention; FIG. 4B : shows common TMS magnetic stimulator with figure-eight probe in practice of embodiments of the invention; FIGS. 5A-C : show illustrative wearable and implantable components and configurations, including a closed-loop system, in practice of embodiments of the invention; FIG. 6 : shows surgical placement of cysostomy tube into the bladder to enable measurement of bladder pressures and urine output, in practice of embodiments of the invention; FIG. 7A : shows bladder pressures and the frequency of voiding and non-voiding contractions measured at baseline prior to stimulation with cathodal tsDCS, in practice of embodiments of the invention; FIG. 7B : shows spinal to bladder tsDCS stimulation that initiated bladder retention and voiding reflex in a vertebrate being with severe chronic spinal cord injury, in practice of embodiments of the invention; FIG. 7C : shows bladder reflexes in subjects with acute complete spinal cord injury and the effects of tsDCS, in practice of embodiments of the invention; FIG. 8 : shows treatment of patient with a condition of urinary incontinence involving detrusor hyperreflexia treated by application of tsDCS in a configuration that decreases parasympathetic tone, in practice of embodiments of the invention; FIG. 9 : shows return electrode is positioned within the bladder trans-urethrally, in practice of embodiments of the invention; FIGS. 10 and 11 : show a subject with a condition of urinary incontinence treated by application of tsDCS in a configuration that increases sympathetic tone with an anodal return electrode abdominally positioned anteriorly ( FIG. 10 ) and at an and with the return electrode positioned within the bladder trans-urethrally ( FIG. 11 ), in practice of embodiments of the invention; FIG. 12 shows spinal stimulations which increase parasympathetic outflow to the bladder combined with electrical stimulation of the parasympathetic preganglionic fibers in pelvic nerve, with cathodal tsDCS applied at S2-S4, in practice of embodiments of the invention; FIG. 13 : shows spinal stimulations which increase parasympathetic outflow to the bladder combined with electrical inhibition of the pudendal nerve that innervates the EUS using implanted electrodes, with cathodal tsDCS applied at S2-S4, in practice of embodiments of the invention; FIG. 14 : shows spinal stimulations which increase parasympathetic outflow to the bladder combined with electrical stimulation of the pudendal nerve using implanted electrodes, with cathodal tsDCS applied at S2-S4, in practice of embodiments of the invention; FIG. 15 : shows cathodal spinal stimulations increase sympathetic outflow to the bladder combined with implanted microstimulator electrodes which stimulate the pudendal nerve, with cathodal spinal stimulations at T11-L2, in practice of embodiments of the invention; FIG. 16 : shows cathodal spinal stimulations which increase sympathetic outflow to the bladder combined with implanted electrodes which are applied to inhibit the parasympathetic preganglionic fibers of the pelvic splanchnic nerves, with cathodal spinal stimulations at T11-L2, in practice of embodiments of the invention; FIG. 17 : shows non-invasive tDCS coupled with tsDCS at the relevant spinal level to modulate autonomic outflow, with sympathetic outflow from the brain increased by anodal tDCS over the primary motor cortex and further increased at the spinal level of the targeted effector organ by cathodal tsDCS at the high thoracic level, in practice of embodiments of the invention; FIG. 18A-B : shows transcutaneous vagal nerve stimulation (tVNS) and an embodiment where auricular stimulation is combined with a wearable tsDCS controller, in practice of embodiments of the invention; FIG. 19 : shows pharmacological autonomic modulators, in practice of embodiments of the invention; and FIG. 20 : shows a triple-stimulation approach in practice of embodiments of these teachings, in practice of embodiments of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The description is not to be taken in a limiting sense, but is made merely for the purpose of illustrating the general principles of these teachings, since the scope of these teachings is best defined by the appended claims. As used herein, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include the plural reference unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. The following definitions pertain to the present disclosure, with the understanding that such may be modified by context of use. For purposes of the teaching of the present teachings: The term “nerves” may be referred to herein as including nerves, neurons, motor neurons and interneurons and the like, and are generally referred to herein as “nerves” or “neurons”; The terms or concepts of nerve stimulation and neural stimulation are used liberally and interchangeably to describe applications of the stimulation of the teachings; The terms neuromodulation, modulation, stimulation and regulation are used interchangeably as equivalents for purposes of this disclosure and indicate an effect imposed upon a target in practice of present teachings; The terms dysfunction, disorder, defect and abnormality are used interchangeably as equivalents for purposes of this disclosure and indicate the concept of medically recognized conditions suitable for medical intervention: The term effector organ refers to a neurally-innervated organ that produces an effect in response to nerve stimulation. Muscles are included within such definition for purposes of this disclosure. The effects of stimulation of the present teachings upon an effector organ or muscle may be discussed interchangeably for purposes of inclusive discussion of the present teachings. The term “stimulation,” as used herein, refers to either excitation or inhibition of nerve fibers, also referred to as up regulation or down regulation. The term “electrical stimulation,” as used herein refers to the production or introduction of current into spinal nerve, neuron, circuit or pathway, whether by applying a voltage or magnetically inducing a current. Improved method and apparatus for neuromodulation and regulation of effector organs are disclosed herein below. In practice of embodiments of the invention, we provide benchtop, wearable or implantable systems for modulating the components of the nervous system, including effector organs. Strategies that provide spinal stimulation via tsDCS (mono-stimulation), spinal stimulation via tsDCS combined with either peripheral stimulation or stimulation of central autonomic outflow (double-stimulation), and spinal stimulation via tsDCS combined with peripheral stimulation and stimulation of cortex (e.g., motor cortex) or central autonomic outflow (triple-stimulation), are disclosed. In illustrative embodiments herein, we disclose methods and apparatus that apply these strategies to modulate the autonomic nervous system and to regulate autonomically-innervated effector organs such as the bladder. These strategies treat nervous system conditions, including bladder incontinence and bladder retention. In practice of embodiments of the invention, we provide benchtop, wearable or implantable systems for modulating the components of the nervous system, including effector organs. Strategies provide spinal stimulation by applying tsDCS on its own (mono-stimulation), or tsDCS spinal stimulation combined with peripheral stimulation (double-stimulation), or tsDCS spinal stimulation combined with cerebral stimulation (double-stimulation), or tsDCS spinal stimulation combined with two other stimulations, which may include peripheral stimulation and cerebral stimulation (triple-stimulation), are disclosed. In illustrative embodiments herein, we disclose methods and apparatus that apply these strategies to modulate the autonomic nervous system and to regulate autonomically-innervated effector organs such as, but not limited to, the bladder. These strategies treat nervous system conditions, including bladder incontinence and bladder retention. FIG. 4A shows illustrative stimulator devices 10 , 12 , 14 which may be utilized in various practices of the invention. These devices include a tsDCS stimulation device 10 which may be used on its own to deliver a tsDCS mono-stimulation treatment or in combination with additional stimulation devices 12 and/or 14 to provide various double and triple stimulation treatments, in several embodiments of the invention. tsDCS stimulator device 10 delivers trans-spinal direct current stimulation to a spinal location neurally associated with a distal effector organ of interest, and more particularly associated with function of a target effector organ, such as the bladder. In various embodiments the stimulation supplied by stimulator device 10 provides monopolar, and an essentially or effectively continuous, constant, non-varying direct current stimulation of a selected polarity, in a range of 0.5 to 5 or 6 mA, typically 1-4.5 mA. Stimulator device 10 illustrates a tsDCS component in embodiments of the invention. In this illustration, device 10 includes a computing and synchronizing unit 16 , for provision of a system control function, and including a signal polarity and function controller 18 , and having a system memory 19 . The second stimulator device 12 provides a known transcranial direct current (tDCS) stimulation source of pulsed or constant direct current stimulation to the cortex area C, having a circuit 20 for signal computing and synchronizing, and for control of signal polarity and function, integrated with resident memory 19 . In an alternative embodiment, repetitive pulsed magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is provided to the cortical area C by a TMS magnetic stimulator 12 A using a figure-eight probe 22 , as shown in FIG. 4B , as will be understood by a person skilled in the art. In an illustrative embodiment, pulsed electrical stimulation of the motor cortex in an adult ranges at 100-400 mA, typically around 200 mA, pulse width of 100-300 microseconds, typically around 200 ms, 0.5 to 3 Hz repetition rate, operating voltage 400-800. For a child, 70-100 milliamps at 100 microseconds is a target. Magnetic stimulation is alternatively applied, and in an illustrative pulsed TMS embodiment, magnetic stimulation is delivered at a rate of 0.5 to 3 Hz, 200 microsecond pulse width, reaching stimulation current levels equivalent to the electrical stimulation, as will be understood by a person skilled in the art. In one TMS practice of the invention, rTMS is applied with a magnetic flux density of 1.0 to 1.5 Tesla. The third stimulator device 14 is a source of direct current stimulation to stimulate a peripheral location of interest, typically for stimulation of a nerve leading to a target effector organ of interest, such as the bladder, and which may include non-varying or pulsed direct current stimulation. This stimulator device 14 includes a circuit 23 for signal computing and synchronizing and for control of signal polarity and function, with resident memory. An illustrative peripheral constant direct current stimulation is applied at levels of 1-5 mA for double stimulation and with pulsed peripheral intensity typically ranges is from 5 to 40 mA for triple stimulation. In a bladder treatment of the invention, continuous tsDCS is applied to the Onuf's nucleus in the sacral region of the spinal cord, with typical intensity in the range from 1-4.5 mA. All three of devices 10 , 14 , 12 , are shown having an I/O component for external signal connection, such as with electrodes, 24 , 26 , 30 , 32 , and 34 , 36 , respectively, providing +/− terminals for electrode connection. Each unit is also provided with a communication component 40 , which enables data links 42 for wired or wireless communication between the devices or with other external devices. In this illustration, all three devices 10 , 12 , 14 have a user interface with microprocessor unit 44 and a power supply P, such as rechargeable batteries. The tsDCS stimulator device 10 is engaged on its own when tsDCS mono-stimulation is provided. For double stimulation, the tsDCS stimulator device 10 is engaged along with another stimulation source, such as provided by the cortical stimulator device 12 in one practice or by the peripheral stimulator device 14 in another practice of the invention. In one practice double-stimulation is provided by two independent or isolated circuits with the same or paired stimulation devices. As will be appreciated by a person skilled in the art, in several embodiments, where constant current stimulation is to be delivered to the patient, the two cooperating stimulation sources, such as devices 10 and 14 share a common ground in order to enable an efficient control function as the circuits attempt to maintain assigned signal levels over time in the presence of changing resistance of the current path(s) within the patient. In some embodiments, the tsDCS stimulator device 10 is engaged to provide tsDCS in a triple-stimulation embodiment, in cooperation with other two stimulation sources, such as with the cortical stimulator device 12 and the peripheral stimulator device 14 . In an illustrative embodiment, the tsDCS triple-stimulation includes pulsed stimulation at the cortex, constant stimulation at the spine and pulsed stimulation at the peripheral location. Referring to FIG. 4A , a person to be treated is shown from the back. Three sets of electrode connections are shown as would be used during an illustrative triple stimulation practice of the invention. Electrodes will be applied in locations discussed below. As an illustration only, in a tsDCS triple stimulation embodiment, the cortical stimulator 12 provides transcortical direct current (tDCS) stimulation as a source of direct current to the local cortical area C via active cortical electrode 34 and return (also called “reference”) electrode 36 . The stimulation path 34 - 36 is defined between the two electrodes to stimulate the local cortex area C which is associated with the intended stimulation of a target effector organ of interest, such as bladder 21 (indicated by dotted symbol). In an alternative embodiment, repetitive pulsed magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is supplied to cortical area C by a probe 22 of a TMS magnetic stimulator 12 A shown in FIG. 4B , for application of known pulsed cortical stimulation, as will be understood by a person skilled in the art. The tsDCS stimulator 10 delivers trans-spinal direct current mono-stimulation to a spinal location 15 associated with neural outflow associated with a target effector organ, such as at the bladder. The spinal active electrode 24 is applied at spinal location 15 and a return electrode 26 is located distal to the spinal area, such as at an anterior aspect of the body. In this embodiment, a spinal stimulation circuit 17 is defined between these two electrodes with the stimulation current traversing the spinal processes at that location as a stimulation path of interest. The third stimulator 14 provides peripheral direct current stimulation to stimulate a nerve leading to a target effector organ or a nerve of the target effector organ, such as the bladder 21 . In one embodiment, the stimulation signal is monopolar and pulsed. In another embodiment the stimulation signal is monopolar and constant. An illustrative embodiment of the invention includes method and system having a single tsDCS stimulation circuit, for mono-stimulation of the spinal cord, and defined by placing an electrode at the spinal location of interest and a return electrode on the anterior aspect of the body, thus defining a pathway of interest between these electrodes. In various practices of the invention, these electrodes are assigned as either anode or cathode and a tsDCS stimulation circuit is thus created for applying current between the electrodes and for modulating spinal cord excitability. The applied current is delivered having a desired signal character and level. In further embodiments of the invention, we apply these teachings in wearable and implantable embodiments. In a further embodiment of the invention, a wearable mono-stimulation device is provided. In this practice, there are two electrodes which are skin surface type, serving as the active spinal electrode and the spinal circuit return electrode. In one embodiment, a surface of the wearable device provides the spinal electrode and the device also connects to a return electrode, on the opposite side of the spinal cord, which is placed on the skin surface such as on the abdomen or iliac crest. In another embodiment, the reference electrode is placed internal to the bladder, such as by urethral catheter insertion, surgically, or the like. The spinal location of interest is selected based on spinal outflow to the target effector organ. In another implantable mono-stimulation device of the invention, there are two electrodes which are implantable electrodes, serving as the active spinal electrode and the return electrode. In one embodiment, the mono-stimulation device is fully implantable, with electrode leads from the device to dorsal spinal location and ventral location tunneled subcutaneously. The spinal location of interest is selected based on spinal outflow to the target effector organ. In a fully implantable subcutaneous double-stimulation embodiment of the invention, two circuits are supplied by four leads emanating from controller device. This embodiment delivers two simultaneous stimulations, a spinal stimulation and a peripheral stimulation applied to a nerve of the target effector organ. There are two separate stimulation current paths with these two circuits. But these circuits also interact to form a resulting stimulation current path between the active electrode at the spine of the spinal circuit and the electrode of opposite polarity positioned at the nerve of the target effector organ. This provides a polarization flow down along the neural path between the two described electrodes. In this double stimulation embodiment, the first current path is a tsDCS spinal circuit defined by placing an active spinal electrode at the spinal location of interest and a return electrode at a non-spinal location, with the applied current running between these electrodes. The second current path is a peripheral circuit defined by placing active and return electrodes on or in proximity to a nerve of the target effector organ. In a further embodiment, a two-part semi-implantable stimulation device is provided. A first component is a wearable mono-stimulation device which includes an active spinal electrode applied by skin attachment and a return electrode. The second component is an implanted peripheral stimulator or microstimulator with two leads that has its own power supply. Both leads of the second component are in contact with or in close proximity to a nerve of a target effector organ. The wearable component can communicate wirelessly with the implanted component. When the wearable component turns on and issues its stimulation signal, the implanted stimulator responds and issues a stimulation signal to the target effector organ, which can be either excitatory or inhibitory. In a further embodiment of a wearable double-stimulation device, two circuits are supplied by four leads emanating from controller device. This embodiment delivers two simultaneous stimulations. The first stimulation is a spinal stimulation delivered via active spinal electrode applied by skin attachment and a return electrode. The second stimulation modulates central autonomic outflow, and can be either trans-cranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) or trans-cutaneous vagal nerve stimulation (tVNS). There are two separate stimulation current paths with these two circuits but they are electrically isolated from each other. In a further embodiment, a two-part semi-implantable stimulation device is provided. A first component is a wearable double-stimulation device that provides a first stimulation that is spinal stimulation, and a second stimulation that modulates central autonomic outflow. The second component is an implanted peripheral stimulator or microstimulator with two leads that has its own power supply. Both leads of the second component are in contact with or in close proximity to a nerve of a target effector organ. The wearable component can communicate wirelessly with the implanted component. When the wearable component turns on and issues its stimulation signal, the implanted stimulator responds and issues a stimulation signal to the target effector organ, which can be either excitatory or inhibitory. Illustrative embodiments of the invention is set forth in FIG. 5A-C featuring wearable and implantable components. In FIG. 5A , a disk-shaped wearable system 100 is disclosed. As illustrated in FIG. 5A-B , system 100 includes a wearable/implantable tsDCS controller 102 , shown affixed to the patient at its skin-side 104 optionally presenting an electrode surface 111 . External interaction with controller 102 is by buttons or touch screen or by wireless interaction with a portable device or cell phone 103 for user intervention. Controller 102 directs action of implanted control unit 106 . Controller 102 incorporates a cognate circuit of device 10 , FIG. 4A , including a miniaturized version of computing and synchronizing unit 16 , with memory 19 , for provision of system control, and further including a signal polarity and function controller 18 , with appropriate instruction loaded set in memory 19 for instruction of implanted control unit 106 . Control unit 106 includes a rechargeable power supply (not shown), and according to instructions from controller 102 , applies electrical stimulation to a local peripheral nerve 108 that innervates a target effector organ, such as the bladder. The stimulation can be adjusted as needed, and is provided as constant continuous non-varying direct current stimulation, or can be pulsed direct current stimulation, in various practices of the invention. In one embodiment, the implanted control unit 106 provides electrical leads 109 to deliver the stimulation signal to suitable electrode, shown as a cuff electrode 110 , which is affixed at nerve 108 . In one embodiment, controller 102 presents an electrode surface 111 on the skin side of the device for affixation of the device to the patient. This electrode surface 111 may include electrically conductive adhesive to assist attachment to the patient, and permits application of tsDCS stimulation at that location. In further embodiments of the invention, system 100 further includes and cooperates with the implanted control unit 106 , which in turn drives single or multiple implanted electrodes, such as a cuff electrode 110 via leads 109 . Cuff electrode 110 is placed around a peripheral or autonomic nerve of interest 108 and stimulates the nerve fibers to achieve either excitation or inhibition of the effector organ, e.g., bladder. The cuff electrode 110 is made of soft, flexible materials such as silicone that render an electrode flexible and less prone to injure the peripheral nerve than common electrodes. Alternatively, two electrode leads representing the anode and cathode are positioned in contact with or in close proximity to the nerve 108 . In another embodiment of the present teachings, a wearable tsDCS unit that wirelessly controls an implanted stimulator is combined with a sensor that detects a relevant physiological state to form a closed-loop system. The wearable tsDCS unit wirelessly communicates with the sensor, which could be either implanted or wearable, and activates tsDCS spinal stimulation and stimulation of an effector organ via the implanted stimulator, when it detects a relevant state. The sensor can be configured to detect blood pressure, heart rate, body temperature, respiration rate, skin turgor, skin conductivity, oxygenation state, bladder pressure, urine osmolarity, hemodynamic parameters, specific cardiac rhythms by EKG, urethral pressure, anal sphincter pressure, muscle contraction state by EMG, specific brain waves by EEG, electrolytes, specific proteins and signaling molecules in specific tissue compartments, blood glucose concentration, gastric pH, gastrointestinal motility sounds, environmental cues such as specific sights, sounds and signals, and other parameters depending on intended application. The neuromodulation system is thus activated upon sensing a specific state, and inactivated when that state no longer holds. In one embodiment of the present teachings, the system also includes a sensor configured to detect a predetermined parameter, such as those listed herein above, and configured to provide a sensed value of the predetermined parameter to the controller component. The controller component is further configured to initiate stimulation, initiation of stimulation determined by whether the sensed value is less than or exceeds a predetermined value denoting the specific state. A closed loop system 200 of the invention is shown in FIG. 5C and is configured to operate autonomously in the background with reduced user interaction. As will be appreciated by a person skilled in the art, the system 200 takes advantage of modern wireless communications, as shown, which is available to implanted medical systems. System 200 includes tsDCS controller 102 and implanted control unit 106 with implanted electrode 110 at nerve 108 , and including an implanted feedback device 112 . The feedback device 112 is in wireless communication with controller 102 , which then responsively instructs control unit 106 to adjust or initiate or cease the stimulation function as needed. The implanted stimulator, control unit 106 , stimulates nerve 108 via leads 109 and electrode 110 , consistent with instructions from controller 102 . In a bladder management embodiment, the implanted feedback device 112 is a bladder pressure sensor 112 A. Bladder data from sensor 112 A is wirelessly provided to controller 102 which wirelessly instructs implanted control unit 106 , or directly instructs control unit 106 , to control stimulation of bladder nerve 108 via electrode 110 , to reduce incontinence or to reduce urinary retention, for example. Controller unit 102 has human interface, common instruction memory store, and logic circuits, and or a microprocessor, for executing its control instructions to control unit 106 . In turn, the control unit has a power supply which supplies the electrode accordingly. Preferably the power supply is wirelessly rechargeable. The implanted sensor 112 A closes the loop with the device controller circuit 102 in system 200 such that the system automatically adjusts without user intervention, according to stored profiles. In one embodiment of bladder modulation, the implanted sensor 112 A is a bladder function sensor such as a bladder pressure sensor which detects bladder pressure exerted by urine volume in the bladder and enables and wirelessly informs the needed neural stimulation instruction to be issued from controller 102 to control unit 106 to initiate stimulation and to obtain a desired outcome, such as controlled voiding. In one embodiment, the data from bladder sensor 112 A is directly acted upon by control unit 106 . In a further application of the closed-loop system 200 of FIG. 5C , we combine stimulation that modulates central autonomic outflow, in which a primary stimulation modulates either the sympathetic or parasympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system, with the closed-loop system 200 . Thus, cerebral and spinal stimulations are combined with an implanted stimulator that is under the control of the wearable tsDCS controller. It will be appreciated that embodiments of the present teachings feature tsDCS spinal stimulation. In many embodiments, this tsDCS stimulation is augmented with stimulation of a peripheral nerve leading to a target effector organ. In practices of these teachings, peripheral direct current stimulation (pDCS) is continuous, non-varying, steady-state direct current stimulation, while in other embodiments, stimulation of a peripheral nerve or autonomic nerve fiber associated with an effector organ may include pulsed electrical stimulation, continuous DCS, pulsed DCS, or other alternating signals. The present teachings also may be practiced with wireless microstimulators as known in the art. In practice of the invention, we apply tsDCS in various configurations. A tsDCS stimulation system provides tsDCS stimulation, which in various embodiments is applied by itself to favorably polarize a target neural pathway of interest. In other embodiments, we use coordinated multi-site neurostimulation that incorporates the tsDCS polarizing stimulation together with stimulation at other site(s) along the neural axis. We provide this multi-site stimulation by combination of tsDCS stimulation with at least one other stimulation, which includes cerebral stimulation and/or peripheral stimulation. In one embodiment of the present teachings, peripheral stimulation is continuous steady-state and non-varying. In another embodiment of the invention, excitation or inhibition of a stimulated autonomic nerve fiber depends on the frequency of the applied electrical stimulation. In one illustrative but non-limiting practice of the invention, inhibition of parasympathetic fibers is achieved with high-frequency monopolar electrical stimulation (greater than about 50-100 Hz), while excitation of parasympathetic fibers is achieved with low-frequency monopolar electrical stimulation (less than about 50-100 Hz). Similarly, inhibition of sympathetic fibers is achieved with high-frequency electrical stimulation (greater than about 50-100 Hz), while excitation of sympathetic fibers is achieved with low-frequency electrical stimulation (less than about 50-100 Hz). In various embodiments we apply stimulation via skin surface electrodes in a range up to about 1-6 mA or more often at 1-4.5 mA. In embodiments of the present teachings, the tsDCS device is fully implantable, with electrode leads from the device to dorsal spinal location and ventral location tunneled subcutaneously. Electrode leads from the tsDCS device which function for peripheral stimulation are also tunneled subcutaneously with electrodes implanted on the appropriate nerves of the effector organ being modulated. In another embodiment, the tsDCS device remains external to the body and wearable, but has electrode leads for peripheral stimulation that are either surface mounted or implanted. Illustrative Mono-Stimulation Embodiments It will be appreciated that the mono-stimulation process involves applying a single source of constant current stimulation and is typically delivered by the tsDCS stimulator alone. In practice of the present invention, we employ tsDCS to induce either an area of increased or decreased neural activation within the spinal cord. The present invention teaches methods and systems utilizing trans-spinal direct current stimulation for modulation of body functions, such as at effector organs. Illustrative embodiments of this disclosure are directed to application of such tsDCS to modulation of effector constituents of the autonomic nervous system (ANS). Illustrative embodiments include method and apparatus for treatment of bladder dysfunctions. This disclosure is by way of illustration and not by way of limitation of the scope of the present invention. It will now be appreciated that in various practices of the invention, tsDCS stimulation is applied at the spinal location. At peripheral sites (or cerebral sites in the case of transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation), stimulation can be of a broader variety within the scope of the invention. In several practices of the present invention, monopolar direct current stimulation is applied at specific points along the neural axis. Monopolar direct current electrical stimulation is applied and characterized as anodal or cathodal. In an embodiment of the invention, this characterization is indicative of the polarity of the current source as applied between a spinal location of interest and a return location. Depending upon the desired outcome, the circuit may be applied as anodal, positive, at the location of interest, and cathodal, negative, at the return location, or vice versa. Single and/or multiple monopolar direct current stimulation circuits are engaged in various embodiments. These monopolar stimulations are, characterized as being anodal or cathodal, have a polarizing effect over the stimulated pathways. This polarization has significant favorable modulatory effect upon the transmission efficiency of neural signals flowing over a neural pathway of interest. Monopolar stimulation applied to a neural pathway has potential polarizing and modulatory affects. In various practices of the invention, we engage and harness these effects accordingly. In an illustrative embodiment of the invention in awake healthy mice, a two-electrode mono-stimulation configuration of tsDCS was utilized, employing a stimulator, with an active cathode electrode on the lumbosacral spine (L6-S3), and a return anode electrode on the abdomen. To enable measurements of bladder function, we surgically placed a cysostomy tube (PESO tubing) into the bladder to enable measurement of bladder pressures and urine output ( FIG. 6 ). Bladder pressures, and the frequency of voiding and non-voiding contractions were measured at baseline prior to stimulation with cathodal tsDCS ( FIG. 7A ). In such embodiments with cathodal tsDCS providing stimulation, there is a decrease in the basal pressure, increase in the amplitude of bladder contractions, increase in inter-voiding contraction interval, and increase the number and amplitude of non-voiding contractions. In a series of experiments, after 20 minutes of cathodal tsDCS, these effects were still apparent. With such stimulation, the bladder can contract more fully. The same stimulation paradigm was also evaluated in awake mice with chronic spinal cord injury, with spinal cord lesioning at T10 level 30 days prior to stimulation studies. In these subjects, there is excessive bladder activity and non-voiding contractions, with higher bladder pressures as compared to healthy subjects, a condition of detrusor hyperreflexia. Baseline measurements were done in these subjects, followed by measurements during cathodal tsDCS, and 2 hours after 20 minutes of cathodal tsDCS. In awake subjects with chronic spinal cord injury, there is a decrease in the basal pressure, larger non-voiding contractions, and a decreased frequency of voiding contractions. Similar to awake healthy subjects, cathodal tsDCS enables the bladder of subjects with chronic spinal cord injury to contract more fully. In another embodiment relating to treatment of chronic spinal cord injury in mice, a two-electrode configuration of tsDCS was utilized, with an anodal electrode on the lumbosacral spine (L6-S3), and with, in one embodiment, the return electrode on the front of the subject's abdomen, and in another embodiment, with the return electrode at the bladder wall via transurethral insertion. FIG. 7B shows spinal to bladder tsDCS stimulation that initiated bladder retention and voiding reflex in a vertebrate being with severe chronic spinal cord injury. The subject had demonstrated skin irritation caused by excessive urination due to inability to retain urine. The top provides cystometry traces showing intravesicle pressure before, during, and after stimulation with anode on the spine and cathode inside the bladder. Note that there were no reflexes before or after stimulation. Traces on the right are with expanded time scale to show the structure of the reflexes. The bottom trace shows cystometry traces from the same subject showing before, during stimulation 1 (anode inside the bladder), stimulation 2 (cathode inside the bladder), and after. An improved ability to retain urine is seen even after stimulation is switched off. In further studies of mice with acute spinal cord injury, the same two-electrode configuration of tsDCS was utilized. In acute spinal cord injury, there is spinal shock and detrusor areflexia, during which period the bladder fills to high and potentially dangerous pressures, with voiding pressures significantly higher than normal subjects or in subjects with chronic spinal cord injury. This represents a significant health issue because it can cause stretch injuries to the bladder and upper urinary tract complications. FIG. 7C shows bladder reflexes in subjects with acute complete spinal cord injury and the effects of tsDCS. Baseline reflexes show very high voiding pressures that were further increased by spinal anode/cathode in bladder arrangement. This effect was maintained for at least 10 min after the current was turned off. When the polarity was switched, with spinal cathode and anode in bladder, this configuration immediately decreased the voiding pressure and decreased inter-voiding contraction interval, demonstrating that this configuration has therapeutically useful effects in subjects with detrusor areflexia following acute spinal cord injury. These results are consistent with both normal and spinal cord injured mammals. Excitability of small or moderate sized spinal neurons is increased by cathodal tsDCS and depressed by anodal tsDCS. Since autonomic preganglionic neurons are smaller in size, they follow this principle. We have found that cathodal tsDCS on the lumbosacral region increases the excitability of spinal parasympathetic preganglionic neurons hence decreasing urine storage reflexes and increasing voiding reflexes. Reverse polarity induces opposite modulation, i.e., increasing urine storage reflexes and decreasing voiding reflexes. In such practices, we have found that placing the return electrode inside or around the bladder enhances modulatory effects. The described anodal spinal/cathodal bladder configuration is effective in delaying the bladder voiding reflex to allow for longer filling time. Moreover, the same arrangement produces efficient voiding that is evident in lowering the basal pressure after each voiding cycle. In an illustrative embodiment of the invention, this anodal spinal/cathodal bladder configuration has an inhibitory effect on the parasympathetic input to the bladder. Inhibiting the parasympathetic inputs causes relaxation of the bladder detrusor and contraction of the sphincter vesicae. This allows for longer inter-voiding contraction interval. In addition, this configuration enables increased sympathetic influence over parasympathetic. This treatment is valuable in for achieving conditions of low pressure storage and efficient bladder voiding. In further practices of the invention, we treat conditions of detrusor areflexia by switching the polarities of the electrodes applied to spinal and bladder locations. In practice of the present invention, a patient with a condition of urinary incontinence involving detrusor hyperreflexia is treated by application of tsDCS in a configuration that decreases parasympathetic tone, FIG. 8 . Such a decrease in parasympathetic tone results in relaxation of the detrusor contraction and increased contraction of the sphincter vesicae. In one embodiment this is non-invasively achieved by anodal tsDCS at the level of S2-S4 with a return cathodal electrode positioned anteriorly at an abdominal location, such as the skin superior to the iliac bone. In another embodiment, the return electrode is positioned within the bladder trans-urethrally, FIG. 9 . In further practice of the invention these polarities (i.e., the anodal and cathodal assignments,) are reversed for treatment of conditions of urinary retention. In this embodiment, the configuration results in an increase in parasympathetic tone. In further embodiments of the present invention, a subject with a condition of urinary incontinence is treated by application of tsDCS in a configuration that increases sympathetic tone, FIG. 10 . Such an increase in sympathetic tone results in relaxation and expansion of the detrusor muscle, constriction of the sphincter vesicae, and inhibition of parasympathetic nerves that trigger bladder contraction. This is non-invasively achieved by cathodal tsDCS at the T11-L2 spinal level with an anodal return electrode positioned anteriorly at an abdominal location. In variant of the embodiment, FIG. 11 , the return electrode is positioned within the bladder trans-urethrally. In further practice of the invention these polarities (i.e., the anodal and cathodal assignments,) are reversed for treatment of conditions of urinary retention, which achieves a decrease of sympathetic tone. An embodiment of the invention includes method and system having a single tsDCS stimulation circuit, for mono-stimulation of the spinal cord, and defined by placing an electrode at the spinal location of interest and a return electrode on the anterior aspect of the body, thus defining a pathway of interest between these electrodes. In various practices of the invention, these electrodes are assigned as either anode or cathode and a tsDCS stimulation circuit is thus created for applying current between the electrodes and for modulating spinal cord excitability. The applied current is delivered having a desired signal character and level. In a wearable mono-stimulation device embodiment of the invention, there are two electrodes which are skin surface type, serving as the active spinal electrode and the return electrode. In one embodiment, the surface of the wearable device provides the spinal electrode and the device also connects to a return electrode on the opposite side of the spinal cord, which is placed on the skin surface such as on the abdomen or iliac crest. In another embodiment, the reference electrode is placed internal to the bladder, such as by urethral catheter insertion, surgically, or the like. The spinal location of interest is selected based on spinal outflow to the target effector organ. In an implantable mono-stimulation device of the invention, there are two electrodes which are implantable electrodes, serving as the active spinal electrode and the return electrode. In one embodiment, the mono-stimulation device is fully implantable, with electrode leads from the device to dorsal spinal location and ventral location tunneled subcutaneously. The spinal location of interest is selected based on spinal outflow to the target effector organ. Illustrative Double-Stimulation Embodiments Beyond strategies that utilize spinal stimulation via tsDCS on its own, we also disclose strategies that combine spinal stimulation via tsDCS with additional stimulation. We teach double-stimulation in various embodiments. Illustrative embodiments include two stimulators electrically tied together in as system for polarizing a critical neural pathway; a wearable mono-stimulation device communicating wirelessly with an implanted microstimulator; and two separate stimulators that are electrically isolated, as when there is a cortical stimulation using tDCS combined with spinal stimulation using tsDCS. Still other configurations will occur consistent with this disclosure that are also within the scope of the invention. In one double-stimulation embodiment of the invention, we provide simultaneous tsDCS spinal stimulation together with pulsed peripheral direct current stimulation (pDCS) of a nerve leading to a targeted effector organ. In one particular embodiment, a resulting polarizing circuit is defined between an active spinal tsDCS stimulation circuit and an active pulsed pDCS peripheral stimulation circuit. In one embodiment of the present invention, the described spinal stimulations which increase parasympathetic outflow to the bladder are combined with electrical stimulation of the parasympathetic preganglionic fibers in pelvic nerve, FIG. 12 , with cathodal tsDCS applied at S2-S4. Stimulation of the pelvic splanchnic nerve results in contraction of the bladder detrusor, and relaxation of the sphincter vesicae, thereby further treating a condition of urinary retention. In further practice of the invention, these polarities (i.e., the anodal and cathodal assignments,) are reversed for treatment of conditions of urinary incontinence resulting in a decrease in parasympathetic tone. Excessive activity in the somatic efferents innervating the striated muscle of the external urethral sphincter (EUS) results in contraction of the sphincter. In another embodiment of the present invention, the described spinal stimulations which increase parasympathetic outflow to the bladder are combined with electrical inhibition of the pudendal nerve that innervates the EUS using implanted electrodes, FIG. 13 , with cathodal tsDCS applied at S2-S4. This combination results in contraction of the bladder detrusor, relaxation of the sphincter vesicae, and relaxation of the EUS, thereby further treating a condition of urinary retention. In further practice of the invention, these polarities (i.e., the anodal and cathodal assignments,) are reversed for treatment of conditions of urinary incontinence and the pudendal nerve innervating the EUS is electrically stimulated using implanted electrodes. Stimulation of the sensory afferents that fire in response to urine flow through urethra results in increased strength of bladder contraction and voiding efficiency. In another embodiment of the present invention, the described spinal stimulations which increase parasympathetic outflow to the bladder are combined with electrical stimulation of the pudendal nerve using implanted electrodes, FIG. 14 , with cathodal tsDCS applied at S2-S4. In a further embodiment, cathodal spinal stimulations increase sympathetic outflow to the bladder as combined with implanted microstimulator electrodes which stimulate the pudendal nerve, FIG. 15 , with cathodal spinal stimulations at T11-L2. Increased sympathetic tone results in relaxation of the bladder detrusor and contraction of the sphincter vesicae, while stimulation of the pudendal nerve results in contraction of the external urethral sphincter, thereby further treating a condition of urinary incontinence. In further practice of the invention, these polarities (i.e., the anodal and cathodal assignments,) are reversed for treatment of conditions of urinary retention and the pudendal nerve innervating the EUS is electrically inhibited using implanted electrodes. In such embodiments, the implanted microstimulator communicates with and is controlled by a tsDCS controller that provides spinal stimulations, that can be either a wearable device, or an implanted subcutaneous device. In a further embodiment, the cathodal spinal stimulations which increase sympathetic outflow to the bladder are combined with implanted electrodes which are applied to inhibit the parasympathetic preganglionic fibers of the pelvic splanchnic nerves, FIG. 16 , with cathodal spinal stimulations at T11-L2. Increased sympathetic tone results in relaxation of the bladder detrusor and contraction of the sphincter vesicae, while inhibition of the pelvic splanchnic nerves results in further relaxation of the bladder detrusor, thereby further treating a condition of urinary incontinence. In further practice of the invention, these polarities (i.e., the anodal and cathodal assignments,) are reversed for treatment of conditions of urinary retention. In a fully implantable subcutaneous double-stimulation embodiment of the invention, two circuits are supplied by four leads emanating from controller device. This embodiment delivers two simultaneous stimulations, a spinal stimulation and a peripheral stimulation applied to a nerve of the target effector organ. There are two separate stimulation current paths with these two circuits. But these circuits also interact to form a resulting stimulation current path between the anode of one circuit (i.e., active electrode at the spine of the spinal circuit) and the active cathode at the nerve of the neural circuit. This provides a polarization flow down along the neural path between the two active electrodes. In this double stimulation embodiment, the first current path is a tsDCS spinal circuit defined by placing an active spinal electrode at the spinal location of interest and a return electrode at a non-spinal location, with the applied current running across the tissues between these electrodes. The second current path is a peripheral circuit defined by placing active cathode and anode electrodes on or in proximity to a nerve of the target effector organ. In a further embodiment, a two-part semi-implantable stimulation device is provided. A first component is a wearable mono-stimulation device which includes an active spinal electrode applied by skin attachment and a return electrode. The second component is an implanted peripheral stimulator or microstimulator with two leads that has its own power supply. Both leads of the second component are in contact with or in close proximity to a nerve of a target effector organ. The wearable component can communicate wirelessly with the implanted component. When the wearable component turns on and issues its stimulation signal, the implanted stimulator responds and issues a stimulation signal to the target effector organ, which can be either excitatory or inhibitory. In a further embodiment of a wearable double-stimulation device, two circuits are supplied by four leads emanating from controller device. This embodiment delivers two simultaneous stimulations. The first stimulation is a spinal stimulation delivered via active spinal electrode applied by skin attachment and a return electrode. The second stimulation modulates central autonomic outflow, and can be either trans-cranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) or trans-cutaneous vagal nerve stimulation (tVNS). There are two separate stimulation current paths with these two circuits that are electrically isolated from each other. Triple-Stimulation Embodiments We also herein describe strategies that combine spinal stimulation, peripheral stimulation, and stimulation of central autonomic outflow to modulate autonomic function. The previously disclosed strategies based on mono-stimulation and double-stimulation might be sufficient for certain applications. In other applications, it will be necessary or beneficial to directly modulate central autonomic outflow before spinal level modulation via tsDCS and potential peripheral stimulation. Non-invasive methods for modulating central autonomic outflow are combined with other sites of stimulation using a variety of approaches: Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)—A number of different tDCS montages have been utilized to modulate the autonomic nervous system. Anodal tDCS over the primary motor cortex, with cathode return electrode over the contralateral supraorbital area has been reported to increase sympathetic activity (Clancy et al., Brain Stim., 2014, 7:97-104). Anodal stimulation of the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) has been reported to increase parasympathetic activity, while anodal stimulation of the right DLPFC has been reported to increase sympathetic activity (Brunoni et al., Psychoneuroendocrinology, 2012). Other work has reported that anodal tDCS over the temporal lobe results in increased parasympathetic activity. As such, non-invasive tDCS can be coupled with tsDCS at the relevant spinal level to modulate autonomic outflow. In one embodiment, sympathetic outflow from the brain is increased by anodal tDCS over the primary motor cortex and further increased at the spinal level of the targeted effector organ by cathodal tsDCS at the high thoracic level. This embodiment is shown in FIG. 17 , where cortical electrodes are shown combined with a wearable tsDCS controller. In another embodiment, sympathetic outflow from the brain is increased by anodal tDCS of the right DLPFC and further increased at the spinal level of the targeted effector organ by cathodal tsDCS. In yet another embodiment, parasympathetic outflow from the brain is increased by anodal tDCS over the temporal lobe and further increased at either the S2-S4 spinal level of the targeted effector organ or the brainstem level of DMV by cathodal tsDCS. Transcutaneous vagal nerve stimulation (tVNS)—The auricular branch of the vagus nerve supplies sensation to the posterior parts of the ear pinna, external auditory canal and tympanic membrane, FIG. 18A . Nerve cell bodies are located in the superior (jugular) ganglion of the vagus, and they project to the nucleus of the tractus solitarius (NTS) in the brainstem. Electrical stimulation of the ear concha (tVNS) produces activation of NTS and its known projections (parabrachial nucleus, nucleus accumbens, hypothalamus, amygdala). The dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus (DMV) in the brainstem contains the cell bodies of the parasympathetic neurons that project down the vagus nerve as preganglionic efferent fibers. Direct connections between the NTS and DMV have been described, and it is established that NTS sends projections to DMV. Stimulation of the external ear tragus using electrical stimulation (10-50 mA, 30 Hz pulse frequency, 200 microsecond pulse width) results in decreased sympathetic discharge (Clancy et al., Brain Stim., 2014, 7:817-877. In a practice of the present invention, we utilize this non-invasive methodology for decreasing sympathetic tone and coupling it with anodal tsDCS at the spinal level. Sympathetic outflow from the brain is reduced by tVNS and further reduced at the spinal level of the targeted effector organ by applied anodal tsDCS. This embodiment is shown in FIG. 18B , where auricular stimulation is combined with a wearable tsDCS controller. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)—TMS, both repetitive and single pulse, has been utilized in studies that modulate the autonomic nervous system. Targeted sites include left temporo-parietal cortex (Lai et al., 2010) and primary motor cortex M1 (Vernieri et al., 2009 and Yozbatiran et al., 2009). TMS was found to exert changes on autonomic control in these, and other studies. Accordingly, in a further embodiment we combine TMS with tsDCS at the spinal level. While FIG. 17 is illustrated showing cortical stimulation via tDCS, it will be appreciated that TMS is an alternative source of cortical stimulation in practices of the present invention. Cold/hot pressors—It is known that immersion of a subject's hand in a bucket of ice water results in increased heart rate and pulse pressure, thought to be due to increased sympathetic tone activated by sensory afferents. As such, in practices of the invention, we utilize this approach as a methodology to initiate modulation of autonomic outflow. As a bucket of ice water is impractical, we utilize alternative methodologies to achieve this effect. More specifically, in one embodiment, this effect is delivered as a cooling/heating pad that is affixed to a thermosensitive area of skin such as the upper back, or in another embodiment is presented as a vest or glove with cooling/heating elements. This device is switched to either “cold stimulation” or “hot stimulation” to provide that sensation to the skin. To increase sympathetic tone to a specific effector organ, we combine activation of “cold stimulation” to the subject's skin with cathodal tsDCS at the relevant spinal level. To increase parasympathetic tone to a specific effector organ, we combine activation of “hot stimulation” to the subject's skin with cathodal tsDCS at the S2-S4 level (or DMV brainstem level). In this way, efferent outflow through either the sympathetic or parasympathetic system is activated depending on which temperature “setting” is used, and cathodal tsDCS amplifies the signals that are going to autonomic neurons in the spinal cord. Pharmacological autonomic modulators—Certain pharmacological agents have modulatory effects on the autonomic nervous system. Sympathomimetics increase sympathetic tone, and include amphetamines and phenylephrine. Sympatholytics decrease sympathetic tone, and include prazosin and yohimbine. Parasympathomimetics increase parasympathetic tone, and include muscarine, pilocarpine and choline esters. Parasympatholytics decrease sympathetic tone, and include scopalamine and atropine. Sympathomimetics can be given in combination with parasympatholytics, and parasympathomimetics can be given in combination with sympatholytics. Depending on specific molecular characteristics, these pharmacological agents can be given orally, subcutaneously, intramuscularly, transdermally, intravenously or as depot injections. Pharmacological autonomic modulators are shown in FIG. 19 . As will be understood by a person skilled in the art, in practices of the present invention, we modulate autonomic outflow and use various strategies to monitor effect. For example, in various embodiments, we monitor readouts including heart rate, heart rate variability, microneurography recording muscle sympathetic nerve activity, blood pressure, pulse pressure, pupillary size, skin conductance, sympathetic skin response, respiratory rate, cerebral vasomotor reactivity, and body temperature, the utility of which will be understood by a person skilled in the art. In another embodiment, various of the above described approaches of modulating central autonomic outflow, is combined with spinal stimulation and is further combined with a third peripheral stimulation, delivered at the level of the nerve leading to the target effector organ, to render a useful therapeutic effect. This triple-stimulation approach is shown in FIG. 20 . In a further embodiment, a two-part semi-implantable stimulation device is provided. A first component is a wearable double-stimulation device that provides a first stimulation that is spinal stimulation, and a second stimulation that modulates central autonomic outflow. The second component is an implanted peripheral stimulator or microstimulator with two leads that has its own power supply. Both leads of the second component are in contact with or in close proximity to a nerve of a target effector organ. The wearable component can communicate wirelessly with the implanted component. When the wearable component turns on and issues its stimulation signal, the implanted stimulator responds and issues a stimulation signal to the target effector organ, which can be either excitatory or inhibitory. In various embodiments, effector organ stimulation via the nerve leading to the effector organ is achieved using energetic modalities, including electrical stimulation, magnetic stimulation, acoustic stimulation and others. In some instances, it is desirable to directly stimulate such nerve using electrical stimulation. In several embodiments of the invention, the electrical stimulation is applied at the nerve leading to smooth muscle, skeletal muscle or is at a ganglion or plexus associated with the targeted effector organ. In some embodiments applied to the autonomic system, stimulation is applied directly at the sympathetic trunk or ganglia, celiac ganglion, superior mesenteric ganglion, inferior mesenteric ganglion, or is stimulated at the post-ganglionic nerve. The parasympathetic nervous system has ganglia in close proximity to or located in the organs being innervated, and in some embodiments electrodes are placed in proximity to these parasympathetic ganglia to achieve the desired simulative effect at the target effector organ. Peripheral pulse intensity typically ranges is from 5 to 40 mA. In one triple stimulation bladder embodiment, continuous tsDCS is applied to the Onuf's nucleus in the sacral region of the spinal cord. The tsDCS is applied with typical intensity in the range from 2 to 5 mA. Peripheral pulse intensity typically ranges is from 5 to 40 mA. In one triple stimulation bladder embodiment, continuous tsDCS is applied to the Onuf's nucleus in the sacral region of the spinal cord. The tsDCS is applied with typical intensity in the range from 2 to 5 mA. In treating bladder dysfunction, the desired subthreshold spinal tsDCS and subthreshold pDCS are established in view of the level at which the effector organ responds to electrical stimulation, which serves as the threshold indicator and value of merit. In an embodiment, this level is in a range of 2-5 mA. In an illustrative embodiment, 3-4.5 mA stimulation at the spine and 2-3 mA via the cathetered active peripheral electrode or 2.5-3.5 mA when applied via abdominal surface electrode, delivers the desired subthreshold peripheral stimulation, assuming the return electrode is placed at a bony location. If the peripheral return electrode is located closely associated with the bladder, such as by placement near the bladder or into the bladder, then the threshold is detected and adjusted accordingly, typically in the same range. The embodiments described herein provide the basis to treat neurogenic bladder conditions that result in either detrusor hyperreflexia or detrusor areflexia with external devices, wearable devices, or implanted devices that deliver the described stimulations. It will be appreciated by a person skilled in the art that the findings described herein and reduced to practice for bladder modulation using a tsDCS-based approach are directly applicable to controlling kidney, lung, heart, pancreas, gastrointestinal system, stomach, anal sphincter and other autonomically controlled effector organs and may be practiced accordingly under the principals disclosed herein. It will now be appreciated that we have illustrated single, double, and triple stimulation configurations and methods in practice of embodiments of the invention. Some of the above described approaches combine a primary stimulation that modulates either the sympathetic or parasympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system, with spinal stimulation that amplifies the evoked response. A single constant tsDCS stimulation impacting the target effector organ is useful and successful in certain situations. In other situations, a double-stimulation approach is useful in situations where amplifying autonomic outflow at the spinal level is sufficient for a therapeutic effect. In other situations, primary stimulation and spinal stimulation is combined with a third stimulation, which is delivered at the level of the nerve leading to the targeted effector organ, to render a useful therapeutic effect. Effector organ stimulation via the nerve leading to the effector organ is achieved using selected energetic modalities, including electrical stimulation, magnetic stimulation, acoustic stimulation and others. In some instances, it is desirable to directly stimulate a nerve using electrical stimulation. The electrical stimulation is directed to the nerve leading to smooth muscle, skeletal muscle or is at a ganglion or plexus associated with the ANS. This is directly at the sympathetic trunk or ganglia, celiac ganglion, superior mesenteric ganglion, inferior mesenteric ganglion, or is stimulated at the post-ganglionic nerve. The parasympathetic nervous system has ganglia in close proximity to or located in the organs being innervated, and in some instances electrodes might be placed in proximity to these parasympathetic ganglia. In another embodiment, stimulation of the motor cortex using TMS or tDCS is combined with spinal stimulation using tsDCS and peripheral stimulation of a nerve leading to a striated muscle under voluntary control. As it relates to bladder dysfunction, this approach can be utilized to strengthen the external urinary sphincter (EUS), which is a striated muscle under voluntary control. In a preferred embodiment, TMS is applied to the motor cortex area associated with the EUS, cathodal tsDCS is applied at the spinal level corresponding to EUS, and peripheral stimulation is applied to the pudendal nerve leading to the EUS using an implanted electrode. In one practice of this embodiment, wherein neural dysfunction of a distal effector organ (e.g., a urinary sphincter) is to be treated, the tsDCS spinal stimulation is applied for the duration of treatment (a “session”) to the spine at the spinal location and affecting a neural pathway associated with neural control of that effector organ, and peripheral and cortical stimulations are applied to locations associated with that effector organ to improve neural communication to that target effector organ. In another embodiment, this approach is applied to the external anal sphincter. In an illustrative triple stimulation embodiment of the invention, pulsed stimulation and cortical stimulation are applied in the presence of tsDCS at the spinal location (neural spinal junction) of interest (i.e., a neural spinal junction associated with cortical control of a target peripheral organ of interest, such as the bladder). The cortical, spinal and peripheral stimulation sites are connected by a common neural pathway. As applied to the neural pathway, applied peripheral stimulation pulses from a peripheral stimulator device (e.g., device 14 ) are synchronized with applied cortical stimulation pulses from a cortical stimulator 12 or 12 A, such that the peripheral pulses precede the cortical pulse in timing, in any one cycle. In a typical stimulation cycle, at least one peripheral pulse and preferably two, applied to the peripheral location of interest, e.g., a nerve associated with bladder sphincter control, precede a following cortical pulse, wherein such cortical electrical or magnetic stimulation pulse is applied at a cortical location of interest, such as at a cortical site associated with control of the target organ, e.g., control of bladder sphincter. Latencies of induced peripheral and cortical pulses are synchronized to give maximal evoked response (MEP), wherein latencies typically range from 20 to 45 ms, and as will be appreciated by a person skilled in the art, the timing of the applied pulses is thus adjusted in view of these latencies in order to induce the cortical and pulsed neural signals on the neural pathway of interest as will flow to the spinal junction and overlap at the spinal junction together in the applied presence of the tsDCS stimulation, to achieve the desired triple stimulation. Peripheral pulse intensity typically ranges from 5 to 40 mA. In one triple stimulation bladder embodiment, the tsDCS is applied to the Onuf's nucleus in the sacral region of the spinal cord. tsDCS with typical intensity in the range from 2 to 5 mA. It will be appreciated that in practice of an embodiment of the invention, we limit maximum current output for double-stimulation with two simultaneous skin-surface DC stimulations at or about 5 mA for both spinal and peripheral stimulation locations. In one embodiment, an illustrative sponge rubber electrode has a skin contact area of 9 cm2 resulting in a maximum current density of 0.56 mA/cm2. As will be appreciated by a persons skilled in the art, this is well below the reported safe upper limit for current density of 14.29 ma/cm2 as cited in: Nitsche M A, Liebetanz D, Lang N, Tergau F, Paulus W., in Safety Criteria For Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (TDCS) In Humans. Clin Neurophysiol 2003; 114(11):2220e2.” It will be appreciated that the stimulation routines of the invention utilizing cortical stimulation, either direct electrical direct current stimulation or magnetic, as in TMS, follow the triple stimulation teachings of our co-pending U.S. application Ser. No. 14/665,220, filed Mar. 23, 2015, entitled: Method and System for Treatment of Neuromotor Dysfunction, which is a continuation of now issued U.S. Pat. No. 9,011,310, all having a common inventor and assigned to a common owner, and all incorporated herein by reference for all purposes whatsoever. It will be appreciated that the stimulation teachings of the invention utilizing double stimulation are an adaptation of the teachings of our co-pending U.S. application Ser. No. 15/046,797, filed Feb. 18, 2016, entitled: Trans-Spinal Direct Current Modulation Systems, which is a continuation of now issued U.S. Pat. No. 9,283,391, all having a common inventor and assigned to a common owner, and all incorporated herein by reference for all purposes whatsoever. In a further alternative illustrative embodiment of the invention, pulsed implanted stimulation is provided, as is known in the art for other pulsed peripheral applications. Such stimulation can be set to an output of up to 10.5V for pulses up 240 microseconds at 14 Hz, 0.3% duty cycle, providing a set voltage amplitude and adjusting the current to maintain the set amplitude, with pulsed current up to 10 mA. Voltage settings are set according to what the patient can tolerate, as will be appreciated by a person skilled in the art. The current is dependent on the electrode resistance, the electrode tissue interface (likely appreciable) and the impedance of the tissue itself, is illustratively at around 1 kohm. In further embodiments of the invention we incorporate a wearable tsDCS controller that modulates descending autonomic signals traversing the spinal cord. In some embodiments, this is combined with an implanted electrode that directly stimulates the nerve to a targeted effector organ. This stimulation is selected as either excitatory or inhibitory, and is further embodiments depends on stimulation frequency as well as pulse amplitude and duration. The implanted electrode is in wireless communication with the wearable tsDCS controller. This approach is sufficient for certain applications. In other applications, it is beneficial to directly modulate central autonomic outflow before spinal level modulation via tsDCS. In practice of the invention, we increase or decrease sympathetic outflow, or increase or decrease parasympathetic outflow, as a person skilled in the art would appreciate. Furthermore in particular embodiments we provide non-invasive and non-pharmacological modulating of autonomic outflow for control and treatment of autonomically-related functions and disorders. Computer This disclosure includes description by way of example of a device configured to execute functions (hereinafter referred to as computing device) which may be used with the presently disclosed subject matter. The description of the various components of a computing device is not intended to represent any particular architecture or manner of interconnecting the components. Other systems that have fewer or more components may also be used with the disclosed subject matter. A communication device may constitute a form of a computing device and may at least include a computing device. The computing device may include an inter-connect (e.g., bus and system core logic), which can interconnect such components of a computing device to a data processing device, such as a processor(s) or microprocessor(s), or other form of partly or completely programmable or pre-programmed device, e.g., hard wired and or application specific integrated circuit (“ASIC”) customized logic circuitry, such as a controller or microcontroller, a digital signal processor, or any other form of device that can fetch instructions, operate on pre-loaded/pre-programmed instructions, and/or followed instructions found in hardwired or customized circuitry to carry out logic operations that, together, perform steps of and whole processes and functionalities as described in the present disclosure. In this description, various functions, functionalities and/or operations may be described as being performed by or caused by software program code to simplify description. However, those skilled in the art will recognize what is meant by such expressions is that the functions result from execution of the program code/instructions by a computing device as described above, e.g., including a processor, such as a microprocessor, microcontroller, logic circuit or the like. Alternatively, or in combination, the functions and operations can be implemented using special purpose circuitry, with or without software instructions, such as using Application-Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC) or Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA), which may be programmable, partly programmable or hard wired. The application specific integrated circuit (“ASIC”) logic may be such as gate arrays or standard cells, or the like, implementing customized logic by metalization(s) interconnects of the base gate array ASIC architecture or selecting and providing metalization(s) interconnects between standard cell functional blocks included in a manufacturer's library of functional blocks, etc. Embodiments can thus be implemented using hardwired circuitry without program software code/instructions, or in combination with circuitry using programmed software code/instructions. Thus, the techniques are limited neither to any specific combination of hardware circuitry and software, nor to any particular tangible source for the instructions executed by the data processor(s) within the computing device. While some embodiments can be implemented in fully functioning computers and computer systems, various embodiments are capable of being distributed as a computing device including, e.g., a variety of forms and capable of being applied regardless of the particular type of machine or tangible computer-readable media used to actually effect the performance of the functions and operations and/or the distribution of the performance of the functions, functionalities and/or operations. The interconnect may connect the data processing device to define logic circuitry including memory. The interconnect may be internal to the data processing device, such as coupling a microprocessor to on-board cache memory or external (to the microprocessor) memory such as main memory, or a disk drive or external to the computing device, such as a remote memory, a disc farm or other mass storage device, etc. Commercially available microprocessors, one or more of which could be a computing device or part of a computing device, include a PA-RISC series microprocessor from Hewlett-Packard Company, an 80x86 or Pentium series microprocessor from Intel Corporation, a PowerPC microprocessor from IBM, a Sparc microprocessor from Sun Microsystems, Inc, or a 68xxx series microprocessor from Motorola Corporation as examples. The inter-connect in addition to interconnecting such as microprocessor(s) and memory may also interconnect such elements to a display controller and display device, and/or to other peripheral devices such as input/output (I/O) devices, e.g., through an input/output controller(s). Typical I/O devices can include a mouse, a keyboard(s), a modem(s), a network interface(s), printers, scanners, video cameras and other devices which are well known in the art. The inter-connect may include one or more buses connected to one another through various bridges, controllers and/or adapters. In one embodiment the I/O controller includes a USB (Universal Serial Bus) adapter for controlling USB peripherals, and/or an IEEE-1394 bus adapter for controlling IEEE-1394 peripherals. The memory may include any tangible computer-readable media, which may include but are not limited to recordable and non-recordable type media such as volatile and non-volatile memory devices, such as volatile RAM (Random Access Memory), typically implemented as dynamic RAM (DRAM) which requires power continually in order to refresh or maintain the data in the memory, and non-volatile RAM (Read Only Memory), and other types of non-volatile memory, such as a hard drive, flash memory, detachable memory stick, etc. Non-volatile memory typically may include a magnetic hard drive, a magnetic optical drive, or an optical drive (e.g., a DVD RAM, a CD RAM, a DVD or a CD), or ‘other type of memory system which maintains data even after power is removed from the system. For the purposes of describing and defining the present teachings, it is noted that the term “substantially” is utilized herein to represent the inherent degree of uncertainty that may be attributed to any quantitative comparison, value, measurement, or other representation. The term “substantially” is also utilized herein to represent the degree by which a quantitative representation may vary from a stated reference without resulting in a change in the basic function of the subject matter at issue. While these teachings have been described in terms of specific embodiments, it is evident in view of the foregoing description that numerous alternatives, modifications and variations will be apparent to those skilled in the art. Accordingly, these teachings are intended to encompass all such alternatives, modifications and variations which fall within the scope and spirit of the present teachings and the following claims. The foregoing description is illustrative validation of the present invention. It will now be appreciated that tsDCS stimulation according to embodiments of the invention can be practiced non-invasively or invasively using direct current stimulation to modulate spinal cord neurons. While these teachings have been described in terms of specific embodiments, it is evident in view of the foregoing description that numerous alternatives, modifications and variations will be apparent to those skilled in the art. Accordingly, these teachings are intended to encompass all such alternatives, modifications and variations which fall within the scope and spirit of the present teachings and the following claims.

Modulation of target effector organs in vertebrate beings using direct current stimulation for stimulation of spinal cord at regions of autonomic innervation, using direct current for peripheral nerve stimulation, by modulating central autonomic outflow and combinations thereof.

RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 07/890,755 filed May 28, 1992 for a Building Wall Structure And Method Of Constructing The Same, now abandoned. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to the construction of building structures such as walls, beams, girders and the like. Most modern construction systems fall into one of the following broad categories: 1. On-site or pre-manufactured wood and/or metal frame construction. 2. Masonry, joined or assembled at the building site and composed of various materials, including stone, brick, and precast concrete-masonry building units. 3. Manufactured or precast concrete panels. 4. Cast-in-situ concrete structural walls (including composite concrete and insulation material "sandwich" structures and lost-form systems). 5. Tilt-up, cast-on-site concrete walls. Such systems require mechanical or chemical (bonding) attachment of, or include as components within themselves, environmentally unsafe, if not hazardous, wind and/or vapor barriers, waterproofing and various thermal and acoustic insulation. For example, they generally rely upon pre-manufactured batts or panels for insulation and wind and weatherproofing. Such batts or panels are composed of some or all of: plastic sheeting, kraft paper, aluminum foil, fiberglass, rock wool, petroleum tars, expanded plastics and the like. They require skilled, experienced labor and specialized tools for their construction. They are therefore costly and time consuming to complete. Teaching the skills required to construct these systems is an expensive process, often requiring years of education, formal training and hands-on experience. Furthermore, many aspects of these systems are environmentally unfriendly; some are even toxic. Wood-based systems require the cutting of large tracts of forest, which is environmentally harmful, and wood is often treated with toxic chemicals to retard combustion, reduce decay or protect against insect infestations. Autoclaved concrete and metal-based systems require large quantities of thermal energy for their manufacture and fabrication. Most commonly used systems further require at least some environmentally harmful, often toxic, moisture and vapor proofing and insulation. The safety and durability of these systems are also less than ideal. Wood systems are subject to destruction or damage by insects, rot, fire and catastrophic events such as tornadoes, hurricanes and floods. Metal-based, concrete and masonry systems frequently fail at inter-component connecting points during earthquakes or because of soil movement. Complex; e.g. framed systems and most of the composite concrete sandwich, systems are subject to substantial variations in assembly quality and can lead to catastrophic failure if carelessly or incompetently assembled, and they require substantial amounts of costly repair and maintenance. In addition, all systems, except wood framing, are at best difficult to modify or add onto, requiring considerable skill and specialized tools, making building modifications and additions costly. Concrete systems must either be permanently encased in, sheathed by, or include internally, air spaces and/or one or more insulation layers such as rigid, expanded plastic foam to reduce thermal or heat transmission through them. However, air spaces and insulating materials reduce the structural integrity of the system, since they vary the compressive and shear strengths across a given section. Moreover, plastics are not porous and consequently do not naturally adhere to or bond intimately with poured concrete. As a consequence, such systems tend to delaminate unless they are permanently secured with mechanical fasteners or adhesives. An important characteristic of a construction system is the consistency and predictability of its structural qualities. Predictability results from uniformity through any given section of any structural wall constructed under prescribed conditions on any site and at any temperature or humidity. It increases as homogeneity and uniformity throughout the structure are improved. Wood- and steel-framed systems, for example, lack such predictability because their complexities create opportunities for variation in materials, construction quality and workmanship. Concrete systems lack this uniformity and predictability because the strengths, the porosity (affecting bonding within the mixture) and the shapes and sizes of the natural aggregates used in their preparation vary widely from source to source and from one location to another. Completed concrete pours which fail to meet desired strengths must be broken or sawed, removed and replaced, all of which is time consuming and costly. Further, commonly-employed construction systems eventually exhibit the self-destructive effects resulting from the varying coefficients of thermal and moisture expansion of the differing materials and components employed by them. Ideally, a building wall system should have a uniform coefficient of expansion throughout so that the entire system expands and contracts alike. Similarly, concrete and concrete/plastic sandwich systems generally cannot be produced at temperatures substantially below the freezing point of water. Very low humidity is also detrimental to the production of consistent, high-quality, cast concrete and to mortar used to bond masonry systems. Ideally, however, building wall systems should be producible regardless of the prevailing temperature or humidity. Lastly, an increasingly important characteristic of a building wall system is its ability to uniformly "store" thermal energy. This is generally referred to as the wall's thermal mass. Systems that sandwich concrete between layers of rigid plastic foam fail to provide thermal mass because the sides of the sandwich isolate the concrete core, thereby preventing acquisition of heat or cooling from the interior of the structure. Wood-framed structures have a low level of thermal storage capability and, due to their complexities, must be sealed and insulated to prevent thermal loss due to air transfer. Metal-framed structures are insulated on their interior surfaces and consequently have little or no thermal mass. Most concrete and masonry structures are also insulated on their inner surfaces, again, isolating the mass of the wall from thermal input from the interior of the structure. Relatively better thermal mass systems are cast concrete and/or fully-grouted masonry walls, insulated only on their exterior sides. Ideally, a building wall system should provide both low rates of thermal (and acoustic) transmission while simultaneously storing the heat or cooling from within the building. Preferably, such a system does not require the separate application or inclusion of insulation material. Present construction and building trades practices and literature and current information and literature available from manufacturers and suppliers recommend that fiberglass reinforced cement board panels or plates be used only as sheathing or veneer cladding for frame structures. Practice and literature also specify that, over this sheathing or veneer cladding, various finishes must be applied. In practice and literature, the fiberglass reinforced cement boards are mechanically fastened to wood or metal framing members or to sheathing, decking or sub-flooring that is attached thereto. Once so attached, in both literature and practice, the fiberglass reinforced cement boards act as underlayment for finishes such as tile, elastomeric/foam systems and specialty veneer plasters. Because fiberglass reinforced cement boards are porous and allow ready infiltration of water, they are ordinarily not painted. Since fiberglass reinforced cement boards are also relatively brittle when subjected to point loads and tend to shatter around impact or screw-type penetrations, they are customarily not veneered or further clad with wood or other types of sheet or strip siding materials. Mechanical fasteners simply do not hold well when inserted into such boards without other backing. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION To overcome these problems and enhance the overall quality of building walls or components, the present invention bonds two or more sheets of fiberglass reinforced cement board (hereinafter frequently simply "cement board") to a thick, insulating, structural core of fiber-foam cement material, which fills the pores of and thus adheres to the cement board and thereby creates a uniform building structure. The resulting structure; e.g. a wall, has greater flexural and compressive strengths and is less brittle than the fiberglass reinforced cement boards or the core alone. After pouring, the core materials fill the porous interstices characteristic of fiberglass reinforced cement board, thereby closing the surface pores, "gluing" together the small aggregates of the boards, and making the boards highly resistant to cracking and shattering around impact and screw-type penetrations. The insulating characteristics of such a wall are so high that no further insulating material is required. The outer surfaces of the wall readily accept paints and are highly resistant to air and water infiltration. As a result, they need not be veneered or clad with gypsum board or other materials to permit finishing. In combination with the underlying fiber-foam cement core the cement boards accept and hold nails and screws far better than unbonded fiberglass reinforced cement board. Being uniform, solid and without insulating voids or air spaces, a wall constructed in accordance with the invention further provides consistent, predictable structural strengths across any section. Because the cement core does not use gravel or large aggregates, the core material is easily shaped, reshaped and fabricated with simple hand tools, such as saws, knives, routers and chisels. It is thus an objective of the invention to provide a complete, simple, sturdy, building construction that allows a cost-effective, on-site fabrication of most types of buildings and of their structural and architectural components. A second objective of the invention is to facilitate construction by individuals having relatively few specialized skills or tools. A third objective is to use materials that reduce environmental impact and energy requirements during manufacturing and construction. A fourth objective is to provide building structures which are highly water-, fire- and wind-resistant, monolithic and seamless, to lessen the probability of earthquake damage due to failure of connections between building components. A fifth objective is to provide a building construction that can easily be modified with simple hand tools after completion and that readily accepts commonly-used fasteners such as nails and screws. A sixth objective is a reduction in maintenance and repair costs. A seventh objective is to provide a system that is visually, acoustically and architecturally indistinguishable from buildings made of other, common construction systems and materials. An eighth objective is to provide a building construction having a large thermal mass and low thermal and acoustic transfer characteristics without the need for separate, often incompatible, insulating materials. A ninth objective is to provide a system that is impervious to rot and to insect and vermin infestation without the need for toxic or hazardous chemicals. A tenth objective is to provide a homogeneous, uniform system with high levels of structural predictability. An eleventh objective is to provide a building construction having a constant, homogeneous and predictable coefficient of thermal expansion through any given building wall section. A twelfth objective, as an alternative to the complete on-site construction of a building in accordance with the present invention, is to facilitate the off-site manufacture or preparation of structural panels, beams and the like for later final assembly at the construction site. A thirteenth objective of the invention is to permit construction regardless of temperature or humidity. A further objective is to provide sufficient architectural and design flexibility to accommodate any architectural style or mode. Formed and cast in-situ, the invention provides a building structure whose walls are uniform and monolithic, typically comprising only two, basic elements with nearly identical physical characteristics and coefficients of expansion. Alternatively, if pre-manufactured off-site for later fabrication or assembly, the invention provides lightweight, strong building elements which can be designed and fabricated to suit virtually any architectural or structural need. Instead of relying on mechanical or adhesive attachment of reinforcing or connecting components for developing the strength of the structure, the present invention generates a bond resulting from the migration of the core materials, in their flowable state, into the open pores and interstices which are present in all commonly available cement boards. The pores in the cement boards become filled with particulates and stabilized proteins suspended in the core material, which strengthens and stiffens the boards and creates a strong, homogenous bond between them and the core. The result is a structurally uniform, composite building wall or other structure. Conventional lost-form systems do not create such a homogeneous bond between the form material and the poured core material. Thus, they must rely on mechanical fasteners to hold the components together, even after the fill material has reached maximum strength. Another feature of the invention is that it enables the construction of building walls and structures by individuals possessing relatively few building skills and without the need for specialized tools. For example, the invention provides simple "bead on a string" or "knotted string" form ties that are used to erect in-situ wall forms made from commercially available fiberglass reinforced cement boards. The simple ties hold the cement boards in place so that they constitute a form for the core materials before and during pouring. The ties are cut off just below the wall surface after the core has cured, leaving the wall ready for paint or other finish. A further feature of the invention is its environmental benevolence. The core is preferably made of a fibrous foam composed of 2.5 denier, 0.83"-cut, DuPont P732 nylon fiber (Nylon Polyamide fiber), Neopor brand stabilized hydrolyzed protein as a foaming agent, water, and an appropriate mixture of cement and/or smoke stack fly-ash, clay and/or fine sand. The precise formulation of the mix depends upon the strength required to withstand the design loads. The nylon material in the core material mix in the form of short fibers is composed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen and poses no known physical, health or environmental hazard, even during decomposition. The other materials used in the core mix are naturally occurring, non-toxic and harmless. Although the composition of fiberglass reinforced cement boards varies to some extent from manufacturer to manufacturer, they too are essentially environmentally benign. The plastic ties and spacers used for the cast-in-situ applications are also made of nylon or, as an alternative to adapt the invention to readily available materials in developing countries, for example, the ties can be made of string employing spacers made of wood, reed, bamboo or similar naturally available materials. Walls and structures made in accordance with the present invention are extremely tough and durable. They will not burn at normal combustion temperatures. They are also highly resistant to air and water infiltration since their pores are closed, offering no migration pathways. In typical, above-grade applications, they do not normally require waterproofing. In cast-in-situ applications, all the walls of a building made in accordance with the invention are uniform and seamless. Even without being fixed to a foundation footing, such a building wall, essentially a single, tough, solid block of a cement board sheath-foamed cement core, supplies enough inertia to resist movement caused by earth shifting, high winds and moderate seismic events. Properly fixed to a suitable foundation, it is effectively immobile, even in strong earthquakes. The density and texture of a wall or structure made in accordance with the invention closely resemble those of solid wood. Except for unusually high loading, the walls do not require steel rod or mesh reinforcements, nor do they require special tie downs, clips or clamps for positioning. They can, as a result, be fabricated or modified with basic hand tools--saws, hammers, chisels, and the like--making it easy to change or enlarge the structure after completion. Further, conventional building systems are easily joined to walls and structures made according to the invention and vice versa, and they are readily patched and repaired without special tools, skills or equipment. The walls and structures of the present invention accept common fasteners, such as nails and screws, for attaching finishes, moldings, shelving, pictures and decorations. Walls and structures made according to the invention are durable and have a longevity equivalent to that of cast-in-situ concrete, but are less subject to cracking than concrete. It is anticipated that in normal service, walls and other structures made according to the invention will have a life span of at least one hundred years. Because they can be finished with common materials, buildings made according to the invention need not be visually or otherwise distinguishable from buildings constructed using conventional construction systems, including wood framing. When struck, the walls produce a sound much like that of a wood-framed wall. The low rate of thermal transmission makes the walls feel warm in cold climates and cool in warm climates, much like a heavily insulated wood-framed wall. When cured, the fiber-foam cement materials of the core of a wall, beam, girder, panel or other structure form a rigid, lightweight closed cell foam-cement composite made of fibrous and particulate materials encasing but not penetrating air-filled voids generated by the foam component of the core. The voids in the core inhibit thermal and acoustical energy transmissions. The fiber/particulate lattice surrounding them stores thermal (heat) energy. The result is a structure that has excellent insulating and thermal mass characteristics. The materials of walls and structures made in accordance with the invention are impervious to rot, insect predation and mildew without requiring treatment with or the inclusion of toxic chemicals. The present invention further provides a high degree of predictability. The walls are made of stable, small-particle-sized, earth-based materials, cements, clays or fly ashes and stabilized, hydrolyzed, protein-based foam. The resulting uniformity and consistency of the coefficient of thermal expansion throughout a structural system increases its long-term durability. They are therefore less likely to crack or break apart than complex systems employing materials and components with differing rates of thermal expansions and contractions because they expand and contract uniformly. Not only can the present invention be used to produce a monolithic, cast-in-situ structure, but it can also be crafted in off-site settings. This permits the custom fabrication or even the manufacture of prefabricated structural shapes, panels, beams and girders for incorporation into other building systems or for assembly into structures fabricated entirely in accordance with the present invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a schematic plan view of a building structure constructed in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 2 illustrates the manner in which the fiberglass reinforced cement boards can be temporarily tied together and braced for alignment and support prior to and during the pouring of the fiber-foam cement core; FIG. 3 is a section through a finished first-story wall constructed according to the present invention and shows a concrete foundation footing; FIG. 4 is a section through a first-story building wall constructed according to the invention and before removal of visible parts of form ties and temporary braces which stabilize the system prior to and during the placement of the core materials; FIG. 5 is a fragmentary section illustrating the connection between exterior first-story and second-story walls and also illustrates the attachment of a ledger board or rim joist to the inner side of such a wall; FIG. 6 is a fragmentary section similar to FIG. 5 but through interior first-story and second-story walls and illustrates a ledger board or rim joist on both sides of a wall; FIG. 7 is an enlarged view of the area encircled by line "IV" in FIG. 5; FIG. 8 is an enlarged view of the area encircled by line "V" in FIG. 6; FIGS. 9A-C are front, side and top elevational views of a plastic saddle plate shown in FIGS. 7 and 8; FIGS. 10A-C are views similar to FIGS. 9A-C showing a saddle plate constructed of wood; FIG. 11 is an enlarged view of the area encircled by line "II" in FIG. 4; FIG. 12 is an enlarged view of the area encircled by line "VI" in FIG. 11; FIG. 13 is an enlarged view in section of a wall board tie assembly shown installed in FIGS. 11 and 12; FIG. 14 is an end view of the slotted, plastic spacer shown in FIG. 13; FIGS. 15A-C are front, side elevational and plan views of the slotted, plastic tie plates shown in FIG. 13; FIG. 16 is a sectional view similar to FIG. 13 of a tie assembly fabricated from knotted hemp twine, slotted bamboo or tough reed and wood; FIG. 17 is an end view of the slotted, bamboo or reed spacer shown in FIG. 16; FIGS. 18A-C are front, side elevational and plan views of the slotted, wooden tie plate shown in FIG. 16; FIG. 19 illustrates the hole patterns in two differently sized, side-by-side fiberglass reinforced cement boards for receiving tie assemblies during the erection of the boards; FIG. 20 shows a stack of twelve cement boards ready for shipment and storage; FIG. 21 is a cross-sectional elevation view illustrating the first step in the process of inserting the ties through the holes in a pair of fiberglass reinforced cement boards shown paired and standing upright on the ground, with their short sides vertically oriented; FIG. 22 is a sectional elevation view of the second step in the wall erection process with the panels moved atop a typical, continuous slotted foundation footing with the same fiberglass reinforced cement board panels illustrated in FIG. 21, now rotated 90° so that their long sides are vertical; FIG. 23 is a sectional elevation of the wall-forming fiberglass reinforced cement boards with all ties and optional second-story and bond-beam and truss connecting hardware in place, but without side or corner bracing, the entire assembly being inserted into the continuous slot in the foundation footing and ready to accept placement of the fiber-foam cement core materials; FIG. 24 is a plan view of erected sets of fiberglass reinforced cement boards butted together, appropriately braced and ready for pouring the fiber-foam cement core materials; FIG. 25 is an enlarged plan view of the area encircled by line "VII" in FIG. 24; FIG. 26 is an enlarged plan view of the area encircled by line "VIII" in FIG. 25; FIG. 27 is an enlarged, fragmentary section of the connection between lower and upper walls constructed in accordance with the invention and shows the manner in which the connection is stiffened with vertical steel dowels; FIG. 28 is an enlarged, fragmentary view, in section, of the continuously slotted concrete footing encircled by line "III" in FIG. 4 and shows how the base of the entire wall seats into the slot; FIG. 29 is similar to FIG. 28 and shows the manner in which the wall can be seated and anchored in a trench formed in compact earth; FIG. 30 is a front elevational view of an alternative manner of creating wall penetrations for doors, windows and other openings prior to the placement of fiber-foam cement core materials; FIG. 31 is an enlarged sectional view of the area encircled by line "I" in FIG. 3; FIG. 32 illustrates in section a laminated beam or girder constructed in accordance with the invention; FIG. 33 depicts an enlarged microscopic cross-sectional view of the fiber-foam cement core and how the materials thereof interact to create a matrix combining characteristics of solids and foams into one uniform, homogeneously bonded, solid structural material; and FIG. 34 schematically illustrates the process which causes the proteinaceous liquids and the finest particulates of the fiber-foam cement core materials to migrate into the voids and interstices of the fiberglass reinforced cement board, creating a homogeneously bonded, monolithic structure with greater shear and compressive strengths than those of the component materials individually. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Referring to FIGS. 1 and 2, a building structure 2 has multiple exterior and interior walls 4, 6, which can be created by one or two workmen without special tools or skills by erecting panels of fiberglass reinforced cement boards 8 that become a permanent form into which fibrous, foam cement fill is poured to form a core 10. The lightweight cement boards require no heavy lifting equipment such as cranes or hoists to set them in place. The lower ends of cement boards 8 are inside a continuous slot or channel 12 cast into foundation footings, foundation slabs or stem walls, or dug or otherwise formed into compact earth. FIGS. 1 and 2 illustrate typical knee bracing 14 for support of the wall boards until after the core has been poured and cured. FIG. 1 shows several types of temporary bracing. Uprights 27 and 31 are spaced as required by the architecture of the structure. Generally the spacing is not less than four feet on center. In addition, an upright is placed at all panel-to-panel joints and at all inside and outside corners. The uprights are drilled at regular intervals to accept tie assemblies 3, which are more fully discussed below. By placing the uprights over vertical panel joints, the need for special leakage prevention devices, caulking, sealing or closures where forms abut one another is eliminated. The knee braces 14 support and lock the uprights in place, and when made of wood, they may be nailed, screwed or hinged to the uprights. The bottom ends of the knee braces are held in place and secured in any convenient manner such as with concrete form pins 29 driven into the earth. Alternatively, the knee braces may be nailed, screwed or otherwise held to wooden or concrete floors or slabs with commercially available "kickers" or even with hinges (not shown). Once the fiber-foam cement core material has cured, the bracing is removed and the structural walls are ready for finishing. FIG. 2 shows a transverse section through a completed, single-story wall 1 constructed according to the invention and made of two fiberglass reinforced cement boards 8 permanently bonded to a core 10. The boards are initially held together with wall tie assemblies 3 which work in concert with and complement the knee bracing. After the core has cured, the ties are clipped off below the wall surface, plastered over and the wall is ready to be primed for paint or other finish. The wall is permanently located in continuous channel 12 of a foundation and is preferably additionally secured to the foundation with vertical reinforcing rods 16 (shown in FIG. 3), typically spaced not less than sixteen inches on center. During pouring of the core, the hydrostatic pressure of the uncured fiber-foam cement materials biases the cement boards against the sides of the slot 12, thereby preventing leakage and firmly positioning the foot of the wall. The heretofore common need for a leakage prevention sealing band or the like is thereby eliminated. A completed wall 18 constructed in accordance with the present invention is shown in FIG. 4, where tie assemblies 3 are shown before their protruding ends are cut off. Referring to FIGS. 5-10C, to attach floors to the walls, the present invention positions horizontal ledger boards or rim joists 20 around the peripheries of interior, load-bearing walls. For first floors, this will usually occur about two feet above grade level. For higher floors, ledger boards are attached at floor-to-floor intersections, generally the weakest points of structural walls. FIG. 5 shows the means by which this is accomplished on an exterior wall 4, using hardware placed between the fiberglass reinforced cement board before the wall is filled. For upper stories, a continuous slot 22 is cast into the top of each wall, except for the highest. This slot functions analogous to the continuous channel (not shown in FIGS. 5-10C) at the foot of the first-story wall. To provide added security for the story-to-story wall connection, eight-foot-long steel reinforcing rods 24, typically sixteen inches on center, are thrust four feet, downward, into the mass of the fiber-foam cement fill of the lower wall before it has cured, to form vertical dowels to securely connect the upper and lower walls. Floors between interior building walls 6, shown in FIG. 6, require horizontal ledgers or rim joists 20 which are placed on both sides of the wall. As is best seen in FIG. 7 close to the lower end, a tie assembly 3 is placed immediately above and below the connection or joinder line 23 between the upper and lower walls. The vertical dowels 24 stabilize the connection. Longitudinal reinforcing rods 26, one close to the top of the lower wall, just below the continuous slot 22, and another close to the lower end of the upper wall just above the slot, reinforce and form a continuous bond beam or seismic ring. The rods 26 preferably extend over the full length of the opposing ends of the upper and lower walls and are tied together with steel tie wire with minimum overlaps of twenty-four inches and tie lengths of not less than twelve inches. Plastic connecting saddle plates 30 are secured to the fiberglass reinforced cement board forms of the lower walls with rust-proofed, self-threading screws (not shown) having flattened, bugle-type heads, not less than 3/8" in diameter, and adapted for use on fiberglass reinforced cement boards for attachment to wood or metal framing. The saddle plates include holes 28 through which the longitudinal rods 26 are inserted. After all saddle plates 30 have been placed, holes are drilled through the faces of the cement boards to accommodate the threaded bolts 32 which extend through and project from corresponding transverse holes 34 (see FIG. 9C) in the saddle plates. The threaded bolts 32 protrude outward from the wall a distance equivalent to the combined thickness of the hex nut 36, flat washer 38, the ledger or rim joist 20, and any optional lock washer (not illustrated) which might be used. To minimize thermal transfer through the system, the inner end of threaded bolts 32 should be as far from the outer wall skin as possible. The saddle plate 30 includes two rectangular openings 40 which, after pouring, are completely filled with core materials to provide a good bond of the saddle plate to the wall system. Saddle plates 30 can be fabricated of wood as shown in FIG. 10. To prevent wood cracking or splitting and to provide sufficient strength, the two rectangular openings 40 (shown in FIGS. 9A-C) are replaced by a single, circular bore 42 as is shown in FIGS. 10A-C. FIG. 8 illustrates a connection between upper and lower sections 44, 46 of an interior wall 6. A ledger or rim joist 20 is positioned on both sides of the completed wall. In this instance a threaded steel bolt 48 extends completely through the wall, permitting the attachment of a second hex nut 32, a second flat washer 38, and a second ledger or rim joist 20. The bond-beam reinforcement rods 26 are as shown in FIG. 7, as are the saddle plates 30 and the cutouts 40 filled with core mix after pouring. Minimizing thermal transfer across the building walls is an important feature of the present invention. For this reason, the tie and positioning components for the wall system are made of materials which do not readily store or transmit thermal energy. Thus, the saddle plate 30 shown in FIGS. 9A-C is fabricated from plastic, and the one shown in FIGS. 10 is made of wood. Both materials have a low rate of thermal transfer. Before the fiber-foam cement core materials can be poured, the cement boards 8 must be assembled and braced in their proper positions. Wall penetrations for windows, doors and the like can be cut out of the boards prior to the fill or they can be cut after the fill has cured. It is presently preferred to cut them out of the wall after the core materials have been placed and cured. Since the wall will readily accept nails and screw-type fasteners after the core has cured, door and window frames and casings can be attached directly into the rough openings so created. Alternatively, and as shown in FIG. 30, rough door and window openings 50, 52 are cut in the fiberglass reinforced cement board panels 8 after their erection. This can be done with a scoring knife. The openings are then "box-framed" with solid wood or metal framing materials 54 along their inside edges, as shown by the broken lines in FIG. 30. The framing materials are placed so that they are completely inside cement boards 8 with their outer edges flush with the edges of the opening. If headers (not separately shown) for doors and windows are required, they are secured in place above the openings before placement of the box framing. The box frames (and headers, if used) are secured to the cement boards with screws (not shown) adapted for attaching cement boards to framing. The screws should be specially treated to prevent rusting, are at least 11/4" in length, have flattened, bugle-type heads no less than 3/8" in diameter, should be spaced no less than sixteen inches, on center, and the heads should be flush with or recessed slightly below the surface of the boards. Additional strength can be provided by treating the edges of the openings with metal or plastic drywall corner bead. Inside and outside corners are preferably also fitted with metal or plastic drywall corner bead before the temporary bracing is applied. Referring momentarily to FIG. 11, tie assemblies 3 hold together the cement boards 8 until core 10 has cured and has become intimately bonded to the boards. Referring now to FIGS. 12-18C, tie assembly 3 comprises a plastic "bead-on-a-string" tie 56, a slotted or trough-shaped spacer 58 placed between cement boards 8, and a tie plate 60 placed flush against the outer surfaces of the boards. The cement boards are appropriately drilled so that the ties 56 can extend through the boards. After pouring, the ties 56 and spacers 60 of tie assemblies 3 are embedded in the cured core materials. All components of tie assemblies 3; that is, tie 56, spacers 58 and tie plates 60, are constructed of plastic in a presently preferred embodiment. Plastic is relatively inexpensive, environmentally benign, and can be readily shaped into the required forms. Since the tie 56 and spacer 58 remain in the finished wall, they have the earlier mentioned desired low thermal heat transfer characteristics. Further, as is clearly illustrated in FIGS. 15A-C, tie plate 60 includes a slot 61 which is tapered in the longitudinal direction of the slot to permit the tightening of tie 56 by pushing it along the cement board until the tie becomes taut to firmly bias the two cement boards 8 against the ends of spacer 58. In remote locations it might be desirable to make the components of tie assembly 3 of inexpensive, readily available natural materials, such as wood, knotted twine, bamboo or a length of tough reed, to name a few. Such a system is shown in FIG. 16, which corresponds closely to FIG. 13. In this embodiment, a tie 62 is made of a length of twine, carefully knotted so that the distance between knots 64 equals the thickness of the wall plus the thickness of the wedge-shaped, slotted, wood tie plates 66. A slotted spacer 68 is fabricated from a length of bamboo or reed which equals the thickness of the desired wall, less the sum of the thicknesses of the two fiberglass reinforced cement boards. The slotted tie plates 66 are made of wood. It is wedge shaped and includes a slot 61 like tie plate 60 shown in FIGS. 15A-C. Referring to FIGS. 19 and 20, the construction of an exterior or interior wall 4, 6 in accordance with the present invention begins with the location and drilling of holes 70 through cement boards 8. At present, two popular sizes (4×8 and 3×8 feet) of exterior rated, fiberglass reinforced cement boards are commercially available (FIG. 19). The boards are usually shipped in stacks, called "units", of twelve or twenty-four panels each, laid flat on supports 71. FIG. 20 shows a unit of twelve panels. While so stacked, the desired locations where tie assemblies are to be placed are marked and holes 70 are then drilled through the entire unit. Although the hole patterns may be varied, they should typically be spaced no less than twelve inches on center. For repetitive or high-volume situations, the holes may be drilled with a single pass under a multiple-bit drill (not shown) with appropriately preset drills. Once holes 70 are drilled, boards 8 are preferably sealed by applying a single, rolled-on coat of thin, latex-based drywall sealer. Some cement boards 8 are smoother on one surface than on the other. In such instances, the sealer should be applied to the smoother surface. Sealing the boards in this manner fills the pores most proximate to what eventually will become the outer surface of the wall. Later, the poured fiber-foam cement core fill penetrates the inside surfaces (facing core 10) of the boards. Particulate and proteinaceous materials from the uncured (flowable) core fill materials migrate into the cement boards. We have observed that this migration of fill materials into the boards is enhanced when the outer surfaces of the boards were previously sealed. At the same time, the reduction in the porosity of the outer boards surfaces prevents a too rapid migration of the fill materials which, if it occurred, could cause a partial collapse of the foam cell structures of the poured, still uncured core fill. Referring to FIGS. 21-23, after the sealer has dried, cement boards 8 are paired, back to back, with their sealed surfaces on the outside, and tie holes 70 are aligned. Ties 56 (or 62) are inserted through the now-aligned holes 70 in only the upper half of the board. This is preferably done with the long sides of the cement boards horizontal on floor 72 and their short sides vertical. Next, the cement boards 8 are rotated 90° so that their long sides are vertical as seen in FIG. 22 and placed atop the footing parallel to flow channel 12. The boards are separated slightly and set into the channel over the upwardly protruding reinforcing rods 16 so that they are located in the cavity between the boards. Ties 56 are then inserted through the remaining holes 70 in the lower portions of the boards and slotted spacers 58 are placed over these ties. Slotted tie plates 60 on the outer sides of the panels are pushed over the ties until they are taut, and the entire assembly is moved into its final position so that the vertical edges of the boards are slightly spaced from the edges of adjacent, previously set boards or wall sections to form a gap between them. FIG. 23 shows the fully assembled boards 8, ready to be filled with the fiber-foam cement core materials. If one or more additional stories are to be placed over the first, the saddle plates 30 are screwed into position at the top of the assembly. If a single story is to be poured, the saddle plate is still positioned at the top of the boards as shown. The exposed top of the saddle is then used to form an anchor for the later attachment of structural roof system components (not shown). When saddle plates are used, one or both of the horizontal reinforcing rods 26 (best seen in FIGS. 7 and 8) are placed at this time. The broken lines at the top of FIG. 23 show where cement boards may later be placed to form the walls for the upper stories. Referring to FIG. 24, temporary bracing is then placed at all panel-to-panel joints and in all corners, inside and outside. This includes vertical bracing 74, knee-bracing 76 and appropriately anchored (e.g. driven into the ground) rods or form pins 78. Referring to FIGS. 25 and 26, the vertical bracing 74 includes battens supported by knee bracing 76 and drilled to accept tie assemblies 3. Tie assembly holes drilled through the vertical battens are preferably spaced (vertically) at the same intervals as the tie holes 70 through the fiberglass reinforced cement boards 8. FIG. 26 illustrates the manner in which the vertical battens close and seal the panel-to-panel joints to prevent leakage of the uncured core fill. When the core fill is poured, the narrow space 80 between the panels will be filled by it, which bonds the edges of adjoining cement boards together. After removal of the ties and battens, a smooth surface remains, thereby reducing the need for joint treatment, patching and filling. FIG. 26 illustrates the manner in which the cement boards 8 are "squeezed" between the slotted spacers 58 and the vertical battens 74. Plastic ties 3 hold the assembly in place. The small gap 80 between the panel edges which becomes filled with materials from the fiber-foam core and bonds the panel edges together is readily seen in FIG. 26. An important aspect of the present invention is the seismically strong connection made between a given wall and the ground, foundation or wall below or above it. This is primarily accomplished by locking the wall into a continuous channel or slot. In FIG. 27, the boundary of the continuous slot 22 formed at the top of the lower wall receives, and after curing becomes bonded to, a corresponding protrusion 82 depending from the upper wall. Vertical steel rods 24 provide additional strength. FIG. 28 shows the manner in which a continuous slot 12 in a foundation footing, a foundation slab or atop a foundation stem wall anchors the wall. The vertical rods 24 are bent 90° to lock them into the footing. For stem walls topped by a continuous slot (not shown), the rod remains straight. FIG. 29 shows the manner in which a wall can be formed over a trench 84 with a series of vertical rods 24 embedded into compact earth 86. The vertical rods can be driven in place or grouted into drilled holes. In each of these embodiments, the trench 84 or continuous slots 12, 22 position the vertical wall boards 8 prior to and during the placement of the core fill material, eliminating the need for special fittings. The continuous slots or trench also prevent leakage of the fill material during the pour because the weight of and pressure generated by the material between the boards firmly presses them against the sides of the slot or trench and thereby prevents leakage. This eliminates the need for gaskets and sealants. Finally, the trench or slot acts to keep the wall from moving during strong seismic events or in high winds. After the fiber-foam cement core materials have been poured and had time to cure, the wall is ready for finishing. First, the temporary bracing is removed. Next the tie plates 60 (or 66) are removed as schematically shown in FIG. 31. A hammer is now employed to dimple the faces of the cement board 8 from where the ties 3 protrude. A single hammer blow creates a usually sufficient, slight depression 88. The ties 56 (or 62) are cut or nipped off at the deepest part of the depression, using a knife, a chisel or a pair of end cutters. Then the depression is filled flush with the wall surface, in the same manner as is done when filling screw or nail head depressions in a gypsum drywall. The filler should be of a material approved by the manufacturer of the cement board for that purpose. The wall is now ready for paint or other finish. Although ledgers or rim joist 20 have thus far been illustrated and described as being made of wood, structural members such as these can also be made in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 32 illustrates a beam 90 made in this manner. Three fiberglass reinforced cement boards 8 are bonded together by fills 92 of the same fiber-foam cement core materials used to fill wall cavities. Such beams and similar structures can be made with as many laminates as needed to create structural beams, girders and shapes having the desired strength. Additional layers of fiberglass reinforced cement boards may also be inserted into wall cavities at areas requiring increased structural strength (not shown). Care should be taken, however, to ensure that a constant distance is maintained between these additional laminates, themselves, and between them and outer wall skins so as to provide a large enough space for fill materials to enter and bond to all surfaces. The superior structural strength of walls and structures constructed in accordance with the invention results from the intimate bonding between the nylon fibers, the protein and water foam, the particulates in the designed mix, and the migration of these materials into the interstices between the aggregates and fiberglass roving of the fiberglass reinforced cement board panels. FIG. 33 is a low-magnification drawing which schematically illustrates the manner in which this occurs at the surface of the cement boards. Cells 94 are small air bubbles whose surface tension is maintained by the protein-based Neopor brand foaming agent. Surrounding cells 94 are particles of whatever materials are included in the mix. Generally, these particles are Type II Portland cement, with or without certain clays and smokestack fly ash. Clay/fly ash mixes and cement/fly ash mixes can also be used. A multiplicity of relatively short fibers 96 wrap around and embrace, rather than pierce, the cells, thereby forming a netlike lattice which significantly enhances the strength of the core. Hydrostatic pressure forces these materials against the porous faces of the cement boards and causes them to migrate into the boards. The particulate and proteinaceous materials in the core fill surround sand, expanded shale and other aggregates 98 of the cement boards and gradually fill the open pores and passages between them. FIG. 34 illustrates this process in more detail. Cement board 8 forms zones 100 and 102 exhibiting most material migration into the board and the greatest density of the core fill materials. In zone 100, the cement board is only partially penetrated by core fill materials. In zone 102, the hydrostatic pressure of the fill causes some of the air cells formed by the foam to collapse, releasing their air and permitting surrounding fill material to flow liquid and particulate materials into the pores and interstices of the cement board. As these pores and interstices begin to fill, they gradually close and fewer particulates and liquids are able to move past them. As the mix cures and dehydrates, the flow decreases and finally stops. Before complete closure of these migratory pathways, some of the fine, 2.5 denier fibers are forced part way into the cement board. As a result of this cellular collapse along the face of the cement board, the material density and the strength of the bond is highest in the zone marked 102. Zone 104 is the main body of the fiber-foam cement core 10. In this area of the core, the density is slightly lower than at the board/core interface, thereby reducing the capacity of the material to transfer thermal and acoustical energy. The arrow 106 indicates the direction of flow of the core materials into the cement board 8. The fiber-foam cement core fill materials should be properly mixed so that they have a consistency similar to that of pancake batter. It should be very fluid to permit it to readily enter into every part of the cavity formed by the spaced-apart cement boards; the material should be able to flow through it unrestricted until the fill has reached the tops of the panels. Because the fiber-foam is so highly flowable, no screeding is required at the wall tops. If continuous slots are to be formed into the wall tops, then they should be blocked before the pour commences. The fiber-foam can be pumped into the formed structure by means of a standard rotary, masonry grout pump and can be poured at the highest possible operating rates of the pumping unit. The discharge end of the pump hose should be placed at the bottom of the form and gradually raised as the level of fill materials rises during pouring. The fiber-foam cement core fill materials may be poured at any temperature below 130° and above -25° F. Fiber-foam mix designs should be laboratory tested to provide no less than thirty-five pounds per square inch of compressive strength at seven days. The following Table 1 shows a typical mix design, preferred for single-story buildings, that produces a wall core fill with the desired characteristics. TABLE 1______________________________________25 PCF MIX - 1 CU. YD.MATERIAL QUANTITY______________________________________Cement (lbs.) 505.0Water (gals.) 21.7Foam (gals.) 161.0Water in Foam (gals.) 12.4Neopor* in Foam (gals.) 0.3DuPont P732, 0.83"Nylon Fiber (lbs.) 1.0______________________________________ *Neopor is a trademark for a particularly useful foaming agent commercially available from Neopor Inc. of Vail, Colorado. The mix should be prepared according to the manufacturer's recommendations. Typically this means that the ratio of potable water to Neopor foaming agent should be about 40:1 by volume. The expansion ratio of the finished foam to the foaming agent mixture should be maintained between 13.3:1 and 15.5:1. The Neopor foam must be of uniform quality and generated according to the recommendations of the Neopor manuals and guides. Neopor is mixed with water and foamed in a conventional foam generator. The resulting foam is then mixed with the cement and the nylon fibers to prepare the core mix. Cement must be a consistent, high-quality Type II Portland cement. Mix designs should, as mentioned earlier, be laboratory tested to ascertain that seven-day compressive strengths of not less than thirty-five pounds per square inch are achieved. While a typical structural concrete wall will weigh approximately one hundred sixty-five pounds per cubic foot, a wall constructed in accordance with the invention; i.e. including a core with the above-stated core mix and cement boards on each side of the core, weighs approximately thirty-nine pounds per cubic foot. The fiber-foam cement core material is not a structural concrete, but an insulating, structural fill and, with mix designs similar to the one listed above, is generally suitable only for wall fills in accordance with the invention and not by itself. The strength of the wall can be increased; e.g. for multi-story buildings, by increasing the density of the core fill. The following Table 2 shows various core densities, in their dried, cured state, and the proportions of mix materials required to attain such densities. TABLE 2__________________________________________________________________________MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS OVEN DRY DENSITY LBS. PER CUBIC FOOTFOR ONE CUBIC YARD 25 50 60 70 80 90 100 110__________________________________________________________________________Sand, Lbs. - Note 1 0 708 940 1190 1432 1665 1910 2180Cement, Lbs. - Note 2 505 540 580 600 620 648 675 700Water in Slurry, Gals. 24 25 28 31 33 35 38 40Nylon fiber, Lbs. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1Foam, Gals. 162 127 116 101 86 71 58 44Water in Foam, Gals. 12 9.5 8.6 7.6 6.4 5.3 4.3 3.2Foaming Agent, Gals. 0.300 0.238 0.215 0.190 0.160 0.133 0.108 0.080Water/Cement Ratio 0.57 0.49 0.47 0.48 0.47 0.46 0.45 0.44Percentage of Air in Mix 80 63 57 50 42 35 29 22Total Weight, Lbs. 808 1536 1823 2109 2398 2645 2940 3241Total Volume, Cubic Feet 27.1 27.0 27.3 27.3 27.1 27.0 27.0 27.1Wet Density, 29.9 56.9 67.5 78.1 88.8 98.0 108.9 120.0Lbs./Cubic FootAir Dry Density, 25.4 52.4 62.1 72.6 83.3 93.5 103.9 114.8Lbs./Cubic FootCompressive Strength, psi - 45.6 156.0 242.0 391.0 635.0 1011.0 1593.0 2503.0Note 3__________________________________________________________________________ Note 1 Sands vary in nature substantially and should be tested for cleanliness and porosity. Washed, river sand ranging in size from standar sieve no. 200 to no. 4 in preferred with at least 70% passing through no. 30 (70% fines). Water content will vary depending upon surface area and absorbency of sand. Note 2 Type II Portland. Note 3 Approximate values.

A simple, environmentally benign building for on-site erection and fabrication is made of monolithic, architectural, structural walls, beams, girders, joists and panels of relatively high physical strength which exhibit great durability and resistance to fire, wind and seismic damage and which have highly desirable acoustic and thermal transfer characteristics. The wall is constructed by casting a core of flowable fibrous, foam-cement mix between two, thin panels of manufactured, exterior-grade fiberglass reinforced cement board. Particles and proteins from the core mix penetrate, migrate into and fill interstitial spaces in the cement board, forming a strong, continuous and homogenous bond between the fill material and the board itself. This imparts additional strength to the cement board by filling the interstitial voids, creating a solid, homogeneous wall. The wall, girder, etc. structure is fabricated at the building site to form seamless, monolithic wall units according to the lost-form system of casting by erecting, assembling and appropriately connecting the fiber cement boards. An outer cement board is used as a permanent form creating one side of the building wall. The fiber-foam-cement core supplies structural strength, insulating properties and monolithic bonding of all components. An inner, cement board creates the interior side of the wall.

[0001] This application is a Divisional of pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/280,490 filed Nov. 16, 2005, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference herein. FIELD OF THE INVENTION Background of the Invention [0002] Pneumatic tires are conventionally of an open toroidal shape defining a cavity which is substantially enclosed by the tire, and the closure of the cavity is conventionally completed by mounting the tire on an intended rigid rim. The tire conventionally has a rubber innerliner which is co-existent with and is an exposed surface of the tire cavity. Such pneumatic tire configurations are conventional as would be understood by one having skill in such art. [0003] Pneumatic tires usually rely upon air pressure to maintain their shape and associated performance during service conditions, although some pneumatic tires may be designed to hold their shape and provide representative performance, at least for limited times, even though they may have lost or are not able to maintain their internal air pressure for various reasons. For the purpose of the description of this invention, such tires are considered herein to be pneumatic tires even though they might be designed to run without an internal air pressure for limited periods of time. [0004] For various applications, it may be desirable to provide a pneumatic rubber tire with a sensing device (e.g., transducer and associated microprocessor) on its inner surface which has a capability of transmitting various data relating to the tire such as, for example, its internal air pressure and temperature relative to an external transmitting and receiving device. This device may also have the capability of electronically receiving power generated from an electromagnetic wave generating source outside the tire. [0005] Monitoring equipment is increasingly being used to measure the operating conditions under which pneumatic tires operate. Including but not limited to applications on truck, passenger and off the road (OTR) tires, the monitoring equipment allows for determination of operating tire pressure, temperature of the tire, and distance traveled by the tire, as measured by equipment measuring the number of revolutions of individual tires, among other parameters. [0006] In connection with conducting such monitoring, it becomes important for the monitoring equipment to be installed onto the tire in such a manner that measurements will continue to be obtained over time, and that the monitoring equipment doesn't shift along the mating surface of the tire during operation, or become partially or completely disengaged from that mating surface. Generally, monitoring equipment is installed along the interior surface of the tire on the innerliner. [0007] For example, it may be desirable to provide a tire with a suitable antenna as an actual part of the tire for both receiving various electromagnetic signals from an exterior source by an internal sensing device within the tire, such as a transducer, and for transmitting various electromagnetic signals from within the tire to an external receiving device. For the purposes of the description of this invention, such components which may include one or more of a transducer, associated dedicated integrated circuit microprocessor and other associated component(s), and particularly a transponder, are more simply collectively referred to herein as a microprocessor. [0008] In particular, such antenna may be provided as at least one electrically conductive element. The antenna may be connected, for example, to the microprocessor either physically or inductively, and may be incorporated into an annular rubber strip. Such an annular rubber strip will contain at least one electrically conductive element basically extending substantially or entirely throughout its length (e.g., one or more electrically conductive metal wires) for its purpose and have suitable elastomeric properties for compatibility with the inner rubber surface of the tire. [0009] It would be preferable for the antenna and microprocessor to be incorporated into the tire during the tire building process, to thus securely position the individual devices within the built tire between layers of rubber. The stresses imposed on the devices during the tire building process, however, typically require that the antenna and microprocessor, and similar sensitive devices, be installed after the tire has been fabricated and cured. [0010] During the tire fabrication process, various materials are used in fabricating the tire, such as processing oils, waxes and the like. These materials, incorporated as a part of the green tire, thereafter can interfere with the subsequent procedure of firmly adhering the antenna and microprocessor to a portion of the innerliner. The innerliner surface can be cleaned of such potentially interfering materials by various processes, but the cleaning involves additional time and cost with the prospect for varying results. [0011] Thus, there remains a continuing need to effect a more secure adhesive bond between a surface of the antenna and microprocessor on the one hand, and the innerliner surface of the tire on the other, to thereby minimize the risk of delamination during operation of the tire. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0012] The invention relates to a method of effecting an adhesive bond between the mating surfaces of an innerliner and an antenna, a microprocessor, or both, by incorporating an additive into the innerliner rubber formulation, the additive having a solubility parameter in the range of 8.5 to 10.5 cal 1/2 cm 3/2 mol −1 , the additive exhibiting a level of hygroscopicity. Thereafter, the rubber surface containing the additive is brought into contact with an adhesive, and the microprocessor, antenna, or both, is then positioned onto the adhesive. This additive, after incorporation into the innerliner, and after fabrication of a cured pneumatic tire, is present on the exposed surface of the innerliner and further exhibits moisture acquiring, or hygroscopic, properties. These hygroscopic properties tend to facilitate collection of moisture at the innerliner surface, and thereby promote the formation of an adhesive bond between the exposed surface of the innerliner and an RTV (room temperature vulcanizable) adhesive composition used to affix, for example, an antenna and microprocessor, or multiple such antennas and microprocessors, to the innerliner surface. Alternatively, the additive is incorporated into a formulation which is used to manufacture a rubber strip. This strip is then applied to an exposed, mating surface of the innerliner prior to curing. The microprocessor, antenna, or both, can then be positioned over the rubber strip, previously treated with adhesive, and then brought into mating contact with the adhesive. [0013] The hygroscopic effect of the incompletely compatible component incorporated into the innerliner rubber composition assists in improving the strength of the bond developed between the innerliner surface and the RTV adhesive composition. This hygroscopic effect observed at the exposed surface of the innerliner renders less critical a thorough cleaning of that part of the innerliner surface which is to receive the adhesive composition. Thus, silicone release agents, for example, along the exposed innerliner surface do not necessarily have to be completely removed for a strong adhesive bond to be created between the innerliner surface and a mating surface of the antenna and microprocessor following dispensing of an RTV adhesive. The adhesive having the characteristics of curing more readily in the presence of moisture, and at room temperature, can be hydroxyl terminated organosiloxane compositions of the type described in U.S. published patent application US 2004/0140030 A1, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, urethane-based with silane type end groups, and similar functioning adhesive compositions. [0014] As measured in Newtons, the degree of strength of the adhesive bond created at the surface of the innerliner incorporating the incompletely compatible component is markedly improved relative to a comparison surface which does not contain this component. [0015] Thus, an adhesive bond resistant to delamination can be implemented to secure one or more microprocessors and antennas to the innerliner layer of a pneumatic tire using room temperature vulcanizable silicone adhesives by introducing a modifying additive into the rubber formulation used in preparing the innerliner layer which makes contact with the adhesive. Moisture facilitates the vulcanization reaction of the room temperature vulcanizable (RTV) adhesive. The diffusion of moisture into the RTV adhesive controls the rate of cure, in combination with the nature of the protecting group on the adhesive. [0016] The additives which are to be incorporated into the innerliner rubber formulation are comprised of molecules which have the ability to attract and weakly bond with water molecules through hydrogen bonding or other weak chemical interactions. Another feature of these additives is the degree of solubility the additive molecules have in the rubber formulation, which can be used in preparing an innerliner. Generally, the additive molecule has a solubility characteristic relative to the innerliner rubber formulation which tends to concentrate the additive molecules on the surface of the innerliner, but not so much as to migrate sufficiently to bloom on the rubber innerliner surface. Additive bloom would create a layer on the rubber innerliner surface which would thereby prevent good adhesive formation. [0017] The solubility parameters for the additives in this invention will range from 8.5 to 10.5 cal 1/2 cm 3/2 mol −1 . Generally, tire elastomers have solubility parameters ranging from about 8.0 to 8.5 cal 1/2 cm 3/2 mol −1 . Additives with solubility parameters above 10.5 cal 1/2 cm 3/2 mol −1 will be expected to completely migrate to the rubber surface and thereby create a weak layer causing poor adhesion. Additives with solubility parameters from 8 to 8.5 cal 1/2 cm 3/2 mol −1 will remain completely soluble within the rubber matrix and will not enhance the hygroscopic characteristics of the innerliner rubber surface. Additives with solubility parameters below 8.0 will be non-polar, hydrophobic in nature and will not enhance the hygroscopic characteristics of the innerliner surface. Further parameter data on various materials can be found in the Handbook of Solubility Parameters and Other Adhesion Parameters, Allan F.M. Barton, CRC Press (2d ed., 1991). [0018] The features and objectives of the present invention will become more readily apparent from the following Detailed Description. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0019] More broadly, the invention relates to a method of effecting an adhesive bond between a rubber surface of a rubber material and an RTV adhesive, the rubber material comprising a rubber selected from the group consisting of homopolymers and copolymers of at least one of isoprene and 1,3-butadiene and copolymers of at least one of isoprene and 1,3-butadiene with styrene; isobutylene-based rubbers as copolymers of isobutylene and from about 2 to about 8 weight percent units derived from isoprene and such isobutylene-based copolymers halogenated with chlorine or bromine and mixtures thereof; and a rubber additive having a solubility parameter from 8.5 to 10.5 cal 1/2 cm 3/2 mol −1 , the additive further having hygroscopic properties. As used herein, hygroscopic is meant to encompass the ability to form chemical bonds or chemical interactions with water. A hygroscopic material readily absorbs moisture, as from the atmosphere. Good results have been obtained wherein the rubber additive is selected from the group consisting of sorbitan fatty acid esters and phenol formaldehyde resins containing hydroxyl/hydrogen groups. The rubber additive for the formulation can be incorporated into the rubber component at a concentration of from 0.5 to 6.0 phr, more particularly 1.0 to 5.0 phr and most particularly 2.0 to 4.0 phr. The formulation can be used in connection with the fabrication of an innerliner, used in turn in manufacturing a pneumatic tire. Alternatively, the additive is incorporated into a formulation which is used to manufacture a rubber strip. This strip is then applied to an exposed, mating surface of the innerliner prior to curing. The microprocessor, antenna, or both, can then be positioned over the rubber strip, previously treated with adhesive, and then brought into mating contact with the adhesive. [0020] When used in making an innerliner layer, the rubber additive incorporated into the formulation for producing the rubber material tends to concentrate at the exterior surface of the compounded, cured innerliner layer. Other processing materials which have been incorporated into the innerliner formulation or onto the innerliner surface, such as but not limited to silicone release agents, antioxidants, waxes, and processing oils, may also be present on the surface of the cured innerliner layer in varying concentrations. Under these processing conditions, it typically becomes more difficult for any antenna or microprocessor to be satisfactorily adhered to this surface of the innerliner using an adhesive, due to the presence of materials on the rubber surface which interfere with the adhesion process. The rubber additive having hygroscopic properties and incomplete solubility in the innerliner rubber formulation facilitates the curing mechanism of room temperature vulcanizable (RTV) adhesives, even in the presence of potentially interfering materials on the surface of the innerliner layer such as the above-mentioned processing aids, and the like. [0021] Room temperature vulcanizable adhesives which will generate an advantageous adhesive bond to the surface of the innerliner containing the rubber additive are selected generally from the class of siloxane adhesives, described in more detail in U.S. published patent application US 2004/0140030 A1, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Also, urethane adhesives with silane type end groups, which operate under similar conditions of room temperature vulcanization in the presence of moisture such as that provided by atmospheric humidity, can be employed with good effect. [0022] The material incorporated into the formulation used to manufacture the rubber material to which the adhesive makes contact, has a solubility parameter in the range of 8.5 to 10.5 cal 112 cm 312 mol −1 . Further, this material contains chemical groups able to attract and weakly bond with water molecules, either through hydrogen bonding or other weak chemical interaction. Such bonding or interaction capacity can be found, for example, in molecules having end groups such as —OH, —OOH, —NH, —NH2, and combinations thereof. Specific examples of operative materials are esters such as sorbitan monostearate and formaldehyde resins such as octylphenol formaldehyde resin. [0023] The following examples demonstrate the moisture-absorbing, and thereby the adhesion-facilitating function of the rubber additive described herein which has been incorporated into a rubber innerliner formulation. [0024] The formulations for evaluating the adhesion-facilitating rubber additive are set out below in Tables 1 and 2. The formulations are divided into first, non-productive mixes and second, productive mixes. All component concentrations are referenced on a weight basis to parts per hundred rubber (phr). The rubber additive evaluated in the Table 1 formulation was octylphenol formaldehyde resin, having a solubility parameter of 10.1 cal 1/2 cm 3/2 mol −1 from Lonza Inc., Allendale, N.Y. The rubber additive evaluated in the Table 2 formulation was sorbitan monostearate having a solubility parameter of 9.41 cal 1/2 cm 3/2 mol −1 from Schenectady International, Schenectady, N.Y. [0000] TABLE 1 Formula I Component Control With Additive First Mix - Non-Productive Bromobutyl Rubber1 100 100 Carbon Black2 60 60 Rosin Oil 2 2 Medium Naphthenic Process Oil3 3 3 Stearic Acid 0.5 0.5 Mixture of Alkylated Naphthenic and Aromatic 10 10 Resins Second Mix - Productive Sulfenamide and Thiuram Type Accelerator 1.5 1.5 Zinc Oxide 1 1 Magnesium Oxide 0.1 0.1 Octylphenol Formaldehyde Resin4 0 3 Sulfur 0.5 0.5 TOTAL 178.6 181.6 1Bromobutyl 2222, from ExxonMobil 2N660 3Flexon 641, from ExxonMobil 4SR1068, Schenectady International [0000] TABLE 2 Formula II Component Control With Additive First Mix - Non-Productive Natural Rubber 52.5 52.5 Cis-polybutadiene1 10 10 Emulsion SBR (23% styrene)2 37.5 37.5 Carbon Black3 62 62 Medium Naphthenic Process Oil4 8 8 Stearic Acid 1 1 Mixture of Alkylated Naphthenic and Aromatic 6 6 Resins Second Mix - Productive Sulfenamide and Thiuram Type Accelerator 1 1 Zinc Oxide 5 5 Magnesium Oxide 0.1 0.1 Sorbitan Monostearate5 0 3 Sulfur 0.5 0.5 TOTAL 183.6 186.6 1Budene 1208, from the Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company 2The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company 3N660 4Flexon 641, from ExxonMobil 5Lonzest SMS, Lonza Inc. [0025] The four rubber samples prepared according to the formulations set out above in Tables 1 and 2 were processed and cured. Adhesion testing was conducted utilizing a modified T-Peel test, ASTM D-1876. The adhesive was applied to a ½ inch rubber strip which was then applied to a second ½ inch rubber strip. The adhesive was permitted to dry for 24 hours in testing samples made from the Table 1 formulas. Adhesive drying times for samples made from the Table 2 formulas varied, and are set out for different samples in Table 4. Adhesion strength obtained with the various samples was evaluated using the T-Peel test, which was used to separate the two adhesively bonded rubber strips and analyze the force required to effect the separation. The average force in Newtons used to pull the strips apart was measured using a UTS tensile testing machine. [0026] To prepare individual rubber samples for this test, the rubber formulas from Table 1 both with and without the modifying additive were compounded, cured and then aged 24 hours in a 90% relative humidity atmosphere. Adhesive was then applied and the adhesive strength in Newtons was measured after 24 hours of adhesive drying time following bonding of the two rubber strips. Samples from the rubber formulas from Table 2 both with and without the additive were also compounded, cured and aged 24 hours in a 90% relative humidity atmosphere. Adhesive was then applied between the two rubber strips, and the adhesive strength in Newtons was measured at the adhesive drying times following bonding, as specified in Table 4. [0027] The adhesion (in Newtons) obtained utilizing an RTV silicone adhesive, Loctite 5900, Loctite Corporation, Rocky Hill, Conn., to bond two rubber strips made from the rubber formulation incorporating the octylphenol formaldehyde resin in Formula I compared to the bonded rubber strips made from the control formulation without octylphenol formaldehyde resin is shown below in Table 3. [0000] TABLE 3 Adhesion: T-Peel Test Formula I Formula I Control (Without Resin) (With Phenol Formaldehyde Resin) 33 Newtons 79 Newtons [0028] The improvements in adhesion obtained over time with Formula II containing the sorbitan monostearate additive relative to the control is shown in Table 4 below. [0000] TABLE 4 Adhesion: T-Peel Test Formula II Adhesive Formula II (With Sorbitan Drying Time Control Monostearate)  60 min. 0.69 Newtons  3.73 Newtons 240 min. 1.79 Newtons 17.86 Newtons 450 min. 1.43 Newtons 32.02 Newtons 1400 min.  1.24 Newtons 90.29 Newtons [0029] The Table 3 results demonstrate a substantial improvement in adhesion using the rubber strips containing the octylphenol formaldehyde resin relative to the control. As can be seen from the results in Table 4, the additive-containing formula retained increased moisture at the surface of the rubber, which led to both a faster increase in adhesive strength (in Newtons) as the adhesive drying times increased, as well as a higher final cured adhesion strength, indicating that both the cure rate of the adhesive and the bonding strength at the rubber substrate are enhanced by using a moisture attracting additive in the rubber compound. [0030] Thus, sensing devices such as the microprocessors and antennas described herein can be bonded using an RTV adhesive at higher adhesive strength levels onto a rubber surface, such as that of an innerliner, fabricated with one or more of the rubber additives described herein. [0031] While the present invention has been illustrated by the description of one or more embodiments thereof, and while the embodiments have been described in considerable detail, they are not intended to restrict or in any way limit the scope of the appended claims to such detail. Additional advantages and modifications will readily appear to those skilled in the art. The invention in its broader aspects is therefore not limited to the specific details, representative methods and illustrative examples shown and described. Accordingly, departures may be made from such details without departing from the scope or spirit of applicant's general inventive concept.

A method of effecting an improved adhesive bond between a rubber surface and a device adhered thereto is disclosed. In pneumatic tires, monitoring devices are more securely adhered to the innerliner of the tire utilizing a room temperature vulcanizable adhesive wherein curing is facilitated in the presence of moisture. The innerliner formulation is prepared by incorporating a material which has incomplete compatibility with the rubber of the innerliner formulation, and which has hygroscopic properties which thereby tends to attract moisture.

RELATED APPLICATION [0001] The present application is related to and claims priority from Provisional U.S. Patent Application Serial No. 60/315,703, filed Aug. 30, 2001, the contents and teachings of which are incorporated herein in their entirety. [0002] This application includes material that is subject to copyright protection. The copyright owner has no objection to the facsimile reproduction by anyone of the patent disclosure, as it appears in the Patent and Trademark Office files or records, but otherwise reserves all copyright rights whatsoever. FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0003] The present invention relates to the field of the automated generation of computer code for intelligent application programs, such as but not limited to expert systems. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0004] Intelligent systems are those systems that use complex logic to solve problems. In the following description expert systems are used as an example of intelligent systems. [0005] Expert systems are a well-known and widely implemented technology that stores and replicates the sometimes highly complex problem solving strategies of a human expert in computerized form. For an overview of the field, see Winston, P. Artificial Intelligence, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass. 1984, the teachings of which are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety. A user may use an expert system by answering questions posed by the expert system. The expert system will respond with the same answer that the expert would give for the facts entered by the user. These systems are used for a wide variety of tasks like medical diagnosis, computer diagnostics, and credit authorization. They may even be developed for specific needs, such as the real-time systems described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,144,953, to Sorrells et al. dated Nov. 7, 2000, the teachings of which are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety. [0006] Expert systems implementations are characterized by the use of an inference engine, which determines run-time execution flow. An expert system will also contain a user interface, a knowledge acquisition system, and a knowledge base containing the expert's strategies, usually expressed in IF/THEN rules. The inference engine examines the state of the consultation and the knowledge base to determine the next step to take, such as to seek an input or to test a rule. These activities are performed at run-time (i.e. during a consultation) and operate in an interpreted manner. [0007] The prior art expert system development and delivery environment generally consists of five components, as illustrated in FIG. 1. [0008] Knowledge Acquisition (KA) system 100 is used to create Knowledge Base (KB) 110 . KA system 100 may use a wide variety of KB creation techniques, such as dedicated Integrated Development Environment (IDE), computerized techniques such as but not limited to induction, or it may be as simple as a text editor. [0009] Knowledge Base 110 consists of necessary control instructions and expert knowledge, usually coded in a form of IF/THEN rules, necessary to solve a problem or set of problems. When an IF/THEN rule is tested, the values of the known facts are compared with the values in the IF portion of the rule. If all values match, the actions in the THEN portion of the rule, such as assigning a value that enables the testing of other rule clusters, are performed. Knowledge Base 110 may be arranged into rule clusters, each using a similar set of conditions to meet conclusions. There may be many levels of rule clusters, resulting in an inference hierarchy of rules with the goal at the top and the related clusters below. The rules are related, as conditions in one rule cluster often appear as conclusions in other rule clusters. Knowledge Base 110 must be in a form appropriate to the implementation platform (including the inference engine) and must meet many verification criteria to ensure accuracy. [0010] Inference Engine 120 controls execution of an expert system. Inference Engine 120 uses a variety of inference strategies (such as but not limited to breadth first search, depth first search, forward chaining, backward chaining, and hybrid chaining) to exercise such control. Depending on the state of a given consultation, Inference Engine 120 can determine the sequence of needed inputs and rule testing to solve a given problem. Inference Engine 120 is typically implemented separate from the expert system and is called at run time. A flow chart of traditional prior art Inference Engine 120 implementations is illustrated in FIG. 2. [0011] As FIG. 2 illustrates, Input/Output system 220 gathers facts, such as but not limited to user inputs, sensor inputs, or database retrievals, for Inference Engine 210 (similar to Inference Engine 120 of FIG. 1) and communicates with users. Input/Output system 220 typically asks users to input values and displays solutions. [0012] Explanation Facility 230 (also Explanation Facility 130 of FIG. 1) explains to users how the expert system reached a value or solution. Normally, this consists of listing fired rules, the facts that caused the rules to be fired, the fact source, and an explanation or solution coded by a developer or expert. [0013] Referring again to FIG. 1, Inference Engine 120 has four major tasks. Step one is to determine which rule in a given rule base, or set of rules, should be tested based on the current conclusion being sought. Step two is to determine if additional information, such as condition values, is needed to test the current rule and to obtain values for these conditions. Step three sends the condition values and the rule to a solver, which determines the truth or falsity of the rule. If the rule is true given the condition values, then the actions coded into the THEN part of the rule are taken (the rule “fires”), which usually consists of adding a new fact to memory. The fourth step is to determine if the goal of the consultation has been met. If not, the inference engine returns to step 1. If the goal has been met, the consultation is complete. [0014] The chaining strategy employed by Inference Engine 120 in traditional expert systems is the initial determinant in selecting the most desirable rule to test. Chaining strategies include forward chaining, backward chaining, hill-climbing, and “best first”, among others. The accuracy of a consultation is not affected by chaining strategy choice, but computational efficiency is. [0015] Backward chaining systems are goal driven. In such systems, Knowledge Base 110 can propose a solution (usually starting with the first rule in the rule cluster containing the goal) and Inference Engine 120 can finds facts that prove or disprove the solution(s) until a solution is found that fits the facts. These systems generally look at a rule base from the top cluster down. [0016] Forward chaining systems take existing facts and apply them to rule clusters from the bottom up, adding new facts as rules fire until a solution is reached. Forward chaining systems that are not supplied every fact are often implemented as hybrid systems, as they backward chain to get values when necessary. [0017] When an appropriate rule cluster is selected, a search strategy for that rule cluster must be determined. One important determinant is the cardinality of the conclusion. If the conclusion is “pure” multi-valued (i.e. all possible conclusions are returned), all inputs are required and all rules must be tested, and rule ordering strategies have no impact. Several other strategies may used to determine the “best” solution for a conclusion, including but limited to rule specificity and confidence factors. It may also be desirable to return all conclusions that meet other criteria. If the conclusion is single-valued, the inference engine starts with the first rule, gathering the necessary inputs and testing rules, and stops testing rules and gathering inputs as soon as one rule fires. Such situations are typically referred to as first rule satisfied (FRS) implementations. [0018] In any case but “pure” multi-valued conclusions, rule ordering is significant; for example, if the conclusion with the highest confidence factor is the most desirable conclusion, then the rules should be ordered by confidence factors in descending order. In the prior art, FRS rule clusters are typically ordered with the most specific rules first. [0019] When Inference Engine 120 determines which rule cluster to test, it will search through a rule cluster to find rules that fits the current facts. Two basic search strategies include breadth-first searches and depth-first searches. In breadth-first searches, conditions in a rule are input and the rules are tested sequentially until a rule fires. In depth-first searches, each condition is input and all rules are tested, inputting additional inputs until a rule fires. These characteristics indicate that the most desirable rules should be ordered first in a depth-first inference engine, while the most desirable conditions should be ordered first in a depth-first inference engine. These problems will be described herein from a breadth-first perspective, although one skilled in the art can easily apply the concepts to depth-first approaches. [0020] When the most desirable rule has been determined, the facts needed to test the rule are compared to the known facts and any necessary values are obtained. Necessary values may be obtained from a wide variety of sources, such as but not limited to user input, database retrieval, and sensor inputs. Inference Engine 120 uses a solver component to test the rule by comparing the values to conditions in the rule. If the values and conditions match, the rule “fires” and the conclusion (THEN) component of the rule is executed. The THEN component will usually add or change the values of a fact, although it may also take other actions such as but not limited to displaying an image, sending an email, performing a database transaction, or displaying a message to an operator or another computer. [0021] After each rule fires, Inference Engine 120 will determine if the goal of the consultation has been met. If so, the consultation is complete and the program ends. If the goal of the consultation has not been met, Inference Engine 120 reevaluates the state of the consultation and determines the next step to take. This cycle continues until the goal is met or the system determines that a solution cannot be reached from the available facts. [0022] The prior art poses many shortcomings, such as but not limited to computational efficiency, memory and machine usage, cost for purchase and support of additional software, and implementation limitations (does inference engine X support database Y?), all of which make implementing and deploying expert systems difficult and cost prohibitive, and frequently result in expert systems that do not meet users' expectations. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0023] Accordingly, the present invention is directed to automated generation of intelligent systems into procedural languages that substantially obviates one or more of the problems due to limitations and disadvantages of the related art. Briefly stated, the invention is an IDE (Integrated Development Environment) that allows an individual with typical computer skills to develop, test, and generate code for intelligent systems, such as expert systems. The present invention may be biased to achieve a “best” strategy for a wide range of “most desirable implementation characteristics,” such as but not limited to minimization of user inputs, lowest consultation cost, or highest computational efficiency. [0024] An object of the present invention is to automatically test a user's inputs to ensure their legality in a host language, such as by testing reserved words and syntax, thereby eliminating a potential error source. [0025] A further object of the present invention is to automatically test user structures for criteria such as cycles, thereby eliminating an error source. [0026] An additional object of the present invention is to increase system accuracy and efficiency by enforcing verification criteria for at least five types of rules, allowing for simplification, rule ordering, and “best answer” strategies for a rule cluster. [0027] Another object of the present invention is to further eliminate a potential error source by automatically testing rules as they are entered by a user, eliminating subsumptions and conflictions when appropriate. [0028] Still another object of the present invention is to algorithmically simplify rules by eliminating unnecessary conditions and combining appropriate ranges in numeric values and dates, thereby increasing run-time efficiency. [0029] Yet another object of the present invention is to algorithmically order each rule cluster by solution strategy, which increases both speed and/or efficiency. [0030] Additional features and advantages of the invention will be set forth in the description which follows, and in part will be apparent from the description, or may be learned by practice of the invention. The objectives and other advantages of the invention can be realized and attained by the structure particularly pointed out in the written description and claims hereof as well as the appended drawings. [0031] The current art of intelligent systems, such as expert systems, is implemented with a rule base and an inference engine. The rule base contains the problem solving strategy for solving the problem, where the inference engine is a computer program that is designed to work with the knowledge base. The inference engine loads the rule base at run-time and then uses a conflict-resolution strategy to determine which rules to test, and therefore what inputs to obtain. [0032] The present invention eliminates the need for an external inference engine by generating code that blends knowledge base rules and inference engine activities. This code may be generated into any procedural language (such as but not limited to C++ and Java). By eliminating the inference engine and generating code into a procedural language, complied expert systems can be created which replace prior art interpreted inference expert systems. The execution speed of compiled languages is substantially faster (at least 100×) than interpreted implementations, allowing (among many other things) more or larger intelligent applications to be executed using existing systems. [0033] The present invention removes the need for an inference engine by performing most of the inference engine tasks, such as conflict resolution, during development in an Integrated Development Environment (IDE). The resulting solution can be transposed into any procedural language and implemented without an inference engine. The use of procedural languages allows compiling of the solution, which dramatically increases execution speed and lowers machine resource usage. [0034] However, speed is nothing without accuracy. To facilitate building an intelligent system, the IDE of the present invention supports five classes of rules, which are preferably classified by the verification criteria met by each rule class. The IDE constrains each rule cluster for the appropriate criteria. Each class uses a specific refinement strategy, rule-ordering strategy, and solution strategy dictated by the verification criteria met by each rule class, allowing each rule class to be biased for speed or accuracy. [0035] It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory and are intended to provide further explanation of the invention as claimed. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0036] The accompanying drawings, which are included to provide a further understanding of the invention and are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate embodiments of the invention and together with the description serve to explain the principles of the invention. [0037] In the drawings: [0038] [0038]FIG. 1 is a flow diagram of a prior art expert system. [0039] [0039]FIG. 2 is a flow diagram of a prior art expert system implementation wherein the inference engine is separate from the main application program. [0040] [0040]FIG. 3 is a flow diagram of an expert system implementation according to the present invention wherein code generated by the current invention is embedded as a component of the application program. [0041] [0041]FIG. 4 is a flow diagram of steps taken in building a system according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention. [0042] [0042]FIG. 5 is a screen capture illustrating a sample Conditions Editor interface used to create condition definitions. [0043] [0043]FIG. 6 is a screen capture illustrating a sample Actions Editor interface, which is used to create action definitions. [0044] [0044]FIG. 7 is a screen capture illustrating a sample Rule Cluster Editor interface, in which defined conditions and actions can be linked to create rule clusters. [0045] [0045]FIG. 8 is a screen capture illustrating a sample Rule Browser interface. [0046] [0046]FIG. 8 a is a screen capture illustrating a sample Rule Browser interface, which has been expanded to facilitate rule creation. [0047] [0047]FIG. 9 is a screen capture illustrating a sample New Project creator interface. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT [0048] Reference will now be made in detail to the preferred embodiments of the present invention, examples of which are illustrated in the accompanying drawings. [0049] The present invention generates code that combines the actions of an Inference Engine and the knowledge of an expert, which is expressed in procedural rules in an IF/THEN format, thereby eliminating the need for an Inference Engine. Essentially, the present invention is a code optimization and generation component for an intelligent systems Integrated Development Environment (IDE). The IDE acquires knowledge from an expert, verifies it, refines it, optimizes it, and generates code, including a rule base. After a rule base has been created in the IDE, the present invention analyzes it to determine the “best” path to a solution and generates code in the desired development language. [0050] An expert systems implementation flow chart according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention is illustrated in FIG. 3. A chart showing the flow of activities in the present invention is illustrated in FIG. 4. [0051] Before using the IDE, a user should define the scope of the proposed system. This is typically accomplished by determining the output of the project, which will become the goal (top) rule cluster in a knowledge map. Next, the user determines what conditions will be needed to satisfy the goal. Finally, conditions and necessary actions are defined by determining their name, legal values, data type, and source. Each condition may get its value from a source (user, sensor, database, etc.) or from another set of rules. This completes the definition of a rule cluster. [0052] The output of this phase is a knowledge map of the proposed system, including the goal of the system at the top of the inference hierarchy and the rule clusters that provide values for conditions below them. Such a knowledge map is useful in defining the overall structure of the system. During the above-described process, the knowledge map is extended whenever a condition variable gets its value from other rules. This is accomplished by the creation of a rule cluster containing the variable as an action. When all conditions, actions, and rule clusters have been defined, the user is ready to begin using the IDE. [0053] The first entry into the IDE is the definition of the goal rule cluster. The IDE will then lead the user through the process of creating the project. As FIG. 9 illustrates, a preferred embodiment of the IDE begins system definition by obtaining the name of the system, languages supported, and other initialization data. The location of files associated with the system is dictated by the entries in Path 1 and Project Directory 1 . The system's title is entered in Expert System Title 2 , the author is entered in Author 3 , access restrictions are entered using Access 5 , and the computer programming languages supported by this project are entered in Languages supported 6 . If desired, a description may also be entered in Description box 4 . [0054] As FIG. 4 illustrates, the system definition process begins in earnest with the creation of Conditions 400 and Action Definitions 410 . A sample Conditions Editor is illustrated in FIG. 5. Each condition definition preferably contains the name 7 , description 9 , source 5 , data type 15 , cost 12 , cardinality (single or multi-valued) 16 , and values 10 associated with a condition. The description is used to reference the condition and does not require validation. Name 7 is used in the generated code, so it must be verified for compatibility in the supported languages; that is, special characters, key words, and the like must not appear in the name. Values 10 must also be legal in the supported language (or an appropriate workaround must be adopted in the code generator), distinct, and ranges such as dates or numeric values must be complete. Data types 15 are used to generate output code and assure that legal values are assigned, such as allowing only True and False values for a Boolean condition. Cost 12 is used in ordering deterministic rule clusters. Source 5 may be an input source, such as but not limited to user input, database retrievals, sensors, or even other rules. Conditions that receive one or more values from other rules automatically generate a new rule cluster containing this condition as an action. [0055] The Conditions Editor of FIG. 5 also allows a user to identify data necessary to implement each condition. For user inputs, it elicits a question 14 to be asked at run-time. Database and sensor components are preferably defined using a separate screen, and these definitions are used in the Condition Editor. [0056] The Conditions Editor of FIG. 5 is also used to create a set of values used by the condition. The Create New Value box 13 is used by the user to enter potential values. When the Add Value Button 18 is pushed, the potential value is tested for legality according to its data type. The user may override these tests by checking the Override Verification button 11 . Previously defined acceptable values are stored in the Value box 10 . They may be deleted from the Value box by selecting the value and pressing the Delete Value button 17 . [0057] Referring again to FIG. 4, system definition according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention also requires an Action Definition step (Block 410 ). In a preferred embodiment, actions are defined using an Actions Editor similar to that illustrated in FIG. 6. Each action definition should contain the action name 19 , description 20 , data type 23 , cardinality (single or multi-valued) 24 , and values 21 . As with the Conditions Editor of FIG. 5, a preferred Action Editor will verify name 19 and values 21 for legality (syntax, reserved words, etc.) in the selected language(s), complete numeric and date ranges, and the like. It should be noted that any condition that obtains a value from other rules will preferably also be defined as an action, and that these definitions must remain consistent throughout the life of the project. The Add New Value box 25 is used by the developer to create new action values. When the Add Value button 27 is pressed, the new action value is tested for legality in the host language and data type constraints. If the value is acceptable, it is placed in Values box 21 , where it can be removed by selecting the desired value and pressing the Delete Value button 25 . Common interface elements such as Cancel Button 29 , OK Button 28 , and Clear button 29 are also preferably provided for all screens. [0058] Referring again to FIG. 4, once conditions (Block 400 ) and actions (Block 410 ) are appropriately defined, the IDE then allows a user to define rule clusters (Block 420 ), preferably using a Rule Structure Editor. A preferred Rule Structure Editor interface is shown in FIG. 7. Each rule cluster is defined as containing a well-formed set of conditions 31 and actions 32 . The conditions and actions used in the current rule are chosen from lists of conditions 33 and actions 34 that have been defined, using the Add and Delete buttons 36 in the middle of the screen. Additional conditions can be defined by pressing New Condition button 38 , and new actions can be created by pressing the New Action button 39 . The level of access to the rule cluster for individual users can be controlled by pressing Access button 40 . A goal rule cluster, as defined in Goal 35 , is a top-level rule cluster, and it is preferred that only one goal rule cluster exist in a system. [0059] Rule Type 41 is also defined in this screen. The Rule Types preferably supported by the present invention include: [0060] Rule Type 1: Deterministic knowledge. This knowledge is preferably verified for completeness and consistency, and there is no uncertainty about the validity of the knowledge. These rules should be simplified by one or more action values during compilation, as there are no untrue rules and the knowledge is complete. The rules are preferably ordered by lowest cost, then highest confidence, then most general. A default, which may consist of, but is not limited to, a default value, eliciting a response from a user, ignoring and continuing, or aborting the consultation is not required with type 1 rules, but is preferably required for all other rule types. [0061] Rule Type 2: Exceptions. This knowledge contains exceptions, meaning that uncertainty, confliction, subsumption, and incompleteness may be present. These rules should not be simplified during compilation. If a user requests simplification, confidence factors are also evaluated to determine rule equalities. The rules are preferably ordered by most specific, then highest confidence, then lowest cost. [0062] Rule Type 3: Incomplete knowledge. This knowledge does not contain all possible condition value combinations, but the knowledge is consistent and no uncertainty exists. Such rules should be simplified by action values with some caution, as counterexamples may exist that are not reflected in the system. Such rules should preferably be ordered by lowest cost, then highest confidence, then most general. [0063] Rule Type 4: Belief-related strategies. This knowledge is uncertain, and the most desirable rules are those with the highest belief in the rules, which is expressed in terms of Confidence Factors (CNF). Conflictions are expected, especially when using a traditional definition of confliction, such as one that does not consider the confidence factor. Subsumptions and incompleteness may also exist. Simplification of these rules is done with considerable caution. If a user requests simplification, confidence factors are also evaluated to determine rule equalities. These rules are preferably ordered by highest confidence, then most specific, then lowest cost. [0064] Rule Type 5: Uncontrolled rules. These rules may exhibit violations of any verification criteria. They are created, verified, and ordered by a user. Caution should be used when simplifying these rules, and simplification is preferably done only when requested by a user. If a user requests simplification, confidence factors are also evaluated to determine rule equalities. A user may choose to order the rules by cost, confidence, or specificity. [0065] A rule editor, including the preferred Rule Browser interface illustrated in FIG. 8 and the preferred Rule Editor interface illustrated in FIG. 8 a , can be used to create and manage rules in the present invention. Similar features in FIG. 8 and FIG. 8 a are similarly labeled. The Rule Structure, Conditions, and Actions definitions are used to create and constrain the rules. The rules are verified for the criteria applicable to the defined rule type as described above. [0066] Existing rules are shown in Existing Rules box 42 . New rules are created in Current Rules Workspace region of FIG. 8 a , where the current definition is shown 44 . The user may select conditions 44 and values for that condition 45 and use the Add Condition button 51 to add this condition to the rule definition in the Current Rule Workspace 43 . An action value can be assigned in the Action box 45 . A CNF, used to express belief in the rule, may be entered in the Confidence Factor box 47 . The Edit Rule Button will read Add Rule when the rule is being created or edited. When this button is pushed, the rule is tested for consistency with the existing rules. If the rule is acceptable, it is added to Existing Rules 42 . [0067] The bottom row of interface buttons 48 is used to begin editing a rule, start creating a new rule, exploding the rule to remove any simplifications that have taken place, delete the selected condition from the Current Rule Workspace, and to add generic Display statements (messages that will be displayed in any language) as well as Side-effect operations that are language dependent. In addition, buttons 49 are provided to delete the selected rule and to perform verification on the Existing Rules. [0068] Completed rule sets are simplified to derive a minimal set of rules which contain the truths in the original knowledge. Type 1 rule clusters may be simplified without any affect on accuracy. Type 2 rule clusters should not be simplified, as they contain exceptions. Type 3, 4, and 5 rule clusters should be simplified with caution, as these rule clusters may contain rules that are untrue by themselves but which are true in the context and ordering of the rule cluster. Simplification techniques supported by the present invention include the ID3 algorithm and the R3 algorithms. These algorithms are taught in Quinlan, J. R. “Simplifying Decision Trees”, Knowledge Acquisition for Knowledge - Based Systems , Gaines, B., and Boose, J., editors, Academic Press, 1988, and Hicks, Richard C. “Minimizing Maintenance Anomalies in Expert System Rule Bases,” Information and Management , Vol. 28, 1995, pp. 177-184, respectively, and the teachings thereof are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. [0069] The above-referenced simplification techniques allows knowledge to be simplified by using truth-preserving algorithms to derive a minimal solution set. By way of example, without intending to limit the present invention, one test set is the Chess end-game set, which has 648 rules with 7 clauses (condition tests) in each rule for a total of 4536 clauses. The ID3 algorithm reduces this to 335 clauses, where R3 reduces the rule base to 20 rules with 60 clauses. Each of the three rule sets (original, ID3, and R3) result in the same conclusions, but ID3 and R3 rule bases run much faster. [0070] After rules are simplified, they are ordered. Each rule type uses a specific set of verification criteria which dictates rule ordering. Rule Type 2 is ordered by rule specificity, as exceptions are present. Rule Type 4 is ordered by developer CNF, as these are the rules with the strongest beliefs. Rule Type 5 is ordered by the user. These orderings are not affected by Rule Ordering by Computational Cost (ROCK), which is used to order only Type 1 and Type 3 rule clusters. ROCK is described in more detail below. [0071] Rule Types 1 and 3 are deterministic, so they may be ordered for efficiency without affecting accuracy. To achieve the lowest cost performance, the current invention employees ROCK during development to derive an optimal sequencing strategy and Rule Ordering in Logical Layers (ROLL) at run-time to minimize the cost of the consultation. ROLL is described in more detail below. [0072] Unlike much of the prior art, which determined search path only at run-time, ROCK may be performed during development, yielding a static input sequence, or at run-time to achieve a dynamic input sequence. Where the expert system inputs are static, such as a system that is passed no inputs or a specific set of inputs, a static sequence is superior in run-time computational performance. However, when the inputs are dynamic, then run-time ROCK may find a lower-cost sequence of inputs. The generation of code using static ROCK is described below, although implementation of a dynamic ROCK code generation system should be apparent to one skilled in the art. [0073] Rule ordering preferably begins at the bottom of the inference hierarchy. The first step in optimizing a Type 1 or Type 3 rule cluster is typically to determine the most desirable path through the rule base that can solve the consultation. The most desirable path is determined by ordering the available paths through the rule base by the controlling characteristic, such as but not limited to number of inputs, cost of inputs, time to reach a solution, or highest confidence factor. The output of ROCK is an ordered set of inputs and an indication of when rules should be tested. The example below uses a number of inputs as controlling characteristics, with the number of rules tested used to break ties. An example rule base follows, and the generated output for this example is shown in the “Table of C Code Generated by IDE”. [0074] Step 1—Before code is generated, the rule base is ordered using the ROCK technique, and the following steps are typically performed during ROCK. Beginning with the lowest rule cluster in the hierarchy and moving to the top rule cluster, each rule cluster is ordered so that the most desirable rules are on top (assuming breadth-first search; the extension to depth-first search orders conditions from left to right). Single-valued conclusions result in rule orderings such as but not limited to lowest cost, most specific, or minimal number of inputs. “Pure” multi-valued conclusions are not necessarily ordered, as all inputs are needed and all outputs are returned. Other multi-valued rule clusters are ordered by the desired characteristic, such as but not limited to confidence factors or the number of conditions in each rule. Rule ordering is also impacted by verification of the rule cluster. The present invention determines the verification state of the rule cluster and uses this information to order the rule cluster. For example, if the rule cluster is free from subsumptions and conflictions, FRS rule clusters may be ordered with the most general rules first, lowering the information needed to solve the consultation and usually yielding the lowest cost when compared to the prior art technique of most specific rules first. This has the impact of performing many conflict-resolution tasks during development. [0075] Step 2—If facts may be known at the beginning of the consultation through programming practices such as but not limited to defaults or parameter passing, code is generated to perform procedural forward chaining. In the present invention, code is preferably generated to examine the entire rule base structure from the bottom up using a “best first” strategy to determine if known facts are present in any rule cluster. If so, generate a call to a function, and pass the known facts thereto, where the function called compares the known facts to those contained in the rules in the form of procedural IF statements. If all of the facts match all of the conditions in the rule, the THEN portion of the rule is performed. If the conclusion is single-valued, stop testing the rule cluster and return. If the conclusion is multi-valued, test all of the rules in the cluster and return. If rules fire, or are true, in any cluster, determine if the goal has been met. If so, the consultation is complete. (The preceding code is omitted from the “Table of C Code Generated by IDE” for brevity). If the rules do not fire in a cluster, the facts known at the beginning of the execution and any new facts obtained by rule firings are used in continuing the consultation. If enough facts are passed, the consultation may take place transparently. [0076] The remaining steps, which describe the ROLL process, are performed as in a loop until all rules in the rule base have been coded. [0077] Step 3—Using the first unused rule in each rule cluster, determine the next input that is needed by the current path. The next input is located in the highest rule cluster in the inference hierarchy that can reach a conclusion without requiring a value from another rule cluster, including the current rule cluster. Code is generated that begins a code block by checking to see if a value has been determined and obtaining the value for the desired input if necessary. [0078] Step 4—When an input had been sequenced, determine one or more subsets of rules that can be fired by this input and any previously obtained inputs. These subsets are referred to as logical layers. Each rule will preferably belong to a single logical layer determined by the minimal set of inputs necessary to fire the rule. Code should be generated to perform the tests contained in the rules in the logical layer and perform the activities specified in the THEN portion of the rules. [0079] Step 5—Code should be generated to determine if the current conclusion is satisfied. If so, the code effectively ends the code block for this conclusion, which emulates forward chaining. If the conclusion is not satisfied (the ELSE portion of the test that determines if the conclusion is satisfied), generate each possible solution to the unsatisfied conclusion as in Steps 1 through 4. This emulates backward chaining. [0080] Step 6—After the code for each input, logical layer and outcome is generated, use the same technique to determine the next set of inputs until all inputs and rules are utilized. Inputs that have already been derived or will be available at run-time do not have a further cost and are therefore not included in the calculations. This information is retained in the IDE. Note that each rule is tested only once. [0081] A small example of a simplified FRS rule base is presented below in conjunctive normal form. A preferred simplification technique result is the production of rules that do not require all of the inputs to reach a conclusion. Note that Job1, Job2, Job3, Location1, and Location2 require only a single input. (Note: this example is designed for ease of reading, where the actual implementation may take many different forms.) Job Rule Cluster Rule job1 IF   salary >= 40000 THEN job = take_job Rule job2 IF   location = good THEN job = take_job CNF 100; Rule job3 IF   location = poor AND salary < 40000 THEN job = shove_job Rule job4 IF   location = fair AND salary < 30000 THEN job = shove_job Rule job5 IF   location fair AND salary >= 30000 THEN job = take_job Location Rule Cluster Rule location1 IF   climate = good THEN location = good Rule location2 IF   climate = poor THEN location = poor Rule location3 IF   climate = fair AND cola = low THEN location = good Rule location4 IF   climate = fair AND cola = medium THEN location = fair Rule location5 IF   climate = fair AND cola = high THEN location = poor [0082] In this Job Example of ROCK, Salary alone can fire a rule, Job1, which will solve the consultation. Climate can also fire a rule, Location1, which will allow other rules to fire, Job2 and Job3, which will solve the consultation. Assuming the desired characteristic for this implementation is speed, the combined execution speed for Salary is lower than that of Location as fewer tests are performed (1 rule for Salary vs. 2 if Climate is hot or 3 rules if Climate is cold, depending on ordering), so the first input in this sequence would be Salary. [0083] The appropriate value for Salary can fire a rule by itself, so the input for Salary would be followed by an instruction to test the logical layer of rules, Job1, that can be satisfied by the inputs. Next it is determined when sufficient inputs exist to fire a new partition of the rule cluster. If Salary did not solve the consultation, the result would be to retrieve the next most desirable input, Climate and test Location1 and Location2. If Location is not satisfied, we get the value for COLA (Cost of Living) and test Location3, Location4, and Location5. At this point, all Location rules have been tested and a value must be assigned, as these rule clusters are verified for completeness. As all inputs are obtained, we test the remaining rules Job2 through Job5. All of the inputs are rules have been sequenced. Generate any necessary closing code, such as for the return of values and housekeeping to terminate the generated code. [0084] ROLL uses the information in the IDE to generate code using the ROCK strategy. Code in the language C is contained in the Table of C Code Generated by IDE. The code flowchart, or pseudocode, is shown below. Input - Salary Test - Job1 If Job is not satisfied, Input - Climate Test - Location1 and Location2 If Location is not satisfied, Input - Cola Test - Location 3 through Location5. Test - Job2 through Job5 [0085] In a traditional backward-chaining strategy, the Location rule cluster would be solved first, obtaining inputs for climate and Cola to determine Location and then obtaining Salary so that all the variables in the Job rule cluster are instantiated. It would then test all of the rules in the Job rule cluster. ROCK would begin with the Job rule cluster, as it contains the first input, Salary. After Salary has a value, the rule Job1 may fire. Therefore, we test the value for Salary with the rule Job1. If it passes, the consultation is complete. In this consultation, the Location rule cluster would not be solved. In many consultations, ROCK will minimize the number of inputs necessary to solve the consultation by solving a rule cluster with a minimal set of inputs and additionally by avoiding the solving of some rule clusters, effectively pruning the search space. [0086] A Table of Sample C Code Generated by IDE is included below. This sample code is intended as an example of the type of code created by a preferred embodiment of the present invention, and should not be seen as limiting the present invention. By way of example, known fact forward chaining is omitted from the sample code below for brevity, but incorporation of a means for fact forward chaining should be apparent to one skilled in the art. It should also be apparent to one skilled in the art that alternative computer programming languages, as well as alternative functions, procedures, and architectures, can be substituted for the sample code provided below without departing from the spirit or the scope of the present invention. /////////////////////////////////////////////////// // C Code for project App14 generated by EZ-Xpert Logic Factory // // If desired, replace the Actions Box with Custom Actions Box code     in C:\EZ-Xpert\App14\Appl4.ac // // If desired, replace the Statements Box with Custom Statements Box     code in C:\EZ-Xpert\App14\App14.sc // // Project Data: // // Project Title: Job Kill 8 // // Project Name: App14 // // File Location: C:\EZ-Xpert\App14 // // Author: Tech Support // // Description: // // Long Name Test 2 // // Project Last Modified: 12/26/00 // // Code Generated: 02/18/01 // // Start of Actions Block // // Include standard libraries. // #include <stdio.h> #include <string.h> // Declare global variables. // char Job [8]; float Salary = 0.0f; char Location [5]; char Climate [5]; char COLA [7]; // Input Function Prototypes // void GetSalary (void); void GetClimate (void); void GetCOLA (void); // The following line is in the Actions Block // void main ( ) { GetSalary ( ); { /* Rule 1 for goal Job */ if (Salary >= 60000) { strcpy (Job, “TakeJob”); printf (“\n\nThe value for Job is TakeJob\n”); return; } } GetClimate ( ); { /* Rule 1 for goal Location */ if (strcmp (Climate, “Hot”) == 0) { strcpy (Location, “Good”); } /* Rule 2 for goal Location */ else if (strcmp (Climate, “Cold”) == 0) { strcpy (Location, “Poor”); } } if ( ! (strcmp (Location, “Fair”) == 0) &&  (strcmp (Location, “Good”) == 0) && ! (strcmp (Location, “Poor”) == 0)) { GetCOLA ( ); /* Rule 3 for goal Location */ if ((strcmp (Climate, “Mild”) == 0) &&  (strcmp (COLA, “Medium”) == 0) ) { strcpy (Location, “Fair”) } /* Rule 4 for goal Location */ else if ((strcmp (Climate, “Mild”) == 0) &&   (strcmp (COLA, “Low”) == 0) ) { strcpy (Location, “Good”); } /* Rule 5 for goal Location */ else if ((strcmp (Climate, “Mild”) == 0) &&   (strcmp (COLA, “High”) == 0) ) { strcpy (Location, “Poor”); } { if ( ! (strcmp (Job, “ShoveJob”) == 0) &&  ! (strcmp (Job, “TakeJob”) == 0)) { /* Rule 2 for goal Job */ if (strcmp (Location, “Good”) == 0) { strcpy (Job, “TakeJob”); printf (“\n\nThe value for Job is TakeJob\n”); return; } } if ( ! (strcmp (Job, “ShoveJob”) == 0) &&  ! (strcmp (Job, “TakeJob”) == 0)) { /* Rule 3 for goal Job */ if ((strcmp (Location, “Poor”) == 0) && (Salary < 60000) ) { strcpy (Job, “ShoveJob”); printf (“\n\nThe value for Job is ShoveJob\n”); return; } /* Rule 4 for goal Job */ else if ((strcmp (Location, “Fair”) == 0) && (Salary < 40000) ) { strcpy (Job, “ShoveJob”); printf (“\n\nThe value for Job is ShoveJob\n”); return; } /* Rule 5 for goal Job */ else if ((strcmp (Location, “Fair”) == 0) && (Salary >= 40000   ) && (Salary < 60000) ) { strcpy (Job, “TakeJob”); printf (“\n\nThe value for Job is TakeJob\n”); return; } } } ////////////////////////////////////////////// // C Input Statements for project App14 generated by EZ-Xpert Logic Factory // // Function for input of Salary // void GetSalary (void) { fflush (stdin); printf (“Enter a value for Salary:\n”); scanf (“%f”,&Salary) return; } // Function for input of Climate // void GetClimate (void) { do { fflush (stdin); printf (“Enter a value for Climate:\n”); printf (“Legal values are Hot, Mild, Cold.\n”); gets (Climate) }while (! (strcmp (Climate, “Hot”)) && ! (strcmp (Climate, “Mild”)) &&  ! (strcmp (Climate, “Cold”))); return; } // Function for input of COLA // void GetCOLA (void) { do { fflush (stdin); printf (“Enter a value for COLA:\n”); printf (“Legal values are High, Medium, Low.\n”); gets (COLA); }while (! (strcmp (COLA, “High”)) && ! (strcmp (COLA, “Medium”)) &&  ! (strcmp (COLA, “Low”))); return; } [0087] While the invention has been described in detail and with reference to specific embodiments thereof, it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that various changes and modifications can be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope thereof. Thus, it is intended that the present invention cover the modifications and variations of this invention provided they come within the scope of the appended claims and their equivalents. [0088] What is described is a development environment that generates code that combines the actions of the inference engine and the knowledge of the expert, which is expressed in procedural rules in an if/then format, thereby eliminating the inference engine.

An expert system and methods of use that replaces the inference engine by generating code blending the rules in the knowledge base and the activities of the inference engine is described. This code may be generated into any procedural language (such as but not limited to C++ and Java). The combination of the elimination of the inference engine and code generation into a procedural language enable the creation of complied expert systems to replace the prior art of interpreted inference expert systems. The execution speed of compiled languages is substantially faster (at least 100×) than interpreted implementations, allowing (among many other things) more or larger intelligent applications to be executed.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The invention relates to nonmechanical printers and copiers and more particularly to a recording carrier transport device for use in association with side margin punched recording carrier webs to move the same past a cylindrical intermediate carrier in cooperation with the recording carrier feed assembly. p 2. Prior Art Nonmechanical high speed printers and copiers which apply characters or images to a recording carrier by a transfer method from an intermediate carrier are known to the art. Such printers and copiers frequently work by electrostatic techniques and involve the transfer of a toner image from an intermediate carrier on which the image is formed to a recording carrier on which the image is to be printed. The recording carrier may, for example, be a paper sheet or web. In such devices means are provided for moving the recording carrier to the transfer station and withdrawing it from the transfer station when a print has been made. Such devices include both means for transporting or moving the paper and feed means for presenting it to, and withdrawing it from, the surface of the intermediate carrier. The intermediate carrier is normally a drum. An appropriate feed assembly for presenting the recording carrier to and withdrawing it from the drum surface is shown in German Patent Application P 26 36 326.8, U.S. Patent Application Ser. No. 820,216, now U.S. Pat. No. 4,131,358, the teachings of which are herein incorporated by reference. In that construction the feed assembly includes two moving gripping arms which can present the recording carrier to the intermediate carrier and can lift the recording carrier away from the intermediate carrier while simultaneously taking up any length of recording carrier released in the process. In order for the feed assembly to function, the recording carrier transport assembly must be disposed both upstream, (in front of) and downstream, (behind) the feed assembly. The transport assembly thus functions to feed the recording carrier in a suitable manner to the feed assembly and to thereafter remove the printed recording carrier fromm the feed assembly. Such transport devices can, for example, comprise feed tracks which are positioned both upstream and downstream of the feed assembly. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is a principle object of this invention to provide a recording carrier transport assembly which is particularly well matched with the recording carrier feed assembly. This object is achieved by uniting the transport assembly and feed assembly into an attached together unit forming transport and feed unit. The complete unit can be pivoted away from the intermediate carrier. The recording carrier transport assembly utilizes two endless belt assemblies which are positioned parallel to one another on one side of the feed assembly. One of the belts contacts the punched holes of the side margin punched recording carrier on one side of the recording carrier and the other of the belts contacts the punched holes on the other side of the recording carrier. Each of the belt assemblies is provided with at least three wheel members around which the belt is trained. One of the wheel members of each belt assembly can be driven by means of a drive shaft. The transport assembly is constructed such that the recording carrier is held by the transport assembly in a manner in which it properly rests on the guuides of the feed assembly. In the preferred embodiment illustrated, the first of the wheels for the endless belt, as viewed in the direction of movement of the recording carrier, is attached to a drive shaft. The transport and feed unit is made pivotable about this drive shaft. This construction eliminates the necessity of otherwise pivoting other drive components such as, for example, the motor. It is desirable for the transport and feed unit to pivot so as to give immediate clearance access to the recording carrier in order to allow the recording carrier to be properly inserted during recording carrier change. Further, in the preferred embodiment the direction of movement of the recording carrier through the feed unit can be modified by controlling the arrangement of the belt assemblies within the transport assembly. This makes it possible to determine the direction of travel of the recording carrier as it enters or leaves the feed assembly as desired in a simple manner since the positioning of the recording carrier at the feed assembly is dependent upon the arrangement and positioning of the belt assemblies. Furthermore, it is preferred to drive the non-drive shaft belt assembly wheels by the endless belt thereby eliminating the need for any special drive belt or mechanism. The punched hole engaging pins of the endless belts can be spaced from one another such that they engage only every second punched hole of the recording carrier. Then, by adjusting the span of the recording carrier around the feed assembly between the wheels from the wheel position immediately in front of the feed arrangement to the wheel positioned immediately behind the feed arrangement in the direction of movement of the recording carrier, in relation of the span of belt between those wheels, it is possible to engage alternate punched holes of the recording carrier upstream and downstream of the feed arrangement. This results in a reduction in strain applied to the feed holes by the driving pins of the belts. Further, in the preferred embodiment illustrated, in order to provide for different width recording carriers, one of the belt assemblies can be made movable towards and away from the other belt assembly. The other belt assembly may be fixed in position. Thus the gap between the two belt assemblies can be controlled to accommodate differing recording carrier widths. It is therefore an object of this invention to provide a recording carrier transport device utilizing parallel spaced drive belt assemblies which engage marginal side punched hole portions of the recording carrier to move the recording carrier to a feed assembly and to remove the recording carrier from the feed assembly, the belts being trained around wheels and at least one of the wheels being motor driven. It is another object of this invention to provide a combined transport and feed unit for recording carriers in nonmechanical copiers and printers wherein a transport assembly includes parallel spaced apart endless belt assemblies with endless pin carrying belts trained around wheel members, at least one of which is motor driven, the transport assembly effective to move a recording carrier to a feed assembly for presentation to, and removal from the intermediate carrier, the transport assembly also effective to remove the recording carrier from the feed assembly, and the recording carrier and feed assembly joined together in a single unit being pivotable towards and away from the intermediate carrier. Other objects, features and advantages of the invention will be readily apparent from the following description of a preferred embodiment thereof, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, although variations and modifications may be effected without departing from the spirit and scope of the novel concepts of the disclosure, and in which: BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a diagrammatic side plan view of a transport and feed unit according to this invention positioned adjacent an intermediate carrier. FIG. 2 is a front end view of the device of FIG. 1. FIG. 3 is a diagrammatic side plan view illustrating a second embodiment of the transport and feed unit of this invention. FIG. 4 is a diagrammatic fragmentary side plan view of a transport and feed unit according to this invention illustrating relative spacing of drive pins and recording carrier holes. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS FIG. 1 illustrates a portion of an intermediate carrier ZT which may for example be a photoconductor drum. A recording carrier feed assembly PT is positioned adjacent the intermediate carrier ZT. The feed arrangement PT may be of the design indicated in the aforementioned German application. The feed assembly includes pivotable saddles SA over which a recording carrier AT is drawn. Supporting saddles SS may also be utilized in directing the recording carrier. The feed assembly is effective to direct the recording carrier AT to the intermediate carrier ZT to properly present it thereto, and to withdraw it therefrom. Positioned immediately adjacent the feed assembly, on a side thereof opposite the recording carrier ZT, is a transport assembly TR. The transport assembly comprises bascially two spaced apart parallel belt assemblies RA1 and RA2 with the belt assembly RA1 being illustrated in FIG. 1. The assemblies include supporting frame members. FIG. 2 illustrates, partially, both of the belt assemblies RA1 and RA2. Both assemblies include endless conveyor belts. One of the belt assemblies is provided for a row of punched feed holes on one marginal side of the recording carrier whereas the other belt assembly is provided for a row of feed holes on the other side of the recording carrier. For example the belt assembly RA1 may be provided for the punched feed holes on the left hand side of the recording carrier AT while the belt assembly RA2 indexes with the punched feed holes on the right hand side of the recording carrier. In the embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 2 each of the belt assemblies includes 4 wheels RR1 to RR4 and one conveyor belt RIE which is trained around the wheels. In this example the belt RIE comprises a toothed belt having driving pins MT spaced along the length thereof which are engageable in the recording carrier punched holes. Each of the wheels RR1 to RR4 are attached to a side wall GH1 or GH2 of the unit housing or supporting frame member LB. The wheels RR2 to RR4 of each of the belt assemblies are mounted on the side wall GH1 or GH2 and are not interconnected by shaft means. However wheels RR1 of each of the belt assemblies are interconnected with one another through a drive shaft AW. The shaft AW may be driven from one end thereof by drive means such as, for example, a drive belt RM which is connected to a motor (not shown). The other wheels RR2 to RR4 of each of the belt assemblies are driven through the endless belt RIE from the driven wheel RR1. Thus no independent drive belts are needed for the wheels RR2 through RR4. The wheels and belt may be cogged if desired. The feed assembly and transport assembly are attached together into a single unit and are pivotable about the drive shaft AW. In this manner the entire unit can be swung away from the intermediate carrier ZT or pivoted back towards it. When the transport and feed unit is swung away from the intermediate carrier ZT both the transport assembly and the feed assembly will be easily accessible thereby facilitating insertion of a new recording carrier AT. Recording carrier AT is pressed against the belts RIE by pressure plates AD which act in a known manner. The use of the pressure plates assures trouble free pick-up of the recording carrier by the driving pins MT. This also insures that the recording carrier AT will be held securely in the transport assembly and will be taut and therefore in proper contact with the guides of the feed assembly PT. The direction in which the recording carrier is run into or out of the feed assembly can be determined largely by the arrangement of the wheels RR1 to RR4. This makes it possible to change the run out direction of the recording carrier without affecting the entry direction. For example if it is desired to reduce the output angle of movement of the recording carrier from that illustrated in FIG. 1, a different positioning of wheel RR3 or of wheels RR3 and RR4 provide the desired result. Thus the direction in which the recording carrier enters or leaves the feed assembly, and/or, if desired, the unit, can be easily adapted to suit design requirements. One of the belt assemblies RA1 and RA2 can be in a fixed position within the copier housing. For example the belt assembly RA1 can be in a fixed position. The second belt assembly RA2 can then be made movable such that the transport assembly can be adjusted to match the width of the recording carrier being used. To accomplish this adjustability, a guide shaft FW is provided. The belt assembly RA2 is axially movable along the guide shaft FW. A hand wheel HR can be provided for adjusting a belt BD to which the belt assembly RA2 is attached to move the belt assembly RA2 towards and away from the belt assembly RA1 along the guide shaft. By this means the gap between the belt assemblies can be adjusted. The endless belts RIE can, preferably, comprise toothed belts having driving pins MT disposed therealong in a known manner. According to this invention, it is preferred to select the spacing of the pins MT along the belt RIE such that the pins will engage only in every second punched feed hole of the recording carrier AT. By then choosing the length of recording carrier between wheels RR2 and RR3 with respect to the belt spacing, it can be assured that the pins MT on the upstream side of the feed assembly will engage alternate holes from the pins on the downstream side of the feed assembly. In order to provide for proper adjustment, the positioning of the wheels may be adjustable in the frame members. For example the length of recording carrier through the feed assembly can be modified by moving the location of wheel RR3. This enables tension of the recording carrier on the feed assembly to be adjusted. In contrast the tension of the belt RIE can be adjusted by moving wheel RR4. FIGS. 1 and 2 illustrate one embodiment of the transport assembly utilizing 4 wheels RR1 through RR4. FIG. 3 diagrammatically illustrates a modification of that embodiment which makes use of three such wheels. In this embodiment the wheels RR2 and RR3 of FIGS. 1 and 2 have been replaced by a single large wheel RR5. Once again the direction which the recording carrier takes entering or leaving the feed assembly can be adjusted without adversely affecting the performance of the transport assembly which can, for example, still contact the recording carrier even should the direction of movement of the recording carrier as it enters or leaves the feed assembly be other than as illustrated. In the embodiment of FIG. 3 wheel RR1 is again driven by a shaft AW about which the entire transport and feed unit can be pivoted. The remainder of the design of the embodiment of FIG. 3 is substantially the same as illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 2. As illustrated in FIG. 4, whenever the spacing of the holes H of the side margin punched recording carrier AT is half the spacing of the pins MT, only every other hole will be engaged by a pin. By then controlling the spacing between the wheels RR2-RR3 with respect to the length of the recording carrier between those wheels, it can be assured that the holes which are engaged by the pins MT on one side of the feed assembly PT will not be engaged by the pins on the other side. For example, as illustrated, if the space between the wheels RR2-RR3 is such that the span of the belt RIE therebetween has an odd number of pins MT while the span of the recording carrier AT between the wheels RR2-RR3 has an even number of holes H, the desired alternating engagement of the holes by the pins on opposite sides of the feed arrangement PT will be accomplished. Although the teachings of my invention have herein been discussed with reference to specific theories and embodiments, it is to be understood that there are by way of illustration only and that others may wish to utilize my invention in different designs or applications.

A recording carrier transport and feed unit is disclosed which includes attached together transport and feed assemblies for moving a side margin punched recording carrier web to, and withdrawing it from, the intermediate carrier of an electrostatic printer or copier. The transport assembly includes spaced parallel drive belts, each trained about at least three spaced wheel means, one of which is rotatably driven. One span of the belts presents the recording carrier to the feed device while another span withdraws the recording carrier from the feed device. The feed device presents the recording carrier to the intermediate carrier and directs it away from the intermediate carrier. The entire unit is pivotable towards and away from the intermediate carrier.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention This invention relates to a nonvolatile semiconductor memory device, and more particularly to a nonvolatile semiconductor memory device where a plurality of MOS transistor memory cells are cascade-connected or parallel-connected and this connection is connected to a select gate to form a memory cell unit. 2. Description of the Related Art One known electrically rewritable nonvolatile memory device (EEPROM) is such that a plurality of memory cells are grouped into one unit and one end of the unit is connected to a data line, thereby reducing the number of contacts with the data line to achieve high integration. For example, NAND-cell EEPROMs where a plurality of memory cells are connected in series are available. A memory device of this type is constructed in such a manner that a plurality of memory cells are connected in series with their sources and drains shared by adjacent cells and this series connection is treated as one unit and is connected to a bit line. The memory cells generally have an FETMOS structure where a charge storage layer acting as a floating gate and a control gate for selecting a cell are stacked. The memory cell unit is integrated in a p-well formed in an n-type substrate. The drain side of a NAND cell is connected to a bit line (data line) via a select transistor and its source side is connected to a source line (reference potential wire) via a select transistor. The control gates of the memory cells, arranged on a same row of a plurality of memory cell units adjacent to each other, are connected to a word line one after another. The bit lines are formed above the memory cell unit with an insulating film interposed therebetween so as to cross at right angles to the control gates. With a trend toward higher integration, the size of a unit cell is getting smaller, making it difficult to secure the areas where the bit lines are in contact with the memory cell unit. To overcome this problem, a method has been proposed which causes a plurality of adjacent memory cell units in a direction of word lines to be connected to the same bit lines and uses a plurality of select transistors connected to the corresponding memory cell units to select a given memory cell unit. FIG. 1 is a schematic plan view of the memory cell section of a NAND-cell EEPROM of this type. FIG. 1 shows a NAND cell in which eight memory cells M 11 to M 24 and eight select transistors S 11 to S 24 are arranged in two parallel columns. CG1 to CG4 indicate control gate lines, SG1 to SG4 denote select gate lines, numeral 8 represents a bit line (BL) formed above the control gates and select gates with an insulating layer interposed therebetween. Reference symbol 8a indicates a bit-line contact portion where the bit line 8 is electrically connected to the memory cell section. The two columns of memory cell units are separated by an element isolating region 10. The bit line connected to both of the two columns of memory cell units has a sufficient contact area in the contact portion 8a. The shaded portions in memory cells M 11 to M 24 indicate floating-gate formation areas. Of the eight select transistors, S 11 , S 14 , S 22 , and S 23 are enhancement-mode transistors and S 12 , S 13 , S 21 , and S 24 are depletion-mode transistors. They are designed so that either column may be selected by a select gate signal. In this example, each NAND-cell column has two select transistors on the bit-line side and another two select transistors on the source-line side, the pairs of transistors being combinations of an enhancement-mode transistor and a depletion-mode transistor. The arrangement is designed so that either NAND-cell column can be selected by controlling the voltages of SG1 and SG2 according to a specific combination of high-level and low-level voltages. An attempt to operate this type of EEPROM at high speeds, however, causes the following problem. In FIG. 1, for example, it is assumed that the voltage of bit line is 5 V, the voltage of select gate line SG1 is 0 V, the voltage of select gate line SG2 is 5 V, and then enhancement-mode transistor S 22 is turned on, selecting the right NAND column. At this time, a parasitic capacitance between the channel portion and select gate electrode of the right-side depletion-mode transistor S 21 connected to SG1 is so large that coupling with the bit-line voltage of 5 V develops, raising the voltage of SG1 from 0 V. The rise in the voltage of SG1 turns on the left-side enhancement-mode transistor S 11 connected to SG1, permitting the left NAND column to be selected as well. This makes stable high-speed operation impossible. Such a problem will also occur in the case where adjacent memory cell units commonly use a bit line such as in an AND type EEPROM or in a DINOR type EEPROM, in which the memory cell units are connected in parallel along the bit line, each being comprised of a plurality of memory cells connected in parallel. As described above, with the conventional nonvolatile semiconductor memory devices, the coupling capacitance in the select transistor section prevents stable operation and consequently hinders higher-speed operation. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The object of the present invention is to provide a nonvolatile semiconductor memory device which can reduce a parasitic capacitance in the select transistors substantially, and achieve more stable, higher-speed operation. The gist of the present invention is to reduce a parasitic capacitance in the select transistors connected to the memory cell unit and thereby achieve stable, high-speed operation. A nonvolatile semiconductor memory device according to a first aspect of the present invention comprises: a semiconductor substrate with a main surface; a plurality of memory cell units formed on the main surface of the semiconductor substrate, each of the memory cell units having a plurality of memory cells connected in one unit, each of the memory cells containing a first charge accumulation layer formed on the main surface of the semiconductor substrate in an insulating manner, a first control gate formed on the first charge accumulation layer in an insulating manner, and two first diffusion layers formed at the main surface of the semiconductor substrate on both side of the first charge accumulation layer, at least one of the two first diffusion layers being shared by adjacent one of the memory cells, thereby connecting the memory cells adjacent to each other; a plurality of first select transistors connected to one end of each of the plurality of memory cell units via one of the first diffusion layers located at the one end, each of the plurality of first select transistors containing a second control gate and a source and a drain region and being connected in series by adjacent one of the first select transistors sharing one of the source and the drain region, the second control gate being connected to each of a plurality of select gate lines, at least one of the plurality of first select transistors further containing a second charge accumulation layer on the main surface of the semiconductor substrate and under the second control gate in an insulating manner; and a data line connected to at least two adjacent ones of the memory cell units via the plurality of first select transistors. A nonvolatile semiconductor memory device according to a second aspect of the present invention comprises: a semiconductor substrate with a main surface; a plurality of memory cell units formed on the main surface of the semiconductor substrate, each of the memory cell units having a plurality of memory cells connected in one unit, each of the memory cells containing a first charge accumulation layer formed on the main surface of the semiconductor substrate in an insulating manner, a first control gate formed on the charge accumulation layer in an insulating manner, and two first diffusion layers formed at the main surface of the semiconductor substrate on both side of the charge accumulation layer, at least one of the first diffusion layers being shared by adjacent one of the memory cells, thereby connecting the memory cells adjacent to each other; a plurality of first select transistors connected to one end of each of the plurality of memory cell units via one of the diffusion layers located at the one end, each of the plurality of first select transistors containing a gate insulating film formed on the main surface of the semiconductor substrate, a second control gate formed on the gate insulating film, and a source and a drain region formed at the main surface of the semiconductor substrate on both side of the second control gate, at least one of the source and the drain region being shared by adjacent one of the select transistors and connecting the adjacent one of the select transistors in series, the second control gate being connected to a corresponding one of a plurality of control gate lines, and the gate insulating film of at least one of the first select transistors being made thicker than the gate insulating film of another one of the first select transistors; and a data line connected to at least two adjacent ones of the memory cell units via the plurality of first select transistors. A nonvolatile semiconductor memory device according to a third aspect of the present invention comprises: a semiconductor substrate with a main surface; a plurality of memory cell units formed on the main surface of the semiconductor substrate, each of the memory cell units having a plurality of memory cells connected in one unit, each of the memory cells containing a first charge accumulation layer formed on the main surface of the semiconductor substrate in an insulating manner, a first control gate formed on the charge accumulation layer in an insulating manner, and two first diffusion layers formed at the main surface of the semiconductor substrate on both side of the charge accumulation layer, at least one of the two first diffusion layers being shared by adjacent one of the memory cells, thereby connecting the memory cells adjacent to each other; a plurality of first select transistors connected to one end of each of the plurality of memory cell units via one of the diffusion layers located at the one end, each of the plurality of first select transistors containing a second control gate formed on the main surface of the semiconductor substrate in an insulating manner, and a source and a drain region formed at the main surface of the semiconductor substrate on both side of the second control gate, at least one of the source and the drain region being shared by adjacent one of the first select transistors and connecting the adjacent one of the memory cells in series, the second control gate being connected to a corresponding one of a plurality of control gate lines, and at least one of the plurality of first select transistors having a second diffusion layer of a same conductivity type as that of the source and the drain region in the semiconductor substrate, the second diffusion layer being electrically connected to the source and the drain region; and a data line connected to at least two adjacent ones of the memory cell units via the plurality of first select transistors. With a nonvolatile semiconductor memory device of the present invention, the parasitic capacitance at the select gate electrodes is reduced by providing the depletion-mode select transistors with floating gates, virtually making the gate insulating film thicker, or providing under the gate insulating film a channel layer that is of the same conductivity type as that of the source and drain regions and connects the source and drain regions. This enables the potential of the select gates to be almost fixed at a desired value, preventing a faulty operation and making it possible to cause the select transistors to operate at high speed. Additional objects and advantages of the invention will be set forth in the description which follows, and in part will be obvious from the description, or may be learned by practice of the invention. The objects and advantages of the invention may be realized and obtained by means of the instrumentalities and combinations particularly pointed out in the appended claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of the specification, illustrate presently preferred embodiments of the invention and, together with the general description given above and the detailed description of the preferred embodiments given below, serve to explain the principles of the invention. FIG. 1 is a plan view of a memory cell unit in an ordinary NAND-cell EEPROM; FIG. 2 is a plan view of a memory cell unit in a NAND-cell EEPROM according to the present invention; FIG. 3 is an equivalent circuit diagram of a memory cell unit in a NAND-cell EEPROM according to the present invention; FIG. 4 is a sectional view of a memory cell section in the NAND-cell EEPROM of the present invention, taken along line 4--4 of FIG. 2; FIG. 5 is a sectional view of a memory cell unit in a NAND-cell EEPROM according to a first embodiment of the present invention, taken along line 5--5 of FIG. 2; FIG. 6 is a sectional view of a select transistor in the NAND-cell EEPROM according to the first embodiment of the present invention, taken along line 6--6 of FIG. 2; FIG. 7 is an equivalent circuit diagram of another memory cell unit according to the present invention; FIG. 8 is a sectional view of a select transistor in a NAND-cell EEPROM according to a second embodiment of the present invention, taken along line 6--6 of FIG. 2; FIG. 9 is a sectional view of a select transistor in a NAND-cell EEPROM according to a third embodiment of the present invention, taken along line 6--6 of FIG. 2; FIG. 10 is a sectional view of a memory cell unit in the NAND-cell EEPROM according to the third embodiment of the present invention, taken along line 5--5 of FIG. 2; FIG. 11 is a sectional view of a select transistor in a NAND-cell EEPROM according to a fourth embodiment of the present invention, taken along line 6--6 of FIG. 2; FIG. 12 is a sectional view of a select transistor in a NAND-cell EEPROM according to a fifth embodiment of the present invention, taken along line 6--6 of FIG. 2; FIG. 13 is a sectional view of a select transistor in a NAND-cell EEPROM according to a sixth embodiment of the present invention, taken along line 6--6 of FIG. 2; FIG. 14 is a sectional view of a memory cell unit in the NAND-cell EEPROM according to the sixth embodiment of the present invention, taken along line 5--5 of FIG. 2; FIG. 15 is a sectional view of an element formation region in the case where trench element isolating techniques are used; FIG. 16 is a plan view of a memory cell unit in the case where a trench element isolating region is formed by self-alignment; FIG. 17 is a sectional view of a memory cell section in the NAND-cell EEPROM according to the present invention, taken along line 17--17 of FIG. 16; FIG. 18 is a sectional view of a memory cell unit in a NAND-cell EEPROM according to a seventh embodiment of the present invention, taken along line 18--18 of FIG. 16; FIG. 19 is a sectional view of a select transistor in the NAND-cell EEPROM according to the seventh embodiment of the present invention, taken along line 19--19 of FIG. 16; FIG. 20 is a sectional view of a select transistor in the NAND-cell EEPROM according to an eighth embodiment of the present invention, taken along line 19--19 of FIG. 16; FIG. 21 is a sectional view of a select transistor in a NAND-cell EEPROM according to a ninth embodiment of the present invention, taken along line 19--19 of FIG. 16; FIG. 22 is a sectional view of a memory cell unit in the NAND-cell EEPROM according to the ninth embodiment of the present invention, taken along line 18--18 of FIG. 16; FIG. 23 is a sectional view of a select transistor in a NAND-cell EEPROM according to a tenth embodiment of the present invention, taken along line 19--19 of FIG. 16; FIG. 24 is a sectional view of a select transistor in a NAND-cell EEPROM according to an eleventh embodiment of the present invention, taken along line 19--19 of FIG. 16; FIG. 25 is a sectional view of a select transistor in a NAND-cell EEPROM according to a twelfth embodiment of the present invention, taken along line 19--19 of FIG. 16; FIGS. 26A to 26E show the manufacturing processes of NAND-cell EEPROMs according to a thirteenth embodiment of the present invention step by step, using sectional views of a select transistor; FIG. 27 is an equivalent circuit diagram of a memory cell unit in a DINOR type EEPROM according to a fourteenth embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 28 is an equivalent circuit diagram of a memory cell unit in a AND type EEPROM according to a fifteenth embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Hereinafter, referring to the accompanying drawings, embodiments of the present invention will be explained. FIGS. 2 and 3 show a schematic structure and an equivalent circuit of a memory cell section common to embodiments of the present invention, respectively. FIG. 2 shows a NAND cell in which eight memory cells M 11 to M 24 and eight select transistors S 11 to S 24 are arranged in two parallel columns. CG1 to CG4 indicate control gate lines, SG1 to SG4 denote select gate lines, numeral 108 represents a bit line (BL) formed above the control gates and select gates with an insulating layer interposed therebetween. Reference symbol 108a indicates a contact portion where the bit line 108 is electrically connected to the NAND cell and 110 denotes an element isolating region. As shown in the equivalent circuit of FIG. 3, select transistors S 11 , S 14 , S 22 , S 23 are enhancement-mode transistors, and transistors S 12 , S 13 , S 21 , S 24 are depletion-mode transistors. These transistors are used to select either NAND cell column. In a first to sixth embodiments, the element isolating region 110 is formed of a thick field oxide film. FIG. 4 is a sectional view of a memory cell section, taken along line 4--4 of FIG. 2. In the region sandwiched between the element isolating films 110 at the top of a p-well 102 provided in an n-type substrate 101, a first gate insulating film 103 is formed. On the first gate insulating film, a floating gate (charge accumulation layer) 104, a second gate insulating film 105, and a control gate 106, and an interlayer insulating film 106 are formed in that order. A bit line 108 is formed on the interlayer insulating film 107 so as to cover both of the two columns of memory cells. An element isolation insulating film 110 corresponds to the element isolating region 110 of FIG. 1. The present invention is characterized by the configuration of select transistors S 11 to S 14 , which will be described using the following embodiments. (Embodiment 1) FIGS. 5 and 6 are sectional views of a NAND-cell EEPROM according to a first embodiment of the present invention, taken along line 5--5 and line 6--6 of FIG. 2, respectively. FIG. 5 shows part of a p-well 102 formed in an n-type silicon substrate 101. Memory cells M 11 to M 14 constituting a NAND cell are such that floating gates 104 (104 1 to 104 4 ) are formed of a polysilicon film above the p-well 102 with a first gate insulating film interposed therebetween and further above the floating gates, control gates 106 (106 1 to 106 4 ) are formed of polysilicon via a second gate insulating film, with the n-type diffusion layers 109 in the p-well 102 serving as sources and drains. The control gates 106 of the individual memory cells are formed consecutively in the row direction to provide word lines (CG1 to CG4 in FIG. 2). Between the memory cells, the n-type diffusion layers 109 to serve as sources and drains are formed and connected in series so that the source and drains may be shared by adjacent cells, thereby forming a NAND cell. In the select transistors S 12 , S 13 , floating gates (charge accumulation layers) 140 2 , 140 3 are formed of a polysilicon film above the p-well 102 with a third gate insulating film thicker than the first gate insulating film interposed therebetween. Thereon, control gates 160 2 , 160 3 are formed of a polysilicon film with a fourth gate insulating film interposed therebetween. The floating gates 140 and control gates 160 are formed at the same time when the floating gates 104 and control gates 106 in the memory cell section are formed, respectively. The n-type diffusion layers 109 formed on both sides of the floating gates are determined to be the source and drain regions, thereby forming transistors. The select transistors S 11 , S 14 have only control gates 160 1 , 160 4 formed above the p-well 102 with the third gate insulating film interposed therebetween as gate electrodes. The control gates 160 1 , 160 4 are also formed at the same time that the control gates 106 in the memory cell section are formed. A bit-line contact 108a is connected to an n-type diffusion layer 109a (bit-line diffusion layer) formed at the same time that the n-type diffusion layers 109 are formed. FIG. 6 is a sectional view taken along line 6--6 of FIG. 2. In the figure, two select transistors formed in the p-well on the n-type substrate 101 are shown. The portions of the first gate insulating films 131 separated by element isolating regions 110 are the select transistor formation regions. The first gate insulating films 131 are formed of a thermal oxide film of silicon (a dielectric constant of 3.9) to a thickness of, for example, 25 nm. The select transistor at the left of the figure is a depletion-mode transistor, where an n - diffusion layer 121 is formed directly under the first gate insulating film 131. In the transistor, a floating gate 141 of polysilicon is formed to a thickness of 200 nm on the first gate oxide film 131, and a select gate electrode 161 of polysilicon is formed to a thickness of 300 nm via a second gate oxide film 151 (of a thickness of 25 nm) formed of an ONO (Oxide-Nitride-Oxide) film (a dielectric constant of 5.0). Since the gate electrode 161 sandwiches the floating gate 141 interposing the first gate insulating film (25 nm) and the second gate insulating film (25 nm) between itself and the n - diffusion layer 121, the virtual gate insulating film can be made about twice as thick as the right-side transistor, thereby reducing a parasitic capacitance viewed from the gate electrode 161. The n - diffusion layer 121 is formed by ion-implanting, for example, As to a concentration of 1×10 18 atoms/cm 3 and connected to the source and drain regions 109, before the first gate insulating film 131 is formed. As a result, the transistor is always on. The transistor in that condition is the same as a resistor. Because of ease of manufacturing, such transistor form is used. The right-side transistor is an enhancement-mode transistor, where the gate electrode 161 extends and directly contacts the first gate oxide film 131. On the gate electrode 161, the interlayer insulating film 107 is formed, on which the bit line 108 is further formed of an aluminium wire. The interlayer insulating film 107 is a SiO 2 film (a dielectric constant of 3.9) or a BPSG film formed by CVD techniques. The insulating film is made as thick as 1000 nm in the left-side depletion-mode transistor portion as well. Therefore, the coupling capacitance between the gate electrode 161 and the bit line 108 is so small that it can be ignored, as compared with the coupling capacitance between the bit-line diffusion layer 109a and the gate electrode 161, formed via an n + diffusion layer 121. With the above configuration, the capacitance between the bit-line diffusion layer 109a and the select gate electrode 161 decreases, thereby suppressing fluctuations in the potential of the select gate due to the capacitive coupling. While in the embodiment, the thickness of the first gate oxide film is the same in both of the right and left transistors, the gate oxide film may be formed so as to have a different thickness between the enhancement-mode type and the depletion-mode type. Furthermore, the pair of select transistors on the source-line (SL) side, S 13 +S 14 or S 23 +S 24 may be replaced with a single enhancement-mode transistor as shown by the equivalent circuit in FIG. 7, whereby either memory cell unit can be selected. Hereinafter, a second to sixth embodiments of the present invention will be explained. The basic configuration of the memory cell section in these embodiments is the same as that in FIG. 4 except for the configuration of the select transistor. Thus, in the embodiments explained below, only the select transistor portion will be described. Except for the specially described parts, the parts indicated by the same reference numerals are formed of the same material, in the same dimensions, and by the same manufacturing method. (Embodiment 2) A NAND-cell EEPROM according to a second embodiment of the present invention will be described with reference to FIG. 8. FIG. 8 corresponds to the sectional view of FIG. 6 in the first embodiment. The same parts as those in FIG. 6 are indicated by the same reference numerals and a repeated explanation of them will not be given. In the second embodiment, the configuration of the left-side depletion-mode transistor is the same as that in the first embodiment and the gate electrode of the right-side enhancement-mode transistor is such that an electrode 142 formed at the same time that the floating gates 141 of the depletion-mode transistors is electrically brought into contact with the select electrode 161 and then stacked. With this configuration, the capacitance between the bit line 108 (or the bit-line diffusion layer 109a) and the select gate electrode 161 decreases, thereby suppressing fluctuations in the potential of the select gate due to the capacitive coupling. (Embodiment 3) A NAND-cell EEPROM according to a third embodiment of the present invention will be described with reference to FIGS. 9 and 10. FIGS. 9 and 10 correspond to the sectional views of FIG. 6 and 5 in the first embodiment, respectively. The same parts as those in FIGS. 5 and 6 are indicated by the same reference numerals and a repeated explanation of them will not be given. In the third embodiment, the thickness of the first gate insulating film 131 of the right-side enhancement-mode transistor of FIG. 9 is 25 nm, whereas the first gate insulating film 132 of the left-side depletion-mode transistor is made as thick as 50 nm. Directly under the first gate insulating film 132 of the left-side transistor, an n - diffusion layer 121 is formed. On the first gate insulating films 131, 132, a first gate electrode (of a thickness of 200 nm) of polysilicon, a second gate insulating film 151 (of a thickness of 25 nm) made of an ONO film, and a second gate electrode 161 (of a thickness of 300 nm) of polysilicon are formed in that order. The first gate electrode 143 is in contact with the second gate electrode 161 in a not-shown place to become a select gate line (In FIG. 10, to make it easy to understand, the two electrodes are connected with a line, but they are actually not connected in that place). Further by forming an interlayer insulating film 107 (of a thickness of 1000 nm) by CVD techniques and a bit line 108 on the select gate, the select transistor portion is constructed. With this configuration, the capacitance between the select gate 161 and the n + diffusion layer 121 decreases, thereby suppressing fluctuations in the potential of the select gate due to the capacitive coupling. (Embodiment 4) A NAND-cell EEPROM according to a fourth embodiment of the present invention will be described with reference to FIG. 11. FIG. 11 corresponds to the sectional view of FIG. 6 in the first embodiment. The same parts as those in FIG. 6 are indicated by the same reference numerals and a repeated explanation of them will not be given. In the fourth embodiment, the gate oxide film 133 of the left-side depletion-mode transistor is formed of an element isolation insulating film (of a thickness of 500 nm). The bit-line diffusion layer 109a is approximately connected to the n-type diffusion layer 109 in the memory cell by means of an n + diffusion layer 121 directly under the gate insulating film 133. With this configuration, the capacitance between the select gate 161 and the n + diffusion layer 121 decreases, thereby suppressing fluctuations in the potential of the select gate due to the capacitive coupling. (Embodiment 5) A NAND-cell EEPROM according to a fifth embodiment of the present invention will be described with reference to FIG. 12. FIG. 12 corresponds to the sectional view of FIG. 6 in the first embodiment. The same parts as those in FIG. 6 are indicated by the same reference numerals and a repeated explanation of them will not be given. In the fifth embodiment, a SiO 2 insulating film 133 is further deposited on the gate oxide film 131 of the depletion-mode transistor to a thickness of, for example, 300 nm by CVD techniques, whereby the gate capacitance of the depletion-mode select transistor is reduced. With this configuration, the capacitance between the select gate 161 and the n + diffusion layer 121 decreases, thereby suppressing fluctuations in the potential of the select gate due to the capacitive coupling. (Embodiment 6) A NAND-cell EEPROM according to a sixth embodiment of the present invention will be described with reference to FIGS. 13 and 14. FIGS. 13 and 14 correspond to the sectional views of FIG. 6 and 5 in the first embodiment, respectively. The same parts as those in FIGS. 5 and 6 are indicated by the same reference numerals and a repeated explanation of them will not be given. In FIG. 13, in the substrate, for example, 100 nm below the gate oxide film 131 of the depletion-mode transistor, an n + diffusion layer 122 is formed, bringing a portion directly under the gate oxide film 131 into the p-type. The n + diffusion layer 122 is formed by a similar method to that by which the n + diffusion layer 121 is formed in the first embodiment. Specifically, As is ion-implanted at an acceleration voltage of, for example, 200 KeV to control the As concentration to, for example, 1×10 18 atoms/cm 3 . Then, the diffusion layer 122 is connected to the source and drain regions 109 of the select transistors (FIG. 14). This causes the depletion-mode transistor to always turn on, regardless of the gate voltage. The formation of the n + diffusion layer 122 deep in the substrate causes the distance from the select gate 161 to increase, thereby reducing the capacitance between the select gate 161 and the bit line 108 approximately connected to the source and drain regions 109 via the bit-line contact 108a. Hereinafter, a seventh to thirteenth embodiments according to the present invention will be explained. The layout and equivalent circuit of these embodiments are the same as those shown in FIGS. 2 and 3 except that the element isolating region is formed by trench isolation and the select transistor is characterized by configuration. FIG. 15 is a sectional view of memory cells in the case where the element isolating regions are based on trench isolation. In a p-well 202 formed in an n-type substrate 201, element isolating regions 210 of a trench structure are formed, and above the p-well 202 floating gates 204 are formed with a first gate insulating film 203 interposed therebetween. Furthermore, a control gate 206 is formed interposing a second gate insulating film 205 and a bit line 208 is formed interposing an interlayer insulating film 207. There may be a case where the gate electrodes and trench isolation are formed in a self-aligning manner. FIG. 16 is a plan view of a memory cell unit in such a case. The configuration of FIG. 16 is almost the same as that of FIG. 2 except that the former is characterized in that the shaded portions indicating the floating gate formation regions of memory cells do not extend into the element isolating region 210. Numeral 208 indicates a bit line and 208a a bit-line contact. FIG. 17 is a sectional view of a memory cell section, taken along line 17--17 of FIG. 16. In the region sandwiched by trench isolating regions 210 at the top of a p-well 202 formed in an n-type substrate 201, a first gate insulating film 203 and a floating gate 204 on the film are formed in a self-aligning manner. Furthermore, a second gate insulating film 205, a control gate 206, and an interlayer insulating film 207 are formed in that order. A bit line 208 is formed on the interlayer insulating film 207 so as to cover two columns of memory cells. The present invention is characterized by the configuration of the select transistor and the seventh to thirteenth embodiments will be explained, centering on the configuration of the select transistor. (Embodiment 7) A NAND-cell EEPROM according to the seventh embodiment of the present invention will be described with reference to FIGS. 18 and 19. FIG. 18 is a sectional view of part of the p-well 202 formed in the n-type silicon substrate 201, taken along line 18--18 of FIG. 16. Memory cells M 11 to M 14 constituting a NAND cell are such that above the p-well 202, floating gates 204 (204 1 to 204 4 ) of a polysilicon film are formed with a first gate insulating film 203 interposed therebetween and control gates 206 (206 1 to 206 4 ) of a polysilicon film are formed interposing a second gate insulating film 205 above the floating gates, with the n-type diffusion layers 209 formed at the surface of p-well 202 serving as the source and drain regions. The control gates 206 of the individual memory cells are formed consecutively in the row direction to produce word lines (CG1 to CG4 in FIG. 16). Between the individual memory cells, the n-type diffusion layers 209 serving as the source and drain regions are formed, and the source and drain regions are connected in series in such a manner that they may be shared by the adjacent cells, thereby forming a NAND cell. In the select transistors S 11 , S 14 , first gates 241 1 , 242 4 of a polysilicon film are formed interposing a third gate insulating film 231 above the p-type well 202, and second gates 261 1 , 261 4 of a polysilicon film are formed directly on the first gates, thus forming stacked select gates. In the select transistors S 12 , S 13 , first gates 241 2 , 241 3 of a polysilicon film are formed interposing the third gate insulating film 231 above the p-type well 202, and second gates 261 2 , 261 3 of a polysilicon film are formed interposing a fourth gate insulating film 251 above these first gates, thus forming stacked select gates. Numeral 208a indicates a bit-line contact, which is connected to the n-type diffusion layer 209a (bit-line diffusion layer). FIG. 19 is a sectional view taken along line 19--19 of FIG. 16, showing two select transistors. Specifically, in the p-well 202 formed in the n-type substrate 201, two select transistors separated by trench isolation 210 are formed. The left-side transistor is a depletion-mode transistor, in which an n + diffusion layer 221 is formed under a first gate insulating film (of a thickness of 25 nm) of a thermal oxide film of silicon. The diffusion layer 221 is formed by, for example, ion-implanting As to a concentration of 2×10 18 atoms/cm 3 . Furthermore, on the first gate insulating film 231, a floating gate 241 (of a thickness of 400 nm) of polysilicon is formed and a select gate 261 (of a thickness of 300 nm) of polysilicon is formed interposing a second gate insulating film 251 (of a thickness of 25 nm) of an ONO film above the floating gate. The right-side transistor is an enhancement-mode transistor and is the same as the left-side transistor in that the floating gate 241 is formed on the first gate oxide film 231 and except that the floating gate 241 is directly connected to the select gate 261. On the select gate 261, a SiO 2 interlayer insulating film 207 (of a thickness of 1000 nm) is formed by CVD techniques and a bit line 208 of polysilicon is formed so as to cover two transistors on the interlayer insulating film. The configuration is similar to that in the second embodiment of FIG. 8 and produces a similar effect to that in the second embodiment. (Embodiment 8) A NAND-cell EEPROM according to an eighth embodiment of the present invention will be described with reference to FIG. 20. FIG. 20 corresponds to the sectional view of FIG. 19 in the seventh embodiment. The same parts as those in FIG. 19 are indicated by the same reference numerals and a repeated explanation of them will not be given. Except for the specially described parts, the parts indicated by the same reference numerals of FIG. 19 are formed of the same material, in the same dimensions, and by the same manufacturing method. The configuration of the eighth embodiment is similar to that of the seventh embodiment, but differs from the latter in that the right-side select transistor has no floating gate and the select gate 261 is formed directly on the first gate oxide film 231. This configuration produces a similar effect to that in the first embodiment. (Embodiment 9) A NAND-cell EEPROM according to a ninth embodiment of the present invention will be described with reference to FIGS. 21 and 22. FIGS. 21 and 22 correspond to the sectional views of FIGS. 19 and 18 in the seventh embodiment, respectively. The same parts are indicated by the same reference numerals and a repeated explanation of them will not be given. With the configuration of the ninth embodiment, the left-side select transistor of FIG. 21 has no floating gate and the select gate 261 is formed above an n + diffusion layer 221 interposing a thick gate insulating film 233 (of a thickness of 200 nm) formed of an embedded insulating film for trench isolation (e.g., a SiO 2 film formed by CVD techniques using TEOS). This configuration can produce a similar effect to that in the fifth embodiment. (Embodiment 10) A NAND-cell EEPROM according to a tenth embodiment of the present invention will be described with reference to FIG. 23. FIG. 23 corresponds to the sectional view of FIG. 19 in the seventh embodiment. The same parts as those in FIG. 19 are indicated by the same reference numerals and a repeated explanation of them will not be given. With the configuration of the tenth embodiment, the left-side select transistor has no floating gate but has a thicker gate insulating film 210 (of a thickness of 700 nm) formed of an embedded insulating film for trench isolation between the select gate 261 and the n + diffusion layer 221. This configuration produces a similar effect to that in the fourth embodiment. (Embodiment 11) A NAND-cell EEPROM according to an eleventh embodiment of the present invention will be described with reference to FIG. 24. FIG. 24 corresponds to the sectional view of FIG. 19 in the seventh embodiment. The same parts as those in FIG. 19 are indicated by the same reference numerals and a repeated explanation of them will not be given. In the eleventh embodiment, while in the select transistor, the floating gate 241 is in contact with the select gate 261, in the left-side depletion-mode transistor, an n + diffusion layer 222 is formed in a place, for example, 100 nm below the surface of the channel formation region (p-type layer) sandwiched by trench isolation 210. The n + diffusion layer 222 is formed in the same manner as the n + diffusion layer 221 of FIG. 19, is connected to the source and drain regions of the select transistor, and always is on, regardless of the gate voltage. This configuration produces a similar effect to that in the sixth embodiment. (Embodiment 12) A NAND-cell EEPROM according to a twelfth embodiment of the present invention will be described with reference to FIG. 25. FIG. 25 corresponds to the sectional view of FIG. 19 in the seventh embodiment. The same parts as those in FIG. 19 are indicated by the same reference numerals and a repeated explanation of them will not be given. In the select transistor of the twelfth embodiment, the floating gate 241 is in contact with the select gate 261, which is similar to the eleventh embodiment. In the twelfth embodiment, an n + layer 223 is formed in the sidewall of the channel formation region (p-type layer) sandwiched by trench isolation 310 in the left-side depletion-mode transistor. The n + layer 223 is formed by ion-implanting As at a concentration of, for example, 1×10 18 atoms/cm 3 before the embedded insulating layer for trench isolation is embedded. The diffusion layer 223 is connected to the source and drain regions of the select transistor and is always on, regardless of the gate voltage. This configuration produces a similar effect to that in the sixth embodiment. (Embodiment 13) Hereinafter, referring to FIGS. 26A to 26E, a NAND-cell EEPROM according to a thirteenth embodiment of the present invention and a method of manufacturing such EEPROMs will be explained. In the thirteenth embodiment, as shown in FIG. 26E, the left-side depletion-mode select transistor has a thick gate insulating film 232 and a floating gate electrode 242, and further an n + diffusion layer 222 formed in the substrate below the gate insulating film 232. The select transistor is manufactured as follows. As shown in FIG. 26A, for example, As is selectively ion-implanted in a p-well 202 formed in an n-type substrate 201 at, for example, 200 KeV so that the As concentration may be 1×10 18 atoms/cm 3 , thereby forming an n + diffusion layer 222. Then, the gate insulating film 232 in the left-side transistor portion is formed to a thickness of 50 nm by thermal oxidation, and the gate insulating film 231 in the right-side transistor portion is formed to a thickness of 20 nm so that the left-side gate insulating film may be thicker than the right-side one. On these insulating films, a polysilicon film 240 is formed to a thickness of 400 nm by CVD techniques. Then, a SiO 2 film 290 is formed to a thickness of 200 nm by CVD techniques. Next, as shown in FIG. 26B, the SiO 2 film 290, polysilicon film 240, gate insulating films 231, 232, and part of the surface of the p-well 202 in the trench element isolating section are etched away sequentially. This produces first gate insulating films 231, 232 and floating gates 241, 242. Thereafter, as shown in FIG. 26C, the surface of the p-well 202 is oxidized to a depth of, for example, 10 nm to form a SiO 2 film 233, and then, for example, a TEOS SiO 2 film is deposited to a thickness of, for example, 1000 nm. After that, etching back is done to form trench isolation 210. Then, as shown in FIG. 26D, on the floating gate 242 of polysilicon, an ONO film 251 is formed to a thickness of about 25 nm by oxidization and CVD techniques. Although he insulating film 251 is formed all over the memory cell section, it is selectively removed above the right-side enhancement-mode transistor. Thereafter, polysilicon 261a is deposited to a thickness of, for example, 200 nm and then, for example, a WSi film 261b is deposited, thereby forming a stacked select gate line 261. Next, as shown in FIG. 26E, a SiO 2 interlayer insulating film 207 is deposited to a thickness of 1000 nm by CVD techniques. On the insulating film, a bit line 208 is formed. With the present embodiment, because the left-side select transistor to become a depletion-mode transistor has the thick gate insulating film 232 and the floating gate electrode 242 and further an n + diffusion layer 222 formed deep under the gate insulating film 232, a parasitic capacitance between the select gate 261 and the bit line 208 (bit-line diffusion layer) can be made smaller and consequently the potential of the select transistor can be placed at a specific value practically without being affected by the potential of the bit line. Above-described embodiments according to the present invention are applied to NAND-cell type EEPROMs. However, the present invention is not limited to the NAND structure. The following embodiments are concerned with the applications to DINOR and AND type EEPROMs. (Embodiment 14) An equivalent circuit of the memory cell array according to the fourteenth embodiments of this invention is shown in FIG. 27, wherein parallelly connected memory cell array so called AND type is shown. An end of a first memory cell array which includes parallelly connected 32 memory cells M100-M131 is connected to a bit line D0 arranged in a column direction through select transistors S 11 and S 12 , and another end of the first memory cell array is connected to a source line SL through a select transistor S 13 . An end of a second memory cell array which includes parallelly connected 32 memory cells M200-M231 is connected to the same bit line D0 through select transistors S21 and S22, and another end of the second memory cell array is connected to the source line SL through a select transistor S23, as well. In this embodiment select transistors S13 and S23 may be omitted, whereby a DINOR type EEPROM is formed. Select gate lines ST1-ST3 are connected to the gate electrodes of the select transistors in a row direction, respectively. Control gate lines W0-W31 are connected the gate electrodes the memory cells in the row direction, respectively. D0-DN denote the bit lines formed on the select gate lines and the control gate lines with an insulating layer interposed therebetween. Select transistors S11, S13, S22 and S23 are enhancement-mode transistors, and S12 and S21 are depletion-mode transistors, respectively. These transistors are provided to select either one of the first and second memory cell arrays. The constructions of the select transistors as shown in the embodiments 1-13 can be applied to the select transistors for such parallelly connected memory cells as mentioned above. Specifically, the depletion-mode transistors S12 and S21 may have the the gate constructions such as each including a floating gate, or having a substantially thick gate oxide layer, or having a n- diffusion layer formed deeply under the gate electrode, thereby decreasing a parasitic capacitance between the bit line and the selection gate electrode. (Embodiment 15) An equivalent circuit of the memory cell array according to the fifteenth embodiments of this invention is shown in FIG. 28, wherein parallelly connected memory cell array so called Virtual Grand Array type is shown. An end of a first memory cell array which includes series- and parallel-connected 64 memory cells M100-M131 and M200-M231 is connected to a bit line BL1 arranged in a column direction through select transistors S11 and S12. An end of a second memory cell array which includes series- and parallel-connected 64 memory cells M300-M331 and M400-431 is connected to the same bit line BL1 through select transistors S21 and S22. Source or drain regions each commonly owned by the series-connected memory cells adjacent to each other are coupled to a bit line BL2 through select transistors S13 and S14, or S23 and S24. Select gate lines ST1-ST4 are connected to the gate electrodes of the select transistors in a row direction, respectively. Control gate lines W0-W31 are connected the gate electrodes the memory cells in the row direction, respectively. BL1-BL3 denote the bit lines formed on the select gate lines and the control gate lines with an insulating layer interposed therebetween. Select transistors S11, S13, S22 and S24 are enhancement-mode transistors, and S12, S14, S21 and S23 are depletion-mode transistors, respectively. These transistors are provided to select either one of the first and second memory cell arrays. The constructions of the select transistors as shown in the embodiments 1-13 can be applied to the select transistors for such parallelly connected memory cells as mentioned above. Specifically, the depletion-mode transistors S12, S14, S21 and S23 may have the the gate constructions such as each including a floating gate, or having a substantially thick gate oxide layer, or having a n- diffusion layer formed deeply under the gate electrode, thereby decreasing a parasitic capacitance between the bit line and the selection gate electrode. The present invention is not limited to the above embodiments. While in the embodiments, the explanation has been given using NAND-cell, DINOR, AND and Virtual Grand Array type EEPROMs as examples, the invention may be applied to various types of EEPROMs other than the above-mentioned EEPROMs. Specifically, the present invention is not restricted to the control-gate-type EEPROM, but may be applied to NAND-cell EEPROMs using MNOS memory cells. In the case of what is called a mask ROM where a MOS transistor into which data is written permanently by channel ion implantation is used as memory, the invention can be applied to the mask ROM, provided that the mask ROM is formed so as to have a NAND structure. Furthermore, the invention may be applied to the FACE type having diffusion layer bit lines. Additionally, the invention may be practiced or embodied in still other ways without departing from the spirit or essential character thereof. As described above in detail, by reducing the capacitance between the gate electrodes of the select transistors connected to the memory cell units and the bit lines, the potential of the select transistors can be stabilized, making it possible to realize a nonvolatile semiconductor memory device which enables a higher-speed, more stable operation. Additional advantages and modifications will readily occur to those skilled in the art. Therefore, the invention in its broader aspects is not limited to the specific details, and representative devices shown and described herein. Accordingly, various modifications may be made without departing from the spirit or scope of the general inventive concept as defined by the appended claims and their equivalents.

A nonvolatile semiconductor memory device has reduced parasitic capacitance at a select transistor obtained by providing a depletion-mode select transistor with a charge accumulation layer, virtually making a gate insulating film thicker, or providing under the gate insulating film a channel layer that is of a same conductivity type as that of a source and drain regions and connects thereto, thereby enabling the potential of the select gate to be almost fixed at a desired value, preventing a faulty operation and making it possible to cause the select transistor to operate at high speed.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] This application is a continuation of International Patent Application No. PCT/CN2006/002284, filed Sep. 5, 2006, which claims priority to Chinese Patent Application No. 200510098749.5, filed Sep. 5, 2005, and Chinese Patent Application No. 200610034249.X, filed Mar. 8, 2006, all of which are hereby incorporated by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0002] The present invention relates to a service activation technology, and in particular, to a method and a device for implementing a service activation operation. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0003] With the maturation of the packet switching technology, the traditional telecommunication network based on circuit switching is now developed in a direction of the broadband telecommunication network based on packet switching, and one of the developing trends of the prior art is adopting Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) as the call control signaling in the packet switched telecommunication core network. For example, the Internet Protocol Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) network defined by the 3 rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) standard organization is used as the core network of the Next Generation Network (NGN) at present by the Telecommunication Standardization Sector of the International Telecommunications Union (ITU-T) and European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI), where the call control signaling adopted by the IMS network is SIP. [0004] There are two modes when a user activates a service according to different service types, i.e., a permanent mode, in which the service is activated for all the calls, and a temporary mode, in which the service is activated for an individual call request, i.e., a temporary activation. For the former mode, when the service is activated, the service may be effective for all the calls. For example, when an “Originating Identification Presentation” service is activated, this service is effective for all the incoming calls of the user. For the latter mode, when the service is activated, this service is only effective for a specified call, and when the specified call is released, the service becomes invalid immediately or after a specified period of time, such as a “Temporary mode of Originating Identification Restriction.” Specifically, the service activation modes may be approximately classified into four categories: [0005] 1) Subscription Activation [0006] When a user subscribes with an operator for a service through a certain manner, this service may be used without the necessity of performing any operation. For example, for the “Originating Identification Presentation” service, when the user subscribes with the operator for this service, this service may be used directly. [0007] 2) Registration Activation [0008] After a user subscribes with an operator for a service, this service may be used only when a registration request operation for the application of this service is initiated via a terminal and a man machine interface and the operation is successfully accomplished. For example, for a “Call Forwarding On Busy” service, when the user is successfully registered on the terminal, only the incoming call that satisfies a condition may be forwarded because of the application of this service. Generally, the user may initiate a cancellation request operation via a man machine interface operation corresponding to the “registration activation”, so as to cancel the registration for the service, i.e., “activation cancellation.” The user may also verify whether a service is registered via a certain operation, i.e., “activation verification”. [0009] 3) Temporary Activation [0010] When a user wants to use a service temporarily for a specific call, the service may be activated temporarily via a terminal and a man machine interface operation, so that the service may be used for a designated specified call. When the specified call ends, the network may cancel this service application automatically. For example, for an “Abbreviated Dialing Call” service, after the user has registered an abbreviated number successfully on the terminal, when a call is to be initiated for this abbreviated number, it should be indicated via the terminal during the call that the abbreviated dialing call service is used in this call. The “Temporary mode of Originating Identification Restriction” service is another example. [0011] 4) Temporary Deactivation [0012] Similar to the “temporary activation”, the user may also initiate a service activation operation of “temporary deactivation”, so as to indicate that the application of a service may be deactivated temporarily for a specified call. For example, a user has registered and activated a “Call Waiting” service. When initiating a first call, the user may indicate via an operation on the terminal that the application of call waiting should be deactivated temporarily for the current call. Thus, when the call is established, the user may not be influenced by a new incoming call. [0013] Obviously, different service activation modes imply different manners with which a network triggers a service. Generally, three kinds of information, i.e., service type, operation type and supplementary information, are included in the service activation modes. [0014] At present, in a packet switched telecommunication network architecture in which SIP is used as the call control signaling of the core network, the service activation is implemented as follows: a new SIP message parameter, such as a new SIP header field or a service subscription event packet is added for the service, and a configuration is performed on a SIP terminal by the user. When the service is temporarily activated, a message carrying the header field or the event packet is sent to the network. [0015] For example, in the Telecommunications and Internet Converged Services and Protocols for Advanced Networking (TISPAN) of ETSI, for implementing services of “Malicious Call Trace” and “Call Back On Busy” that can be temporarily activated, a Malicious Call Identification (MCID) event packet and a Completion of Communication sessions to Busy Subscriber (CCBS) event packet need to be added in SIP, so as to represent the operation indication of temporary activation of the “Malicious Call Trace” service and the “Call Back On Busy” service. Then the user performs configuration on a SIP terminal. When the user wants to temporarily activate one of the above services, a SIP message carrying the MCID event packet or the CCBS event packet is sent to the network, and then the “Malicious Call Trace” service or the “Call Back On Busy” service may be temporarily activated. [0016] In another example, when the temporary activation of an “Advice of Charge (AoC)” service is to be implemented in TISPAN, a P-AoC header field needs to be added in the SIP message to indicate the AoC service, and the P-AoC header field needs to be configured on the SIP terminal by the user, so as to temporarily activate the AoC service when a call is initiated. [0017] Besides the AoC service, ten Public Switched Telephone Network/Integrated Service Digital Network simulation (PSTN/ISDN Simulation) services are defined in TISPAN, and two services are taken as examples for illustrating the implementing process. [0018] With respect to the activation operation of an Originating Identification Restriction (OIR) service, a SIP header field Privacy is used for carrying the operation indication, and is configured on the user terminal by the user. The specific description of this service may be obtained from the relevant draft and will not be described in detail here. [0019] With respect to the subscription of a Message Waiting Indication (MWI) service, which belongs to the registration activation, an event packet message-summary defined in a SIP header field Event is used for carrying the operation indication, and is configured on the user terminal by the user. The specific description of this service may be obtained from the relevant draft and will not be described in detail here. [0020] It can be seen from above that in TISPAN, it is attempted to satisfy requirements of different service activation modes through adding different SIP header fields or event packets for each service activation mode, and performing configuration on the user terminal by the user. In other words, the service connotation of the service activation mode should be understood by the user terminal, and the user terminal should identify the trigger content of the service and instruct the network to perform the corresponding service triggering. For example, the user terminal identifies the P-AOC header field, and the network triggers the AoC service according to the P-AOC header field. [0021] Obviously, although only eleven Simulation services are defined in TISPAN at present, it cannot be anticipated by TISPAN what new service application may appear in the future. Therefore, the user terminal also encounters the problem of upgrading due to the extension of a new service. For example, an operator puts forward a fee discount service, in which a lower fee may be charged, but the quality of communication is also worse. When a user initiates a call, the service activation mode “temporary activation” may be used for activating this service in the current call. According to the principle of TISPAN, a new SIP header field has to be extended for identifying the fee discount service. [0022] In the existing methods for implementing the service activation operation, a dedicated activation mode needs to be configured for each service that is to be activated, i.e., a new SIP header field or event packet needs to be extended for identifying the service. Thus, following problems may be brought about. [0023] 1. The service request comes from the operator, but it is impossible for the operator to anticipate all the activation services at one time. Therefore, each time when a new activation service is put forward, a new SIP header field or event packet should be extended, so as to identify the new activation service. For a SIP user terminal, the new service may only be used after upgrading the user terminal. Thus, the operation cost is increased, and inconvenience may be brought about when the SIP user terminal uses the activation service, which is not beneficial for the extension of the service. [0024] 2. Even if a plurality of service activation functions may be configured for a SIP user terminal during the development of the SIP user terminal, the SIP user terminal should also be able to support different service activation modes besides the basic functions, because the activation modes of the services are different. Therefore, the development cost of the SIP terminal is increased. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0025] The present invention provides a method for implementing the service activation operation, which facilitates the popularization of the new service and may reduce the manufacturing cost of the user terminal. [0026] The present invention further provides a user terminal adapted to implement the method according to the invention, with which the manufacturing cost of the user terminal may be reduced and the popularization of the new service may be facilitated. [0027] The specific technical schemes of the present invention are as follows: [0028] A method for implementing a service activation operation, including: [0029] putting service activation information input by a user into a service activation information element of a service activation message, and sending the service activation message to a network, wherein the service activation information element is adapted to carry information required by various service activation operations; and [0030] triggering, by the network, the service activation operation according to the service activation information received. [0031] The service activation information includes: a service type, adapted to identify different services; and/or an operation type, adapted to identify different operations performed for the services. [0032] The service activation information further includes: supplementary information; and the supplementary information comprises: a user number and/or a password and/or time. [0033] The service activation message is a Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) message; and the SIP message includes: a SIP INVITE message, a SIP INFO message, a SIP SUBSCRIBE message, a SIP INSTANT MESSAGE and a SIP REGISTER message; or [0034] the service activation message is a Hyper Text Transport Protocol (HTTP) message. [0035] The service activation message is a SIP message; and [0036] the service activation information element is a parameter in a Request-Uniform Resource Identifier and/or a To header field in the SIP message. [0037] The service activation information element is a newly added header field or an event packet of the SIP message. [0038] The Request-Uniform Resource Identifier in the SIP message carries a public service identifier or a user identifier. [0039] The service activation message is an HTTP message; and [0040] the service activation information is carried with an eXtended Markup Language Configuration Access Protocol message or a Simple Object Access Protocol message. [0041] On a call control node in the network, a trigger rule of the information in the service activation information element corresponding to different services is preconfigured; and a method for triggering the service activation operation is: [0042] triggering the service activation message to a corresponding service control node through a trigger rule matching information carried in the service activation message, when the call control node receives the service activation message. [0043] A user terminal, comprising: [0044] a configuring unit, adapted to provide a user with an operation interface, and receive service activation information input by the user that is required for a service activation operation; [0045] a controlling unit, adapted to write the service activation information received by the configuring unit into a service activation information element in a service activation message, wherein the service activation information element is adapted to carry the service activation information required for various service activation operations; and [0046] a sending unit, adapted to send the service activation message generated. [0047] The controlling unit writes the service activation information into an extended parameter in a Request-Uniform Resource Identifier and/or a To header field in a SIP message. [0048] The controlling unit writes the service activation information into a newly extended header field or event packet in the SIP message. [0049] The controlling unit writes the service activation information into a Simple Object Access Protocol message or an eXtended Markup Language Configuration Access Protocol message that belongs to HTTP messages. [0050] The user terminal is a SIP user terminal device; and [0051] the configuring unit, controlling unit and sending unit are arranged on the SIP user terminal device. [0052] The user terminal comprises a terminal device in a traditional circuit switched domain and a corresponding SIP proxy device; and [0053] the configuring unit is arranged on the terminal device in the traditional circuit switched domain, and the controlling unit and the sending unit are arranged on the SIP proxy device. [0054] It can be seen from above technical schemes that with the solution provided by the invention, in a packet switched core network where SIP is used as the call control signaling, when the SIP terminal supports fundamental functions, or when the SIP terminal has a fixed extension support that is applicable for all the service activation modes, the corresponding service activation operation may be performed on the terminal without the necessity of performing different extensions for different service activation operations, i.e., it is not required to perform different extension support for different service activation operations by the SIP terminal. Therefore, the manufacturing cost and selling price of the SIP terminal may be reduced. [0055] Furthermore, when the operator puts forward a new service, it is not required to extend a new SIP header field or event packet, i.e., it is not required to upgrade the SIP terminal to support the new service. Therefore, it is avoided that the implementation of a service activation mode depends on the extension support of the terminal. Thus, the operating cost of the new service may be saved, the usage of the SIP terminal may be facilitated, and it is beneficial for the popularization of the new service. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0056] FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram showing the networking of a packet switched core network; [0057] FIG. 2 is a flow chart for implementing a service activation mode according to the invention; and [0058] FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram showing the structure of a terminal device according to the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE EMBODIMENTS [0059] The core idea of the present invention is: putting service activation information, which is input by a user, into a service activation information element of a service activation message that is adapted to carry information required for various service activation operations; sending the service activation message to the network; and identifying, by the network, the trigger content of the service activation according to the service activation information received, so as to implement triggering the service activation operation. [0060] In order to make the object, technical scheme and advantages of the invention more apparent, the invention is described in detail in conjunction with drawings and preferred embodiments hereinafter. [0061] In the invention, the service activation modes as described specifically refer to the registration activation, temporary activation and temporary deactivation. [0062] FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram showing the networking of a packet switched core network, where SIP is used as the call control signaling. As shown in FIG. 1 : [0063] A SIP terminal is a user terminal device that supports the SIP protocol and provides a packet switched network interface. [0064] An access control node is a network node that provides the SIP terminal with functions of the packet switched core network such as registration, authorization and authentication. The terminal is registered on different call control nodes, and when the terminal initiates a call, the access control node routes the call to a call control node that the terminal pertains to. When the access control node and the call control node are different network entities, the interface E 1 between them is a SIP interface. Optionally, when the access control node and the call control node are combined in one network entity, the interface E 1 is a SIP interface or a user-defined internal interface. [0065] The call control node provides the SIP terminal that accesses the packet switched core network with functions such as call control and routing. The call control node may trigger a call to a service control node. The interface E 3 between the two call control nodes is a SIP interface. [0066] The service control node provides the SIP terminal that accesses the packet switched core network with various service logic control functions, and provides an execution environment for hosts of various services. When the service control node and the call control node are in different network entities, the interface E 2 between them be a SIP interface; and when the service control node and the call control node are combined in one network entity, the interface E 2 is a SIP interface or a user-defined internal interface. There may exist a plurality of service control nodes that process different services, such as an AoC service control node for processing the AoC service and an MWI service control node for processing the MWI service. [0067] In the packet switched core network shown in FIG. 1 , on a call control node, the information in the service activation information element is preconfigured to be one of the trigger rules that correspond to different services. When receiving the service activation message forwarded by the access control node, the call control node triggers the service activation message to a corresponding service control node through matching the information carried in the service activation message. [0068] In the invention, the service activation message may be a SIP message, such as SIP INVITE message, SIP INFO message, SIP SUBSCRIBE message, SIP MESSAGE message, SIP REGISTER message. Optionally, the service activation message may also be a Hyper Text Transport Protocol (HTTP) message (in the IMS standard, there may exist HTTP interface(s) between the SIP terminal and the network server providing the service). In the service activation message, the service activation information element for carrying the information required by various service activation operations may be a Request-URI of the SIP request line and/or To header field, or may be a fixed extended header field that is applicable for all the service activation modes. The service activation information includes the service type for identifying different services and/or operation type for identifying the operation that is performed for the service. Furthermore, the service activation information may also include supplementary information. [0069] In the SIP protocol, the identifier of the receiving device of a session request (called party) that is input through key-press by the user may be carried via the Request-URI of the SIP request line and To header field. This is one of the basic functions of the SIP terminal. Therefore, if the service activation information that is required for realizing the service activation mode may be carried in the Request-URI and/or To header field, the SIP terminal may not be required to be extended. [0070] In the SIP protocol, there are three formats for identification of the receiving device of the session request, i.e., SIP-URI, SIPS-URI and absolute URI. SIP-URI and SIPS-URI have similar description formats: [0000] SIP-URI =  “sip:” [ userinfo ] hostport  uri-parameters [ headers ] SIPS-URI =  “sips:” [ userinfo ] hostport  uri-parameters [ headers ] ............................... uri-parameters = *( “;” uri-parameter) uri-parameter = transport-param / user-param / method-param / ttl-param / maddr-param / lr-param / other-param .................................................. other-param =  pname [ “=” pvalue ] ................................................. [0071] According to the description, SIP-URI and SIPS-URI have the same uniform resource identifier parameter, uri-parameter. The parameter uri-parameter may have a plurality of expressions. Therefore, an other-param without an explicit definition may be configured to be an expression that has an explicit definition. Optionally, an expression of the uri-parameter with an explicit definition may be newly added, such as: [0072] srv-param=srv-type, srv-op [,sub-info] [0073] srv-type=“srv=” [0074] (“aoc”/“mwi”/“oir”/other-type) [0075] other-type=token [0076] srv-op=“op=” [0077] (“register”/“cancel”/“verify”/“apply”/“non-apply”/other-op) [0078] other-op=token [0079] sub-info=sub-info-param *(COMMA sub-info-param) [0080] sub-info-param=generic-param [0081] Here srv-type, srv-op and sub-info represent three kinds of information respectively, i.e., service type, operation type and supplementary information. Several examples are given with respect to the value of srv-type, such as AoC service, MWI service and OIR service. These services are all described and defined in TISPAN standards. [0082] Several examples are also given with respect to the value of srv-op, such as register, cancel, verify, apply, i.e. “temporary activation”, and non-apply, i.e. “temporary deactivation”. [0083] Sub-info may be one or more character strings with uncertain meanings, such as user number, password and time. The meaning of these character strings in each service activation mode is identified by the network. The aforementioned srv-param may also be used for the absolute uniform resource identifier (absolute URI), where the srv-param is added at the end of the absolute URI with a separator “?”. [0084] For example, the user terminal calls [email protected], and temporarily activates the application of the AoC service at the same time. Thus, the SIP request line and To header field of this outgoing call session may be described as follows: [0085] INVITE sip:[email protected]; srv=aoc, op=apply SIP/2.0 [0086] To: <sip: [email protected]; srv=aoc, op=apply> [0087] In another example, the user terminal subscribes for the MWI service from a mailbox [email protected], then the SIP request line and To header field of the subscription may be described as follows: [0088] INVITE sip:[email protected]; srv=mwi, op=register SIP/2.0 [0089] To: <sip:[email protected]; srv=mwi, op=register> [0090] FIG. 2 is a flow chart for implementing the service activation mode according to the invention. As shown in FIG. 2 , the information required for the service activation operation is carried by the Request-URI in the INVITE message, and the main processing procedure for implementing the service activation mode is as follows. [0091] Process 200 : A user calls [email protected], and activates the application of the AoC service; the user terminal initiates a call session, and the SIP request line of the outgoing call session is described as follows: [0092] INVITE sip: [email protected]; srv=aoc, op=apply SIP/2.0 [0093] Process 201 : A call control node receives the INVITE message, and triggers the call session to the service control node that processes the AoC service according to the information “srv=aoc” contained in the request line Request-URI in the INVITE message. [0094] Process 202 : The service control node receives the INVITE message, determines that the user requests to temporarily activate the AoC service for application in the current call according to the information “op=apply” contained in the Request-URI, and performs corresponding subsequent control processing. [0095] Similarly, a new SIP header field P-Service is extended directly, and the service activation information may be carried in the header field. The description format of the above srv-param may be used again for the format of the P-Service header field. The processing procedure of the INVITE message is the same as shown in FIG. 2 , and the difference is that the call control node and the service control node obtain the service activation information from the P-Service header field in the INVITE message, so as to identify the specific service activation operation. According to the description, although the user terminal needs to support the newly extended SIP header field, this header field is applicable for all the services, i.e., it is not required to perform different extension adaptation for the service activation modes of different services. For example, when the user inputs a called user ID through key-press, the terminal interface displays parameters of the service activation mode such as “srv” actively, and prompts the user to input a specific parameter value such as “aoc.” Optionally, the user may press a shortcut key representing this parameter actively, and then input a specific parameter value such as “aoc.” The specific parameter value may also be supported by the terminal. For example, the terminal provides menu items directly, which display parameter values such as “aoc” to the user for selection. [0096] In order to make the invention applicable for all the service activation modes of the service, the key point is that the required description manner of the service activation information should be universal. The specific analysis is as follows. [0097] 1. Besides the text description manner such as “aoc” presented in the above embodiment, it is also possible to use the service characteristic code directly to describe the service type. For example, the service characteristic code of Call Forwarding On Busy is “40” according to the standard in China. Therefore, when the user registers for the “Call Forwarding On Busy” service, the corresponding SIP request line may be described as follows: [0098] INVITE sip:[email protected]; srv=40, op=register, 26540808 SIP/2.0 [0099] Therefore, the “service type” is pretty universal. [0100] 2. According to the above analysis, the operation type already includes five service activation modes, i.e., registration, cancellation, verification, temporary activation, temporary deactivation, and thus is universal. [0101] 3. The description format of the supplementary information includes one or more character strings with uncertain meanings, the specific meaning of these character strings in each service activation mode is identified by the network, and the terminal does not understand the specific meaning of these character strings. Therefore, the description format is universal. For example, for the registration of the “Call Forwarding On Busy” service in the above example, the user input 26540808 directly, and the network interprets that this is a forwarding number input by the user according to the service type and the operation type. [0102] Certainly, some commonly used descriptions of the “supplementary information” may be further specified, such as num (number), pin (password), t (time) and 1 (service level). The registration of the “Call Forwarding On Busy” service in the above example may be described as follows: [0103] INVITE sip:[email protected]; srv=40, op=register, num=26540808 SIP/2.0. [0104] Hereinafter, it is taken as an example that the service characteristic code is used to describe the service type, so as to illustrate the specific implementing process of the method according to the invention. The following description will be presented for two cases. [0105] The first case: the user performs service activation after a SIP session call is already initiated, the user maintains the existing call, and initiates a service activation message. [0106] When the service activation message is a SIP INVITE message, the destination address of the Request-URI of the message is a service ID for representing the attribute of the service activation. The service ID may be a public service ID (PSI) representing the attribute of the service activation, such as a traditional telecommunication service ID [email protected], or may be presented as an activation service ID [email protected], or may also be the aforementioned [email protected], etc. Furthermore, a parameter of the Request-URI or a header field is extended for transferring the service characteristic code. It is taken as an example that the user temporarily activates the “Malicious Call Trace” service, and it is hypothesized that the service characteristic code allocated to the service by the network is *33: [0107] (1) If the service activation message transfers the service characteristic code by extending a parameter, for example, when an additional input parameter input-param is extended in the uri-parameters in the Request-URI for transferring the service characteristic code, the service activation message may be as follows: [0108] INVITE sip:[email protected]; input-param=*33 SIP/2.0 [0110] (2) If the service activation message transfers the service characteristic code by extending a header field of the service activation message, such as the header field P-SRV-INFO, the service activation message may be as follows: [0111] INVITE sip:[email protected] SIP/2.0 P-SRV-INFO: *33 [0113] (3) If the service activation message extends the event header field, and transfers the service characteristic code with a service ID event packet in the event header field, for example, when the service ID event packet of the Subscription header field is represented as srv-id, and an ID parameter id-param in the event packet is used for transferring the service characteristic code, the service activation message may be as follows: [0114] INVITE sip:[email protected] SIP/2.0 [0115] Subscription: srv-id; id-param=*33 [0116] Optionally, the service characteristic code may be used as the name of the event packet in the header field directly. An example is as follows: [0117] INVITE sip:[email protected] SIP/2.0 [0118] Subscription: *33 [0119] Furthermore, when the service activation message is a SIP INVITE message, the service characteristic code may also be used as the public service ID in this message directly, so as to be used as the destination address of the Request-URI of the service activation message and represent the attribute of service activation without the necessity of extending the parameter or header field. For example: [0120] INVITE sip:*[email protected] SIP/2.0 [0121] Similarly, when the service activation message is a SIP INFO message, a parameter of the Request-URI or header field may be extended for transferring the service characteristic code. Optionally, the service characteristic code may be used directly as a public service ID, which is used as the destination address of the Request-URI and represents the attribute of service activation, without the necessity of extending the parameter or header field. It is still taken as an example here that the user temporarily activates the “Malicious Call Trace” service, then the service temporary activation message may be as follows: [0122] INFO sip:[email protected]; input-param=*33 SIP/2.0 or, [0124] INFO sip:[email protected] SIP/2.0 P-SRV-INFO: *33 or, [0126] INFO sip:[email protected] SIP/2.0 Subscription: srv-id; id-param=*33 or, [0128] INFO sip:*[email protected] SIP/2.0 [0129] When the service activation message is a SIP SUBSCRIBE message, it is taken as an example that the user temporarily activates the “Malicious Call Trace” service. [0130] (1) If the service activation message uses the PSI as the Request-URI, for example, when the service ID event packet of the Event header field is represented as srv-id, and an ID parameter id-param is used in the event packet for transferring the service characteristic code, the service activation message may be as follows: [0131] SUBSCRIBE sip:[email protected] SIP/2.0 Event: srv-id; id-param=*33 [0133] Similarly, the service characteristic code may also be used as the name of the event packet in the header field directly. For example: [0134] SUBSCRIBE sip:[email protected] SIP/2.0 Event: *33 [0136] (2) If the service activation message uses the user ID of the SIP terminal as the Request-URI, for example, when the service ID event packet of the Event header field is represented as srv-id, and an ID parameter id-param is used in the event packet for transferring the service characteristic code, the service activation message may be as follows: [0137] SUBSCRIBE sip:[email protected] SIP/2.0 Event: srv-id; id-param=*33 [0139] The service characteristic code may also be used as the name of the event packet in the header field directly. For example: [0140] SUBSCRIBE sip:[email protected] SIP/2.0 Event: *33 [0142] (3) If the service activation message uses the service characteristic code as the public service ID directly, which is used as the destination address of the Request-URI, and meanwhile, a service activation event packet srv-active is extended in the Event header field, the service temporary activation message may be as follows: [0143] SUBSCRIBE sip:*[email protected] SIP/2.0 Event: srv-active [0145] When the service activation message is an HTTP message, the service parameter described with the eXtended Markup Language (XML) is allocated by the network to the service to be activated. At this point, the service activation message further includes the user ID. The service parameter and the user ID may be transferred with an XML Configuration Access Protocol (XCAP) message or a Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP) message. It should be noted that when the service activation information is transferred with the HTTP message, although different descriptions may exist for respective service activation, it is only required that the service control node supports this situation. The SIP terminal only performs display via a page (such as webpage), and no support of the terminal is required. [0146] The XCAP is taken as an example, and the description format is as follows: [0000] <xs:element name=“MCID” substitutionGroup=“ss:absService”> <xs:element name=“identity” type=“xs:anyURI” substitutionGroup=“cp:condition”/> <xs:element name=“action-type” type=“xs:boolean” substitutionGroup=“cp:action”/> [0147] Here “MCID” represents the application name of the “Malicious Call Trace” service; “identity” represents the ID number of the user who temporarily activates the service, and the data type is a uniform resource identifier of any format (anyURI); “action-type” represents the activation type, and the data type is a Boolean variable (Boolean), for example, when “action-type” is set to 1, it represents that the service is activated. The specific definition of XCAP may be obtained from the relevant standard documents of TISPAN and IETF and will not be described again here. [0148] The SOAP is taken as another example, and the description format is as follows: [0000] <SOAP-ENV:Body> <ServicesApplication> <ServiceName xsi:type=“xsd:string”>MCID</ServiceName> <identity xsi:type=“xsd:string”>[email protected]</identity> </SOAP-ENV:Body> [0149] Here, “ServicesApplication” represents the name of the process on a service application server that is called remotely by a terminal. The parameter of this process is “ServiceNam.e” When the value of this parameter is “MCID”, it represents a call of the “Malicious Call Trace” service. “identity” is another process parameter and represents the ID number of the user who activates the service. The specific definition of the SOAP may be obtained from the standard specification published by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), and will not be described again here. [0150] When the SIP session initiated by the user is an instant message service, the message extending manner may be the same as the extending manner in the case of a call service, and will not be described again here. [0151] The second case: a service is activated at the same time when the user initiates a SIP session. The user initiates a service activation message, and the service activation message initiates a call to a called party, i.e., the service activation message contains an explicit called party ID or an implicit called party ID. The explicit called party ID refers to a complete called number that can be routed and addressed directly, and the implicit called party ID refers to a called number such as an abbreviated number that needs to be further interpreted by the network. [0152] When the service activation message is a SIP INVITE message, it is taken as an example that the user temporarily activates the “Temporary mode of Originating Identification Restriction” service, and it is hypothesized that the service characteristic code allocated to the service by the network is *62, and the Request-URI is used as PSI, then there are following examples. [0153] (1) The service activation message transfers the service characteristic code by extending a parameter, for example, an additional input parameter input-param is extended in the uri-parameters in the Request-URI, the service activation message may be as follows: [0154] INVITE sip:[email protected]; [0155] input-param=*[email protected] SIP/2.0 [0156] Here [email protected] is the called party ID. [0157] (2) The service activation message transfers the service characteristic code by extending an service information input header field, for example, the header field is P-SRV-INFO, then the service activation message may be as follows: [0158] INVITE sip:[email protected] SIP/2.0 [0159] P-SRV-INFO: *[email protected] [0160] (3) The service activation message extends a header field Subscription, and transfers the service characteristic code via a service temporary activation event packet in the header field Subscription. For example, the service temporary activation event packet in the header field Subscription is represented as srv-op, and an operation input parameter set-param is used in the event packet for transferring the service characteristic code. Thus, the service activation message may be as follows: [0161] INVITE sip:[email protected] SIP/2.0 [0162] Subscription: srv-op; set-param=*[email protected] [0163] Similarly, the service characteristic code may be used as the name of the event packet in the header field directly, for example: [0164] INVITE sip:[email protected] SIP/2.0 [0165] Subscription: *62; [email protected] [0166] Furthermore, as stated in the first case, the service characteristic code may be used as the public service ID directly, which is used as the destination address of the Request-URI. For example, when the user temporarily activates the “Temporary mode of Originating Identification Restriction” service, the service activation message may be as follows: [0167] INVITE sip:*[email protected]; [email protected] SIP/2.0 [0168] or [0169] INVITE sip:*[email protected] SIP/2.0 [0170] P-SRV-INFO: [email protected] [0171] or [0172] INVITE sip:*[email protected] SIP/2.0 [0173] Subscription: srv-op; [email protected] [0174] Furthermore, the called party ID may be used as the destination address of the Request-URI directly. For example, when the user temporarily activates the “Temporary mode of Originating Identification Restriction” service, then: [0175] (1) The service activation message transfers the service characteristic code by extending a parameter, for example, an additional input parameter srv-id-param is extended in the uri-parameters in the Request-URI for transferring the service characteristic code, then the service activation message may be as follows: [0176] INVITE sip:[email protected]; srv-id-param=*62 SIP/2.0 [0177] (2) The service temporary activation message transfers the service characteristic code by extending a service ID header field. For example, the header field is P-SRV-ID, then the service activation message may be as follows: [0178] INVITE sip:[email protected] SIP/2.0 [0179] P-SRV-ID: *62 [0180] (3) The service temporary activation message extends the header field Subscription, and transfers the service characteristic code via a service ID event packet in the header field Subscription. For example, the service ID event packet in the header field Subscription is represented as srv-id, and an ID parameter id-param is used in the event packet for transferring the service characteristic code. Thus, the service activation message may be as follows: [0181] INVITE sip:[email protected] SIP/2.0 [0182] Subscription: srv-id; id-param=*62 [0183] Similarly, the service characteristic code may be used as the name of the event packet in the header field directly. For example: [0184] INVITE sip:[email protected] SIP/2.0 [0185] Subscription: *62 [0186] When the service activation message is SIP MESSAGE, the message extending manner may be the same as that in the call service, and will not be described again here. [0187] The service characteristic code is taken as an example in above description to illustrate the exemplary methods for activating the service by the user after a call session is established or during the establishment of a call session. These methods are also applicable for other service type description formats, such as the aforementioned text description manner, such as “aoc”. [0188] FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram showing the structure of a terminal device according to the invention. As shown in FIG. 3 , a user terminal 30 for implementing the method according to the invention includes a configuring unit 300 , a controlling unit 310 and a sending unit 320 . It should be noted that other function units for accomplishing the existing fundamental functions are not shown in FIG. 3 . [0189] The configuring unit 300 is adapted to provide the user with an operation interface, and receive service activation information input by the user that is required for the service activation operation. [0190] The controlling unit 310 is logically connected with the configuring unit 300 , and is adapted to write the service activation information received by the configuring unit 300 into a service activation information element in the service activation message. The service activation information element is adapted to carry the service activation information required for various service activation operations. [0191] The sending unit 320 is adapted to send the service activation message generated. [0192] According to the invention, the user terminal may be a SIP user terminal device. At this point, the configuring unit 300 and the controlling unit 310 as well as the sending unit 320 are arranged on the terminal device. Optionally, the user terminal may be constituted with a terminal device in the traditional circuit switched domain and a corresponding SIP proxy device. The terminal device in the traditional circuit switched domain may be a Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS) terminal or an ISDN terminal, and the SIP proxy device is a device that is connected to and controls the terminal device in the traditional circuit switched domain in downlink, and provides a SIP interface in uplink, such as a SIP Integrated Access Device (IAD) and an Access Gateway Control Function (AGCF) device. At this point, the configuring unit 300 is arranged on the terminal device in the traditional circuit switched domain, and the controlling unit 310 and sending unit 320 are arranged on the SIP proxy device. For example, the user may input the service activation information via key-press on a POTS terminal or an ISDN terminal to activate a service. When receiving the service activation information, the SIP proxy device converts the service activation information received into a service activation message such as a SIP INVITE message, a SIP SUBSCRIBE message or a SIP INFO message according to the method provided by the invention, and sends the message to the network. [0193] Only the preferred embodiments of the invention are described above, which are not intended to restrict the protection scope of the present invention. Therefore, any modification, substitution or improvement made within the principle of the present invention should be included in the protection scope of the present invention.

A method for realizing service activation operation. The method comprises: attaching the service activation information inputted by a user in service activation information field for taking each service activation operation required information in service activation message, and transmitting the information to network side, the network side identifies the initial content of service activation according to the received service activation information so that realizing initiating for service activation operation. The present invention also discloses a terminal device, the terminal device comprises a set unit and a control unit and a transmission unit. With the present invention, the terminal can complete the corresponding service activation operation as long as SIP terminals support basic function or SIP terminals through a expanding support of fixed and adapted to all service activation operation mode, in packet central network which call control signaling is SIP, without needing the SIP terminal performs different expanding supports for activation operation of different services, and reducing the manufacture cost and sale price of a SIP terminal.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/079,138, filed May 14, 1998, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,338,663. GOVERNMENT RIGHTS This invention was made with government support under Contract No. DABT63-93-C-0025 awarded by Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA). The government has certain rights in this invention. TECHNICAL FIELD This invention relates in general to field emission displays for electronic devices and, in particular, to improved cathodoluminescent layers for field emission displays. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION FIG. 1 is a simplified side cross-sectional view of a portion of a display 10 including a faceplate 20 and a baseplate 21 in accordance with the prior art. FIG. 1 is not drawn to scale. The faceplate 20 includes a transparent viewing screen 22 , a transparent conductive layer 24 and a cathodoluminescent layer 26 . The transparent viewing screen 22 supports the layers 24 and 26 , acts as a viewing surface and forms a hermetically sealed package between the viewing screen 22 and the baseplate 21 . The viewing screen 22 may be formed from glass. The transparent conductive layer 24 may be formed from indium tin oxide. The cathodoluminescent layer 26 may be segmented into pixels yielding different colors to provide a color display 10 . Materials useful as cathodoluminescent materials in the cathodoluminescent layer 26 include Y 2 O 3 :Eu (red, phosphor P-56), Y 3 (Al, Ga) 5 O 12 :Tb (green, phosphor P-53) and Y 2 (SiO 5 ):Ce (blue, phosphor P-47) available from Osram Sylvania of Towanda PA or from Nichia of Japan. The baseplate 21 includes emitters 30 formed on a surface of a substrate 32 , which may be a semiconductor such as silicon. Although the substrate 32 may be a semiconductor material other than silicon, or even an insulative material such as glass, it will hereinafter be assumed that the substrate 32 is silicon. The substrate 32 is coated with a dielectric layer 34 that is formed, in one embodiment, by deposition of silicon dioxide via a conventional TEOS process. The dielectric layer 34 is formed to have a thickness that is approximately equal to or just less than a height of the emitters 30 . This thickness may be on the order of 0.4 microns, although greater or lesser thicknesses may be employed. A conductive extraction grid 38 is formed on the dielectric layer 34 . The extraction grid 38 may be, for example, a thin layer of polysilicon. An opening 40 is created in the extraction grid 38 having a radius that is also approximately the separation of the extraction grid 38 from the tip of the emitter 30 . The radius of the opening 40 may be about 0.4 microns, although larger or smaller openings 40 may also be employed. In operation, the extraction grid 38 is biased to a voltage on the order of 100 volts, although higher or lower voltages may be used, while the substrate 32 is maintained at a voltage of about zero volts. Signals coupled to the emitter 30 allow electrons to flow to the emitter 30 . Intense electrical fields between the emitter 30 and the extraction grid 38 then cause emission of electrons from the emitter 30 . A larger positive voltage, ranging up to as much as 5,000 volts or more but generally 2,500 volts or less, is applied to the faceplate 20 via the transparent conductive layer 24 . The electrons emitted from the emitter 30 are accelerated to the faceplate 20 by this voltage and strike the cathodoluminescent layer 26 . This causes light emission in selected areas, i.e., those areas adjacent to the emitters 30 , and forms luminous images such as text, pictures and the like. When the emitted electrons strike the cathodoluminescent layer 26 , compounds in the cathodoluminescent layer 26 may be dissociated, causing outgassing of materials from the cathodoluminescent layer 26 . When the outgassed materials react with the emitters 30 , their work function may increase, reducing the emitted current density and in turn reducing display luminance. This can cause display performance to degrade below acceptable levels and also results in reduced useful life for displays 10 . Residual gas analysis indicates that the dominant materials outgassed from some types of cathodoluminescent layers 26 include hydroxyl radicals. The hydroxyl radicals reacting with the emitters 30 leads to oxidation of the emitters 30 , and especially to oxidation of emitters 30 formed from silicon. Silicon emitters 30 are useful because they are readily formed and integrated with other electronic devices on the substrates 32 when the substrate is silicon. Electron emission is reduced when silicon emitters 30 oxidize. This leads to time-dependent and/or degraded performance of displays 10 . In conventional cathode ray tubes (“CRTs”), some scrubbing of the cathodoluminescent screen is typically carried out after the tube is sealed using an electron gun of the type contained in a CRT. “Scrubbing,” as used here, means to expose the cathodoluminescent layers (e.g., cathodoluminescent layer 26 ) to an electron beam until a predetermined charge per unit area has been delivered to the cathodoluminescent layer 26 . This scrubbing is carried out at a very low duty cycle and at a very low current density because the electron beam is rastered over the area of the cathodoluminescent screen. It is also carried out at the same current levels that the CRT is expected to support in normal operation, typically 100 microamperes/cm 2 or less. However, this approach will not work for scrubbing cathodoluminescent layers 26 for the displays 10 , in part because the emitters 30 in the displays 10 are poisoned by the chemical species evolving from the cathodoluminescent layer 26 in response to the scrubbing operation. Moreover, the cathodoluminescent layer 26 is typically much less than a millimeter away from the emitters 30 , i.e., the mean free path for any gaseous chemical species evolving from the cathodoluminescent layer 26 is much larger than the distance separating the cathodoluminescent layers 26 from the emitters 30 . In contrast, the electron gun used to scrub cathodoluminescent layers in a CRT are not adversely affected by this chemical species and electron guns are, as a rule of thumb, displaced from the cathodoluminescent screen by a distance approximately equal to the diagonal dimension of the CRT screen. There is therefore a need for a technique to prevent evolution of oxygen-bearing compounds from cathodoluminescent screens in field emission display faceplates. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In accordance with one aspect of the invention, a low voltage, high current, large area cathode for electron scrubbing of cathodoluminescent layers is described. The electron scrubbing is particularly advantageous for use with cathodoluminescent screens of field emission displays having silicon emitters. The present invention includes an apparatus to irradiate a cathodoluminescent layer in a vacuum with an electron beam and a device to move the cathodoluminescent layer relative to the irradiating apparatus. The irradiation is stopped when a predetermined total Coulombic dose has been delivered to the cathodoluminescent layer. Significantly, the scrubbing results in a cathodoluminescent layer that does not outgas materials that are deleterious to performance of silicon emitters. This results in a more robust display and extended display life. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a simplified side cross-sectional view of a portion of a display. FIG. 2 is a simplified plan view of a portion of a low voltage, high current scrubbing device according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 3 is a simplified side cross-sectional view, taken along section lines III—III of FIG. 2, of one portion of the cathode of FIG. 2 . FIG. 4 is a simplified side cross-sectional view, taken along section lines IV—IV of FIG. 2, of another portion of the cathode of FIG. 2 . FIG. 5 is a simplified side cross-sectional view of the scrubbing device of FIGS. 2-4 together with the faceplate of FIG. 1 according to an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 6 is a flow chart describing steps in a scrubbing operation using the low voltage, high current cathode according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 7 is a simplified block diagram of a computer using the display having the scrubbed cathodoluminescent layer according to an embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Referring again to FIG. 1, when the cathodoluminescent layers 26 for displays 10 are scrubbed with high current density electron beams (i.e., greater than 0.1 milliampere/cm 2 , typically between one and ten milliamperes/cm 2 , and about two milliamperes/cm 2 in one embodiment) in a high vacuum, the cathodoluminescent layers 26 darken in a reversible manner. When the darkened cathodoluminescent layers 26 are baked in atmosphere at 700° C., the darkening disappears. Repeating the scrubbing process causes the cathodoluminescent layers 26 to darken again. When faceplates 20 having the darkened cathodoluminescent layers 26 are sealed into displays 10 using silicon emitters 30 , the emitters 30 do not degrade as is observed when untreated cathodoluminescent layers 26 are used. The darkening of the cathodoluminescent layer 26 suggests that a change in chemical composition of the cathodoluminescent layer 26 has taken place. Because these cathodoluminescent layers 26 do not cause degradation of the emitters 30 , the changes in the cathodoluminescent layers 26 due to electron bombardment appear to be beneficial. Because these changes can be reversed by baking the bombarded cathodoluminescent layers 26 in atmosphere, it is likely that the substance or substances causing degradation of the emitters 30 are also present in the atmosphere. Additionally, when faceplates 20 having the transparent conductive layer 24 but not the cathodoluminescent layer 26 are bombarded by electrons in displays 10 , there is no degradation of the efficiency of silicon emitters 30 in those displays 10 . These experiments show that the materials causing the efficiency degradation of silicon emitters 30 can be removed by prescrubbing the cathodoluminescent layers 26 with high current, low voltage electron beams prior to sealing the faceplates 20 with the cathodoluminescent layers 26 into the displays 10 . This process results in robust displays 10 . One way of efficiently prescrubbing the cathodoluminescent layers 26 uses a low voltage, high current scrubbing device 70 described below in conjunction with FIGS. 2 through 4. FIG. 2 is a simplified plan view of a portion of the scrubbing device 70 according to an embodiment of the present invention. The scrubbing device 70 includes posts 72 , each having one end of a wire cathode 74 coupled to it. The scrubbing device 70 also includes spring loaded contacts 76 coupled to posts 78 . Flexure of the bend in the contact 76 provides the spring loading. Each spring loaded contact 76 is coupled to a second end of one of the wire cathodes 74 . The couplings between the ends of the wire cathodes 74 and the posts 72 and 78 may be formed through conventional spot welding or any other suitable coupling providing electrical contact and mechanical support. The posts 72 are electrically and mechanically coupled to a first conductive base 80 . The posts 78 are electrically and mechanically coupled to a second conductive base 82 . The conductive bases 80 and 82 are mounted on to an insulating base 84 and are fastened to the base 84 by conventional means such as a conventional glass or ceramic frit that is fired in an oven. The wire cathodes 74 typically are tungsten wires having a diameter of 10-20 microns. The wire cathodes 74 are usefully coated with conventional “triple carbonate” to reduce the work function of the wire cathode 74 and thereby increase electron emissions by the wire cathodes 74 when the wire cathodes 74 are heated. The wire cathodes 74 are heated by a current that is passed between the conductive bases 80 and 82 via interconnections 86 and 88 , respectively. Although the wire cathodes 74 are heated to a temperature lower than that required in order to make them red hot, the wire cathodes 74 begin to emit significant numbers of thermionic electrons at this temperature. The heating also causes expansion of the wire cathodes 74 . The sagging of the wire cathodes 74 that would otherwise occur is avoided by the tension provided by the spring loading of the contacts 76 coupled to the posts 78 . A voltage is applied between the wire cathodes 74 and the transparent conductive layer 24 on the faceplate 20 . This voltage accelerates the thermionically-emitted electrons from the wire cathodes 74 towards the faceplate 20 . When these electrons arrive at the faceplate 20 , they have a kinetic energy equal to the voltage, but expressed in electron-volts. Optionally, a conductive plate 90 is formed on a surface of the insulating base 84 . A negative voltage applied to the conductive plate 90 may increase the efficiency of the scrubbing device 70 by repelling electrons that otherwise would travel from the wire cathodes 74 towards the insulating base 84 . In normal use, the scrubbing device 70 is placed within a vacuum system 92 , represented in FIG. 2 by a rectangle surrounding the scrubbing device 70 . In one embodiment, the vacuum system 92 is a load-locked system having a conveyor system for transporting the faceplates 20 , including the cathodoluminescent layers 26 , past the scrubbing device 70 . In one embodiment, the faceplates 20 are placed on the conveyor system such that the cathodoluminescent layer 26 faces upward, and the scrubbing devices 70 are mounted just above a plane of cathodoluminescent layers 26 such that the wire cathodes 74 are the part of the scrubbing device 70 that is closest to the cathodoluminescent layer 26 . Cathodes similar to scrubbing device 70 , but manufactured for use in vacuum fluorescent displays, and wire cathodes 74 , are commercially available from several sources. These cathodes may be ordered built to the buyer's specifications. The bonding layer 96 of FIGS. 3 and 4 is realized, in one embodiment, by screening a frit on to the conductive bases 80 and 82 and/or the insulating base 84 . The conductive bases 80 and 82 are placed in the desired position on the insulating base 84 . Firing the composite assembly in an oven then provides a robust mechanical bond between the conductive bases 80 and 82 and the insulating base 84 . FIG. 3 is a simplified side cross-sectional view, taken along section lines III—III of FIG. 2, of one portion of the scrubbing device 70 of FIG. 2 . This portion includes the post 72 with the wire cathode 74 electrically and mechanically coupled to a top end of the post 72 . A bottom end of the post 72 is electrically and mechanically coupled to the conductive base 80 . The conductive base 80 is mechanically coupled to the insulating base 84 via a bonding layer 96 . FIG. 4 is a simplified side cross-sectional view, taken along section lines IV—IV of FIG. 2, of another portion of the scrubbing device 70 of FIG. 2 . This portion includes the post 78 with the wire cathode 74 electrically and mechanically coupled to the spring-loaded contact 76 formed at a top end of the post 78 . A bottom end of the post 78 is electrically and mechanically coupled to the conductive base 82 . The conductive base 82 is mechanically coupled to the insulating base 84 via the bonding layer 96 . FIG. 5 is a simplified side cross-sectional view of the scrubbing device of FIGS. 2-4 together with the faceplate of FIG. 1 according to an embodiment of the invention. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 5, the vacuum system 92 encloses both the faceplate 20 and the scrubbing device 70 including the insulating base 84 and the wire cathode 74 . A voltage source 97 is electrically coupled between the wire cathode 74 of the scrubbing device 70 and the transparent conductive layer 24 of the faceplate 20 . The voltage source 97 supplies the bias that accelerates electrons from the wire cathode 74 to the cathodoluminescent layer 26 . In a first embodiment, the wire cathode 74 together with the other elements making up the scrubbing device 70 are moved above the faceplate 20 . In another embodiment, the scrubbing device 70 is maintained in a stationary position and the faceplate 20 is moved relative to the wire cathode 74 . In yet a third embodiment, both the scrubbing device 70 and the faceplate 20 may be in motion. In all of these embodiments, the objective is to deliver the predetermined electron dose to the cathodoluminescent layer 26 , and to do so in a way that is uniform across the area of the cathodoluminescent layer 26 . FIG. 6 is a flow chart describing steps in a scrubbing process 100 using the low voltage, high current scrubbing device 70 of FIGS. 2 through 5. In step 102 , the cathodoluminescent-coated faceplates 20 are placed flat, with the cathodoluminescent layer 26 up, on a conveyor system. In step 104 , the faceplates 20 are moved through a load lock and into the vacuum system 92 of FIG. 2 . This arrangement is used in one embodiment because a peripheral portion of the surface bearing the cathodoluminescent layer 26 on the faceplate 20 includes a layer of glass frit (not illustrated) that will be used to seal the faceplate 20 to the remainder of the display 10 . Therefore, it may not be feasible to handle the faceplates 20 by other than their front surface (i.e., the transparent insulating layer 22 ) at this stage in manufacturing. In step 104 , the faceplates 20 are swept along in the vicinity of (e.g., beneath) the scrubbing device or scrubbing devices 70 . Movement of the faceplates 20 relative to the scrubbing devices 70 tends to result in uniform electron doses and uniform scrubbing, despite local variations in electron flux. In step 106 , the faceplates 20 are bombarded with electrons at a current density of one to ten and preferably about two milliamperes/cm 2 . A return path for this current is provided via an electrical contact (not illustrated) to the transparent conductive layer 24 . The accelerating voltage may be chosen to be between 200 and 1,000 volts, although higher or lower voltages may be employed. In contrast to the methods employed in scrubbing of CRT screens, the accelerating voltage for the scrubbing operation for cathodoluminescent layers 26 for displays 10 may be chosen to be higher or lower than the operating accelerating voltage of the completed display 10 . In one embodiment, the scrubbing energy is varied in optional step 110 by dithering the acceleration voltage over a range that is preferably less than thirty percent, e.g., ten or twenty percent. In some applications, it may be desirable in step 110 to ramp the accelerating voltage, i.e., slowly vary the voltage from, e.g., 200 volts to 500 volts, and then reduce the voltage back to 200 volts. This causes the depth to which the particles forming the cathodoluminescent layer 26 are scrubbed to vary and allows removal of impurities from more than just the surface of the particles forming the cathodoluminescent layer 26 . Step 108 (and optionally step 110 ) is preferably carried out for five to twenty hours until it is determined in a query task 112 that a dose in the range of from five to twenty five Coulombs/cm 2 has been delivered to the cathodoluminescent layer 26 , although higher or lower doses may be employed. In one embodiment, a dose of seven to twenty Coulombs/cm 2 is used. When the query task 112 determines that the desired dose has been achieved, the scrubbing operation 40 ends and the scrubbed faceplate 20 may be incorporated into a display 10 via conventional fabrication procedures, provided that the scrubbed faceplate 20 is not allowed to re-absorb the species that were removed via the process 100 . When the query task 112 determines that the desired dose has not yet been achieved, steps 106 - 112 are repeated. The scrubbing process 100 may be accompanied by other processes for treating the cathodoluminescent layer 26 . The cathodoluminescent layers 26 may be vacuum baked at a temperature of 400 to 700° C. prior to the scrubbing process 100 to remove water and other contaminants. Atmospheric baking may be employed after a first scrubbing process 100 to remove contaminants and a second scrubbing process 100 may be carried out after the atmospheric baking. A hydrogen plasma may be used to clean and chemically reduce the cathodoluminescent layer 26 prior to or following the scrubbing process 100 . Chemical reduction reactions may also be employed, such as baking in a carbon monoxide atmosphere. Cooling may be required for some types of faceplates 20 during the scrubbing process 100 if the energy delivered to the faceplates 20 during scrubbing heats the faceplates 20 to excessive temperatures, e.g., over 500° C. Cooling may be effectuated by use of a duty cycle of less than 100% (i.e., the scrubbing device 70 supplying current less than 100% of the time) or via thermal conduction from the faceplate 20 through the conveyor system or both. For example, a duty cycle of one percent, 10%, 50% or up to 100% could be employed in view of scrubbing current requirements, heating concerns and any other issues. A number of scrubbing devices 70 may be “tiled” together to provide an arbitrarily large area for electron irradiation of the cathodoluminescent layers 26 . This allows cathodoluminescent layers 26 of any size to be scrubbed. For example, a rectangular or square faceplate 20 having a seventeen inch diagonal measurement may be scrubbed using an array of scrubbing devices 70 each individually having a smaller diagonal measurement but collectively providing a larger diagonal measurement. In such an arrangement, the scrubbing devices 70 are typically placed adjacent one another to provide a relatively: uniform current density over the total area of the faceplate 20 . The wire cathode 74 may be oriented so that it extends along the direction of travel of the cathodoluminescent layer 26 . This orientation may result in uneven treatment of the area of the cathodoluminescent layer 26 because of variations in incident electron flux, leading to areal variations in total Coulombic dose delivered to the cathodoluminescent layers 26 . In another embodiment, the wire cathode 74 may be oriented perpendicular to the direction of travel of the cathodoluminescent layers 26 . In one embodiment, the wire cathodes 74 are oriented at an oblique angle between 5° and 85°, e.g., 45°, to the direction of travel of the cathodoluminescent layers 26 . This may be effected by moving the cathodoluminescent layer 26 at an angle that is oblique to wire cathodes 74 oriented as illustrated in FIG. 2, or by orienting the wire cathodes 74 at an oblique angle on the insulating base 84 . It will also be appreciated that the insulating base 84 need not be rectangular but could be any shape. FIG. 7 is a simplified block diagram of a portion of a computer 120 using the display 10 fabricated as described with reference to FIGS. 2 through 6 and associated text. The computer 120 includes a central processing unit 122 coupled via a bus 124 to a memory 126 , function circuitry 128 , a user input interface 130 and the display 10 including the scrubbed cathodoluminescent layer 26 . The memory 126 may or may not include a memory management module (not illustrated). The memory 126 does include ROM for storing instructions providing an operating system and a read-write memory for temporary storage of data. The processor 122 operates on data from the memory 86 in response to input data from the user input interface 130 and displays results on the display 10 . The processor 122 also stores data in the read-write portion of the memory 126 . Examples of systems where the computer 120 finds application include personal/portable computers, camcorders, televisions, automobile electronic systems, microwave ovens and other home and industrial appliances. Field emission displays 10 for such applications provide significant advantages over other types of displays, including reduced power consumption, improved range of viewing angles, better performance over a wider range of ambient lighting conditions and temperatures and higher speed with which the display 10 can respond. Field emission displays 10 find application in most devices where, for example, liquid crystal displays find application. Although the present invention has been described with reference to a specific embodiments, the invention is not limited to these embodiments. Rather, the invention is limited only by the appended claims, which include within their scope all equivalent devices or methods which operate according to the principles of the invention as described.

Faceplates for field mission displays having novel cathodoluminescent layers are disclosed. In one embodiment a faceplate includes a transparent conductive layer, and a cathodoluminescent layer formed on the transparent conductive layer, the cathodoluminescent layer having been scrubbed by electron irradiation from an electron source with an electron current having a duty cycle in excess of ten percent, the electron current having a current density of greater than one-tenth milliampere per square centimeter while a voltage less than a thousand volts is maintained between the cathodoluminescent layer and the electron source. In one aspect, the transparent conductive layer may be formed on a transparent insulating viewing screen. In alternate aspects, the voltage maintained between the cathodoluminescent layer and the electron source may be dithered to treat the cathodoluminescent layer to varying depths. Significantly, the scrubbed faceplate has significantly enhanced performance and increased useful life compared to faceplates that have not been scrubbed.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is based upon and claims the benefit of priority from Japanese Patent Application JP 2010-127081, filed on Jun. 2, 2010, the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference. BACKGROUND 1. Technical Field The disclosed exemplary embodiments relate to an information processing apparatus, an information processing method, and a program, and in more detail, to an information processing apparatus, an information processing method, and a program that support effective use of functions provided by appliances. 2. Description of the Related Art In recent years, it has become increasingly common for desired functions to be provided by an appliance operating in combination with another appliance, such as when photographs stored on a PC (Personal Computer) in the home are viewed on a television set or when video stored by a video recorder is viewed on a television set in another room. Such appliances are connected to one another by a network such as an IP (Internet Protocol) Network, USB (Universal Serial Bus), or HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface), and as one example provide functions in accordance with guidelines such as DLNA (Digital Living Network Alliance, Registered Trademark). The functions provided by a combination of a plurality of appliances may for example be functions that use the characteristics of the respective appliances, and provide a variety of user experiences (UX). However, to make use of functions provided by a combination of a plurality of appliances, the user has to make settings of the respective appliances to be combined, which is complex. For example, at the development stage of the respective appliances, since it is not always possible to imagine what other appliances may be used in combination with a given appliance in the future, in many cases the operation manual of such appliance will not include the procedure for combining the appliance with other appliances. As a result, there have been cases where users have been unaware that functions are provided by a plurality of appliances in combination or where users have been aware but have had difficulty in setting the respective appliances, resulting in users being unable to make sufficient use of the functions provided by a combination of a plurality of appliances. For this reason, technologies for providing users with information relating to functions provided by a combination of a plurality of appliances have been developed. For example, Japanese Laid-Open Patent Publication No. 2003-022224 discloses a technology that displays functions that can be used in accordance with a user selection and/or usage history and transmits instructions required to provide a function selected by the user out of the displayed functions to a plurality of appliances to be combined. Also, Japanese Laid-Open Patent Publication No. 2009-146146 discloses a technology that acquires operation procedures required for functions that can be used from a plurality of appliances to be combined, displays the operation procedures, and executes the operation procedure required for a function selected by the user out of the displayed operation procedures on the plurality of appliances to be combined. SUMMARY However, when functions that can be used are presented to the user unconditionally as described in Japanese Laid-Open Patent Publication Nos. 2003-022224 and 2009-146146, it is necessary for the user to evaluate and select a function by himself/herself. For example, when a new appliance is purchased and connected to a network, to find out whether functions newly provided by combinations that include such new appliance are superior to the functions provided by combinations of the existing appliances, it has been necessary for the user to try out and evaluate the newly-provided functions. In addition, in keeping with the increase in the number of appliances that provide functions in combination with other appliances in recent years, it has become increasingly common for the same function to be provided by different combinations of appliances. In such case, it may require a lot of effort, knowledge and time for the user to actually try out different combinations to see which combination of appliances has the most superior performance, and doing so is difficult for all but those with special knowledge. In light of the foregoing, it is desirable to provide a novel and improved information processing apparatus, information processing method, and program that are capable of providing support so that a user can make appropriate use of functions provided by combinations of a plurality of appliances. Consistent with an exemplary embodiment, an apparatus includes an identification unit configured to identify a plurality of devices associated via a network, and a receiving unit configured to receive information corresponding to the associated devices. The information comprises a function provided by the associated devices and performance data corresponding to the associated devices. A generation unit is configured to generate a first value of an execution metric describing at least one of an execution of the function by the associated devices or the performance data corresponding to the associated devices, based on at least the received information, and an output unit is configured to output the first metric value. Consistent with an additional exemplary embodiment, a computer-implemented method evaluates device performance. The method includes identifying a plurality of associated devices, the associated devices being accessible to a user via a network, and receiving information corresponding to the associated devices. The information comprises a function provided by the associated devices and performance data corresponding to the associated devices. The method includes generating, using a processor, a first value of an execution metric describing at least one of an execution of the function by the associated devices or the performance data corresponding to the associated devices, based on at least the received information, and outputting the first metric value. Consistent with a further exemplary embodiment, a non-transitory, computer-readable storage medium stores a program that, when executed by a processor, causes the processor to perform a method for evaluating device performance. The method includes identifying a plurality of associated devices, the associated devices being accessible to a user via a network, and receiving information corresponding to the associated devices. The information comprises a function provided by the associated devices and performance data corresponding to the associated devices. The method includes generating, using a processor, a first value of an execution metric describing at least one of an execution of the function by the associated devices or the performance data corresponding to the associated devices, based on at least the received information, and outputting the first metric value According to the disclosed exemplary embodiments, it is possible to provide support so that a user can make appropriate use of functions provided by combinations of a plurality of appliances. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a diagram showing one example of the configuration of an information processing system, according to a first exemplary embodiment; FIG. 2 is a block diagram showing one example of the configuration of an information processing apparatus, according to the first exemplary embodiment; FIG. 3 is a flowchart showing one example of processing, according to the first exemplary embodiment; FIG. 4 is a diagram showing one example of an appliance selection screen, according to the first exemplary embodiment; FIG. 5 is a diagram showing one example of an appliance menu screen, according to the first exemplary embodiment; FIG. 6 is a diagram showing one example of an instruction manual screen, according to the first exemplary embodiment; FIG. 7 is a diagram showing one example of a linked function menu screen, according to the first exemplary embodiment; FIG. 8 is a diagram showing one example of a linked function details menu screen, according to the first exemplary embodiment; FIG. 9 is a diagram showing one example of a linked function details screen, according to the first exemplary embodiment; FIG. 10 is a diagram showing one example of a linked appliance selecting screen, according to the first exemplary embodiment; FIG. 11 is a diagram showing one example of a function evaluation screen, according to the first exemplary embodiment; FIG. 12 is a diagram showing a modification to the information processing system, according to the first exemplary embodiment; FIG. 13 is a diagram showing one example of a function selection screen, according to a second exemplary embodiment; FIG. 14 is a diagram showing one example of a combination evaluation screen, according to the second exemplary embodiment; and FIG. 15 is a diagram showing one example of the configuration of an information processing system, according to a third exemplary embodiment. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE EMBODIMENTS Hereinafter, exemplary embodiments will be described in detail with reference to the appended drawings. Note that, in this specification and the appended drawings, structural elements that have substantially the same function and structure are denoted with the same reference numerals, and repeated explanation of these structural elements is omitted. The following description is given in the order indicated below. 1. First Embodiment 1-1. System Configuration 1-2. Apparatus Configuration 1-3. Processing Flow 1-4. Examples of Display Screens 1-5. Example of Evaluation and Recommendation for Content Playback Function 1-6. Modification 2. Second Embodiment 3. Third Embodiment 4. Supplementary Information 1. First Embodiment 1-1. System Configuration A first exemplary embodiment will now be described with reference to FIGS. 1 to 11 . First, a system configuration according to a first exemplary embodiment will be described. FIG. 1 is a diagram showing one example configuration of an information processing system 10 according to the first exemplary embodiment. As shown in FIG. 1 , the information processing system 10 includes an information processing apparatus 100 , a network 200 , and a plurality of appliances 300 and a database 400 that are connected to the network 200 . The information processing apparatus 100 is connected to the network 200 . The information processing apparatus 100 has a function that communicates via the network 200 with the appliances 300 and the database 400 and supports functions provided by combinations of specified appliances 300 out of the plurality of appliances 300 so that users can make appropriate use of such functions. Although the information processing apparatus 100 has been illustrated as a PC, the information processing apparatus 100 is not limited to a PC, and as another example, may be a dedicated server apparatus that is provided on a home network or an external network. The information processing apparatus 100 may have a user interface for receiving inputs of selections, instructions, and the like from a user or outputting information to the user, and may use a user interface of an appliances 300 via the network 200 . Note that the configuration of the information processing apparatus 100 will be described later. The network 200 connects the information processing apparatus 100 , the appliances 300 , and the database 400 to one another. The network 200 connects the information processing apparatus 100 and the appliances 300 set up in the home to one another using as examples, a LAN (Local Area Network) that is an IP network, USB, or HDMI. The network 200 also connects the database 400 provided on an external network and the information processing apparatus 100 via an Internet connection, for example. A plurality of the appliances 300 (that is, a plurality of associated devices) are provided and each appliance 300 (that is, a associated device) can be used by a user. The appliances 300 include a television set 300 a , a video recorder 300 b , and NAS (Network Attached Storage) 300 c that is are set up in the home, and a mobile terminal 300 d . The appliances 300 may include all manner of appliances, such as an audio system, network media storage, and a networked hard-disk drive, that are capable of providing functions in combination with other appliances connected to the network. Any plural number of appliances 300 may be provided so that it is possible to combine the appliances 300 , with the number of the appliances 300 not being limited to the illustrated example. Here, as one example, the appliances 300 may be appliances that conform to DLNA (registered trademark). In DLNA (registered trademark), DMS (Digital Media Server) for storing content, DMP (Digital Media Player) for playing back content, DMR (Digital Media Renderer) for displaying content, M-DMU (Mobile Digital Media Uploader) for uploading content from a mobile device, M-DMD (Mobile Digital Media Downloader) that downloads content to a mobile device, and the like are defined as roles of respective appliances. For the example shown in FIG. 1 , the NAS 300 c functions as a DMS and by having the television set 300 a operate as a DMP, a function for playing back video content stored in the NAS 300 c on the television set 300 a is provided to the user. The database 400 is a database that is set up on an external network, for example in a server apparatus or the like. Information relating to the appliances 300 is stored in the database 400 . More specifically, information such as an appliance type (television set, PC, mobile terminal, or the like), a model number, standalone function information, and linked function information is stored in the database 400 . As examples, the linked function information includes function types (a video recording function, an image playback function, and the like), function names (character strings for displaying to the user), appliance types of linked devices, and information relating to connectivity (compatible protocols, i.e., whether appliances are compatible with DLNA (registered trademark), DTCP-IP (Digital Transmission Content Protection over Internet Protocol), AVC (Advanced Video Coding), HEAAC (High-Efficiency Advanced Audio Coding) and the like, for example). Such information that is stored in the database 400 may be registered by the manufacturer of the appliances 300 , for example. By setting up the database 400 on an external network, it becomes easy to add information relating to new appliances 300 and to update the information relating to existing appliances 300 . 1-2. Apparatus Configuration The apparatus configuration according to the first exemplary embodiment will now be described with reference to FIG. 2 . FIG. 2 is a block diagram showing an example configuration of the information processing apparatus 100 according to the first exemplary embodiment. As shown in FIG. 2 , the information processing apparatus 100 includes a communication unit 101 , an appliance recognizing unit 103 , an appliance information acquiring unit 105 , an evaluation unit 107 , a notification unit 109 , a storage unit 111 , an owned content information acquiring unit 113 , a usage history information acquiring unit 115 , a recommendation unit 117 , an appliance setting unit 119 , and a setting procedure information acquiring unit 121 . Out of the functional component elements of the information processing apparatus 100 described above, the appliance recognizing unit 103 , the appliance information acquiring unit 105 , the evaluation unit 107 , the notification unit 109 , the owned content information acquiring unit 113 , the usage history information acquiring unit 115 , the recommendation unit 117 , the appliance setting unit 119 , and the setting procedure information acquiring unit 121 may be implemented as hardware using a circuit configuration that includes one or more integrated circuits, for example, or may be implemented as software by having a program stored in the storage unit 111 executed by a CPU (Central Processing Unit). The storage unit 111 is realized by combining storage apparatuses, such as a ROM (Read Only Memory) or RAM (Random Access Memory), or removable storage media, such as optical discs, magnetic disks, or semiconductor memory, as necessary. The communication unit 101 communicates via the network 200 with the appliances 300 . The communication unit 101 also communicates via the network 200 with the database 400 . As examples, the communication unit 101 may be realized by a communication interface for a LAN as an IP network, or USB, or the like. The appliance recognizing unit 103 recognizes the appliances 300 via the communication unit 101 . More specifically, the appliance recognizing unit 103 communicates via the communication unit 101 with the appliances 300 connected to the network 200 and acquires information on the appliances 300 that can be used by the user. Note that it may be possible here for the user to use the respective appliances 300 themselves, and that it may also be possible for some or all of the functions provided by combinations of appliances 300 to not be useable. That is, according to the settings of the respective appliances 300 , the functions provided by combinations of the appliances 300 may include functions that are not useable by the user at the present time. A search for information on the appliances 300 that can be used by users may be carried out using a protocol such as UPnP (Universal Plug and Play) for example, or a search may be carried out based on direct input of a manufacturer name, model number, serial number, and the like by the user. The appliance recognizing unit 103 also communicates via the communication unit 101 with the respective appliances 300 that can be used by the user and acquires information relating to the states of the respective appliances 300 . One example of the information relating to the state of an appliance 300 is setting values and the like set in such appliance 300 . The appliance recognizing unit 103 may store a list of the appliances 300 found by the search in the storage unit 111 as a list of appliances in the home. The appliance recognizing unit 103 may also store the states of the appliances 300 in association with the appliance list in the storage unit 111 . In addition, the appliance recognizing unit 103 may notify the user of the list of found appliances 300 or the states of the appliances 300 via the notification unit 109 . For a combination of specified appliances 300 out of the appliances 300 (that is, a subset of the associated devices) recognized by the appliance recognizing unit 103 , the appliance information acquiring unit 105 acquires information relating to functions provided to the user by such combination of the appliances 300 as appliance information. The appliance information acquiring unit 105 also acquires information relating to the performance of such combination of the appliances 300 described above as appliance information. As one example, the appliance information acquiring unit 105 may communicate via the communication unit 101 and the network 200 with the database 400 and acquire appliance information from the database 400 . The appliance information acquiring unit 105 may also communicate via the communication unit 101 with the appliances 300 and acquire function information from the appliances 300 . Here, as examples, the appliance information acquired by the appliance information acquiring unit 105 may include information such as an appliance type, a model number, standalone function information, linked function information, and the like. As examples, the linked function information may include function types, function names, appliance types of associated devices (that is, linked devices), and information relating to connectivity. The appliance information acquiring unit 105 may store the acquired information in the storage unit 111 . In addition, the appliance information acquiring unit 105 may notify the user of the acquired appliance information via the notification unit 109 . Here, a “function” in the appliance information is an operation of the appliances 300 that provides some kind of user experience, such as “watch video”, “listen to music”, or “view photos” for example, and is also referred to as a “use case”. As the information relating to the function “play video content”, the appliance information includes information on a combination of appliances 300 that provide a function such as “provided by a combination of the television set 300 a and the NAS 300 c ” or information on a function name to be displayed to the user such as “displayed using ‘watch video’ character string”. As one example, the “performance of a combination of appliances 300 ” in the appliance information may be the performance when a function is provided by some combination of the plurality of appliances (that is, the subset of associated devices), such as “the combination of the television set 300 a and the NAS 300 c supports an AVC codec for playback of video content”. As one example, when a content playback function is provided by a combination of certain appliances 300 , format information on the content that can be played back or information on the power consumed by the respective appliances 300 may be acquired as the information on the performance of the combination of the appliances 300 in the appliance information. Note that the information included in the appliance information will be described later together with the relationship to the evaluations and recommendations made by the information processing apparatus 100 . The evaluation unit 107 evaluates one or both of a function and the performance of a combination of appliances 300 based on the appliance information acquired by the appliance information acquiring unit 105 . The expression “evaluation” here refers to determining the value of a function or a combination of the appliances 300 based on usefulness and the like to the user, for example (that is, the generation of a value of a metric describing an execution of the function by the associated devices). Here, if the owned content information acquiring unit 113 , described later, is provided, the evaluation unit 107 evaluates one or both of functions and the performance of combinations of the appliances 300 based also on owned content information acquired by the owned content information acquiring unit 113 . Similarly, when the usage history information acquiring unit 115 , described later, is provided, the evaluation unit 107 evaluates one or both of functions or the performance of combinations of the appliances 300 based also on usage history information acquired by the usage history information acquiring unit 115 . Note that the function or a combination of appliances 300 evaluated by the evaluation unit 107 does not necessarily need to be usable by the user at the present time. That is, the evaluation unit 107 may evaluate functions or the performance of combinations of the appliances 300 that is not be used by the user at the present time due to settings of the respective appliances 300 . The evaluation unit 107 may selectively focus on functions or combinations of the appliances 300 to be evaluated based on instructions from the user acquired via a user interface (not shown). Here, the evaluation unit 107 evaluates one or both of the functions and the performance of the combinations of the appliances 300 in accordance with specified evaluation rules. As with “playback of video on a large screen is preferred”, “playback of music on speaker system is preferred”, or “playback using codecs with high image or audio quality is preferred”, for example, evaluation rules may be decided so that functions or combinations of appliances 300 where a better user experience is expected are assigned higher evaluation scores (that is, higher values of the metrics). Such evaluation rules may be decided heuristically. The evaluation rules may be decided based on information on the static performance of combinations of the appliances 300 . For example, if the appliance information includes information on the power consumed by a combination of the appliances 300 , the evaluation rules may be decided from a resource-use viewpoint so that devices with low power consumption are assigned higher evaluation scores. In this case, the evaluation unit 107 will assign a high evaluation value according to low power consumption as the performance of a combination of the appliances 300 . Aside from the appliance information, the evaluation rules may also be decided based on the owned content information or the usage history information. The evaluation rules may be generated from information produced by gathering evaluations or rating scores of other users who have already used such function or combination of the appliances 300 on a network. Such evaluation rules may be set in advance and stored in the storage unit 111 , for example, or may be acquired from the database 400 on an external network. Note that examples of evaluation of functions and combinations of the appliances 300 are described later. The notification unit 109 generates notification information including a result of evaluation by the evaluation unit 107 . In addition to result of evaluation by the evaluation unit 107 , as one example the notification information may further include a function or a combination of the appliances 300 specified by the recommendation unit 117 described later, and/or setting procedure information acquired by the setting procedure information acquiring unit 121 , described later. In addition, the notification unit 109 outputs the generated notification information. The notification unit 109 may output the notification information as an image or may output notification information as a generated voice message. In addition, the notification unit 109 may notify the user of information relating to the appliances 300 recognized by the appliance recognizing unit 103 or the appliance information acquired by the appliance information acquiring unit 105 . In such case, based on the provided information, the user may indicate the functions or combinations of appliances 300 to be selectively evaluated by the evaluation unit 107 , for example. Here, the notification unit 109 may output the notification information via one of the appliances 300 , for example, the screen of the television set 300 a , via the communication unit 101 or the network 200 , for example. If the notification information is outputted via one of the appliances 300 , the user is capable of easily acquiring the notification information during a series of operations on the appliances 300 being used. Data that may be required for processing by the information processing apparatus 100 is stored in the storage unit 111 . As examples, an appliance list that is information on the appliances 300 recognized by the appliance recognizing unit 103 may be stored in the storage unit 111 and appliance information acquired by the appliance information acquiring unit 105 may be stored in the storage unit 111 . In addition, the results of evaluation by the evaluation unit 107 may be stored in the evaluation unit 107 . In the storage unit 111 , other data that has been acquired or generated by the information processing apparatus 100 may be temporarily or permanently stored. When various functions of the information processing apparatus 100 are implemented by software, a program that realizes such functions when executed by a CPU may be temporarily or permanently stored in the storage unit 111 . The owned content information acquiring unit 113 acquires user content information (that is, owned content information) relating to content owned by the user. The owned content information acquiring unit 113 is optionally provided in the information processing apparatus 100 in a case where functions including a playback function for content are evaluated by the evaluation unit 107 . As one example, the owned content information acquiring unit 113 communicates via the communication unit 101 with the NAS 300 c that operates as a DMS for DLNA (registered trademark) and acquires information relating to content stored in the NAS 300 c as the owned content information. Here, as one example, the owned content information may include information on the number of content items owned by the user. The owned content information may also include format information for the content items owned by the user. By providing the owned content information acquiring unit 113 , it becomes possible for the evaluation unit 107 to make more valid evaluations based on information on the content that is actually owned by the user. The usage history information acquiring unit 115 acquires usage history information relating to the user's usage history of functions or combinations of the appliances 300 . The usage history information acquiring unit 115 is optionally provided in the information processing apparatus 100 when it is desirable to evaluate functions or combinations of appliances 300 with consideration to the user's usage history. As one example, the usage history information acquiring unit 115 may communicate via the communication unit 101 with the respective appliances 300 and acquire usage history information stored in the respective appliances 300 . More specifically, the usage history information acquiring unit 115 may acquire the usage history information by setting the respective appliances 300 so as to transmit the usage history information stored in the respective appliances 300 to the usage history information acquiring unit 115 of the information processing apparatus 100 on a regular basis, such as once a day. Here, as one example, the usage history information may include information on the usage frequency of functions or combinations of the appliances 300 by the user. By providing the usage history information acquiring unit 115 , it becomes possible for the evaluation unit 107 to make more effective evaluations based on information on the actual usage history of functions and combinations of the appliances 300 by the user. Based on the usage history information acquired by the usage history information acquiring unit 115 and the results of evaluation by the evaluation unit 107 , the recommendation unit 117 specifies one or both of functions and combinations of the appliances 300 to be recommended to the user. The recommendation unit 117 is optionally provided in the information processing apparatus 100 . The expression “recommendation” here refers for example to comparing evaluations by the evaluation unit 107 and usage states in the usage history information, specifying a particular function or combination of the appliances 300 that has not been used by the user in spite of being useful to the user, and recommending the specified function or combination to the user. As one example, the recommendation unit 117 may specify a function or combination of the appliances 300 that has not been used by the user out of the functions that have been assigned high evaluation scores by the evaluation unit 107 . Also, the recommendation unit 117 may specify a function or a combination of the appliances 300 that has been assigned a high evaluation score by the evaluation unit 107 in spite of having a low usage frequency by the user. By providing the recommendation unit 117 , the user is automatically presented with functions or combinations of appliances 300 that are especially useful, and by using the appliances in accordance with such recommendations, it becomes easier for the user to make use of functions provided by a combination of a plurality of appliances. Note that examples of recommendations of functions and combinations of the appliances 300 will be described later. The appliance setting unit 119 automatically sets the respective appliances 300 via the communication unit 101 so that a function or combination of appliances 300 specified by the recommendation unit 117 can be used by the user. The appliance setting unit 119 is optionally provided in the information processing apparatus 100 . As one example, when it is not possible for the user to use a recommended combination of appliances 300 at the present time, in accordance with a user instruction, the appliance setting unit 119 may change the settings of the respective appliances 300 by remote operation and thereby make it possible for the user to make use of the recommended combination of appliances 300 . In addition, the appliance setting unit 119 may set the respective appliances 300 in accordance with an instruction made by the user to the information processing apparatus 100 . By providing the appliance setting unit 119 , it becomes possible for the user to easily use a recommended function or combination of the appliances 300 . The setting procedure information acquiring unit 121 acquires setting procedure information relating to a procedure that sets the appliances 300 so that a function or combination of appliances 300 specified by the recommendation unit 117 can be used by the user. The setting procedure information acquiring unit 121 is optionally provided in the information processing apparatus 100 . As one example, when it is not possible for the user to use the recommended combination of appliances 300 at the present time, the setting procedure information acquiring unit 121 acquires setting procedure information of the respective appliances 300 in accordance with a user instruction. The setting procedure information may be acquired from the appliances 300 themselves via the communication unit 101 , for example, or may be included in the appliance information acquired by the appliance information acquiring unit 105 . In addition, the setting procedure information acquiring unit 121 may acquire the setting procedure information of the respective appliances 300 in accordance with an instruction made by the user to the information processing apparatus 100 . By providing the setting procedure information acquiring unit 121 , when it is not possible to automatically make settings using the appliance setting unit 119 due to security settings of the appliances 300 or the like, it will still be possible for the user to easily obtain information for using the recommended function or combination of the appliances 300 . 1-3. Processing Flow Next, the processing flow according to the first exemplary embodiment will be described with reference to FIG. 3 . FIG. 3 is a flowchart showing one example of processing according to the first exemplary embodiment. Note that the respective steps described below do not need to be executed by the information processing apparatus 100 and some or all of such steps may be executed by an apparatus aside from the information processing apparatus 100 . As shown in FIG. 3 , first, the communication unit 101 communicates with the plurality of appliances 300 (that is, a plurality of associated devices) connected to the network 200 (step S 101 ). Here, the communication unit 101 uses a protocol such as UPnP, for example. Note that the communication unit 101 may also communicate as necessary with the appliances 300 in subsequent steps so as to provide information that may be required by various units of the information processing apparatus 100 . Next, the appliance recognizing unit 103 recognizes the plurality of appliances 300 (step S 103 ). Here, through the communication between the communication unit 101 and the plurality of the appliances 300 in step S 101 , the appliance recognizing unit 103 recognizes the appliances 300 that are connected to the network 200 and are capable of being used by the user. In addition, the appliance recognizing unit 103 communicates with the appliances 300 via the communication unit 101 and acquires information relating to the respective states of the appliances 300 . Next, the appliance information acquiring unit 105 acquires the appliance information (step S 105 ). Here, the appliance information may include information relating to the functions provided by combinations of specified appliances 300 out of the appliances 300 recognized in step S 103 and information relating to the performance of combinations of the appliances 300 . As one example, the appliance information acquiring unit 105 acquires the appliance information by communication via the communication unit 101 with the database 400 or the appliances 300 . Next, the evaluation unit 107 evaluates functions or the performance of combinations of the appliances 300 based on the appliance information acquired in step S 105 (step S 107 ). Here, as optional configurations, before step S 107 , it is possible to execute a step where the owned content information acquiring unit 113 acquires the owned content information or a step where the usage history information acquiring unit 115 acquires the usage history information. In such case, in step S 107 , the evaluation unit 107 evaluates functions or the performance of combinations of the appliances 300 based also on the owned content information or the usage history information. Next, the notification unit 109 generates and outputs notification information including the results of the evaluation in step S 107 (step S 109 ). Here, as an optional configuration, a step where the recommendation unit 117 specifies functions or combinations of appliances 300 to be recommended to the user may be executed between step S 107 and step S 109 . In this case, in step S 109 , the notification unit 109 generates notification information that further includes a function or combination of appliances 300 specified by the recommendation unit 117 and is outputted via the screen of the television set 300 a , for example. In addition, as an optional configuration, a step where the appliance setting unit 119 automatically sets, in accordance with an instruction from the user, the appliances 300 via the communication unit 101 so that it becomes possible for the user to use a function or combination of the appliances 300 may be executed after step S 109 . Alternatively, a step where the setting procedure information acquiring unit 121 acquires, in accordance with a user instruction, setting procedure information relating to a procedure for setting the appliances 300 so that a function or combination of the appliances 300 can be used by the user may be executed. In this case, a further step is then executed where the notification unit 109 generates notification information that also includes the setting procedure information and outputs the notification information via the screen of the television set 300 a , for example. 1-4. Examples of Display Screens Next, examples of display screens according to the first exemplary embodiment will be described with reference to FIGS. 4 to 11 . The example display screens described below are displayed based on an output of the notification unit 109 of the information processing apparatus 100 . As one example, such example display screens may be displayed by an appliance 300 (for example, on a display unit of the television set 300 a ) connected via the network 200 to the information processing apparatus 100 , and/or may be displayed on a display unit included in a user interface of the information processing apparatus 100 . Here, it is assumed that the apparatus that displays the example display screens includes an input apparatus such as a keyboard, mouse, or touch panel, for example, and is capable of acquiring a selection or instruction made by the user in response to the displayed screen. FIG. 4 is a diagram showing one example of an appliance selection screen 1010 . The appliance selection screen 1010 is displayed first by the information processing apparatus 100 . The appliance selection screen 1010 is generated using information on the appliances 300 recognized by the appliance recognizing unit 103 of the information processing apparatus 100 . In the appliance selection screen 1010 , appliance icons 1011 that display the recognized appliances 300 are displayed. Here, a PC, a television set, a video recorder, NAS, and a mobile terminal are displayed as examples of the appliance icons 1011 . By selecting one of the appliance icons 1011 in the appliance selection screen 1010 , the user is capable of obtaining information relating to an appliance 300 that can be used via the network 200 . Here, when the appliance icon 1011 representing the television set 300 a has been selected, the screen shown in FIG. 5 is displayed. FIG. 5 is a diagram showing one example of an appliance menu screen 1030 . The appliance menu screen 1030 is generated using appliance information acquired by the appliance information acquiring unit 105 of the information processing apparatus 100 . Information is displayed in the appliance menu screen 1030 using an icon, a model number, and standalone function information included in the appliance information of the television set 300 a . Here, the information displayed according to the standalone function information is given in the form of links. When “Play Content”, “Transfer Screen”, and “Change Appliance Settings” have been selected, it is possible to operate standalone functions of the television set 300 a according to remote operation from the information processing apparatus 100 . When “Instruction Manual” has been selected, the screen shown in FIG. 6 is displayed. When “Confirm Linked Appliance” has been selected, the screen shown in FIG. 10 is displayed. FIG. 6 is a diagram showing one example of an instruction manual screen 1050 . The instruction manual screen 1050 is generated using the appliance information acquired by the appliance information acquiring unit 105 of the information processing apparatus 100 . Standalone function information and linked function information included in the appliance information of the television set 300 a are displayed in the instruction manual screen 1050 . Here, “Watch TV” as standalone function information of the television set 300 a and “Control Connected Appliance” and “Play Content from Network Appliance” are respectively displayed as linked function information of the television set 300 a . When “Watch TV” has been selected, it is possible to start watching a television program on the television set 300 a . When “Control Connected Appliance” has been selected, it is possible to use the appliance setting unit 119 of the information processing apparatus 100 to remotely control another appliance 300 connected to the television set 300 a . When “Play Content from Network” has been selected, the screen shown in FIG. 7 is displayed. FIG. 7 is a diagram showing one example of a linked function menu screen 1070 . The linked function menu screen 1070 is generated using the appliance information acquired by the appliance information acquiring unit 105 of the information processing apparatus 100 . In the linked function menu screen 1070 , the function names “Watch Video”, “Listen to Music” and “View Photos” included in the linked function information acquired by the appliance information acquiring unit 105 are displayed. The screen displayed when “Watch Video” has been selected out of such functions will now be described with reference to FIG. 8 . FIG. 8 is a diagram showing one example of a linked function details menu screen 1090 . The linked function details menu screen 1090 is generated using the appliance information acquired by the appliance information acquiring unit 105 of the information processing apparatus 100 . When “Operation Method” has been selected in the linked function details menu screen 1090 , the operation method for watching video content from a network appliance that has been acquired by the setting procedure information acquiring unit 121 of the information processing apparatus 100 is displayed. Also, when “Help” has been selected, contact information for the manufacturer of the appliance 300 included in the appliance information is displayed. When “Function Details” has been selected, the screen shown in FIG. 9 is displayed. FIG. 9 is a diagram showing one example of a linked function details screen 1110 . The linked function details screen 1110 is generated using the appliance information acquired by the appliance information acquiring unit 105 of the information processing apparatus 100 . In the linked function details screen 1110 , out of the appliance information, “Compatible Protocols”, “Media Formats” and “DTCP Compatible” are displayed using the information relating to connectivity that is included in the linked function information. From the display of “Compatible Protocols”, it is possible for the user to know that the television set 300 a is capable of operating as a DMP or as a DMR according to DLNA (registered trademark) standard. Similarly, from the display of “Media Formats”, it is possible for the user to know that the television set 300 a is compatible with AVC and MPEG2 (Moving Picture Experts Group phase 2) formats. In addition, from the display of “DTCP Compatible”, it is possible for the user to know that the television set 300 a is compatible with playback of content protected by copyright protection technology. FIG. 10 is a diagram showing one example of a linked appliance selecting screen 1130 . The linked appliance selecting screen 1130 is displayed when “Confirm Linked Appliance” has been selected in the appliance menu screen 1030 described with reference to FIG. 2 . The linked appliance selecting screen 1130 is generated using the appliance information acquired by the appliance information acquiring unit 105 of the information processing apparatus 100 . In the linked appliance selecting screen 1130 , linked appliance icons 1131 are displayed using information on appliance types of associated, that is linked, devices that is included in the linked function information out of the appliance information. The linked appliance icons 1131 of the PC, video recorder, mobile terminal, and NAS displayed here inform the user that some functions are provided by combining the television set 300 a with one out of such appliances. Here, when the linked appliance icon 1131 representing the mobile terminal 300 d has been selected by the user, the evaluation unit 107 of the information processing apparatus 100 evaluates functions provided by a combination of the television set 300 a and the mobile terminal 300 d and displays the screen shown in FIG. 11 . FIG. 11 shows one example of a function evaluation screen 1150 . The function evaluation screen 1150 is generated using the notification information generated by the notification unit 109 and includes results of evaluation by the evaluation unit 107 of the information processing apparatus 100 . In the function evaluation screen 1150 , the combination of the appliances 300 is fixed, and therefore the screen is characterized by displaying results of evaluation of the functions of such combination of the appliances 300 . Here, an example where the evaluation unit 107 has evaluated the two functions “play image content” and “play video content” is shown. In the function evaluation screen 1150 , the two functions are displayed using function names for displaying to the user that are included in the appliance information, such names being “view photos from mobile phone on TV” and “watch video from mobile phone on TV”. In the function evaluation screen 1150 , a points display 1151 is displayed corresponding to each of the functions. The numeric values in the points display 1151 are numeric values that reflect the results of evaluation by the evaluation unit 107 . When a function or combination of appliances 300 specified by the recommendation unit 117 is also included in the notification information, the numeric value of the points display 1151 for such function or combination of appliances 300 specified by the recommendation unit 117 is set higher. To visually inform the user of the results of evaluation or recommendation, the points display 1151 may be displayed using a graph, a number of stars, or the like in addition to or in place of the display of a numeric value. It is also possible for the points display 1151 to be given a title, such as “rating”, showing that such function has been evaluated or recommended. Also, optional information such as a usage frequency display 1153 or the like may be displayed in the function evaluation screen 1150 . The usage frequency display 1153 is displayed based on the usage history information acquired by the usage history information acquiring unit 115 . The usage frequency display 1153 displays the frequency with which the user has used the respective functions by way of a number of stars. The usage frequency display 1153 is not limited to a number of stars and may be a numerical display or a graph display. In addition to or in place of the usage frequency display 1153 , it is possible to display other optional information such as the number of content items played back by the respective functions based on the owned content information acquired by the owned content information acquiring unit 113 . In addition, when a function or combination of appliances 300 specified by the recommendation unit 117 is included in the notification information, it is possible to show in the function evaluation screen 1150 that such function or combination of the appliances 300 has been recommended. For example, by highlighting the points display for a function or the combination of appliances 300 specified by the recommendation unit 117 in the function evaluation screen 1150 , such as by making the points display flash, it is possible to show that such function or combination of the appliances 300 has been recommended. 1-5. Example of Evaluation and Recommendation for Content Playback Function The functioning of the evaluation unit 107 and the recommendation unit 117 of the information processing apparatus 100 according to the first exemplary embodiment described above will now be described further for an example where the function provided by a combination of a plurality of the appliances 300 is a content playback function. Here, the expression “content” refers to any content such as images, video, or music, for example. In this example, the expression “content playback function” refers to functions such as viewing image content stored in the NAS 300 c on the mobile terminal 300 d or watching video content stored in the video recorder 300 b on the television set 300 a . For a content playback function, since the optimal combination of appliances is decided by a number of factors such as the format of the content and the number of content items owned by the user, information that supports optimal use of the functions provided by combinations of appliances is especially useful. Evaluation According to Appliance Information The evaluation unit 107 may evaluate the content playback function based on information on static performance of the respective appliances 300 included in the appliance information acquired by the appliance information acquiring unit 105 . Here, the evaluation rules may include evaluation of the format of the content. As the performance of a combination of the appliances 300 , the evaluation unit 107 may assign a higher evaluation score to the ability to playback more advanced formats. For example, for a playback function for video, compared to a combination of the appliances 300 that can handle only MPEG2 format, a combination of the appliances 300 that can handle AVC format that has a higher compression ratio is considered as being able to play back video with higher quality and provide a better user experience. In such case, by deciding evaluation scores in the evaluation rules in accordance with the formats that can be played back, as in “MPEG2 playback=40” and “AVC playback=80”, it is possible to assign evaluation scores so that the more advanced the formats that can be played back, the higher the evaluation score. Also, aside from a quantitative index such as compression ratio, it is also possible to assign a higher evaluation score to compatibility to formats required for specified uses, such as DTCP-IP that is required when handling content for digital broadcasts. The evaluation rules may also include optional functions for the content playback function or advanced evaluation that considers actual implementation. As the performance of a combination of appliances 300 , the evaluation unit 107 may assign higher evaluation scores to the ability to use optional functions, such as the ability to delete content after playback or the ability to rotate an image. Also, as another example, the evaluation unit 107 may assign a higher evaluation score to a combination of a mobile terminal and a server that provides image content having resized the images in accordance with the screen size of an apparatus (such as a television set or mobile terminal) used to display such images. Here, as one example of advanced evaluation considers actual implementation, the time taken to display content at a mobile terminal will be reduced if the image content has been resized in advance. Evaluation Using Owned Content Information or Usage History Information The evaluation unit 107 may make evaluations relating to a content playback function based also on the owned content information acquired by the owned content information acquiring unit 113 . In such case, the evaluation rules may include evaluation of the ownership of content by the user. As the performance of a combination of the appliances 300 , the evaluation unit 107 may assign a higher evaluation score when a larger number of reproducible content items are owned by the user. For example, when it is known from the owned content information that the user does not own any content that requires a WMV (Windows (registered trademark) Media Video) codec, the evaluation unit 107 does not need to assign different evaluation scores to a combination of appliances 300 that is not compatible with the WMV codec and a different combination of appliances 300 that is compatible with the WMV codec. On the other hand, when it is known from the owned content information that the user owns digital broadcast content that requires DTCP-IP only, the evaluation unit 107 may assign an extremely low evaluation score to a combination of the appliances 300 that is not compatible with DTCP-IP. The evaluation unit 107 may evaluate the content playback function further based on the usage history information acquired by the usage history information acquiring unit 115 . In this case, the evaluation rules may include evaluation of the usage history of content. As the performance of a combination of the appliances 300 , the evaluation unit 107 may assign a higher evaluation score to the ability to playback content that is played back very frequently. For example, when it is known from the usage history information that the user frequently watches digital broadcast content that requires DTCP-IP, the evaluation unit 107 may assign a higher evaluation score to a combination of the appliances 300 that is compatible with DTCP-IP. In addition, the evaluation unit 107 may evaluate the content playback function in accordance with the owned content information and the usage history information. As one example, when it is known from the owned content information and the usage history information that the user owns many photographs that are image content and frequently views such photographs, the evaluation unit 107 may assign a high evaluation score to a function that plays back such image content. Evaluation Using a Plurality of Information The appliance information, the owned content information, and the usage history information are information that can be used when the evaluation unit 107 evaluates a function or a combination of the appliances 300 . The evaluation unit 107 may extract a plurality of parameters showing different types of value or different evaluations from such information and carry out evaluation based on a combination of information by multiplying the respective parameters. As one example, consider a case where, for the example of the display screen described with reference to FIG. 11 , the evaluation unit 107 evaluates two functions “play photos” and “play movies” in accordance with a combination of the appliance information, owned content information, and usage history information. First, the evaluation unit 107 calculates appliance evaluation scores for two functions based on the appliance information. Evaluation using the appliance information has been described earlier and therefore no detailed description will be given here. Assume that the evaluation here results in appliance evaluation scores of 100 being assigned to “play photos” and 97 being assigned to “watch video”. The evaluation unit 107 also calculates owned content evaluation scores for the two functions based on the owned content information. As one example, assume that the ratio of the respective numbers of content items stored in a mobile telephone for photographs and movies is 3:2. In this case, a function for which the user owns a larger number of content items that can be played back is assigned a higher evaluation score by the evaluation unit 107 , and therefore owned content evaluation scores of 1.00 and 0.67 are respectively assigned to “play photos” and “watch video”. The evaluation unit 107 also calculates the usage history evaluation scores of the two functions based on the usage history information. Here, as one example, assume that the ratio of the frequency with which the user views photos on a television set to the frequency with which the user watches videos on the television set is 4:5 for example. In this case, since a function with a higher usage frequency is assigned a higher evaluation score, the evaluation unit 107 assigns usage history evaluation scores of 0.80 and 1.00 respectively to “play photos” and “watch video”. Here, the evaluation unit 107 calculates the evaluation scores of the two functions by multiplying the appliance evaluation score, the owned content evaluation scores, and the usage history evaluation scores. That is, the evaluation score of “play photos” is 100×1.00×0.80=80 and the evaluation score of “watch video” is 97×0.67×1.00=65. In this way, by carrying out evaluation by combining a plurality of information, it is possible for the user to obtain information on evaluations that reflect overall conditions regarding the use of functions provided by a combination of a plurality of appliances, which makes it easy for the user to make appropriate use of the functions provided by combinations of the appliances 300 . Aside from the examples described above, by multiplying the evaluation score of a function and the evaluation score for the performance of a combination of the appliances 300 that provide such function, for example, it is possible to make an overall evaluation of a function and a combination of the appliances 300 . As one example, assume that the evaluation score for the function “view photos” is 80. Here, when there are two combinations of the appliances 300 for viewing photos, namely the “NAS 300 c and the television set 300 a ” combination and the “NAS 300 c and the mobile terminal 300 d ” combination, the evaluation unit 107 may calculate overall evaluation scores by multiplying the evaluation score of the function “view photos” by the respective evaluation scores of such combinations of the appliances 300 . As one example, assume that the ratio of the power consumption for a case where “view photos” is carried out by the “NAS 300 c and the television set 300 a ” combination to a case where “view photos” is carried out by the “NAS 300 c and the mobile terminal 300 d ” combination is 5:2. In this case, a higher evaluation score is assigned to lower power consumption, and therefore the evaluation unit 107 assigns evaluation scores of 0.40 and 1.00 respectively to “the NAS 300 c and the television set 300 a ” and “the NAS 300 c and the mobile terminal 300 d ” combinations. As a result, the evaluation score for “view photos using the NAS 300 c and television set 300 a combination” is 80×0.40=32 and the evaluation score for “view photos using the NAS 300 c and mobile terminal 300 d combination” is 80×1.00=80. In this way, by multiplying the evaluation score for a function by the evaluation score for the appliances 300 , it is possible for the user to easily grasp both an evaluation of “which functions are useful” and an evaluation of “which combination of appliances is most effective for using such function” from a single numeric value, which makes it easy for the user to make appropriate use of the functions provided by combinations of the appliances 300 . Recommendations Based on Usage History Information and Evaluation Results The recommendation unit 117 specifies one or both of functions to be recommended to the user and combinations of the appliances 300 based on the usage history information acquired by the usage history information acquiring unit 115 and the results of evaluation by the evaluation unit 107 . The recommendation unit 117 may specify a function or a combination of the appliances 300 as a recommended function or combination when a usage frequency in the usage history information is below a specified threshold regardless of whether or not the evaluation score calculated by the evaluation unit 107 is above a specified threshold. For example, when a large number of photographs are stored in the NAS 300 c and the frequency of viewing such photographs on the mobile terminal 300 d is high, the evaluation unit 107 will assign the function “view photos” a high evaluation score, with such evaluation score exceeding a specified threshold. Meanwhile, assume that out of the combinations of the appliances 300 that provide the function “view photos”, the combination of the NAS 300 c and the television set 300 a has a low usage frequency in the usage history information, with such evaluation score falling below a specified threshold for the usage frequency. Also assume that as the evaluation score assigned by the evaluation unit 107 to the performance of the combinations of the appliances 300 that provide the function “view photos”, the evaluation score of the “NAS 300 c and television set 300 a ” combination is higher than the evaluation score of the “NAS 300 c and mobile terminal 300 d ” combination. In this case, the recommendation unit 117 presumes that in spite of often using the “view photos” function, the user has not noticed that the “NAS 300 c and television set 300 a ” combination that has high performance is capable of such function, and makes a “view photos on the NAS 300 c and television set 300 a combination” recommendation to the user. In this way, by recommending a combination of the appliances 300 that has a low usage frequency in spite of having a high evaluation score for a function that has a high evaluation score, it is possible to make the user aware of a combination of appliances that the user has not noticed in spite of being useful to the user and thereby encourage the user to make appropriate use of a function provided by a combination of the appliances 300 . 1-6. Modification A modification to the information processing system 10 according to the first exemplary embodiment will now be described with reference to FIG. 12 . FIG. 12 is a diagram showing a modification to the information processing system 10 . As shown in FIG. 12 , in this modification, Web service servers 300 e , 300 f on an external network are included in the appliances 300 . As examples, the Web service servers 300 e , 300 f provide Web services such as a video sharing service and an instant messaging service. The information processing apparatus 100 is also provided as an application server, for example, on the external network. Here, the user uses a user interface of one of the television set 300 a , the video recorder 300 b , the NAS 300 c , and the mobile terminal 300 d , accesses the information processing apparatus 100 on the external network, and uses functions of the information processing apparatus 100 such as by using an application, for example. If the user has an account on the Web services described above, the Web service servers 300 e , 300 f can be treated as appliances that are connected to the network 200 and can be used by the user in the same way as the other appliances 300 . In this case, the functions provided by combinations of the appliances 300 include functions provided by the Web services, such as viewing video content provided by a combination of the television set 300 a and the Web service server 300 e and an instant messaging service provided by a combination of the mobile terminal 300 d and the Web service server 300 f , for example. The evaluation unit 107 may evaluate the performance of a combination of appliances 300 based on the state of a user's account on a Web service. As one example, there will be cases where the user has a billed account for a download service for content on the Web service server 300 e (so that high-speed downloading is possible) but does not have a billed account for a download service for content on the Web service server 300 f (so that high-speed downloading is not possible). In such case, for a content download function, the evaluation unit 107 may assign a higher evaluation score to the performance of the combination of the television set 300 a and the Web service server 300 e than to the performance of the combination of the television set 300 a and the Web service server 300 f. In addition, the setting procedure information acquired by the setting procedure information acquiring unit 121 may include operation of an account on a Web service. For example, when it is not possible at the present time to make use of a high-speed download service for content, the procedure for changing an account on a Web service to a billed account may be included in the setting procedure information. 2. Second Embodiment A second exemplary embodiment will now be described with reference to FIGS. 13 and 14 . Note that although the screen displays in the second exemplary embodiment differ compared to the first embodiment (that was described with reference to FIGS. 4 to 11 ), since the other functional configuration is substantially the same as the first embodiment, detailed description thereof is omitted. FIG. 13 is a diagram showing one example of a function selection screen 1170 that is displayed first by the information processing apparatus 100 according to the second exemplary embodiment. The function selection screen 1170 is generated using the appliance information acquired by the appliance information acquiring unit 105 of the information processing apparatus 100 . In the function selection screen 1170 , functions provided by combining specified appliances out of the appliances connected via the network 200 to the information processing apparatus 100 are displayed in a list. A screen displayed when “view photos” has been selected out of such functions will now be described with reference to FIG. 14 . FIG. 14 is a diagram showing one example of a combination evaluation screen 1190 . The combination evaluation screen 1190 includes the results of evaluation by the evaluation unit 107 of the information processing apparatus 100 and is generated using the notification information generated by the notification unit 109 . The combination evaluation screen 1190 has a characteristic in that the function provided by combinations of the appliances 300 is fixed and the evaluation results for combinations of appliances 300 that provide such function are displayed. Here, an example where the evaluation unit 107 has evaluated a plurality of combinations of appliances 300 that provide the function “play image content” is illustrated. In the combination evaluation screen 1190 , the function is displayed using the function name for display to the user, that is, “view photos”, included in the appliance information. In the combination evaluation screen 1190 , the appliances 300 that can be included in combinations for providing such function are displayed by icons with shapes in accordance with the roles of the respective appliances. As one example, when the appliances 300 conform to DLNA (registered trademark), appliances that can operate as a DMP or a DMR, for example, a television set and a mobile terminal, are displayed in a column on the left side of the screen as linked-to appliance icons 1191 a . Meanwhile, the appliances 300 that can operate as a DMS, here a PC, NAS, and a mobile terminal, are displayed as linked-from appliance icons 1191 b in a column on the right side of the screen. Since the mobile terminal may operate as a DMP, a DMR, or even as a DMS, the mobile terminal is displayed in both columns. The arrangement of the appliance icons 1191 a and 1191 b may also be linear, ring-shaped, star-shaped, or the like in accordance with the way in which the appliances are combined to provide the function. The appliance icons 1191 a and 1191 b are displayed so that such icons can be selected by the user. In the illustrated example, the linked-to appliance icons 1191 a of the mobile terminal and the linked-from appliance icon 1191 b of the NAS are selected. In addition, arrows are displayed between the appliance icons 1191 a and 1191 b showing the plurality of appliances 300 that can be combined. Such arrows are displayed in a form in keeping with the way in which the appliances that provide the function are combined. In addition, in the combination evaluation screen 1190 , points displays 1193 a and 1192 b are displayed corresponding to each of the functions. The numeric values in the points displays 1193 a and 1193 b are numeric values that reflect the results of evaluation by the evaluation unit 107 . When a function or combination of appliances 300 specified by the recommendation unit 117 is also included in the notification information, the numeric value of the points displays 1193 a and 1193 b for such function or combination of appliances 300 specified by the recommendation unit 117 is set higher. To visually inform the user of the correspondence to the respective combinations, each of points displays 1193 a and 1193 b are displayed on an arrow that connects the appliance icons 1191 a and 1191 b . In the illustrated example, since the points display 1193 a is a points display for a combination of NAS and a television set, such points display 1193 a is displayed on the arrow that points from the NAS to the television set. Similarly, since the points display 1193 b is a points display for a combination of NAS and a mobile terminal, such points display 1193 b is displayed on the arrow that points from the NAS to the mobile terminal. Note that to visually inform the user of the result of evaluation or recommendation, points displays 1193 a and 1193 b may be displayed using a graph, a number of stars, or the like in addition to or in place of the display of a numeric value. Also, since the display would become complex if points displays 1193 a and 1193 b were displayed for every combination of appliances 300 , only the points displays relating to combinations of appliances 300 selected by the user may be displayed. In the illustrated example, since the linked-from appliance icon 1191 b of the NAS and the linked-to appliance icon 1191 a of the mobile terminal have been selected by the user, only the points display 1193 b for the combination of such appliances and the points display 1193 a for a combination of the NAS and the television set for comparison purposes are displayed. In addition, optional information such as “How to Use” and “View Usage History” may be displayed on the combination evaluation screen 1190 . When “How to Use” has been selected, an explanation of how to use a combination of appliances 300 selected by the user is displayed. This usage explanation may be included in the setting procedure information acquired by the setting procedure information acquiring unit 121 , for example. When “View Usage History” has been selected, the usage history of the combination of appliances 300 selected by the user is displayed. The usage history is generated using the usage history information acquired by the usage history information acquiring unit 115 . In addition, when a function or combination of the appliances 300 specified by the recommendation unit 117 is included in the notification information, the combination evaluation screen 1190 may display that such function or combination of the appliances 300 has been recommended. For example, by highlighting the points display for the combination of the appliances 300 recommended by the recommendation unit 117 , such as by making the points display flash, in the combination evaluation screen 1190 , it is possible to show that such function or combination of the appliances 300 has been recommended. According to the configuration of the second exemplary embodiment described above, the user is capable of receiving support in order to make appropriate use of a function or combination of appliances according to a different process to the first embodiment, i.e., according to a process where the user first selects a function and then selects a combination of appliances that provides such function based on evaluations or recommendations for a plurality of combinations. 3. Third Embodiment A third exemplary embodiment will now be described with reference to FIG. 15 . Note that although the system configuration (which was described in the first embodiment with reference to FIG. 1 ) and the operation of the appliance recognizing unit 103 of the information processing apparatus 100 in the third exemplary embodiment differ compared to the first or second embodiments, the other functional configuration is substantially the same as the first or second embodiment, and therefore detailed description is omitted. FIG. 15 is a diagram showing one example of the configuration of an information processing system 20 according to the third exemplary embodiment. As shown in FIG. 15 , the information processing system 20 includes the information processing apparatus 100 , the network 200 , the appliances 300 , and the database 400 . The appliances 300 include the NAS 300 c , the mobile terminal 300 d , and an old-model television set 300 y connected to the network 200 . A video recorder 300 x and a new-model television set 300 z may be connected to the network 200 but are not set up at the present time. Here, the video recorder 300 x is an appliance that can be added to the appliances 300 . The new-model television set 300 z is an appliance that can take the place of the old-model television set 300 y out of the appliances 300 . In addition to recognizing the appliances 300 via the communication unit 101 , the appliance recognizing unit 103 of the information processing apparatus 100 recognizes appliances that may be added to the appliances 300 or used in place of any of the appliances 300 . More specifically, the appliance recognizing unit 103 recognizes the video recorder 300 x that may be added to the appliances 300 and the new-model television set 300 z that is an appliance that can be used in place of the old-model television set 300 y out of the appliances 300 . The appliance recognizing unit 103 may recognize such appliances based on information on appliance types of associated, that is, linked, devices included in the linked function information out of the appliance information acquired by the appliance information acquiring unit 105 . For example, when the appliances 300 conform to DLNA (registered trademark), in the function information of the mobile terminal 300 d , “video recorder” can be acquired as an appliance type of a DMS of a linked device for a case where the mobile terminal 300 d is used as a DMP. However, since a video recorder is not set up at the present time, the appliance recognizing unit 103 virtually recognizes the video recorder 300 x as an appliance that can be added to the appliances 300 . In the appliance information of the NAS 300 c , “old-model television set” and “new-model television set” can be obtained as appliance types of a DMP that are linked devices in the case where the NAS 300 c is used as a DMS. At the present time, since the old-model television set 300 y is set up but the new-model television set 300 z is not set up, the appliance recognizing unit 103 virtually recognizes the new-model television set 300 z as an appliance that can take the place of the old-model television set 300 y out of the appliances 300 . Such virtual recognition by the appliance recognizing unit 103 of appliances that are not set up at the present time may be carried out only when a specified criterion is satisfied. For example, when it is found, based on evaluation results of the evaluation unit 107 for the performance of a combination of the video recorder 300 x and the mobile terminal 300 d when it is assumed that the video recorder 300 x has been set up and the performance of a combination of the NAS 300 c that has already been set up and the mobile terminal 300 d , that the function provided when the video recorder 300 x has been set up is superior by a specified criterion or more, the appliance recognizing unit 103 may virtually recognize the video recorder 300 x as an appliance that may be added to the appliances 300 . In such case, the evaluation result of the evaluation unit 107 is fed back to the appliance recognizing unit 103 and appliance recognition is carried out again. In the same way, it is possible to decide whether to virtually recognize the new-model television set 300 z , using evaluations by the evaluation unit 107 . In this way, by recognizing virtual appliances in accordance with some criteria, it is possible to selectively provide only information thought to be useful to the user. According to the configuration of the third exemplary embodiment described above, when the user is considering adding to or replacing the appliances that the user currently owns, it is possible to obtain information on appliances that realize combinations of appliances that provide more effective functions, and therefore possible to add or replace appliances as appropriate. 4. Supplementary Information Although exemplary embodiments have been described in detail with reference to the attached drawings, the described exemplary embodiments are not limited to the above examples. It should be understood by those skilled in the art that various modifications, combinations, sub-combinations and alterations may occur depending on design requirements and other factors insofar as they are within the scope of the appended claims or the equivalents thereof. The present application contains subject matter related to that disclosed in Japanese Priority Patent Application JP 2010-127081 filed in the Japan Patent Office on Jun. 2, 2010, the entire content of which is hereby incorporated by reference.

An apparatus and method provide logic for formatting electronic content. In one implementation, an apparatus includes an identification unit configured to identify a plurality of devices associated via a network, and a receiving unit configured to receive information corresponding to the associated devices. The information includes a function provided by the associated devices and performance data corresponding to the associated devices. A generation unit is configured to generate a first value of an execution metric describing at least one of an execution of the function by the associated devices or the performance data corresponding to the associated devices, based on at least the received information, and an output unit is configured to output the first metric value.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention pertains to spectrophotometers. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Spectrophotometry is the quantitative measurement of the reflection or transmission properties of a material as a function of wavelength. Spectrophotometry is commonly used to measure the transmittance or reflectance of solutions, transparent or opaque solids, or gases. The device that performs this measurement is known as a “spectrophotometer”. FIG. 1 depicts a block diagram of a typical prior-art spectrophotometer 108 in use performing a spectral assay of media 104 . Spectrophotometer 108 includes Fabry-Perot interferometer 112 , detector(s) 116 , and processor 120 . Interrogating light 102 emitted from broadband light source 100 is directed towards media 104 . The light is dispersed, via reflection, absorption, etc., as it passes through media 104 . The dispersion alters the spectral content of the interrogating light. The specifics of the alteration depend on and can be characteristic of media 104 . As a consequence, analysis of spectrally altered light 106 can provide information about media 104 . This information is “extracted” using interferometer 112 , detector(s) 116 , and processor 120 , as discussed further below. Spectrally altered light 106 enters Fabry-Perot interferometer 112 . Wavelengths of spectrally altered light 106 that resonate within interferometer 112 form filtered exit light 110 . In this fashion, interferometer 112 selectively filters spectrally altered light 106 . Filtered light 110 exits interferometer 112 and is directed to detector(s) 116 . In some prior-art spectrophotometers, detector(s) 116 are sensitive to certain wavelengths of electromagnetic (EM) radiation and generate electrical signals 118 (i.e., a photocurrent) when such wavelengths are detected. The amplitude of signals 118 is indicative of the light intensity at the particular wavelength. Signal(s) 118 from detector 116 are conditioned (analog-to-digital conversion, etc.) and transmitted to processor 120 . In the processor, signal(s) 118 are processed via a Fourier transform or related algorithms to provide assay 124 of the spectral content of filtered exit light 110 . As previously noted, filtered exit light 110 will contain wavelengths corresponding to the resonances of the interferometer cavity. Analysis of those particular wavelengths will rarely provide a complete spectral analysis of spectrally altered light 106 . Consequently, as part of the spectrophotometry process, the resonant wavelengths of interferometer 112 are altered. In some spectrophotometers, this alteration is implemented by changing the cavity length of the interferometer, such as via cavity-length controller 114 . Each such alteration will change the spectral content of exit light 110 . In this fashion, a wavelength sweep is performed, wherein for each change in cavity length (and, hence, spectral content of the exit light 110 ), the detection operation is repeated. This ultimately provides a complete spectral analysis of media 104 (assuming that the frequency sweep is large enough). The spectral analysis, which provides light intensity as a function of wavelength, can be used as a fingerprint (for identification purposes) and/or as a means to quantify the amount of media that is present. Identification and/or quantification involves a comparison of the spectral analysis to a database that provides compound identification as a function of spectrum or concentration (of a particular media) as a function of spectrum. An embodiment of conventional Fabry-Perot interferometer 112 is depicted in FIG. 2 . Interferometer 112 consists of two spaced-apart mirrors 226 and 228 . The mirrors are typically “highly” reflective, such that most of the light impinging on them is reflected. The change in the “thickness” of the lines that are representative of light “beam” is intended to be (qualitatively) indicative of the attenuation of the transmitted intensity resulting from reflections at mirror surfaces. The portion of light 106 entering interferometer 112 A makes multiple (partial) reflections between mirrors 226 and 228 . Although depicted as a single coherent beam (like a laser beam), spectrally altered light 106 is in the form of a broad plane wave comprising multiple wave fronts. Constructive interference (resonance) occurs if the transmitted light is in phase, and this corresponds to a high-transmission peak of the interferometer. If the transmitted light is out-of-phase, destructive interference occurs and this corresponds to a transmission minimum. The resonant wavelengths of a Fabry-Perot interferometer are a function of the angle that light travels through the interferometer, the size of gap between the mirrors (i.e., cavity length) and the refractive index of the medium between mirrors. For fixed values of those parameters, the wavelength of the reflected light determines whether that light is “in phase” or “out-of-phase”. The resonant wavelengths of a Fabry-Perot interferometer can be altered by changing its cavity length. Cavity length can be changed via cavity-length controller 114 (see FIG. 1 ), which in interferometer 112 depicted in FIG. 2 comprises electrostatic actuator 230 . Electrostatic actuator 230 includes controlled voltage source 232 . Mirrors 226 and 228 are electrically conductive, so that when a voltage is applied across them, an electrostatic force of attraction results. Mirror 226 is suspended (e.g., from a stationary substrate, etc.) via tethers 234 that enable mirror 226 to move. Consequently, when a voltage is applied across mirrors 226 and 228 creating an electrostatic force of attraction, tethered mirror 226 moves toward mirror 228 . This movement reduces the size of gap G compared to the quiescent state in which no voltage is applied. Within the range of movement of mirror 226 , the size of gap G is a function of voltage. Since, as already indicated, a change in cavity length alters the resonances of the interferometer, the transmission spectrum as a function of wavelength for interferometer 112 can be altered via electrostatic actuator 230 . Most prior-art spectrophotometers are fabricated with minimal integration of elements. This affects cost and also limits the type of applications in which such spectrophotometers can be used. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Embodiments of the present invention provide a highly integrated Fabry-Perot interferometer and a highly integrated spectrophotometer. In some embodiments, the invention provides an “integrated” Fabry-Perot interferometer with an adjustable cavity length. The integrated interferometer includes (in addition to the interferometer itself), one or more actuation structures for controlling cavity length and one or more detectors. In the illustrative embodiment, the integrated interferometer is fabricated by attaching two micro-machined semiconductor-on-insulator wafers to one another. One mirror is formed on each such wafer. In the illustrative embodiment, one of the wafers is machined to provide a thermally insulated, suspended “micro-platform” comprising at least a layer of single crystal silicon. The micro-platform supports one of the two interferometer mirrors. Detectors are formed at least partially within the micro-platform. In the illustrative embodiment, the detectors are thermal detectors. Very small electrical conductors, referred to herein as “nanowires,” which can form part of the detectors, provide electrical connection between the micro-platform and “off-platform” electrical contacts, located elsewhere in the interferometer, for extracting the detector signals for processing. The nanowires are also used for applying a voltage across the mirrors for electrostatic control of interferometer cavity length. In some alternative embodiments, rather than having an adjustable cavity length, an interferometer in accordance with the present teachings includes multiple cavities, each having a different fixed cavity length. In some embodiments, the integrated Fabry-Perot interferometer forms part of a spectrophotometer. In addition to the interferometer, the spectrophotometer includes hardware/software for processing the signals generated by the detectors of the interferometer. In some embodiments, the spectrophotometer also includes one or more of: a light source, a region for receiving an analyte of interest, a means of calibration, and a power supply (optionally energy-harvesting). In embodiments that include a light source and power supply, the spectrophotometer can be contained within a sealed package and configured for remote wireless (e.g., RFID, etc.) operation. Remote operation enables, for example, implanting the spectrophotometer in animal tissue environments, such as for analyzing various compounds in the blood. Embodiments of the spectrophotometer can be used, for example, to determine the identity of a compound (e.g., glucose, oxygen, markers, etc.) and its concentration in a media (e.g., blood or other fluid, etc.). This is accomplished, for example, by comparing measurements obtained by the spectrophotometer to a reference file for the compound. The reference file includes information such as the wavelength spectrum of the compound, intensity-versus-wavelength values for the compound at varying concentrations, and the like. As previously noted, in some embodiments, an integrated spectrophotometer is provided. The integrated spectrophotometer is physically adapted to be implanted within animal tissue, including a human body (earlobe, finger, or skin flap, etc.) to provide an assay of one or more of glucose, oxygen, and other analytes in body fluid. Physical adaptations for such applications include, without limitation, an ability to transmit data and/or receive power wirelessly. In some other embodiments, the spectrophotometer is used in non-biological applications, such to analyze feed and effluent streams for laboratory chemical reactors or analytical instruments, and can even be used within such reactors and instruments. The spectrophotometer can be configured for placement in chemical production facilities to detect leaks and products of chemical reactions. The spectrophotometer can be configured for placement down-hole with petroleum exploratory drilling rigs for the purpose of analyzing a liquid or gas. This enables in-situ analysis without having to extracting the liquid/gas to the surface. The spectrometer can be used with sources of electromagnetic energy such as sunlight, emissions from an explosion or combustion event, blackbody emissions from a remote scene, or modulated signal beams. Consequently, embodiments of the spectrophotometer can configured to detect and analyze spectral components of light created during explosions, including detection of toxic gases. The spectrophotometer can be configured to monitor absorption spectra of sunlight as filtered by a media, such as smokestack effluents, thereby monitoring, for example, coal ash and the like. In some embodiments, the spectrophotometer can be configured for analyzing multiple infrared wavelengths so as to monitor the“blackbody” emission spectrum from remote scenes and objects to determine the surface temperature thereof. The spectrophotometer can be configured for hand-held use thereby providing a highly mobile unit enabling movement and placement not previously practical with many prior-art spectrophotometers. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES FIG. 1 depicts a prior-art spectrophotometer including a conventional Fabry-Perot interferometer configured with discrete components. FIG. 2 depicts a conventional Fabry-Perot interferometer. FIG. 3 depicts a spectrophotometer including an integrated Fabry-Perot interferometer in accordance with an illustrative embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 4 depicts an integrated spectrophotometer in accordance with an illustrative embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 5 depicts an integrated Fabry-Perot interferometer in accordance with a first illustrative embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 6A depicts starting semiconductor-on-insulator wafers for fabricating the integrated Fabry-Perot interferometer in accordance with an illustrative embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 6B depicts the starting wafers of FIG. 6A partially patterned. FIG. 7 depicts further detail of an embodiment of the integrated Fabry-Perot interferometer of FIG. 5 utilizing the wafers of FIGS. 6A and 6B . FIG. 8A depicts a cross-sectional view of the integrated Fabry-Perot interferometer shown in FIG. 6 through the line A-A in the direction shown. FIG. 8B depicts a perspective view of a portion of the integrated Fabry-Perot interferometer shown in FIG. 6 . FIG. 9 depicts a cross-section view of an integrated Fabry-Perot interferometer in accordance with a second embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 10A depicts a cross-sectional view of an integrated Fabry-Perot interferometer in accordance with a third embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 10B depicts a cross-sectional view of the integrated Fabry-Perot interferometer shown in FIG. 10A through the line B-B in the direction shown. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Definitions The following terms are explicitly defined for use in this disclosure and the appended claims: “infrared” refers to the broad range of photon wavelengths in the range from visible light at 700 nm to 100 microns, including the NIR, Mid-IR, LWIR, and ULWIR wavelength bands. “micro-platform” means a patterned layer having dimensions of about 100 nanometers on a side up to about 1 centimeter on a side. “nano-dimensioned” or “nano-sized” or “nanometer sized” means a structure whose controlled dimension is less than 1 micron (1000 nanometers). “nanowires” are very small (nano-dimensioned) electrically conductive elements. Although nanowires can include metallization (they could alternatively be appropriately doped to provide electrical conductivity), the structure thereof is based on a non-metallic material, such as a semiconductor or electrically insulating material. “quiescent state” means a non-actuated or non-energized state. “RFID” refers to a two-way wireless communications protocol. “Semiconductor-on-insulator” refers to a wafer typically having a three layers including an “active” layer, a “buried oxide layer” (“box”) layer, and a “handle” layer. The box layer is sandwiched by the active and handle layers. The most common semiconductor-on-insulator wafer has traditionally included a silicon device layer, a silicon dioxide box layer, and a silicon handle. This wafer is usually referred to as an “SOI” wafer. More recently, semiconductor-on-insulator wafers including: silicon-germanium alloy/silicon oxide/silicon handle, germanium/silicon oxide/silicon handle, and other combinations including various semiconductors and dielectric films are now available. “supported by” means that, for example, one layer is supported by, but not necessarily disposed on, another layer. For example, if a third layer is disposed on a second layer that is, in turn, disposed on a first layer, the third layer is “supported by” (but not “disposed on”) the first layer. FIG. 3 depicts the salient features of spectrophotometer 308 in accordance with the present teachings. The spectrophotometer includes integrated Fabry-Perot interferometer 312 and electronic digital and analog circuitry and software 120 . In operation, Interrogating light 102 is emitted from light source 100 . Light source 100 can be a broad-band or narrow-band source of light for emitting wavelengths of interest, including visible and infrared light, as a function of the analyte being interrogated. Light source 100 can be, without limitation, an LED, a quantum cascade laser, or a heated blackbody including environmental sunlit scenes. Interrogating light 102 is passed through analyte 104 , which is at least partially transparent. More precisely, the analyte is typically not transparent. However, in such cases, it is usually dispersed within a transparent or partially transparent media, such as blood, water, other liquids, gases, etc. The spectral content of interrogating light 102 is altered by virtue of passing through the analyte, resulting in spectrally altered light 106 . This spectral alteration is due to the absorption and/or dispersion of certain wavelengths of the interrogating light. Spectrally altered light 106 is directed into integrated Fabry-Perot interferometer 312 . With continued reference to FIG. 3 and now referring to FIG. 5 , integrated Fabry-Perot interferometer 312 includes two partially and highly reflective mirrors 504 and 506 . Cavity 502 is defined between the mirrors; the length of cavity 502 is the size of the gap between the two mirrors. Mirror 504 is disposed on a platform that resides on a suspended support layer. As a consequence of this arrangement, mirror 504 is movable. On application of a voltage across mirrors 504 and 506 , which results in an electrostatic force-of-attraction, the platform and mirror 504 move towards mirror 506 . This alters the gap between the mirrors (i.e., alters the length of cavity 502 of interferometer 312 ). In this context, the mirrors must be electrically conductive. More precisely, either the mirrors, or a layer associated therewith, must be electrically conductive. Thus, as used herein, the term “electrically conductive,” when used to describe a mirror or a highly-reflective surface, means that the either the mirror/surface or something attached to it is electrically conductive. The light is spectrally filtered in Fabry-Perot interferometer 312 in conventional fashion. As mentioned in the Background section, the filtering is a function of the resonant wavelengths of the interferometer and those resonances are a function of interferometer cavity length, among other parameters. Although the spectral filtering is dependent on other parameters as previously mentioned, it is cavity length that is varied in the illustrative embodiments. The spectrally filtered light exiting interferometer cavity 502 through mirrors 504 and 506 passes into adjacent layers of material. Light passing through mirror 504 enters the platform, which contains detectors. In the illustrative embodiment, the detectors are thermocouples that are series connected to form a thermopile. The filtered light raises the temperature of the platform above that of the surrounding layer. As a consequence, a (Seebeck) voltage is generated, in known fashion, from the thermocouple array. The thermal detectors operate in analog fashion; that is, the amplitude of the voltage generated is proportional to the power absorbed by the platform from the light. Thus, the amplitude of the voltage is a function of the light intensity at a particular wavelength. The first mirror on the micro-platform is electrically connected by nanowires to an aluminum interconnect patterned on the first silicon substrate. Cavity length is periodically changed to alter the resonant frequencies of interferometer 312 . As previously noted, cavity length is changed electrostatically by applying a voltage across the mirrors. The voltage is applied via a controlled voltage source. For each such periodic change, signal voltages are generated by the detectors. The relationship between the applied voltage and the wavelengths of the light exiting the interferometer can be determined in known fashion. Using that relationship, in conjunction with the amplitude of the voltage generated by the detectors during each period, information concerning light intensity as a function of wavelength can be obtained. The detector signals 118 are transmitted off-platform to electrical contacts situated elsewhere in the interferometer. From these contacts, signals 118 are transmitted to electronic circuitry 120 (external to the interferometer). Electronic circuitry 120 includes, without limitation, signal conditioning (reduce noise), an analog-to-digital converter, a suitably programmed processor, processor-accessible memory, and wires for conducting electrical signals to and from various components/structures of integrated Fabry-Perot interferometer 312 . The processor includes, without limitation, algorithms for processing the detector signals, such as via a Fourier transform or variations thereof, algorithms for controlling and varying the cavity length, and, optionally, algorithms for comparing the processed information with reference information about the analyte that is stored in the processor-accessible memory. In this fashion, a complete spectral assay of the light that resulted from interrogation of the analyte is obtained and can be used to determine qualitative and quantitative information about the analyte. Further detail of an embodiment of integrated Fabry-Perot interferometer 312 is provided later in this specification in conjunction with FIGS. 6A, 6B, 7, 8A, and 8B . FIG. 5 depicts light 106 entering interferometer 312 via “upper” mirror 506 . Those skilled in the art will appreciate that light 106 could also (or alternatively) enter interferometer 312 through “lower” mirror 504 and be processed in essentially the same fashion. In spectrophotometer 308 , neither light source 100 nor electronic circuitry 120 is co-located in a housing with integrated Fabry-Perot interferometer 312 . In accordance with some embodiments of the invention, a fully integrated spectrophotometer is provided. An embodiment of fully integrated spectrophotometer 408 in accordance with the present invention is depicted in FIG. 4 . Fully integrated spectrophotometer 408 includes housing 438 that hermetically seals its contents, including light source 100 , integrated Fabry-Perot interferometer 312 , and various electronic devices and circuitry (e.g., processor 444 , low-noise signal conditioning 446 , analog-to-digital conversion 448 , light source drivers 450 , power supply 452 , RF antenna 454 , and RFID transponder 456 ). Housing 438 is configured to provide sampling region 440 . The sampling region is defined in a region that is external to housing 438 and is thus exposed to the ambient environment. In the illustrative embodiment, sampling region 440 is formed by creating an “inlet” wherein the walls of the housing extend inwardly for a distance. This inlet has a “u” shape, wherein the two “legs” of the “u” are windows 442 A and 442 B. The windows are leak proof and transparent to the interrogating light emitted from light source 100 . As depicted in FIG. 4 , when spectrophotometer 408 is placed in a fluid, the fluid readily enters sampling region 440 . In operation, light from light source 100 is directed through window 442 A to sampling region 440 , which contains an analyte of interest. The interrogating light passes through the media containing the analyte in sampling region 440 and is spectrally altered as previously discussed. The spectrally altered light then re-enters housing 438 through second window 442 B. In the illustrative embodiment, integrated Fabry-Perot interferometer 312 is situated behind window 442 B, so that the spectrally altered beam passes through that window and into the interferometer. The spectrally altered beam is spectrally filtered in interferometer 312 in the manner previously discussed. The output from the detectors is extracted from interferometer 312 and is transmitted to low-noise signal conditioning circuitry 446 and then to analog-to-digital convertor circuitry 448 . The resulting digital signal is then sent to processor 444 . In some embodiments, the processor includes processor-accessible memory containing software for controlling and varying the cavity length, software for controlling light-source drivers 450 , and software for controlling communications and power functions. In such embodiments, the minimally processed data is transmitted from integrated spectrophotometer 408 to an external processor. The external processor generates the spectral assay, etc., via Fourier-transform processing or variations thereof. The external processor also compares the spectral assay to reference information, such as for qualitative (analyte identification) or quantitative (analyte concentration) determinations. In some other embodiments, processor 444 can generate the spectral assay and, optionally, the qualitative and quantitative determinations. In the illustrative embodiment, spectrophotometer 408 receives power and communication control through integral antenna 454 that is sensitive to electromagnetic or magnetic fields sourced from an external RFID interrogator. In the illustrative embodiment, spectrophotometer 408 includes passive RFID transponder 456 that communicates with the external interrogator by wireless means through antenna 454 . The implementation of passive RFID transponder 456 is within the capabilities of those skilled in the art. In some embodiments, spectrophotometer 408 can be powered with energy harvested from remote electromagnetic or magnetic field sources at RF wavelength bands including low frequency, high frequency, or ultra-high frequency and communicated using a wireless telemetry link. In some such embodiments, antenna 454 is operated as a “rectenna,” which is a portmanteau word meaning “rectifying antenna”. A rectanna is an antenna that is used to convert incident electromagnetic or magnetic energy into direct current. In its simplest form, the rectanna is implemented by connecting an RF diode connected across the dipole elements of antenna 454 . The diode rectifies the AC voltage induced in the antenna to produce DC power. In such an embodiment, “power supply 452 ” is an appropriately connected RF diode and a capacitor for energy storage. FIGS. 6A, 6B, 7, and 8A-8B depict further detail of an embodiment of integrated Fabry-Perot interferometer 312 . The inventor recognized that it is particularly advantageous to fabricate some embodiments of integrated Fabry-Perot interferometer 312 (as well as embodiments of other versions of the interferometer disclosed later in this specification) using semiconductor-on-insulator wafers. In particular, the alternating layer structure, the thickness of the layers, as well as the material characteristics thereof in such wafers are well suited for fabricating at least some embodiments of an integrated Fabry-Perot interferometer in accordance with the present teachings. As will be appreciated by comparing FIGS. 6A, 6B, and 7 , in the illustrative embodiment, integrated Fabry-Perot interferometer 312 is formed from two semiconductor-on-insulator wafers 602 and 610 as well as non-electrically conductive substrate 600 . FIG. 6A depicts starting wafers 602 and 610 prior to any patterning steps. During fabrication, various additional layers of material are formed on one or both of the wafers. FIG. 6B depicts wafers 602 and 610 after some patterning has been completed. The illustrative embodiments disclose the use of silicon-on-insulator wafers, which have a device layer of single crystal silicon, a box layer of silicon dioxide, and a handle layer of silicon. Suitable semiconductor-on-insulator wafers for use in conjunction with the present invention are not limited to such silicon-on-insulator wafers. In some other embodiments, the device layer is an alloy film of silicon-germanium. Silicon-germanium offers advantages for the device layer; in particular, it has lower thermal conductivity than silicon. This is particularly useful for embodiments in which the detectors operate as thermal detectors (bolometers), since the region in which detectors reside should be thermally insulated from sources of heat other than what is delivered from the electromagnetic radiation exiting the interferometer cavity. In further embodiments those skilled in the art can easily recognize that other semiconductor-on-insulator starting wafer combinations also offer potential advantages. For instance, a wafer with a device layer of bismuth telluride or derivatives thereof can offer an increased Seebeck sensitivity compared with silicon or silicon-germanium. Semiconductor-on-insulator wafers 602 and 610 includes three layers: a “device” layer of silicon, a buried oxide (“box”) layer of silicon dioxide, and a “substrate” or “handle” layer of silicon. In wafer 602 , those layers are: layer 608 (device layer), layer 606 (box layer), and layer 604 (handle layer). In wafer 610 , those layers are: layer 616 (device layer), layer 614 (box layer), and layer 612 (handle layer). Typically, the device layer is single crystal silicon (about 10-2000 nanometers in thickness), the box layer is SiO 2 (about 0.5 to 4 microns in thickness) and the handle layer is single crystal silicon (>250 microns in thickness). As discussed later in further detail, in some embodiments, layer 608 of wafer 602 comprises high resistivity silicon that is doped appropriately during processing. As depicted in FIG. 6B , a portion of device layer 608 of wafer 602 is patterned to form micro-platform 626 . The portion of layer 606 immediately surrounding micro-platform 626 is patterned to create structures 630 , referred to herein as “nanowires,” which will ultimately function as electrically conductive wires for conducting electrical signals to and from micro-platform 626 . They are referred to as “nanowires” because at least the controlled dimension thereof is less than 1 micron, such as the width of nanowire 630 . The portion of handle layer 604 below micro-platform 626 and nanowires 630 is removed, thereby creating region 622 . This “releases” the portion of box layer 606 below micro-platform 626 and nanowires 630 such that the released portion is not supported by any underlying material. The unsupported portion of layer 606 is designated “support layer 624 ”. FIG. 6B depicts an additional layer 618 of electrically insulating material formed on active layer 616 of wafer 610 . In the illustrative embodiment, layer 618 is a layer of silicon dioxide. A portion of layer 618 and a portion of layer 616 are removed, forming cavity 628 . Wafers 602 and 610 are aligned so that “device” layers 608 and 616 are facing one another and micro-platform 626 is approximately centered with respect to cavity 628 of wafer 610 . The two wafers are bonded together at layers 608 and 618 via solder or epoxy preforms 620 or direct wafer-to-wafer bonding. Wafer 602 and substrate 600 are bonded together via solder or epoxy preforms. Substrate 600 can be ceramic, quartz, or other suitable, non-electrically conductive material. Additional layers (metallization and/or insulator) may be grown/deposited on the various exposed layers of wafers 602 and 610 . Such details and further description of the fabrication process is provided later in this specification. FIG. 7 depicts further detail of an embodiment of interferometer 312 . It will be apparent that the basic structure of interferometer 312 results from joining wafers 602 and 610 to one another (at interface 752 ) and from joining wafer 602 to substrate 600 at interface 754 . The structure of integrated interferometer 312 provides optical filtering, detection, and electrical connectivity, as previously discussed and as discussed further below. Optical Filtering. Interferometer 312 includes highly (but partially) reflective surfaces 732 and 734 . These reflective surfaces are implementations of mirrors 504 and 506 ( FIG. 5 ). In the illustrative embodiment, reflective surfaces 732 and 734 are aluminum having a thickness in the range of about 10 to 100 nanometers. In other embodiments, materials such as gold, silver, copper, etc., and combinations thereof can be used. In yet further embodiments, the reflective surfaces can be multi-layer dielectric sandwiches of appropriate thickness. In still further embodiments, the reflective surfaces can be combinations of metals and dielectrics. The fabrication of mirrors is within the capabilities of those skilled in the art. The space between highly reflective surfaces 732 and 734 defines optical cavity 736 . The length of optical cavity 736 is equal to gap G. Detection. Micro-platform 626 is an effectively isothermal region comprising materials suitable for (1) absorbing radiation in the visible and/or IR band and (2) for detecting such radiation. Micro-platform is effectively isothermal because the layer from which it is formed (layer 608 ) has high thermal conductivity and for the most part, micro-platform 626 is isolated from other layers. To detect radiation, micro-platform 626 includes detectors. In the illustrative embodiment, the detectors are embodied as thermal detectors; in particular, thermocouples. The portion of the thermocouple positioned within micro-platform 626 becomes the heated end; the other end of each thermocouple is located in the “field” region of layer 608 , which is not heated and therefore provides a reference temperature. Operating in Seebeck thermovoltaic mode, the thermocouples generate a voltage proportional to the temperature difference between micro-platform 626 and surrounding field region of layer 608 . Thus, the voltage generated is proportional to the power absorbed from the light exiting the reflective surface 732 . In some other embodiments, the detectors are embodied as thermistors, and in some further embodiments, the detectors are embodied as band gap detectors. The detectors are described in further detail in conjunction with FIGS. 8A and 8B . In some embodiments, interferometer 312 includes infrared (IR) absorber 756 for enhanced absorption of infrared radiation. IR absorber 756 is disposed on the “underside” of support layer 624 . In the illustrative embodiment, IR absorber 756 is a dense grouping of individual structures having a relatively high length to width (or diameter) ratio. Such an absorber is particularly effective for enhancing the absorption of mid- to long-wave IR. In some embodiments, IR absorber 756 is implemented as silicon structures (e.g., pedestals, etc.) referred to herein as “silicon grass”. The spacing between adjacent “blades” of silicon grass is the range of nanometers. The silicon grass is not necessarily uniform in structure. The presence of the silicon grass greatly increases the absorption efficiency of IR, as opposed to an un-patterned layer of the same material. In some embodiments, the “height” of the silicon grass is at least one-quarter wavelength of the incident IR. Since the shortest wavelength IR is about 700 nanometers, this equates to a minimum height for the grass of about 175 nanometers. Typical width or diameter of the silicon grass is in the range of about 1-10 nanometers, giving a minimum L/D greater than 15 and a typical L/D in excess of 100. Silicon grass can be formed, for example, using DRIE (deep reactive ion etching). In some further embodiments, IR absorber 756 is implemented as vertical multiwall carbon nanotubes. This can be accomplished, for example, by a first atomic layer deposition, which serves as a catalyst for growth. This deposition is followed by chemical vapor deposition (“CVD”) process with an acetylene precursor to grow the VMWCNTs. The L/D for the VMWCNTs can be tens of thousands. Electrical Connectivity. Interferometer 312 is able to: (1) apply a voltage across highly reflective surfaces 732 and 734 for electrostatic control of cavity length and (2) conduct electrical signals from micro-platform 626 to electrical contacts located elsewhere in the interferometer and, finally, to processing electronics located external to the interferometer. Arrangement for Applying a Voltage to Highly Reflective Surfaces. The length of cavity 736 (gap G) can be altered by applying a voltage across reflective surfaces 732 and 734 . In this context, the reflective surfaces function as electrodes of an electrostatic actuator. Since, in the illustrative embodiment, the reflective surfaces comprise metal, electrical connection to surfaces 732 and 734 is trivial. Voltage is applied to reflective surface 734 (i.e., the “upper fixed mirror”) using contacts 748 B and 738 . Contact 748 B is an ohmic contact to layer 612 and contact 738 is an ohmic contact between layer 612 and reflective surface 734 . Electrical interconnect 758 couples contact 748 B to contact 750 B. Contact 750 B is coupled to a controlled voltage source (not depicted). Voltage can be applied to reflective surface 732 (i.e., the “lower movable mirror) using contacts 748 A or 748 C. Interferometer 312 is typically arranged, however, to provide only one electrical path to reflective surface 732 for the application of a voltage. In the illustrative embodiment, that path is through contact 748 A. Through-wafer vias 740 A and 740 B are used to access electrical contact layer 608 , which is the layer on which electrical traces reside. Vias 740 A and 740 B extend all the way through “upper” wafer 610 to “lower” wafer 602 . More particularly, these through-wafer vias extend through layers 612 , 614 , 616 , 618 , “exposing” layer 608 . Insulating layer 742 (e.g., silicon dioxide, etc.) is disposed on the sidewalls of vias 740 A and 740 B and layer 744 of an electrical conductor, such as aluminum, etc., is disposed on insulating layer 742 . Electrical contacts 746 A and 746 B are formed at the base of vias 740 A and 740 B, respectively. As described in further detail in conjunction with FIG. 8A , in the illustrative embodiment, electrically conductive trace 874 disposed on the “upper” surface of electrical contact layer 608 electrically couples contact 746 A to one nanowire 630 . Electrically conductive trace 876 , which is disposed on micro-platform 626 , couples the one nanowire to reflective surface 732 to complete the electrical path from contact 748 A. A layer of an electrically insulating material, such as silicon dioxide, is disposed between electrical contact layer 608 and the metallization. In embodiments in which metal is used for electrical conduction, a layer of insulator is disposed between the metal and the “supporting” layer to the extent needed to provide electrical insulation from underlying silicon. In some alternative embodiments, rather than creating electrical paths via metallic traces, layer 608 is doped to provide electrically conductive paths. In such embodiments, to maintain electrical isolation between such conductive paths, layer 608 must comprise a high resistivity material, such as high resistivity silicon. As discussed further below, nanowires 630 are not metallized; rather, electrical conductivity is provided by doping the nanowires. Arrangement for Conducting Electrical Signals from the Micro-Platform to Off-Platform Contacts and External Circuitry. As previously mentioned, in the illustrative embodiment, detectors (partially) within micro-platform 626 are implemented as thermal detectors. Such detectors will generate a voltage when they detect heat. The voltage signals generated by the detectors are ultimately processed as part of the spectrophotometry process. To do so, such signals must be transmitted to external circuitry (e.g., for analog to digital conversion, for Fourier algorithmic processing, etc.). The detector signals are electrically conducted off of micro-platform 626 via nanowires 630 , which are described in further detail in conjunction with FIGS. 8A and 8B . Electrically conductive traces disposed on layer 608 electrically couple the signals from nanowires 630 to electrical contacts 746 A and 746 B located at the “base” of through-wafer vias 740 A and 740 B. These electrical contacts are electrically coupled to respective contacts 748 A and 748 C disposed “on top” of interferometer 312 in conjunction with metallization layer 744 disposed on the “right-hand” sidewall of the respective through-wafer vias. Contacts 748 A and 748 C are electrically coupled to contacts 750 on substrate 600 , at which point the signals can be transmitted to external circuitry. Because of the preponderance of electrical traces on the “field” region of layer 608 , that region is referred to herein as the “electrical contact layer”. FIG. 8A depicts a cross sectional view of interferometer 312 along the line A-A in FIG. 7 and in the direction shown. FIG. 8A is effectively a plan view of interferometer 312 with all layers above layer 608 removed. Contacts 746 A and 746 B are the electrical contacts that are disposed at the base of through-wafer vias 740 A and 740 B (see FIG. 7 ), as previously discussed. Electrical traces 874 (on field region 608 ) and 876 (on micro-platform 626 ), in conjunction with a nanowire 630 , place contact 746 A and reflective surface 732 in electrical contact for the application of a voltage, such as for electrostatically adjusting interferometer cavity length. A plurality of detectors 862 are formed in/on micro-platform 626 . In the illustrative embodiment, the detectors are thermal detectors—in particular thermocouples—that are series-connected to form a thermopile. One end of the thermopile is electrically coupled, via metallization trace 870 , to contact 746 A. The other end of the thermopile is electrically coupled, via metallization trace 872 , to contact 746 B. In the illustrative embodiment, each detector 862 comprises a Seebeck junction and two arms. The two arms are implemented via two nanowires 630 , one of which is n-doped and the other of which is p-doped. Junction 864 is disposed in/on micro-platform 626 and is formed by appropriately doping (with p-material and n-material) the region of micro-platform 626 between the ends of two nanowires. Micro-platform 626 is also pattern-doped in the region between the end of each nanowire 630 and its respective junction 864 to create electrically conductive path 866 that places the nanowire and p-n junction in electrical contact with one another. Path 866 is doped with the same material as the associated nanowire 630 . Dopant materials include, for example, phosphorus, arsenic, and boron. Electrical traces 868 disposed on electrical contact layer 608 (with an intervening layer of insulator) electrically connect detectors 862 to one another in the off platform of layer 608 to provide the series connection. In some other embodiments, thermal detectors 862 are thermistors. The thermistors are formed by pattern-doping the active layer with one or more of phosphorus, arsenic, and boron. In yet some further embodiments, the detector is a small band-gap semiconductor junction or a high-Z thermoelectric junction. In such embodiments, the junction is formed of InAs, GaAs, InAs, HgCdTe or other appropriate semiconductor materials obtained variously through CVD deposition, sol-gel deposition, and patterned-doping processes. FIG. 8B depicts a perspective view of micro-platform 626 and two detectors 862 . For clarity, other detectors and nanowires are not depicted in FIG. 8B , it being understood that additional detectors having nanowires 630 extending from all four sides of micro-platform 626 are present, as depicted in FIG. 8A . As shown in FIG. 8B , nanowires 630 are patterned from layer 608 and have a thickness equal to that of layer 608 , but have an exceedingly small width (10 to 2000 nanometers). It is notable that in FIG. 7 , nanowires 630 are illustrated with a “sawtooth” profile, similar to the manner in which a “resistor” is normally depicted. Nanowires 630 are not resistors; they are drawn in this fashion to be readily distinguishable, for example in FIGS. 5, 6B , and 7 , from the unpatterned material of layer 608 and micro-platform 626 . With continued reference to FIGS. 8A and 8B , nanowires must be electrically conductive yet, at the same time, they should exhibit low thermal conductivity to keep the amount of heat that they conduct on or off micro-platform 626 to a practical minimum (for embodiments in which detectors 862 are implemented as thermal detectors). For this reason, in the illustrative embodiment, the upper surface of nanowires 630 is not metallized. That is, although such metallization would readily provide electrically conductive paths for conducting a voltage on to, or electrical signals off of, micro-platform 626 , metal is an excellent conductor of heat. The thermal conductivity of nanowire 630 is a function of the thermal energy conducted through charge carriers and lattice-energy transfer mechanisms. For silicon semiconductor nanowires, the thermal conductivity is primarily determined by phonon scattering, which is, in turn, a function of nanowire cross-section and the presence of internal scattering structures. The greater the scattering, the lower the thermal conductivity. In accordance with some embodiments, nanowires 630 include a physical adaptation that reduces their ability to conduct heat. In some embodiments, the physical adaptation is a plurality of “scattering holes” (not depicted) to scatter phonons, thereby reducing thermal conductivity along the length of each nanowire 630 . The spacing between the scattering holes on each nanowire is approximately the phonon scattering length and greater than the scattering length for electrical charge carriers (i.e., electrons or holes). In particular, the phonon scattering length in silicon (about 50 to 500 nanometers) is typically about 10× greater than the scattering length for electrical charge carriers (about 5 to 50 nanometers). The presence of these scattering holes results in an increase in the ratio of electrical conductivity to thermal conductivity of each nanowire 630 . For additional disclosure concerning nanowires and other aspects of micro-platform 626 , see, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/245,598, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. To further increase the thermal isolation of micro-platform 626 , in some embodiments, a portion of support layer 624 below nanowires 630 is removed. Fabrication. Processing of the “Lower” Wafer 602 . Referring generally to FIGS. 6A, 6B, 7, 8A, and 8B , device layer 608 of SEMICONDUCTOR-ON-INSULATOR wafer 602 is appropriately patterned to create micro-platform 626 and the nanowires 630 . The micro-platform is lithographically patterned, for example, via reactive ion etching (RIE). In the illustrative embodiment, layer 606 , which is silicon dioxide, is used as an etch stop. Micro-platform 626 is doped to form detectors 862 . As previously discussed, in the illustrative embodiment, the detectors are thermal detectors, such as thermocouples. The thermocouples are formed by pattern-doping micro-platform 626 to form a Seebeck junction and nanowires 630 , in alternating fashion, with n-type material and p-type material. The dopants can be one or more of phosphorus, arsenic, or boron. In some embodiments, the thermal detector is a thermistor. The thermistors are formed by doping the appropriate regions with a high-resistivity active silicon layer with one or more of phosphorus, arsenic, or boron. Micro-platform 626 is covered by a thin (submicron) layer of a dielectric, such as silicon dioxide. Silicon dioxide can be deposited, for example, from a TEOS precursor via a low pressure chemical vapor deposition (“LPCVD”) tool. In some other embodiments, the thin dielectric film is deposited from a silane/ammonia precursor in a similar CVD tool. The thin dielectric film is appropriately lithographically patterned. In the illustrative embodiment, highly reflective surface 732 is formed by evaporating or sputtering a metal, such as aluminum, onto the topside of the thin dielectric film and appropriately patterning the metal. In some other embodiments, gold, silver, copper, dielectric sandwiches, or combinations of these materials (including aluminum) can suitably be used to form surface 732 . Highly reflective surface 732 is partially reflecting. In the illustrative embodiment in which surface 732 is formed from aluminum, the thickness thereof is in the range of about 10 to about 100 nanometers. Another film of aluminum that provides electrical contacts and interconnects with the detector is also deposited and patterned. The portion of layer 606 underlying micro-platform 626 (i.e., layer 624 ) serves as a support therefor. Support layer 624 is “released” by etching into layer 604 (i.e., the handle of semiconductor-on-insulator wafer 602 ), creating cavity 622 . Layer 606 / 624 serves as an etch-stop for the etch process. The etchants used are preferably anisotropic, such as, without limitation, TMAH or KOH. Alternatively, deep reactive ion etching (“DRIE”) can be used can be used to create cavity 622 . In some embodiments, IR absorber 756 is formed on the “under side” of support layer 624 . In embodiments in which IR absorber 756 are carbon nanotubes, they are grown, in known fashion, in a reactor using a catalyst film of iron oxide a few nanometers in thickness followed by CNT growth from a H 2 C 2 precursor. Processing of the “Upper” Wafer 610 . Layer 618 of an electrically insulating material, such as silicon dioxide, is formed on device layer 616 of semiconductor-on-insulator wafer 610 . Layer 618 has a thickness in the range of about 50 to about 500 nanometers. Layer 618 can be formed via oxidation in a furnace. Cavity 628 is formed in layers 618 and 616 via reactive ion etching. Layer 614 is used as an etch stop. Device layer 616 and insulator layer 618 thus serves as a spacer to define the nominal “gap” (i.e., cavity length) for interferometer 312 . For operation at mid- and long-wavelength infrared, the thickness of layer 616 is in the range of about 1 to about 20 microns. A layer of aluminum, which will serve as highly reflective surface 734 (i.e., the “upper” mirror of interferometer 312 ), is evaporated or sputtered onto layer 614 of semiconductor-on-insulator wafer 610 . In some other embodiments, films of gold, copper, multi-layer dielectrics, or combinations of these materials (including aluminum) can suitably be used to form the reflective layer. This is followed by rapid thermal annealing (“RTA”) to form the ohmic contact 738 between layer 612 and surface 734 . This enables a voltage to be applied to the surface 734 , as required when the surface functions as an electrode for electrostatic actuation. The aluminum film covering other portions of layer 616 (i.e., outside of cavity 628 ) is removed by chemical/mechanical polishing (“CMP”). Through-wafer vias 740 A and 740 B are formed using, for example, DRIE, and are then coated with a film of a dielectric material, such as silicon dioxide, etc. A film of metal, such as aluminum, is deposited on the dielectric material in the vias and then patterned. This additional film is used to form the electrical connection with the detectors and highly reflective surface 732 on micro-platform 626 . Bonding the First and Second Wafers Together. Wafers 602 and 610 , after processing as described above, are aligned and bonded together at interface 752 using one or more of anodic, direct semiconductor-to-semiconductor, cement, or eutectic alloy bonding processes. The bonded wafers are then sawed into individual die, which are bonded at interface 754 , to substrate 600 . In some embodiments, this bonding is implemented with an electrically conductive epoxy perform. In the illustrative embodiment, substrate 600 is a ceramic header with appropriately patterned electrical pins and interconnects. In some other embodiments, substrate 600 is another suitable material, such as epoxy, very high-resistivity silicon, etc. In the illustrative embodiment, the integrated structure (within a packaging header) is wired to bonding pads 750 via an ultrasonic wire bonder. FIG. 9 depicts integrated Fabry-Perot interferometer 912 , which is a variation of integrated Fabry-Perot interferometer 312 . In this embodiment, the placement of wafer 602 and wafer 610 ( FIG. 6A ) is reversed such that the movable mirror is situated “above” the fixed mirror. That is, micro-platform 626 and highly reflective surface 732 are disposed “above” highly reflective surface 734 . Interferometer 912 has the same basic structure as interferometer 312 , being based on two semiconductor-on-insulator wafers and a ceramic, etc., substrate. Integrated Fabry-Perot interferometer 912 includes three vias 940 A, 940 B, and 940 C, which all provide electrical access to electrical connections (that ultimately connect to micro-platform 626 ) on layer 608 . Contact 750 on hermetic seal 976 and ohmic contact 738 provide electrical connection to highly reflective layer 734 . An aluminum film at interface 752 is patterned to provide electrical connection between appropriate nanowires 630 and respective vias 940 A, 940 B, and 940 C. In this embodiment, light enters the interferometer through region 977 , thereby ensuring that the light reaches interferometer cavity 732 before it encounters IR absorber 756 . In some other less preferred embodiments, light enters via cavity 622 , thereby encountering IR absorber 756 before reaching interferometer cavity 732 . If light enters via cavity 622 , the spectral finesse of interferometer 912 is likely to be degraded. The same techniques that were used to fabricate interferometer 312 are used to fabricate interferometer 912 . However, for interferometer 912 , IR absorber 756 is formed after through-wafer vias 940 A, 940 B, and 940 C. FIGS. 10A and 10B depict integrated Fabry-Perot interferometer 1012 , which is another variation of integrated Fabry-Perot interferometer 312 . In this embodiment, cavity length is fixed. Interferometer 1012 includes multiple cavities, each tuned to filter a different selected wavelength based on cavity length. As depicted in FIG. 10B , interferometer 1012 includes six cavities, three of which: 1036 1-1 , 1036 2-1 , 1036 3-1 , are visible in FIG. 10A . Cavity 1036 1-1 has a cavity length of G 1 , cavity 1036 2-1 has a cavity length of G 2 , and cavity 1036 3-1 has a cavity length of G 3 . Each cavity functions as a discrete interferometer in the manner previously discussed, wherein detectors 862 ( FIG. 10B ) within each micro-platform generate a voltage in response to heating and electrically conducting nanowires 630 conduct the detector signals off-platform. As in other embodiments depicted, all structures external to each micro-platform 626 are effectively an isothermal reference mass. The thermocouple arrays in this embodiment provide sensitivity for thermal sensing with incident radiation wavelengths longer than typically 2 microns. IR absorber 756 enhances absorption of IR radiation in micro-platform 626 . Referring to FIG. 10B , the six arrays of detectors 862 associated with the six cavities are electrically connected to a common first interconnect 1084 . The first interconnect is electrically coupled to electrical contact 1086 . This arrangement simplifies the interconnection for detector readout. Electrical contact 1086 couples to electrical contact 1078 A disposed on layer 1081 . Electrical contact 1078 A is coupled to a first electrical contact 750 on substrate 600 . Each array of detectors 862 has its own unique second electrical contact for readout: 1082 i,j , wherein i=1, 3 and j=1, 3. Each second electrical contact 1082 i,j is electrically connected to electrical contact 1078 B disposed on layer 1081 . Electrical contact 1078 B is coupled to a second electrical contact 750 on substrate 600 . Light is pulsed sequentially into the various cavities. This configuration permits a parallel simultaneous readout of signals from all detectors 862 in the array via electrical contacts 1082 i,j . Referring to FIG. 10A , insulator layer 1081 is disposed on layer 608 . That is, an additional insulator layer (e.g., silicon dioxide, etc.) is added to the device layer of the lower starting semiconductor-on-insulator wafer. Layer 1081 provides electrical isolation between the interconnections that are patterned onto electrical contact layer 608 . This layer also improves the finesse of interferometer 1012 by reducing the penetration of the evanescent wave to the detector. Anti-reflection layer 1080 is disposed on layer 612 to reduce reflection of the incident radiation. In some embodiments, layer 1080 is a quarter-wave thickness of a single dielectric film or a sandwich of multiple dielectrics. The same techniques that were used to fabricate interferometer 312 are used to fabricate interferometer 1012 . The “pedestals” defined by portions of layer 608 , layer 1081 , and layer 616 serve as both an isothermal reference for thermal detectors in the micro-platforms 626 and as a support for electrical interconnects. The differences in cavity length between the cavities result from etching a different distance into layer 612 . The pedestals also effectively extend the two “inner pedestals” of layer 604 that support layer 606 . This helps to reduce or eliminate variations in the gaps in each cavity due to bowing of the layers 604 and 612 . Although the embodiment of integrated Fabry-Perot interferometer 1012 depicted in FIGS. 10A and 10B has six interferometric cavities, in some other embodiments, interferometer 1012 can include fewer or more than six such cavities. It is to be understood that although the disclosure teaches many examples of embodiments in accordance with the present teachings, many additional variations of the invention can easily be devised by those skilled in the art after reading this disclosure. As a consequence, the scope of the present invention is to be determined by the following claims.

An “integrated” Fabry-Perot interferometer, such as for use in a spectrophotometer, is fabricated by attaching two micro-machined semiconductor-on-insulator wafers to one another. One mirror is formed on each micro-machined wafer. One mirror is supported by a thermally insulated, suspended micro-platform. In some embodiments, interferometer cavity length is adjustable. Detectors are disposed at least partially within the micro-platform. In some embodiments, the interferometer, a light source, and other circuitry and components, such as wireless communications components, are contained in a sealed package that includes a sampling region, thereby providing an integrated spectrophotometer. The integrated spectrophotometer can be implanted, for example, in animal tissue environments, such as for analyzing various compounds in the blood.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0001] 1. Field of the Invention [0002] The present invention relates to an electrical connector, and more particularly to an electrical connector for a sheet-like connection member such as a flexible printed circuit or cable (FPC), a flexible flat cable (FFC) and so forth. All of these cables and circuit hereafter will be generally referred to as “FPC” for simplification. [0003] 2. Description of Related Art [0004] A conventional FPC connector generally includes a plurality of terminals each comprising a contact beam provided with a contact portion adapted for contacting an FPC and a pivot beam extending substantially parallel to and opposed to the contact beam, a housing adapted for holding the terminals and comprising opposite lower and upper walls defining a cavity therebetween wherein the lower wall protruding forwardly beyond the upper wall along a horizontal direction, and a pivoting actuator pivotably assembled on free ends of the pivot beams. The terminals are arranged in the housing in a side-by-side fashion, and each terminal has the contact beam thereof fixed in the lower wall of the housing and has the pivot beam thereof partly fixed in the upper wall of the housing, that is, the rear section of the pivot beam fixed in the upper wall and the front section of the pivot beam projected beyond the upper wall as a cantilever with no support. The front section of the pivot beam is provided with a concave portion for engaging with the actuator. The actuator is provided with cam portions disposed between every two adjacent pivot beams and shaft portions located between and joining every two adjacent cam portions. The shaft portions are respectively pivotably received in the concave portions of the pivot beams. Via engagement of the shaft portions of the actuator and the pivot beams of the terminals, the actuator is pivotable between an open position where an FPC can be inserted into the housing with zero-insertion-force and a closed position where the FPC is urged by the cam portions so as to connect with the contact portions of the contact beams. Such kind of FPC connectors can be found in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,893,288, 6,755,682 and 6,099,346. [0005] However, the front sections of the pivot beams projected as cantilevers without any support are relatively weaker and apt to deform during assembly and operation of the actuator. Otherwise, the shaft portions each disposed between and joining two cam portions are breakable especially once being inadvertently struck during operation of the actuator. Therefore, it is desired to have a new FPC connector in which pivot beams are well supported and thereby are well strengthened. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0006] An object of the present invention is to provide a new FPC connector in which pivot beams of terminals are strengthened. [0007] In order to achieve above-mentioned object, an FPC connector for connecting an FPC in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the present invention includes a housing defining an insertion slot for receiving the FPC; a plurality of terminals arranged in the housing in parallel relationship with a predetermined pitch, each of the terminals having a contact beam extending into the insertion slot and a pivot beam extending substantially parallel to the contact beam; and an actuator rotatably provided for establishing an electrical connection between the sheet-like member and the contact beams. The actuator provides cam portions each interposed between every other the pivot beam. Each of the cam portions provides shaft portions respectively adapted for pivotably engaging with the pivot beams disposed therebeside. The shaft portions extending towards each other respectively from two adjacent cam portions are spaced to define a gap therebetween. [0008] Other objects, advantages and novel features of the present invention will become more apparent from the following detailed description of the present embodiment when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0009] FIG. 1 is an assembled perspective view of an FPC connector in accordance with a first embodiment of the present invention; [0010] FIG. 2 is a partly exploded perspective view of the FPC connector shown in FIG. 1 , wherein an actuator and a pair of support members are disassembled from a housing, but terminals are still assembled in the housing; [0011] FIG. 3 (A) is a cross-sectional view of FIG. 1 taken along line 3 - 3 , wherein an actuator is placed at an open position; [0012] FIG. 3 (B) is a cross-sectional view similar to FIG. 3 (A), but wherein the actuator has been rotated to a closed position; [0013] FIG. 4 is an assembled perspective view of an FPC connector in accordance with a second embodiment of the present invention; [0014] FIG. 5 is an exploded perspective view of the FPC connector shown in FIG. 4 ; [0015] FIG. 6 (A) is a cross-sectional view of FIG. 4 taken along line 6 - 6 , wherein an actuator is placed at an open position; [0016] FIG. 6 (B) is a cross-sectional view similar to FIG. 6 (A), but wherein the actuator has been rotated to a closed position; [0017] FIG. 7 is a partly magnified view of the FPC connector shown in FIG. 4 , specially showing installation of terminals in a housing thereof; [0018] FIG. 8 is a partly cut out perspective view of the FPC connector shown in FIG. 4 ; [0019] FIG. 9 is an assembled perspective view of an FPC connector in accordance with a third embodiment of the present invention; [0020] FIG. 10 is a partly cut out perspective view of the FPC connector shown in FIG. 9 ; [0021] FIG. 11 is a cross-sectional view of FIG. 9 taken along line 11 - 11 , showing a warpage prevention device of the present invention; and [0022] FIG. 12 is a view showing a second kind of actuator of the present invention with an oval cross section. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0023] The present invention will be discussed hereafter in detail in terms of the embodiments of the present invention. However, any well-known structure or feature is not shown in detail in order to avoid unnecessary obscurity of the present invention. [0024] Referring to FIGS. 1-3 , description will be made as an FPC connector according to the first embodiment of the present invention. The FPC connector comprises an insulative housing 1 , a plurality of terminals 2 , an actuator 3 , and a pair of support members 4 . The FPC connector is provided with an FPC insertion slot 10 at the front portion thereof. A lower portion of the FPC insertion slot 10 is provided by a bottom wall 12 of the housing 1 , and an upper portion of the FPC insertion slot 10 is designed to be opened and closed by the actuator 3 . [0025] The terminals 2 are arranged in side-by-side relationship with a predetermined pitch from a rear side of the housing 1 . Each terminal 2 has a contact beam 22 and a pivot beam 21 parallel extending forwards from a base portion 20 and a solder foot 23 extending rearwards from the base portion 20 . Upon being installed in the housing 1 , the contact beam 22 extends along the bottom wall 12 in the lower portion of the FPC inserting slot 10 . The pivot beam 21 extends along an upper wall 11 of the housing 1 and has a front section thereof projecting beyond the front edge 110 of the upper wall 11 . The front section of the pivot beam 21 defines a concave portion 210 on the lower edge at the tip end thereof. [0026] There are finger portions 14 integrally projecting from the upper wall 11 of the housing 1 and each interposed between every other pivot beam 21 so as to laterally support the front sections of the pivot beams 21 therebeside. Otherwise, the actuator 3 is formed with a plurality of wedge portions 31 operable as cam portions adapted for pushing the FPC to firmly connect with the contact beams, each interposed between every other pivot beam 21 without the finger portion 14 interposed therebetween. Thus spaces between the pivot beams 21 of every two adjacent terminals 2 arranged side-by-side are alternately interposed with the finger portions 14 formed on the housing 1 and the cam portions 31 formed on the actuator 3 . [0027] Additionally, in order to engage with the concave portions of the pivot beams, the actuator 3 provides shaft portions 32 at two sides of each cam portion 31 . The shaft portions 32 extending from different cam portions 31 align with each other along a longitudinal direction of the actuator 3 , wherein the shaft portions 32 extending towards each other respectively from two adjacent cam portions 31 are spaced, defining a gap 33 therebetween for lodging the finger portion 14 of the housing 1 . That is to say, the shaft member of the actuator 3 is an incontinuous one that comprises several shaft portions 32 interrupted by the finger portions 14 of the housing 1 . In some certain extent, the shaft member of such an incontinuous structure has a better capability for resisting break. Once in assembly, the finger portions 14 fitly disposed in the corresponding gaps 33 between the shaft portions 32 and the shaft portions 32 pivotably accommodated in the corresponding concave portions 210 of the pivot beams 21 respectively. The actuator 3 further has a pair of bosses 34 on both ends thereof. Accordingly, the housing 1 defines a pair of recesses 15 in both side portions thereof to accommodate the bosses 34 . Assembling of the actuator 3 is performed by placing the shaft portions 32 respectively below the corresponding concave portion 210 , and then installing the support members 4 into the side portions 15 of the housing 1 respectively to support the bosses 34 of the actuator 3 from downward movement and therefore to maintain engagement between the shaft portions 32 and the pivot beams 21 . [0028] In assembly, the actuator 3 is rotatable between an open position as shown in FIG. 3 (A) where an FPC (not shown) is allowed to be inserted into the FPC insertion slot 10 and a closed position as shown in FIG. 3 (B) where the FPC is urged to electrically connect with the contact beams 22 of the terminals 2 through the cam portions 32 . [0029] In order to maintain the actuator 3 at the closed position thereof, there is a retention device between the actuator 3 and the housing 1 . The retention device comprises a pair of latches 36 provided by the actuator 3 and a pair of cutouts 17 provided by the housing 1 , wherein the latches 36 are respectively formed beside a main plate 35 of the actuator 3 and spaced from the main plate 35 , and the cutouts 17 are respectively defined below top flanges 16 extending from the side portions of the housing 1 , to communicate the entrance of the FPC insertion slot 10 . Each latch 36 has a protuberance 360 for engaging with the top flange 16 . The latches 36 are inwardly deflectable once inwardly pushed since the latches 36 are spaced from the main plate 35 . Thus, when the actuator 3 is rotated from the open position to the closed position, the protuberance 360 pushes through the top flange 16 into the cutout 17 and then remains therein. That prevents the actuator 3 from being reversely rotated and therefore maintains the actuator 3 at the closed position so as to keep the FPC being firmly connected with the contact beams 22 of the terminals 2 . [0030] Turning to FIGS. 4-8 , description will be made as an FPC connector according to the second embodiment of the present invention. Similar parts are designated by like reference numbers. [0031] The FPC connector of the second embodiment comprises an insulative housing 1 , a plurality of terminals 2 , an actuator 3 , and a pair of support members 4 as well as the connector of the first embodiment, but has a larger length dimension than the connector of first embodiment due to more required terminals 2 . [0032] The housing 1 is provided with a plurality of terminal receiving grooves 13 , which comprises an upper groove 131 defined in an upper wall 11 of the housing 1 and a lower groove 132 defined in a bottom wall 12 of the housing 1 . The terminals 2 are respectively accommodated in the terminal receiving grooves 13 and therefore are arranged in side-by-side relationship with a predetermined pitch. As best shown in FIGS. 6-8 , upon being installed in the housing 1 , the pivot beam 21 of the terminal 2 extends within the upper groove 131 and has a top surface thereof upwardly exposed to exterior as the upper groove 131 is upwardly opened in the upper wall 11 . The contact beam 22 of the terminal 2 extends within the lower groove 132 and has an upper surface thereof upwardly exposed to the FPC insertion slot and a bottom surface thereof downwardly exposed to exterior as the lower groove 132 is defined through the bottom wall 12 in the height direction thereof. Such a structure design minimizes height of the upper wall 11 and bottom wall 12 of the housing 1 and thus would reduce the whole height of the FPC connector, thereby forming a lower profile FPC connector. According to such a structure design, each terminal 2 in this embodiment further comprises a retaining protuberance 24 sideward protruding from the base portion 20 to be set in the housing 1 . Thus the installed terminals 2 can be firmly fixed in the housing 1 by engagement between the retaining protuberance 24 and the housing 1 and prevented from upward or downward rotation, which may occurs during opening and closing operation of the actuator 3 , since the pivot beams 21 are upwardly exposed and there is no support above the terminals 2 against upward rotation, and the contact beams 22 are downwardly exposed and there is no support below the terminals 2 against downward rotation. Additionally, this retaining protuberance 24 also prevents moments experienced by the terminal 2 from being transferred to the solder joint of the terminal 2 soldered on the printed circuit. [0033] Being distinguished from the first embodiment, in this embodiment, the pivot beam 21 is formed without concave portion and yet the finger portions 14 is provided with T-shaped head which defines a pair of inwards opened recesses 140 for respectively receiving a tip of the pivot beam 21 disposed therebeside, as best shown in FIGS. 6-7 . In other words, the finger portion 14 in front of the recess 140 forms a lip portion to cover the corresponding pivot beam 21 . In assembly, the cam portions 31 are interposed between every other pivot beams 21 without finger portions 14 therebetween and each shaft portion 32 is supported below a corresponding pivot beam 21 from upward movement and behind a bottom portion of a corresponding recess 140 that receives the corresponding pivot beam 21 from forward movement. Thus the actuator 3 is rotatable between an open position as shown in FIG. 6 (A) and a closed position as shown in FIG. 6 (B). [0034] Turning to FIGS. 9-11 , description will be made as an FPC connector according to the third embodiment of the present invention. Similar parts are designated by like reference numbers. [0035] The FPC connector of the third embodiment has the same finger portion 14 with T-shaped head as that of the second embodiment. However, the pivot beams 21 of the terminals 2 are not upwardly exposed to exterior except the tips thereof and the contact beams 22 are not downwardly exposed to the exterior except the tips thereof, which is distinguished from the second embodiment. Accordingly, the terminal 2 in this embodiment has no need for the retaining protuberance 24 as disclosed in the second embodiment since there are supports both above the pivot beams 21 and below the contact beams 22 to prevent the terminals 2 from upward or downward rotation. [0036] Above are three preferred embodiments of the present invention. Now a warpage prevention device of the present invention will be described alone hereafter. When the FPC connectors have a considerable length dimension, such as the FPC connectors in the second and third embodiment respectively as shown in FIGS. 5 and 9 , the actuator 3 will accordingly be an elongated one and have a quite span along a longitudinal direction, thus a warpage is apt to occur to the actuator 3 during the molding process. In addition, if the actuator 3 is only supported by the bosses 34 at the two ends thereof and there is no other support device to hold up the middle portion of the actuator 3 , when the actuator 3 is in the open position, the middle portion of the actuator 3 is apt to drop down due to the weight thereof, causing a warpage of the actuator 3 along a direction denoted as arrow A. Such warpage of the actuator 3 , either occurs as a result of molding process or due to the weight thereof, will cause the middle portion of the actuator 3 to protrude towards and interfere with the FPC while the actuator 3 is in the open position. If this bad situation occurs, the FPC connector may not function with zero insertion force. In order to avoid such situation, a warpage prevention device is added to the FPC connector of the present invention. Referring to FIGS. 9 and 11 , the instantiated warpage prevention device 8 comprises a convex guide surface 18 provided on the T-shaped head of the finger portion 14 and a cam follower 38 provided on the actuator 3 . The cam follower 38 could be supported upon the guide surface 18 to prevent the middle portion of the actuator 3 from interfering with the FPC when the actuator 3 is in the open position, and then could slide on the guide surface 18 while the actuator 3 is rotated between the open position and the closed position to guide the rotation movement of the actuator 3 . There would be more than one such warpage prevention devices 8 , and such warpage prevention devices 8 would be set in any proper position as the guide surface 18 would be provided on any one of the finger portions 14 and the cam follower 38 would be provided on any corresponding position of the actuator 3 . [0037] However, the disclosure is illustrative only, changes may be made in detail, especially in matter of shape, size, and arrangement of parts within the principles of the invention. For example, the shafts 32 of the actuator 3 of the present invention can be formed into a shape with an oval cross section and provided with function for pushing the FPC as well as the cam portion 31 , as shown in FIG. 12 .

An electrical connector for connecting a sheet-like member includes a housing ( 1 ) defining an insertion slot ( 10 ); a plurality of terminals ( 2 ) arranged in the housing in parallel relationship with a predetermined pitch, each of the terminals having a contact beam ( 22 ) extending into the insertion slot and a pivot beam ( 21 ) extending substantially parallel to the contact beam; and an actuator ( 3 ) rotatably provided for establishing an electrical connection between the sheet-like member and the contact beams. The actuator provides cam portions ( 31 ) each interposed between every other the pivot beam. Each of the cam portions provides shaft portions ( 32 ) respectively adapted for pivotably engaging with the pivot beams disposed therebeside. The shaft portions extending towards each other respectively from two adjacent cam portions are spaced to define a gap ( 33 ) therebetween.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This is a Non-Provisional Patent Application, filed under the Paris Convention, claims the benefit of Italy Patent (IT) Application Number TO2014A000393 filed on 19 May 2014, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention is related to a hub-bearing assembly for an agricultural tilling disc. As known, discs for agricultural use are usually rotatably assembled on corresponding spindle, projecting from the frame of a plough or other agricultural machine. BACKGROUND ART From document WO 2002/019791 A is known a hub-bearing assembly for rotatably mounting a tilling disc for agricultural use, around an axis of rotation. The assembly comprises an annular hub, having a tubular portion axially extending, which defines a substantially cylindrical housing and a radially outer flange for fixing the disc. In the housing a bearing unit is located, the bearing unit comprising an outer ring, one or two inner rings and one or two set of rolling bodies, interposed between inner and outer rings. In other solutions, the outer ring is in one piece with the flanged hub. During the working life, impacts of the disc against stones and similar bodies damage the bearing raceways, reducing the bearing lifetime. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Aim of the present invention is to realize a hub-bearing assembly for an agricultural tilling disc, which overcomes the above mentioned inconveniences. This and other purposes and advantages, which will be better hereafter understood, are obtained according to an aspect of the invention by a hub-bearing assembly as defined in the enclosed independent claim. Further embodiments of the invention, preferred and/or particularly advantageous, are described according to the characteristics as in the enclosed dependent claims. In practice, the hub-bearing assembly comprises an elastic damping body coupled to the hub flange and facing the disc for agricultural use. The elastic damping body absorbs part of dynamic loads, due to the impacts of the disc against the stones. Therefore, the dynamic loads no more fully transmitted to the bearing and its rolling bodies, do not remarkably damage the bearing raceways. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The invention will be now described by reference to the enclosed drawings, which show some non-limitative embodiments, namely: FIG. 1 is an axial cross section of a disc for agricultural use, the disc being rotatably assembled around a spindle by a hub-bearing assembly, according to an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 2 is a perspective view of the disc with hub-bearing assembly and spindle of FIG. 1 ; FIG. 3 is an enlarged view, partly in cross section, of the hub-bearing assembly and the spindle of FIG. 1 ; and FIG. 4 is an enlarged detail of the cross section in FIG. 3 . DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION With reference to the above figures, a hub-bearing assembly according to an embodiment of the invention, referenced as a whole with 10 , is used for mounting a tilling disc A in a freely rotatable way around an axis of rotation x, which is defined by a spindle B projecting from an agricultural machine or tool (not shown), as an example, a plow, a harrow or other similar tools. Features of disc A, which can be a whatever known disc, for example a disc for plowing or a disc for seeding (suitable for opening furrows in a previously plowed land), are not relevant for the invention understanding and therefore will not be described in further details. With reference to FIG. 3 , the hub-bearing assembly 10 comprises a hub 20 , a bearing unit 30 housed in the hub 20 and an elastic damping body 40 , axially interposed between the hub and the disc A. In particular, the hub 20 has a substantially annular shape and presents a main tubular portion 21 axially extended, which internally defines a substantially cylindrical housing 22 for the bearing unit 30 . The housing is radially confined by an inner wall 22 a substantially cylindrical. Throughout the present description and in the claims, the terms and expressions indicating positions and orientations such as “radial” and “axial” are to be taken to refer to the axis of rotation x of the bearing unit 30 . From a first axial end of the tubular portion 21 of the hub, a radially outer flange 23 extends, the flange having a plurality of axial holes for mounting the disc A by means of suitable fastening means, for example screws 24 . From a second axial end of the tubular portion 21 a radially inner flange 25 extends, axially confining the housing 22 on the very far side with respect to the disc. The bearing unit 30 is a so called first generation unit, without radially projecting flanges. The bearing unit 30 comprises a rotatable outer ring 31 , a pair of inner rings 32 , 33 side by side assembled on the spindle B and a dual set of rolling bodies 34 , 35 , for example spheres, interposed between the outer ring 31 and the inner rings 32 , 33 . The rotatable outer ring 31 presents a radially outer wall 31 c substantially cylindrical, which is coupled with the inner wall 22 a of the tubular portion 21 of the hub 20 . The inner rings 32 , 33 are axially tightened against a shoulder C of the spindle, by means of a spacer D, mounted on the spindle, which is pre-loaded by means of a nut not shown), according to a known embodiment. The inner flange 25 radially extends towards the spindle and presents a radial surface 25 a for locking a radial surface 31 c of the bearing outer ring 31 . Moreover, in the shown embodiment the flange 25 forms an annular groove 26 towards the bearing and suitable to accommodate a sealing device, schematically shown and referenced with E, being the seal deputed to slide against the spacer D or other component steadily connected to the spindle B, with the aim to hermetically seal the bearing housing 22 towards outside. The elastic damping body 40 allows the disc A to elastically absorb impacts, received during use, and reduce damages, undesired movements and arising clearances, due to impacts transmitted by the disc. The elastic damping body 40 is made of an elastomeric and plastic material and is located on the side facing the tilling disc A, more precisely, is located on a substantially annular surface 23 a of the flange 23 , in an axially external position. As a consequence, the elastic damping body faces the disc A and in particular a substantially circular surface Aa, in an axially internal position. According to a preferred embodiment, the elastic damping body 40 is shaped as a cap, having a substantially annular wall 41 , which is steadily connected to a substantially cylindrical wall 42 , the cylindrical wall 42 being in a radially external position respect to the annular wall 41 . The annular wall 41 of the elastic damping body 40 is axially interposed between the flange 23 of the hub 20 and the disc A. More in detail, the annular wall is located on the annular surface 23 a of the flange 23 , or when the disc A is mounted, is axially interposed between the annular surface 23 a of the flange 23 and the circular and axially internal surface Aa of the disc A. The cylindrical wall 42 of the elastic damping body 40 is radially coupled with the flange 23 , by means of a substantially cylindrical surface 42 a of the cylindrical wall 42 , in a radially internal position, and a corresponding substantially cylindrical surface 23 b of the flange 23 , in a radially external position. The elastic damping body 40 is coupled to the flange 23 by means of known processes. As an example, the coupling between the two components can be realized co-molding the elastic damping body 40 on the flange 23 or gluing them or connecting them by mechanical fastening means. Preferably, the substantially cylindrical surface 23 b of the flange 23 is stepwise shaped, in other words is formed by a plurality of cylindrical portions 23 b ′, 23 b ″, 23 b ″′, having decreasing diameters and each other connected by annular surfaces 23 c ′, 23 c ″. As a consequence, also the surface 42 a of the cylindrical wall 42 of the elastic damping body 40 is stepwise shaped as well. In this way, the coupling surface between elastic damping body and flange increases; moreover, the stepwise shape of the two coupling surfaces improves the grip between elastic body and flange and consequently a more stable coupling between them is obtained. Advantageously, the flange 23 is provided with an annular groove 23 d , located along the substantially annular surface 23 a and consequently the annular wall 41 of the elastic damping body 40 has an annular protrusion 41 a , which is coupled with the annular groove 23 d . In this way, the thickness of the elastic damping body can be increased, obtaining at the same time a greater damping effect and a better grip in the coupling elastic body-flange. In definitive, the elastic body 40 interposed between the disc and the flange can absorb vibrations and hits, which derive by the impact of the disc against stone materials on the agricultural land. In practice, the elastic damping body works as a shock absorber. In fact, all impulsive load due to impacts against stones are not completely transmitted to the bearing and in particular to its rolling bodies, because of the damping effect of the elastic damping body. This effect avoids damages to the raceways and consequently increases the bearing lifetime. The improved bearing lifetime means a cost reduction of the whole device for agricultural use. Finally, it has to be remarked that the proposed solution does not bring any manufacturing difficulty for realizing the whole bearing-hub assembly. In fact, according to this solution, standard dimensions and shapes can be used for the bearings. Just one component requires further machining operations, the flange of the hub. Anyway, being the flange made of a not hardened metal, such further machining operations do not require special processes or tools. Moreover, the interposition of the elastic damping body between the flange and the disc make simpler the production process of both the bearing and the whole bearing-hub assembly, provided with the damping body. At the same time, this solution does not influence at all the desired pre-stress conditions of the bearing, being the bearing direct interfaces made of metallic components. Other than the embodiments of the invention, as above disclosed, it is to be understood that a vast number of variations exist. It should also be appreciated that the exemplary embodiment or exemplary embodiments are only examples and are not intended to limit the scope, applicability, or configuration in any way. Rather, the foregoing summary and detailed description will provide those skilled in the art with a convenient road map for implementing at least one exemplary embodiment, it being understood that various changes may be made in the function and arrangement of elements described in an exemplary embodiment without departing from the scope as set forth in the appended claims and their legal equivalents.

A hub-bearing assembly for rotatably mounting a tilling disc about an axis of rotation. The hub-bearing assembly includes an annular hub providing an axially extending tubular portion, comprising a housing and a radially outer flange for mounting a disc. A bearing unit is mounted within the housing. An elastic damping body axially is fitted between the radially outer flange and the disc.

This is a division of application Ser. No. 520,797, filed Nov. 4, 1974, now U.S. Pat. No. 3,959,781. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The invention relates to the field of semiconductor random access memories. 2. Prior Art Semiconductor memories including random access memories (RAMs), read-only-memories (ROMs), programmable read-only-memories (PROMs) are known in the prior art. These memories have been fabricated in the prior art utilizing MOS technology wherein an entire memory is fabricated on a single silicon substrate. It is a characteristic of such fabrication that production yields are substantially unaffected by the density of devices. Thus, for a fixed area of substrate it is desirable to provide as many memory cells as possible in order to obtain the lowest costs per bit of storage. In semiconductor MOS RAM's cells are either static or dynamic. The static type of cells generally include bistable circuits such as flip-flops which once set in a particular set, remain in that state. Such circuits require a number of devices, for example, several field effect transistors are required in a flip-flop. The dynamic memory cells typically employ capacitive storage but since such storage is transient, refreshing is required. The capacitive storage means used in the prior art include the gates of field effect transistors, junction capacitance, etc. Examples of such dynamic prior art cells are shown in U.S. Letters Pat. 3,593,037 and 3,706,079. In order to obtain the high densities, the present invention utilizes memory cells employing only a single active device. The device is a field effect transistor which is used to gate or select a capacitive storage means. Such single device cells utilizing field effect transistors have been known in the prior art. For example, see U.S. Letters Pat. No. 3,387,286. Another so-called "one device per bit" capacitive storage memory array utilizing field effect transistors is shown in U.S. Letters Pat. No. 3,699,537. Other prior art is shown in U.S. Letters Pat. No. 3,533,089 and 3,514,765. The present invention utilizes the single active device per cell concept in a unique manner to provide a practical memory system. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An MOS, dynamic storage, random access memory is described wherein each memory cell emloys a single field effect transistor and a capacitive storage means comprising an MOS device having its source and drain coupled together. In the presently preferred n-channel embodiment, the gate of the capacitive storage means is coupled to a positive potential. The presently preferred embodiment includes a 64 × 64 array with 64 sense amplifiers disposed in a column substantially bisecting each of the row lines. A single input/output bus is employed and is disposed along one side of the array. The input/output bus communicates with the cells disposed on the opposite sides of the array through the sense amplifiers. A pair of dummy cells, each of which includes a constant capacitance, are connected to each of the row lines on opposite sides of the sense amplifiers. The dummy cell on the unselected half of the selected row line reads a signal approximately between a "0" and a "1" onto the row line during reading and refreshing. Various decoupling circuits are utilized to mitigate the effects of the high capacitance associated with the input/output bus including the use of a positive feedback circuit connecting the output amplifier with the input/output bus. A number of unique circuits are utilized to obtain a fast access time, including a decoupling circuit for decoupling capacitance in the decoders and a bootstrap circuit which is used to boost the potential on the gate of an output transistor, but which is substantially independent of the capacitance associated with the load on the output transistor. A plurality of timing signals are generated by the memory system, including several signals which are used to limit the consumption of power. Several of these signals are delayed one from the other in time. This delay is obtained in part by using the output from one generator to initiate an action in another generator in a "chain reaction" scheme which assures accurate timing. The chain reaction is initiated when the memory has received a chip enable. Thus, automatic compensation is obtained for delays associated with process parameters. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a general block diagram of the presently invented memory system and illustrates the memory array and the peripheral circuitry associated with reading, writing and refreshing information in the array. FIG. 2 is a partial circuit diagram of the memory array of FIG. 1 and illustrates a single row of the array and a sense amplifier which interconnects the right and left sections of the row line. FIG. 3 is a circuit diagram of the address buffer and latch utilized in the invented memory. FIG. 4 is a circuit diagram of a decoder and B generator employed in the invented memory. FIG. 5 is a circuit diagram illustrating the data output feedback and decoupling means used in conjunction with the input/output bus of the invented memory. FIG. 6 is a circuit diagram of the data output amplifier and latch shown in block diagram form in FIG. 5. FIG. 7 is a circuit diagram illustrating the write function of the invented memory. FIG. 8 is a circuit diagram of the CED generator employed in the memory of FIG. 1. FIG. 9 is a circuit diagram of the φ w generator employed in the memory of FIG. 1. FIG. 10 is a circuit diagram of the C generator employed in the memory of FIG. 1. FIG. 11 is a graph illustrating several waveforms associated with the operation of the memory shown in FIG. 1. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The random access memory of the present invention in its presently preferred embodiment is fabricated as a 4,096 bit memory in a 64 × 64 array. It will be appreciated that the size of the array and many other specific details disclosed in this application, such as specific voltages, are not critical to the invention but are disclosed in order that a full understanding of the memory system may be obtained. In the presently preferred embodiment the entire memory including the memory cells and peripheral circuits are disposed on a single silicon substrate and fabricated utilizing known MOS technology. The transistors utilized as part of the memory are field effect transistors, and for the presently preferred embodiment are n-channel field effect transistors employing polycrystalline silicon gates. The disclosed memory which is substantially TTL compatible, has an access time of approximately 250 nanoseconds. Operating power for the memory array is approximately 400 milliwatts, and the memory requires approximately 2 milliwatts during standby. Referring first to FIG. 1, the memory array includes cells 10a and cells 10b disposed on opposite sides of a column of sense amplifiers 11. Cells 10a include 64 rows and 32 columns while cells 10b include 64 rows and 32 columns. There is a single input/output bus 30 for the memory and as will be explained, the input/output bus communicates both with the cells 10b and with the cells 10a, the latter cells are coupled to the input/output bus 30 through the sense amplifiers 11. The memory utilizes a 12 bit address; 6 bits, shown as A 0 through A 5 , are utilized by the column address buffers and decoders 12 for selecting a column line in the array. Address bits A 6 through A 11 are applied to the row address buffers and decoders 13 for selecting a row of the array. The specific circuitry of the column address buffers and decoders will be discussed in conjunction with FIGS. 3 and 4. Binary data is received by the memory on line 53 and applied to a data-in buffer 37. In the presently preferred embodiment a single data-in line 53 and a single data-out line 125 are utilized. Thus, for purposes of reading and writing data the memory is a 4,096 × 1 memory. Among the signals received by the memory is a read-write signal (R/W) which is applied to the read-write buffer 38. Also the memory receives a chip select signal (C.S.) which is applied to buffer 41. The data-out amplifier and latch 145 receives data from the input/output bus 30 and furnishes the output data on line 125. This amplifier and latch shall be discussed in detail in conjunction with FIG. 6. Positive feedback is applied to the input/output bus 30 by amplifier 147. This amplifier receives a signal from the output amplifier on lead 126. This feedback, in addition to circuitry used fro decoupling the input/output bus 30 from the output amplifier shall be discussed in detail in conjunction with FIG. 5. A plurality of timing signals and power sources utilized by the memory system are generated by the memory system. Among these signals is the CED signal generated by generator 14 (FIG. 8), φ w signal generated by generator 22 (FIG. 9), the C signal generated by generator 24 (FIG. 10) and the output strobe signal (O.S.) generated by generator 31. The waveforms of these timing signals shall be discussed in conjunction with FIG. 11. In order to facilitate the explanation of the memory system, the following list of signals are identified. Group I represents those signals and power sources which are applied to the memory (data-out is also listed in Group I) while Group II represents those which are internally generated and utilized by the memory. Group I 1. ce (chip enable) 2. A 0 through A 11 (address) 2. C.S. (chip select) 4. R/W (read/write) 5. Data-in 6. Data-out 7. V SS (ground) 8. V cc (+5 volts) 9. V DD (+12 volts) 10. V BB (substrate bias) Group II 1. ce (a delayed, false CE signal) 2. CEW (the complement of CE) 3. ced (a CE signal delayed by an address buffer output) 4. B (a column decoder power "saver") 5. φ w (sense amplifier strobe) 6. C (a timing signal for the row decoder and power "saver") 7. O.S. (output strobe) 8. V Ccom (positive power supply derived from V DD ) referring to FIG. 2, a single row line of the array is illustrated. This line comprises a right row line 15 and a left row line 16. Both the right row line and left row line are coupled to the sense amplifier 17. Referring briefly to FIG. 1, sense amplifier 17 is one of a plurality of amplifiers contained within sense amplifiers 11. Similarly, sense amplifiers 18 and 19 (FIG. 2) would be disposed within the sense amplifier column shown in FIG. 1. In the presently preferred embodiment there are 64 sense amplifiers each being coupled to a right row line and a left row line. The right row line 15 is coupled to the input/output bus 30 through a row select transistor 33. The input/output bus 30 communicates with the left row line 16 through the sense amplifier 17. The sense amplifier line 20 is coupled to V SS through transistor 21 and to V Ccom through transistor 23. The gate of transistor 21 is coupled to the source of the φ W ; the gate of transistor 23 is coupled to the source of the CE signal. There are 32 cells for the presently preferred embodiment coupled to the left row line 16, and 32 cells coupled to the right row line 15. A few of these cells are shown such as cells 26. One of these cells which is coupled to a column select line, line 27, is shown in detail (cell 25). It will be appreciated that all the other cells are coupled to a column select line as is customarily the case with memory arrays. A dummy cell is disposed on each right row line and on each left row line. Specifically referring to FIG. 2, left dummy cell 28 is coupled to left row line 16, and right dummy cell 29 is coupled to right row line 15. Both the right line and left row line are coupled to the potential V Ccom through the pull-up transistors 35 and 36, respectively. These transistors charge the row lines during the period of time when CE is positive. Each storage cell of the array consists of a single element cell, that is, a cell containing only a single active device. Each cell includes a gating or selection device such as transistor 51 (cell 25, FIG. 2) and a capacitive storage means such as capacitor 52. The selection device, transistor 51, is coupled between a row line (line 16) and one terminal of the capacitor 52. The gate of selection transistor is coupled to a column select line such as column select line 27. While other capacitive means may be used for capacitor 52 in the presently preferred embodiment, the cell capacitor 52 comprises an MOS device having its source and drain terminal coupled together and its gate coupled to a source potential (V DD ). Such capacitive means are known in the art and may be fabricated utilizing known technology. Binary information is stored in the array in the form of an electrical charge, or lack thereof on each of the storage cell capacitors, such as capacitor 52 of cell 25. Each dummy cell includes a pair of transistors coupled in series such as transistors 45 and 46 of the left dummy cell 28. These transistors are coupled between the row line and V SS . The gate of transistor 45 is coupled to the source of a select right signal and the gate of transistor 46 is coupled to the source of the CE signal. In a similar manner, the right dummy cell includes transistors 47 and 48 which are coupled in series between the right row line 15 and V SS . The gate of transistor 47, though, is coupled to the source of a select left signal. Each dummy cell includes a substantially constant parasitic capacitance primarily defined by the lead interconnecting the two transistors in the cell. This capacitance is shown as C D . During the read and refresh cycles when reading or refreshing is to be performed from a storage cell coupled to the right row line 15, a signal is generated which is applied to the transistor 45 of dummy cell 28. This signal is designated as "select-right", indicating that the right side of the array has been selected. In a similar manner, if a storage cell has been selected on the left side of the array, the dummy cell 29 would receive a signal which is applied to the gate of transistor 47 identified as "select-left" indicating that a cell on the left side of the array has been indicated. The select-right and select-left signals are generated within the decoders utilizing known logic circuitry. The sense amplifier 17 is primarily a flip-flop circuit having a first leg (transistors 39 and 43) and a second leg (transistors 40 and 42). Both legs of the sense amplifier 17 are coupled between V DD and V SS through transistor 21. The gate of transistor 43 is coupled to right row line 15 and the node defined by the connection between transistors 40 and 42. Similarly, transistor 42 has its gate coupled to line 16 and the common node defined by the series connection of transistors 39 and 43. The gates of transistors 39 and 40 are coupled to the source of the φ W signal. Each of the other amplifiers of sense amplifiers 11 (FIG. 1) may be the same as sense amplifier 17 and connected in the same manner to their respective right and left row lines. When current is flowing through the sense amplifier 17, it is apparent that lines 15 and 16 will be at different potentials because of the positive feedback provided through the gates of transistors 42 and 43, that is, the flip-flop of the amplifier will be in one of its bistable states. When a positive potential (a binary "1") is present on line 15, a low potential (a binary "0") will exist on line 16. Similarly, if a "1" is present on line 16, a "0" will be present on line 15. Thus, the sense amplifier 17 in transmitting signals from line 15 to line 16 inverts the signal. As previously mentioned, there is only a single input/output bus 30 and the left row line 16 communicates with this bus through sense amplifier 17. Thus, if a "1" is placed on line 30 during a write cycle and the selected cell for storing this "1" is on the left side of the array, the "1" will be stored as a "0" in the selected cell. The "1" on bus 30 which is coupled to line 15 through transistor 33, will appear as a "0" on line 16 due to the inverting effect of the sense amplifier 17. When this same stored signal is to be read from the same cell on the left side of the memory array it will be read as a "0" on line 16, but when transmitted to the input/output bus 30 through line 15 it will appear as a "1", again because of the inversion caused by the sense amplifier 17. Thus, a "1" is stored in the left side of the array as a "0", and a "0" is stored in the left side of the array as a "1" . On the other hand, a "1" is stored as a "1", that is, a charge, in the right side of the array, and a "0" is stored as a "0", that is, the absence of charge in the right side of the array. Referring to FIG. 2, assume that charge has been stored on capacitor 52 of cell 25, that cell 25 is selected and that the information stored within the cell is to be transferred to the input/output bus 30. Prior to the time that the reading begins, lines 15 and 16 are charged to V Ccom by transistors 35 and 36, respectively, as is line 20. Also during the period of time that CE is positive, transistors 46 and 48 of the dummy cells 28 and 29, respectively, are conducting, thus the capacitance means identified as C D will be effectively coupled to V SS and remain uncharged. During the read cycle (after CE returns to zero potential) the B generator 115 (shown in FIG. 4) allows the column decoder to select the addressed column. Assuming that column 27 of FIG. 2 has been selected, transistor 51 is turned on. Simultaneously with the application of a positive voltage to line 27, since the left side of the array has been selected, a signal is applied to transistor 47 of the right dummy cell 29. The dummy cell in effect always reads a signal approximately between the level of a "0" and a "1" onto its row line since its capacitance C D is always uncharged at the time the read cycle begins. When the positive signal is applied to column line 27 and to select left line, charge will flow from capacitor 52 onto line 16 thereby raising the potential of line 16, while charge will flow from line 15 onto capacitor C D of the right dummy cell 29. After sufficient time has been allotted for the charge to be transferred, from the selected cell and the dummy cell, a positive signal is applied to the φ W line, activating the sense amplifier 17. Since line 15 is at a lower potential than line 16, the positive feedback through transistors 42 and 43 will cause current to flow through the leg of the flip-flop comprising transistors 40 and 42. As a result, the sense amplifier 17 drives line 15 to a lower potential and line 16 to a higher potential. After sufficient time has lapsed for the sense amplifier to become stabilized, the selected row transistor, such as transistor 33, is activated by the C generator 24 (FIG. 1) allowing a signal to be transferred from line 15 onto the input/output bus 30. The sense amplifier 17 is particularly effective because of the timing associated with the activation of the load transistors 39 and 40 and the application of the V SS potential to the common node 32 coupled to the sources of transistors 42 and 43 through transistor 21. Since the lines 15 and 16 (and hence the sources of transistors 39 and 40) are precharged to V Ccom , the load transistors do not begin to conduct until the φ W signal rises to a level greater than V Ccom . On the other hand, the common node 32 is immediately coupled to V SS as the φ W becomes positive. The delay in activating the load transistors 39 and 40 and results in a much higher gain in the sense amplifier 17 primarily because of the higher initial resistance associated with these loads. Referring briefly to FIG. 11, the B generator output signal is illustrated on line 185. On line 186 the waveform for the φ W signal is indicated, and its leading edge trails the leading edge of the B generator output by a timed t 1 . The time t 1 is sufficient in duration to allow charge to be transferred between the selected cell and the row line. On line 187 the output from the C generator is illustrated. The leading edge of the C generator output is delayed from the leading edge of the φ W signal by a time t 2 . The time t 2 is sufficient in duration to allow the sense amplifier to stabilize in one state or the other. If a "0" had been stored on capacitor 52 of FIG. 2 when reading occurred more charge would have been transferred from line 16 onto capacitor 52, than from line 15 onto the capacitor C D of dummy cell 29, and the flip-flop of sense amplifier 17 would have been set such that current would flow through transistors 39 and 43. In that case, line 15 would be brought to a potential of V DD less the threshold drop of transistor 40 and a "1" would be read on the input/output bus 30. In a like manner, if a cell coupled to line 15 has been selected simultaneously with the selection of that cell, transistor 45 of dummy cell 28 is also selected and the sense amplifier 17 is set in one state or the other. Again, information may be read on the input/output bus 30 except that if a "1" is stored in a cell on the right side of the array, a "1" is read from the cell as previously discussed. In the presently preferred embodiment of the invention the ratio of the dummy cell capacitance C D to storate cell capacitance (capacitor 52) is approximately 0.5 for an uncharged cell. Note that a portion of the capacitance associated with capacitor 52 is due to junction capacitance and that this capacitance is a function of bias. Thus, when no charge is contained on capacitor 52 its effective capacitance is greater than for a case when a "1" is stored within the cell. The dummy cell, since it always writes a "0" onto the row line, assists the selected storage cell for the case when the storage cell is transferring a "1" onto the row line. However, the fact that the storage cell's effective capacitance is greater for the case when a "0" is stored in the storage cell assists to counter the effects of the dummy cell capacitance where a "0" is stored. Among the advantages to using the dummy cell is that some common mode noise rejection is obtained because a select signal is simultaneously applied to both the right and left row lines. After information has been read from the storage cell onto the row line the flip-flop of the sense amplifier 17 reinforces the "1" or "0" read from the storage cell, thus enabling refreshing of the "1" or "0" stored on the capacitor 52. By way of example, if line 15 becomes more positive during reading due to the transfer of charge onto the line from a storage cell, when the flip-flop of the amplifier 17 is activated line 15 will be pulled to V DD . The sequence and time delays associated with the turning-off of the sense amplifier, row select transistor 33 and select line 27 are important for proper refreshing, particularly the refreshing of a zero. First, the row select transistor 33 is turned off as indicated by the trailing edge of the C signal on line 187 of FIG. 11. This decouples the row line from the high capacitance associated with the I/O bus 30. Following this the φ W signal is returned to 0. The conducting resistance of the load transistors of the flip-flop, transistors 39 and 40, is much larger than that of transistors 42 or 43 or for that matter, transistor 21. Thus, when φ W is removed from the gates of the load transistor, these transistors (since they are operating as source followers) cease conducting very rapidly. Assume for the sake of explanation that when this occurs line 16 is at a low potential while line 15 is at a high potential, the removal of φ 2 drives line 16 to V SS since transistors 43 and 21 do not turn off as rapidly. Note that line 16, prior to the time φ Q is removed, is at a level higher than V SS because of the voltage dividing effect of transistors 39, 21 and 43, and unless line 16 is brought to V SS or lower, a true "0" would not be returned to the selected cell. Following the removal of the φ W signal the column select signal from the B generator, line 180 of FIG. 11, is brought to zero potential. By way of example, line 27 (FIG. 2) would be returned to zero potential, thus causing transistor 51 of cell 25 to cease conducting. The capacitive coupling from the gate to source of transistor 51 drives the storage node, capacitor 52, to a lower potential than V SS . Thus, by proper sequencing of the B generator signal, φ W signal and C generator signal, the right or left row line which is at a low potential is first brought to V SS , and finally, the storage capacitance of the cell is brought to a potential lower than V SS through capacitive coupling. In FIG. 11 the trailing edges of the B signal, φ W signal and C signal separated in time by the dotted lines 190 and 191. From the above description it may be seen that reading also refreshes the stored information. Refreshing is also accomplished, without reading, by not selecting a row select transistor such as transistor 33 of FIG. 2. In such an event an entire column of the array may be simultaneously refreshed. Write Signal and Date-In Buffer Referring to FIG. 7, the write buffer 38 generates a write signal which is coupled to the drain of transistor 201. The source of transistor 201 is coupled to the gate of transistor 200. Transistor 20 couples the data-in inverting buffer 37 with the input/output bus 30 when a positive signal is generated by the buffer 38. In the presently preferred embodiment a write signal is generated on line 202 only when a chip select signal is present and when the R/W signal is in its low state. When this occurs a positive signal is generated on lead 202 and information may be written onto the input/output bus from buffer 37. If the chip is not selected and the R/W line is low, a refresh will occur. When the B/W signal is high or positive, the memory is accessible for reading provided that the chip select signal again occurs. If the R/W is high, but no chip select signal is present then a refresh occurs. In the presently preferred embodiment if the R/W signal is high or positive at the time CE signal becomes positive, again provided that chip select signal is present, a read cycle will occur. If on the other hand, the R/W signal drops in potential at the time the CE signal becomes positive, then a write cycle begins, again provided the chip select signal is present. If the R/W signal drops when the CE signal is positive, then a modified read-write cycle occurs. Assuming information is to be written into a selected cell, the information is inverted by the data-in buffer 37 before it is applied through transistor 200 to the input/output bus 30. Thus, if a "1" is placed on line 53, a "0" is written into the selected cell. The "1" appearing on line 30, referring briefly back to FIG. 2, assuming again cell 25 is selected, will be written into cell 25 through line 15, sense amplifier 17 and finally through transistor 51. The signal on line 30 overpowers any existing condition of the sense amplifier 17, line 15 or line 16 during a write cycle. The activated dummy cell (on the opposite side of the array from the selected cell) is activated, but once again the input/output bus overpowers the dummy cell and the capacitance of the dummy cell does not inhibit the writing. The source to gate capacitance of transistor 200 bootstraps the gate of transistor 200. Transistor 201 allows the gate of transistor 200 to rise to a potential higher than V DD . The data-in inverting buffer 37 and the R/W buffer 38 may be constructed from known circuitry. Address Buffer and Latch Referring to FIG. 3, a detailed circuit diagram of the TTL compatible address buffer and latch is illustrated and includes an input line 63 for receiving a bit of the address and output lines 64 (shown as A) and 65 (shown as A). Each bit of the address, that is, each of the 12 bits of the address of the presently preferred embodiment, are coupled to a buffer and latch such as the one illustrated in FIG. 3. The buffer includes a bistable circuit or flip-flop, one leg of which includes transistors 75 and 83 and the other leg of which includes transistors 76 and 84. Both legs are coupled between V DD (line 57) and one terminal of transistor 79. The other terminal or source terminal of transistor 79, is coupled to the ground line 56 (V SS ). The load transistors 75 and 76 of the flip-flop have their gates coupled to a source of potential identified as PB. This potential is derived from the V DD source, and charges the gates of transistors 75 and 76 to V DD less a threshold of a gating transistor during the time that CE is positive. Nodes 91 and 92 of the flip-flop circuit are coupled together through an equalizing transistor 73 so that where CE is positive the potential on these nodes is equalized. Node 91 is coupled to the gates of transistors 84, 86, 70 and 67, and to the drain terminal of transistor 80. Likewise, node 92 is coupled to the gates of transistors 83, 85, 68 and 69, and to the drain of transistor 81. The input to the circuit, line 63, is coupled to node 91 through transistors 85 and 80. A reference potential for node 92 is established by transistors 81 and 86 (and also transistor 76). Transistors 67 and 68 act as a push-pull amplifier for driving line 64 and receive their power from V DD through transistor 78. Similarly, transistors 69 and 70 drive line 65 and receive their power from V DD , again through transistor 78. Transistors 87 and 88 pull-down lines 64 and 65 respectively when CE is high or positive and assure that no charge remains on these lines. Transistors 78, 79, 80 and 81 have their gates coupled to CE, and are used to prevent the flow of current during the time that CE is high. In operation the address should be valid (at the buffer) prior to the time that CE becomes positive and remains present on the input line 63 long enough for the flip-flop circuit to become stabilized. During the period that CE is positive the output lines 64 and 65 are held at V SS ; PB, that is the gates of transistors 75 and 76 are precharged positively and nodes 91 and 92 are coupled together through transistor 73. The flip-flop, of course, during CE is not conducting since the current path to V SS is interrupted by transistor 79. Since the address is received prior to the time that CE becomes positive (that is, before current begins to flow through the flip-flop), the flip-flop is "preset" as will be explained. Assume first that the input to line 63 is low when CE becomes positive. Current will then flow through transistors 75, 80 and 85 causing node 91 to drop in potential towards V SS . This will cause the flip-flop to set such that transistors 75 and 83 conduct more heavily than transistors 76 and 84, partly because of the positive feedback to node 92. Since node 91 is low, transistor 67 does not conduct, while on the other hand, device 68 is conducting, causing line 64 to be held close to the potential of V SS . In a converse manner, since device 69 is conducting, line 65 will be positive, that is, at a potential of node 92 less the threshold drop of drop of transistor 69 but no more positive than the positive level of chip enable less the threshold drop of transistor 78. If at the time that CE became positive a "high" signal has been applied to line 63, the flip-flop would have been set such that transistors 76 and 84 conducted heavily as compared to transistors 75 and 83. A current path would exist in this circumstance from V DD through transistors 76, 81 and 86 causing node 92 to become low. This in turn would cause line 65 to be at approximately V SS since transistor 70 would be conducting and, a positive signal on line 64 since transistor 67 would conduct. Transistors 68 and 69 would not be conducting since 92 is low. Note that after the address is removed from line 63, as long as CE remains positive, the address buffer remains latched, that is, the flip-flop remains set. It should also be noted that when CE becomes positive the node comprising the gates of the load transistors 76 and 75 is capacitively coupled to this signal, thereby driving the gates of transistors 75 and 76 more positively. To assure proper operation of the buffer, symmetry is maintained between the minor image transistors insofar as their conducting resistance is concerned, except that transistor 85 has less conducting resistance than transistor 86. The buffer and latch of FIG. 3 may also be used for receiving other signals (other than address signals), for example, the chip select signal. Decoder In FIG. 4 a decoder of the presently disclosed memory is illustrated along with the "B" generator. The decoding principle for the decoder of FIG. 4 is the same as a dynamic NOR GATE; and includes a plurality of parallel transistors 96, 97, 98, 99, 100 and 101 which are coupled to receive the address for either a column or a row of the memory. In the presently preferred embodiment six of the address bits are utilized for selecting a row, and six address bits are used for selecting a column in the 64 × 64 array. While the decoder of FIG. 4 is illustrated coupled to all three signals, that is, A 0 , A 1 , A 2 , A 3 , A 4 and A 5 , the inverse signals, i.e., A 0 etc., are used in a standard manner in order to allow selection of any row or column in the array. The decoder transistors 96 through 101 are coupled between node 104 and V SS . Node 104 is coupled to V DD through transistor 102, and this node is charged to V DD less a threshold drop during the period when CE is positive. The output from the decoder (line 121) is powered through the output transistor 110 from the "B" generator 115. As will be explained the B generator is utilized as a current limiting device. The gate of the output transistor 110 is coupled to node 105 as is one terminal of bootstrap capacitor 108. The other terminal of capacitor 108 is coupled to the drain of pull-down transistor 109; the source terminal of transistor 109 is coupled to V SS . The decoupling transistor 107 which is used for coupling and decoupling nodes 104 and 105 has its gates coupled to a voltage divider comprising transistor 112 and 113. These transistors are connected between V DD and ground line 56. The bleeder transistor 112, as will be explained in more detail, is used to assure that the gate of the decoupling transistor 107 remains at a potential less than V DD . First the operation of the decoder of FIG. 4 will be examined during the period when CE is positive. During this period the B generator is effectively off, and hence no power is applied to the drain of the output transistor 110, or for that matter to the drains of any of the other output transistors of the other decoders. Also during this period the bleeder transistor 112 is not conducting, thus the gate of the coupling transistor 107 is coupled to V DD through transistor 113. Node 104 is precharged during CE through transistor 102, as are the equivalent nodes in the remainder of the decoders. Node 105 likewise becomes charged since it is coupled to node 104 through transistor 107. Note that there are a plurality of nodes similar to nodes 104 and 105, (since there are a plurality of decoders); all of these nodes are precharged at the same time. Moreover, there is substantial overlap capacitance, coupling the gates of the decoupling transistors 107, and as the potential on these nodes rises, it feeds through onto the gate of the decoupling transistor 107 causing its gate to become more positive. This effect aids in the precharge of node 105 since better coupling is obtained between this node through transistor 107. At the time CE becomes positive, if the decoder has been selected, node 104 remains positive as does the gate of transistor 110 (node 105). When this occurs an output signal is obtained on the output line 121 and is enhanced by the bootstrap capacitance 108. On the other hand, if the decoder has not been selected, node 105 and node 104 discharge through one or more of the decoder transistors 96 through 101. The overlap capacitance previously mentioned (for the non-selected decoders) tends to cause the gate of the decoupling transistor 107 to become lower in potential. However, since transistor 107 is being driven in an inverted manner (that is, node 105 is more positive than node 104) very insignificant delay in discharging node 104 is encountered. Initially when CE becomes positive, the gates of all the output transistors of the decoders such as transistor 110 are charged, and hence the load on the B generator is quite large (low in resistance). As will be discussed shortly, the potential on the drains of the output transistors remains low until such time as the load on the B generator is reduced. This reduction in load occurs as the gates of the output transistors of the unselected decoders discharge. The B generator 115 includes a transistor 116 coupled between the source of the CE signal, and the gate of transistor 117 and one terminal of capacitor 119. The gate of transistor 116 is coupled to V DD , line 57, as is the drain of transistor 117. The output from the B generator, the source of transistor 117 and the other terminal of capacitor 119 are also coupled to the drain of transistor 118. The source of transistor 118 is coupled to ground while the gate of transistor 118 receives the CEW signal. During the time that the decoding is actually taking place within the decoders the B generator limits the current being delivered to the output transistors of the decoders. During the period that CE is positive (note that CEW is a true complement of CE) the output from the B generator is substantially held at V SS . When CE becomes positive the output from the B generator is coupled to the output transistors of the decoders and transistor 117 limits the current flow. If it were not for the current limiting effect of transistor 117, an intolerable amount of current would be drawn. As the output transistors of the unselected decoders cease to conduct, the load on the B generator greatly decreases, for example all but one of 64 decoders remain coupled to the B generator. When CED returns to zero potential (indicating that the address has been received) transistor 109 ceases to conduct, thus the output line 121 rises in potential. This rise in potential of output line bootstraps the gate of transistor 117 through capacitor 119, thus causing the output of the B generator to rise (see FIG. 11, lines 184 and 185). The B generator illustrated in FIG. 4 is utilized for the 64 column decoders in the presently preferred embodiment. A circuit performing the same function as the B generator is used for driving the output of the row decoders. This signal generated by the "C" generator shall be discussed in conjunction with FIG. 10. An important feature of the B-generator 115 (and also the C generator) is that no D.C. current is drawn from the source of the CE clock. This is a significant improvement over prior art memories which placed D.C. loads on the clock signal sources. After CE becomes positive CED returns to zero potential, that is CED is delayed from CE (see waveform on line 184 of FIG. 11). When CED returns to zero, transistor 109 ceases to conduct allowing the decoder output to rise in potential. Node 105 becomes bootstrapped through capacitor 108 thereby driving the gate of transistor 110 more positively. As node 105 rises in potential decoupling transistor 107 for the selected decode is shut off thereby decoupling node 105 from 104. This allows node 105 to rise more quickly in potential since the capacitance associated with node 104 is no longer coupled to node 105. Note that at this time the gate of transistor 107 is coupled through transistor 112 to V SS , this transistor having a relatively high resistance. Transistor 112 maintains the gate of the coupling transistor at a controlled potential less than V DD , thus allowing quicker decoupling of nodes 104 and 105. Data Output Feedback & Decoupler As previously mentioned during a read cycle, the selected cell either increases or decreases the potential on the selected row line. Referring to FIG. 5, the circuit shown therein couples this increase or decrease of potential on the selected row line to an output differential amplifier 145 (which also latches) and decouples the input/output bus from the output amplifier during the output strobe. In FIG. 5 the row line 15 is illustrated coupled to the input/output bus 30 through transistor 33. The input/output bus is coupled to the output amplifier 145 through the coupling transistor 137. Both the source and drain of the coupling transistor 137 are coupled to potential V Ccom through pull-up transistors 133 and 134. The gates of these two transistors are connected to the source of the CE signal. The output amplifier 145 provides a positive feedback signal on line 126 which is fed back onto the input/output bus 30 through the feedback amplifier 147. Feedback amplifier 147 may be an ordinary buffer amplifier and is used to supply a positive feedback to the bus 30. The source of the input signal to the feedback amplifier will be discussed in detail in conjunction with the output amplifier (FIG. 6). The output amplifier 145 is a differential amplifier and compares the signal on node 140 with the signal on node 130 as will be discussed. The gate of the coupling transistor 137 is coupled to the source of the pull-up transistor 135. The drain of transistor 135 is coupled to V DD . A bootstrap capacitor 142 is coupled between the source of the row select signal and the gate of the coupling transistor 137. The gate of the coupling transistor 137 is also coupled to a pull-down transistor 143, this transistor has its gate coupled to line 128, the output strobe signal line. Prior to the time that a row has been selected and during the time that CE is positive node 140 and the input/output bus 30 are charged to the potential V Ccom by the pull-up transistors 133 and 134. Also the gate of transistor 137 is likewise charged to a positive potential by the pull-up transistor 135. After CE returns to a zero potential, and when the row select signal is received transistor 33 conducts (during the read cycle) and either transfers additional charge onto the input/output bus 30 or removes charge from the input/output bus 30. The row select signal is also applied to capacitor 142, and through this capacitor the signal boosts the gate of the coupling transistor 137, thereby allowing the difference of charge on the input/output bus 30 to be either transferred onto node 140 or removed from node 140. When the output strobe signal is received the output amplifier 145 senses the increase or decrease of charge on node 140. Simultaneously with this occurrence transistor 143 conducts thereby discharging the gate of coupling transistor 137. This decouples node 140 from the input/output bus 30. Also, to assure proper decoupling feedback amplifier 147 provides positive feedback of the output signal thereby driving line 30 higher in potential or lower in potential. In FIG. 11, line 188, the waveform of the O.S. signal is shown. The leading edge of the O.S. signal is delayed from the leading edge of the "C" signal (row select) by a time t 3 . The duration of t 3 is sufficient to assure that charge has been transferred from the bit sense line (e.g., row line 15) to the output amplifier (node 140). In FIG. 6 the data output amplifier 145 which includes a latching circuit is illustrated in detail. The potential on node 140, the input to the amplifier, is compared with the potential on node 130. The output amplifier includes a flip-flop circuit comprising transistors 149 and 154 in a first leg and transistors 150 and 155 in a second leg. Both legs of the flip-flop are coupled between V DD and V SS through the current saving transistor 157. The gate of the current saving transistor 157 is coupled to the output strobe line 128 such that current only flows in the flip-flop during the period that the output strobe is positive. Node 130 is coupled to node 140 through the equalization transistor 152 and during the period of time that CE is positive these two nodes are coupled together through transistor 152. The gates of the flip-flop load transistors 149 and 150 are coupled to the source of the pull-up transistor 159 and this transistor couples the gates of the load transistors to V Ccom during the period of time that CE is positive. These gates are boosted through capacitor 161 when the output strobe becomes positive. Node 130 is also precharged during the time that CE is positive through pull-up transistor 160. As discussed in conjunction with FIG. 5, node 140 is precharged and after one of the row lines in the array has been coupled to the input/output bus the potential on node 140 increases or decreases to a potential higher or lower than the potential on node 130. This causes the flip-flop to be set in one of its two stable states when the output strobe is received. By way of example, if charge is transferred onto node 140, node 140 will be at a higher potential than node 130, this will cause transistor 155 to conduct more heavily than transistor 154 thereby setting the flip-flop such that the leg of the flip-flop comprising transistors 150 and 155 conducts. The flip-flop acts as a latch and remains set as long as the output strobe is present. The output from the flip-flop is applied to two pairs of transistors which operate as push-pull amplifiers. The first pair comprises transistors 164 and 165 and the second pair comprises transistors 166 and 167. Both pairs of transistors are coupled between V DD (through the current saving transistor 170) and V SS . The gates of transistors 165 and 166 are coupled to node 130 while the gates of transistors 164 and 167 are coupled to node 140. The common node between transistors 166 and 167 is coupled to the feedback line 126 previously discussed in conjunction with FIG. 5. The common node between transistors 164 and 165 is used to drive the output transistor 172. It is apparent that current only flows through this amplification stage when the output strobe is present since transistor 170 only conducts during the time that the output strobe is positive. The output transistor 172 has its drain coupled to V CC and its source coupled to the data output line 125. The source of the output transistor 172 is coupled to the drain of transistor 174 and transistor 174 in conjunction with transistors 176, 177, 178 and 179 provide a tri-state output as will be discussed. Line 125 is coupled to ground through transistor 174. The gate of transistor 174 is coupled to the common node between the series combination of transistors 176 and 177. Transistor 176 has its drain coupled to the source of the chip select signal while the source of transistor 177 is coupled to the ground line, V SS . Transistors 178 and 179 are likewise coupled in series with the drain of transistor 179 being coupled to V DD and the source of transistor 178 being coupled to the ground line. The gates of both transistors 177 and 178 are coupled to the common node between transistors 164 and 165, this node also including the gate of the output transistor 172. The gate of transistor 176 is coupled to the common node between transistors 178 and 179 and the gate of transistor 179 is coupled to the source of the CE signal. If the chip is unselected the O.S. timing signal is inhibited, thus preventing transistor 170 from conducting and leaving nodes 130 and 140 precharged to V Ccom . This results in the gate of transistor 172 falling to V SS since transistor 165 will be on, thereby preventing transistor 172 from conducting. The drain of transistor 176 will be at V SS since the chip is deselected and the gate of transistor 174 will also be at the potential of V SS , thus preventing transistor 174 from conducting. Since both transistors 172 and 174 are not conducting the output line 125 presents a high impedance. If on the other hand, the chip is selected and the output is "high", at the beginning of the CE signal both transistors 172 and 174 are not conducting. After the chip select signal becomes positive and since transistor 176 is conducting, the gate of transistor 174 will become positive keeping the output low. When the O.S. is generated, if node 140 is to become positive and node 130 is to become low in potential, transistors 170, 164, 167, 172, 178 and 177 conduct and transistors 166, 165, 176 and 174 do not conduct. Thus, since transistor 172 is conducting and transistor 174 is off the output line 125 becmes high. If the chip has been selected and a low output is read, line 125 is held low as described above until the O.S. signal becomes positive. When the O.S. signal is generated, and if node 140 is decreased in potential while node 130 increased, transistors 164, 167, 172, 178 and 177 do not conduct and transistors 170, 166, 165 and 179 conduct. Thus, transistor 172 remains non-conducting and transistor 174 remains on keeping the output line 125 at a "low" potential. CED Generator In FIG. 8 the CED and CED generator is illustrated (the waveform of the CED signal is illustrated in FIG. 11 on line 184). The CED generator utilizes the CE signal and CE signal (shown on lines 183 and 189 of FIG. 11) and the true and complementary output of one of the address buffers to order to generate the CED and CED signals. As previously mentioned, the output from the CED generator is a signal primarily based on CE time, but delayed sufficiently to assure that an address has been received and processed through the address buffers. The CED output of the generator is shown as node 209, the CED output as node 210. Feedback transistor 213 has its drain coupled to node 209, its source coupled to V SS and its gate coupled to node 210. Feedback transistor 214 has its gate coupled to node 209 and its source and drain terminals coupled between nodes 210 and V SS . Pull-down transistor 207 is coupled between node 210 and V SS , and pull-up transistor 204 is coupled between node 209 and V DD . The decoder delay is assured by transistors 215 and 216 which are coupled in parallel between node 209 and V SS . The gate of transistors 215 and 216 are coupled to the address signals A 6 and A 6 , respectively, at the output of the address buffer (lines 64 and 65, FIG. 3). Transistor 212 is coupled between V DD and node 210. Its gate is coupled to the source of the CE signal through transistor 211 and to node 210 through capacitor 205. The gate of transistor 211 is coupled to V DD . During the time that CE is positive transistor 204 will conduct raising the potential on node 209 to V DD . Node 210, on the other hand, is coupled to V SS through transistor 207 since that transistor is conducting. At the time that CE becomes positive capacitor 205 becomes charged through transistor 211. Additionally, transistor 212 begins to conduct, but since transistor 214 is also conducting, node 210 remains substantially at V SS . After the address buffers have received valid address signals and processed them, either transistor 215 or 216 will begin conducting. This will cause node 209 to begin discharging towards V SS . The positive feedback provided through the gate of transistor 214 will cause node 210 to rise in potential since transistor 214 begins to turn-off. Likewise, the positive feedback provided from mode 210 through the gate of transistor 213 causes transistor 213 to conduct, discharging node 209. Capacitor 205 provides additional positive feedback causing transistor 213 to conduct more quickly thereby providing a sharper leading edge on the CED signal. It is apparent that the CED signal will not occur until a valid address has been received and been processed through the address buffers. Moreover, delay is obtained from the CED generator, this delay being primarily determined by transistors 213 and 214 and the capacitances associated with nodes 209 and 210. Referring briefly to FIG. 1, the output of the CED generator in addition to being coupled to the decoders 12 and 13 is also coupled to the φ w generator 22. The output from the φ W generator 22 in addition to being coupled to the sense amplifiers 11, is also coupled to the C generator 24. And the output of the C generator 24 in addition to being utilized by the row select transistors, is also used by the O.S. generator 31. As previously discussed, the output from the CED generator 14 is delayed by the output from at least one of the address buffers, and also, by a duration of time determined by the CED generator 14 circuitry. The output from the CED generator is used to trigger the φ W generator, thus assuring that the output from the φ W generator 22 is delayed from the output of the CED generator 14. Likewise, the output from the φ W generator 22 is used to trigger or delay the output from the C generator 24, and finally the output from the C generator is used to trigger the output from the O.S. generator 31. Thus, any delays associated with processing parameters or variations for the buffers are automatically compensated for because of the "chain reaction" interconnection of the generators. φ W Generator Referring to FIG. 9 and the φ W generator illustrated therein, the output from the φ W generator is initiated by the CED signal applied to the gate of transistor 220. The output φ W which appears on node 222 is also delayed by the internal circuitry of the φ W generator. Feedback transistor 229 has its gate coupled to node 225 and its source and drain terminals coupled between V SS and node 224. Feedback transistor 228 is coupled between node 225 and V SS and has its gate coupled to node 224. Pull-down transistor 218 assures that node 224 is discharged during the period of time that CE is positive. Pull-down transistor 219 which is coupled between node 222 and V SS assures that the output node 222 is coupled to V SS during the period of time that the CEW signal is positive. Pull-up transistor 226 which is coupled between node 225 and V DD , precharges node 225 to V DD less a threshold during the period of time that the CE signal is positive. A bootstrap circuit comprising transistors 237 and 238 and capacitor 234 is used for boosting the gate of the output transistor 240 through capacitor 235. Transistor 237 is coupled between the source of the CE signal and the gate of transistor 238, the gate of transistor 237 is coupled to V DD . Transistor 238 has its drain coupled to V DD , its source coupled to node 224 and its gate coupled to one terminal of transistor 237 and capacitor 234. The output transistor 240 has its drain coupled to V DD and its source coupled to the output node 222. The gate of transistors 240 is coupled to one terminal of transistor 239 and capacitor 235. Transistor 239 is used to couple the CE signal to the gate of transistor 240. Transistor 232 has its gate coupled to node 225, and hence this transistor conducts during the time that CE is positive. The conduction of transistor 232 during this period of time couples node 222 to V SS . In order to understand the operation of the φ W generator, a brief comment on prior art bootstrapping circuits will be helpful. Typically, in the prior art, if transistor 240 of FIG. 9 were to be bootstrapped, a capacitor would be used between node 222 and the gate of transistor 240. In order to raise the potential of the gate of transistor 240, it is necessary for the potential on the load to rise in order to provide the bootstrapping through the bootstrap capacitor. In many cases though, the load on the generator includes considerable capacitance, and hence the rise in potential on the gate of the output transistor is delayed or slowed by the output capacitance. Referring to FIG. 9, unlike prior art bootstrapping circuits, the gate of the output transistor 240 is bootstrapped through capacitor 235 to a bootstrapping circuit which comprises transistors 237, 238 and capacitor 234. In the operation of the φ W generator, during the period of time that CE is positive, node 225 is charged to V DD and node 222 is held at V SS . After CE returns to zero potential and the CE signal becomes positive capacitors 234 and 235 are charged. Capacitor 234 is charged through transistor 237 (note that transistor 229 is still conducting since node 225 has previously been charged to V DD through transistor 226.) Similarly, capacitor 235 is charged through transistor 239. When CED becomes positive node 225 begins to discharge through transistor 220. This causes transistor 229 to cease conducting, and thus node 224 rises in potential. As node 224 rises in potential, the gate of transistor 238 becomes bootstrapped raising the potential on node 224 to V DD . As the potential on node 224 increases, it bootstraps the gate of the output transistor 240 allowing the output node 222 to reach the potential of V DD . Transistors 237 and 239 allow the gates of transistors 238 and 240, respectively, to reach a potential greater than V DD . Thus, the positive output on node 222, φ W , will not occur until the CED signal becomes positive, and then the output is delayed by a predetermined period of time which is a function of the delay inherent in the φ W generator. C Generator In FIG. 10 the C generator is illustrated and includes an output node 244 which is coupled to V DD through an output transistor 245. The C generator is substantially the same as a φ W generator, except that as previously mentioned, it is triggered by the φ W signal. The output transistor 245 is bootstrapped in the same manner as the output transistor 240 of the φ W generator (FIG. 9). The bootstrapping circuit transistors 246 and 247, and capacitors 248 and 249. Node 255 of the C generator which corresponds to node 225 of the φ W generator is coupled to V SS through transistor 252, the gate of which is coupled to the source of the +W signal (buffer 38, FIG. 7). Also node 255 is coupled to V SS through the series combination of transistors 253 and 254. Transistor 253 has its gate coupled to the source of the C.S. signal while transistor 254 has its gate coupled to the source of the φ W signal, node 222 of FIG. 9. The output of the C generator couples the row select transistor, such as transistor 33 of FIG. 2, with the input/output bus 30. Transistor 253 assures that a C signal is only generated when a chip select signal has been received. Transistor 252 assures that a C signal exists when the write signal is present in order that information may be written onto the row lines. In all other respects though, the C generator operates in the same manner as the φ W generator in FIG. 9. The output of the C generator will not occur until the φ W signal has been generated, and then, the C signal will be delayed by a period of time determined by the circuitry of the C generator. The O.S. generator 31 shown in FIG. 1 may be identical to, and is in fact identical, in the preferred embodiment to, the C generator or the φ W generator except that it is activated or triggered by the output from the C generator, node 244 of FIG. 10. The O.S. generator also includes a transistor which is the equivalent of transistor 253 of FIG. 10 to assure that an output strobe signal is not generated unless a chip select signal is present. Thus, a random access memory has been disclosed wherein each cell of the memory array includes a single transistor and a capacitor. The memory has been fabricated in a 4,096 bit array utilizing MOS technology.

A semiconductor memory employs a variety of circuit elements which are used to manipulate the digital information stored within the rows and columns of the memory array. The circuit elements must be manipulated in an ordered sequence with proper relative timing to permit decoding of various addresses and other circuit commands and enabling of various ones of the circuit elements. The plurality of timing signals are generated within the memory by a corresponding plurality of timing generators. Accurate timing and sequencing is obtained by utilizing the output of one timing generator to trigger or initiate the generation of a signal in another generator followed by either proper conditioning upon an input signal, such as an address, or by a predetermined delay designed into the timing generator itself.

TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates to an etching liquid for an oxide containing at least zinc and tin used for a display device such as a liquid crystal display (LCD) or an electroluminescence display (LED), and to an etching method using the same. BACKGROUND ART While amorphous silicon and low-temperature polysilicon are widely used as a semiconductor layer of a display device such as a liquid crystal display or an electroluminescence display, various oxide semiconducting materials have been developed in the context of increase in the display size, realizing high precision, reduction in power consumption and the like. An oxide semiconducting material may be, for example, an indium gallium and zinc oxide (IGZO), which has features such as high electron mobility and small leakage current. Besides IGZO, oxide semiconducting materials of various compositions such as an indium gallium oxide (IGO), a gallium zinc oxide (GZO), a zinc tin oxide (ZTO), an indium zinc tin oxide (IZTO) and an indium gallium zinc tin oxide (IGZTO) have been considered as oxide semiconducting materials that have better features. In general, an oxide semiconducting material is formed as a thin film on a substrate such as glass using a film forming process such as a sputtering technique. Then, it is etched using a resist or the like as a mask to form an electrode pattern. This etching process may be a wet type (wet technique) or a dry type (dry technique), where the wet technique uses an etching liquid. Among the oxide semiconducting materials, oxides containing at least zinc and tin are excellent in chemical resistance, and thus are stable even when they are exposed to various chemicals and gases during the film forming process and the etching process of other peripheral materials. On the other hand, however, oxides containing at least zinc and tin have a problem of having difficulty in fabrication by wet etching and the like. When a pattern of an oxide semiconducting material is formed by wet etching, the etching liquid is required to have the following performances (1)-(5). (1) It has a preferable etch rate (E.R.). (2) Fluctuation in the etch rate as the oxide dissolves in the etching liquid is small. In other words, the etching liquid is stable and durable for long-term use and has a prolonged chemical solution life. (3) It does not generate a precipitate when dissolving an oxide. (4) It does not corrode peripheral materials such as wiring. (5) The pattern shape (taper angle, linearity, residue removal performance) of the oxide semiconductor after the etching is good. The etch rate of an oxide semiconducting material is preferably 10 nm/min or more, more preferably 20 nm/min or more, and still more preferably 30 nm/min or more. At the same time, it is preferably 10000 nm/min or less, more preferably 5000 nm/min or less, and still more preferably 2000 nm/min or less. Especially, it is preferably 10-10000 nm/min, more preferably 20-5000 nm/min, and still more preferably 30-2000 nm/min. When the etch rate is 10-10000 nm/min, high production efficiency can be maintained and the etching operation can be performed stably. Furthermore, the oxide concentration in the etching liquid increases with etching. It is desirable that the decrease or change in the etch rate due to this is small. When the etching liquid is used to etch an oxide semiconductor layer, this is extremely important for realizing efficient industrial production. Moreover, when a precipitate is generated in an etching liquid having an oxide semiconducting material dissolved therein, the precipitate may remain on the substrate as a residue after the etching treatment. This residue may induce generation of voids, adhesion failure, leakage or disconnection in the subsequent film forming process. As a result of which, characteristics as a display device could be deteriorated. In addition, when a precipitate is generated in an etching liquid having an oxide semiconducting material dissolved therein, this precipitate may clog up a filter that is provided for circulating the etching liquid, whose replacement is cumbersome and may lead to high cost. Therefore, even if the performance as an etching liquid is still remaining, the etching liquid needs to be discarded before the generation of such precipitate, resulting in shorter duration of use of the etching liquid and increase in the cost of the etching liquid. Additionally, cost for disposing waste liquid also increases. For example, when zinc oxide is etched using an etching liquid containing oxalic acid, there is a major problem that an zinc oxalate precipitate as a solid matter. In a general etching liquid containing oxalic acid, a precipitate is generated when a concentration of the dissolved zinc becomes about 10 mass ppm (Comparative Examples 1 and 2). Accordingly, it is desirable that a precipitate is not generated when zinc is dissolved in an etching liquid. A specific amount of dissolved zinc is preferably 10 mass ppm or more. More preferably it is 100 mass ppm or more, and particularly preferably it is 1000 mass ppm or more. Although there is no upper limit, in order to perform a safe and stable etching operation, it is preferably 5000 mass ppm or less, more preferably 4000 mass ppm or less, and particularly preferably 3000 mass ppm or less. Examples of a wiring material generally used for a display device such as a liquid crystal display include copper (Cu), aluminum (Al), molybdenum (Mo) and titanium (Ti). Since the etching liquid may possibly make contact with these wiring materials upon etching the oxide semiconducting material, corrosion of these wiring materials should preferably be ignorable or small. Specifically, the etch rate of the wiring material is preferably 3 nm/min or less, more preferably 2 nm/min or less, and still more preferably 1 nm/min or less. The pattern shape of the oxide semiconductor after the etching specifically has a taper angle (an angle between the etched surface at the edge of the semiconductor layer and the surface of the underlying layer) of preferably 10°-80°. FIG. 5 is a schematic view showing cross-sectional observation of the semiconductor layer after the etching treatment. A semiconductor layer 2 and a resist 1 are laminated on an underlying layer 3 , where the semiconductor layer 2 is patterned by using the resist 1 . Here, the angle between the etched surface at the edge of the semiconductor layer and the surface of the underlying layer is referred to as a taper angle 4 . The taper angle is more preferably 15°-75°, and particularly preferably 20°-70°. When the taper angle is larger than this range, there is a problem that the coverage with a layer laminated thereon will be poor. When the taper angle is smaller than this range (see FIG. 3 ), the linearity (the linear shape of the edge of semiconductor layer vertically seen from above) tends to be poor (see FIG. 4 ). Furthermore, the pattern shape of the oxide semiconductor after the etching has a maximum linearity error of preferably 0.2 μm or less, more preferably 0.15 μm or less and still more preferably 0.1 μm or less. When the linearity is poor, an error of the width of the semiconductor layer is caused, which is unfavorable. FIG. 6 is a schematic view showing the top surface of the semiconductor layer vertically observed from above after the etching treatment and peeling off the resist. The view shows, in order from the left, the underlying layer 5 , the tapered portion 6 of the semiconductor layer formed by the etching treatment and the semiconductor layer 7 . The maximum value of an error 9 of the linearity (in the figure, indicated by a dotted line) of the border line 8 at the edge of the semiconductor layer patterned by the etching treatment is referred to as the “maximum linearity error”. Moreover, no residue (remainder or precipitates of oxide, etc.) is preferably generated on the underlying layer that has been removed of the etched oxide semiconductor layer (see FIG. 2 ). As an etching liquid for ZTO, an etching liquid containing hydrochloric acid and nitric acid as primary components is known from Patent Literature 1. Furthermore, Patent Literature 2 describes that ZTO can be etched with an aqueous organic acid solution such as oxalic acid or an aqueous inorganic acid solution such as those of halogen-based or nitric acid-based inorganic acid. Moreover, Patent Literature 3 discloses an etching liquid characterized by a composition containing (a) oxalic acid, (b) a naphthalene sulfonate condensate or a salt thereof, (c) at least one of hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, water-soluble amine and salts thereof, and (d) water, which is used for etching an indium oxide-containing film. Patent Literature 4 discloses an etching liquid characterized by a composition containing (a) oxalic acid, (b) hydrochloric acid and (c) a surfactant, as an etching liquid for a transparent conductive film having an indium tin oxide (ITO) and an indium zinc oxide (IZO) as primary components. CITATION LIST Patent Literature Patent Literature 1: Specification of US Patent Application No. 2009/75421 Patent Literature 2: Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication No. 2010-248547 Patent Literature 3: International Publication No. 2008/32728 Patent Literature 4: Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication No. 2010-103214 SUMMARY OF INVENTION Technical Problem The etching liquid of Patent Literature 1, however, has a concern about corrosion of the wiring material (see Comparative Examples 3 and 4). The etching liquid containing oxalic acid of Patent Literature 2 generates an oxalate precipitate (see Comparative Examples 1 and 2). In addition, an etching liquid that contains inorganic acid has a concern about corrosion of the wiring material (see Comparative Examples 3 and 4). Patent Literatures 3 and 4 do not describe about characteristics of etching ZTO. Under such circumstances, there is a need for providing an etching liquid that has a preferable etch rate upon etching an oxide containing zinc and tin, that has small decrease and change in the etch rate even when the oxide is dissolved, that no precipitate is generated upon dissolving the oxide, that corrosive nature on a wiring material such as aluminum, copper or titanium is small, and that linearity of the pattern shape is good. Solution to Problem Thus, the present invention was accomplished through keen studies to solve the above-described problems by finding out that said objective can be achieved by a treatment using an etching liquid for etching an oxide containing at least zinc and tin, the etching liquid comprising (A) one or more selected from the group consisting of sulfuric acid, nitric acid, hydrochloric acid, methanesulfonic acid, perchloric acid or salts thereof, and (B) oxalic acid or a salt thereof and water, wherein pH value is −1 to 1. The present invention is as follows. 1. An etching liquid for etching an oxide containing at least zinc and tin, the etching liquid comprising: (A) one or more selected from the group consisting of sulfuric acid, nitric acid, hydrochloric acid, methanesulfonic acid, perchloric acid or salts thereof; and (B) oxalic acid or a salt thereof and water, wherein the pH value is −1 to 1. 2. The etching liquid according to Item 1, further comprising (C) carboxylic acid (other than oxalic acid). 3. The etching liquid according to Item 2, wherein (C) carboxylic acid is one or more selected from the group consisting of acetic acid, glycolic acid, malonic acid, maleic acid, succinic acid, malic acid, tartaric acid, glycine and citric acid. 4. The etching liquid according to any one of Items 1 to 3, further comprising a (D) polysulfonic acid compound. 5. The etching liquid according to Item 4, wherein the (D) polysulfonic acid compound is one or more selected from the group consisting of a naphthalene sulfonate formalin condensate and a salt thereof, polyoxyethylene alkyl ether sulfate, and polyoxyethylene alkyl phenyl ether sulfate. 6. The etching liquid according to any one of Items 1 to 5, further comprising (E) zinc at a concentration in a range of 10-5000 mass ppm. 7. The etching liquid according to any one of Items 1 to 6, wherein the taper angle of the etched pattern is 10°-80°. 8. A method for etching an oxide containing at least zinc and tin, comprising the step of bringing an etching liquid comprising (A) 0.5-30% by mass of one or more selected from the group consisting of sulfuric acid, nitric acid, methanesulfonic acid, hydrochloric acid, perchioric acid or salts thereof, and (B) 0.1-10% by mass of oxalic acid or a salt thereof and water (remainder), where pH value is −1 to 1, into contact with a substrate comprising the oxide containing at least zinc and tin. 9. The etching method according to Item 8, wherein the etching liquid further comprises 0.1-15% by mass of (C) carboxylic acid (other than oxalic acid). Preferably, (C) carboxylic acid is one or more selected from the group consisting of acetic acid, glycolic acid, malonic acid, maleic acid, succinic acid, malic acid, tartaric acid, glycine and citric acid. 10. The etching method according to either one of Items 8 and 9, wherein the etching liquid further comprises 0.0001-10% by mass of a (D) polysulfonic acid compound. Preferably, the (D) polysulfonic acid compound is one or more selected from the group consisting of a naphthalene sulfonate formalin condensate and a salt thereof, polyoxyethylene alkyl ether sulfate and polyoxyethylene alkyl phenyl ether sulfate. 11. The etching method according to any one of Items 8 to 10, wherein the etching liquid further comprises (E) zinc at a concentration in a range of 10-5000 mass ppm. 12. The etching method according to any one of Items 8 to 11, wherein the taper angle of the etched pattern is 10°-80°. 13. A display device produced by the method according to any one of Items 8 to 12. Advantageous Effects of Invention According to a preferable embodiment of the present invention, an etching liquid of the present application can be used for etching an oxide containing at least zinc and tin so that a preferable etching operation can be performed stably for a long period of time due to a preferable etch rate, an excellent pattern shape, small decrease or change in the etch rate when the oxide containing zinc and tin is dissolved in the etching liquid, no generation of a precipitate, and little corrosive nature on a wiring material, and beneficial effects such as excellent linearity of the etched pattern shape can be obtained. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS FIG. 1 A view of a cross-section of ZTO that was etched using the chemical solution of Example 2, observed with a scanning electron microscope (SEM). FIG. 2 A view of ZTO (right) and the glass substrate (left) after the etching treatment using the chemical solution of Example 2 and peeling off the resist, observed from above with SEM. FIG. 3 A view of a cross-section of ZTO that was etched using the chemical solution of Comparative Example 3, observed with SEM. FIG. 4 A view of ZTO (right) and the glass substrate (left) after the etching treatment using the chemical solution of Comparative Example 3 and peeling off the resist, observed from above with SEM. FIG. 5 A schematic view showing cross-sectional observation of the semiconductor layer after the etching treatment. FIG. 6 A schematic view showing the top surface of the semiconductor layer after the etching treatment and peeling off the resist, vertically observed from above. DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS An oxide containing zinc and tin of the present invention is not particularly limited as long as the oxide contains zinc and tin. It may also contain one or more elements other than zinc and tin. The contents of zinc and tin in the oxide is each preferably 1% by mass or more, more preferably 3% by mass or more, and still more preferably 10% by mass or more. The content of metal elements other than zinc and tin are each preferably 10% by mass or less, more preferably 3% by mass or less, and still more preferably 1% by mass or less. The etching liquid of the present invention comprises (A) one or more selected from the group consisting of sulfuric acid, nitric acid, hydrochloric acid, methanesulfonic acid, perchloric acid or salts thereof, and (B) oxalic acid or a salt thereof and water, where the pH value is −1 to 1. An etching liquid of the present invention comprises, as (A), one or more selected from the group consisting of sulfuric acid, nitric acid, methanesulfonic acid, hydrochloric acid, perchloric acid or salts thereof Specifically, sulfuric acid, fuming sulfuric acid, ammonium sulfate, ammonium hydrogen sulfate, sodium hydrogen sulfate, potassium hydrogen sulfate, nitric acid, ammonium nitrate, methanesulfonic acid, hydrochloric acid and perchloric acid are preferable, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, methanesulfonic acid, hydrochloric acid and perchloric acid are more preferable, sulfuric acid, nitric acid and methanesulfonic acid are still more preferable, and sulfuric acid is particularly preferable. Furthermore, the concentration of an acid or a salt thereof selected as component (A) is preferably 0.5% by mass or more, more preferably 1% by mass or more, and still more preferably 2% by mass or more in terms of acid. At the same time, it is preferably 30% by mass or less, more preferably 20% by mass or less, and still more preferably 15% by mass or less. Especially, it is preferably 0.5-30% by mass, more preferably 1-20% by mass, and still more preferably 2-15% by mass. A good etch rate can be obtained when it is 0.5-30% by mass. (B) Oxalic acid contained in the etching liquid of the present invention is not particularly limited as long as it is capable of supplying an oxalate ion. Moreover, the concentration of the oxalate ion selected as component (B) is preferably 0.1% by mass or more, more preferably 0.5% by mass or more, and still more preferably 1% by mass or more in terms of oxalic acid. At the same time, it is preferably 10% by mass or less, more preferably 7% by mass or less, and still more preferably 5% by mass or less. Especially, it is preferably 0.1-10% by mass, more preferably 0.5-7% by mass, and still more preferably 1-5% by mass. A good etch rate can be obtained when it is 0.1-10% by mass. The water used in the present invention is preferably water that has been removed of metal ions, organic impurities, particles and the like by distillation, an ion-exchange treatment, a filter treatment, various adsorption treatments or the like. In particular, it is pure water, preferably ultrapure water. In addition, the concentration of water is preferably 10% by mass or more, more preferably 20% by mass or more, and still more preferably 30% by mass or more. In this case, the concentration of water is the remainder excluding the various agents. The etching liquid of the present invention may further comprise, as (C), a carboxylic acid other than oxalic acid. Specifically, a carboxylic acid is not particularly limited as long as it is capable of supplying a carboxylic acid ion (other than an oxalate ion). Carboxylic acid ion can enhance stability of a liquid composition for etching an oxide made of zinc and tin, and has a function of regulating the etch rate. For example, preferable examples include an aliphatic carboxylic acid with a carbon number of 1-18, an aromatic carboxylic acid with a carbon number of 6-10 as well as an amino acid with a carbon number of 1-10. The aliphatic carboxylic acid with a carbon number of 1-18 is preferably formic acid, acetic acid, propionic acid, lactic acid, glycolic acid, diglycolic acid, pyruvic acid, malonic acid, butyric acid, hydroxybutyric acid, tartaric acid, succinic acid, malic acid, maleic acid, fumaric acid, valeric acid, glutaric acid, itaconic acid, caproic acid, adipic acid, citric acid, propanetricarboxylic acid, trans-aconitic acid, enanthic acid, caprylic acid, lauric acid, myristic acid, palmitic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, linolenic acid or a salt thereof. Carboxylic acid is still more preferably acetic acid, glycolic acid, lactic acid, malonic acid, maleic acid, succinic acid, malic acid, tartaric acid, citric acid or a salt thereof, and particularly preferably acetic acid, maleic acid, malic acid and citric acid. These may also be used alone or more than one of them may be used in combination. The concentration of (C) carboxylic acid (other than oxalic acid) or a salt thereof is preferably 0.1% by mass or more, more preferably 1% by mass or more, and still more preferably 3% by mass or more in terms of carboxylic acid. At the same time, it is preferably 15% by mass or less, more preferably 12% by mass or less, and still more preferably 10% by mass or less. Especially, it is preferably 0.1-15% by mass, more preferably 1-12% by mass, and still more preferably 3-10% by mass. Corrosion of a wiring material can be minimized when it is 1-15% by mass. The pH value of the etching liquid of the present invention is in a range of −1 to 1. More preferable pH value is −0.7 to 0.7 and still more preferable pH value is −0.5 to 0.5. The etching liquid of the present invention may also contain a pH adjuster, if necessary. The pH adjuster is not particularly limited as long as it does not affect the etching performance. Sulfuric acid or methanesulfonic acid that serves as component (A) or carboxylic acid (other than oxalic acid) that serves as component (C) can also be used for regulation. Furthermore, ammonia water or amidosulfuric acid can also be used as the pH adjuster. If necessary, the etching liquid of the present invention may contain a polysulfonic acid compound as component (D). The polysulfonic acid compound is preferably a naphthalene sulfonate formalin condensate, a salt thereof, polyoxyethylene alkyl ether sulfate, polyoxyethylene alkyl phenyl ether sulfate or the like. A naphthalene sulfonate formalin condensate is commercially available under the trade names of DEMOL N (Kao Chemicals), Lavelin FP (Dai-ichi Kogyo Seiyaku), POLITY N100K (Lion Corporation) and the like. The concentration of the polysulfonic acid compound (D) is preferably 0.0001% by mass or more, and still more preferably 0.001% by mass or more. At the same time, it is preferably 10% by mass or less or still more preferably 5% by mass or less. Especially, it is preferably in a range of 0.0001-10% by mass, and still more preferably, 0.001-5% by mass. In a preferable embodiment of the present invention, the etching liquid of the present invention does not cause precipitation or change in the etching characteristics even when a zinc component is dissolved therein. If necessary, the etching liquid may contain zinc as component (E). Zinc has a function of further suppressing fluctuation in the etch rate upon dissolving the oxide containing zinc and tin. Zinc is not particularly limited as long as it can supply a zinc ion. Specifically, a salt such as zinc sulfate, zinc nitrate or zinc chloride may be used, or metal zinc, an oxide containing zinc and tin, or zinc oxide may be dissolved. The concentration of (E) zinc is preferably 10 mass ppm or more, more preferably 100 mass ppm or more, and still more preferably 1000 mass ppm or more. At the same time, it is preferably 5000 mass ppm or less, more preferably 4000 mass ppm or less, and still more preferably 3000 mass ppm or less. Especially, it is preferably 10-5000 mass ppm, more preferably 100-4000 mass ppm, and still more preferably 1000-3000 mass ppm. Fluctuation of the etch rate can further be minimized when it is 10-5000 mass ppm. Besides the above-described components, the etching liquid of the present invention may also contain various additives that are generally used in an etching liquid within a range that does not interfere with the effects of the etching liquid. For example, a solvent, a pH buffer or the like may be used. According to the etching method of the present invention, a target to be etched is an oxide containing at least zinc (Zn) and tin (Sn). The content ratio of zinc to the total content of zinc and tin (atom ratio, calculated as Zn/(Zn+Sn)) is preferably, but not limited to, 0.3 or higher from the standpoint of the semiconductor characteristics. The etching method of the present invention comprises the step of bringing the etching liquid of the present invention, that is, an etching liquid comprising (A) one or more selected from the group consisting of sulfuric acid, nitric acid, methanesulfonic acid, perchloric acid and salts thereof, and (B) oxalic acid or a salt thereof and water, wherein the pH value is −1 to 1, into contact with a target to be etched. According to the etching method of the present invention, generation of a precipitate can be prevented even when the etching operation is carried out continuously. In addition, since the change in the etch rate is small, the etching operation can stably be carried out for a long period of time. According to the etching method of the present invention, the shape of the target to be etched is not limited, but it is preferably a thin film when it is used as a semiconducting material for a flat panel display. For example, a target to be etched may be obtained by forming a zinc tin oxide (ZTO) thin film on a silicon oxide insulating film, applying a resist thereon, transferring a desired pattern mask by exposure, and developing the resultant to form a desired resist pattern. When the target to be etched is a thin film, the thickness thereof is preferably in a range of 1-1000 nm, more preferably 5-500 nm, and particularly preferably 10-300 nm. Moreover, the target to be etched may have a lamination structure made of two or more oxide thin films of different compositions. In this case, the lamination structure having two or more oxide thin films of different compositions can be etched at once. The contact temperature of the target to be etched and the etching liquid (i.e., the temperature of the etching liquid upon contact with the target to be etched) is preferably 10° C. or higher, more preferably 15° C. or higher, and still more preferably 20° C. or higher. At the same time, the contact temperature is preferably 70° C. or lower, more preferably 60° C. or lower, and still more preferably 50° C. or lower. Especially, the temperature is preferably 10-70° C., more preferably 15-60° C., and particularly preferably 20-50° C. A good etch rate can be obtained when the temperature is in a range of 10-70° C. Furthermore, an etching operation at the above-mentioned temperature range can suppress corrosion of the apparatus. While an increase in the temperature of the etching liquid increases the etch rate, a preferable treatment temperature may suitably be determined by also taking into account that evaporation of water or the like increases the change in the concentration of the etching liquid. Although the etching time is not particularly limited in the etching method of the present invention, the just-etch time that takes until an oxide containing zinc (Zn) and tin (Sn) is completely etched to expose the underlayer is usually preferably about 0.01-30 minutes, more preferably 0.03-10 minutes, still more preferably 0.05-5 minutes, and particularly preferably 0.1-2 minutes. A method for bringing the etching liquid into contact with the target to be etched is not particularly limited. For example, a common wet etching method such as a method in which an etching liquid is dropped (sheet-fed spin treatment), sprayed or the like to make contact with the targeted objected, or a method in which a targeted object is immersed in an etching liquid, can be employed. EXAMPLES Hereinafter, embodiments and effects of the present invention will specifically be described by way of Examples and Comparative Examples, although the present invention should not be limited to these examples. Method for Measuring pH Value Using HORIBA pH/ION meter, the electrode was immersed in an agitating etching liquid to measure the pH value at 22° C. The pH value of the pH measuring apparatus was adjusted using standard solutions at pH 2 and 7. SEM Observation An measurement instrument used for SEM observation was Hitachi field-emission scanning electron microscope S-5000H. Measurement conditions were as follows: accelerating voltage of 2.0 kV, extraction voltage of 4.2 kV, and emission current of 10 μA. Preparation of Zinc Tin Oxide (ZTO) Thin Film/Glass Substrate A zinc tin oxide target obtained by pulverizing, mixing and sintering zinc oxide and tin oxide was used to form a zinc tin oxide thin film at a zinc and tin atom ratio of 0.7 (film thickness: 100 nm) on a glass substrate by a sputtering technique. Preparation of Resist Pattern/Zinc Tin Oxide Thin Film/Glass Substrate A photoresist was deposited, exposed and developed on the above-described zinc tin oxide thin film to prepare a zinc tin oxide thin film having a resist pattern formed thereon. Evaluation (Judgment) 1. Determination of Etch Rate The etching liquids shown in Tables 1 and 2 were used to subject the zinc tin oxide (ZTO) thin film (film thickness 100 nm) formed on the glass substrate to etching treatments. In the etching treatment, the above-described ZTO film/glass substrate was immersed in an etching liquid kept at 35° C. for 20-60 seconds, followed by washing with pure water and drying. Next, the film thicknesses of the ZTO film before and after the etching treatment were measured using an optical film thickness measuring apparatus n & k Analyzer 1280 (n & k Technology Inc.). The difference between the film thicknesses was divided by the etching time to calculate the etch rate (early etch rate). Evaluation results were judged according to the criteria below. E: Etch rate was 30 nm/min to 200 nm/min G: Etch rate was 20 nm/min to less than 30 nm/min, or 201 nm/min to 500 nm/min F: Etch rate was 10 nm/min to less than 20 nm/min, or 501 nm/min to 1000 nm/min P: Etch rate was less than 10 nm/min, or 1001 nm/min or more In this regard, E, G and F were considered to be acceptable. 2. Confirmation of Oxide Solubility A zinc tin oxide (ZTO) was dissolved in the etching liquids shown in Tables 1 and 2 to a predetermined concentration (10, 100 or 1000 mass ppm in terms of zinc concentration) so as to visually observe the presence of insoluble matters. Evaluation results were judged according to the criteria below. E, G and F were considered to be acceptable. E: Completely dissolved after the addition at a zinc concentration of 1000 mass ppm. G: Completely dissolved after the addition at a zinc concentration of 100 mass ppm. F: Completely dissolved after the addition at a zinc concentration of 10 mass ppm. P: Presence of insoluble matter after the addition at a zinc concentration of 10 mass ppm. 3. Determination of Change in Etch Rate after Dissolving Oxide After dissolving ZTO in the etching liquids shown in Tables 1 and 2 to a zinc concentration of 1000 mass ppm, the etch rates were determined by the same method as in Item 1. above. The amount of change in the etch rates before and after the ZTO dissolution was calculated. Evaluation results were expressed according to the criteria below. E: Amount of change in etch rates was 5 nm/min or less G: Amount of change in etch rates was over 5 nm/min to 10 nm/min or less P: Amount of change in etch rates was over 10 nm/min In this regard, E and G are considered to be acceptable. 4. Evaluation of Pattern Shape A zinc tin oxide thin film (film thickness: 100 nm) having a resist pattern formed thereon was subjected to etching treatments using the etching liquids shown in Tables 1 and 2. The etching treatment was carried out at 35° C. employing a dip system. The etching time was twice the time (just-etch time) required for etching (100% over-etching condition). The just-etch time was calculated by dividing the film thickness of the ZTO film by the etch rate determined in “1. Determination of etch rate” (in the case of Example 2 below, just-etch time=ZTO film thickness 100 [nm]/etch rate 35 [nm/min]=2.857 [min]=171 seconds, and thus the treatment time of the 100% over-etching condition should be 171 seconds×2=342 seconds). The substrate after the etching was washed with water, blown with nitrogen gas to be dried, and observed with a scanning electron microscope (“S5000H model (model number)”; Hitachi) to judge the evaluation results according to the criteria below. For each item, G was considered to be acceptable. Taper Angle G: Taper angle was 10-80° P: Taper angle was 0 to less than 10°, or over 80° Linearity G: Linearity error was 0.2 μm or less P: Linearity error was over 0.2 μm Residue Removal Performance G: Residue was absent P: Residue was present 5. Determination of Etch Rate of Wiring Material (Corrosive Nature) A copper (Cu)/titanium (Ti) laminated film, an aluminum (Al) monolayer film, a molybdenum (Mo) monolayer film and a Ti monolayer film formed on a glass substrate by sputtering technique was used to measure the etch rates of Cu, Al, Mo and Ti with the etching liquids shown in Tables 1 and 2. The etching treatment was carried out by immersing the above-described metal films/glass substrate in the etching liquids kept at 35° C. The film thicknesses of the metal films before and after the etching treatment were measured using an X-ray fluorescence spectrometer SEA1200VX (Seiko Instruments Inc.), and the difference between the film thicknesses was divided by the etching time to calculate the etch rate. Evaluation results were expressed according to the criteria below. E: Etch rate was less than 1 nm/min G: Etch rate was 1 nm/min to less than 2 nm/min P: Etch rate was 2 nm/min or more In this regard, E and G were considered to be acceptable. Example 1 As component A, 14.3 g of 70% nitric acid (Wako Pure Chemical Industries) and 84.0 g of pure water were placed into a 100 ml polypropylene container. As component B, 1.7 g of oxalic acid (Wako Pure Chemical Industries) was further added. The resultant was agitated to thoroughly mix the components, thereby preparing an etching liquid (total weight of 100.0 g). The amount of nitric acid in the resulting etching liquid was 10% by mass while the amount of oxalic acid was 1.7% by mass. Additionally, pH value was −0.1. This etching liquid was used to perform the above-described evaluations of Items 1-5. The results are summarized in Table 1. The etch rate was 66 nm/min. When 2200 mass ppm (1000 mass ppm in terms of zinc concentration) of ZTO was added, the liquid remained transparent with no insoluble matter. The pH value was −0.1 and the etch rate was 61 nm/min after the addition of ZTO (1000 mass ppm in terms of zinc concentration). The amount of change was small (5 nm/min) and was judged E. The E.R. of the wiring material (Cu) was judged G, and Mo, Al and Ti were judged E. Example 2 An etching liquid was prepared in the same manner as Example 1 except that 10% by mass of sulfuric acid was used instead of the nitric acid in Example 1. This etching liquid was used to conduct the above-described evaluations. The results are shown in Table 1. In addition, the results of the patterned shapes observed with SEM are shown in FIGS. 1 and 2 . With reference to the cross-sectional view ( FIG. 1 ), the taper angle was 25° and judged G, and with reference to the top view (the view of the pattern observed from above ( FIG. 2 )), the linearity and the residue removal performance were also judged G. The cross-sectional view shown in the figure was obtained by cutting a substrate that had been patterned with a resist and observing the cross-section thereof. The top view was obtained by observing the wiring section (right) and the substrate (left) from above after peeling off the resist. Examples 3-6 Etching liquids were prepared in the same manner as Example 1 except that 15% by mass of methanesulfonic acid (Example 3), 10% by mass of hydrochloric acid (Example 4), 7% by mass of sulfuric acid and 5% by mass of nitric acid (Example 5), or 10% by mass of sulfuric acid and 15% by mass of perchloric acid (Example 6) were used instead of the nitric acid in Example 1. These etching liquids were used to conduct the above-described evaluations. The results are shown in Table 1. Example 7 An etching liquid was prepared in the same manner as Example 1 except that the concentrations of components A and B in Example 1 were doubled. This etching liquid was used to conduct the above-described evaluations. The results are shown in Table 1. Example 8 An etching liquid was prepared in the same manner as Example 1 except that the nitric acid concentration was 10% by mass, the oxalic acid concentration was 1.7% by mass, and glycine as component C was 5% by mass. This etching liquid was used to conduct the above-described evaluations. The results are shown in Table 1. Example 9 An etching liquid was prepared in the same manner as Example 1 except that the sulfuric acid concentration was 10% by mass, the oxalic acid concentration was 1.7% by mass, and the citric acid concentration as component C was 5% by mass. This etching liquid was used to conduct the above-described evaluations. The results are shown in Table 1. Example 10 An etching liquid was prepared in the same manner as Example 1 except that the sulfuric acid concentration was 10% by mass, the oxalic acid concentration was 1.7% by mass and Lavelin FP (Dai-ichi Kogyo Seiyaku) was 0.1% by mass. This etching liquid was used to conduct the above-described evaluations. The results are shown in Table 1. Comparative Examples 1 and 2 Etching liquids were prepared in the same manner as Example 1 except that the etching liquid had an oxalic acid concentration of 3.4% by mass (Comparative Example 1) or 1.7% by mass (Comparative Example 2). These etching liquids were used to conduct the above-described evaluations. The results are shown in Table 2. Comparative Examples 3, 4 and 5 Etching liquids were prepared in the same manner as Example 1 except that the etching liquid had 10% by mass of hydrochloric acid (Comparative Example 3), 20% by mass of nitric acid (Comparative Example 4), or 10% by mass of maleic acid (Comparative Example 5). These etching liquids were used to conduct the above-described evaluations. The results are shown in Table 2. Moreover, the patterned shapes after the etching operation of Comparative Example 3 observed with SEM are shown in FIGS. 3 and 4 . When 10% by mass of hydrochloric acid was used for patterning, the taper angle was 5° with reference to the cross-sectional view and thus judged P while the linearity was poor and the residue removal performance was insufficient with reference to the top view and thus judged P. In view of Examples 1-10 above, the etching liquids of the present invention were found to be capable of etching an oxide containing zinc and tin at a preferable etch rate, and capable of performing an etching treatment with small change in the etch rate upon dissolving the oxide and with no generation of a precipitate. Moreover, corrosive nature on the wiring materials were small and the pattern shapes were excellent, revealing that they were etching liquids having performances excellent for industrial production. On the other hand, in Comparative Examples 1-2 and 5, the abilities of the etching liquids to dissolve the zinc tin oxide (ZTO) were low (they could only dissolve the oxide for less than 10 mass ppm in terms of zinc concentration), and the amounts of change in the etch rates were unable to evaluate. Although the etch rates were relatively good in Comparative Examples 3 and 4, the etch rates of the wiring materials Cu, Mo and Al were large and corrosive nature was seen. In addition, the pattern shapes were also poor. TABLE 1 Amount of (B) (E) ZTO Early change Treated Oxalic Other (in terms of zinc Etch rate etch in etch Example target (A) acid components concentration) pH [nm/min] rate rate 1 ZTO Nitric acid 10% 1.7% —   0 ppm −0.1 66 E E film  100 ppm −0.1 63 1000 ppm −0.1 61 2 ZTO Sulfuric acid 10% 1.7% —   0 ppm 0.0 35 E E film 1000 ppm 0.1 35 2000 ppm 0.1 35 3 ZTO Methanesulfonic 1.7% —   0 ppm 0.4 60 E E film acid 15% 1000 ppm −0.0 60 2000 ppm −0.0 60 4 ZTO Hydrochloric 1.7% —   0 ppm −0.5 24 G E film acid 10% 1000 ppm −0.4 24 5 ZTO Sulfuric acid 7% 1.7% —   0 ppm −0.0 43 E E film Nitric acid 5% 1000 ppm −0.0 43 6 ZTO Sulfuric acid 10% 1.7% —   0 ppm −0.5 25 G E film Perchloric acid 15% 1000 ppm −0.5 25 7 ZTO Sulfuric acid 20% 3.4% —   0 ppm −0.3 35 E E film 1000 ppm −0.2 28 8 ZTO Nitric acid 10% 1.7% Glycine 5%   0 ppm 0.1 59 E E film 1000 ppm −0.0 58 9 ZTO Sulfuric acid 10% 1.7% Citric acid 5%   0 ppm 0.0 38 E E film 1000 ppm 0.0 36 10 ZTO Sulfuric acid 10% 1.7% Lavelin 0.1%   0 ppm 0.2 48 E E film 1000 ppm 0.2 47 Corrosive nature Residue on wiring materials Taper removal Example Solubility Cu Mo Al Ti angle Linearity performance 1 E G E E E — — — 2 E E E E E G G G 3 E G E E E — — — 4 E E E E E G G G 5 E E E E E G G G 6 E E E E E — — — 7 E E E E E G G G 8 E E G G E — — — 9 E G E E E — — — 10 E E E G E — — — —: represents “not added” or “not carried out” ZTO film: Oxide thin film made of zinc, tin and oxygen E: Excellent, G: Good, F: Fair, P: Poor TABLE 2 Amount of Compar- (B) (E) ZTO Early change ative Treated Oxalic Other (in terms of zinc Etch rate etch in etch Example target (A) acid components concentration) pH [nm/min] rate rate 1 ZTO — 3.4% —   0 ppm 1.0 117 E — film  100 ppm Insol- — uble 2 ZTO — 1.7% —   0 ppm 1.1 76 E — film 1000 ppm Insol- — uble 3 ZTO Hydrochloric — —   0 ppm −0.3 18 F G film acid 10% 1000 ppm −0.4 18 4 ZTO Nitric acid 20% — —   0 ppm −0.4 15 F G film 1000 ppm −0.3 16 5 ZTO — — Maleic acid   0 ppm −0.8 4 P — film 10% 1000 ppm Insol- — uble Corrosive nature Residue on wiring materials Taper removal Example Solubility Cu Mo Al Ti angle Linearity performance 1 P — — — — — — — 2 P E E E E G G G 3 E F E P E P P P 4 E P P P E P P — 5 P E E E E — — — —: represents “not added” or “not carried out” ZTO film: Oxide thin film made of zinc, tin and oxygen E: Excellent, G: Good, F: Fair, P: Poor INDUSTRIAL APPLICABILITY An etching liquid of the present invention is capable of etching an oxide containing zinc and tin at a preferable etch rate, with small change in the etch rate upon dissolving the oxide, with no generation of a precipitate, and with small corrosive nature on the wiring material. Since the etching liquid of the present invention is expected to have a prolonged chemical solution life, it also has great benefits of reducing the cost for using the chemical solution, and largely reducing the environmental burden. REFERENCE SIGNS LIST 1 Resist 2 Semiconductor layer 3 Underlying layer 4 Taper angle 5 Underlying layer 6 Tapered portion of semiconductor layer formed by etching treatment 7 Semiconductor layer 8 Border line at the edge of semiconductor layer patterned by etching treatment 9 Linearity error of semiconductor layer

The present invention provides an etching liquid which has a suitable etching rate for etching of an oxide containing zinc and tin and is suppressed in change of the etching rate due to dissolution of the oxide, while being free from the generation of a precipitate. The corrosiveness of this etching liquid to wiring materials is low enough to be ignored, and this etching liquid has excellent linearity of a pattern shape. The present invention uses an etching liquid which contains (A) one or more substances selected from the group consisting of sulfuric acid, nitric acid, hydrochloric acid, methanesulfonic acid, perchloric acid and salts of these acids, and (B) oxalic acid or a salt thereof and water, and which has a pH of from −1 to 1.

BACKGROUND AND SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION This application claims the priority of European patent document EP 09 005 512.0, filed Apr. 20, 2009, the disclosure of which is expressly incorporated by reference herein. The present invention is directed to a method of amending navigation data of a global navigation system that comprises a plurality of space vehicles which transmit information to a device for position detection, with each space vehicle having at least one clock. In particular, the method according to the invention reduces the impact of jumps in the space vehicle clock frequency on the position detection device. Space vehicle based navigation systems, such as satellite navigation systems, generally rely on very stable satellite clock performance to allow accurate satellite clock behavior prediction, which is required to model accurately the satellite clocks at the user level. The user predicts the clock behavior via related transmitted clock parameters, which are estimated on ground, based on measurements over long intervals (e.g., one to two days). International Patent Document WO 2006/032422 A1 discloses a method and apparatus for providing integrity information for users of a global navigation system. The disclosure of this document is fully incorporated by reference herein. Unpredictable events, which cannot be modeled, and thus cannot be compensated or predicted at user level, directly degrade achievable ranging accuracy, since such events would cause additional range errors to occur. Early test results, including factory tests of the European Galileo satellites, showed that Rubidium clocks, which are used in the Galileo test satellites (GIOVE-A and GIOVE-B) and which will be used during the In Orbit Validation (IOV) and in the Full Operational Constellation (FOC) of Galileo, are subject to unpredictable frequency jumps, typically one to two events per month. Such jumps affect the ranging accuracy by approximately 1 m to 10 m, and thus have a major impact on all Galileo services. For typical positioning services like the Open Service (OS) this effect is less critical, since not all users are always affected and jumps also only occur from time to time. Therefore the effect can be compensated or at least mitigated by averaging over Galileo's system lifetime (i.e., 20 years); however, it will degrade the Open Service performance. For integrity users like Safety-of-Life (SOL) and Public Regulated Service (PRS) users, such averaged compensation is not possible, since a certain accuracy of the individual ranging signal must be ensured with very high confidence. Thus, all integrity information for each satellite and for all of the time, would need to be a-priori degraded in order to take into account the non-predictable events, which would of course jeopardize the related major Galileo services in terms of their availability. If the unpredictable events like satellite clock frequency jumps were detected on ground, and if warnings could be broadcast to all users accordingly, the integrity services availability degradation could be significantly compensated or reduced, respectively. Unfortunately, however, since such events typically affect the ranging signals below the ground integrity detection barrier thresholds (around 5 m vs. typical range errors around 2 m), most satellite clock frequency jumps cannot be detected on the ground, and therefore the integrity information would need to be a-priori increased accordingly, with significant integrity service availability degradation. Therefore, it is an object of the present invention to provide a method of amending navigation data in a global navigation system that includes a plurality of space vehicles that transmit information to a device for position detection, each space vehicle comprising at least one clock, wherein the impact of space vehicle clock frequency jumps on the device for position detection is reduced significantly. This and other objects are achieved by the method according to the invention, in which the impact of space vehicle clock frequency jumps on the device for position detection is reduced by the steps of: 1a) receiving navigation signals from space vehicles of a first group of space vehicles that have clocks in which no frequency jumps occur; 1b) checking 1b1) whether navigation signals received from a sufficient number of space vehicles of said first group of space vehicles are available for calculating a navigation solution; and 1b2) whether the integrity risk calculated with the navigation signals received from the space vehicles of said first group of space vehicles is less than or equal to a predetermined acceptable maximum integrity risk; 1c) continuing with calculating a navigation solution or with a critical operation if the conditions of steps 1b1) and 1b2) are fulfilled, or otherwise, continuing with step 1d); 1 d) receiving navigation signals from space vehicles of a second group of space vehicles having clocks in which frequency jumps can occur; 1e) adding said navigation signals received from a space vehicle of said second group of space vehicles to said navigation signals received from the space vehicles of said first group of space vehicles, with integrity and in a safe manner; 1f) checking whether the integrity risk calculated for all combinations of the navigation signals received from the space vehicles of said first group, together with the sub-set of said second group of space vehicles with data integrity, is less than or equal to a predetermined acceptable maximum integrity risk; 1g) continuing with calculating the navigation solution or a critical operation if the condition of step 1f) is fulfilled; or otherwise, adding navigation signals received from another space vehicle of said second group to the navigation signals used in step 1f), with integrity and in a safe manner, and continuing again with step 1f). Consequently, the respective integrity risks calculated for all combinations of the navigation signals received from the space vehicles of said first and second groups of space vehicles must be lower than the predetermined allocated integrity risk, because it is unknown whether one of the signals received from said second group of space vehicles (and if so, which one) was just affected by a frequency jump or will be affected by it in the near future. Only such a procedure considering all combinations will deliver a result that has integrity (i.e., it is reliable). The core idea of the first inventive solution is thus to consider primarily signals from satellite clock sources that do not jump. The effect of satellite clock frequency jumps and other similar events (if they cannot be avoided at satellite level, or detected at ground segment level with removal at user level through transmitted alerts) is thus reduced by avoiding the use of affected satellites at user level. This can be realized through suitable user systemic modifications. The invention thus limits the impact on the projects Galileo In Orbit Validation (IOV) and the Full Operational Constellation (FOC) to a minimum, since neither space segment design changes nor ground segment modifications are required (which typically significantly impact cost and schedule). Only additional analyses and concept modifications at system level are required, together with the relevant test user updates, which do not affect the related mentioned projects significantly. The basic idea of the invention is thus to overcome, at user algorithm level, the problem that small errors (on the order of a few meters) which are caused by satellite clock frequency jumps for example, can neither be avoided at satellite level, nor be detected by the Galileo ground integrity monitoring concept. This is done by related user integrity process modifications that endeavor to avoid to a maximum extent the usage of potentially affected signals, or to consider only such signals as would have acceptable impact at user level from integrity service availability point of view. Such modified user algorithms do not require significant system, space or ground segment design changes, since only the final user algorithm implementation is affected. Furthermore, minor data dissemination adjustments (i.e., updates of the signal-in-space interface control document [SIS-ICD]) could also be considered to further improve the process modification compensation. Thus, the invention requires almost no modifications for the IOV/CDE1 and FOC projects in order to compensate for the most critical frequency jump behavior. Preferably, the navigation signals received from a space vehicle of said second group are added to the navigation signals, with integrity and in a safe manner, by putting them to the ground segment detection threshold in step 1e). The ground detection threshold represents the smallest error, (i.e., jump) for said second group of space vehicles, that the ground integrity monitoring function is able to detect (and to send a warning to the user immediately). “Putting the navigation signal to the threshold” means to consider the signal and the related integrity information as having been fully affected by a jump or other error source up to the detection threshold; this technique ensures the signal is considered in a manner which preserves its integrity, since it is assumed that a jump occurred with a maximum possible error that is just smaller than can be detected by the ground segment. Alternatively, the navigation signals received from a space vehicle of the second group can be added to the navigation signals, in a safe manner which preserves the signal integrity, by inflating the integrity information of the signal in space accuracy (SISA) in step 1e) to ensure overbounding, with integrity, of the real signal in space error of said signal by the used inflated SISA information. Inflating the integrity information of the signal means that SISA is inflated in such a way that such integrity information still properly (i.e., with integrity) overbounds the real error, even if the signal has just jumped. The inflation must be done in such a way that even the worst possible jump magnitude (i.e., maximum error) is covered. The latter alternative approach could be considered if the SISA inflation provides better integrity service availability compared to the above described conservative detection threshold approach, and vice-versa. In a further embodiment of the method according to the invention, the SISA is inflated as a function of navigation data age in order to reduce the required integrity information inflation of said signal. That is, the effect of the jump and the related imposed error increases with the age of the latest received satellite clock parameters that are used to model the satellite clock behavior. Right after a jump the “old” parameter still fit the new clock behavior (after the jump); only after some time does the real clock drift away from the estimated (modeled) clock behavior, and the imposed error increases accordingly. If only signals with “young” navigation data (which carry also the clock parameters) are considered, the SISA does not need to be inflated to cover the worst possible maximum error, but only to cover the maximum error that could occur according to the navigation data age. Further preferably, the space vehicles of said first group of space vehicles are provided with clocks working according to the principle of passive hydrogen maser (PHM). These PHM clocks are known as not having frequency jumps. According to a second aspect of the invention, the impact of space vehicle clock frequency jumps on the position detection device is reduced by the steps of: a) receiving navigation signals from all available space vehicles; b) determining the integrity risk of the navigation signals received from the space vehicles in step a); c) sorting the received navigation signals for the smallest individual integrity risk in a sorting list; d) determining a first combination of navigation signals from a predetermined number of space vehicles with the smallest individual integrity risks; e) checking whether the overall integrity risk calculated with the navigation signals received from the space vehicles of the first combination of space vehicles is equal to or lower than a predetermined acceptable maximum risk; f) for a sufficient number of available signals, or for the first iteration cycle, considering with integrity the navigation signals from the combination of space vehicles, and calculating the navigation solution or the critical operation, respectively if the condition of step e) for all possible safe combinations is fulfilled; or otherwise, adding to the subset used in step e), in a manner that is safe and preserves signal integrity, navigation signals received from the next space vehicle of the sorting list, and continuing again with step f). The core idea of this second aspect of the invention is to consider only combinations of measurements that would allow for service usage, even in safe consideration of jumping signals. Preferably, the navigation signals received from each of the space vehicles of the combination are added to the navigation signals, with integrity and in a safe manner, by putting them to the ground segment detection threshold in step f). Alternatively the navigation signals received from each of the space vehicles of the combination may be added to the navigation signals, with integrity and in a safe manner, by inflating the integrity information of the signal in space accuracy (SISA) in step f) to ensure the integrity of overbounding of the real signal in space error of said signal by the used inflated SISA information. Further preferably, the SISA is inflated as a function of navigation data age in order to reduce the required integrity information inflation of said signal. Other objects, advantages and novel features of the present invention will become apparent from the following detailed description of the invention when considered in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a schematic block diagram of global navigation system for implementing the method according to the invention; FIG. 2 shows a range impact of satellite clock frequency jumps; FIG. 3 shows a possible integrity information degradation; FIG. 4 shows a high level user algorithm modification flow chart with known satellite clock type (e.g., via SIS-ICD); and FIG. 5 shows a high level user algorithm modification flow chart without known satellite clock type. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS In the following description, the invention is explained as applied to Galileo, which will be an independent global European controlled satellite-based navigation system. As shown in FIG. 1 , the Galileo Global Component will comprise space segment SS having a constellation of satellites 100 A, 100 B monitored and controlled by a Ground Segment GS that will also provide the capability to detect satellite or system malfunctions and broadcast real-time warnings (so called integrity messages) to users. The Galileo Global Component will provide a number of satellite-only navigation services: Open Services (OS) providing navigation & timing; Safety-of-Life Services (SoL) providing integrity messages, incorporated into the navigation data messages of Open Service signals; Commercial Services (CS) providing dissemination of commercial ranging and data signals by Galileo satellites; Public Regulated Services (PRS) providing navigation & timing by means of independent, restricted-access navigation signals. Other components of the Galileo System will provide Local Services to improve performances (e.g., integrity) on a local basis. The Galileo system will also provide support to Search-and-Rescue (SAR) services. In addition, Galileo will support External Regional Integrity Services (ERIS) by disseminating, over selected Galileo satellites, integrity data generated by independent, external regional integrity service providers. The Galileo Space Segment will comprise a constellation of 27 operational satellites 100 A, 100 B (only two satellites being shown in FIG. 1 , for simplicity) plus three in-orbit (inactive) spare satellites in medium-Earth orbit (MEO). Each operational satellite will broadcast a set of navigation signals (Nav) carrying clock synchronization, ephemeris, integrity and other data, depending on the particular signal. As noted previously, the space segment SS includes a first group of satellites 100 A having rubidium clocks 101 (R) and a second group having PHM clocks 101 (PHM). A user 200 equipped with a suitable receiver 201 with good visibility of the sky will be able to receive around 11 Galileo satellites to determine his position to within a few meters, using a position determination unit 202 . The Galileo Ground Segment GS will control the complete Galileo constellation (27 satellites), monitor satellite health, and upload data for subsequent broadcast to users 200 via the mission uplink stations 300 (ULS). The key elements of these data such as clock synchronization, ephemeris and integrity messages will be calculated from measurements made by a worldwide network of Galileo Sensor Stations (GSS) 400 . Only two such GSS are shown in FIG. 1 , for simplicity. Satellite navigation systems strongly depend on the predictability of the used onboard satellite clocks 101 (R), 101 (PHM) and their performance, since such predictability directly drives the related service performance, e.g., in terms of positioning accuracy and thus service availability. If such performance is degraded by unpredictable events, such as onboard satellite clock frequency jumps, the finally achievable service performance at user level is degraded. From various navigation satellite experimentation results (e.g., GIOVE satellites, but also GPS experimentation) it is confirmed that clock frequency jumps will occur for rubidium clocks 101 (R), which are part of the Galileo IOV as well as FOC satellite design (and GPS as well). Such confirmed effect, which has not been heretofore taken into account in the Galileo design, jeopardizes positioning accuracy, as well as integrity services, and thus the complete Galileo design. This effect is most severe for the Galileo integrity services since only big jumps above the typical ground integrity detection thresholds could be detected: the typical smaller jumps cannot be detected, and would therefore significantly degrade the integrity services. This degradation is caused by the signals-in-space accuracy (SISA) that is provided to the user as major integrity information and overbounds the real signal-in-space error. If additional errors as caused by the frequency jumps need to be considered, the SISA must be increased accordingly, to such high values that no feasible integrity service performances could be achieved. The present invention proposes methods to recover from such effect at user algorithm level, and thereby to limit the impact of satellite clock frequency jumps on the Galileo services. The following sections therefore describe the known satellite clock frequency jump characteristics from GIOVE as well as GPS rubidium clocks; the possible impact in the range domain and required SISA information a-priori degradation; how to update the user integrity algorithm if the signal clock source type is known at user level; and how to update the user integrity algorithm if the signal clock source type is not known to the user. GIOVE and GPS Satellite Clock Frequency Jumps Galileo Phase CDE1 and IOV experimentation results, and IOV and FOC clock analysis already confirmed that clock frequency jumps will occur for rubidium clocks. Such behavior has been measured and observed from GIOVE Rubidium clocks, as well as GPS satellites that currently operate with Rb signals. It has also been observed, however, that PHM (maser type satellite clock) clock performances do not jump significantly at all. It can be seen that such Rubidium clock jump characteristic needs to be considered as normal behavior, rather than a rare feared event. Such effect is also commonly known for longer tests navigation satellites, like the GPS satellites. The signals of the PHM (master) performance do not show any jumps, and should therefore be preferred at user level. Possible Range Impact and Integrity Information Degradation Since the user cannot model a-priori such behavior (that is, clock frequency jumps) with the already provided clock parameters, an additional error will occur in the range domain to the affected satellite, depending on the jump magnitude as well as the time between jump occurrence and receipt of a new navigation data for that satellite (currently specified to not more than 100 minutes). FIG. 2 shows the maximum prediction error in the range domain depending on the jump magnitude, and navigation message update rate and age of the message, respectively. Typical jumps in the order of around 1e-12 s/s (=e −12 ) would therefore degrade the ranging accuracy for the affected satellite by around 2 meters in case of 100 minutes baseline navigation message update rate. For smaller update rates the imposed range error decreases significantly. Thus, the age of the navigation message should also be considered at user level. If, for a particular user, only one to two visible satellites are affected by a clock jump and related range error increase, the positioning accuracy for that user is slightly degraded, but globally for all users the impact on the related Galileo Open Service performance is rather limited. For the transmitted major SISA integrity information the validity of such information needs to be ensured with high confidence to any user for each satellite, and if the user is considering such information and the related signal, the information would need to be increased to properly consider the additional range error. The following equation can be used to inflate the SISA in case of biases b and standard deviation a of the underlying Gaussian distribution. Other and less conservative concepts are also possible. SISA i = σ · ⅇ b 2 2 · σ 2 To conservatively upper bound the inflation of SISA to ensure overbounding of the signal-in-space accuracy, the received SISA for the relevant satellite can be used as standard deviation σ, and the applicable onboard clock frequency jump barrier threshold as bias b (either received for the specific satellite via the navigation message, or hard defined also within the receiver). FIG. 3 illustrates SISA inflation for 85 cm standard deviation (received SISA) for different biases up to typical 2 meters. In case of typical 1.0 m bias or onboard jump barrier threshold, which represents a typical frequency jump of 5e-13 s/s (=5 ·e −13 ) for 100 minutes navigation data validity time, the inflated SISA would correspond to a value of around 1.7 meters, two times higher than the 85 cm SISA upper bound specification that is required to globally achieve integrity service performance. The maximum prediction errors would need to be smaller than around 50 cm to 100 cm to avoid excessive degradation of the SISA performance, which might jeopardize the Galileo integrity services performance. However, since only RAFS (rubidium atomic frequency standard) signals are affected, the final impact on the integrity service performance is limited, especially if PHM is considered as master clock. User Algorithm Modification with Known Satellite Clock Type The following process endeavors to avoid, to a maximum extent, the usage of Rubidium signals, and focuses on the much better PHM signal performances that are not affected by significant jumps. Such clock type information could for example be provided to the user via SIS-ICD, where enough spare bits are available to transmit the information. The signal selection could also be done with SISA threshold, depending on the final Galileo PHM performance compared to RAFS. With typically around 20 cm (>25%) improved performance for PHM frequency standard, the additional SIS-ICD information might not be necessarily required and the user just picks from available signals with SISA below such threshold (e.g., 65 cm). Furthermore the Rubidium-clock frequency jumps will also further increase the underlying historical SISA value for the RAFS statistics, which further increases the difference between PHM and RAFS SISA and reduces the test and threshold ambiguity. The flow chart in FIG. 4 illustrates the general algorithm function with known signal frequency standard source: It first tries to initiate/continue the critical operation based on PHM signals only, either selected via SIS-ICD information of PHM vs. RAFS barriers/thresholds. Only if the integrity service is not available with PHM signals only, RAFS messages will be added and put to the ground segment detection threshold or with inflated integrity information (SISA) according to navigation message age. If more than one RAFS signal is added, then only a certain number of RAFS signals (called a “sub-set”) need to be degraded (i.e., put to threshold or with inflated SISA), since the probability to have more than one (or two, three, . . . ) RAFS signal simultaneously affected by a jump is negligible, or is already covered in the system integrity allocations. The different options regarding which RAFS signals are considered (i.e., added) are called “combinations”. If for one combination (i.e., set of additional RAFS signal(s)), all subsets (i.e., possible threshold or inflation combinations) allow for start or continuation of the critical operation, then the service is declared available. Only if the service is not yet available with the first added RAFS signal(s), is it tried to improve the situation with further RAFS signals. User Algorithm Modification without Known Satellite Clock Type If no such PHM information is available, neither via SIS-ICD, nor received SISA characteristics (e.g., because there is no clearly visible performance difference between PHM and RAFS), the subsequently described similar process, shown in FIG. 5 , can be applied. For this approach the process attempts to start with a certain set of optimum signals (A), that need to be put to the threshold, or inflated, according to the already described process (B), and starts to add signals with higher risk contributions if the service is not yet available (D). If for one combination all subsets allow starting or continuing a critical operation (C), no additional signals are required. Also different approaches (which follow in principle the same flows) are possible, such as, in case of “All SIS in”, to start not with the smallest subset number, but with all SIS and to remove SIS with highest risk contribution, once the first loop was not successful. The object, however, is always the same, i.e.: to find a set of measurements the performance of which is resistant to a number of simultaneous failures or frequency jumps. For both approaches it is ensured that only a set of measurements is considered for the critical operation, which is resistant from integrity point of view against K simultaneous faulty (e.g., jumping) SIS. Thus, this approach is not limited to satellite frequency jumps, but can also be applied in case of other similar events or general degraded or less performing signals. The invention provides a method which minimizes the effect of satellite clock frequency jumps and other similar causes on Galileo's integrity services, by modifying only the user algorithm. Additional information could further be provided via updated messages (i.e., SIS-ICD update) to improve the concepts, but is not necessarily required. With the invention, better performing signals as seen by the specific user are primarily considered, and less performing measurements are added only if such starting constellation is not sufficient. The signals are considered in a manner which preserves signal integrity by i) putting them to the ground detection threshold, or ii) by properly inflating the integrity information according to the navigation age. Therefore the invention ensures a valid, but now also feasible Galileo integrity service from availability point of view, without significant changes at Space or Ground Segment level. Only minor changes at System and TUS level are required. The foregoing disclosure has been set forth merely to illustrate the invention and is not intended to be limiting. Since modifications of the disclosed embodiments incorporating the spirit and substance of the invention may occur to persons skilled in the art, the invention should be construed to include everything within the scope of the appended claims and equivalents thereof.

In a method for reducing the adverse effect of clock frequency jumps on a user-position determination device in a global navigation system, a plurality of space vehicles each having a clock, transmit position determination information to the position determining device. If a sufficient number of such navigation signals from a first group of space vehicles having clocks in which no jump occurs are available for this purpose, and if a calculated integrity risk is acceptable, position determination is performed using those navigation signals. If not, however, the position determination device receives navigation signals from space vehicles of a second group with clocks in which jumps can occur. The latter signals are combined with signals from the first group in a manner which takes into account possible jumps, and the process is repeated.

RELATED APPLICATION [0001] This application claims the priority of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/323,704, filed on Sep. 21, 2001, which is herein incorporated by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0002] The present invention relates to mutant-type lipases which demonstrate superior lipolytic and esterific activities. The mutant-type lipases are characterized by an amino acid alteration at the residue immediately followed either the serine residue or the histidine residue or both residues of the Ser-His-Asp catalytic triad. The amino acid residue that follows the serine residue of the Ser-His-Asp catalytic triad is alanine. The amino acid residue that follows the histidine residue of the Ser-His-Asp catalytic triad is isoleucine. The wild-type lipase is preferably from Staphylococcus, particularly Staphylococcus epidermidis . The present invention also relates to a method for preparing the mutant-type lipases by site-directed mutagenesis using PCR and a method for utilizing the mutant-type lipase to catalyze synthesis of flavor esters to be used in food industry. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0003] Lipases (triacyl glycerol hydrolase, EC 3.1.1.3) are widely distributed in nature. The principal biological function of lipase is the breakdown of lipids as an initial event in the utilization of fat as an energy source. The characteristic properties such as substrate specificity, regioselectivity and enantioselectivity among various lipases allow wide applications such as in the production of emulsifiers, fatty acid esters, fatty acids, and carbohydrate derivatives. (Liu & Shaw, J. Am. Oil. Chem. Soc. (1995), 72:1271-1274; Shaw & Wang, Enzyme Microb. Technol . (1991), 13:544-546; Wang et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng . (1992), 39:1128-1132 (1992)). A Ser-His-Asp catalytic triad occurs in lipases, which are responsible for hydrolyzing triglycerides into diglycerides and subsequently, monoglycerides and free fatty acids (Wallace et al., Protein Science (1996), 5:1001-1013). [0004] The production of lipases is a general property of staphylococci, and lipase genes have been identified in Staphylococcus aureus strains PS54 and NCT8530 , Staphylococcus epidermidis strain 9 and Staphylococcus hyicus . (Simons et al., Eur. J. Biochem . (1998), 253:675-683). The family of lipases from staphylococci demonstrates common structural features. For example, these enzymes are produced as preproenzymes, which have molecular masses of approximately 70 kDa. After secretion into the growth medium, proteolytic processing results in mature forms with molecular masses of 40-46 kDa. (Nikoleit et al., Eur. J. Biochem . (1995), 228:732-738). [0005] [0005] Staphylococcus epidermidis strain 9 lipase gene (gehC) consists of a single open reading frame of 2064 nucleotides, which encoded a protein of 688 amino acids with a predicted molecular mass of 77 kDa. The gehC gene has been cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli by Simons et al (Eur. J. Biochem. 1998: 253(3): 675-683). In the extracts of E. coli harboring gehC, a lipase corresponding to the 77-kDa lipase but with an electrophoretic mobility equivalent to a 97-kDa protein has been detected. In the supernatant fluid of S. epidermidis strain 9 culture, a 43-kDa lipase of 386 amino acids has also been identified. It was suggested that the S. epidermidis lipase of 97 kDa electrophoretic mobility was secreted as a proprotein and subsequently cleaved between the Ala-302 and Lys-303 mino acid residues by a proteolytic enzyme to yield the 43-kDa lipase. However, no further structure-function studies on the Ser-His-Asp triad of the 43-kDa lipase have been carried out. [0006] The lipase gene gehSE1 isolated from S. epidermidis strain RP62A was organized as a preproenzyme. A part of gehSE1 gene encoded the mature lipase of 380 amino acids that had a sequence similar to that of S. epidermidis strain 9 lipase from Asn-7 to Lys-386 with 97.8% homology. The gehSE1 mature lipase has been overexpressed as a fusion protein with an N-terminal His-tag in E. coli and characterized by Farrell et al., J. Gen. Microbiol . (1993), 139:267-277. [0007] Lipases have become increasingly important in biotechnology. The characteristic properties such as substrate specificity, regioselectivity and enantioselectivity among various lipases allow their wide applications, such as in the productions of emulsifiers, fatty acid esters, fatty acids and carbohydrate derivatives. In addition, there has been a strong demand in recent years for natural products, including natural flavors. [0008] Esters are common flavor agents and are often employed in fruit-flavored products (e.g., beverages, candies, jellies, and jams), baked goods, wines, and dairy products (e.g., cultured butter, sour cream, yogurt, and cheese). Naturally occurring esters have been isolated from all major food systems and often are expensive. [0009] Conventional production of flavor esters using chemical-catalyzed esterification requires high temperature and leads to dark-colored products and undesired byproducts. Enzyme-catalyzed conversion (biocatalysis) provides an alternative to the chemical syntheses of flavor esters. It is more efficient and selective. Inexpensive natural raw materials, such as fatty acids and alcohols, can be used in the enzyme-catalyzed synthesis of flavor esters (Manjon et al., Biotechnol. Lett . (1991), 13:339-344). [0010] The use of lipolytic enzymes to catalyze the esterification reaction for producing flavor esters has been investigated by many workers. However, current methods using lipolytic enzymes were performed in hydrophobic organic solvents or in aqueous-organic two-phase systems. The uses of organic solvents carry the risks of flammability as well as toxicity to the production workers and the environment. Residual organic solvents may cause a safety concern for the consumers. Thus, the needs for a safe and more effective biocatalytic system remain unfulfilled. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0011] The present invention provides isolated and purified mutant-type lipases which contain a serine-histidine-aspartic acid catalytic triad. The lipases are further characterized by having an amino acid alteration in the residue immediately following either the serine residue, or the histidine residue, or both the serine and the histidine residues of the serine-histidine-aspartate (“Ser-His-Asp”) catalytic triad. In the mutant-type lipase, the amino acid residue that follows the serine residue of the Ser-His-Asp catalytic triad is alanine, the amino acid residue that follows the histidine residue is isoleucine. Preferably, the last amino acid residue of the lipase is replaced with a glutamic acid residue, and six histidine residues are further added to the C-terminus of this glutamic acid residue. [0012] The mutant-type lipase is preferably obtained from site-directed mutagenesis of a lipase isolated from Staphylococcus, most favorably Staphylococcus epidermidis . The mutant lipase from Stapylococcus epidermidis that has an alanine residue replacing the methionine residue which immediately follows the serine residue of the Ser-His-Asp catalytic triad has the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 15. The mutant lipase from Stapylococcus epidermidis that has an isoleucine residue replacing the valine residue which immediately follows the histidine residue of the Ser-His-Asp catalytic triad has the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 17. [0013] The mutant-type lipases of the present invention have both lipolytic and esterific activity to either hydrolyzes the fatty acid ester or esterify fatty acids with alcohols. The mutant-type lipases' esterification reaction does not require the use of organic solvents such as n-hexane. In fact, the mutant-type lipases from Staphylococcus epidermidis become inactive in n-hexane. [0014] The present invention also provides a method for producing the mutant-type lipase which comprises: (1) synthesizing a mutant gene encoding the mutant-type lipase by a site-directed mutagenesis using polymerase chain reaction (PCR); (2) ligating the mutant gene to a plasmid; and (3) transfecting the ligated plasmid into a host cell to overexpress the lipase. [0015] The site-directed mutagenesis method used in the present invention is according to Sharrocks and Shaw, Nucleic Acids Res . (1992), 20:1147, which is herein incorporated by reference. To make a mutant agene, a three-primer PCR method is employed, which requires the use of a single mutagenic primer in conjunction with two flanking, universal primers. For example, to make a mutant gene with an alanine residue following the serine residue in the Ser-His-Asp catalytic triad of the mutant-type lipase, an N-terminal oligonucleotide primer such as SEQ ID NO: 1, a C-terminal oligonucleotide primer such as SEQ ID NO: 2 and a mutagenic primer such as SEQ ID NO: 6 can be used. Alternatively, to make a mutant gene with an isoleucine residue following the histidine residue in the Ser-His-Asp catalytic triad of the mutant-type lipase, an N-terminal oligonucleotide primer such as SEQ ID NO: 1, a C-terminal oligonucleotide primer such as SEQ ID NO: 2 and a mutagenic primer such as SEQ ID NO: 11 can be used. [0016] The mutant gene is further digested with restriction endonucleases, such as NcoI and XhoI, followed by ligation to a plasmid, such as pET-20b(+). The mutant gene-ligated plasmid is then transfecting a host cell, preferably a prokaryotic cell, such as Escherichia coli. [0017] To create a restriction enzyme cleavage site necessary for cloning, the last codon at the 3′ end is changed to a glutamic acid codon. Also, to facilitate purification of the mutant-type lipase, 6 histidine residues are added to the 3′-end of the glutamic acid codon. The mutant-type lipase with 6 histidine residues at the C-terminus is purified by an NiSO 4 − charged His-bind resin column. [0018] Furthermore, the present invention provides a method for enhancing flavor in food which comprises enzymatically synthesizing a flavor ester from alcohol and fatty acid by the mutant-type lipase and adding the flavor ester to the food. For the mutant-type lipase which has an alanine immediately following the serine residue of the Ser-His-Asp catalytic triad, the preferred alcohol is a primary alcohol with carbon-chain length from 2 to 16. The most favorable flavor ester is decyl myristate or decyl oleate. For the mutant-type lipase which has an isoleucine residue immediately following the histidine residue of the Ser-His-Asp catalytic triad, the preferred alcohol is a primary alcohol with carbon-chain length from 2 to 12. The preferred flavor ester is decyl laurate. The flavor ester can be added to fruit-flavored products (such as beverages, candies, jellies, and jams), baked goods, wines, and dairy products (such as cultured butter, sour cream, yogurt, and cheese). BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS [0019] [0019]FIG. 1 shows the expression of the recombinant S. epidermidis lipase with 6 X His-tail in E. coli BL21 (DE3). Cells were harvested 4 hours after IPTG induction and sonicated. Proteins of the respective cellular extracts were separated by SDS/PAGE. Part A and Part B show the Coomassie Brilliant Blue stains and the esterase activity stains, respectively, of protein molecular weight markers (lane 1); proteins from BL21(DE3) containing pET-20b(+) (lane 2); proteins from BL21(DE3) containing pET-20b(+) with S. epidermidis lipase gene (lane 3); and lipase purified with His-Bind resin (lane 4). DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0020] The Ser-His-Asp catalytic triad can be found in serine proteases and lipases, which is one of the best known and most intensively studied of all functional mechanisms. In the Ser-His-Asp catalytic triad, the three residues, which occur far apart in the amino acid sequence of the enzyme, come together in a specific conformation in the active site to perform the hydrolytic cleavage of the appropriate bond in the substrate. This triad was first identified in the serine proteinases, which cleave peptides at the amide bond. Apart from the serine proteases, the Ser-His-Asp catalytic triad also occurs in the triacylglycerol lipases, which are responsible for hydrolyzing triglycerides into diglycerides and, subsequently, monoglycerides and free fatty acids. A comprehensive study of the Ser-His-Asp catalytic triad is disclosed by Wallace et al., Protein Science (1996), 5:1001-1013, which is herein incorporated by reference. [0021] The present invention focuses on modification(s) of the catalytic site of lipases, particularly surrounding the Ser-His-Asp catalytic triad. The modification(s) are directed to site mutation of the codon following the serine residue, the histidine residue, or both residues of the Ser-His-Asp catalytic triad, using site-directed mutagenesis. [0022] Site-directed mutagenesis is an important procedure in studies of gene expression and protein structure/function relationships. A variety of protocols have been developed to mutate specific bases in plasmid DNA, which employ oligonucleotide primers containing desired mutations flanked by bases complementary to target sequences. [0023] Sharrocks and Shaw, Nucleic Acid Res . (1992), 20:1147, discloses an improved primer design for PCR-based, site-directed mutagenesis. The method requires a single mutagenic primer, which is used in conjunction with two flanking, universal primers in a dual step of PCR amplication. The method further involves the design of the mutagenic primer such that its 5′ end immediately follows the wobble position of a codon. The wobble position is referred to as the third base of the codon, which is less stringent for codon recognition than the other two bases. This design tolerates the addition of any nucleotide (or none) at the 3′ end of the complementary strand without ensuing consequences and has the further advantage that wobble positions occur, with few exceptions, at every third nucleotide. [0024] Based on the method suggested by Sharrocks and Shaw, supra, a number of mutagenic primers can be designed in accordance with the specific lipase gene sequences, which then can be utilized for production of the mutant-type lipases. Specifically, the mutagenic primers can be used for preparing a mutated codon following either the serine residue or the histidine residue of the Ser-His-Asp catalytic triad. These mutagenic primers applied to mutations of any lipases containing a Ser-His-Asp catalytic triad, such as lipases isolated from gram positive or gram negative bacteria, or fungi. Examples of gram positive bacteria which contain lipases include, but are not limited to S. epidermidis, S. hyicus, S. aureus, B. thermocatenularus, S. xylosus , and S. warneri . Examples of gram negative bacteria which contain lipases include, but are not limited to, A. calcoaceticus , Arthrobacter sp., P. aeruginosa, P. cepacia, P. vulgaris , and S. marcescens . Examples of fungi include, but are not limited to, H. lanuginosa, Candida cylindracea , and R. oryzae. [0025] The following examples are illustrative, but not limiting the scope of the present invention. Reasonable variations, such as those occur to reasonable artisan, can be made herein without departing from the scope of the present invention. Also, in describing the invention, specific terminology is employed for the sake of clarity. However, the invention is not intended to be limited to the specific terminology so selected. It is to be understood that each specific element includes all technical equivalents which operate in a similar manner to accomplish a similar purpose. [0026] In the examples to be presented below, the enzymes used in the recombinant DNA experiments were purchased from either Promega Co. (Madison, Wis.) or B. M. Biochemicals (Mannheim, Germany). Oligonucleotide primers were made by Bio-Synthesis Co. (Taipei, Taiwan). Taq DNA polymerase and DNA sequencing kit were obtained from HT Biotechnology Ltd. (Cambridge, England) and U.S. Biochemicals (Cleveland, Ohio), respectively. Escherichia coli HB101 (Boyer and Roulland-Dussoix 1969) was provided by Promega Co. Escherichia coli BL21(DE3) and plasmid pET-20b(+) were obtained from Novagene Co. (Madison, Wis.). A geneclean kit was purchased from Bio101 Co. (Vista, Calif.) and a plasmid DNA purification kit was purchased from Promega Co. Isopropyl thio-β-D-galactoside (IPTG) was obtained from B. M. Biochemicals. Oleic acid butyl ester, oleic acid lauryl ester, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), fatty acids, and alcohols were purchased from Sigma Co. Silica gel 60, hexane, 2-propanol, and acetone were purchased from Merck Chemical Co. Protein molecular weight markers were obtained from Novel Experimental Technology Co. Other chemicals were reagent grades. Double-distilled water was used throughout the experiment. [0027] The bacteria were grown at 37° C. or 30° C. in L-broth (LB) or on LB/1.5% bacto-agar plates. Ampicillin (50 mg/ml final) was added when needed. EXAMPLE 1 Cloning of Lys-303 Gene From S. epidermidis Strain 9 [0028] A fragment of the gehC gene (designated “Lys-303” gene), which encoded an amino acid sequence corresponding to that of the S. epidermidis lipase following proteolytic cleavage between Ala-302 and Lys-303, was synthesized by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using a chromosomal DNA from a S. epidermidis isolated from a patient in Chang-Gung Hospital (Keelung, Taiwan) as template. The gehC gene is a Staphylococcus epidermidis strain 9 lipase gene. The gene consisted of a single open reading frame of 2064 nucleotides, which encoded a protein of 688 amino acids with a predicted molecular mass of 77 kDa. The Lys-303 gene (SEQ ID NO: 13) encoded an active lipase (SEQ ID NO: 14), which was about 43 kDa in molecular weight. The Lys-303-encoded lipase is also known as the “43 kDa” or “wild-type” lipase. Two primers: an N-terminal primer of SEQ ID NO: 1 (5′-GGGGCCATGGAACAAAAACAATATAAAAAT-3′) and a C-terminal primer of SEQ ID NO: 2 (5′-GGGGCTCGAGTTTATTTGTTGATGTTAATTG-3′) were used in this synthetic process. [0029] The product of the PCR was digested with NcoI and XhoI, ligated to a 3.7 kb NcoI/XhoI-digested pET-20b(+) DNA fragment. The ligated pET-20b(+) was then transformed into E. coli HB101 (Promega) and into E. coli BL21 (DE3) (Novagen). The DNA sequence of the Lys-303 gene was confirmed with plasmid isolated from BL21 (DE3) and was identical to S. epidermidis strain 9 lipase gene. All recombinant DNA experiments followed standard protocols or protocols recommended by manufacturers. The expressed lipase contained six additional histidine residues attached at the C-terminus. The 6 histidine residues were added to facilitate the enzyme purification using a NiSO 4 − charged His-bind resins (Novagene Colo.). EXAMPLE 2 Site-Directed Mutagenesis [0030] Mutant genes were synthesized from S. epidermidis chromosomal DNA by a two-step, three-primer PCR method in which the N-terminal and C-terminal oligonucleotides were identical to those used for the synthesis of the “Lys-303” gene (i.e., SEQ ID NO: 1 and SEQ ID NO: 2), as described in Example 1. The oligonucleotide primers for the mutation sites are listed in Table 1. The products of the PCR were digested with NcoI and XhoI, and were ligated to a NcoI/XhoI-predigested pET-20b(+) DNA fragment. The desired ligated products were cloned, first into E. coli HB101, then into E. coli BL21 (DE3). The DNA sequences surrounding mutant codons were determined (Sanger et al. 1977) from the plasmids isolated from E. coli BL21 (DE3). TABLE 1 Oligonucleotides Used for the PCR-Site-Directed Mutagenesis of the S. epidermidis “Lys-303” Recombinant Lipase Genea a Primers Sequence No. Oligonucleotides wild- SEQ ID NO:3 5′-GACCACCCATACTATGACCAAC-3′ type S418C SEQ ID NO:4 5′-ACCCATAC A ATGACCAAC-3′ M419L SEQ ID NO:5 5′-GACCACC GAG ACTATGACCAAC-3′ M419A SEQ ID NO:6 5′-GACCACC GGC ACTATGACCAAC-3′ M419Q SEQ ID NO:7 5′-GACCACC TTG ACTATGACCAAC-3′ wild- SEQ ID NO:8 5′-GGGATCATGTAGACTTTGTAGG-3′ type H648K SEQ ID NO:9 5′-TGGGAT A A A GTAGACTTT-3′ V649L SEQ ID NO:10 5′-GGGATCAT C T C GACTTTGTAGG-3′ V649I SEQ ID NO:11 5′-GGGATCAT A TCGACTTTGTAGG-3′ V649A SEQ ID NO:12 5′GGGATCATG CT GACTTTGTAGG-3′ EXAMPLE 3 Expression of the Wild-Type or Mutant-Type Lipases [0031] [0031] E. coli BL21 (DE3) cells harboring the desired wild-type lipase gene (i.e., the Lys-303 gene) on plasmid pET-20b(+), were grown at 30° C. in LB/ampicillin to an optical density (600 nm) of 0.5. IPTG was added to the cultures (100 mL each) for a final concentration of 4 mM, and the cells were harvested four hours after the IPTG induction. IPTG is β-D(−)-thiogalactopyranoside, which induces the expression of a recombinant gene. EXAMPLE 4 Purification and Quantification of the Wild-Type or Mutant-Type Lipases [0032] For protein purification of the wild-type or mutant-type lipase, the cells, which were suspended in a buffer of 20 mM Tris/HCl (pH 7.9), 5 mM imidazole, 0.5 M NaCl, and 0.05% Tween 20, were broken on ice (10×30 s at 50 W) in a Microson Ultrasonic Cell Disruptor (Microsonix Inc., New York, N.Y.) and then centrifuged at 10,000×g. The proteins in the supernatant fraction were separated by sodium dodecyl sulfate/polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS/PAGE). The separated proteins were stained with Coomassie Brilliant Blue and assayed for the esterase activity on gels after the removal of SDS. [0033] Supernatant fractions with positive gel esterase results were loaded into NiSO 4 − charged His-bind resins (Novagene Colo.). After binding, the resins were washed with a buffer containing 20 mM Tris/HCl (pH 7.9), 60 mM imidazole, and 0.5 M NaCl. The lipase was eluted with another buffer, containing 20 mM Tris/HCl (pH 7.9), 1 M imidazole, and 0.5 M NaCl, and dialyzed against a 50 mM phosphate buffer (pH 6.8). Protein concentrations were determined according to a dye-binding procedure (Bradford 1976), using the Bio-Rad protein assay kit system. EXAMPLE 5 Preparation of Immobilized Lipases [0034] To study the effect of n-hexane content on the lipase-catalyzed synthesis, the E. coli cells harboring the wild-type or mutant-type lipase gene were broken on ice by an ultrasonic cell disrupter. After centrifugation, the supernatant fraction containing the crude enzyme was dialyzed against a 50 mM phosphate buffer (pH 6.0). Crude enzyme solution (1 mL) was mixed with 1 g of silica gel 60 and left for 30 min at 4° C. The gel was precipitated by 8 mL acetone (prechilled at 4° C.) and dried in a vacuum-dryer. The immobilized wild-type or mutant-type lipase was transferred to a flask and further vacuum dried at ambient temperature. EXAMPLE 6 Esterification Reaction and Ester Analyses [0035] The lipase solutions in 50 mM phosphate buffer (pH 6.0) were added to a reaction mixture (1 mL) containing 50 mM fatty acids and 50 mM alcohols. The reaction was carried out in screw capped bottles (with 22-mm diameter) and the reaction mixture was incubated at 33° C. in an orbital shaker with a speed of 250 rpm. [0036] At various time intervals, products were extracted in 1 mL of hexane, and 1.5 μL of the reaction mixture was withdrawn and analyzed by gas chromatography (Hitachi model 263-30; Hitachi, Tokyo, Japan). A DB-1 fused-silica capillary column of 15 m×0.32 mm i.d. (J & W Corporation, Calif.) was used. Nitrogen gas was the carrier gas at a flow rate of 1.2 mL/min. The injection port and flame ionization detector temperatures were programmed to start at 120° C., then raise at 20° C./min to 250° C., and hold at 250° C. for 7 min. The product compositions were quantitated by an integrator with oleic acid lauryl ester or oleic acid butyl ester as the internal standard. The conversion yield was calculated on the basis of the limited substrate. EXAMPLE 7 Enzyme Assay [0037] The purified enzymes and substrate p-nitrophenyl butyrate (2.64 mM predissolved in 2.1% Triton X-100) were mixed in 50 mM phosphate buffer (pH 6.0). The reactions were carried out at 37° C. for 15 min and were terminated by the addition of acetone (1:1, v/v) (Kazlauskas 1994). The absorption values of the reaction product (p-nitrophenol) at 346 nm were determined, and the hydrolase activity (a general indicator for the lipolytic activity) of the purified enzymes was obtained, after converting the absorption values into mmols of p-nitrophenol quantity (at pH 6.0) curve. The molar extinction coefficient of p-nitrophenol under this condition was 2988° C./M·cm. [0038] Results and Discussions [0039] 1. Cloning of the Wild-Type and Mutant-Type Lipase from S. epidermidis Strain 9 [0040] The nucleotide sequence of the gehC Lys-303 gene fragment cloned from a strain of S. epidermidis , isolated from a patient in Chang-Gung Hospital (Keelung, Taiwan) was identical to the S. epidermidis 9 lipase gene reported previously by Simons et al. Eur. J. Biochem . (1998), 253:675-683, supra. To form a restriction enzyme cleavage site necessary for the cloning, the Lys-303 was changed to Glu. Six histidine residues were added to the C-terminal of the lipase to facilitate enzyme purification. [0041] As shown in FIG. 1, this slight modification did not retard the overexpression of the lipase gene in E. coli BL21 (DE3) or destroy the enzyme activity. The purified protein showed a single major band at 43 kDa on SDS/PAGE and on general esterase activity stains (FIG. 1). This finding agreed with the previous report of Farrel et al., J. Gen. Microbiol . (1993),139:267-277, supra, that S. epidermidis produced a lipase at 97 kDa on SDS/PAGE, which was proteolyticly degraded by S. epidermidis to a 43-kDa form. [0042] The amino acid sequence of the wild-type lipase was nearly identical (97.8% identity) to the lipase gene of S. epidermidis strain 9 (RP62A) reported by Simons et al. except that tyrosine-453 was replaced by phenylalanine, and glutamic acid-675 was replaced by aspartic acid. [0043] The results of the this study demonstrated that a 43-kDa S. epidermidis strain 9 full length mature lipase could be overexpressed in E. coli and purified easily with a C-terminal His-tag by immobilized Ni-resin column. [0044] 2. pH Profile of the Recombinant Lys-303 Lipase [0045] The pH-activity profile for the wild-type “Lys-303” lipase was investigated using p-nitrophenyl butyrate as a substrate. As shown in Table 2, the optimal pH for enzyme activity was found to be 6.0. This result was similar to the recombinant lipases of S. epidermidis strain RP62A disclosed by Simmon et al. TABLE 2 Effect of pH on the Recombinant S. epidermidis Lipase a pH Relative activity (%) 3.0  0 4.0  4 5.0 23 6.0 100  7.0 76 8.0 35 [0046] Temperature Profile of the Recombinant Lys-303 Lipase [0047] Enzyme activities at various temperatures were analyzed with p-nitrophenyl butyrate as substrate. As shown in Table 3, the lower temperatures were found to be favored, with an optimum at 25° C. TABLE 3 Effect of Temperature on the Activity of Recombinant S. epidermidis Lipase a Temperature (° C.) Relative activity (%)  5 31 10 47 15 66 20 87 25 100  30 98 35 77 40 23 45  3 50  2 [0048] 3. Site-Directed Mutagensis and Substrate Specificity [0049] For the convenience of this study, the positions of the serine, histidine, and aspartic acid residues of the Ser-His-Asp catalytic triad of the wild-type and/or mutant-type lipase from S. epidermidis were numbered after the amino acid sequence of the preproenzyme. The S. epidermidis strain 9 preproenzeme has a molecular weight of approximately 77 kDa, which contains 688 amino acids. [0050] Under this numbering system, the serine residue was at position 418 (“Ser-418”), the aspartic acid residue was at position 609 (“Asp-609”), and the histidine residue was at position 648 (“His-648”). The triad positions of Ser-418, Asp-609, and His-648 were consistent in both S. epidermidis, S. aureus , and S. hyius. [0051] Site-directed mutagenesis experiments were performed to study the role of the amino acid residues at the catalytic triad (i e, the serine, histidine, or aspartic acid residues) and the amino acid residues following the serine residue and the histidine residue were Met-419 and Val-649 of the Ser-His-Asp catalytic triad. [0052] For mutant S418C (where the serine residue at the catalytic triad was replaced by a cysteine residue), no general lipolytic activity was detected on gels following electrophoresis although a predominant overexpressed 43-kDa protein was detected by Coomassie Brilliant Blue staining. Furthermore, no significant levels of esterase activity were detected from S418C extracts, when compared to those of wild-type extracts. The results strongly suggested that Ser-418 was a member of catalytic triad since simply changing the hydroxyl group to a thiol group caused the loss of enzyme activity. [0053] For mutant H648K (i.e., the histidine residue of the catalytic triad was replaced by lysine), having the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 16, the protein expressed in E. coli exhibited very low lipolytic activity on gels when compared to that of wild-type cells. When compared with the wild-type enzyme, mutant H648K showed little change in the K m for substrate p-nitrophenyl butyrate, but the k cat greatly decreased to 10.4% (Table 4). The results suggested that H648 was critical for catalysis but not for substrate binding. TABLE 4 Kinetic Parameters for Wild-type and Mutants of S. epidermidis Lipase a Enzyme K m (mM) k cat (s −1 ) K cat /K m (s −1 · mM −1 ) Wild-type 0.90 ± 0.08 25.1 ± 0.6  27.9 M419A 3.97 ± 0.12 217.6 ± 14.0  54.8 H648K 0.95 ± 0.35 2.6 ± 0.9 2.7 V649I 3.02 ± 0.21 335.8 ± 15.7  111.2 [0054] The amide NH group of the catalytic serine has been suggested to involve in the stabilization of the oxyanion that forms the tetrahedral intermediate in the reaction through hydrogen bond formation. To study the role of the residue following the catalytic serine, site-directed mutants were constructed using the mutagenic primers listed in Table 1, supra. [0055] For mutant enzymes M419L (i.e., the methionine at position 419 was replaced by a leucine) and M419Q (i.e., the methionine at position 419 position was replaced by glutamine), no general lipolytic activity was detected on gels. [0056] For M419A (i.e., the methionine at position 419 was replaced by an alanine), the mutant-type enzyme showed increased lipolytic activity on gels as compared with the wild-type enzyme. The mutation apparently affected the enzyme's ability to stabilize the transition state more than it affected the substrate binding ability of the enzyme. Kinetic analysis using p-nitrophenyl butyrate as substrate (Table 4) showed that in comparison with the wild-type enzyme, the M419A increased the catalytic efficiency (k cat /K m ) by 2.0 fold, which was dominated by k cat effect. K m is the Michaelis-Menten constant, which shows the concentration of substrate (e.g., mM) at which half the active sites are filled. k cat (e.g., s −1 ) is the maximal catalytic rate when substrate is saturating. The k cat /K m ratio is the pertinent parameter to determine kinetic efficiency of an enzyme. [0057] The kinetic results in Table 4 demonstrated that the amino acid residue following the catalytic serine not only was involved in the stabilization of oxyanion hole (as seen by alteration of k cat ) but also was an important determinant for substrate binding and specificity (as indicated by the alteration of K m in the mutants), presumably defined by the amino acid's side chain. [0058] The mutation of Met-419 to Ala significantly broadened the specificity of the enzyme and increased the activity toward larger substrates. As shown in Table 5, the best substrates for wild-type and M419A enzymes were p-nitrophenyl butyrate and p-nitrophyl carprate, respectively. Among the p-nitrophenyl esters tested, the M419A mutant enzyme showed increased activity than the wild-type enzyme toward all substrates except p-nitrophenyl stearate. TABLE 5 Substrate Specificity of the Recombinant S. epidermidis Lipase and Mutant Type Lipases a Relative activity (%) Substrate wild-type M419A V649I p-nitrophenyl acetate 19.31 140.89 321.84 p-nitrophenyl butyrate 100.00 189.99 550.22 p-nitrophenyl caproate 37.45 145.04 199.49 p-nitrophenyl caprylate 43.02 154.65 264.48 p-nitrophenyl caprate 74.33 227.29 338.32 p-nitrophenyl laurate 37.78 128.46 113.50 p-nitrophenyl myristate 12.59 40.19 18.65 p-nitrophenyl palmitate 5.46 11.19 2.43 p-nitrophenyl stearate 8.14 0.78 0.00 [0059] The amino acid residues following His-648 could presumably affect the substrate specificity and/or catalytic efficiency. To study the role of Val-649, site-directed mutants were constructed. Mutants V649A (i.e., the valine residue at position 649 was replaced by an alanine residue) and V649L (i.e., the valine residue at position 649 was replaced by a leucine residue) lost enzyme activity. [0060] On the contrary, a V649I mutant enzyme showed improvement in the specific activity for the hydrolysis of p-nitrophenyl butyrate over that of wild-type enzyme (Table 5). In comparison with the wild-type enzyme, the V649I enzyme showed a 4.0-fold increase in the k cat /K m and a 13.4 fold increase in k cat toward substrate p-nitrophenyl butyrate (Table 4). These suggested that Val-649 affected enzyme catalysis. [0061] The above facts suggested that the amino acid residues following catalytic Ser-418 significantly influenced the substrate preference and/or catalytic efficiency of the enzyme. In comparison with the wild-type enzyme, the M419A mutant enzyme preferred p-nitrophenyl carprate (Table 5). The substitution with a smaller side chain in M419A might enlarge the pocket of the catalytic site, enabling the binding and hydrolysis of substrates with longer carbon chain. The active site became more plastic. Furthermore, V649I was better suited for p-nitrophenyl caprate, and this phenomenon was likely to be a slight increase in the hydrophobicity around the substrate binding site, which might influence certain kinetic behaviors of the lipase. Therefore, Val-649 could play an important role in the substrate specificity and could serve as a good candidate for the engineering of enzyme specificity. [0062] As shown in Table 5, among the esters of p-nitrophenol tested, the preferred substrate for the wild-type S. epidermidis strain 9 lipase was the butyrate ester. This finding was similar to that of S. epidermidis strain RP62A lipase reported by Simons et al. [0063] As shown in Table 5, the substrate specificity of the wild-type and mutant-type lipases in the present invention were similar to those reported by Simon et al., supra, in S. epidermidis strain RP62A lipases. Also, as shown in Table 4, kinetic analyses using p-nitrophenyl butyrate as substrate showed K m , k cat and k cat /K m of the wild-type S. epidermidis strain 9 lipase were 0.90 mM, 25.1 s −1 and 28.2 s −1 mM, respectively. In comparison, the K m , k cat and k cat /K m of S. hyicus lipase were reported 2.07 mM, 0.53 s −1 and 0.257 s −1 mM −1 , respectively. (Chang et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun . (1996), 229:6-10). The S. epidermidis lipase had much higher substrate-binding affinity and catalytic efficiency than the S. hyicus lipase. [0064] 4. Effect of n-Hexane Content on the Ester Synthesis [0065] It was reported that the use of lipolytic enzymes to catalyze the esterification reaction for producing flavor esters required organic solvent and the formation of ester might be influenced by the water content in organic solvent. In the present study, the immobilized wild-type S. epidermidis was used for the enzymatic synthesis of octyl oleate in n-hexane with different water content. The results are shown in Table 6. Surprisingly, the yields of esterification were inversely proportional to the n-hexane content of the system (Gatfield 1986). In the most successful attempts, it was found that organic solvents nearly always exerted deleterious effects on catalysis by both free and immobilized enzymes. This result revealed that S. epidermidis lipase became inactive in the n-hexane system, and an aqueous buffer system would be essential for the catalytic activity of the S. epidermidis lipase. TABLE 6 Effect of n-hexane Content on the Synthesis of Octyl Oleate by the Wild-Type S. epidermidis Lipase a n-hexane content (%) yield (%) b  0 46.5 10 26.5 20 11.0 30 4.3 40 3.5 50 3.0 60 2.7 70 1.9 80 1.2 90 0 100  0 [0066] 5. Esterification Reaction [0067] To study the effect of esterification time, the yield of lauryl oleate as a function of esterification time are shown in Table 7. The yield of lauryl oleate catalyzed by the wild-type and mutant S. epidermidis lipase reached a maximum at 12 hours and then slightly decreased. For convenience and to standardized experiments, the esterification reaction was carried out for 10 hours for convenience. TABLE 7 Effect of Reaction Time on Synthesis of Lauryl Oleate by the Wild-Type S. epidermidis Lipase a reaction time (h) yield (%) b  3 11.1  6 47.7  9 63.1 12 68.8 15 67.3 18 64.4 22 65.8 24 63.1 48 64.2 128  53.1 [0068] 6. Effects of Chain Length of Acyl Donors on Synthesis of Decyl Esters Catalyzed by Wild-Type or Mutant-Type Lipase [0069] The yields of esters synthesis catalyzed by wild-type or mutant-type lipase were affected by the carbon chain length of the acyl donors. The experiment, as shown in Table 8, was designed to study the yield of decyl esters when lauryl alcohol was reacted with a primary acid with various carbon chain length. TABLE 8 Effect of Chain Length of Primary Acids on the Synthesis of Decyl Esters by the Recombinant S. epidermidis Lipases a yield (%) b primary acid wild type M419A V649I acetic acid 0 0 0 butyric acid 0 0 0 hexanoic acid 0.85 0 1.55 octanoic acid 23.1 11.97 23.1 decanoic acid 24.79 0.50 25.85 lauric acid 59.58 16.76 51.41 myristic acid 31.69 40.85 17.04 palmitic acid 13.94 12.82 13.17 stearic acid 12.11 11.69 12.11 arachidonic acid 2.11 12.68 0 [0070] As shown in Table 8, both the wild-type and the V649I mutant-type lipase showed higher yields of ester when medium-chain fatty acids (from C 8 to C 14 ) were used. The optimal yield came from lauric acid, which contains a carbon chain length of C 12 , for both the wild-type and the V649I mutant-type lipase. [0071] The M419A mutant-type lipase demonstrated slight improvement on the yields of esters over the wild-type lipase when longer carbon chains of the primary acids were used as the acyl donors. The optimum fatty acid for M419 mutant-type lipase was mysristic acid, which contains a carbon chain length of C 14 . [0072] The above finding suggested that that Met-419, the amino acid residue which follows the serine residue of the Ser-His-Asp catalytic triad, might play a dominant role in the acid-binding. On the contrary, Val-649, the amino acid residue which follows the histidine residue of the Ser-His-Asp catalytic triad, might not affect the acid-binding. This was based on the findings, as shown in Table 8, that when Met-419 was changed to Ala-419, the optimal acyl donor changed from lauric acid (C 12 ) to myristic acid (C 14 ), but when Val-649 was changed to Ile-649, the optimal choice of fatty acid remained the same as that of the wild-type. [0073] It is further suggested that M419A might be related mainly to the change in the molecular weight of amino acid side chains that were essential for the catalytic activity of the enzyme (the molecular weights of methionine and alanine are 149 and 89, respectively, and the hydropathy index are 1.9 and 1.8, respectively). [0074] Also, as shown in Table 4, supra, the mutant-type lipases M419A and V649I showed 2.0 and 4.0-fold increases in ester hydrolysis over the wild-type lipase, as demonstrated by their respective catalytic efficiency (k cat /K m ). However, the wild-type and V419I mutant had similar catalytic efficiency in the ester synthesis, which indicated that there was little correlation between the ester synthesis and ester hydrolytic activities of the lipases. [0075] Similar studies in other staphylococcal lipases were observed by Talon et al., Enzyme Microbial. Technology (1996), 19:620-622, who produced ethyl esters from hexanoic to oleic acids in n-hexane by S. warneri and S. xylosus lipases. The esterification yields reached an optimum for the decanoic acid. Under their conditions, however, the esterification yield of oleic acid was only half of the decanoic acid. [0076] 7. Effect of Acids Structure on the Synthesis of Decyl Esters by the Wild-Type and Mutant-Type Lipases from S. epidermidis [0077] To study the acids structure of acyl donors, the lipase-catalyzed esterification reactions of decyl alcohol with various acids were investigated. As shown in Table 9, the yields of decyl esters where the primary acids were unsaturated acids (e.g., oleic acid, linoleic acid, DHA, but not EPA) were much greater than those of the saturated acids, both catalyzed by the wild-type and the V649I mutant-type lipases. The optimum unsaturated fatty acid for producing decyl esters was oleic acid. [0078] Conversely, in comparison with the wild-type lipase, the M419A mutant-type lipase showed a dramatic decrease in the conversion yield of DHA ester. On the other hand, the S. epidermidis lipases (wild-type, M419A, and V649I) could catalyze ester syntheses from decyl alcohol and fatty acids with a primary straight carbon chain but they could not esterify carboxylic acids having aliphatic or aromatic cyclic carbon chains such as cyclohexane-carboxylic acid and benzoic acid (Table 9). TABLE 9 Effect of Acids Structure on the Synthesis of Decyl Esters by the S. epidermidis Lipases a yield (%) b acids wild type M419A V649I stearic acid 12.11 11.69 12.11 oleic acid 65.32 62.01 58.36 linoleic acid 43.54 10.30 38.26 EPA c 6.82 3.25 6.59 DHA d 49.81 0.60 25.35 benzoic acid 0 0 0 cyclohexane-carboxylic acid 0 0 0.12 [0079] 8. Effects of Chain Length of Primary Alchols on Esterification with Oleic Acid by the Wild-Type or Mutant-Type Lipases from S. epidermidis [0080] The yields of esters catalyzed by the wild-type or mutant-type lipases were affected by the chain-length of different alcohols. As shown in Table 10, the yield of decanoyl oleate was much greater than the longer or shorter chain length alcohols, as catalyzed by the wild-type and M419A mutant enzymes, although the yields of esters catalyzed by the wild-type and M419A mutant enzymes were similar. [0081] As for the V649I mutant-type lipase, the yields of esters when butanol, hexanol, octanol and dodecanol were used were much greater than those of the wild-type and the M419A mutant-type lipases. The V649I mutant-type lipase had much broader alcohol selectivity for ester synthesis. These results indicated that Val-649 might be an essential residue for alcohol-binding in ester synthetic activity. TABLE 10 Effect of Chain Length of Primary Alcohols on Esterification with Oleic Acid by the Recombinant S. epidermidis Lipases a yield (%) b primary alcohol wild type M419A V649I ethanol 0 0 0 butanol 11.13 3.1 21.29 hexanol 3.39 3.39 65.81 octanol 14.0 8.71 57.29 decanol 64.35 60.19 57.1 dodecanol 34.35 34.35 84.19 tetradecahol 18.39 34.35 39.68 hexadecanol 21.19 24.19 25.35 [0082] 9. Effect of Alcohols Structure on Esterification with Oleic Acid by the Wild-Type or Mutant-Type Lipases from S. epidermidis [0083] To study the effects of alcohols of different carbon chains on the ester synthesis activity, oleic acid was reacted with primary alcohols (1-decanol, geraniol, and oleyl alcohol), secondary alcohols (2-butanol and cyclohexanol), and a tertiary alcohol (tertiary butanol). The results are shown in Table 11. The esterification of primary alcohols had much higher yields than those of secondary and tertiary alcohols by wild-type and mutant enzymes. TABLE 11 Effect of Alcohol Structures on Esterification with Oleic Acid by the Recombinant S. epidermidis Lipases a yield (%) b alcohols wild type M419A V649I primary alcohol 1-Decanol 64.35 60.19 57.1 geraniol 38.56 14.87 75.24 oleyl alcohol 37.05 24.35 43.28 secondary alcohol 2-butanol 0 0 0 cyclohexanol 1.69 0 1.03 tertiary alcohol tertiary butanol 0 0 0 [0084] In addition, in comparison with the amino acid sequences of four other staphylococcal lipases that have been characterized further confirmed that the amino acids sequence of the S. epidermidis lipase was similar to S. hyicus lipase. The C-terminal regions were closely related, with 43% of the 386 residues being identical and 35% having conservative changes. The results further confirmed the amino acid residues surrounding the Ser-His-Asp active site were important for substrate specificity and enzyme catalytic efficiency. [0085] Conclusion [0086] The present invention showed that the recombinant 43-kDa lipase from S. epidermidis , with a C-terminal His-tag as well as the mutant-type lipases engineered by site-directed mutations could be easily overexpressed and purified. This success overcame a time-consuming, multi-step purification problem. [0087] The wild-type and mutant-type lipases of S. epidermidis were of particular interests because they allowed catalysis of ester synthesis without the uses of organic solvents. They presented the following advantages: (i) avoiding the problem of toxicity and flammability of organic solvents; and (ii) simplification of product purification conditions. Considering the specificity of the enzymes, they could be used to produce esters of different size and length, such as medium-chain esters, geranyl esters and unsaturate esters. The enzymes could be further engineered for the synthesis of short-chain esters and some useful fatty acids. [0088] While the invention has been described by way of examples and in terms of the preferred embodiments, it is to be understood that the invention is not limited to the disclosed embodiments. On the contrary, it is intended to cover various modifications as would be apparent to those skilled in the art. Therefore, the scope of the appended claims should be accorded the broadest interpretation so as to encompass all such modifications. 1 17 1 30 DNA Artificial Sequence designed nucleotide to act as the N-terminal primer for selection of S. epidermidis strain 9 lipase 1 ggggccatgg aacaaaaaca atataaaaat 30 2 31 DNA artificial sequence designed nucleotide to act as the C-terminal primer for selection of S. epidermidis strain 9 lipase 2 ggggctcgag tttatttgtt gatgttaatt g 31 3 22 DNA Artificial Sequence designed nucleotide to act as the primer for selection of wild-type S. epidermidis strain 9 lipase with Ser418 3 gaccacccat actatgacca ac 22 4 18 DNA Artificial Sequence designed nucleotide to act as the primer for selection of S. epidermidis strain 9 lipase with S418C side- directed mutation 4 acccatacaa tgaccaac 18 5 22 DNA Artificial Sequence designed nucleotide to act as the primer for selection of S. epidermidis strain 9 lipase with M419L side- directed mutation 5 gaccaccgag actatgacca ac 22 6 22 DNA Artificial Sequence designed nucleotide to act as the primer for selection of S. epidermidis strain 9 lipase with M419A side- directed mutation 6 gaccaccggc actatgacca ac 22 7 22 DNA Artificial Sequence designed nucleotide to act as the primer for selection of S. epidermidis strain 9 lipase with M419Q side- directed mutation 7 gaccaccttg actatgacca ac 22 8 22 DNA Artificial Sequence designed nucleotide to act as the primer for selection of wild-type S. epidermidis strain 9 lipase with H648 8 gggatcatgt agactttgta gg 22 9 18 DNA Artificial Sequence designed nucleotide to act as the primer for selection of S. epidermidis strain 9 lipase with H648K side- directed mutation 9 tgggataaag tagacttt 18 10 22 DNA Artificial Sequence designed nucleotide to act as the primer for selection of S. epidermidis strain 9 lipase with V649L side- directed mutation 10 gggatcatct cgactttgta gg 22 11 22 DNA Artificial Sequence designed nucleotide to act as the primer for selection of S. epidermidis strain 9 lipase with V649I side- directed mutation 11 gggatcatat cgactttgta gg 22 12 22 DNA Artificial Sequence designed nucleotide to act as the primer for selection of S. epidermidis strain 9 lipase with V649A side- directed mutation 12 gggatcatgc tgactttgta gg 22 13 1158 DNA Staphylococcus epidermidis CDS (1)..(1158) 13 aaa caa aaa caa tat aaa aat aat gat cca att att tta gta cat ggt 48 Lys Gln Lys Gln Tyr Lys Asn Asn Asp Pro Ile Ile Leu Val His Gly 1 5 10 15 ttc aat gga ttt aca gac gat atc aac cca tca gtg cta acg cat tat 96 Phe Asn Gly Phe Thr Asp Asp Ile Asn Pro Ser Val Leu Thr His Tyr 20 25 30 tgg ggt ggc gat aaa atg aat att cgc caa gat ttg gaa gaa aat gga 144 Trp Gly Gly Asp Lys Met Asn Ile Arg Gln Asp Leu Glu Glu Asn Gly 35 40 45 tat gag gct tat gaa gca agt ata agt gca ttt ggt agt aac tat gac 192 Tyr Glu Ala Tyr Glu Ala Ser Ile Ser Ala Phe Gly Ser Asn Tyr Asp 50 55 60 cgt gct gtt gag tta tac tac tac atc aaa ggt gga cgt gtt gac tat 240 Arg Ala Val Glu Leu Tyr Tyr Tyr Ile Lys Gly Gly Arg Val Asp Tyr 65 70 75 80 ggt gca gca cac gca gct aaa tat ggt cat gag cgt tac ggt aaa acc 288 Gly Ala Ala His Ala Ala Lys Tyr Gly His Glu Arg Tyr Gly Lys Thr 85 90 95 tat gaa ggt gtt tat aaa gat tgg aaa cca ggt caa aaa ata cat tta 336 Tyr Glu Gly Val Tyr Lys Asp Trp Lys Pro Gly Gln Lys Ile His Leu 100 105 110 gtt ggt cat agt atg ggt ggt caa aca att cgt caa tta gaa gag cta 384 Val Gly His Ser Met Gly Gly Gln Thr Ile Arg Gln Leu Glu Glu Leu 115 120 125 ttg aga cat ggt aat cca gaa gaa gtt gaa tat caa aaa caa cat ggt 432 Leu Arg His Gly Asn Pro Glu Glu Val Glu Tyr Gln Lys Gln His Gly 130 135 140 ggg gaa att tct cca tta tac caa ggt ggc cac gac aat atg gtg tca 480 Gly Glu Ile Ser Pro Leu Tyr Gln Gly Gly His Asp Asn Met Val Ser 145 150 155 160 tct att aca aca ctc ggt aca cca cat aat ggt aca cat gcc tca gac 528 Ser Ile Thr Thr Leu Gly Thr Pro His Asn Gly Thr His Ala Ser Asp 165 170 175 tta tta ggt aac gaa gcc att gta cgc caa ctt gca tat gac gta ggt 576 Leu Leu Gly Asn Glu Ala Ile Val Arg Gln Leu Ala Tyr Asp Val Gly 180 185 190 aaa atg tat ggt aat aaa gat tca cgt gta gac ttt ggg tta gaa cac 624 Lys Met Tyr Gly Asn Lys Asp Ser Arg Val Asp Phe Gly Leu Glu His 195 200 205 tgg gga tta aaa caa aaa cca aac gaa tca tat att caa tat gtt aaa 672 Trp Gly Leu Lys Gln Lys Pro Asn Glu Ser Tyr Ile Gln Tyr Val Lys 210 215 220 cgt gtt caa aat tca aaa ctg tgg aaa tca aaa gat agt ggt tta cac 720 Arg Val Gln Asn Ser Lys Leu Trp Lys Ser Lys Asp Ser Gly Leu His 225 230 235 240 gat tta aca cgc gat ggc gca aca gat tta aac cga aaa aca tca tta 768 Asp Leu Thr Arg Asp Gly Ala Thr Asp Leu Asn Arg Lys Thr Ser Leu 245 250 255 aat cct aat att gta tat aaa act tat act ggc gag tca aca cat aaa 816 Asn Pro Asn Ile Val Tyr Lys Thr Tyr Thr Gly Glu Ser Thr His Lys 260 265 270 aca ttg gca gga aaa caa aaa gct gat ctt aac atg ttc tta cca ttt 864 Thr Leu Ala Gly Lys Gln Lys Ala Asp Leu Asn Met Phe Leu Pro Phe 275 280 285 aca att act ggt aat tta att gga aaa gct aaa gag aaa gaa tgg aga 912 Thr Ile Thr Gly Asn Leu Ile Gly Lys Ala Lys Glu Lys Glu Trp Arg 290 295 300 gaa aat gat gga ctt gtt tca gtc att tct tca caa cat cca ttt aat 960 Glu Asn Asp Gly Leu Val Ser Val Ile Ser Ser Gln His Pro Phe Asn 305 310 315 320 caa aaa tat gtt gaa gct aca gat aaa aat caa aaa ggt gta tgg caa 1008 Gln Lys Tyr Val Glu Ala Thr Asp Lys Asn Gln Lys Gly Val Trp Gln 325 330 335 gta act cca aca aaa cat gac tgg gat cat gta gac ttt gta ggc caa 1056 Val Thr Pro Thr Lys His Asp Trp Asp His Val Asp Phe Val Gly Gln 340 345 350 gac agt aca gat aca aaa cgt act aga gat gaa ttg caa cag ttc tgg 1104 Asp Ser Thr Asp Thr Lys Arg Thr Arg Asp Glu Leu Gln Gln Phe Trp 355 360 365 cat ggt ctt gct gaa gat tta gta caa agt gaa caa tta aca tca aca 1152 His Gly Leu Ala Glu Asp Leu Val Gln Ser Glu Gln Leu Thr Ser Thr 370 375 380 aat aaa 1158 Asn Lys 385 14 386 PRT Staphylococcus epidermidis 14 Lys Gln Lys Gln Tyr Lys Asn Asn Asp Pro Ile Ile Leu Val His Gly 1 5 10 15 Phe Asn Gly Phe Thr Asp Asp Ile Asn Pro Ser Val Leu Thr His Tyr 20 25 30 Trp Gly Gly Asp Lys Met Asn Ile Arg Gln Asp Leu Glu Glu Asn Gly 35 40 45 Tyr Glu Ala Tyr Glu Ala Ser Ile Ser Ala Phe Gly Ser Asn Tyr Asp 50 55 60 Arg Ala Val Glu Leu Tyr Tyr Tyr Ile Lys Gly Gly Arg Val Asp Tyr 65 70 75 80 Gly Ala Ala His Ala Ala Lys Tyr Gly His Glu Arg Tyr Gly Lys Thr 85 90 95 Tyr Glu Gly Val Tyr Lys Asp Trp Lys Pro Gly Gln Lys Ile His Leu 100 105 110 Val Gly His Ser Met Gly Gly Gln Thr Ile Arg Gln Leu Glu Glu Leu 115 120 125 Leu Arg His Gly Asn Pro Glu Glu Val Glu Tyr Gln Lys Gln His Gly 130 135 140 Gly Glu Ile Ser Pro Leu Tyr Gln Gly Gly His Asp Asn Met Val Ser 145 150 155 160 Ser Ile Thr Thr Leu Gly Thr Pro His Asn Gly Thr His Ala Ser Asp 165 170 175 Leu Leu Gly Asn Glu Ala Ile Val Arg Gln Leu Ala Tyr Asp Val Gly 180 185 190 Lys Met Tyr Gly Asn Lys Asp Ser Arg Val Asp Phe Gly Leu Glu His 195 200 205 Trp Gly Leu Lys Gln Lys Pro Asn Glu Ser Tyr Ile Gln Tyr Val Lys 210 215 220 Arg Val Gln Asn Ser Lys Leu Trp Lys Ser Lys Asp Ser Gly Leu His 225 230 235 240 Asp Leu Thr Arg Asp Gly Ala Thr Asp Leu Asn Arg Lys Thr Ser Leu 245 250 255 Asn Pro Asn Ile Val Tyr Lys Thr Tyr Thr Gly Glu Ser Thr His Lys 260 265 270 Thr Leu Ala Gly Lys Gln Lys Ala Asp Leu Asn Met Phe Leu Pro Phe 275 280 285 Thr Ile Thr Gly Asn Leu Ile Gly Lys Ala Lys Glu Lys Glu Trp Arg 290 295 300 Glu Asn Asp Gly Leu Val Ser Val Ile Ser Ser Gln His Pro Phe Asn 305 310 315 320 Gln Lys Tyr Val Glu Ala Thr Asp Lys Asn Gln Lys Gly Val Trp Gln 325 330 335 Val Thr Pro Thr Lys His Asp Trp Asp His Val Asp Phe Val Gly Gln 340 345 350 Asp Ser Thr Asp Thr Lys Arg Thr Arg Asp Glu Leu Gln Gln Phe Trp 355 360 365 His Gly Leu Ala Glu Asp Leu Val Gln Ser Glu Gln Leu Thr Ser Thr 370 375 380 Asn Lys 385 15 386 PRT Artificial Sequence Amino acid sequence of the S. epidermidis strain 9 lipase with M419A side-direction mutation 15 Lys Gln Lys Gln Tyr Lys Asn Asn Asp Pro Ile Ile Leu Val His Gly 1 5 10 15 Phe Asn Gly Phe Thr Asp Asp Ile Asn Pro Ser Val Leu Thr His Tyr 20 25 30 Trp Gly Gly Asp Lys Met Asn Ile Arg Gln Asp Leu Glu Glu Asn Gly 35 40 45 Tyr Glu Ala Tyr Glu Ala Ser Ile Ser Ala Phe Gly Ser Asn Tyr Asp 50 55 60 Arg Ala Val Glu Leu Tyr Tyr Tyr Ile Lys Gly Gly Arg Val Asp Tyr 65 70 75 80 Gly Ala Ala His Ala Ala Lys Tyr Gly His Glu Arg Tyr Gly Lys Thr 85 90 95 Tyr Glu Gly Val Tyr Lys Asp Trp Lys Pro Gly Gln Lys Ile His Leu 100 105 110 Val Gly His Ser Ala Gly Gly Gln Thr Ile Arg Gln Leu Glu Glu Leu 115 120 125 Leu Arg His Gly Asn Pro Glu Glu Val Glu Tyr Gln Lys Gln His Gly 130 135 140 Gly Glu Ile Ser Pro Leu Tyr Gln Gly Gly His Asp Asn Met Val Ser 145 150 155 160 Ser Ile Thr Thr Leu Gly Thr Pro His Asn Gly Thr His Ala Ser Asp 165 170 175 Leu Leu Gly Asn Glu Ala Ile Val Arg Gln Leu Ala Tyr Asp Val Gly 180 185 190 Lys Met Tyr Gly Asn Lys Asp Ser Arg Val Asp Phe Gly Leu Glu His 195 200 205 Trp Gly Leu Lys Gln Lys Pro Asn Glu Ser Tyr Ile Gln Tyr Val Lys 210 215 220 Arg Val Gln Asn Ser Lys Leu Trp Lys Ser Lys Asp Ser Gly Leu His 225 230 235 240 Asp Leu Thr Arg Asp Gly Ala Thr Asp Leu Asn Arg Lys Thr Ser Leu 245 250 255 Asn Pro Asn Ile Val Tyr Lys Thr Tyr Thr Gly Glu Ser Thr His Lys 260 265 270 Thr Leu Ala Gly Lys Gln Lys Ala Asp Leu Asn Met Phe Leu Pro Phe 275 280 285 Thr Ile Thr Gly Asn Leu Ile Gly Lys Ala Lys Glu Lys Glu Trp Arg 290 295 300 Glu Asn Asp Gly Leu Val Ser Val Ile Ser Ser Gln His Pro Phe Asn 305 310 315 320 Gln Lys Tyr Val Glu Ala Thr Asp Lys Asn Gln Lys Gly Val Trp Gln 325 330 335 Val Thr Pro Thr Lys His Asp Trp Asp His Val Asp Phe Val Gly Gln 340 345 350 Asp Ser Thr Asp Thr Lys Arg Thr Arg Asp Glu Leu Gln Gln Phe Trp 355 360 365 His Gly Leu Ala Glu Asp Leu Val Gln Ser Glu Gln Leu Thr Ser Thr 370 375 380 Asn Lys 385 16 386 PRT Artificial Sequence Amino acid sequence of the S. epidermidis strain 9 lipase with H648K side-direction mutation 16 Lys Gln Lys Gln Tyr Lys Asn Asn Asp Pro Ile Ile Leu Val His Gly 1 5 10 15 Phe Asn Gly Phe Thr Asp Asp Ile Asn Pro Ser Val Leu Thr His Tyr 20 25 30 Trp Gly Gly Asp Lys Met Asn Ile Arg Gln Asp Leu Glu Glu Asn Gly 35 40 45 Tyr Glu Ala Tyr Glu Ala Ser Ile Ser Ala Phe Gly Ser Asn Tyr Asp 50 55 60 Arg Ala Val Glu Leu Tyr Tyr Tyr Ile Lys Gly Gly Arg Val Asp Tyr 65 70 75 80 Gly Ala Ala His Ala Ala Lys Tyr Gly His Glu Arg Tyr Gly Lys Thr 85 90 95 Tyr Glu Gly Val Tyr Lys Asp Trp Lys Pro Gly Gln Lys Ile His Leu 100 105 110 Val Gly His Ser Met Gly Gly Gln Thr Ile Arg Gln Leu Glu Glu Leu 115 120 125 Leu Arg His Gly Asn Pro Glu Glu Val Glu Tyr Gln Lys Gln His Gly 130 135 140 Gly Glu Ile Ser Pro Leu Tyr Gln Gly Gly His Asp Asn Met Val Ser 145 150 155 160 Ser Ile Thr Thr Leu Gly Thr Pro His Asn Gly Thr His Ala Ser Asp 165 170 175 Leu Leu Gly Asn Glu Ala Ile Val Arg Gln Leu Ala Tyr Asp Val Gly 180 185 190 Lys Met Tyr Gly Asn Lys Asp Ser Arg Val Asp Phe Gly Leu Glu His 195 200 205 Trp Gly Leu Lys Gln Lys Pro Asn Glu Ser Tyr Ile Gln Tyr Val Lys 210 215 220 Arg Val Gln Asn Ser Lys Leu Trp Lys Ser Lys Asp Ser Gly Leu His 225 230 235 240 Asp Leu Thr Arg Asp Gly Ala Thr Asp Leu Asn Arg Lys Thr Ser Leu 245 250 255 Asn Pro Asn Ile Val Tyr Lys Thr Tyr Thr Gly Glu Ser Thr His Lys 260 265 270 Thr Leu Ala Gly Lys Gln Lys Ala Asp Leu Asn Met Phe Leu Pro Phe 275 280 285 Thr Ile Thr Gly Asn Leu Ile Gly Lys Ala Lys Glu Lys Glu Trp Arg 290 295 300 Glu Asn Asp Gly Leu Val Ser Val Ile Ser Ser Gln His Pro Phe Asn 305 310 315 320 Gln Lys Tyr Val Glu Ala Thr Asp Lys Asn Gln Lys Gly Val Trp Gln 325 330 335 Val Thr Pro Thr Lys His Asp Trp Asp Lys Val Asp Phe Val Gly Gln 340 345 350 Asp Ser Thr Asp Thr Lys Arg Thr Arg Asp Glu Leu Gln Gln Phe Trp 355 360 365 His Gly Leu Ala Glu Asp Leu Val Gln Ser Glu Gln Leu Thr Ser Thr 370 375 380 Asn Lys 385 17 386 PRT Artificial Sequence Amino acid sequence of the S. epidermidis strain 9 lipase with V649I side-direction mutation 17 Lys Gln Lys Gln Tyr Lys Asn Asn Asp Pro Ile Ile Leu Val His Gly 1 5 10 15 Phe Asn Gly Phe Thr Asp Asp Ile Asn Pro Ser Val Leu Thr His Tyr 20 25 30 Trp Gly Gly Asp Lys Met Asn Ile Arg Gln Asp Leu Glu Glu Asn Gly 35 40 45 Tyr Glu Ala Tyr Glu Ala Ser Ile Ser Ala Phe Gly Ser Asn Tyr Asp 50 55 60 Arg Ala Val Glu Leu Tyr Tyr Tyr Ile Lys Gly Gly Arg Val Asp Tyr 65 70 75 80 Gly Ala Ala His Ala Ala Lys Tyr Gly His Glu Arg Tyr Gly Lys Thr 85 90 95 Tyr Glu Gly Val Tyr Lys Asp Trp Lys Pro Gly Gln Lys Ile His Leu 100 105 110 Val Gly His Ser Met Gly Gly Gln Thr Ile Arg Gln Leu Glu Glu Leu 115 120 125 Leu Arg His Gly Asn Pro Glu Glu Val Glu Tyr Gln Lys Gln His Gly 130 135 140 Gly Glu Ile Ser Pro Leu Tyr Gln Gly Gly His Asp Asn Met Val Ser 145 150 155 160 Ser Ile Thr Thr Leu Gly Thr Pro His Asn Gly Thr His Ala Ser Asp 165 170 175 Leu Leu Gly Asn Glu Ala Ile Val Arg Gln Leu Ala Tyr Asp Val Gly 180 185 190 Lys Met Tyr Gly Asn Lys Asp Ser Arg Val Asp Phe Gly Leu Glu His 195 200 205 Trp Gly Leu Lys Gln Lys Pro Asn Glu Ser Tyr Ile Gln Tyr Val Lys 210 215 220 Arg Val Gln Asn Ser Lys Leu Trp Lys Ser Lys Asp Ser Gly Leu His 225 230 235 240 Asp Leu Thr Arg Asp Gly Ala Thr Asp Leu Asn Arg Lys Thr Ser Leu 245 250 255 Asn Pro Asn Ile Val Tyr Lys Thr Tyr Thr Gly Glu Ser Thr His Lys 260 265 270 Thr Leu Ala Gly Lys Gln Lys Ala Asp Leu Asn Met Phe Leu Pro Phe 275 280 285 Thr Ile Thr Gly Asn Leu Ile Gly Lys Ala Lys Glu Lys Glu Trp Arg 290 295 300 Glu Asn Asp Gly Leu Val Ser Val Ile Ser Ser Gln His Pro Phe Asn 305 310 315 320 Gln Lys Tyr Val Glu Ala Thr Asp Lys Asn Gln Lys Gly Val Trp Gln 325 330 335 Val Thr Pro Thr Lys His Asp Trp Asp His Ile Asp Phe Val Gly Gln 340 345 350 Asp Ser Thr Asp Thr Lys Arg Thr Arg Asp Glu Leu Gln Gln Phe Trp 355 360 365 His Gly Leu Ala Glu Asp Leu Val Gln Ser Glu Gln Leu Thr Ser Thr 370 375 380 Asn Lys 385

The present invention provides mutant-type lipases which demonstrate superior lipolytic and esterific activities. The mutant-type lipases are characterized by an amino acid alteration at the residue immediately followed either the serine residue or the histidine residue or both residues of the Ser-His-Asp catalytic triad. The Ser-His-Asp catalytic triad is known to be the three residues, although occur far apart in the amino acid sequence of a lipase, that contribute to the hydrolytic activity in the active site of the lipase. The amino acid residue that follows the serine residue of the Ser-His-Asp catalytic triad is alanine. The amino acid residue that follows the histidine residue of the Ser-His-Asp catalytic triad is isoleucine. The wild-type lipase is preferably originated from Staphylococcus, particularly Staphylococcus epidermindis . The present invention also relates to a method for preparing the mutant-type lipases by site-directed mutagenesis using PCR and a method for utilizing the mutant-type lipase to catalyze synthesis of flavor esters to be used in food industry.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0001] The present invention relates to an interactive spatialized audiovisual system for conducting chat room type conversations in a three dimensional audio environment. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] Recently, chat rooms have become a very popular forum for intercommunication over the Internet. Normally, these chat rooms involve users typing in information using a computer type device interconnected to a computer network such as the Internet. [0003] The use of chat rooms allows for an increased level of personal intercommunication and on-line discussion. Normally, the chat room may be discussion topic based. [0004] Conventional chat programs provide a text input-based chat environment. Participants can either choose to chat with an individual, or within a group. A messaging service is also provided to enable short messages of limited length to be sent between two parties. This online program has proved itself to be very popular over time and has gained many users. [0005] Unfortunately, the chat room scenario has a number of drawbacks. These include the need to type information on a keyboard type device for entering to the chat room. Typing is often a laborious and non-spontaneous process when compared merely to the process of talking. Further, chat room conversations can often become confusingly intermingled, and it is accordingly difficult to keep track of multiple participants in a particular discussion. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0006] According to a first aspect of the invention there is provided an interactive spatialized audiovisual system for linking a plurality of remote user terminals, the system comprising: [0007] a networked computer; [0008] an associated user database including user status information; [0009] input means for receiving at the computer a plurality of audio streams and associated locating data from the remote user terminals for virtually locating the users relative to one another within a virtual user environment; [0010] selection means for enabling selection of at least a first group of the audio streams in a first selection process based on status information in the user database; [0011] output means for outputting the selected group of audio streams and associated locating data for spatialization of the selected group of audio streams relative to a first listener-based audio reference frame which is substantially coherent with visual representations of the audio sources defined by the locating data at a first user terminal. [0012] Conveniently, the system includes first spatialization means for spatializing the selected group of audio streams. [0013] Preferably, the system includes merging means for merging at least some of the audio streams into a merged audio stream for transmittal to the user terminal, and second spatializing means for spatializing the merged stream so as to provide for a background audio effect in the audio reference frame at the user terminal. [0014] Conveniently, the selection means are arranged to select different groups of audio streams according to different selection processes based on the user status information in the user database, for transmission to the corresponding user terminals. [0015] The user status information typically includes user location data for locating the user in the virtual environment, user orientation data for orientating the user both with respect to the other users and to the virtual environment, user listening status information and user talking status information. [0016] The user listening status information is arranged to allow the user to listen to other selected users or groups in the environment. [0017] The user listener status may be based on at least one of the following: [0018] the selection of M closest audio sources from N audio sources; [0019] the selection of M loudest sources based on the amplitude of the source signal and/or the distance of the source from the listener; [0020] a user-driven selection process determined by the subject user or other users; [0021] a moderator-driven selection process in which a “moderator” in the environment is able to control the talk and listen status of the other users; [0022] the geography or topology of the virtual environment, in which barriers and openings such as walls and doorways and other features of the environment are arranged realistically to affect the listening capability of a particular user; [0023] the creation of temporary “soundproof” barriers around user groups. [0024] The barriers may define one or more chat rooms, with at least some of the audio streams in a particular room being summed or merged and spatialized to achieve a background reverberation effect characteristic of that particular room. [0025] The audio streams in adjoining rooms or areas may also be merged and spatialized to create “threshold” effects at entrance/exit points. [0026] “Dry” and “wet” room signals may be respectively be generated using summed non-reverberated audio sources and audio sources which have been summed and reverberated. [0027] In general terms, the invention seeks to provide a virtual environment in which there is a measure of coherence between the visible and audible effects within the virtual environment. [0028] Typically, the user database utilizes a plurality of different selection criteria based on the status of the particular user to whom the selected audio streams and associated locating information is being transmitted. [0029] Conveniently, the first spatialization means are provided at each of the user terminals for processing of selected groups of audio streams from the networked computer. [0030] Alternatively, the first spatialization means are arranged to process selected groups of audio streams at the networked computer to derive spatialized audio streams for onward transmission to at least the first selected user terminal. [0031] In one form of the invention, the second spatializing means are arranged to process the merged group of audio streams at the networked computer to derive a spatialized merged audio stream for onward transmission to at least the first selected user terminal. [0032] Alternatively, the second spatialization means are provided at each of the user terminals for spatializing merged groups of audio streams at each user terminal. [0033] Typically, the second spatialization means includes a binaural reverberation processor. [0034] The invention extends to a method of providing an interactive spatialized audio facility comprising: [0035] receiving from a plurality of user-based audio sources a plurality of corresponding audio streams and associated locating data capable of virtually locating the audio sources relative to one another within a virtual environment; [0036] determining user status data; [0037] selecting at least some of the audio streams based on the user status data; [0038] transmitting the locating data and selected audio streams to a first listener destination for enabling the display of visual representations of the virtual locations of at least some of the audio sources within the virtual environment, and [0039] spatializing the selected audio streams relative to a first listener-based audio reference frame which is substantially coherent with the visual representations of the audio sources either before or after the audio streams are transmitted to the first listener destination. [0040] Preferably, the method includes: [0041] enabling the user status data to be altered, [0042] reading the altered user status data, and [0043] selecting at least one of the audio streams based on the altered user status data, wherein at least one of the audio streams selected using the altered user status data is different to the prior selected streams. [0044] Conveniently, the method includes the steps of: [0045] merging at least some of the audio streams, [0046] transmitting the merged audio streams to the first listener destination, and [0047] spatializing at the first listener destination the merged audio streams so as to provide a background audio effect within the virtual environment. [0048] The merged audio stream may include audio streams which have not been individually selected. [0049] The invention extends to a method of providing an interactive spatialized audiovisual facility comprising: [0050] receiving from a plurality of user-based audio sources a plurality of corresponding audio streams and associated locating data capable of virtually locating the audio sources relative to one another within a virtual environment; [0051] determining user status data; [0052] selecting at least some of the audio streams based on the user status data in a first selection process; [0053] transmitting the selected audio streams and associated locating data to a first listener destination for enabling the display of visual representations of the virtual locations of at least some of the selected audio sources within the virtual environment; [0054] spatializing the selected audio streams relative to a first listener-based audio reference frame which is substantially coherent with the visual representations of the audio sources either before or after the transmitting said streams; [0055] selecting at least some of the audio streams in a second selection process; and [0056] transmitting the selected audio streams and associated locating information to a second listener destination for enabling the display of visual representations of the locations of at least the selected audio sources, and spatializing at the second listener destination the selected audio streams in an audio reference frame which is substantially coherent with the visual representations of the audio sources, either before or after transmitting said streams. [0057] In accordance with a further aspect of the present invention, there is provided a system for providing for spatialized conversation over a network environment, the system comprising: [0058] at least one user terminal; [0059] a computer network capable of streaming audio streams to the user terminals, each of the audio streams including associated spatialization information; [0060] a rendering system for rendering the audio streams to predetermined virtual locations around a user; and [0061] a user interface for virtually spatially locating a user amongst the audio streams; [0062] wherein the rendering system spatializes the audio streams so as to maintain a substantially spatially coherent audio reference frame around the user, the user interface includes a visual indicator of the spatial position of each of the audio streams around a listener and the rendering system substantially maintains a spatially coherent audio reference frame relative to the visual indicator. [0063] Each stream preferably includes user ownership information and the system preferably includes audio stream access interface for granting access to the audio streams. [0064] The rendering system can attenuate audio sources located virtually remotely from a current user and merge audio sources located virtually remotely from a current user. In one embodiment the rendering system can be located adjacent a user and the audio sources are preferably streamed over a computer network. [0065] In one form of the invention, multiple selection processes are used to select the audio streams according to at least one predetermined algorithm, the selected audio streams and associated locating information are transmitted to multiple listener destinations, and visible representations of the locations of at least the selected audio sources are displayed at the multiple listener destinations, with each of the selected audio streams being spatialized at the multiple listener destinations in audio reference frames which are substantially coherent with the visible representations of the audio sources. [0066] The invention further provides a computer-readable medium having stored thereon executable instructions for causing a computer to provide an interactive spatialized audiovisual facility, the instructions being arranged to: [0067] receive from a plurality of user-based audio sources a plurality of corresponding audio streams and associated locating data capable of virtually locating the audio sources relative to one another within a virtual environment; [0068] determine user status data; [0069] select at least some of the audio streams based on the user status data; [0070] transmit the locating data and selected audio streams and associated to a first listener destination for enabling the display of visual representations of the virtual, locations of at least some of the audio sources within the virtual environment, and [0071] spatialize the selected audio streams relative to a first listener-based audio reference frame which is substantially coherent with the visual representations of the audio sources. [0072] The invention still further provides a computer-readable medium having stored thereon executable instructions for causing a computer to provide an interactive spatialized audiovisual facility, the instructions being arranged to: [0073] receive from a plurality of user-based audio sources a plurality of corresponding audio streams and associated locating data capable of virtually locating the audio sources relative to one another within a virtual environment; [0074] determine user status data; [0075] select at least some of the audio streams based on the user status data in a first selection process; [0076] transmit the selected audio streams and associated locating data to a first listener destination for enabling the display of visual representations of the virtual locations of at least some of the selected audio sources within the virtual environment; [0077] spatialize the selected audio streams relative to a first listener-based audio reference frame which is substantially coherent with the visual representations of the audio sources; [0078] select at least some of the audio streams in a second selection process; and [0079] transmit the selected audio streams and associated locating information to a second listener destination for enabling the display of visual representations of the locations of at least the selected audio sources, and spatializing at the second listener destination the selected audio streams in an audio reference frame which is substantially coherent with the visual representations of the audio sources. [0080] According to a yet further aspect of the invention, there is provided a method of operating an interactive spatialized audio facility including a networked computer and a plurality of user terminals linked to the networked computer, the method comprising: [0081] transmitting from a user terminal to the networked computer an audio stream generated by the user and associated locating data capable of virtually locating the audio stream generated by the user within a virtual environment for selective combination with corresponding audio streams, associated locating data and user status data at the networked computer; [0082] receiving at the user terminal a plurality of audio streams selected on the basis of the user status data and associated locating data for virtually locating the users relative to one another within a virtual user environment; [0083] generating at the user terminal visual representations of the locating data, and [0084] spatializing the selected group of audio streams relative to a user based audio reference frame which is substantially coherent with the visual representations of the audio sources of the users as defined by the locating data for playback to the user. [0085] Conveniently, the method includes receiving at the user terminal a merged audio stream which is spatialized before or after receipt thereof to provide a spatialized background audio effect in the audio reference frame at the user terminal for playback to the user. [0086] The invention extends to a computer-readable medium having stored thereon executable instructions for causing a computer to provide or operate an interactive spatialized audiovisual facility, the instructions including program segments arranged to implement any one of the methods set out above. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0087] Notwithstanding any other forms which may fall within the scope of the present invention, preferred forms of the invention will now be described, by way of example only, with reference to the accompanying drawings in which: [0088] FIG. 1 illustrates schematically a first embodiment of a user interface for an audio chat room of the preferred embodiment; [0089] FIG. 2 illustrates schematically a streaming environment of the first embodiment; [0090] FIG. 3 illustrates a schematic flowchart showing the operation of a rendering computer of the first embodiment; [0091] FIG. 4 illustrates a highly schematic functional block diagram of a second embodiment of a spatialized audio conversation system of the invention; [0092] FIG. 5 shows a more detailed functional block diagram of an audio component of a streaming server; [0093] FIG. 6 shows a more detailed functional block diagram of a user terminal adapted to be connected to the streaming server of FIG. 5 ; [0094] FIG. 7 shows a more detailed block diagram of a second embodiment of an audio component of a streaming server; [0095] FIG. 8 shows a functional block diagram of a second embodiment of a user terminal adapted to be connected to the streaming server of FIG. 7 ; [0096] FIG. 9 shows a functional block diagram of an audio component of a third embodiment of a streaming server of the invention; [0097] FIG. 10 illustrates a schematic view of a user interface screen which corresponds to the server configuration illustrated in FIG. 9 ; and [0098] FIG. 11 shows a functional block diagram of an audio component of a fourth embodiment of a streaming server of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE EMBODIMENTS [0099] In the preferred embodiment, there is provided a chat room facility which includes audio spatialization and rendering technologies to provide for a spatialized form of audio chat room. The preferred embodiment can be implemented via suitable C++ programming of standard high end personal computer equipment. [0100] Turning now to FIG. 1 , there is illustrated an example of a user using the interface screen for utilization with a first embodiment of the invention. [0101] A user 1 enters a virtual chat room which comprises a two dimensional array 2 on the user's screen. The chat room in this particular case is one dealing with the “LINUX” operating system. The chat room consists of a number of groups 5 , 6 , 7 and 8 of users 9 discussing various topics. The user interface includes a mouse pointer 4 which can be utilised in conjunction with a mouse to grab the user 1 and move the user towards different groups such as group 5 and further orient the user relative to the group. The user 1 is equipped with a set of headphones and, as the user approaches the group 5 , the conversation of that group initially appears in the distance and the conversation comes closer to the individual. Further, the conversation can be spatialized such that the conversations of the group 5 appear on the left hand side of the user 1 and the conversations of the group 6 appear on the right hand side of the user. The user is equipped with a microphone and, as a result, can thereby contribute to the conversation. Further, alternative audio inputs such as music tracks can be provided for the other listeners in the environment. [0102] Each listener in the virtual environment is provided with a similar screen with a clearly identified current position locater. Listeners move around in the space defined by the “wall” 10 of the chat room listening to various conversations and contributing to the conversations. Each member of the chat room is able to take part in localised spatialized conversations with other members. [0103] Turning now to FIG. 2 , there is illustrated schematically a basic implementation of the arrangement of FIG. 1 . The system can be based around a personal computer 11 having sound card processing capabilities so as to provide for output audio over headphones 12 in addition to a microphone input 13 . The rendering computer 11 is interconnected with a streaming server 14 which streams the audio channels of each participant over a streaming network which is in this case the Internet 15 . A series of other users 16 are similarly interconnected to the streaming server 14 which streams audio dialogue in addition to dialogue position information. The audio dialogue of the user 17 is also forwarded back to the server 14 for streaming to each participant. [0104] The rendering computer can therefore operate as illustrated in FIG. 3 . From the network stream 20 there is provided a series of chat room occupant streams 21 . Each chat room occupant stream contains a voice channel and the position and orientation of the user of the voice channel. Similarly, output 22 from the rendering computer is the local user's voice channel and associated positional information. The position and orientation information is utilised to update a display 23 so as to update the current position and orientation of each individual. The position information is also forwarded to relative position determination unit 24 for determining a current position of each listener relative to the current listener. [0105] The relative position determination output is forwarded to an optional voice channel culling unit 26 . Voices that are attenuated with distance may be culled in accordance with the preset preferences. Additionally, a group or cluster of distant voices can be combined into a single voice or quasi-voice via superposition of the voice channels. The utilization of culling and combining operates to reduce the number of voice channels that must be subjected to spatialized audio rendering 27 . [0106] The spatialized audio rendering takes the voice channel inputs in addition to the relative location information and culling information and utilises techniques for spatialization to place the voices around a listener at predetermined locations. [0107] Suitable techniques for spatialization include those disclosed in PCT publication no. WO99/49574 entitled “Audio Signal Processing Method and Apparatus”, filed 6 Jan. 1999 and assigned to the present applicant, the contents of which are specifically incorporated by cross reference. The spatialization techniques disclosed allow a voice to be located relative to a headphone listener. Each of the input audio channels can be separately spatialized or can be first rendered to a standard reference frame such as a Dolby® Surround Sound five channel reference frame and then rotated to an absolute reference frame before a final rotation to the relative reference frame of the listener. The signals are combined and then output to the listener. [0108] The spatialized conversation system can also be combined with binaural rendering technologies to provide for fully immersive behaviour. For example, U.S. Standard application Ser. No. 08/893,848 which claims priority from Australian Provisional Application No. PO0996, both contents of which are specifically incorporated by cross reference, discloses a system for rendering a B-formatted sound source in a head tracked environment at a particular location relative to a listener. Hence, if the audio tracks are stored in a B-format then such a system, suitably adapted, can be used to render the audio tracks. One example of where such a system is suitable is where the B-format part of the rendering is to be done centrally, and the headtracking part (which is applied to the B-format signal to generate a headphone signal) is done locally. B-field calculation can be expensive and is best done centrally. Central computation incurs communication delays, and this has the effect of introducing latency in position, which is not too detrimental. Headtracking is done locally because this is very sensitive to latency. [0109] PCT publication no. WO99/51063 discloses an alternative system for Headtracked Processing for headtracked playback of audio in particular in the presence of head movements. Such a system could be used as the rendering engine by rendering the audio track to a predetermined format (e.g. Dolby™ 5.1 channel surround) so as to have a predetermined location relative to a listener, and, in turn, utilising the system described in the PCT application to then provide for the localisation of an audio signal in the presence of head movements. [0110] Various user interface modifications to the preferred embodiment are also possible. For example, an announcer audio channel can also be provided which provides a “god-like” voice which announces the entrance and exit of users. A joystick or mouse can be provided so that a user can “walk” around the environment. Other users can have a choice of accepting or declining chat requests. [0111] Hence, in the above embodiment, users conduct their conversation/chat sessions in the conventional way—through speech. The user wears a set of headphones with a transmitter attached which communicates with a receiver connected to a phone line, establishing the Internet online connection. As new users log onto the chat program, or so-called ‘chat-rooms’, they receive a voice announcement of the existing users in the room and their details. The display also shows where the user is located with respect to all other existing users in the chat room. The user can ‘move’ around the room (located on the display) and can walk up to any users in trying to set up an individual conversation. In one form of the embodiment all users have a choice of accepting or declining chat requests. [0112] Referring now to FIG. 4 , a streaming server 30 is shown connected via the internet to a number of user terminals 32 . 1 to 32 .N. The streaming server incorporates a user status database 34 which is typically SQL-based. The user status database is constantly updated with user location and status information via inputs 36 from each of the user terminals 32 . 1 to 32 .N. The user location data includes the position and orientation of each user both with respect to the other users and to the chat room(s) within the chat room environment. The status information includes the particular status of the user at a particular time. For example, the user may have various categories of listener status allowing the user to listen to other selected users or groups in the chat room. Similarly, the talk status of the user may be altered from the lowest “mute” status to, say, a highest “voice of god”, “soapbox” or “moderator” status in which that particular user may be in a position, respectively, to talk at will, to broadcast a message or speech throughout the chat room environment, or to control the talk and listen statuses of other users within the chat room environment. Multiple outputs 38 from the user status database lead to multiplexer-type select M functions 40 . 1 to 40 .N connected to the respective user terminals 32 . 1 to 32 .N via user location and status inputs 41 and via audio inputs 42 through an audio engine 43 . [0113] The operation of the audio component of the streaming server will now be described in more detail with reference to FIG. 5 . In the server, an audio bus 44 is provided comprising all of the audio channels of the N users. Each of the channels, such as those indicated at 44 . 1 and 44 . 2 , have corresponding audio or microphone inputs 46 . 1 and 46 . 2 . Outputs 48 . 1 to 48 .N from each of the lines in the audio bus 44 .N are fed into the select M fictions 40 . 1 to 40 .N. M output audio channels 50 are fed from the select M functions to each of the user terminals 32 . 1 - 32 .N of FIG. 4 . There are various different methods or algorithms that can be used to control exactly which audio channels are selected for a particular user. Two of the main control criteria are the manner in which the user or listener obtains permission to enter a chat room, and exactly who gets heard by whom in each chat room. [0114] Typically, a new entrant to the room will go through an approval process prior to being allowed entry. As a result, private conversations can be held between participants in the particular room, safe in the knowledge that new entrants can not “sneak in” without prior notification to the existing participants. The selection process may be autocratic, via a moderator or chairman, or may be democratic, by way of a users' vote. User entry could also be password controlled in the case of a regular chat group. [0115] Referring back to FIG. 1 , a new entrant 52 would position himself or herself at the entrance 54 of the virtual chat room 3 appearing on the user interface screen and would request entry into the room, by, say, clicking on a “request entry” icon. One of the processes described above could then take place. As an alternative, a particular group 7 could, by mutual consent, erect a “sound proof” barrier 56 around their conversation. Similar entry criteria would apply if a user was in the room and wanted to join in the discussion. [0116] Once the user 52 has entered the chat room, various other methods can be used to determine exactly who the user or listener will hear. In one version, the M closest sources can be selected from the N sources. Alternatively, the M loudest sources may be selected, where loudness is based on the amplitude of the source signal as well as the distance of the source from the listener. [0117] A moderator, which could be user 1 , could also be used to select who is to be heard, on behalf of all listeners in the room. A further variation is that the moderator could select M′ sources on behalf of the group, and listener-individualised selection could be used for the remaining M-M′ sources. [0118] As far as talking status is concerned, listeners may request permission to speak, by signalling to the moderator 1 their desire. The moderator can then review the “queue” of listeners and select who is to be heard by heard the group. One method of selection could be for each of the prospective talkers to provide a brief textual precis of their proposed contribution. Where there are several groups in the chat room, with several different conversations going on simultaneously, each of the groups 5 , 6 , 7 and 8 may have a group moderator or chairperson to control the flow of the discussion within a particular group. [0119] Referring back to FIG. 5 , all of the audio channels to the audio bus 44 are combined at a summer 58 , and the summed signal 60 undergoes a binaural reverberation process, such as the B-format rending process described above with reference to U.S. Ser. No. 08/893,848. The left and right binaural reverberation outputs 64 and 66 effectively form part of the audio bus 44 , with left and right summed binaural reverberation inputs 64 . 1 to 64 .N and 66 . 1 to 66 .N being fed to each of the user terminals 32 . 1 to 32 .N. [0120] Referring now to FIG. 6 , the user terminal 32 . 1 is shown having M audio channel inputs 50 . 1 to 50 .M which are separately spatalized by binaural rending using HRTF processes 68 . 1 to 68 .M. The binaurally rendered signals are summed at left and right summers 70 and 72 which are fed to the respective left and right earpieces of a set of headphones 74 worn by the user. The left and right binaural reverberation signals 64 . 1 and 66 . 1 are also fed to the respective left and right summers 70 and 72 . The summed binaural reverberation signals 64 . 1 and 66 . 1 produce background reverberation which allows the user to experience not only, say, the three or four closest voices in the room, but also the background hubbub representative of all of the summed voices in the chat room environment. This makes for an audio experience which is far more realistic without requiring an inordinate number of input audio channels. [0121] In the embodiment of FIGS. 5 and 6 , the bulk of the digital signal processing and channel selecting occurs at the streaming server, to the extent that the audio signal processing functions illustrated in FIG. 6 can be incorporated into the right and left earpieces of the headphone 74 , which is in turn connected to the rendering computer. The rendering computer in turn incorporates the visual user interface, providing user location and status information to update the user status database 34 . It also receives the updated user location and status information from the demultiplexer function 40 . 1 to 40 .N so that the user interface screen can be constantly updated with the whereabouts and statuses of the other users in the chat room. [0122] Referring now to FIG. 7 , a second embodiment of an audio component of a streaming server 76 is shown which is similar to the first embodiment, save that the binaural reverberation function has been removed. Instead, the summed output signal 60 from the summer 58 is fed as an unprocessed summed input signal 60 . 1 to 60 .M to each of the user terminals, one of which is shown at 78 . 1 in FIG. 8 . The binaural reverberation function 80 of the summed signal 60 . 1 takes place at the user end either within the rendering computer or within the headphones 74 , together with the HRTF functions 68 . 1 to 68 .M. In this way, the number of input channels is reduced, at the expense of additional processing power at the user end. [0123] In FIGS. 9 and 10 , a more sophisticated version of a spatalized conversation system is illustrated. The audio component of the streaming server 82 comprises an audio bus 84 having source signal channels from eight users numbered from 91 to 98 . In FIG. 10 , a user interface screen is shown comprising chat rooms A and B divided by a wall 100 having an interleading doorway 102 . Users 91 , 92 , 94 and 96 are located in room A, and users 93 , 95 , 97 and 98 are located in room B. The audio channels to and from the users 92 , 93 and 95 are shown. Each of the users feeds his or her microphone signal into the server as a mono signal, as is shown at 104 . Each of the users 92 , 93 and 95 is fed with the three closest or chosen sources, including signals from other users or from the doorway 102 . The summed room hubbub for room A is summed at 106 , and includes audio channels from the users 91 , 92 , 94 and 96 , together with a so-called “wet room” signal 108 from room B. This signal is made up of the signals from the users 93 , 95 , 97 and 98 which are summed at 110 , together with the “wet room” signal 112 from room A. The directly summed output signal 116 from the summer 110 constitutes a “dry room” signal for room B. The “dry room” signal for room B is fed through a mono-reverberator 118 to provide a “wet room” signal output 120 for room B. This is in turn fed into the summer 106 for room A. The directly summed output 122 from the summer 106 is a “dry room” signal in respect of room A, with the “dry room” signal being processed by a mono-reverberator 124 to become a wet room signal 126 for room A. [0124] The user 95 thus has as inputs the closest three users 93 , 97 and 98 in room B, as well as the summed room hubbub constituted by the dry room signal 116 for room B. The user 93 , on the other hand, has as inputs the closest two users 97 and 95 , together with a doorway signal 128 constituted by the “wet room” reverberated output 126 from room A. In addition, user 93 in room B receives as an input a dry room input 130 representative of the background noise or hubbub in room B. [0125] The user 92 in room A receives as inputs voice channels from the closest two users 91 and 96 , together with a doorway signal constituted by a “wet room” signal 132 from the “wet room” output 120 of room B, together with a “dry room” output signal 134 from room A representative of the background noise in that room. [0126] An audio experience which is consistent with a dual chat room environment is achieved, in that users in one room which are close to the doorway receive “wet room” input from the other room as a dedicated input channel. For users further away from the doorway and the other room, a reduced input from the other room is still achieved by virtue of the feedback of “wet room” signals 108 and 112 which are combined at the respective summers 106 and 110 . This feature gives the user the ability to hear distant hubbub transmitted through multiple rooms and doors, and to navigate by sound to find the room with the greatest level of audible activity. [0127] The gain of the fed back door signals 108 and 112 may be modified at 138 depending on whether the door is partly or fully open or closed, thereby enhancing the realism of the chat room environment and selectively allowing or preventing eavesdropping, in particular where it is possible for one or more of the users to “close” or “open” doors. [0128] Referring now to FIG. 11 , a further embodiment of a streaming server 136 is shown which is substantially identical to the FIG. 9 embodiment save that binaural processing is performed at the server. In particular, binaural processors 138 are provided for receiving and processing the various wet and dry room signals and the source signals. The user terminal-based binaural reverberation and HRTF processing shown in FIG. 8 can accordingly be arranged to take place at the server-based binaural processors 138 . The L and R binaural signals from the server can thus be fed directly to the headphones of each of the users 92 , 93 and 95 , thereby reducing the hardware, signal processing and network bandwidth requirements at each of the user stations, in that only two input audio channels are required. [0129] It will be appreciated that, in the case of HRTF processing user orientation and position on the graphic display on the user's screen 2 may be governed by a joystick or mouse pointer 1 , as has previously been described. The position and orientation signals are transmitted to the streaming server for processing, inter alia, at the binaural processors, and may be augmented by head tracking signals to achieve a more realistic effect as the user rotates his or her head to address other individuals in the group. The head tracking signals derived from a head tracking unit may be used intuitively to effect both rotational and translational motion of the user representation by corresponding head rotation and translation. This may be supplemented by the mouse pointer 4 or joystick. The resultant orientation and positional signals may be transmitted back to the streaming server for processing, and may also be processed locally at the user terminal to achieve the desired spatialization effects. [0130] It will be understood that the invention disclosed and defined herein extends to all alternative combinations of two or more of the individual features mentioned or evident from the text or drawings. All of these different combinations constitute various alternative aspects of the invention. [0131] The foregoing describes embodiments of the present invention and modifications, obvious to those skilled in the art can be made thereto, without departing from the scope of the present invention.

An interactive spatialized audiovisual system links a plurality of remote used terminals. The system comprises a networked computer having an associated user database including user status information. Input means are provided at the computer for receiving a plurality of audio streams and associated locating data from the remote user terminals for, virtually locating the users relative to one another within a virtual user environment such as a chat room environment Selection means are provided for enabling selection of at least the first group of the audio streams in a first selection process based on status information in the user database. Output means output the selected group of audio streams and associated locating data for spatialization of the audio streams relative to a first listener-based audio reference frame which is substantially coherent with visual representations of the audio sources defined by the locating data at the first user terminal. Merging means are provided for merging at least some of the audio streams into a merged audio stream for transmittal to the first and other user terminal, with the merged audio stream being spatialized so as to provide for a spatialized background audio effect in the audio reference frame at the user terminal.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/474,112, filed Apr. 11, 2011, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT This invention was made with government support under Contract N00024-09-C-4110 awarded by Naval Sea Systems Command. The government may have certain rights in the invention. TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention is directed generally to one or more aspects of a dishwashing system. More particularly, various inventive methods and apparatus disclosed herein relate to one or more aspects of systems for interfacing with a washer. BACKGROUND In circumstances where there are many occupants occupying a small space for extended periods of time, there is an increased need for daily operations to be performed in a smaller area than under normal circumstances. This need is especially noticeable onboard ships, such as United States Navy ships, on which many people are stationed for extended periods of time, up to several months. The high volume of dishware and silverware/flatware used onboard naval vessels, and under similar circumstances, may provide the desire to clean and sanitize this dishware and silverware/flatware quickly, while working within the space constraints of a ship. SUMMARY The present disclosure is directed toward one or more aspects of a dishwashing system. For example, methods and apparatus described herein may relate to one or more of a load rack, a queue conveyor, a silverware soaking station, a pre-wash station, a pre-wash popup conveyor, an auxiliary conveyor, an exit conveyor, and an exit popup conveyor. Generally, in one aspect, a system for feeding washing racks to an entrance of a washer and receiving washing racks from an exit of a washer is provided. The system may include a first pop-up conveyor and a second pop-up conveyor. The first pop-up conveyor has a plurality of first rollers each at least selectively rotating about respective of first roller axes. The first roller axes are all oriented substantially parallel to one another. The first pop-up conveyor has a plurality of first rotating belts each at least selectively rotating about respective of first rotating belt axes. The first roller axes are all substantially perpendicular to the first rotating belt axes. The first rotating belts are adjustable between a first transferring position wherein the first rotating belts are positionally above the first rollers and a first non-transferring position wherein the first rotating belts are positionally below the first rollers. The second pop-up conveyor has a plurality of second rollers each at least selectively rotating about respective of second roller axes. The second roller axes all oriented substantially parallel to one another. The second pop-up conveyor has a plurality of second rotating belts each at least selectively rotating about respective of second rotating belt axes. The second roller axes are all substantially perpendicular to the second rotating belt axes. The second rotating belts are adjustable between a second transferring position wherein the second rotating belts are positionally above the second rollers and a second non-transferring position wherein the second rotating belts are positionally below the second rollers. The first pop-up conveyor is positioned at, and able to communicate the washing racks with, one of the entrance of the washer and the exit of the washer and the second pop-up conveyor is positioned at, and able to communicate the washing racks with, the other of the entrance and the exit. The first pop-up roller axes and the second pop-up roller axes are substantially parallel to one another In some embodiments the first rollers are selectively driven to rotate about respective of the roller axes in a first rotational direction and in an opposite second rotational direction. In some versions of those embodiments the first pop-up conveyor is at the entrance of the washer. In some embodiments the first rollers are interposed between a silverware soaking station and an auxiliary conveyor. In some versions of those embodiments the first rollers are selectively driven to rotate about respective of the roller axes in a first rotational direction when the washing racks are sensed originating from the silverware soaking station and driven to rotate in an opposite second rotational direction when the washing racks are sensed originating from the auxiliary conveyor. In some embodiments the system further includes a pre-wash enclosure substantially surrounding the first pop-up conveyor and a pre-wash selective water flow interior of the pre-wash enclosure and directed generally toward the first pop-up conveyor, wherein the first pop-up conveyor is at the entrance of the washer. In some versions of those embodiments the pre-wash enclosure includes at least one door actuable between an open position and a closed position. The door is in the open position at least when one of the washing racks is communicated to the first pop-up conveyor and is in the closed position at least when the washing rack is within the pre-wash enclosure and the water flow is activated. Generally, in another aspect, a system for feeding washing racks to an entrance of a washer is provided. The system includes a directionally alternating transfer conveyor positioned at, and able to communicate the washing racks with, the entrance of the washer. The conveyor has a first receiving mode, a second receiving mode, and a discharge mode. In the first receiving mode the conveyor is transferringly driving in a first direction and in the second receiving mode the conveyor is transferringly driving in a second direction opposite the first direction. In the discharge mode the conveyor is transferringly driving in a third direction substantially perpendicular to the first direction and the second direction. The system also includes a pre-wash enclosure substantially surrounding the conveyor and including a first and second door. The first and the second door are each actuable between an open position and a closed position. A pre-wash selective water flow interior of the pre-wash enclosure is directed generally toward the conveyor. The first door is in the open position and the conveyor is in the first receiving mode at least when one of the washing racks is communicated to the conveyor in the first direction. The second door is in the open position and the conveyor is in the second receiving mode at least when one of the washing racks is communicated to the conveyor in the second direction. The first door and the second door are both in the closed position at least when one of the washing racks is within the pre-wash enclosure and the water flow is activated. In some embodiments the system further includes a silverware soaking station and an auxiliary conveyor. The conveyor is optionally interposed between the silverware soaking station and the auxiliary conveyor. In some versions of those embodiments the system further includes an actuable flipper arm movable between a retracted flipper position wherein the flipper arm is in non-interference with the silverware soaking station and an extended flipper position wherein the flipper arm is atop the silverware soaking station and more proximal the conveyor than it is in the retracted flipper position. In some versions of those embodiments the system further includes an actuable second flipper arm movable between a second retracted flipper position wherein the second flipper arm is in non-interference with the auxiliary conveyor and a second extended flipper position wherein the second flipper arm is atop the auxiliary conveyor and more proximal the conveyor than it is in the second retracted flipper position. The silverware soaking station may include a soaking tank and a roller platform movable between a transfer platform position substantially coplanar with the conveyor and a soaking platform position recessed into the soak tank and positionally below the transfer platform position. In some versions of those embodiments the system further includes an actuable flipper arm movable between a retracted flipper position wherein the flipper arm is in non-interference with the silverware soaking station and an extended flipper position wherein the flipper arm is atop the silverware soaking station and more proximal the conveyor then it is in the retracted flipper position. In some versions of those embodiments the system further includes a light curtain adjacent the silverware soaking station, the light curtain sensing passes of objects therethrough when the roller platform is in the soaking platform position. The platform may move from the soaking platform position to the transfer platform position after sensing of a predetermined number of object passes by the light curtain when the roller platform is in the soaking platform position. The conveyor may optionally include a plurality of rollers rotationally driving selectively in the first direction and selectively in the second direction, and a plurality of first rotating belts rotationally driving selectively in the third direction, wherein the rotating belts are adjustable between a transferring position positionally above the rollers and a non-transferring position positionally below the rollers. Generally, in another aspect, a method of feeding washing racks to an entrance of a washer is provided and includes the steps of: conveying a silverware washing rack to a silverware soaking station; lowering the silverware washing rack into a soak tank of the silverware soaking station; filling the soak tank with a soaking solution; sensing passes of objects from a silverware user loading area toward the soak tank; determining, based on the step of sensing passes of objects, when a threshold amount of silverware is in the silverware washing rack in the silverware soaking station; raising the silverware washing rack after determining the threshold amount of silverware is in the silverware washing rack; and transferring the silverware washing rack downstream into the entrance of the washer after the step of raising the silverware washing rack after determining the threshold amount of silverware is in the silverware washing rack. In some embodiments the step of transferring the silverware washing rack downstream into the entrance of the washer includes transferring the silverware washing rack to a pre-wash area from a first direction and transferring the silverware washing rack from the pre-wash area directly to the entrance of the washer in a second direction generally perpendicular to the first direction. In some versions of those embodiments the method further includes the steps of opening a door providing access to the pre-wash area from the silverware soaking station prior to transferring the silverware washing rack to the pre-wash area and closing the door after transferring the silverware washing rack to the pre-wash area. In some versions of those embodiments the method further includes the step of directing a pre-wash spray toward the silverware washing rack after closing the door after transferring the silverware washing rack to the pre-wash area and prior to transferring the silverware washing rack from the pre-wash area directly to the entrance of the washer. The term “controller” is used herein generally to describe various apparatus relating to the operation of one or more dishwashing system components. A controller can be implemented in numerous ways (e.g., such as with dedicated hardware) to perform various functions discussed herein. A “processor” is one example of a controller which employs one or more microprocessors that may be programmed using software (e.g., microcode) to perform various functions discussed herein. A controller may be implemented with or without employing a processor, and also may be implemented as a combination of dedicated hardware to perform some functions and a processor (e.g., one or more programmed microprocessors and associated circuitry) to perform other functions. Examples of controller components that may be employed in various embodiments of the present disclosure include, but are not limited to, conventional microprocessors, application specific integrated circuits (ASICs), and field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs). In various implementations, a processor or controller may be associated with one or more storage media (generically referred to herein as “memory,” e.g., volatile and non-volatile computer memory such as RAM, PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM, floppy disks, compact disks, optical disks, magnetic tape, etc.). In some implementations, the storage media may be encoded with one or more programs that, when executed on one or more processors and/or controllers, perform at least some of the functions discussed herein. Various storage media may be fixed within a processor or controller or may be transportable, such that the one or more programs stored thereon can be loaded into a processor or controller so as to implement various aspects of the present invention discussed herein. The terms “program” or “computer program” are used herein in a generic sense to refer to any type of computer code (e.g., software or microcode) that can be employed to program one or more processors or controllers. The term “user interface” as used herein refers to an interface between a human user or operator and one or more devices that enables communication between the user and the device(s). Examples of user interfaces that may be employed in various implementations of the present disclosure include, but are not limited to, switches, potentiometers, buttons, dials, sliders, a mouse, keyboard, keypad, various types of game controllers (e.g., joysticks), track balls, display screens, various types of graphical user interfaces (GUIs), touch screens, microphones and other types of sensors that may receive some form of human-generated stimulus and generate a signal in response thereto. It should be appreciated that all combinations of the foregoing concepts and additional concepts discussed herein are contemplated as being part of the inventive subject matter disclosed herein. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. 1 is a front-right perspective view of an embodiment of the dishwashing system. FIG. 2 is a rear-left perspective view of an embodiment of the dishwashing system. FIG. 3 is a top view of an embodiment of the dishwashing system. FIG. 4 is a front-left perspective view of an embodiment of a portion of the dishwashing system, focusing on an illustration of an embodiment of the silverware soaking station and an embodiment of the pre-wash station conveyor. FIG. 5 is a perspective view of an embodiment of the popup conveyor. FIG. 6 is a perspective view of an embodiment of the popup conveyor, with an embodiment of the motor housing removed to show an embodiment of the popup conveyor motor and the popup lift motor. FIG. 7 is an exploded perspective view of an embodiment of the pre-wash station. FIG. 8 is a perspective view of an embodiment of the assembled pre-wash station. FIG. 9 is a perspective view of an embodiment of the pre-wash station illustrating an embodiment of the doors partially raised. FIG. 10 is a front-right perspective view of an embodiment a portion of the dishwashing system, focusing on the exit conveyor and exit popup conveyor. FIG. 11 is a front-left perspective view of an embodiment of a portion of the dishwashing system, focusing on an illustration of an embodiment of the pre-wash popup conveyor. FIG. 12 is a rear-left perspective view of an embodiment of a portion of the dishwashing system, focusing on an illustration of an embodiment of the silverware soaking station. FIG. 13 is a rear-left exploded perspective view of an embodiment of a portion of the dishwashing system, focusing on an illustration of an embodiment of the silverware soaking station. DETAILED DESCRIPTION In the following detailed description, for purposes of explanation and not limitation, representative embodiments disclosing specific details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the claimed invention. However, it will be apparent to one having ordinary skill in the art having had the benefit of the present disclosure that other embodiments according to the present teachings that depart from the specific details disclosed herein remain within the scope of the appended claims. Moreover, descriptions of well-known apparatus and methods may be omitted so as to not obscure the description of the representative embodiments. Such methods and apparatus are clearly within the scope of the claimed invention. For example, various embodiments of the approach disclosed herein are particularly suited for utilization in combination with a galley style dishwasher. Accordingly, for illustrative purposes, the aspects of a dishwashing system are discussed in conjunction with such a galley style dishwasher. However, other configurations and applications are contemplated without deviating from the scope or spirit of the claimed invention. For example, one or more aspects may be implemented in combination with other washers, such as other types of dishwashers. Also, for example, one or more aspects may be implemented to provide for the delivery of and/or removal of alternative and/or additional materials besides flatware, dishware, etc. from a washer. FIG. 1 is a front-right perspective view of an embodiment of the dishwashing system 100 . This view illustrates embodiments of a load rack 120 , a queue conveyor 110 , a pre-wash station 700 (see FIG. 7 ), an auxiliary conveyor 170 , a dishwasher 150 , an exit conveyor 140 , an exit popup conveyor 500 E (see FIG. 5 ), a load rack 120 , a control enclosure 130 , and a graphical user interface (GUI) 190 . This view illustrates the queue conveyor 110 having a queue frame 113 , a plurality of queue rollers 115 , and a plurality of queue drive bands 117 . Each of the plurality of queue rollers 115 may, as illustrated, be affixed substantially parallel to the other of the plurality of queue rollers 115 . The queue conveyor rollers 115 may be attached to and/or supported by the queue frame 113 . The queue conveyor rollers 115 may be rotationally affixed to one or more additional queue conveyor rollers 115 by a queue drive band 117 . The queue drive band 117 may be used to transfer rotational power from one or more queue conveyor rollers 115 to one or more additional queue conveyor rollers 115 . In this way, as few as one queue conveyor roller 115 may cause the powering of substantially more of the queue conveyor rollers 115 . This may result in a relatively efficient way of transferring a dishwasher rack the length of the queue conveyor 110 . The queue conveyor rollers 115 may be substantially planar and stand at a first conveyor height above the ground, floor, or other supporting surface. The load rack rollers 125 may also stand at the first conveyor height, such that a dishwasher rack may easily be transferred from the load rack 120 to the queue conveyor 110 . FIG. 1 also illustrates an embodiment of the pre-wash station 700 having a hood 710 and an auxiliary side door 730 . The auxiliary side door 730 may raise and lower relative to the hood 710 , as FIGS. 7-9 illustrate in more detail. This view illustrates the auxiliary conveyor 170 having an auxiliary frame 173 , a plurality of auxiliary powered rollers 174 , a plurality of auxiliary rollers 175 , and a plurality of auxiliary drive bands 177 . The auxiliary powered rollers 174 and auxiliary rollers may stand at the first conveyor height, substantially the same as the queue conveyor rollers 115 and the load rack rollers 125 . This view also illustrates the auxiliary conveyor 170 having attached thereto an auxiliary flipper motor 160 and an auxiliary light curtain 180 . The auxiliary flipper motor 160 may be used to transfer a dishwasher rack in a substantially transverse direction to the direction of travel caused by the auxiliary powered rollers 174 . In this way, the dishwasher rack may be transferred from the auxiliary conveyor 170 , through the raised auxiliary side door 730 , and into the pre-wash station 700 . This view illustrates the dishwasher 150 having attached thereto a rinse aid dispenser 152 , a silverware soaking solution dispenser 154 , a detergent dispenser 156 , and a dispenser controller 158 . This view also illustrates the dishwasher 150 having a direction of operation arrow 151 attached thereto. While it is understood that any of a variety of different types of dishwasher may be utilized, or a dishwasher could be specially designed and/or built for use in this dishwashing system, in some implementations the dishwasher may be a galley style dishwasher. In some versions of those implementations the dishwasher may be a GALLEYMASTER 250 dishwasher available from Insinger Machine Company of Philadelphia, Pa. FIG. 1 illustrates the exit conveyor 140 having a plurality of exit rollers 145 and an exit popup conveyor 500 E mated thereto. In some embodiments, it may be desirable that the conveyor within the dishwasher 150 is elevated slightly above the adjacent pre-wash station conveyor rollers 705 and the adjacent exit conveyor rollers 145 and that the conveyor within the dishwasher stand at substantially the same height as the top face 529 , 539 of the popup conveyor 500 E, 500 P, respectively. In this illustration, popup conveyor 500 E is in a raised position, extending above the exit conveyor rollers 145 . This view illustrates the load rack 120 having a plurality of load rack rollers 125 . FIG. 1 illustrates an embodiment of an occupancy switch 184 that may be used to detect the presence of a dishwasher rack and may subsequently relay a signal to controller, such as a controller within the control enclosure 130 . Thus, the dishwashing system 100 may be notified when an object, such as a dishwasher rack, is occupying an area adjacent to the occupancy switch 184 . Referring now to FIG. 2 , an illustration of a rear-left perspective view of an embodiment of the dishwashing system is provided. This view illustrates embodiments of the load rack 120 , the queue conveyor 110 , the silverware soaking station 1100 (see FIGS. 11-13 for more detail regarding the silverware soaking station 1100 ), the auxiliary conveyor 170 , the pre-wash station 700 , the dishwasher 150 , the exit conveyor 140 , and the exit popup conveyor 500 E. FIG. 2 further illustrates this embodiment of the silverware soaking station 1100 as having a soak tank 1130 and a silverware soaking station elevator 1150 . FIG. 2 also illustrates the silverware soaking station 1100 as being supported by a silverware soaking station frame 1173 . FIG. 2 also illustrates the embodiment of the control enclosure 130 and the GUI 190 illustrated in FIG. 1 , but from a different perspective as described above. Referring now to FIG. 3 , an illustration of a top view of the embodiment of the dishwashing system illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 2 is provided. FIG. 3 illustrates many of the features illustrated in FIG. 1 and/or FIG. 2 , including the load rack 120 , the queue conveyor 110 , the silverware soaking station (SSS) 1100 , the pre-wash station 700 , the auxiliary conveyor 170 , the dishwasher 150 , the exit conveyor 140 , and the exit popup conveyor 500 E. FIG. 4 is an illustration of a front-left perspective view of an embodiment of a portion of the dishwashing system, focusing on an illustration of an embodiment of the silverware soaking station and an embodiment of the pre-wash station conveyor. FIG. 4 illustrates the embodiment of this portion of the dishwashing system 100 having the pre-wash station 700 without the hood 710 , auxiliary side door 730 , or other components that prevent view of the pre-wash conveyor rollers 705 , the pre-wash conveyor drive bands 707 , a garbage grinder 795 , and/or the pre-wash popup conveyor 500 P. FIG. 4 illustrates the embodiment of the queue conveyor 110 , the silverware soaking station (SSS) 1100 , the pre-wash station 700 , the auxiliary conveyor 170 , and the dishwasher 150 illustrated in FIGS. 1-3 . The embodiment illustrated in FIG. 4 contains pre-wash conveyor rollers 705 that may be powered directly by a motor or indirectly via the pre-wash conveyor drive bands 707 . The pre-wash conveyor drive bands 707 may allow transfer of rotational power from a driven pre-wash conveyor roller 705 to another pre-wash conveyor roller 705 . In this embodiment, the source of rotational power for the pre-wash conveyor rollers 705 may be capable of articulating in at least two, opposite directions, thereby causing transfer of a dishwasher rack from the silverware soaking station 1100 and/or the auxiliary conveyor 170 . One or more occupancy switches 184 may be used to notify the dishwashing system 100 when the silverware soaking station 1100 and/or the pre-wash station 700 is occupied by a dishwasher rack or other object, as illustrated in FIG. 4 . The notification of occupancy provided by the occupancy switches 184 may be used to activate the pre-wash popup conveyor 500 P, so that the pre-wash popup conveyor 500 P extends upwards to lift the occupying dishwasher rack and the pre-wash popup conveyor 500 P may be activated to transfer the dishwasher rack into the dishwasher 150 . The garbage grinder 795 may be operatively attached to a sink or basin of the pre-wash station 700 to grind and discharge food or other particulates that may be removed from the dishware, silverware, or other objects caused to enter the pre-wash station 700 . FIG. 4 illustrates an embodiment of the SSS 1100 having a soak tank 1130 located below a plurality of SSS rollers 1115 , a SSS elevator 1150 , an SSS flipper 1165 , and an SSS light curtain 1180 . The SSS rollers 1115 may be substantially perpendicular to, and/or coplanar with, the queue conveyor rollers 115 as illustrated in FIG. 4 . The SSS rollers 1115 may be attached to the SSS elevator 1150 so that a dishwasher rack may be lowered into the soak tank 1130 as desired, and as controlled by the dishwashing system 100 . The SSS 1100 may have one or more occupancy switches 184 located adjacent to the SSS 1100 to notify the dishwashing system 100 of the presence of a dishwasher rack or other object. The SSS 1100 may contain a flipper 1165 used to transfer the dishwasher rack in a transverse direction to the direction of travel along the queue conveyor 110 and into the pre-wash station 700 . By using the flipper 1165 , the SSS rollers 1115 may optionally be unpowered. Referring now to FIGS. 5 and 6 , an illustration of a perspective view of an embodiment of the popup conveyor 500 is provided. The popup conveyor 500 may, in operation, be located at the exit conveyor 140 and/or the pre-wash station 700 , and may be referred to as the exit popup conveyor 500 E and the pre-wash popup conveyor 500 P, respectively. FIGS. 5 and 6 illustrate this embodiment of the popup conveyor 500 having a first arm 520 , a second arm 530 , a first arm belt 525 , a second arm belt 535 , a second arm driver pulley 531 , a second arm tail pulley 532 , a second arm dummy pulley 533 , a first arm tail pulley 522 , a first arm top face 529 , a second arm top face 539 , and a plurality of mounting brackets 570 . Although somewhat obscured from view by the first arm 520 and/or the first arm belt 525 , this embodiment may include a first arm driver pulley, a first arm tail pulley, and a first arm dummy pulley, oriented similarly to the corresponding pulleys of the second arm 530 . FIG. 5 illustrates an embodiment of a motor housing 510 that is absent from FIG. 6 . FIG. 6 shows this embodiment without the motor housing to illustrate an embodiment of a popup conveyor motor 620 , a popup lift motor 640 , limiting switches 690 , a popup conveyor motor axle 625 , a first arm bracket 630 , a central motor bracket 650 , and a second arm bracket 670 . In this embodiment, the popup conveyor 500 may be mounted or otherwise attached to the exit conveyor 140 and/or the pre-wash station 700 through the plurality of mounting brackets 570 . The popup lift motor 640 may receive input from a controller and may also receive electrical power or other power to operate as desired. The popup lift motor 620 may rotate between two angular positions as determined by the location of the limiting switches 690 . The popup lift conveyor motor 640 may have a home position and an extended position determined by the limiting switches 690 . The popup lift motor 640 may be integral, attached, or otherwise affixed to a first arm bracket 630 and/or a central motor bracket 650 so that, while rotating from the home position to the extended position, the popup lift motor 640 may lift the some or all of the other components of the popup conveyor 500 . In this way, the first arm belt 525 and the second arm belt 535 may be lifted or lowered, in some embodiments, to be above or below the top surface of the exit conveyor rollers 145 and/or the pre-wash conveyor rollers 705 , and thus the first arm belt 525 and second arm belt 535 may be brought into direct contact with a dishwasher rack located at the exit conveyor 140 and/or the pre-wash station 700 , respectively. In the embodiment of the popup conveyor 500 illustrated in FIGS. 5 and 6 , the popup conveyor motor 620 may be operatively connected to an input signal and/or a power source to be activated as desired. When activated, the popup conveyor motor 620 may rotationally drive the second arm driver pulley 531 and/or the first arm driver pulley (obscured by the first arm 520 and/or the first arm belt 525 ) either directly or through an axle, such as the popup conveyor axle 625 . This rotational driving of the second arm driver pulley 531 will cause the second arm belt 535 to move in a direction consistent with the direction of rotation of the second arm driver pulley 531 . The second arm tail pulley 532 and one or more second arm dummy pulleys 533 may be used to guide the second arm belt 535 . In this way, the second arm belt 535 may frictionally transfer an object adjacent to the second arm belt 535 at or near the second arm top face 539 . Substantially the same components and the same operation may optionally be employed to drive the first arm belt 525 as is used to drive the second arm belt 535 . It is understood that, although it may be desirable to have the first arm 520 and the second arm 530 be substantially structurally the same or similar, the first arm 520 and the second arm 530 do not need to be the same or similar. Regarding FIGS. 5 and 6 , it is understood that the exit conveyor 500 E and the pre-wash conveyor 500 P, while illustrated in this embodiment as utilizing substantially the same design and substantially the same structure, may be substantially different in design and/or structure. However, in some implementations it may be desirable to utilize the same or similar design and/or structure for exit popup conveyor 500 E and pre-wash popup conveyor 500 P for simplicity of manufacture, installation, maintenance, and/or achieving economies of scale. FIG. 7 is an illustration of an exploded perspective view of an embodiment of the pre-wash station 700 . This view illustrates an embodiment of the hood 710 , the auxiliary side door 730 , the queue side door 750 , an external wall 770 , a pre-wash frame 790 , an auxiliary side elevator 735 , a queue side elevator 755 , a queue side door motor 720 , an auxiliary side door motor 740 , a door motor bracket 760 , photo switches 780 , a photo switch mounting bracket 782 , switch holders 784 , and a reflector 786 . This view being an exploded view, the components are substantially oriented as they would be in this embodiment but are removed some distance from the location they would be in this embodiment if assembled. In this embodiment, the pre-wash frame 790 may stand on the ground, floor, or other surface and support the pre-wash station 700 at a desired height. In some embodiments, the external wall 770 may be integral with or attached to the pre-wash frame 790 and the door motor bracket 760 may be integral with or attached to the external wall 770 . It is understood that other components may be introduced to support the door motor bracket 760 ; this embodiment merely illustrates one structure suitable for such support. The door motor bracket 760 may be sized to accept and have mounted thereto the auxiliary side door motor 740 and/or the queue side door motor 720 . The auxiliary side door motor 740 and/or the queue side door motor 720 may be operatively connected to a control input and/or power source so that they may be activated as desired. The auxiliary side door motor 740 may have attached thereto an auxiliary door belt 745 that may wrapped around the auxiliary side door motor 740 thereby shortening the downward extension of the auxiliary door belt 745 from the auxiliary motor 740 , or unwrapped from the auxiliary side door motor 740 thereby lengthening the downward extension of the auxiliary door belt 745 from the auxiliary side door motor 740 . Similarly, the queue side door motor 720 may have attached thereto a queue door belt 725 that may be wrapped around the queue side door motor 720 thereby shortening the downward extension of the queue door belt 725 from the queue motor 720 , or unwrapped from the queue side door motor 720 thereby lengthening the downward extension of the queue door belt 725 from the queue side door motor 720 . The auxiliary door belt 745 may have at an end opposite the auxiliary side door motor 720 an auxiliary side elevator 735 that may be raised or allowed with the wrapping or unwrapping of the auxiliary door belt 745 . The auxiliary side elevator 735 may be integral with, or attached to, the auxiliary side door 730 . Thus, as the auxiliary side elevator 735 is raised or lowered, the auxiliary side door 730 is likewise raised or lowered. Similarly, the queue door belt 725 may have at an end opposite the queue side door motor 720 a queue side elevator 755 that may be raised or allowed with the wrapping or unwrapping of the queue door belt 725 . The queue side elevator 755 may be integral with, or attached to, the queue side door 750 . Thus, as the queue side elevator 755 is raised or lowered, the queue side door 750 is likewise raised or lowered. The auxiliary door motor 740 and the queue door motor 720 may be operated independently of the other so that, at any time, the auxiliary side door 730 and/or the queue side door 750 may be raised or lowered independent of the other. FIG. 7 further illustrates this embodiment of the pre-wash station 700 having the hood 710 having one or more auxiliary door attachment grooves 713 and/or one or more queue door attachment grooves 715 . The attachment grooves 713 , 715 may slideably engage the auxiliary hood tongue 731 and/or the queue hood tongue, respectively. In this way, the auxiliary side door 730 and/or the queue side door 750 may be horizontally constrained but allowed to slide vertically with relation to the hood 710 . Although not pictured in FIG. 7 , in some embodiments the pre-wash station 700 may include a pre-wash conveyor having, among other things, pre-wash rollers 705 and pre-wash drive bands 707 (see FIG. 11 ). In these embodiments, the pre-wash frame 790 , the external wall 770 , the auxiliary side door 730 and the queue side door 750 may be sized and oriented to allow the pre-wash conveyor to fit inside, above the pre-wash frame 790 . The photo switches 780 may be used to detect the presence of a dishwasher rack or other object within the pre-wash station 700 . The photo switches 780 may then notify a controller of the dishwasher system 100 of the presence of a dishwasher rack or other object. The photo switches 780 may be held and/or mounted to other pre-wash station 700 structure by use of switch holders 784 and/or mounting brackets 782 , in a desired location and/or locations. The reflectors 786 may interact with opposed photo switches 780 to selectively reflect light generated by the photo switches 780 back toward the photo switches 780 . Based on signals from the photo switches 780 , for example, a controller of the dishwasher system 100 may determine the position and/or location of the side doors 730 , 750 as described below regarding FIGS. 8 and 9 . Referring now to FIGS. 8 and 9 , these figures illustrate a perspective view of the embodiment of the pre-wash station 700 illustrated in FIG. 7 . FIGS. 8 and 9 illustrate this embodiment in its partially assembled form. FIG. 8 illustrates the embodiment with the auxiliary side door 730 and the queue side door 750 in their lowered, or closed, positions. FIG. 9 illustrates the embodiment with the side doors 730 , 750 in partially raised, or partially opened, positions. These figures illustrate the reflectors 786 as they might be located on the auxiliary side door 730 . The reflectors 786 may reflect light back toward a photo switch 780 when they are aligned with the photo switch 780 to enable determination of the position of the side doors 730 , 750 based on readings from one or more photo switches 780 . Referring now to FIG. 10 , a perspective view of a portion of an embodiment of the dishwasher system 100 , focusing on the exit conveyor 140 and exit popup conveyor 500 E is illustrated. This view shows the exit popup conveyor 500 E in its extended position so that a portion of the first arm belt 525 and a portion of the second arm belt 535 are above the upper most portion of the exit conveyor rollers 145 . This view also illustrates exit conveyor drive bands 1047 that may transfer rotational power from one exit conveyor roller 145 to one or more other exit conveyor rollers 145 . In this way, the exit popup conveyor 500 E may assist a dishwasher rack in exiting the dishwasher 150 . The exit popup conveyor 500 E may then be returned to its home position wherein the first arm belt 525 and the second arm belt 535 are entirely below the top of the exit conveyor rollers 145 , thus transferring the dishwasher rack from being supported by the exit popup conveyor 500 E to the exit conveyor 140 . The exit conveyor 140 may be rotationally powered by use of a motor and/or other power source and some or all of the exit conveyor rollers 145 may receive rotational power through the exit conveyor drive bands 1047 . Thus, the exit conveyor may manually or automatically transfer a dishwasher rack or other object from the dishwasher 150 to the load rack 120 . Referring now to FIGS. 11-13 , these figures show various perspective views of a portion of the dishwasher system 100 , focusing on a portion of the pre-wash station 700 and the silverware soaking station 1100 . FIG. 11 is a front-left perspective view illustrating an embodiment of the silverware soaking station (SSS) 1100 having a SSS frame 1173 , a SSS flipper 1165 , a SSS light curtain 1180 , a SSS occupancy switch 1190 , and SSS rollers 1115 . In this embodiment, the SSS frame 1173 may be used to support the SSS at a desired height. In some preferred embodiments, the SSS rollers may be substantially planar and stand at a height substantially equal to the height of the queue conveyor rollers 115 and the pre-wash station rollers 705 . In this way, transfer of a dishwasher rack or other object having a substantially planar bottom surface from queue conveyor 110 to SSS 1110 and from SSS 1110 to pre-wash station 700 may be facilitated. The SSS elevator may be activated as desired to raise or lower the SSS rollers 1115 , and consequently the dishwasher rack resting thereon into a soak tank 1130 (see FIG. 3 ) located directly below the SSS rollers 1115 . The SSS rollers 1115 may be supported by a SSS conveyor support 1153 (see FIG. 13 ) to facilitate raising and lowering of the SSS rollers 1115 . The occupancy switch 1190 may be used to detect and notify the dishwasher system 100 of the presence of a dishwasher rack so that desired actions may subsequently occur. The SSS elevator 1150 may be raised and/or lowered by a SSS elevator motor 1140 (see FIG. 13 ). The SSS elevator motor 1140 may be activated or not activated based on input from the GUI 190 (See FIG. 1 ) so that a dishwasher rack may be lowered and soaked at the SSS 1100 or not lowered and soaked at the SSS 1100 as desired. The SSS 1100 may contain the SSS flipper 1165 that may, while at rest, be substantially fully contained within the SSS elevator 1150 and, when activated, may extend outward to push a dishwasher rack or other object from the SSS 1100 to the pre-wash station 700 . The SSS flipper 1165 may be powered by a SSS flipper motor 1160 . In this way, the dishwasher rack may be transferred from the SSS 1100 to the pre-wash station 700 using substantially less power than may be needed if one or more of the SSS rollers 1115 were rotationally powered as they may be, for example, in the queue conveyor 110 . The SSS light curtain 1180 may have opposed sending and receiving components facing one another as shown, for example, in FIG. 11 . The SSS light curtain 1180 may send light from the sending component to the receiving component and may detect when the light sent is interrupted or breached. The SSS light curtain 1180 may send a signal to a controller indicative of an interruption or breach occurring. In this way, signals from the SSS light curtain 1180 may be used to determine the number of occurrences of breach, which may, if desired, be used to count the number of objects that have entered the SSS 1100 . Thus, the SSS 1100 and its components may be activated as desired to, for example, lower or raise a dishwasher rack into the soak tank 1130 or activate the SSS flipper 1165 . FIG. 13 is an exploded perspective view of a portion of the dishwasher system 100 , focusing on the SSS 1100 and the pre-wash popup conveyor 500 P. The pre-wash popup conveyor 500 P is illustrated in its extended position which, in some embodiments, may not occur until after a dishwasher rack is located above the pre-wash popup conveyor 500 P. In some embodiments, it may not be desirable for the pre-wash popup conveyor 500 P to be in its extended position before a dishwasher rack's entry into the pre-wash station 700 as the pre-wash popup conveyor 500 P in the extended position may effectively block the transfer of the dishwasher rack to a position completely within the pre-wash station 700 . FIGS. 12 and 13 illustrate an embodiment of the SSS 1100 having an SSS elevator motor 1140 , an SSS elevator mount bracket 1148 , an SSS elevator drive pulley 1142 , an SSS elevator belt 1155 , an SSS elevator slot 1152 , an SSS conveyor support 1153 , SSS attachment plates 1158 , 1159 , and an SSS cover plate 1170 . These views illustrate this embodiment having the SSS elevator motor 1140 attached to a lower portion of the SSS frame 1173 via the SSS elevator mount bracket 1148 . In this embodiment, the SSS elevator drive pulley 1142 is integral with or attached to the SSS elevator motor 1140 . The SSS elevator drive pulley 1142 may have a SSS elevator belt 1155 wrapped around it. In this way, the SSS elevator motor 1140 may drive the SSS elevator drive pulley 1142 which in turn may cause linear motion of the SSS elevator belt 1155 . The SSS elevator belt 1155 may be attached to the SSS elevator 1150 so that when the SSS elevator belt 1155 is caused to move linearly, the SSS elevator 1150 is consequently raised or lowered, depending on the direction of rotation of the SSS elevator motor 1140 . The SSS elevator 1150 may contain slots 1152 that may constrain the SSS elevator 1150 horizontally while allowing the SSS elevator to slideably engage the SSS frame 1173 in a vertical direction. In this way, the slots 1152 may guide the SSS elevator 1150 without overly inhibiting desired vertical linear motion. As discussed above, the SSS elevator 1150 may be attached to or integral with the SSS conveyor support 1153 so that the SSS conveyor support 1153 may support the SSS rollers 1115 and thereby raise and lower the SSS conveyor rollers 1115 with the SSS elevator 1150 . The SSS attachment plates 1158 , 1159 and the SSS cover plate 1170 may be attached together and also attached to the SSS elevator 1150 as illustrated in FIGS. 12 and 13 to protect the moving components of the SSS 1100 and/or to protect human operators that may be near the SSS 1100 during SSS elevator 1150 operation. In some embodiments of a washing system, there may be provided, in any combination, some or all of the following: a load rack, a queue conveyor, a silverware soaking station, a pre-wash station, a pre-wash popup conveyor, an auxiliary conveyor, a washer, an exit conveyor, and an exit popup conveyor. The load rack may contain one or more rollers arranged to form a loader conveyor and the load rack may be supported by a loader frame so that the loader conveyor is substantially planar and standing at a first conveyor height. The first conveyor height may be a substantially fixed distance measured from the ground, floor, or other surface supporting the frame, to the center of the conveyor rollers. The load rack may be sized and shaped to support a dishwasher rack of a predetermined size and shape. The queue conveyor may be adjacent to the load rack, at a queue conveyor entry end. The queue conveyor may be sized and shaped to accept and transfer the dishwasher rack from the queue conveyor entry end to a queue conveyor exit end. The queue conveyor may contain one or more rollers arranged to form a continuous conveyor. The queue conveyor rollers may be oriented with axes transverse to axes of the loader conveyor rollers. In this way, the queue conveyor may transfer a dishwasher rack in a direction transverse to the direction of transfer of the loader conveyor. The queue conveyor may be supported by a queue frame so that the queue conveyor is substantially planar and standing at the first conveyor height. The queue conveyor rollers may be shaped to accept the dishwasher rack and powered to automatically transfer the dishwasher rack from the queue conveyor entry end to the queue conveyor exit end. The silverware soaking station (SSS) may be adjacent to the queue conveyor exit end. The SSS may contain a SSS conveyor, a SSS soak tank, a SSS elevator, and/or a SSS light curtain. The SSS conveyor may be sized and shaped to accept and transfer the dishwasher rack from the queue conveyor exit end to a SSS conveyor exit end. The SSS conveyor may contain one or more rollers arranged to form a continuous conveyor. The SSS conveyor rollers may be oriented with axes transverse to the axes of the queue conveyor rollers. In this way, the SSS conveyor may transfer a dishwasher rack in a direction transverse to the direction of transfer of the queue conveyor. The SSS conveyor may be supported by a SSS conveyor support. The SSS conveyor support may be attached to a SSS elevator. The SSS station may be supported by a SSS frame. The SSS elevator may have an elevated position substantially equal to the first conveyor height and the SSS elevator may have a lowered position closer to the ground, floor, or other surface supporting the SSS frame. The SSS elevator may be used to lower a dishwasher rack into the SSS soak tank. The SSS soak tank may be filled with water and/or a silverware soaking solution. In this way, a dishwasher rack, when located at the SSS station, may be lowered from the first conveyor height into a silverware soaking solution used to clean silverware or other objects. The SSS elevator may then raise the dishwasher rack. The SSS may also contain a SSS flipper that may be powered by a SSS flipper motor. The SSS flipper may lie in a plane parallel to an outer wall of the SSS and may extend to transfer a dishwasher rack in the direction of rotation of the SSS conveyor rollers. In this way, a dishwasher rack may be transferred in a queue conveyor direction, be received from the queue conveyor exit end and transferred by the SSS flipper in a direction transverse to the queue conveyor direction to an exit end of the SSS conveyor. The SSS light curtain may contain a signal transmitter and a signal receiver. The SSS light curtain may detect when an object breaches a predetermined area. Thus, readings from the SSS light curtain may be used to determine (e.g. by a controller) how many objects have breached the area. A controller may then optionally cause a desired operation to be performed in response to such determination, including, but not limited to, sending information to a user interface and/or activating the SSS elevator motor. It is understood that other operations may be performed using the input from the SSS light curtain. Persons of ordinary skill in the art, having had the benefit of the present disclosure, will recognize and appreciate that additional and/or alternative operations may be performed using the input from the SSS light curtain and/or other sensors that may sense when silverware and/or other objects have been loaded into the SSS. The pre-wash station may be adjacent to and downstream of the SSS. The pre-wash station may contain a pre-wash conveyor, a hood, an enclosure wall, a pre-wash frame, a SSS side door, an auxiliary side door, a SSS side door motor, an auxiliary side door motor, a SSS side door elevator, an auxiliary side door elevator, a spray nozzle, a sink, a garbage grinder, and/or a pre-wash popup conveyor. The pre-wash conveyor may contain one or more pre-wash conveyor rollers that are oriented substantially parallel to the SSS conveyor rollers. The pre-wash conveyor may be supported by a pre-wash frame so that the pre-wash conveyor is substantially planar and standing at the first conveyor height. The pre-wash conveyor rollers may be shaped to accept the dishwasher rack when received via the SSS conveyor and/or powered to automatically transfer the dishwasher rack from the SSS conveyor exit end until the dishwasher rack is fully contained within the pre-wash station. The hood may contain a top wall substantially parallel to the pre-wash conveyor and/or side walls substantially perpendicular to the top wall so that the side walls attach and/or are integral to the top wall and extend downward toward the pre-wash conveyor. The enclosure wall may attach or be integral to the top wall and extend downward to the pre-wash frame which may be used to support the pre-wash station. The SSS side door may attach and/or be integral to the hood and may extend downward to the pre-wash conveyor so that the SSS side door may isolate the SSS conveyor from the pre-wash conveyor. The enclosure wall may be substantially perpendicular to the SSS side door so that the enclosure wall does not impede movement of the dishwasher rack along the pre-wash and/or SSS conveyor. The SSS side door may slideably engage the hood and/or the enclosure wall and the SSS side door may be attached to the SSS side door elevator. The SSS side door elevator may raise the SSS side door into a SSS side door elevated position and the SSS side door elevator may lower the SSS side door into a SSS side door lowered position. The SSS side door elevator may be raised and/or lowered by a SSS side door elevator motor. In this way, the SSS side door may be raised to allow entry of a dishwasher rack from the SSS station into the pre-wash station or lowered to impede such entry and also, when lowered, the SSS side door may contain spray within the pre-wash station. The auxiliary side door may be located opposite the SSS side door and oriented parallel to the SSS side door. The auxiliary side door may optionally engage the hood and enclosure wall in substantially the same way as the SSS side door. Through application of an auxiliary side door elevator and an auxiliary side door elevator motor, the auxiliary side door may optionally be raised and lowered in substantially the same way as the SSS side door. The primary difference may be only that the auxiliary side door is located opposite the SSS side door and the auxiliary side door is located between the pre-wash station and the auxiliary conveyor. The auxiliary conveyor is discussed in more detail below. The pre-wash station may contain a spray nozzle capable of spraying water onto a dishwasher rack located within the pre-wash station. The spray nozzle may be capable of spraying high temperature and/or high pressure water or other liquid. The SSS side door and auxiliary side door may be lowered before the spray nozzle is activated to contain the spray within the pre-wash station. The pre-wash station may contain a sink, located below the pre-wash station conveyor, capable of collecting and directing any run-off fluid and/or debris from the pre-wash station. The sink may be formed to attach to a garbage grinder. The garbage grinder may be below the sink and may be used to grind down any relatively large particles, such as food particles, into a form that may flow out of a drain or pipe. The pre-wash station may contain a popup conveyor capable of extending upward from under the pre-wash station conveyor to lift the dishwasher rack and transfer it in a direction transverse to the direction of travel along the pre-wash conveyor. The popup conveyor may attach to the pre-wash station or pre-wash station frame. The popup conveyor may contain a first arm, a second arm, a popup conveyor motor, a popup lift motor, a first arm driver pulley, a second arm driver pulley, a first arm tail pulley, a second arm tail pulley, a first arm belt, and/or a second arm belt. The first arm may contain a first arm top face and the second arm may contain a second arm top face. A portion of the first arm belt may run substantially parallel to the first arm top face and a portion of the second arm belt may run substantially parallel to the second arm top face. The first arm belt may wrap around the first arm driver pulley and the first arm tail pulley. The second arm belt may wrap around the second arm driver pulley and the second arm tail pulley. The first arm belt and second arm belt may run substantially parallel. The first arm driver pulley and the second arm driver pulley may be driven by the popup conveyor motor, which may be located between the first arm driver pulley and the second arm driver pulley. The popup lift motor may be attached to the popup conveyor. The popup conveyor may have a lowered position and an extended position. The popup lift motor may transfer the popup conveyor from the lowered position to the extended position or the popup lift motor may transfer the popup conveyor from the extended position to the lowered position. In the lowered position, the first arm top face and/or the second arm top face may be entirely below the pre-wash station roller conveyors. In the extended position, the first arm top face and/or the second arm top face may be above the pre-wash station conveyor rollers. In this way, the popup conveyor may extend upward so that the dishwasher rack rests on the first arm top face and the second arm top face and the dishwasher rack may be lifted above the pre-wash conveyor rollers until the dishwasher rack is no longer in gravitational contact with the pre-wash conveyor rollers. The popup conveyor motor can then be activated, thereby activating the first arm belt and/or the second arm belt to transfer the dishwasher rack in a direction transverse to the direction the dishwasher rack was traveling on the pre-wash conveyor rollers. The auxiliary conveyor may be located on a side of the dishwashing system opposite the queue conveyor. The auxiliary conveyor may optionally be formed and operated in substantially the same way as the queue conveyor. The auxiliary conveyor may contain rollers, located at the first conveyor height, which may transfer a dishwasher rack in a direction parallel to the direction of travel of the queue conveyor rollers. However, instead of a SSS, the auxiliary conveyor also contains a second section containing rollers that may transfer a dishwasher rack in a direction transverse to the direction of travel on the remainder of the auxiliary conveyor. The second section of the auxiliary conveyor may contain an auxiliary flipper and/or an auxiliary flipper motor, optionally similar to the SSS flipper and/or the SSS flipper motor described above. In this way, a dishwasher rack may be placed on the auxiliary conveyor, transferred a distance in a first direction, and moved transversely to the first direction by a flipper into the pre-wash station. Thus, the pre-wash station may be loaded from either a SSS side or an auxiliary conveyor side. The dishwasher may have an entry end adjacent to the pre-wash station. The dishwasher may contain a conveyor that operates in a direction substantially the same and collinear with the direction of operation of the popup conveyor, transferring a dishwasher rack from the dishwasher entry end to a dishwasher exit end. The dishwasher may have a longitudinal length, optionally collinear with the direction of operation of the dishwasher conveyor, which is optionally substantially the same as a longitudinal length of the queue conveyor. The longitudinal length of the queue conveyor may be collinear with the direction of conveyor operation of the queue conveyor. The dishwasher direction of operation and the queue conveyor direction of operation may be substantially parallel, but opposite. To save space, a side wall of the queue conveyor and a side wall of the dishwasher may be adjacent. The dishwasher may contain a detergent dispenser, a rinse aid dispenser, and/or other dispensers for use in dishwashing. An entry end of the exit conveyor may be adjacent to the dishwasher exit end. The exit conveyor may contain exit conveyor rollers located at the first conveyor height. The exit conveyor rollers may transfer a dishwasher rack in a direction transverse to the direction of operation of the dishwasher conveyor. The exit conveyor may have an exit end adjacent to the load rack. The exit conveyor may contain an exit popup conveyor that, while in its extended position, may operate to assist a dishwasher rack in exiting the dishwasher exit end. The exit conveyor may then lower thereby transferring the dishwasher rack to the exit conveyor rollers. The exit popup conveyor may optionally be substantially structurally and operationally the same as the pre-wash popup conveyor, described above. In some embodiments, one or more controllers (e.g. a processor) may be used to operate the dishwashing system as desired. An interface may optionally be utilized so that a user may input parameters which may then be transferred into commands by the controllers for various operations of the dishwashing system. The interface may be, for example, but not limited to, a graphical user interface (GUI), a human machine interface (HMI), and/or other type of interface. For example, a user may input that a dishwasher rack is intended for silverware. In this example, if desired, the silverware soaking station may only be lowered into the soak tank if the user inputs the dishwasher rack as containing silverware. Thus, in this example, if the user input a dishwasher rack containing silverware, the silverware soaking station elevator motor may be activated when the dishwasher rack containing silverware arrived at the silverware soaking station. In this example, a dishwasher rack not containing silverware may optionally be allowed to skip the silverware soaking station soak tank. Similarly, other operations may be performed, or skipped, as desired and/or in accordance with given user inputs via the interface. In some embodiments, the above-mentioned components may be used, individually or in any combination, to form one or more aspects of a dishwashing system. In some embodiments, a dishwasher rack may be placed on the load rack. The dishwasher rack may contain one or more pieces of dishware, silverware/flatware, and/or other items. The dishwasher rack may then be transferred manually, automatically, and/or otherwise, from the load rack onto the queue conveyor. The dishwasher rack may then be transferred along the queue conveyor manually, automatically, and/or otherwise to the silverware soaking station (SSS). The queue conveyor may automatically transfer the dishwasher rack by utilizing motorized queue conveyor rollers. One or more of the queue conveyor rollers may attach to a driving motor directly, by coupling, by belt, by chain, and/or otherwise. One or more of the queue conveyor rollers may receive power from an otherwise powered roller by being banded, belted, chained, or otherwise connected to the otherwise powered roller. The dishwasher rack may then be transferred onto the SSS. The dishwasher rack may then be lowered into the soak tank, if desired, and subsequently raised, if originally lowered. The dishwasher rack may then be pushed by the SSS flipper and rolled along the SSS conveyor rollers to the pre-wash station. Once fully within the pre-wash station, the pre-wash station SSS side door and/or the pre-wash station auxiliary side door may be lowered to enclose the dishwasher rack. The pre-wash popup conveyor may then be activated to raise and engage the dishwasher rack. The spray nozzle within the pre-wash station may be activated before, during, or after the popup conveyor engages the dishwasher rack, thus spraying the contents of the dishwasher rack and, ideally, removing any large particles, such as food particles, from the contents of the dishwasher rack. The popup conveyor may transfer the dishwasher rack transversely into the dishwasher. The dishwasher rack may be transferred through the dishwasher while being washed. The exit popup conveyor may raise to accept the dishwasher rack and pull the dishwasher rack into position above the exit conveyor. The exit popup conveyor may then lower the dishwasher rack onto the exit conveyor rollers. The exit conveyor rollers may then be active manually or automatically, to transfer the dishwasher rack back into its original position on the load rack. The cycle can then be repeated with another load (optionally while one or more additional loads are at other steps in the cycle). While several inventive embodiments have been described and illustrated herein, those of ordinary skill in the art will readily envision a variety of other means and/or structures for performing the function and/or obtaining the results and/or one or more of the advantages described herein, and each of such variations and/or modifications is deemed to be within the scope of the inventive embodiments described herein. More generally, those skilled in the art will readily appreciate that all parameters, dimensions, materials, and configurations described herein are meant to be exemplary and that the actual parameters, dimensions, materials, and/or configurations will depend upon the specific application or applications for which the inventive teachings is/are used. Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation, many equivalents to the specific inventive embodiments described herein. It is, therefore, to be understood that the foregoing embodiments are presented by way of example only and that, within the scope of the appended claims and equivalents thereto, inventive embodiments may be practiced otherwise than as specifically described and claimed. Inventive embodiments of the present disclosure are directed to each individual feature, system, article, material, kit, and/or method described herein. In addition, any combination of two or more such features, systems, articles, materials, kits, and/or methods, if such features, systems, articles, materials, kits, and/or methods are not mutually inconsistent, is included within the inventive scope of the present disclosure. All definitions, as defined and used herein, should be understood to control over dictionary definitions, definitions in documents incorporated by reference, and/or ordinary meanings of the defined terms. The indefinite articles “a” and “an,” as used herein in the specification and in the claims, unless clearly indicated to the contrary, should be understood to mean “at least one.” The phrase “and/or,” as used herein in the specification and in the claims, should be understood to mean “either or both” of the elements so conjoined, i.e., elements that are conjunctively present in some cases and disjunctively present in other cases. Multiple elements listed with “and/or” should be construed in the same fashion, i.e., “one or more” of the elements so conjoined. Other elements may optionally be present other than the elements specifically identified by the “and/or” clause, whether related or unrelated to those elements specifically identified. Thus, as a non-limiting example, a reference to “A and/or B”, when used in conjunction with open-ended language such as “comprising” can refer, in one embodiment, to A only (optionally including elements other than B); in another embodiment, to B only (optionally including elements other than A); in yet another embodiment, to both A and B (optionally including other elements); etc. As used herein in the specification and in the claims, “or” should be understood to have the same meaning as “and/or” as defined above. For example, when separating items in a list, “or” or “and/or” shall be interpreted as being inclusive, i.e., the inclusion of at least one, but also including more than one, of a number or list of elements, and, optionally, additional unlisted items. Only terms clearly indicated to the contrary, such as “only one of” or “exactly one of,” or, when used in the claims, “consisting of,” will refer to the inclusion of exactly one element of a number or list of elements. In general, the term “or” as used herein shall only be interpreted as indicating exclusive alternatives (i.e. “one or the other but not both”) when preceded by terms of exclusivity, such as “either,” “one of,” “only one of,” or “exactly one of.” “Consisting essentially of,” when used in the claims, shall have its ordinary meaning as used in the field of patent law. As used herein in the specification and in the claims, the phrase “at least one,” in reference to a list of one or more elements, should be understood to mean at least one element selected from any one or more of the elements in the list of elements, but not necessarily including at least one of each and every element specifically listed within the list of elements and not excluding any combinations of elements in the list of elements. This definition also allows that elements may optionally be present other than the elements specifically identified within the list of elements to which the phrase “at least one” refers, whether related or unrelated to those elements specifically identified. Thus, as a non-limiting example, “at least one of A and B” (or, equivalently, “at least one of A or B,” or, equivalently “at least one of A and/or B”) can refer, in one embodiment, to at least one, optionally including more than one, A, with no B present (and optionally including elements other than B); in another embodiment, to at least one, optionally including more than one, B, with no A present (and optionally including elements other than A); in yet another embodiment, to at least one, optionally including more than one, A, and at least one, optionally including more than one, B (and optionally including other elements); etc. It should also be understood that, unless clearly indicated to the contrary, in any methods claimed herein that include more than one step or act, the order of the steps or acts of the method is not necessarily limited to the order in which the steps or acts of the method are recited. In the claims, as well as in the specification above, all transitional phrases such as “comprising,” “including,” “carrying,” “having,” “containing,” “involving,” “holding,” “composed of,” and the like are to be understood to be open-ended, i.e., to mean including but not limited to. Only the transitional phrases “consisting of” and “consisting essentially of” shall be closed or semi-closed transitional phrases, respectively, as set forth in the United States Patent Office Manual of Patent Examining Procedures, Section 2111.03.

A system for feeding washing racks to an entrance of a washer, comprising: a directionally alternating transfer conveyor positioned at, and able to communicate said washing racks with, said entrance of said washer; said conveyor having a first receiving mode, a second receiving mode, and a discharge mode; and a pre-wash enclosure substantially surrounding said conveyor and including a first and second door, said first and said second door each actuable between an open position and a closed position; and a pre-wash selective water flow interior of said pre-wash enclosure and directed generally toward said conveyor.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/180,823, filed on Jun. 13, 2016; which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/216,038 filed Sep. 9, 2015; the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0002] The invention generally relates to a mixture of halophosphite conformational isomers, methods of making the mixture, hydroformylation catalysts containing the mixture, and hydroformylation processes using the catalysts. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0003] The hydroformylation reaction, also known as the oxo reaction, is used extensively in commercial processes for preparing aldehydes by reacting one mole of an olefin with one mole each of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. The most extensive use of the reaction is in the preparation of normal- and isobutyraldehyde from propylene. [0004] The ratio of the amount of the normal-aldehyde product to the amount of the iso-aldehyde product typically is referred to as the normal to iso (N:I or N/I) or the normal to branched (N:B or N/B) ratio. [0005] In the case of propylene, the normal- and iso-butyraldehydes obtained from propylene are, in turn, converted into many commercially valuable chemical products, such as, for example, n-butanol, 2-ethyl-hexanol, n-butyric acid, iso-butanol, neo-pentyl glycol, 2,2,4-trimethyl-1,3-pentanediol, and the mono-isobutyrate and di-isobutyrate esters of 2,2,4-trimethyl-1,3-pentanediol. The hydroformylation of higher α-olefins (such as 1-octene, 1-hexene, and 1-tetradecene) yields aldehyde products that are useful feedstocks for preparing detergent alcohols and plasticizer alcohols. [0006] U.S. Pat. No. 5,840,647 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,130,358 introduced a new concept in ligand design with the disclosure of halogen substituents on the phosphorus atom of trivalent phosphorus ligands. These halogenated phosphorus ligands are readily prepared, possess high activity and good stability, and permit a wide N/I range of products to be prepared by simply varying the process parameters. [0007] Many of the halophosphite ligand compositions contain the phosphorus atom in a macrocyclic ring structure. Macrocyclic rings introduce the possibility of many different structural and conformational isomers of the phosphorus ligands. The presence of a plurality of isomeric forms of the phosphorus ligand can be problematic, because each of the different isomers can form complexes with the transition metal catalyst, and the reactivity and selectivity of the catalyst can vary greatly depending on which isomeric form of the phosphorus ligand is attached to the transition metal atom. Frequently, using mixed isomeric forms of the phosphorus ligand results in a complex catalyst composition, which makes it difficult to predict and control the activity and selectivity of the catalyst. [0008] Thus, it is desirable to be capable of creating a catalyst composition from a mixture of phosphorus ligand isomers that behaves in a manner as if it were a single isomer of the phosphorus ligand. In addition or alternatively, it is desirable to have a process by which a single isomer can be isolated from a mixture of isomers. [0009] The present invention addresses these desires as well as others, which will become apparent from the following description and the appended claims. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0010] The invention is as set forth in the appended claims. [0011] Briefly, in one aspect, the present invention provides a composition comprising conformational isomers A and B: [0000] [0000] The lone pair of electrons on the phosphorus atom in isomer A is in a pseudo-equatorial orientation. The lone pair of electrons on the phosphorus atom in isomer B is in a pseudo-axial orientation. X is fluorine or chlorine. R is a divalent group having the formula 1: [0000] [0000] R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , R 4 , and R 5 are each independently hydrogen or a hydrocarbyl group containing 1 to 40 carbon atoms. R 6 and R 7 are each independently hydrogen or a hydrocarbyl group containing 1 to 10 carbon atoms with the proviso that at least one of R 6 and R 7 contains at least one carbon atom. The composition has a B:A molar ratio of greater than 1:1. [0012] In another aspect, the present invention provides a method for separating conformational isomers. The method comprises: (a) dissolving a feed mixture of the halophosphite conformational isomers A and B in a solvent to form a reactant solution; (b) contacting the reactant solution with an alcohol in the presence of an acid catalyst at conditions effective to form a product mixture having a greater B:A molar ratio than the feed mixture; and (c) quenching the product mixture with water. [0016] In yet another aspect, the present invention provides a catalyst composition comprising a transition metal (M) selected from Group VIIIB and rhenium, and a mixture of the halophosphite conformational isomers A and B. The molar ratio of B:A is such that the isomer B forms a complex with the transition metal. The molar ratio of A:M is 5 or less. [0017] In yet another aspect, the present invention provides a catalyst solution, which comprises the catalyst composition according to the invention and a hydroformylation solvent. [0018] In yet another aspect, the present invention provides a process for preparing an aldehyde. The process comprises contacting an olefin, hydrogen, and carbon monoxide with a catalyst solution according to the invention at conditions effective to form an aldehyde. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0019] FIG. 1 is a graph of the effect of the molar ratio of B/A on the N/I product ratio and the catalyst activity based on the data from Example 4. [0020] FIG. 2 is a graph of the effect of the Rh loading on the N/I product ratio and the catalyst activity based on the data from Example 6. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0021] We have surprisingly discovered that the chemical reactivity of the “A” and “B” isomers of the cyclic fluorophosphite, Ethanox 398™, is indeed different, if the process conditions to which the material is subjected are less than the temperature needed to rapidly equilibrate the isomers. In the case of the Ethanox 398™ molecule, the “A” isomer will selectively bind to transition metals preferentially to the “B” isomer. [0022] In this regard, solutions of rhodium dicarbonyl acetonylacetonate were prepared with mixtures of isomers, and when examined by NMR, the spectra indicated that the “A” isomer was preferentially bonded to the transition metal. Furthermore, in the specific case of Ethanox 398™ and rhodium, the “A” isomer formed a bis-ligated complex prior to the “B” isomer forming a mono-ligated complex. [0023] We have also surprisingly discovered that if the differences between the reactivity of the “A” and “B” isomers are sufficiently great, then a mixture of the isomers will behave as if it were a single isomer. This selectivity in reactivity occurs if the ratio of the “A” and “B” isomers are maintained at a specific minimum ratio. Thus, it is possible to utilize a mixture of isomers to prepare a catalyst composition in which only one of the isomeric forms reacts to create transition metal complexes. As a result, the catalyst composition expresses the chemistry of only one of the isomeric forms of the phosphorus ligand. Such control of the chemistry allows for the use of mixed isomer samples to prepare a catalyst that behaves like it contains only a single isomer. The single isomer selectivity can be achieved without having to go through the difficulty of purifying out the pure isomers. [0024] We have further surprisingly discovered that if the “B” isomer is used in a hydroformylation catalyst mixture that contains no “A” isomer or very small amounts of the “A” isomer, then the behavior of the catalyst is substantially changed when used in the hydroformylation reaction. Therefore, it is advantageous to carefully monitor the molar ratio of the “A” and “B” isomers in order to maintain the desired catalyst behavior. It is also advantageous to carefully monitor the “A” isomer and rhodium molar ratios as well as the ratio of “A” and “B” isomers. We have unexpectedly found that a “B” to “A” isomer ratio of 90:1 or greater can produce the effect of the “B” isomer alone. We have also unexpectedly found that if the “A” isomer to rhodium molar ratio is greater than 2.0, then the “A” isomer can dominate the chemistry of the catalyst. Blends of isomers with a “B” to “A” ratio of less than 90:1, but greater than 20:1, can still allow the “B” isomer to influence the chemistry of the catalyst; but a catalyst mixture with a “B” to “A” ratio of less than 20:1 tends to behave almost as if it were the “A” isomer alone provided that the “A” isomer to rhodium molar ratio is less than 2.0. [0025] Thus, in one aspect, the present invention provides a composition comprising conformational isomers A and B: [0000] [0000] wherein the lone pair of electrons on the phosphorus atom in isomer A is in a pseudo-equatorial orientation; the lone pair of electrons on the phosphorus atom in isomer B is in a pseudo-axial orientation; X is fluorine or chlorine; R is a divalent group having the formula 1: [0000] R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , R 4 , and R 5 are each independently hydrogen or a hydrocarbyl group containing 1 to 40 carbon atoms; and R 6 and R 7 are each independently hydrogen or a hydrocarbyl group containing 1 to 10 carbon atoms with the proviso that at least one of R 6 and R 7 contains at least one carbon atom, and wherein the composition has a B:A molar ratio of greater than 1:1. [0032] The compounds contemplated in the present invention may be represented by the structure of formula 2: [0000] [0000] wherein R 1 to R 7 and X are as defined above. [0033] In one embodiment, the molar ratio of B:A in the composition is 20 or greater. In another embodiment, the molar ratio of B:A in the composition is 30 or greater. In other embodiments, the molar ratio of B:A in the composition may be 40 or greater, 50 or greater, 60 or greater, 70 or greater, 80 or greater, 90 or greater, or 100 or greater. The upper limit of the molar ratio of B:A is not critical, and may be any practical value, for example, 1000 or less, 500 or less, 250 or less, 200 or less, or 150 or less. [0034] In a preferred embodiment, R is a 2,2′-ethylidene bis(4,6-di-tert-butylphenyl) group. [0035] In another preferred embodiment, X is fluorine. [0036] When R is a 2,2′-ethylidene bis(4,6-di-tert-butylphenyl) group and X is fluorine, the compound is known as Ethanox 398™ in the trade. The structure of Ethanox 398™ and those of its A and B isomers are shown below. [0000] [0037] Ethanox 398™ and other compounds having the structure of formula 2 are generally commercially available. They may also be prepared according to the procedures described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,912,155. Such compounds are generally available in a B:A molar ratio of approximately 1:1 or less. [0038] Compositions containing more B than A may be made according to a method of the invention. The method utilizes the differences in the reactivity of the two isomers in an acid catalyzed hydrolysis reaction. [0039] Thus, in another aspect, the invention provides a method for separating conformational isomers. The method includes the steps of: (a) dissolving a feed mixture of the halophosphite conformational isomers A and B in a solvent to form a reactant solution; (b) contacting the reactant solution with an alcohol in the presence of an acid catalyst at conditions effective to form a product mixture having a greater B:A molar ratio than the feed mixture; and (c) quenching the product mixture with water. [0043] In one embodiment, the method further comprises the steps of: (d) cooling the product mixture to a sub-ambient temperature (e.g., 10° C. or less, 5° C. or less, 0° C. or less, −5° C. or less, or −10° C. or less) to precipitate the product; and (e) isolating the product by filtration. [0046] The typical B:A molar ratio in the feed mixture can range from 1:1 to 0.7:1. [0047] Steps (a)-(c) or (a)-(e) may be repeated until a product with the desired B:A molar ratio is obtained. [0048] In one embodiment, the molar ratio of B:A in the product mixture is greater than 30:1. In other embodiments, the molar ratio of B:A in the product mixture is greater than 50:1, greater than 75:1, greater than 100:1, greater than 125:1, greater than 150:1, greater than 175:1, or greater than 200:1. [0049] The solvent for dissolving the feed mixture is not particularly limiting. It may be any organic solvent capable of dissolving the isomers at ambient conditions or at elevated temperatures. Examples of such solvents include aromatic hydrocarbons, alcohols, and mixtures of both. The alcohols may be the same as those used to react with the isomer A. Examples of aromatic hydrocarbons include benzene, toluene, and xylene. Examples of alcohols include ethanol and 2-propanol. In one embodiment, the solvent comprises toluene. In another embodiment, the solvent comprises an ethanol or 2-propanol. In yet another embodiment, the solvent comprises both toluene and ethanol or 2-propanol. [0050] The acid catalyst for use in the method of the invention is also not particularly limiting. It may be any acid capable of facilitating a hydrolysis reaction between the alcohol and the isomer A. Examples of suitable acid catalysts include sulfonic acids, such as p-toluenesulfonic acid, methanesulfonic acid, and benzenesulfonic acid. [0051] In a typical method of the invention, the mixed isomers of the fluorophosphite are combined in a substantially dry toluene/alcohol mixture and then a strong acid, such as a sulfonic acid, is added to the reaction mixture. The mixture is heated for a specified period of time, quenched with water, cooled to sub-ambient temperatures to precipitate the product, and then the product is isolated by filtration. [0052] The mixture of isomers A and B according to the invention is particularly useful as ligands for transition metals. The transition metal complexes are particularly useful as catalysts for hydroformylation reactions. [0053] Thus, in yet another aspect, the present invention provides a catalyst composition comprising (a) a transition metal (M) selected from Group VIIIB and rhenium and (b) the mixture of halophosphite conformational isomers A and B. The molar ratio of B:A in the catalyst composition is such that the isomer B forms a complex with the transition metal. Moreover, the molar ratio of A:M is 5 or less. [0054] As noted above, the molar ratio of B:A may be 20 or greater, 30 or greater, 40 or greater, or 90 or greater. [0055] In one embodiment, the molar ratio of A:M is 4 or less. In another embodiment, the molar ratio of A:M is 3 or less. In yet another embodiment, the molar ratio of A:M is 2 or less. [0056] Preferably, X in the isomers A and B in the catalyst composition is fluorine. Preferably, R in the isomers A and B in the catalyst composition is a 2,2′-ethylidene bis(4,6-di-tert-butylphenyl) group. In one embodiment, X in the isomers A and B in the catalyst composition is fluorine, and R is a 2,2′-ethylidene bis(4,6-di-tert-butylphenyl) group. [0057] Preferably, the transition metal (M) in the catalyst comprises rhodium. [0058] Rhodium compounds that may be used as a source of rhodium for the active catalyst include rhodium (II) or rhodium (III) salts of carboxylic acids, examples of which include di-rhodium tetraacetate dihydrate, rhodium(II) acetate, rhodium(II) isobutyrate, rhodium(II) 2-ethylhexanoate, rhodium(II) benzoate, and rhodium(II) octanoate. Also, rhodium carbonyl species such as Rh 4 (CO) 12 , Rh 6 (CO) 16 , and rhodium(I) acetylacetonate dicarbonyl may be suitable rhodium feeds. Additionally, rhodium organophosphine complexes such as tris(triphenylphosphine) rhodium carbonyl hydride may be used when the phosphine moieties of the complex fed are easily displaced by the phosphite ligands of the present invention. Other rhodium sources include rhodium salts of strong mineral acids such as chlorides, bromides, nitrates, sulfates, phosphates, and the like. [0059] Optionally, the catalyst composition according to the invention contains a hydroformylation solvent, although the reactant olefin and/or the product aldehyde may be used as the solvent. [0060] The hydroformylation solvent may be selected from a wide variety of compounds, mixture of compounds, or materials that are liquid at the pressure at which the process is being operated. The main criterion for the solvent is that it dissolves the catalyst and the olefin substrate, and does not act as a poison to the catalyst. Such compounds and materials include various alkanes, cycloalkanes, alkenes, cycloalkenes, carbocyclic aromatic compounds, alcohols, esters, ketones, acetals, ethers and water. Specific examples of such solvents include alkane and cycloalkanes, such as dodecane, decalin, octane, iso-octane mixtures, cyclohexane, cyclooctane, cyclododecane, methylcyclohexane; aromatic hydrocarbons, such as benzene, toluene, xylene isomers, tetralin, cumene, alkyl-substituted aromatic compounds, such as the isomers of diisopropylbenzene, triisopropylbenzene and tert-butylbenzene; alkenes and cycloalkenes, such as 1,7-octadiene, dicyclopentadiene, 1,5-cyclooctadiene, octene-1, octene-2, 4-vinylcyclohexene, cyclohexene, 1,5,9-cyclododecatriene, 1-pentene; crude hydrocarbon mixtures, such as naphtha, mineral oils, and kerosene; high-boiling esters, such as 2,2,4-trimethyl-1,3-pentanediol diisobutyrate. The aldehyde product of the hydroformylation process also may be used. In practice, the preferred solvent is the higher boiling by-products that are naturally formed during the hydroformylation reaction and the subsequent steps, e.g., distillations, that are typically used for aldehyde product isolation. [0061] Preferred solvents for the production of volatile aldehydes (e.g., propionaldehyde and the butyraldehydes) are those that are sufficiently high boiling to remain, for the most part, in a gas sparged reactor. Solvents and solvent combinations that are preferred for use in the production of less volatile and non-volatile aldehyde products include 1-methyl-2-pyrrolidinone, dimethyl-formamide, perfluorinated solvents (such as perfluoro-kerosene), sulfolane, water, and high-boiling hydrocarbon liquids as well as combinations of these solvents. [0062] The concentration of the rhodium and ligand in the hydroformylation solvent or reaction mixture is not critical for the successful operation of the invention. A gram mole ligand:gram atom rhodium ratio of at least 1:1 normally is maintained in the reaction mixture. In order to obtain the desired selectivity of the catalyst, the molar ratio of the isomer with the axial lone pair of electrons and the isomer with the equatorial lone pair of electrons should be carefully monitored as well as the molar ratio of the isomer with the equatorial lone pair of electrons and rhodium. [0063] As noted previously, it has been surprisingly found that an axial (B) to equatorial (A) isomer ratio of 90:1 or greater can yield the effect of the axial lone pair of electrons isomer (B) alone. It has also been surprisingly found that if the molar ratio of the isomer with the equatorial lone pair of electrons (A) to rhodium (M) is greater than 2.0, then the equatorial isomer (A) dominates the chemistry of the catalyst. Blends of isomers with an axial to equatorial (B:A) ratio of less than 90:1, but greater than 20:1, can still allow the axial isomer (B) to influence the chemistry of the catalyst, but a catalyst mixture with an axial to equatorial molar (B:A) ratio of less than 20:1 behaves almost as if it were the equatorial isomer alone. [0064] The absolute concentration of rhodium in the reaction mixture or solution may vary from 1 mg/liter up to 5000 mg/liter or more. When the process is operated within the practical conditions of this invention, the concentration of rhodium in the reaction solution normally is in the range of about 20 to 300 mg/liter. Concentrations of rhodium lower than this range generally do not yield acceptable reaction rates with most olefin reactants and/or may require reactor operating temperatures that are so high as to be detrimental to catalyst stability. Higher rhodium concentrations are not preferred, because of the high cost of rhodium. [0065] No special or unusual techniques are required for preparing the catalyst systems and solutions of the present invention, although it is preferred, to obtain a catalyst of high activity, that all manipulations of the rhodium and the phosphorus ligand components be carried out under an inert atmosphere, e.g., nitrogen, argon and the like. The desired quantities of a suitable rhodium compound and ligand are charged to the reactor in a suitable solvent. The sequence in which the various catalyst components or reactants are charged to the reactor is not critical. [0066] The catalyst compositions and solutions of the invention are particularly suitable for preparing aldehydes. [0067] Thus, in yet another aspect, the invention provides a process for preparing an aldehyde. The process comprises contacting an olefin, hydrogen, and carbon monoxide with the catalyst solution according to the invention at conditions effective to form an aldehyde. [0068] The olefin used as the starting material is not particularly limiting and may be linear or cyclic olefins. Specifically, the olefin can be ethylene, propylene, butene, pentene, hexene, octene, styrene, non-conjugated dienes (such as 1,5-hexadiene), and blends of these olefins. Furthermore, the olefin may be substituted with functional groups so long as they do not interfere with the hydroformylation reaction. Suitable substituents on the olefin include any functional group that does not interfere with the hydroformylation reaction and includes groups such as carboxylic acids and derivatives thereof such as esters and amides, alcohols, nitriles, and ethers. Examples of substituted olefins include esters such as methyl acrylate or methyl oleate, alcohols such as allyl alcohol and 1-hydroxy-2,7-octadiene, and nitriles such as acrylonitrile. [0069] The cyclic olefins that may be used in the hydroformylation process of the present invention may be cycloalkenes, e.g., cyclohexene, 1,5-cyclooctadiene, and cyclodecatriene, and from various vinyl-substituted cycloalkanes, cycloalkenes, heterocyclic, and aromatic compounds. Examples of such cyclic olefins include 4-vinylcyclohexene, 1,3-cyclohexadiene, 4-cyclohexene-carboxylic acid, methyl 4-cyclohexene-carboxylic acid, 1,4-cyclooctadiene, and 1,5,9-cyclododecatriene. The preferred olefin reactants include mono α-olefins of 2 to 10 carbon atoms, especially propylene. It has been found that cyclic olefins are sometimes less reactive than α-olefins, but that the lower reactivity can be overcome by adjusting process variables, such as the reaction temperature or the ligand to rhodium ratio. [0070] Mixtures of olefins can also be used in the practice of this invention. The mixtures may be of the same carbon number, such as mixtures of n-octenes, or it may represent refinery distillation cuts, which typically contain a mixture of olefins over a range of several carbon numbers. [0071] The reaction conditions used are not critical for the operation of the process, and conventional hydroformylation conditions normally can be used. The process involves contacting an olefin with hydrogen and carbon monoxide in the presence of the catalyst system described hereinabove. While the process may be carried out at temperatures in the range of about 20° to 200° C., the preferred hydroformylation reaction temperatures are from 50° to 135° C., with the most favored reaction temperatures ranging from 75° to 125° C. Higher reactor temperatures are not favored, because of increased rates of catalyst decomposition, while lower reactor temperatures can result in relatively slow reaction rates. The total reaction pressure may range from about ambient or atmospheric up to 70 bars absolute (about 1000 psig), preferably from about 8 to 28 bars absolute (about 100 to 400 psig). [0072] The hydrogen:carbon monoxide mole ratio in the reactor likewise may vary considerably ranging from 10:1 to 1:10, and the sum of the absolute partial pressures of hydrogen and carbon monoxide may range from 0.3 to 36 bars absolute. The partial pressures of the ratio of the hydrogen to carbon monoxide in the feed is selected according to the linear:branched isomer ratio desired. Generally, the partial pressure of hydrogen and carbon monoxide in the reactor is maintained within the range of about 1.4 to 13.8 bars absolute (about 20 to 200 psia) for each gas. The partial pressure of carbon monoxide in the reactor is maintained within the range of about 1.4 to 13.8 bars absolute (about 20 to 200 psia) and is varied independently of the hydrogen partial pressure. The molar ratio of hydrogen to carbon monoxide can be varied widely within these partial pressure ranges for the hydrogen and carbon monoxide. The ratios of the hydrogen to carbon monoxide and the partial pressure of each in the synthesis gas (syngas—carbon monoxide and hydrogen) can be readily changed by the addition of either hydrogen or carbon monoxide to the syngas stream. [0073] The amount of olefin present in the reaction mixture also is not critical. For example, relatively high-boiling olefins, such as 1-octene, may function both as the olefin reactant and the process solvent. In the hydroformylation of a gaseous olefin feedstock, such as propylene, the partial pressures in the vapor space in the reactor typically are in the range of about 0.07 to 35 bars absolute. In practice, the rate of reaction is favored by high concentrations of olefin in the reactor. In the hydroformylation of propylene, the partial pressure of propylene preferably is typically greater than 1.4 bars, e.g., from about 1.4 to 10 bars absolute. In the case of ethylene hydroformylation, the preferred partial pressure of ethylene in the reactor is greater than 0.14 bars absolute. [0074] Any of the known hydroformylation reactor designs or configurations may be used in carrying out the process provided by the present invention. Thus, a gas-sparged, vapor take-off reactor design as disclosed in the examples set forth herein may be used. In this mode of operation, the catalyst, which is dissolved in a high boiling organic solvent under pressure, does not leave the reaction zone with the aldehyde product taken overhead by the unreacted gases. The overhead gases then are chilled in a vapor/liquid separator to condense the aldehyde product and the gases can be recycled to the reactor. The liquid product is let down to atmospheric pressure for separation and purification by conventional technique. The process may also be practiced in a batchwise manner by contacting the olefin, hydrogen, and carbon monoxide with the present catalyst in an autoclave. [0075] A reactor design where catalyst and feedstock are pumped into a reactor and allowed to overflow with product aldehyde, i.e., liquid overflow reactor design, is also suitable. For example, high boiling aldehyde products, such as nonyl aldehydes, may be prepared in a continuous manner with the aldehyde product being removed from the reactor zone as a liquid in combination with the catalyst. The aldehyde product may be separated from the catalyst by conventional means, such as by distillation or extraction, and the catalyst then recycled back to the reactor. Water soluble aldehyde products can be separated from the catalyst by extraction techniques. A trickle-bed reactor design also is suitable for this process. It will be apparent to those skilled in the art that other reactor schemes may be used with this invention. [0076] For continuously operating reactors, it may be desirable to add supplementary amounts of the phosphorus ligand over time to replace those materials lost by oxidation or other processes. This can be done by dissolving the ligand into a solvent and pumping it into the reactor as needed. The solvents that may be used include compounds that are found in the process, such as the reactant olefin, the product aldehyde, condensation products derived from the aldehyde, as well as other esters and alcohols that can be readily formed from the product aldehyde. Examples of such solvents include propionaldehyde, butyraldehyde, isobutyraldehyde, 2-ethylhexanal, 2-ethylhexanol, n-butanol, isobutanol, isobutyl isobutyrate, isobutyl acetate, butyl butyrate, propyl propionate, butyl propionate, butyl acetate, 2,2,4-trimethylpentane-1,3-diol diisobutyrate, and n-butyl 2-ethylhexanoate. Ketones, such as cyclohexanone, methyl isobutyl ketone, methyl ethyl ketone, diisopropylketone, and 2-octanone may also be used as well as trimeric aldehyde ester-alcohols, such as Texanol™ ester alcohol. [0077] In one embodiment, the hydroformylation process according to the invention produces an aldehyde with an N/I molar ratio of 1 to 5. In another embodiment, the N/I molar ratio ranges from 1 to 4. In yet another embodiment, the N/I molar ratio ranges from 1 to 3 or from 1 to 2. [0078] The present invention includes and expressly contemplates any and all combinations of embodiments, features, characteristics, parameters, and/or ranges disclosed herein. That is, the invention may be defined by any combination of embodiments, features, characteristics, parameters, and/or ranges mentioned herein. [0079] As used herein, the indefinite articles “a” and “an” mean one or more, unless the context clearly suggests otherwise. Similarly, the singular form of nouns includes their plural form, and vice versa, unless the context clearly suggests otherwise. [0080] While attempts have been made to be precise, the numerical values and ranges described herein should be considered to be approximations (even when not qualified by the term “about”). These values and ranges may vary from their stated numbers depending upon the desired properties sought to be obtained by the present invention as well as the variations resulting from the standard deviation found in the measuring techniques. Moreover, the ranges described herein are intended and specifically contemplated to include all sub-ranges and values within the stated ranges. For example, a range of 50 to 100 is intended to describe and include all values within the range including sub-ranges such as 60 to 90 and 70 to 80. [0081] The content of all documents cited herein, including patents as well as non-patent literature, is hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety. To the extent that any incorporated subject matter contradicts with any disclosure herein, the disclosure herein shall take precedence over the incorporated content. [0082] This invention can be further illustrated by the following examples of preferred embodiments thereof, although it will be understood that these examples are included merely for purposes of illustration and are not intended to limit the scope of the invention. Examples Example 1—Separation of Isomer B of Ethanox 398™ [0083] One kilogram of Ethanox 398™ with an A-to-B isomer molar ratio of 1.35:1 was dissolved into 1 liter of toluene and 2 liters isopropyl alcohol. The mixture was stirred and heated to 80° C. p-Toluenesulfonic acid (25 grams) was dissolved into 100 milliliters of isopropyl alcohol and then was slowly added to the hot toluene/isopropyl alcohol solution. The mixture was then stirred for one hour at 80° C. The progress of the reaction was monitored by gas chromatography and when the analysis showed a B/A molar ratio higher than 30, water (60 milliliters) was added to the hot solution. The reaction mixture was stirred overnight and allowed to cool to ambient temperature. The mixture was then chilled to −10° C. to finish the precipitation of the product. The solids were isolated by filtration, rinsed with 100 milliliters of isopropanol, and dried under N 2 for 24 hours to give the crude product. The crude product was normally 600-700 grams. [0084] The crude product was typically combined into a double batch for the final purification. Two of the crude batches were combined with 1 liter of toluene and 2 liters isopropyl alcohol and heated to 80° C. p-Toluenesulfonic acid (10 grams) was dissolved into 100 milliliters of isopropyl alcohol and then was slowly added to the hot toluene/isopropyl alcohol solution. The mixture was then stirred for one hour at 80° C. The progress of the reaction was monitored by gas chromatography and when the analysis showed B/A molar ratio higher than 200, water (40 milliliters) was added to the hot solution. The reaction mixture was allowed to cool overnight and was then chilled to 0° C. to finish the precipitation of the product. The solids were isolated by filtration, rinsed with 100 milliliters of isopropanol, and dried under N 2 for 24 hours to give the final product. The typical yield for a double batch was 900 to 1100 grams of product with a B/A isomer molar ratio of >200 and a product purity of 90 wt % or higher. Example 2—NMR Studies with “A” and “B” Isomers of Ethanox 398™ [0085] A solution of rhodium dicarbonyl acetonylacetonate containing 1.0 molar equivalent of rhodium and 2.0 molar equivalents of the “B” isomer of Ethanox 398™ was prepared in deutero chloroform. Phosphorus NMR showed the presence of mono-ligated rhodium species as a doublet of doublets with absorptions at 132, 134, 139 and 141 ppm as well as the free ligand as a doublet with absorptions at 129 and 137 ppm. Integration of the peaks showed that the ratio of the areas of the free ligand peaks to the complexed ligand peaks was 1.36. This is indicative that the ligand was forming predominantly a mono-ligated complex of rhodium, even with 2.0 equivalents of the “B” isomer. [0086] Adding 1.0 equivalents of the “A” isomer to the mixture caused the peaks from the complexed “B” isomer to disappear and the appearance of a series of complex absorptions at 109 to 114 ppm and 117 to 121 ppm, which represent the “A” isomer complexed to the rhodium. The new absorptions appeared to be mixtures of mono-ligated and bis-ligated rhodium species. The uncomplexed “B” isomer was still present, but no uncomplexed or free “A” isomer was observed. [0087] Adding a second molar equivalent of the “A” isomer caused the mono-ligated rhodium-“A” species to disappear and enhanced the signals from the bis-ligated rhodium-“A” species. A small amount of the non-complexed “A” ligand was also observed as a broad doublet with absorptions at 104 and 112 ppm. [0088] These studies show that the “A” isomer will preferentially bind the rhodium atom and that the “A” isomer will rapidly displace the “B” isomer from rhodium complexes, even at very low concentrations. Hydroformylation Process Set-Up [0089] Propylene was reacted with hydrogen and carbon monoxide in a vapor take-off reactor made of a vertically arranged stainless steel pipe having a 2.5 cm inside diameter and a length of 1.2 meters to produce butyraldehydes. The reactor was encased in an external jacket that was connected to a hot oil machine. The reactor had a filter element located in the side near the bottom of the reactor for the inlet of gaseous reactants. The reactor contained a thermocouple, which was arranged axially with the reactor in its center for accurate measurement of the temperature of the hydroformylation reaction mixture. The bottom of the reactor had a high-pressure tubing connection that was connected to a cross. One of the connections to the cross permitted the addition of non-gaseous reactants (such as higher boiling alkenes or make-up solvents), another led to the high-pressure connection of a differential pressure (D/P) cell that was used to measure catalyst level in the reactor, and the bottom connection was used for draining the catalyst solution at the end of the run. [0090] In the hydroformylation of propylene in a vapor take-off mode of operation, the hydroformylation reaction mixture or solution containing the catalyst was sparged under pressure with the incoming reactants of propylene, hydrogen, and carbon monoxide as well as any inert feed, such as nitrogen. As butyraldehyde was formed in the catalyst solution, it and unreacted reactant gases were removed as a vapor from the top of the reactor by a side-port. The removed vapor was chilled in a high-pressure separator where the butyraldehyde product was condensed along with some of the unreacted propylene. The uncondensed gases were let down to atmospheric pressure via the pressure control valve. These gases passed through a series of dry-ice traps where any other aldehyde product was collected. The product from the high-pressure separator was combined with that of the traps, and was subsequently weighed and analyzed by standard gas/liquid phase chromatography (GC/LC) techniques for the net weight and normal/iso ratio of the butyraldehyde product. Activity was calculated as kilograms of butyraldehydes produced per gram of rhodium per hour. [0091] The gaseous feeds were introduced into the reactor via twin cylinder manifolds and high-pressure regulators. The hydrogen passed through a mass flow controller and then through a commercially available “Deoxo” (registered trademark of Engelhard Inc.) catalyst bed to remove any oxygen contamination. The carbon monoxide passed through an iron carbonyl removal bed (as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,608,239), a similar “Deoxo” bed heated to 125° C., and then a mass flow controller. [0092] Nitrogen can be added to the feed mixture as an inert gas. Nitrogen, when added, was metered in and then mixed with the hydrogen feed prior to the hydrogen Deoxo bed. Propylene was fed to the reactor from feed tanks that were pressurized with hydrogen and was controlled using a liquid mass flow meter. All gases and propylene were passed through a preheater to ensure complete vaporization of the liquid propylene prior to entering the reactor. Example 3—Hydroformylation of Propylene with Varying A and B Ratios—Effect of Isomer Ratios on Reaction Products [0093] A catalyst solution was prepared under nitrogen using a charge of 7.7 milligrams of rhodium (0.075 millimole, as rhodium 2-ethylhexanoate), various amounts of the ligands as indicated in Table 1, and 190 mL of dioctylphthalate. The mixture was stirred under nitrogen (and heated, if necessary) until a homogeneous solution was obtained. [0094] The mixture was charged to the reactor in a manner described previously, and the reactor was sealed. The reactor pressure control was set at 17.9 bar (260 psig), and the external oil jacket on the reactor was heated to 95° C. Hydrogen, carbon monoxide, nitrogen, and propylene vapors were fed through the frit at the base of the reactor, and the reactor was allowed to build pressure. The hydrogen and carbon monoxide (H 2 /CO ratio was set to be 1:1 or other desired ratio) were fed to the reactor at a rate of 6.8 liters/min, and the nitrogen feed was set at 1.0 liter/min. The propylene was metered as a liquid and fed at a rate of 1.89 liters/min (212 grams/hour). The temperature of the external oil was modified to maintain an internal reactor temperature of 95° C. The unit was usually operated for 3 to 5 hours, and hourly samples were taken. The hourly samples were analyzed as described above using a standard GC method. The last two to three samples of the run were used to determine the N/I ratio and catalyst activity. [0095] The results of the bench unit runs are summarized in Table 1. [0000] TABLE 1 Ligand B Molar Ligand A Molar Molar Run Amount Ratio of Amount Ratio of Ratio of Catalyst No. (mmole) B to Rh (mmole) A to Rh B to A Activity* N/I Ratio 1 3.375 45 0 0 6.92 1.25 2 3.413 45.5 0.0375 0.5 91 9.16 1.38 3 3.450 46 0.075 1 46 11.1 1.53 4 3.488 46.5 0.113 1.5 31 12.3 1.54 5 3.525 47 0.150 2 23.5 13.9 1.56 6 3.563 47.5 0.188 2.5 19 14.2 1.64 7 3.750 50 0.375 5 10 14.9 1.81 8 0.515 6.8 0.375 5 1.4 10.5 1.71 9 0.034 0.45 0.375 5 0.091 13.4 1.69 *Catalyst activity is expressed as pounds of butyraldehyde formed per gram-Rh-hour (lbs. HBu/gr-Rh-hr). [0096] Runs 1 through 7 show the effect of increasing the amount of the “A” isomer in the catalyst mixture. The catalyst activity increased along with the Nil ratio as the presence of the “A” isomer increased. The data show that as the molar ratio of the “B” isomer to the “A” isomer fell below about 90:1, the “A” isomer began to influence the chemistry as reflected in the Nil ratio. As the molar ratio of the “B” isomer to the “A” isomer fell below about 20, the “A” isomer dominated the chemistry as the chemical results became indistinguishable from Run 9, which contained an excess of the “A” isomer. [0097] Run 8 was made with a mixture of isomers in which the ratio of the “B” isomer to the “A” isomer was at 1.4. Based on the results of the previously discussed NMR studies and the isomer mixture of Run 8, it is expected that the rhodium atom would only form ligand complexes with the “A” isomer. The Runs 1 through 5 show the influence of increasing amounts of the “A” isomer and runs 6 through 8 show the results from a catalyst composition that is dominated by the “A” isomer. [0098] Run 9 was made with a ligand mixture enriched in the “A” isomer at an “A” to “B” isomer ratio of 11:1. The chemistry and the properties of the catalyst in this run were dominated by the “A” isomer. This is reflected in the higher catalyst activity and normal-to-iso ratio. Example 4—Hydroformylation of Propylene with Fixed Amounts of Rh and B, and Varying Amounts of A [0099] The procedure of Example 3 was repeated with the amounts of Rh, A, and B listed in Table 2 below. The results of each run are also reported in Table 2. [0000] TABLE 2 Run No. 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Ligand B 2.35 2.35 2.35 2.35 2.35 2.35 2.35 Amount (mmole) Ligand A 1.40 1.10 0.80 0.58 0.35 0.10 0.05 Amount (mmole) Rh Amount 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 (mg) Molar Ratio of 77.18 71.00 64.83 60.30 55.57 50.42 49.39 Total Ligand/Rh Molar Ratio of 28.81 22.64 16.46 11.94 76.20 2.06 1.03 A/Rh Molar Ratio of 48.36 48.36 48.36 48.36 48.36 48.36 48.36 B/Rh Molar Ratio of 1.68 2.14 2.94 4.05 6.71 23.50 47.00 B/A Product N/I 3.93 3.69 3.29 2.93 2.48 1.61 1.62 Ratio Catalyst Activity 10.88 13.66 21.42 29.46 30.34 34.9 32.02 (lbs. HBu/gr- Rh-hour) [0100] FIG. 1 graphically shows the effect of the molar ratio of B/A on the N/I product ratio and the catalyst activity based on the data from Table 2. Example 5—Hydroformylation of Propylene with Fixed Amounts of Rh and A, and Varying Amounts of B [0101] The procedure of Example 3 was repeated with the amounts of Rh, A, and B listed in Table 3 below. The results of each run are also reported in Table 3. [0000] TABLE 3 Run No. 17 18 19 20 21 22 Ligand B 0.37 0.36 0.20 1.00 2.00 0.70 Amount (mmole) Ligand A 0.76 0.77 0.76 0.76 0.76 0.76 Amount (mmole) Rh Amount 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 (mg) Molar Ratio of 23.26 23.26 19.76 36.22 56.80 30.05 Total Ligand/Rh Molar Ratio of 15.64 15.85 15.64 15.64 15.64 15.64 A/Rh Molar Ratio of 7.61 7.41 4.12 20.58 41.16 14.41 B/Rh Molar Ratio of 0.49 0.47 0.26 1.32 2.63 0.92 B/A Product N/I 3.53 3.73 3.16 3.34 3.21 3.33 Ratio Catalyst Activity 17.77 14.68 21.5 19.12 27.21 22.84 (lbs. HBu/gr- Rh-hr) Example 6—Hydroformylation of Propylene with Fixed Amounts of A and B, and Varying Amounts of Rh [0102] The procedure of Example 3 was repeated with the amounts of Rh, A, and B listed in Table 4 below. The results of each run are also reported in Table 4. [0000] TABLE 4 Run No. 23 24 25 26 Ligand B 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.1 Amount (mmole) Ligand A 0.21 0.21 0.21 0.21 Amount (mmole) Rh Amount 0.0565 0.028 0.019 0.014 (mmole) Molar Ratio of 76.28 153.93 226.84 307.86 Total Ligand/Rh Molar Ratio of 3.72 7.50 11.05 15.00 A/Rh Molar Ratio of 72.57 146.43 215.79 292.86 B/Rh Molar Ratio of 19.52 19.52 19.52 19.52 B/A Product N/I 1.9 2.11 2.12 2.5 Ratio Catalyst Activity 37.43 19.34 14.44 7.57 (lbs. HBu/gr- Rh-hour) [0103] FIG. 2 graphically shows the effect of the Rh loading on the Nil product ratio and the catalyst activity based on the data from Table 4. [0104] The invention has been described in detail with particular reference to preferred embodiments thereof, but it will be understood that variations and modifications can be effected within the spirit and scope of the invention.

This invention pertains to hydroformylation catalysts containing a mixture of isomeric forms of halo-phosphorus ligands. This invention also describes a procedure for preparing isomers of certain halophosphite ligands, which contain the phosphorus atom in a macrocyclic ring.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a switch assembly for a motor vehicle, and more particular to a handle switch assembly to be used in a motor vehicle having a bar-like handle member such as a motorcycle. 2. Description of Background Information In a motor vehicle such as a motorcycle, various control switches such as a turn signal switch are provided on a handle bar, generally, adjacent to a handle grip. In order to mount a plurality of switches on a handle pipe (a tubular member of the handle bar), a switch housing having a front or control panel at a rear end thereof (with respect to the forward movement of the motor vehicle) has been used in conventional arrangements. However, there were several disadvantages relating to the switch arrangement due to structural restrictions of the switch housing mounted on the handle pipe. For example, it was not easy to arrange the switches especially at the central portion of the switch housing because the space between the handle pipe and the front panel of the switch housing is rather small. Further, the operation of the switches was often not easy because there was a considerable level difference between the control panel of the switch housing and the level of the rear face of the handle grip. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An object of the present invention is therefore to provide a handle switch assembly for a motor vehicle which has a construction suited for mounting a plurality of switch elements at desired positions regardless of a structural limitation of the conventional arrangement. Another object of the present invention is to provide a handle switch assembly for a motor vehicle in which the facility of the operation of the switch is greatly improved by arranging the switch knobs at proper positions with respect to a handle grip which is located adjacent thereto. A further object of the present invention is to provide a handle switch assembly for a motor vehicle which has an improved appearance as compared with the conventional switch assembly. A still further object of the present invention is to provide a handle grip for a motor vehicle which has a form for allowing an easy operation of the switch assembly provided adjacent thereto. According to the present invention, a handle switch assembly for a motor vehicle having a bar-like handle member, comprises at least one switch element housed in a cavity portion formed in the handle member adjacent to a handle grip mounted on the handle member. According to another aspect of the invention, the handle member comprises a pair of elongated members to be combined with each other, and having a first end to be fixed to a front fork of the motor vehicle and a second end on which the handle grip is mounted, and the elongated members respectively provided with a bent portion to form the cavity portion when the elongated members are combined with each other. According to a further aspect of the present invention, the elongated members take the form of a first elongated plate having an upwardly bent portion and a second elongated plate having a downwardly bent portion. According to still another aspect of the invention, a handle switch assembly further comprises at least one housing member to be mounted on the elongated members at a position of the bent portion, having a form for defining a space for housing at least one switch element, between a wall surface thereof and the bent portion of the elongated members. According to still further aspect of the invention, the housing member is provided with a control surface section in which a plurality of switch operating members for the switch elements in the cavity portion and in the space are altogether disposed. According to further aspect of the invention, the control surface section is disposed on or behind an imaginary plane including a rear end of a cylindrical surface of the handle grip with respect to a direction of forward movement of the motor vehicle. According to another aspect of the invention, the switch elements are disposed in the cavity portion and in the space in a manner that a head portion of the switch operating member is positioned on or behind the imaginary plane when the switch element is actuated by means of the switch operating member. According to a further aspect of the invention, the switch elements are disposed in a manner so that the head portion of the switch operating member is positioned on or behind of the imaginary plane when the switch elements are in released positions. According to a further aspect of the invention, a handle grip for a motor vehicle having a bar-like handle member carrying a switch assembly, comprising a cylindrical body mounted on the handle member, a flange portion formed at an end of the cylindrical body adjacent to the switch assembly, the flange portion being provided with a cut off portion at a position between the switch assembly and the cylindrical body, whereby to provide an easy access to the switch assembly. Further scope of applicability of the present invention will become apparent from the detailed description given hereinafter. However, it should be understood that the detailed description and specific examples, while indicating preferred embodiments of the invention, are given by way of illustration only, since various changes and modifications within the spirit and scope of the invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art from this detailed description. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The present invention will become more fully understood from the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings which are given by way of illustration only, and thus are not limitative of the present invention, and wherein: FIG. 1 is a cross sectional view of a handle switch assembly of a conventional arrangement, on a plane perpendicular to an axis of a handle pipe; FIG. 2 is a perspective view of a handle switch assembly according to the present invention; FIG. 3 is an exploded perspective view of the switch assembly shown in FIG. 2; FIG. 4 is a perspective view of a second embodiment of the switch assembly according to the present invention; FIG. 5 is an exploded view of the second embodiment of the switch assembly shown in FIG. 4; FIG. 6 is a plan view of the second embodiment of the switch assembly shown in FIGS. 4 and 5; FIGS. 7 and 8 are diagrams showing the manner of pressing the push buttons of the switch assembly shown in FIGS. 4 through 6; FIG. 9 is a plan view of a modification of the second embodiment of the switch assembly shown in FIGS. 4 through 8; FIG. 10 is a plan view of another modification of the second embodiment of the switch assembly shown in FIGS. 4 through 8; and FIG. 11 is a plan view of a further modification of the second embodiment of the switch assembly according to the present invention shown in FIGS. 4 through 8. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Before entering into the explanation of preferred embodiments of the present invention, reference is first made to FIG. 1, in which an example of a conventional handle switch assembly is illustrated. As shown in FIG. 1, a switch housing generally designated by 20 is mounted on a handle pipe 10 and is used for housing two switch elements 31 and 32 which are arranged in parallel relation with each other. The switch housing 20 consists of an upper piece 21 and a lower piece 22 each having a pair of semicircular recesses in both of side walls thereof. With this arrangement, circular openings for a handle pipe are formed in the side walls when the upper and the lower pieces 21 and 22 are fixed together. The switch elements 31 and 32 are fixed at the bottom of the lower piece 22, and respectively provided with a switch operating member 33 or 34 which projects from a control panel at the rear side of the switch housing with respect to the direction of the movement of the motorcycle of the switch housing 20. In order to place a push end of the switch operating member 34 at a substantially central position of the control face of the switch housing 20, the switch operating member 34 is formed into a folded shape as shown in FIG. 1. Therefore, the switch operating member 34 is subjected to an upward bending moment when pushed at the push end thereof, and therefore it is necessary to make this switch operating member sufficiently large in order to secure enough rigidity. Because of the reason described above, the switch housing of the conventional type tends to be considerably large, especially when a plurality of switch elements are housed therein. For this reason, there were disadvantages, in the case of the conventional arrangement, in that the cost of the production of the switch assembly is considerably high and in that the handling of those switches is rather awkward because there is a considerable difference between the level of the switch button and the level of the handle grip. Furthermore, in the case of the switch assembly shown in FIG. 1, a lighting switch 35 and a horn switch 36 are also provided on and outside of the switch housing 20. However, this type of arrangement is also inconvenient in that the arrangement requires additional switch housings or brackets. Moreover, this arrangement is disadvantageous because the operation of the switches is rather uncomfortable and it mars the beauty of the switch assembly. Referring now to FIGS. 2 and 3, the first embodiment of the handle switch assembly according to the present invention will be explained hereinafter. As shown in the perspective view of FIG. 2, a pair of elongated plates, i.e., an upper elongated plate 50 and a lower elongated plate 60 are provided so as to make up a handle bar which is to be fixed to a front fork (not shown), when combined together. The upper and lower elongated plates 50 and 60 are formed into a bent shape and openings 51 and 61 are respectively provided at an end portion thereof, as shown in the exploded view of FIG. 3, for the fixation onto the front fork. The upper and lower elongated plates 50 and 60 are also respectively provided with an end of insertion 52 or 62 having a narrower width at the other end thereof. Thus, a handle grip 70 having an insertion opening 72 is securely mounted on the upper and lower elongated plates 50 and 60 acting as the handle member by inserting the ends of insertion 52 and 62 into the insertion opening 72 of the handle grip 70. Furthermore, the upper elongated plate 50 has an upwardly shifted portion 53 at the side of the end of insertion 52 and the lower elongated plate 60 has a downwardly shifted portion 63 corresponding to the upwardly shifted portion 53 at the side of the end of insertion 62, so that a generally rectangular vacant space 75 is formed therebetween. In this vacant space 75, there are disposed three switch elements 100, 110, and 120 for controlling a current of turn signals, and an oil tank 160 for a master cylinder of an oil clutch. More specifically, the switch elements 100, 110, and 120 are disposed side by side and combined together, and for example, the left side element 100 is for a switch for a left turn signal, the central element 110 is for a switch for a right turn signal and the right side element 120 is a reset element. Upon the upwardly shifted portion 53 of the upper elongated plate 50, there is provided an upper housing member 80 for housing a switch element 130 of a dimmer switch. Similarly, beneath the downwardly shifted portion 63 of the lower elongated plate 60, there is provided a lower housing member 90 for housing a pair of switch elements 140 and 150 for a horn switch and for a passing signal switch. The switch elements 100 through 150 are of a known push type switch and are respectively provided with a switch knob or a push button 101 through 151 as a switch operating member. In order to provide access to the switch elements 100 through 150, an opening 81 is provided in a front face of the upper housing member 80 for receiving a control panel 85 having a plurality of openings through which head portions of the push buttons 101 through 105 project. Similarly, an opening 91 is provided in a front face of the lower housing member 90 so that the control panel 85 is placed therein. The lower housing member 90 is also provided with an oil channel 92 which communicates with the oil tank 160 and a holder portion 93 for a clutch lever 73 shown in FIG. 2. A clearance recess 94 for a harness of wires from the switches 100 through 150 is also provided in a side wall of the lower housing member 90. As it is apparent from the perspective view of FIG. 3, the switch elements are housed in the center of the handle-bar member without any trouble and therefore the disadvantages of the conventional arrangement are completely eliminated in the case of the switch assembly according to the present invention. Reference is now made to FIGS. 4 through 6 in which the second embodiment of the handle switch assembly according to the present invention is illustrated. As shown in the perspective view of FIG. 4 and in the exploded view of FIG. 5, this embodiment features that the opening 81 of the upper housing member 80 and the opening 91 of the lower housing member 90 are formed in such a manner that a peripheral edge 86 around the opening 81 and a peripheral edge 96 around the opening 91 are drawn back from the front faces of the upper housing member 80 and of the lower housing member 90. It means that the control panel 85 as well as the switch push buttons 101 through 151 are displaced slightly backward, as clearly shown in the plan view of FIG. 6, as compared with the first embodiment shown in FIGS. 2 and 3. With this arrangement, the handling of the push buttons 101 through 151 can be improved in such a manner as described hereafter. As shown in FIGS. 7 and 8, the push buttons are to be pressed by the bulb of the thumb of an operator while the other fingers of the operator hold the handle grip 70. In order to press the push button of an outer side (further side from the handle grip), it is suitable to move the thumb in an outward direction shown ty the arrow in FIG. 7 for controlling the switch elements more naturally. Similarly, when the push button of an inner side (closer side from the handle grip), it is suitable to move the thumb in an inward direction as shown by the arrow in FIG. 8. In this case, the arrangement of the control panel (displaced slightly backward) is quite advantageous because there is not any risk that the pressing of the push button of the outer side is disturbed by the head portion of the push button of the inner side, which was often the case in a conventional arrangement. Furthermore, the arrangement is advantageous in that the push buttons are protected from being damaged and from being operated unintentionally because of the backwardly displaced arrangement. In addition, in the case of the switch assembly according to the present invention, the handle grip 70 has a flange portion 74 provided with a flat face having the same level as the rear end of a cylindrical surface of the handle grip 70 as clearly shown in FIG. 6. With this provision, the push buttons 101 through 151 can be operated without the problem of touching the flange portion 74. In FIG. 6, the dotted line indicates a flange portion of conventional arrangements. A further modification of the embodiment is illustrated in FIG. 9. In the case of this modification, the control panel 85 is provided with a pair of slanting portions 86 and 87 at the left and right sides thereof. The provision of the slanting portions 86 and 87 is advantageous since the push buttons are preferably operated by moving the thumb towards the surface of the slanting portions in the same manner as illustrated in FIGS. 7 and 8. Thus, it becomes possible to manipulate the switches more naturally. Reference is now made to FIGS. 10 and 11, in which further variations of the switch arrangement is illustrated. In the case of the switch assembly shown in FIG. 10, the position of the head portions of the push buttons 141 and 151 (illustrated as an example) are so determined that the head portions are at an outer or prominent side with respect to the level of edges at both sides of the control panel 85 which is the same as the level of the rear end of the handle grip 70, when the push buttons 141 and 151 are at a normal (released) position, and are at an inner or back side with respect to the described level when the push buttons 141 and 151 are pressed-in. The arrangement shown in FIG. 11 features that the head portions of the push buttons 141 and 151, by way of example, are positioned on or in the inner (back) side of the described level in the normal (released) condition. Further, it is needless to say that the head portions are in the inner side of that level when the push buttons are pressed-in. It will be appreciated that the operation of the switches is made easier than the conventional arragement in both of the above described variations. It should be understood that the foregoing description is for illustrative purpose only, and is not intended to limit the scope of the invention. Rather, there are numerous equivalents to the preferred embodiments, and such are intended to be covered by the appended claims.

A handle switch assembly for a motor vehicle having a bar-like handle member with a handle grip, on which the switch assembly is mounted, comprises a pair of elongated members to be combined with each other to form the bar-like handle, and respectively provided with a bent portion to form a cavity portion and switch elements disposed in the cavity portion. Push buttons or switch knobs for the switch elements are disposed in a control section which is provided at the cavity portion of the elongated members so as to be on or behind an imaginary plane which includes a rear end of a cylindrical surface of the handle grip, whereby to provide an easy access to the push buttons or switch knobs.

REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION [0001] The present application claims priority benefit under 35 U.S.C. §119(e) from U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/709,048, filed Aug. 17, 2005, entitled “Patient Identification Using Physiological Sensor,” which is incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] 1. Field of the Invention [0003] The present invention relates in general to physiological sensors for patient monitoring. [0004] 2. Description of the Related Art [0005] Recent years have seen a wide variety of physiological sensors being used for patient monitoring in caregiving facilities such as hospitals, nursing homes, and the like. One particular type of patient monitoring, pulse oximetry, is a widely accepted noninvasive procedure for measuring the oxygen saturation level of arterial blood, an indicator of the oxygen status of the blood. A pulse oximeter generally operates with one or more light emitting diodes (LEDs) that are placed on one side of a medium while a photodetector is placed on an opposite side of the medium. An artisan will also recognize other general operating paradigms, such as a reflective paradigm where the LEDs and photodetector are placed on the same side. In general, the foregoing pulse oximeters are used to measure a patient's blood oxygen saturation. [0006] Conventional physiological sensors are disposable, reusable, or combinations of the two. A disposable sensor is generally attached to the patient with an adhesive wrap. A reusable sensor may be shaped roughly like a clip or clothespin that is easily attached and removed from, for example, a digit, earlobe, or the like. Combination sensors can include reusable circuitry that employs a disposable attachment mechanism, such as adhesive tape or bandage. Examples of each of the foregoing physiological sensors adapted for pulse oximetry are commercially available from Masimo Corporation of Irvine, Calif. Specific examples are U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,256,523 and 6,580,086, which are incorporated by reference herein. [0007] During a patient's stay at a caregiver facility, such as a hospital, the patient may be moved to various rooms for tests, operations, or other procedures or may simply move themselves for activities, exercise, visitors, or the like. As patients move, it becomes increasingly difficult for caregivers to identify the patient. Hospital staff typically identifies patients by manually taking down the patient's information and then inputting that information into a computer. This procedure can be repetitious and time consuming, particularly in a time of emergency. [0008] For these and other reasons, some caregivers have moved to identification bracelets to help identify patients, and in the case of newborns, the newborn's parents. While these bracelets or wristbands signify a significant advancement in patient identification, they still suffer from a variety of drawbacks. For example, many wristbands simply alphanumerically identify patients. Such wristband mechanisms still employ caregivers to manually record the alphanumeric information as the patient is moved. Other wristbands include encoded computer readable information such as bar code information. In at least one system, the caregiver facility uses modified pulse oximetry sensors to collect the barcode information in a more automated fashion. Such modified sensors include the drawback of employing specialty sensors that can be costly to implement. Based on the foregoing, significant and costly drawbacks exist in conventional oximetry sensors and patient information tracking. [0009] Thus, a need exists for an oximetry sensor with the advantages of the disposable and reusable sensors combined with the ability to identify or recognize patients and retain patient information. To overcome some of the foregoing drawbacks, sensor designers have come up with a modified wristband and reusable-pulse-oximeter sensor combination. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0010] The present invention involves several different embodiments related to identifying a patient by a physiological sensor system. In one embodiment, a sensor is configured to identify a unique bar code that is placed on a patient's identification bracelet. Preferably, the sensor shines light onto the bar code, and the light is reflected back to the sensor. The sensor is able to identify the unique bar code corresponding to that patient, and hence, identifies the patient. In some embodiments, a positioning device may facilitate positioning of the sensor. [0011] In another embodiment, the sensor may be connected to the patient's identification bracelet through in a variety of configurations and means. The sensor may be attached to the bracelet, for example, by adhesive, a clasp, a rivet, or the sensor may be integrally formed with the bracelet. In a further embodiment, the sensor may include a memory device that retains patient information. In this embodiment, when the sensor is connected to operating equipment and monitors, the patient identification information may be obtained from the memory device. [0012] Various embodiments of the patient information tracking system disclosed herein also include a physiological sensor system usable to acquire information related to the wearer of a physiological sensor. The sensor system includes a physiological sensor that is adapted to be attached to a patient and includes at least one emitter and a photodetector. The system further includes a positioning element that positions the physiological sensor such that the at least one emitter is sufficiently proximate the detector to acquire information from an identification element worn by the patient. [0013] In a further embodiment, a method of using a physiological sensor system to acquire information related to the wearer of a physiological sensor is provided. The method includes the steps of providing a physiological sensor including at least one emitter and a photodetector and providing a positioning element that positions the physiological sensor such that the emitter is sufficiently proximate the detector to acquire information from an identification element on the patient. The method further includes acquiring information from an identification element on the patient through the physiological sensor. [0014] In yet another embodiment, a pulse oximetry sensor is provided. The pulse oximetry sensor includes a sensor portion having at least one emitter and a photodetector and a securing portion sized and configured to couple the sensor portion to a patient. [0015] For purposes of summarizing the invention, certain embodiments, advantages, and novel features of the invention have been described herein. Of course, it is to be understood that not necessarily all such embodiments, advantages, or features are required in any particular embodiment of the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0016] FIG. 1A illustrates a side view of a pulse oximeter sensor with a positioning clip. [0017] FIG. 1B illustrates a side view of the pulse oximeter sensor of FIG. 1A identifying a patient by reading a bar code. [0018] FIG. 2 illustrates a side view of the pulse oximeter sensor with a guide, showing optical channels in broken lines to represent transparent or translucent channels. [0019] FIG. 3 illustrates a side view of the pulse oximeter sensor with a positioning clip and guide combination. [0020] FIG. 4 illustrates a side view of the pulse oximeter sensor with a fitted clamp. [0021] FIG. 5 illustrates a perspective view of a pulse oximeter sensor identifying a patient by reading a bar code. [0022] FIG. 6A illustrates a perspective view of the pulse oximeter sensor having a reusable portion, a disposable portion, and a securing portion extending from the disposable portion. [0023] FIG. 6B illustrates a perspective view of the pulse oximeter sensor having a reusable portion, a disposable portion, and a securing portion extending from the reusable portion. [0024] FIG. 7A illustrates a perspective view of the pulse oximeter sensor with the securing portion coupled to the identification bracelet. [0025] FIG. 7B illustrates a perspective view of the pulse oximeter sensor with the securing portion integrally formed with the identification bracelet. [0026] FIG. 7C illustrates a perspective view of the pulse oximeter sensor with the securing portion coupled to the identification bracelet via an identification bracelet clasp. [0027] FIG. 8A illustrates a perspective view of the pulse oximeter sensor reading the bar code of an identification bracelet, a portion of the bracelet being transparent or translucent. [0028] FIG. 8B illustrates a side view of a reusable pulse oximeter sensor reading the bar code of an identification bracelet, a portion of the bracelet being transparent or translucent. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT [0029] FIG. 1A illustrates one embodiment of a physiological sensor 50 configured to identify a patient. In this embodiment, the sensor 50 is preferably an oximetry sensor with an emitter 52 and a photodetector 54 . The distance between the emitter 52 and the photodetector 54 is reduced by folding a portion 56 of the sensor between the emitter 52 and photodector 54 , thereby creating sufficient proximity between the emitter 52 and the detector 54 that they can be employed in the acquisition of patient information from, for example, encoded information such as a bar code. Thus, in this embodiment, the existing electronic elements of the pulse oximeter sensor are advantageously positioned to perform bar code reading functionality. Such positioning can be accomplished through a variety of low cost structures or mechanisms, examples of which are described herein with reference to FIGS. 1A, 2 , 3 , and 4 . However, an artisan will recognize from the disclosure herein other mechanisms for properly positioning the electronic elements of a pulse oximeter sensor. [0030] As disclosed, an embodiment of the sensor 50 includes the folded portion 56 being held in place by a positioning clip 58 . The clip 58 is preferably configured to facilitate gripping and releasing of the clip 58 by a user. [0031] FIG. 1B illustrates the physiological sensor 50 of FIG. 1A identifying a patient. In one embodiment, a patient in a caregiver facility, such as a hospital, receives an identification bracelet 60 . The identification bracelet 60 may include a transparent cover, under which may be placed a piece of paper that provides patient identification information. A bar code 62 may be provided on the identification bracelet 60 that uniquely identifies individual patients of the caregiver facility. An artisan will recognize from the disclosure herein that the bar code could be printed directly on plastic or the like. [0032] The physiological sensor 50 of FIG. 1A is shown reading such the bar code 62 in FIG. 1B . Identification is performed by passing the sensor 50 over the bar code 62 at, for example, a relatively constant speed. The emitter directs light 61 from the emitter 52 to the identification bracelet 60 . The emitted light 61 is reflected from the identification bracelet, and the reflected light 63 is detected by the photodetector 54 . By identifying the relative space between the bar code 62 patterns, the sensor 50 is able to identify the unique pattern corresponding to the patient. In one embodiment, the signal is sent from the sensor 50 to an oximeter, and the oximeter identifies the bar code 62 corresponding to the patient. In another embodiment, the sensor 50 is configured to identify the patient by analyzing the bar code 62 pattern. [0033] A further embodiment is illustrated in FIG. 2 . In this embodiment, the sensor 50 is coupled to a guide 64 . The guide 64 may comprise an application portion 66 and a gripping portion 68 . In this embodiment, a caregiver conforms the sensor 50 to the shape of the gripping portion 68 , thereby reducing the distance between the emitter 52 and the photodetector 54 . The gripping portion 68 is preferably a sufficient length to reduce the distance between the emitter 52 and the photodetector 54 such that emission of light from the emitter 52 will be detected by the photodector 54 . The application portion 66 of the guide 64 is preferably coupled to the gripping portion 68 and preferably comprises an application side 70 and a sensor side 72 . The application side 70 faces the identification bracelet while the sensor side is adjacent to the sensor 50 . [0034] In one embodiment, the application portion 66 comprises a first channel 74 extending from the sensor side 72 to the application side 70 , through which light may be directed from the emitter 52 to the identification bracelet. The application portion 66 also preferably comprises a second channel 76 adjacent the photodetector 54 , such that light may be directed from the application side 70 to the sensor side 72 for detection by the photodetector 54 . In another embodiment, the application portion 66 may not comprise channels, but may be transparent or translucent, thereby permitting passage of light to pass to and from the identification bracelet. In yet another embodiment, some or all of the guide 64 may comprise a translucent material. [0035] In a further embodiment, the channels 74 , 76 may comprise a filter that only permits light to pass that has a certain wavelength corresponding to one or more desired wavelengths of the emitter 52 . The filter would preferably reduce interference from other operating lights in a caregiver facility, other wavelengths of the emitters 52 , or the like. In yet another embodiment, the application portion 66 or guide 64 may be transparent or translucent and/or may operate as the foregoing filter itself. [0036] While the application portion 66 in FIG. 2 is shown to be substantially horizontal and the gripping portion is shown to be substantially vertical, it should be appreciated that other arrangements may also be used. Additionally, it should be appreciated that the guide 64 may comprise only one of either the application portion 66 or gripping portion 68 . [0037] FIG. 3 illustrates a further embodiment of the positioning mechanisms disclosed above. In this embodiment, the sensor 50 preferably passes over the guide 64 as discussed with reference to FIG. 2 , and the clip 58 is placed so as to secure the sensor 50 over the guide 64 and to facilitate gripping and application by the caregiver. [0038] FIG. 4 illustrates yet another embodiment of the sensor 50 . In this embodiment, a fitted clamp 78 is placed over the folded portion 56 of the sensor 50 to secure the sensor 50 in place. Although it is not shown, it should be appreciated that the fitted clamp 78 may also be used with the guide 64 . [0039] Preferably, the clamp 78 is friction fitted to the sensor 50 and may be removed following identification of the patient. An artisan will recognize many ways to friction fit the clamp 78 to the sensor 50 . For example, the clamp 78 may comprise a corrugated portion or a material that will increase the friction between the clamp 78 and the sensor 50 . In a further embodiment, the clamp 78 may be snap fit to the sensor 50 . One of ordinary skill in the art will recognize even further ways of attaching the clamp 78 to the sensor 50 . [0040] An artisan will recognize that various shapes of the clamp 78 will function to achieve the same purpose as the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 4 . For example, in one embodiment, the clamp 78 may comprise tabs on one end to facilitate gripping the clamp 78 . In another exemplary embodiment, the clamp 78 may comprise a corrugated gripping portion to also facilitate gripping. [0041] As shown in FIG. 5 , a caregiver may identify a patient by passing the sensor 50 positioned using one or more of the positioning mechanisms of FIGS. 1A, 2 , 3 , and 4 , over the bar code 62 on the identification bracelet 60 of the patient. [0042] In yet another embodiment, it may be convenient or practical to interconnect the sensor 50 to an identification bracelet. In this embodiment, the identification bracelet may or may not have bar codes to identify the patient. FIGS. 6A through 7C illustrate various embodiments of attachment mechanisms. FIG. 6A illustrates an exemplary embodiment of a disposable sensor 80 . The disposable sensor 80 preferably comprises a reusable portion 82 and a disposable portion 84 . In one embodiment, the disposable portion 84 comprises a face tape layer 86 and a base tape layer 88 . Preferably, the reusable portion 82 comprises a photodetector 89 , a light-piping barrier 90 , an emitter 92 , a flex circuit 94 , and an electrical connector 96 . The light-piping barrier 90 reduces interference with the emitted light during the sensor's use. The flex circuit 94 preferably extends from the photodetector 89 and the emitter 92 to the electrical connector 96 . [0043] The disposable sensor 80 is connected to an oximeter via a connection cable 104 . A sensor connector 106 located on the one end of the connection cable 104 is configured to accommodate the electrical connector 96 of the reusable portion 82 . On the other end of the connection cable 104 is an oximeter connector 108 sized and configured to interconnect with the oximeter. Preferably, the flex circuit 94 is sufficiently elongated so as to provide flexibility when the electrical connector 96 is connected to the connection cable 104 . In application, the reusable portion 82 is preferably located between the face tape layer 86 and the base tape layer 88 . [0044] In one embodiment, the base tape layer 88 preferably comprises a securing portion 98 that is configured to be interconnected with, for example, the patient's identification bracelet. In the illustrated embodiment, the securing portion 98 is comprised of a strap that extends from a portion of the base tape layer 88 . The securing portion 98 is preferably a sufficient length to accommodate connection with a patient's identification bracelet. As illustrated, the securing portion 98 may comprise an adhesive substrate 100 that is covered with a release liner 102 until application. In this embodiment, when applied, the release liner 102 is removed, exposing the adhesive substrate 100 . The securing portion 98 is folded over the identification bracelet and attached to a corresponding portion of the securing portion 98 . [0045] While the illustrated embodiment shows the securing portion 98 substantially comprising a strap, it will be appreciated by an artisan from the disclosure herein that other ways may be provided for attaching the sensor 50 to the identification bracelet. For example, the sensor may be attached to the bracelet via a cord, a wire, or other securing means. Additionally, in these further embodiments, adhesive substrate may be used or other means of attaching the securing portion to the identification bracelet may be used, such as, for example, hook-and-loop material such as velcro®, snaps, rivets, or the like. [0046] In one embodiment, the base tape layer 88 may be made of a material that permits light to pass of a certain wavelength that corresponds to light from the emitter 92 . In this embodiment, the base tape layer 88 would operate as a filter to prevent other operating lights in a caregiver facility from reaching the photodetector 88 . [0047] FIG. 6B illustrates another embodiment of attaching the disposable sensor 80 to the identification bracelet of a patient. In this embodiment, the securing portion 98 is interconnected to the reusable portion 82 of the disposable sensor 80 . This embodiment would permit continuous use of the reusable sensor elements without removing them from the patient's identification bracelet. In this embodiment, the securing portion 98 may be attached to the identification bracelet as described above with reference to FIG. 6A . Also illustrated in this embodiment is a security wire 110 and a patient information memory device 112 . In one embodiment, patient information may be downloaded onto the patient information memory device 112 , and the information may be retrieved by an oximeter system or other healthcare device via the connection cable 104 . The security wire 110 and the patient information memory device 112 may be configured to form a circuit such that disconnection of the security wire 110 will remove patient information from the patient information memory device 112 . [0048] FIG. 7A illustrates attachment of the disposable sensor 80 of FIGS. 6A or 6 B to the identification bracelet 113 . While FIG. 7A illustrates the securing portion 98 enveloping the identification bracelet 113 , it should also be appreciated that a flap may be provided on the back of the identification bracelet 113 such that the securing portion passes through the flap without interfering with the patient identification window 114 . [0049] In another embodiment, as shown in FIG. 1B , the securing portion 98 may be manufactured such that it is integrally formed with the patient identification bracelet 113 . Although not shown, a security wire 110 may pass through the securing portion 98 and the bracelet 113 such that removal of either will erase the patient information from the memory device 112 . [0050] In yet a further embodiment, as shown in FIG. 7C , the securing portion 98 may be sized and configured to accommodate a clasp or rivet 116 that is used to secure the identification bracelet 113 . As shown in this embodiment, the security wire 110 may encompass the clasp 116 , such that removal of the securing portion 98 will sever the security wire 110 and erase the patient's specific information on the memory device 112 . In another embodiment, severance of the security wire 110 will make the sensor inoperable. [0051] FIG. 8A illustrates another embodiment of using a physiological sensor 50 to identify a patient by reading the bar code 62 on the patient identification bracelet 117 . In this embodiment, the sensor is folded over at a location between the emitter 52 and the photodetector (not shown) such that the emitter and the photodetector face each other. The patient identification bracelet 117 preferably includes a transparent window 114 such that light emitted from the emitter 52 will pass through the window 114 for detection by the photodetector. The identification bracelet is inserted between the emitter 52 and the photodetector and is advanced at a constant rate. In one embodiment, the window may comprise a material such that other operating lights in the caregiver facility are filtered out, thus reducing interference. [0052] In another embodiment, shown in FIG. 8B , a reusable oximetry sensor 118 may be used. In this embodiment, the patient identification bracelet 117 with a transparent window 114 is placed between the emitter 120 and the photodetector 122 . Emitted light 124 passes from the emitter 120 to the photodetector 122 through the transparent window 114 . The identification bracelet is placed between the emitter 120 and photodetector 122 and is advanced at a constant rate such that the sensor 118 or the device to which the sensor 118 is connected will identify the bar code 62 pattern corresponding to the patient. An advantage of this embodiment is that the reusable sensor 118 requires no modification to the existing light paths. [0053] Although the foregoing invention has been described in terms of certain preferred embodiments, other embodiments will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art. For example, some or all of the embodiments disclosed with reference to FIGS. 1A, 2 , 4 , 6 A, 6 B, 7 A through 7 C, 8 A, and 8 B, may be combined. Additionally, other combinations, omissions, substitutions, and modifications will be apparent to one of ordinary skill in the art in view of the disclosure herein. Accordingly, the present invention is not intended to be limited by the preferred embodiments, but is to be defined by reference to the appended claims.

A patient information tracking system is disclosed that implements a physiological sensor system used to acquire information related to the wearer of a physiological sensor. The sensor system includes a physiological sensor adapted to be attached to a patient and includes at least one emitter and a photodetector. The sensor system further includes a positioning element to position the sensor such that the at least one emitter is sufficiently proximate the detector to acquire information from an identification element worn by the patient. A method for using a physiological sensor system to acquire information related to the wearer of a sensor is also provided. The sensor may also include a securing portion configured to couple to the sensor portion of the wearer. The sensor may also include a security wire and a memory device for retaining the wearer's information.

RELATED APPLICATION This application is a continuation-in-part of patent application Ser. No. 09/643,097 filed on Aug. 21, 2000 now U.S. Pat. No. 6,506,301 which is a continuation-in-part of patent application Ser. No. 08/888,376 filed on Jul. 7, 1997 now U.S. Pat. No. 6,248,299. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. The Field of the Invention Only a fraction of the earth's total water supply is available and suitable for agriculture, industry and domestic needs. The demand for water is great and new technologies together with growing populations increase the demand for water while pollution diminishes the limited supply of usable water. The growing demand for water requires efficient use of available water resources. Agricultural use of water places a large demand on the world's water supply. In some communities, the water supply may be adequate for farming but the quality of the water is unsuitable for agriculture because the water is alkaline. Alkalinity is an important factor affecting the quality, efficiency and performance of soil and irrigation water. A relative increase in irrigation alkalinity due to the water's sodium to calcium ratio or a high pH renders irrigation water detrimental to soil, crop growth and irrigation water efficiency. Such water can be reclaimed for soil rehabilitation and irrigation by adding lower pH sulphur acid or sulphurous acid to the alkaline water to reduce its alkalinity or pH. Use and quality of culinary water is also rising. In most populated areas, treatment of water for culinary and household use is necessary. Many water treatment facilities use various forms of chlorine to kill bacteria in the water. A necessary step in such processes include subsequently removing residual chlorine before introducing the treated water back into streams or rivers or into public culinary water systems. The invention of this application is directed toward a device which generates quantities of sulphur dioxide gas or sulphur acid in a simplified, controllable, safe and efficient way. In particular, it is directed toward a sulphur dioxide or sulphurous acid generator which produces sulphurous compounds by burning elemental sulphur to produce sulphur gases. The sulphur gases are then drawn toward and held in contact with water eventually reacting with the water and producing sulphur acids, while substantially reducing dangerous emissions of sulphur gases to the air. 2. The Relevant Technology There are several sulphurous acid generators in the art. The prior art devices utilize sulphur burn chambers and absorption towers. However, known systems utilize countercurrent current flow or pressurized systems as the principle means to accomplish the generation of sulphurous acid. For example, many devices employ the absorption tower to introduce the majority of the water to the system in countercurrent flow to the flow of sulphur dioxide gas. U.S. Pat. No. 4,526,771 teaches introducing 90% of the system water for the first time in countercurrent flow at the top of the absorption tower. In such devices, the integrity of the absorption towers is vital, and any deficiencies or inefficiencies of the absorption tower lead to diminished reaction and results. Other devices utilize pressurized gas to facilitate flow of gas through the system, see U.S. Pat. No. 3,226,201. Pressurized devices, however, require expensive manufacture to ensure the containment of dangerous sulphur dioxide gas to avoid leakage. Even negative pressure machines have the drawback of requiring a source of energy to power the negative pressure generator such as an exhaust fan. Still other devices rely upon secondary combustion chambers to further oxidize the sulphur, see U.S. Pat. No. 4,526,771. Many sulphurous acid generators emit significant or dangerous levels of unreacted sulphur dioxide gas, a harmful and noxious pollutant, into the surrounding environment. Known processes exist for dechlorinating water. These processes typically employ storage, containment and use of liquid or pressurized sulphur gases to remove harmful chlorine compounds from the water. Many of the known systems require expenses and large transportation and storage needs such as trains, train tracks, tankers, tanks, semitrucks and other equipment. Liquid and pressurized sulphur gases are hazardous and require elaborate and regulated usage and handling as well as hazardous release evacuation plans and specialized training of personnel and coordination with public health and safety officials, officers and servants. What is needed is a method and apparatus for on-site, safe and controllable generation of needed sulphur gases. What is needed are methods and apparatuses which alleviate the need for expensive equipment or machinery for the transportation, storage and use of sulphur gases. What is needed is an onsite sulphur gas generator which can supply needed sulphur gases on demand without the need for expensive and elaborate hazardous material management and emergency contingencies. SUMMARY AND OBJECTS OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed to a sulphur gas generator which can be used to improve alkaline irrigation water, dechlorinate water or treat landfill deposits. By adding sulphur gases or sulphur acids to alkaline water, the alkalinity and/or pH of the water is reduced. In addition to making the water less alkaline, adding sulphur acids to alkaline water increases the availability of sulphur in the water to act as a nutrient, improves capillary action of the soil, increases cation exchange capacity, and decreases tail water run-off and tillage and fertilizer costs. For purposes of this patent the term “sulphurous acid” shall mean ultimate and intermediate acids of sulphur created when sulphur gases created by combustion of sulphur react or mix with aqueous solution. In many agricultural settings, complicated farm machinery is not practical because it requires technical training to operate and special skills to service and maintain. For sulphur gas generators, improved design can reduce costs, simplify operation, service and maintenance and increase efficiency and safety thereby making the machine more practical for agricultural use. The present invention is directed toward a sulphur gas generator that is simple to produce, operate, service and maintain, and which efficiently produces, contains and reacts sulphur dioxide gas, and sulphurous acid if desired, without exposing the user or other living things in proximity to the machine to dangerous sulphur dioxide emissions. It will be appreciated that a specific energy source is not necessarily required by the present invention, and therefore its use is not necessarily restricted to locations where a particular power source, like electricity, is available or can be generated for use. All of the above objectives are met by the present invention. Unlike the prior art, the present invention is designed to generate, regulate and control the amount of sulphur dioxide gas generated on-site and on-demand for the combustion of elemental sulphur or sulfur and the duration of the contact of water with sulphur gases without creating or by minimizing back pressure in the system or without relying upon pressurization of the gas to cause the sulphur dioxide gas to flow through the generator or for introduction of the gas into aqueous solution. This reduces the complexity of the sulphur gas generator and the need for additional equipment such as air compressors used by prior art devices, or transportation, storage and other equipment typically associated with the use of liquid or pressurized sulphur gases. The invention primarily relates to a sulphur hopper, a burn chamber and a gas pipeline. Additionally, an injector, a mixing tank, an exhaust pipeline, and an exhaust scrubbing tower may be employed. The sulphur hopper preferably has a capacity of several hundred pounds of sulphur in powder, flake, split-pea or pastile form. The sulphur hopper can be constructed of various materials or combinations thereof. In one embodiment, the sulphur hopper is constructed of stainless steel and plastic. In the preferred embodiment the hopper is constructed of Saggregate™ concrete. The sulphur hopper is connected to the burn chamber by a passageway positioned at the base of the sulphur hopper. The conduit joins the burn chamber at its base. The weight of the sulphur in the sulphur hopper forces sulphur through the passageway at the base and into the burn chamber, providing a continual supply of sulphur for burning. A cooling ring is disposed at the base of the hopper. The cooling ring enters the base of the hopper, traverses a u-shaped pattern near the passageway into the burn chamber protruding above the base of the hopper. The cooling ring creates a physical and temperature barrier preventing molten sulphur from flowing across the entire base of the hopper. The burn chamber has an ignition inlet on the top of the burn chamber through which the sulphur is ignited and an air inlet on the side of the chamber through which oxygen enters to fuel the burning sulphur. The burning sulphur generates sulphur dioxide gas. In the preferred embodiment, the top of the chamber is removable, facilitating access to the chamber for maintenance and service. The burn chamber is constructed of material capable of withstanding the corrosiveness of the sulphur and the heat of combustion, namely stainless steel but preferably Saggregate™ concrete. Saggregate™ concrete is preferred because it significantly decreases the cost of the hopper and burning chamber. Saggregate™ concrete is a unique blend of cement and aggregates. Sulphur dioxide gas exits the burn chamber through an exhaust outlet on the top of the burn chamber and is drawn into a first conduit. The first conduit may be manufactured from stainless steel. The sulphur dioxide gas may be directly injected or released into aqueous solution. Optional Features If the sulphur dioxide is not directly injected or released into aqueous solution, a supply of water is conducted by a second conduit and may be brought from a water source through the second conduit by any means capable of delivering sufficient water and pressure, such as an elevated water tank or a mechanical or electric pump. The first conduit and second conduit meet and couple with a third conduit. The third conduit may comprise a blending portion, a contact containment portion, an agitation portion and a means for discharging the sulphurous acid and unreacted sulphur dioxide gas. In the third conduit, the sulphur dioxide gas and water are brought in contact with each other to form sulphurous acid. The third conduit may be constructed of polyethylene plastic, pvc or any durable plastic. The blending portion of the third conduit comprises a means for bringing the sulphur dioxide gas in the first conduit and the water in the second conduit into contained, codirectional flow into contact with each other. The majority of water used to create sulphurous acid in the system and method is introduced into the third conduit and flows through one or more mixing portions in the third conduit, thereafter discharging naturally by gravity and water flow. Water is introduced into the third conduit in codirectional flow with the sulphur dioxide gas so as to create an annular column of water with the sulphur dioxide gas flowing inside the annular column of water thereby blending the water and sulphur dioxide gas together. In the preferred embodiment, water is introduced into the gas pipeline and passes through an eductor or venturi, which causes sulphur dioxide gas to be drawn through the first conduit without the need of pressuring the sulphur dioxide gas and without using an exhaust fan. The water and sulphur dioxide gas remain in contact with each other for the period of time it takes to flow through a portion of the third conduit. In the contact area, a portion of the sulphur dioxide gas reacts with the water, creating sulphurous acid. In different embodiments, an agitation portion comprises a means for mixing and agitating the codirectionally flowing sulphur dioxide gas and water/sulphurous acid. The agitation portions enhance sulphur dioxide gas reaction and dispersion. Bends in or a length of the third conduit or obstructions within the third conduit are contemplated as means for mixing and agitating in the agitation portion. Agitation of the codirectional flow of the sulphur dioxide gas and water further facilitates reaction of the sulphur dioxide gas with water. Sulphurous acid and sulphur dioxide gas flow out of the third conduit through means for discharging the sulphurous acid and unreacted sulphur dioxide gas. A discharge outlet represents a possible embodiment of means for discharging the sulphurous acid and unreacted sulphur dioxide gas. The discharge outlet permits conduit contents to enter into the subject aqueous solution to be treated, a holding tank therefor, or into further optional treatment apparatus such as a gas submersion zone. Further Optional Features The sulphurous acid and unreacted sulphur dioxide gas may exit the third conduit through the discharge and enter a gas submersion zone or mixing tank. In one embodiment, a weir divides the mixing tank into two sections, namely a pooling section and an effluent or outlet section. Sulphurous acid and sulphur dioxide gas exit the discharge of the third conduit into the pooling section. As the sulphurous acid pours into the mixing tank, it creates a pool of sulphurous acid equal in depth to the height of the weir. At all times, the water/acid and unreacted sulphur dioxide gas discharge from the third conduit above the level of the liquid in the pooling section of the mixing tank. In another embodiment, water/acid and unreacted sulphur dioxide gas discharge from the third conduit to mix in a single cell mixing tank, discharging out the bottom of the mixing tank. In other words, the discharge from the third conduit is positioned sufficiently high in the mixing tank so that sulphur dioxide gas exiting the pipeline can pass directly into and be submerged within the pool while in an open (nonclosed) arrangement. In other words, the discharge from the third conduit does not create any significant back pressure on the flow of sulphurous acid or sulphur dioxide gas in the third conduit or gas pipeline. Nevertheless, the vertical position of the discharge from the third conduit into the pool reduces the likelihood that the unreacted sulphur dioxide gas will exit from the discharge without being submerged in the pool. In one embodiment, the discharge is removed a distance from the sidewall of the mixing tank toward the center of the pooling section to allow the pool to be efficiently churned by the inflow of sulphurous acid and unreacted sulphur dioxide gas from the third conduit. In another embodiment, discharge out the bottom of the mixing tank upstream from a u-trap efficiently chums unreacted sulphur dioxide gas with the aqueous fluid of the system. As acidic/water and gas continue to enter the mixing tank from the third conduit in one embodiment, the level of the pool eventually exceeds the height of the weir. Sulphurous acid spills over the weir and into the effluent or outlet section of the mixing tank where the sulphurous acid exits the mixing tank through an effluent outlet. The top of the effluent outlet is positioned below height of the weir and below the discharge from the third conduit in order to reduce the amount of free floating unreacted sulphur dioxide gas exiting the chamber through the effluent outlet. In another embodiment, a discharge in the bottom of a weirless mixing tank employs the column of water to inhibit unreacted sulphur dioxide from exiting the mixing chamber through the bottom discharge outlet. Free floating, unreacted sulphur dioxide gas remaining in the mixing tank rises up to the top of the mixing tank. The top of the mixing tank is adapted with a lid. Undissolved sulphur dioxide gas flowing through the effluent outlet are trapped by a standard u-trap, forcing accumulated gas back into the mixing tank while sulfurous acid exits the system through a first discharge pipe. To ensure further elimination of any significant emissions of sulphur dioxide gas from the generator into the environment, the sulphur dioxide gas remaining in the mixing tank may be drawn into an exhaust conduit coupled with an exhaust vent on the lid of the mixing tank. The exhaust conduit defines a fourth conduit. Positioned in the fourth conduit is a means for introducing water into the fourth conduit. The water which enters the fourth conduit may be brought from a water source by any means capable of delivering sufficient water to the fourth conduit. As the water is introduced into the fourth conduit, it reacts with the sulphur dioxide gas that has migrated out through the lid of the mixing tank of the absorption tower, and creates sulphurous acid. In the preferred embodiment, water introduced into the fourth conduit, passes through a second eductor or venturi causing the sulphur dioxide gas to be drawn through the vent and into the fourth conduit. The gas and water are contained in contact as they flow in codirectional flow through one or more contact secondary containment and/or agitation portions of the fourth conduit. Sulphurous acid exits the fourth conduit through a second discharge pipe. The fourth conduit may be constructed of high density polyethylene plastic, pvc or any suitably durable plastic. The material of construction is chosen for its durability and resistance to ultra violet ray degradation. In a preferred embodiment, the second discharge pipe also comprises a u-trap configuration. In any discharge arrangement, the discharge of sulphurous acid may be into a holding tank from which the sulphurous acid may be drawn, injected or released into the subject aqueous solution. In a preferred embodiment upstream from the u-trap of the second discharge pipe, a vent stack houses an exhaust scrubbing tower providing a tertiary containment area. The exhaust scrubbing tower defines grill holes through which the rising, undissolved gases rise. In a preferred embodiment, the exhaust scrubbing tower comprises a cylindrical body which is constructed of polyethylene plastic which is durable, lightweight and resistant to ultra violet ray degradation. At the top of the exhaust scrubbing tower, a third source of water introduces a shower of water through an emitter inside the exhaust tower showering water downward, resulting in a countercurrent flow of undissolved gases and descending water. The rising sulphur dioxide gas comes into countercurrent contact with the descending water, creating sulphurous acid. The exhaust scrubbing tower is packed with path diverters, which force the countercurrent flow of sulphur dioxide gas and water to pass through a tortuous maze, increasing the duration of time the gas and water remain in contact and the surface area of the contact. Substantially all the free floating sulphur dioxide gas from the mixing tank will react with water in the tower to form sulphurous acid. Sulphurous acid created in the tower flows down into the secondary discharge. Any undissolved gases pass out of the open, upward end of the exhaust scrubbing tower to the atmosphere. As mentioned, the water introduced into the system to the third conduit, fourth conduit and exhaust scrubbing tower may be brought from a water source to the system by any means capable of delivering sufficient water and pressure, such as a standing, elevated water tank, or mechanical, electric or diesel powered water pump. The present invention also contemplates means for controlling the burn rate of sulphur in the burning chamber, that is, dampening the flow or amount of air made available into the burning chamber. It is an object of this invention to provide sulphur gas or a sulfurous acid generator that is simple to manufacture, use, maintain and service. Another object of this invention is to provide on-site, on-demand sulphur gas generation avoiding the expense, equipment, hazardous material management and personnel needed by the prior art methods and apparatus. Another object of the present invention is to provide sulphur gases or sulphurous acid for aqueous water treatment or landfill treatment methods. Still another object of the present invention is to provide an effective, efficient, easy to use method and apparatus to dechlorinate water. It is also an object of this invention to construct the hopper and burn chamber out of a high-temperature concrete to reduce manufacturing costs. It is another object of this invention to eliminate reliance upon countercurrent absorption as the prior mechanism for creating sulphurous acid as taught by the prior art. It is further an object of this invention to create a sulfurous acid generator that is capable of operating without any electrical equipment such as pumps, air compressor or exhaust fans requiring a specific energy source requirement, such as electricity or diesel fuels. It is another object of this invention to produce a sulphurous acid generator which converts substantially all sulfur dioxide gas generated into sulphurous acid. It is another object of the invention to produce a sulfurous acid generator which uses an induced draw created by the flow of water through the system to draw gases through the otherwise open system. Another object of the present invention is to provide a sulphurous acid generator with one or more contact containment and/or agitation and mixing mechanisms to increase the duration of time during which the sulphur dioxide gas is in contact with and mixed with water. It is an object of this invention to produce a sulphurous acid generator which substantially eliminates emission of harmful sulphur dioxide gas. These and other objects and features of the present invention will become more fully apparent from the following description and appended claims, or may be learned by the practice of the invention as set forth hereinafter. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS In order that the manner in which the above-recited and other advantages and objects of the invention are obtained, a more particular description of the invention briefly depicted above will be rendered by reference to a specific embodiment thereof which is illustrated in the appended drawings. With the understanding that these drawings depict only a typical embodiment of the invention and are not therefore to be considered to be limiting of its scope, the invention will be described and explained with additional specificity and detail through the use of the accompanying drawings in which: FIG. 1 is a perspective view of one embodiment of the sulphurous acid generator. FIG. 1A is a plan view of a section of a hopper and burn chamber. FIG. 1B is a cross-section of a hopper and burn chamber, FIG. 2 is a side elevation view partly in cutaway cross-section of the components of the sulphurous acid generator. FIG. 3 is a side elevation view partly in cut-away cross-section of an alternative embodiment of a sulphurous acid generator. FIG. 4A is a view partly in cut-away cross-section of an embodiment of a sulphur gas generator and injector. FIG. 4B is a side elevation view partly in cut-away cross-section of an embodiment of a sulphurous acid generator. FIG. 4C is a cross-sectional view partly of the Saggregate™ concrete embodiment of a sulphur gas generator and injector. FIG. 5 is an enlarged view of a portion of a third conduit. FIG. 6 is an enlarged view of a portion of a fourth conduit. FIG. 7 is a cross-sectional view of the exhaust scrubbing tower. FIGS. 8A to 8 E illustrate alternative embodiments dampening available air or oxygen flowing into the burning chamber for combustion. FIG. 9 is a flow chart explaining one of the inventive processes. FIG. 10 is a flow chart explaining one of the inventive processes. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Including by reference the figures listed above, applicant's sulphur gas and sulfurous acid generator comprises a system which generates sulphur dioxide gas and in some embodiments keeps the gas substantially contained and in contact with water or other aqueous solution for sufficient periods of time to substantially eliminate any significant release of harmful sulphur dioxide gas from the system or solution. The principal elements of the present invention are shown in FIGS. 1-8. The sulphur or sulfur hopper 20 comprises enclosure 24 with a lid 26 . Hopper 20 serves as a reservoir for elemental sulphur. Lid 26 may define a closeable aperture, not shown. Enclosure 24 may be of any geometric shape; square is shown, cylindrical may also be employed. Lid 26 of enclosure 24 is readily removable to allow sulphur to be loaded into hopper 20 . Enclosure 24 defines a hopper outlet 30 . Hopper 20 is configured such that sulphur in hopper 20 is directed toward hopper outlet 30 by the pull of gravity. Hopper outlet 30 allows sulphur to pass through and out of hopper 20 . FIG. 1A illustrates a plan view of open hopper 20 . Hopper 20 comprises a base or floor 22 . In the preferred embodiment, a cooling ring 28 is disposed about ½ inch above base 22 . As shown in FIG. 1, untreated irrigation water is circulated through cooling ring 28 . See also FIG. 1 B. FIGS. 1A and 1B also disclose vertical standing baffles 29 . In practice of the invention it has been discovered that baffles 29 assist in directing the dry sulphur to hopper outlet 30 . Practice of the invention has also revealed that cooling ring 28 is most effective when placed closer to hopper outlet 30 rather than the middle of base 22 or farther away from hopper outlet 30 . The effect cooling ring 28 has on molten sulphur will be discussed below. A passageway conduit 36 communicates between hopper outlet 30 and burn chamber inlet 50 of burn chamber 40 . Burn chamber 40 comprises floor member 42 , chamber sidewall 44 and roof member 46 . Elemental sulphur is combusted in burn chamber 40 . Roof member 46 is removably attached to chamber sidewall 44 supporting roof member 46 . Roof member 46 defines an ignition inlet 52 as having a removably attached ignition inlet cover 54 . Through ignition inlet 52 , the user may ignite the sulphur. An air inlet 56 defined by chamber sidewall 44 has a removably attached air inlet cover 58 . The air inlet 56 preferably enters the chamber sidewall 44 tangentially. An exhaust opening 60 in the burn chamber 40 is defined by the roof member 46 . As shown in FIGS. 2, 3 , and 4 A- 4 C, roof member 46 also defines a downwardly extending annular ring 48 . In the preferred embodiment, ring 48 extends downwardly into burn chamber 40 at least as low as air inlet 56 is disposed. It is understood and believed that this configuration causes not only inlet air to swirl in a cyclone effect into burn chamber 40 but induces a swirling or cyclone effect of the combusted sulphur dioxide gas as it rises in burn chamber 40 and passing up through exhaust opening 60 and gas pipeline 70 . Roof member 46 is secured to sidewall 44 of burn chamber 40 by either bolting roof member 46 to burn chamber to the top of sidewall 44 in any conventional fashion, or as shown in FIG. 4C, by employing removable C-clamps 49 . Hopper 20 , passageway conduit 36 and burn chamber 40 may be constructed of stainless steel. In such case, roof member 46 could be removably bolted to burn chamber 40 . In an alternative embodiment shown in FIG. 4C, hopper 20 , passageway conduit 36 and burn chamber 40 as well as a platform or legs 10 may be constructed of Saggregate™ concrete. Saggregate™ concrete is a unique blend of cement and other components. The Saggregate™ concrete comprises a cement component, two aggregate components, and a water component. The preferred cement component is Lumnite MG® (“Lumnite® cement”), Heidelberger Calcium Aluminate Cement from Heidelberger Calcium Aluminates, Inc., Allentown, Pa., United States of America. The preferred Lumnite® has a 7000 pound crush weight nature. The first aggregate is preferably a pea-sized medium shale sold by Utelite Corp., Wanship, Utah, 84017, United States of America. A second aggregate is preferably a crushed mesh or crushed fines inorganic aggregate. The preferred fine-sized aggregate is PAKMIX® Lightweight Soil Conditioner® produced by Utelite Corp., Wanship, Utah, 84017, United States of America. The Pakmix® aggregate comprises No. 10 crushed fines of shale capable of bearing temperatures up to 2000 degrees Farenheit. The mixing ratio of the cement, first aggregate, second aggregate and water are as follows. The ratio of Lumnite® cement to combined aggregates is 1:3 by volume. The ratio of water to Lumnite® cement by weight is 0.4:1. Operational results are achieved when the volume ratio of pea-sized medium shale aggregate to Lumnite® cement ranges from about 0:1 to about 3.0:1 and where the volume ratio of crushed mesh/crushed shale fines aggregate to Lumnite® cement ranges from about 0:1 to about 3.0:1. More satisfactory results are achieved when the volume ratio of pea-sized medium shale aggregate to Lumnite® cement ranges from about 1:1 to about 1.5:1 and where the volume ratio of crushed mesh/crushed shale fines aggregate to Lumnite® cement ranges from about 1.5:1 to about 2.0:1. The most favorable results occur when the pea-sized medium shale aggregate is mixed in a ratio to Lumnite® cement in a range from about 1.2:1 to about 1.3:1 by volume and wherein the crushed mesh/crushed shale fines aggregate component is present in a ratio to Lumnite® cement in a range from about 1.7:1 to about 1.8:1 by volume. Embodiments of the Saggregate™ concrete of the present invention discussed above and illustrated in FIG. 4 were made in the following manner: EXAMPLE 1 Component Amount Lumnite ® cement one volume unit pea-sized medium shale 1.5 × one volume unit crushed fine shale 1.5 × one volume unit water  .4 × weight of one volume unit of Lumnite ® For example, one cubic foot of Lumnite® cement is measured and weighed, the weight of one cubic foot of Lumnite® cement being noted. Measure one and one-half cubic feet of pea-sized medium shale. Measure one and one-half cubic feet of crushed fine shale. Mix the Lumnite® cement, pea-sized medium shale and crushed fine shale together to create a dry mix. Measure an amount of water equal to 0.4 times the weight of the one cubic foot of Lumnite® cement. Add the amount of water to the dry mix to create Saggregate™ concrete. Mix, handle, pour, cure and treat the Saggregate™ concrete like conventional concrete. In the context of the present invention, Saggregate™ concrete was used with suitable molds to form the desired hopper-burn chamber assembly capable of withstanding the heat of burning and molten sulphur in use. Other embodiments of the Saggregate™ concrete of the present invention discussed above and illustrated in FIG. 4 may be made in the following manner: EXAMPLE 2 Component Amount Lumnite ® cement one volume unit pea-sized medium shale 3.0 × one volume unit crushed fine shale None water  .4 × weight of one volume unit of Lumnite ® cement For example, one cubic foot of Lumnite® cement is measured and weighed, the weight of one cubic foot of Lumnite® cement being noted. Measure three cubic feet of pea-sized medium shale. Use no crushed fine shale. Mix the Lumnite® cement and pea-sized medium shale together to create a dry mix. Measure an amount of water equal to 0.4 times the weight of the three cubic feet of Lumnite® cement. Add the amount of water to the dry mix to create Saggregate™ concrete. Mix, handle, pour, cure and treat the Saggregate™ concrete like conventional concrete. In the context of the present invention, Saggregate™ concrete is used with suitable molds to form the desired hopper-burn chamber assembly capable of withstanding the heat of burning and molten sulphur in use. EXAMPLE 3 Component Amount Lumnite ® cement one volume unit pea-sized medium shale None crushed fine shale 3.0 × one volume unit water  .4 × weight of one volume unit of Lumnite ® cement For example, one cubic foot of Lumnite® cement is measured and weighed, the weight of one cubic foot of Lumnite® cement being noted. Use no pea-sized medium shale. Measure three cubic feet of crushed fine shale. Mix the Lumnite® cement and crushed fine shale together to create a dry mix. Measure an amount of water equal to 0.4 times the weight of the one cubic foot of Lumnite® cement. Add the amount of water to the dry mix to create Saggregate™ concrete. Mix, handle, pour, cure and treat the Saggregate™ concrete like conventional concrete. In the context of the present invention, Saggregate™ concrete is used with suitable molds to form the desired hopper-burn chamber assembly capable of withstanding the heat of burning and molten sulphur in use. EXAMPLE 4 Component Amount Lumnite ® cement one volume unit pea-sized medium shale  .4 × one volume unit crushed fine shale 2.6 × one volume unit water  .4 × weight of one volume unit of Lumnite ® cement For example, one cubic foot of Lumnite® cement is measured and weighed, the weight of one cubic foot of Lumnite® cement being noted. Measure 0.4 cubic foot of pea-sized medium shale. Measure 2.6 cubic feet of crushed fine shale. Mix the Lumnite® cement, pea-sized medium shale and crushed fine shale together to create a dry mix. Measure an amount of water equal to 0.4 times the weight of the one cubic foot of Lumnite® cement. Add the amount of water to the dry mix to create Saggregate™ concrete. Mix, handle, pour, cure and treat the Saggregate™ concrete like conventional concrete. In the context of the present invention, Saggregate™ concrete is used with suitable molds to form the desired hopper-burn chamber assembly capable of withstanding the heat of burning and molten sulphur in use. EXAMPLE 5 Component Amount Lumnite ® cement one volume unit pea-sized medium shale one volume unit crushed fine shale 2.0 × one volume unit water  .4 × weight of one volume unit of Lumnite ® For example, one cubic foot of Lumnite® cement is measured and weighed, the weight of one cubic foot of Lumnite® cement being noted. Measure one cubic foot of pea-sized medium shale. Measure two cubic feet of crushed fine shale. Mix the Lumnite® cement, pea-sized medium shale and crushed fine shale together to create a dry mix. Measure an amount of water equal to 0.4 times the weight of the one cubic foot of Lumnite® cement. Add the amount of water to the dry mix to create Saggregate™ concrete. Mix, handle, pour, cure and treat the Saggregate™ concrete like conventional concrete. In the context of the present invention, Saggregate™ concrete is used with suitable molds to form the desired hopper-burn chamber assembly capable of withstanding the heat of burning and molten sulphur in use. EXAMPLE 6 Component Amount Lumnite ® cement one volume unit pea-sized medium shale 1.1 × one volume unit crushed fine shale 1.9 × one volume unit water  .4 × weight of one volume unit of Lumnite ® For example, one cubic foot of Lumnite® cement is measured and weighed, the weight of one cubic foot of Lumnite® cement being noted. Measure one and one-tenth cubic feet of pea-sized medium shale. Measure one and nine-tenths cubic feet of crushed fine shale. Mix the Lumnite® cement, pea-sized medium shale and crushed fine shale together to create a dry mix. Measure an amount of water equal to 0.4 times the weight of the one cubic foot of Lumnite® cement. Add the amount of water to the dry mix to create Saggregate™ concrete. Mix, handle, pour, cure and treat the Saggregate™ concrete like conventional concrete. In the context of the present invention, Saggregate™ concrete is used with suitable molds to form the desired hopper-burn chamber assembly capable of withstanding the heat of burning and molten sulphur in use. EXAMPLE 7 Component Amount Lumnite ® cement one volume unit pea-sized medium shale 1.2 × one volume unit crushed fine shale 1.8 × one volume unit water  .4 × weight of one volume unit of Lumnite ® For example, one cubic foot of Lumnite® cement is measured and weighed, the weight of one cubic foot of Lumnite® cement being noted. Measure one and two-tenths cubic feet of pea-sized medium shale. Measure one and eight-tenths cubic feet of crushed fine shale. Mix the Lumnite® cement, pea-sized medium shale and crushed fine shale together to create a dry mix. Measure an amount of water equal to 0.4 times the weight of the one cubic foot of Lumnite® cement. Add the amount of water to the dry mix to create Saggregate™ concrete. Mix, handle, pour, cure and treat the Saggregate™ concrete like conventional concrete. In the context of the present invention, Saggregate™ concrete is used with suitable molds to form the desired hopper-burn chamber assembly capable of withstanding the heat of burning and molten sulphur in use. EXAMPLE 8 Component Amount Lumnite ® cement one volume unit pea-sized medium shale 1.3 × one volume unit crushed fine shale 1.7 × one volume unit water  .4 × weight of one volume unit of Lumnite ® For example, one cubic foot of Lumnite® cement is measured and weighed, the weight of one cubic foot of Lumnite® cement being noted. Measure one and three-tenths cubic feet of pea-sized medium shale. Measure one and seven-tenths cubic feet of crushed fine shale. Mix the Lumnite® cement, pea-sized medium shale and crushed fine shale together to create a dry mix. Measure an amount of water equal to 0.4 times the weight of the one cubic foot of Lumnite® cement. Add the amount of water to the dry mix to create Saggregate™ concrete. Mix, handle, pour, cure and treat the Saggregate™ concrete like conventional concrete. In the context of the present invention, Saggregate™ concrete is used with suitable molds to form the desired hopper-burn chamber assembly capable of withstanding the heat of burning and molten sulphur in use. EXAMPLE 9 Component Amount Lumnite ® cement one volume unit pea-sized medium shale 1.4 × one volume unit crushed fine shale 1.6 × one volume unit water  .4 × weight of one volume unit of Lumnite ® For example, one cubic foot of Lumnite® cement is measured and weighed, the weight of one cubic foot of Lumnite® cement being noted. Measure one and four-tenths cubic feet of pea-sized medium shale. Measure one and six-tenths cubic feet of crushed fine shale. Mix the Lumnite® cement, pea-sized medium shale and crushed fine shale together to create a dry mix. Measure an amount of water equal to 0.4 times the weight of the one cubic foot of Lumnite™ cement. Add the amount of water to the dry mix to create Saggregate™ concrete. Mix, handle, pour, cure and treat the Saggregate™ concrete like conventional concrete. In the context of the present invention, Saggregate™ concrete is used with suitable molds to form the desired hopper-burn chamber assembly capable of withstanding the heat of burning and molten sulphur in use. The dry mix of Lumnite® cement and aggregates can be pre-mixed and bagged together. This greatly simplifies construction for the user because all components of the Saggregate™ concrete are provided except water which can be provided on site. When mixed and cured, the Saggregate™ concrete is easily capable of withstanding the 400 to 600 degree Fahrenheit temperature of the burning and molten sulphur in burning chamber 40 . In the preferred embodiment using Saggregate™ concrete to construct base 22 and sidewall 24 of hopper 20 should be 2½ to 3 inches thick. Similarly, the walls of the conduit passageway 36 and base 42 and sidewall 44 of burn chamber 40 should also have Saggregate™ concrete in the thickness of about 2½ to 3 inches. In the configuration shown in FIG. 4C, lid 26 may be constructed of virtually any material, including wood, plastic, or any other material. Due to the extreme heat generated in burn chamber 40 , roof member 46 must be made of a material that will withstand such extreme temperatures. Preferably, roof member 46 is constructed of stainless steel. As shown in FIG. 4C, feet 10 may also be constructed of Saggregate™ concrete. Feet 10 are used to permit air to radiate under the bottom of hopper 20 and burning chamber 40 to dissipate radiant heat. As shown in FIGS. 1A, 1 B and 4 C, an additional advantage of placing cooling ring 28 in the hopper near passage conduit 36 results in a physical barrier and temperature barrier of any molten sulphur flowing from burning chamber 40 through conduit passageway 36 into hopper 20 . In other words, the physical location of cooling ring 28 and the temperature gradient caused thereby, impedes the flow of any molten sulphur out of conduit passageway 36 so as to confine molten sulphur between cooling ring 28 and fluid conduit passageway 36 . In a preferred embodiment, the hopper is in a square shape that has a cross-section of about 18 inches by 18 inches and is about 30 inches high in its inside dimensions. If a cylindrical shaped hopper is employed, an inside diameter of about 18 inches is preferred. In such a case, the inside height dimension of conduit passageway 36 is about 5 inches in inside height and about 10 inches in inside width with the burning chamber 40 being about 12 inches in height and having an inside diameter of 10 inches. This embodiment burns about 5 pounds of sulphur or less per hour and is capable of treating about 15 to 100 gallons of water per minute. In another larger embodiment, the hopper, if square, could have inside dimensions of about 32 inches by 42 inches, with a height of about 48 inches with the inside height dimension of conduit passageway 36 being about 6 inches in inside height and about 11 inches in inside width with a burn chamber having a height of about 16 inches and an inside diameter of about 18 inches. In this embodiment, tests have revealed that about 20 pounds of sulphur or less per hour is burned and the amount of water being treated may range from about 20 gallons per minute to about 300 gallons per minute. The Saggregate™ hopper-chamber configuration of FIG. 4C may be incorporated into the apparatus of FIGS. 1, 1 A, 1 B, 2 and 3 . The present invention also contemplates a means for controlling the bun rate of sulphur in burn chamber 40 . FIGS. 8A through 8E represent different means for dampening air intake through air inlet 56 . FIG. 8A illustrates a curved and/or occluded end of air inlet 56 . Tests have revealed that a substantially centered hole having a diameter of about 1 to about 2 inches permits effective control of the burn of sulphur in chamber 40 . FIG. 8B illustrates a conventional gate valve which can be placed along air inlet 56 to selectively dampen the flow of air into burn chamber 40 . Similarly, FIG. 8C illustrates a conventional ball valve effective in restricting flow. Use of such a ball valve permits selective dampening or control of air through air inlet 56 into burn chamber 40 . FIG. 8D illustrates another embodiment in which a bend in air inlet 56 is followed by a ring disposed within air inlet 56 defining an opening 61 substantially perpendicular to the direction of flow of air. Air inlet 56 also has a second bend. The preferred means for dampening the flow of air into burn chamber 40 is illustrated in FIG. 8 E. Air inlet 56 has a curve or bend and is packed with stainless steel mesh or wool. In all the embodiments of FIGS. 8A through 8E, air inlet 56 comprises a pipe or conduit having a diameter of about 3 inches. Sulphur supplied to the burn chamber 40 through the conduit inlet 50 can be ignited through the ignition inlet 52 . The air inlet 56 allows oxygen, necessary for the combustion process, to enter into the burn chamber 40 and thus permits regulation of the rate of combustion. The exhaust opening 60 allows the sulphur dioxide gas to pass up through the exhaust opening 60 and into the gas pipeline 70 . Sulphur Gas Injector The present invention contemplates the introduction of sulphur gases directly into the water source to be treated such as a pressurized water line of an existing water system. These embodiments permit the sulphur gases to be drawn or injected into the existing water systems without the necessity, if desired, of pressurizing the sulphur gases. As illustrated in FIGS. 4A and 4C, direct injection embodiments are disclosed. In FIGS. 4A and 4C, sulphur is combusted in burner chamber 40 . The combustion of sulphur and its attendant gas generation may be controlled as discussed above related to FIGS. 8A through 8E. In this way the sulphur gases can be generated on-site in an on-demand basis. Sulphur gases exit burn chamber 40 through exhaust opening 60 . Sulphur gases pass through gas pipeline 70 to injector 310 . Injector 310 is an injector which draws fluids or gases into a pressurized system at a point of differential pressure. The preferred injector 310 is a Mazzei™ Injector made by Mazzei Injector Corporation, Bakersfield, Calif., United States of America. Injector 310 operates upon water flow in an existing water line 300 having a flow of water. Injector 310 creates a differential pressure in line 300 , across injector 310 . The differential pressure draws or introduces sulphur gases in gas pipeline 70 into water line 300 without the necessity of pressurizing the sulphur gas. Injector 310 introduces the sulphur gas(es) directly into the water subject to treatment. This application is particularly suited to landfill application where it is desirable to spray or sprinkle acidic aqueous solution over landfill to treat and/or neutralize otherwise undesirable soils, waste, fertilizers and/or smells in cases where precision in solution of sulphur gases into aqueous solutions may vary. The devices and function of FIGS. 4A and 4C described herein provide means for passively introducing or injecting sulphur gases into a pressurized fluid line. All of the foregoing burner chamber configurations permit the user to generate needed sulphur gases on-site thereby avoiding the costly purchase, transportation, and containment of preexisting sulphur gas delivery systems. Sulphurous Acid Introducer As already discussed, there are uses of sulphur gases known to those of skill in the art which uses do not require precise levels or amounts of dissolved or reacted sulphur gas(es) in aqueous solution or sulphurous acid in order to accomplish the desired chemical reaction or treatment or in order to avoid residual or offensive sulphur smells. Employing the burn chambers and air inlet dampeners discussed above, the present invention also contemplates a sulphur gas generator and introducer which simplifies the equipment or apparatus needed to controllably generate sulphurous acid on-site and on-demand. As disclosed in FIG. 4B, the present invention contemplates introducing sulphurous acid into the subject water source without employing the mixing tank, and secondary and tertiary water introduction discussed below. The gas pipeline 70 has two ends, the first end communicating with the exhaust opening 60 , the second end terminating at a third conduit 76 . The gas pipeline or first conduit 70 may comprise an ascending pipe 72 and a transverse pipe 74 . The ascending pipe 72 may communicate with the transverse pipe 74 by means a first 90 degree elbow joint. Disposed about and secured to the ascending pipe 72 is a protective grate 90 to prevent unintended external contact with member 72 which is hot when in use. Water is conducted through a second conduit 282 to a point at which the second conduit 282 couples with the first conduit 70 at a third conduit 76 . Conduit 76 comprises a means 100 for bringing the sulphur dioxide gas in the first conduit 70 and the water in second conduit 282 into contained codirectional flow. Water and sulphur dioxide gas are brought into contact with each other whereby sulphur dioxide gas dissolves into the water. The codirectional flow means 100 shown in FIGS. 1, 2 , 3 , 4 B and 5 comprises a central body 102 , central body 102 defining a gas entry 104 and a sulfur dioxide gas exiting outlet 114 , central body 102 further comprising a secondary conduit inlet 106 , and a water eductor 112 . Eductor 112 generates a swirling annular column of water to encircle gas exiting outlet 114 . The water flow, thermal cooling and reaction are believed to assist in drawing sulphur dioxide gas from burn chamber 40 into gas pipeline 70 where the gas is brought into contact with water to create sulphurous acid. The codirectional flow means 100 allows water to be introduced into the third conduit 76 initially through a second conduit inlet 106 . The water entering the codirectional means 100 passes through the eductor 112 and, exits adjacent the sulphur dioxide gas outlet 114 . The water enters the third conduit 76 and comes into contact with the sulphur dioxide gas by surrounding the sulphur dioxide gas where the sulphur dioxide gas and water are contained in contact with each other. The water and sulphur dioxide gas react to form an acid of sulphur. This first contact containment portion of conduit 76 does not obstruct the flow of the sulphur dioxide gas. It is believed that a substantial portion of the sulphur dioxide gas will react with the water in this first contact containment area. If it is necessary or desirous to further agitate the codirectional flow of aqueous solution and gas to encourage and facilitate dissolution of sulphur gases into or reaction with the solution, an object 77 may be positioned inside third conduit 76 as shown in FIG. 5 to alter the direction of the codirectional flow. Third conduit 76 is disposed to discharge the flow of aqueous solution and undissolved sulphur gas(es), if any, through discharge 80 into the water source to be treated. In the preferred embodiment, discharge 80 is below the surface of the water source to be treated so as to permit further dissolution of undissolved sulphur gas(es) into the water source. The sulphurous acid generator of FIG. 4B, unlike the prior art, satisfactorily generates sulphur gases and sulphurous acid without excessive sulphur gas generation and smell because the amount of sulphur gases generated may be limited by employing the air inlet dampeners taught in relation to FIGS. 8A through 8E. By limiting or reducing the amount of sulphur gases generated, less sulphur gas is present, hence less sulphur is available and must be dissolved into or react with the solution. The preferred embodiment of gas pipeline 70 of FIGS. 4A, 4 B and 4 C is a two inch diameter pipe. In this way, less sulphur gas is generated and the available water is more able to host all or substantially all of the sulphur gas(es). After the acid and any host water (hereafter “water/acid”) and any remaining unreacted gas continue to flow through third conduit 76 , the water/acid and unreacted sulphur dioxide gas are mixed and agitated to further facilitate reaction of the sulphur dioxide with the water/acid. Means for mixing and agitating the flow of water/acid and sulphur dioxide gas is accomplished in a number of ways. For example, as shown in FIG. 2, mixing and agitating can be accomplished by changing the direction of the flow such as a bend 84 in the third conduit 76 . AS Another example includes placing an object 77 inside the third conduit 76 to alter the flow pattern in the third conduit 76 as shown in FIG. 5 . This could entail a flow altering wedge, flange, bump or other member 77 along the codirectional flow path in third conduit 76 . By placing an object in the flow path, a straight or substantially straight conduit may be employed. The distinction of this invention over the prior art is mixing and agitating the flow of water/acid and sulphur dioxide in an open codirectionally flowing system. One embodiment of the present invention can treat between 20 and 300 gallons of water per minute coursing through third conduit 76 being held in contained contact with the sulphur dioxide gas. After the water/acid and sulphur dioxide gas have passed through an agitation and mixing portion of third conduit 76 , the water/acid and unreacted sulphur dioxide gas are again contained in contact with each other to further facilitate reaction between the components to create an acid of sulphur. This is accomplished by means for containing the water/acid and sulphur dioxide gas in contact with each other. One embodiment is shown in FIG. 2 as a portion 85 of third conduit 76 . Portion 85 acts much in the same way as the earlier described contact containment portion. As shown in FIG. 2, additional means for mixing and agitating the codirectional flow of water/acid and sulphur dioxide gas is employed. One embodiment is illustrated as portion 86 of third conduit 76 in which again the directional flow of the water/acid and sulphur dioxide gas is directionally altered. In this way, the water/acid and sulphur dioxide gas are forced to mix and agitate, further facilitating reaction of the sulphur dioxide gas to further produce or concentrate an acid of sulphur. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 2, third conduit 76 also incorporates means for discharging the water/acid and unreacted sulphur dioxide gas from third conduit 76 . One embodiment is shown in FIG. 2 as discharge opening 80 defined by third conduit 76 . Discharge opening 80 is preferably positioned approximately in the center of the pooling section, described below. In the preferred embodiment, discharge 80 is configured so as to direct the discharge of water/acid and unreacted sulphur dioxide gas downward into a submersion pool 158 without creating a back pressure. In other words, discharge 80 is sufficiently close to the surface 133 of the fluid in the submersion pool to cause unreacted sulphur dioxide gas to be forced into the submersion pool, but not below the surface of the fluid in the submersion pool, thereby maintaining the open nature of the system and to avoid creating back pressure in the system. As illustrated in FIG. 2, one embodiment of the present invention also utilizes a tank 130 having a bottom 132 , a tank sidewall 134 , and a lid 164 . Tank 130 may also comprise a fluid dispersion member 137 to disperse churning sulphurous acid and sulphur dioxide gas throughout tank 130 . Dispersion member 137 may have a conical shape or any other shape which facilitates dispersion. A weir 148 may be attached on one side to the bottom member 132 and is attached on two sides to the tank sidewall 134 . The weir 148 extends upwardly to a distance stopping below the discharge 80 . The weir 148 divides the mixing tank 130 into a submersion pool 158 and an outlet section 152 . The third conduit 76 penetrates either tank sidewall 134 or lid 164 (not shown). An outlet aperture 154 is positioned in the tank sidewall 134 near the bottom member 132 in the outlet section. The drainage aperture 154 is connected to a drainage pipe 156 . Drainage pipe 156 is adapted with a u-trap 157 . U-trap 157 acts as means to trap and force undissolved gases in a submersion zone, including sulphur dioxide gas, back into chamber 130 to exit through lid 164 into vent conduit 210 . Sulphurous acid exits pipe 156 or primary discharge. As water/acid flows out of the third conduit 76 , the weir 148 dams the water/acid coming into the mixing tank 130 creating a churning submission pool 158 of sulphurous acid. Sulphur dioxide gas carried by but not yet reacted in the sulphurous acid is carried into submersion pool of acid 158 because of the proximity of the discharge 80 to the surface 133 of the pool 158 . The carried gas is submerged in the churning submersion pool 158 . The suspended gas is momentarily churned in contact with acid in pool 158 to further concentrate the acid. As unreacted gas rises up through the pool, the unreacted gas is held in contact with water and further reacts to further form sulphurous acid. The combination of the discharge 80 and its close proximity to the surface 133 of pool of acid 158 creates a means for facilitating and maintaining the submersion of unreacted sulphur dioxide gas discharged from the third conduit into the submersion pool of sulphurous acid to substantially reduce the separation of unreacted sulphur dioxide gas from contact with the sulphurous acid to promote further reaction of the sulphur dioxide gas in the sulphurous acid in an open system without subjecting the sulphur dioxide gas discharged from the third conduit to back pressure or system pressure. That is, discharge 80 positions below the level of the top of weir 148 is contemplated as inconsistent with the open system illustrated by FIG. 2 . However, discharge 80 may be positioned below the level of the top of weir 148 or below the surface 133 of submersion pool 158 . As sulphurous acid enters the mixing tank 130 from the third conduit 76 the level of the pool 132 of sulphurous acid rises until the acid spills over the weir 148 into the outlet section 152 . Sulphurous acid and sulphur dioxide gas flow out of the mixing tank 130 into the drainage pipe 156 . Drainage pipe 156 is provided with a submersion zone in the u-trap 157 in which sulphur dioxide gas is again mixed into the sulphurous acid and which prevents sulphur dioxide gas from exiting the drainage pipe or primary discharge 156 in any significant amount. Referring to the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 3, first conduit 70 and second conduit 282 are coupled as discussed above. However, in this embodiment, third conduit 76 may have a bend 84 to transition to length 85 and define a discharge opening 80 into mixing tank 130 . As shown in this embodiment, the water/acid and undissolved sulphur dioxide enter the mixing tank in a downward angle direction. Another embodiment, not shown, contemplates third conduit 76 entering directly into the top of mixing chamber 130 through lid 164 . Mixing tank 130 of the embodiment of FIG. 3 comprises a bottom member 132 defining an outlet aperture 154 . Mixing tank 130 has a diameter of about 6 to 8 inches. As a result, the inside volume of mixing tank 130 is such that as water/acid begins to fill tank 130 and interacts with u-trap 157 , the level of water/acid rises and falls in a flushing action. As water/acid discharges from third conduit 76 into mixing tank 130 , it results in a turbulent washing machine effect forcing undissolved sulphur dioxide gas into the churning water/acid in mixing tank 130 . As depicted in FIG. 3, u-trap 157 extends vertically a distance up into mixing tank 130 through floor member 132 . This configuration provides a further agitation zone 131 in which descending waters/acid must change its direction and ascend in tank 130 before exiting out u-trap 157 . As a result, submersion pool 158 in use represents a churning pool wherein undissolved sulphur dioxide is contained in water/acid for further dissolution and/or in u-trap 157 acts to trap and direct undissolved gases back up through submersion pool 158 to escape out exhaust vent 202 and enter into vent conduit 210 . On the other hand, sulphurous acid exits the system through drainage pipe or primary discharge 156 . For the embodiments shown in both FIGS. 2 and 3, any free floating sulphur dioxide gas in mixing tank 130 rises up to the lid 164 . The lid 164 defines an exhaust vent 202 . Exhaust vent 202 may be coupled with a vent conduit 210 . The vent conduit 210 has a first end which couples with the exhaust vent 202 and a second end which terminates at a fourth conduit 220 . The vent conduit 210 may consist of a length a pipe between vent 202 and the fourth conduit 220 . The fourth conduit 220 comprises auxiliary means 240 for bringing sulphur dioxide gas in the vent conduit and substantially all the water in a supplemental water conduit 294 into contained, codirectional flow whereby remaining sulphur dioxide gas and water are brought into contact with each other. See also FIG. 6 . As shown in FIGS. 2, 3 and 6 , the auxiliary means has a body 240 defining a gas entry 244 , a gas outlet 252 , a supplemental water conduit inlet 246 , and water eductor 250 . Water enters the auxiliary means 240 through the supplemental water conduit 294 at inlet 246 . The water courses through inlet 246 and eductor 250 as discussed earlier as to the codirectional means. Water eductor 250 draws any free floating sulphur dioxide gas into the exhaust vent conduit 210 . Water and sulphur dioxide gas are brought into contact with each other in fourth conduit 220 by surrounding the gas exiting gas outlet 252 with water exiting eductor 250 . The water and gas are contained in contact with each other as the gas and water flow down through fourth conduit 220 to react and form an acid of sulphur. This contact containment area does not obstruct the flow of the sulphur dioxide gas. It is believed that substantially all of the remaining sulphur dioxide gas in vent conduit 210 reacts with the water in this contact containment area. In fourth conduit 220 , the water/acid and unreacted or undissolved sulphur dioxide gas also experience one or more agitation and mixing episodes. For example, as fluid and gas divert in fourth conduit 220 at elbow 262 , the flow of water/acid and sulphur dioxide gas is mixed and agitated. The water/acid and sulphur dioxide gas are again contained in contact with each other thereafter. As a result, like the water/acid and sulphur dioxide gas in the third conduit 76 , the water/acid and sulphur dioxide gas in fourth conduit 220 may be subject to one or more contact containment portions and one or more agitation and mixing portions. The fourth conduit may have a u-trap 267 . U-trap 267 acts as means to cause bubbles of unabsorbed diatomic nitrogen gas or undissolved sulphur dioxide, if any, to be held or trapped on the upstream side of u-trap 267 in a submersion zone. Secondary discharge 264 may also be configured with a vent stack 265 . Remaining diatomic nitrogen gas in the system is permitted to escape the system through vent stack 265 . Operation of the system reveals that little, if any, sulphur dioxide escapes the system. It is believed that gas that is escaping the system is harmless diatomic nitrogen. This configuration of a sulphur acid generator eliminates the dependence upon use of a countercurrent absorption tower technology of the prior art to effect production of sulphurous acid. Nevertheless, as an added safety feature to, and to further diminish any possible sulphur smell emitting from a device, vent stack 265 may comprise a limited exhaust scrubbing tower. As shown in FIGS. 2, 3 , and 7 , vent stack 65 encases two substantially horizontally placed vent screens 269 . In the preferred environment, vent stack 265 is severable and connectable at joint 271 . This facilitates construction shipment and maintenance. The upper vent screen 269 acts to contain path diverters 263 within vent stack 265 . The source of water 295 is disposed to enter vent stack 265 at or near the top of vent stack 265 . A water dispersion device 261 is attached to the end of water conduit 295 inside vent stack 265 above the column of path diverters 263 . The preferred water dispersion device 261 is an i-Mini Wobbler distributed by Senninger Irrigation, Inc., Orlando, Fla., 32835, United States of America. In the present invention the water dispersion device 261 is, contrary to its intended use, inverted 180°. Experimentation has shown that the i-Mini Wobbler is the most effective in an inverted fashion because it duplicates rain in large droplets rather than a mist or spray and due to the wobbling affect of the device, it creates a randomly dispersed water flow thereby more effectively wetting the column of path diverters 263 . This creates a water saturated tortuous path through which any undissolved gases trapped by u-trap 267 and venting out of discharge 264 must filter. In the preferred embodiment, the path diverters 263 are Flexiring® diverters 263 . In this configuration, the only countercurrent flow of water and any undissolved gases is in the exhaust scrubbing tower of vent stack 265 . Any water and sulphurous acid running out the bottom of vent stack 265 enter into discharge 256 . In this way, these embodiments also provide means for controllably generating sulphurous acid on-site and on-demand. Experimentation has shown that the majority of water entering the system of the present invention enters at inlet 106 . A lesser amount of water enters the system at inlet 246 with only a fraction of the water entering the system through conduit 295 . The flow of sulphur dioxide gas and water through the apparatus/system is depicted in flow diagram FIG. 9 . Sulphurous Acid Injector Unlike the prior art devices which release or pump sulphurous acid or water/acid back into water sources, the present invention also contemplates injecting the sulphurous acid discharged from discharges 156 and 264 into a desired, existing water source. The present invention requires, however, no pump or pressurized sulphurous acid generator to inject or discharge the discharged sulphurous acid into the desired body of water. The novel injection system relies instead upon an existing water line 300 which has sufficient flow so as to create the needed differential pressure across injector 310 . The preferred injector is a Mazzei™ Injector. Injector 310 creates a differential pressure and is configured to draw liquid or gas into the flow within line 300 as discussed above. Injector 310 is located beneath a reservoir 320 which acts as a reservoir for sulphurous acid discharged from discharges 156 and 264 . Injector 310 draws sulphurous acid from reservoir 320 and injects it into the fluid flow in line 300 . Employing injector 310 as discussed above, the present invention provides a means for passively introducing or injecting sulphurous acid into a pressurized fluid line. The term “passively” means that the sulphur gases and/or sulphurous acid is not put under positive pressure to effect injection into line 300 but that in ambient conditions in gas pipeline 70 and in reservoir 320 , the respective sulphur gas(es) or sulphurous acid is drawn into line 300 by injector 310 . FIGS. 1, 2 and 3 show a primary pump 280 supplying water through a primary hose 282 to the secondary conduit water inlet 106 at codirectional means 100 . A supplemental or secondary pump 290 supplies water to auxiliary means 240 through a supplemental water conduit hose 294 and to conduit 295 . It will be appreciated that any pump capable of delivering sufficient water to the system may be utilized and the pump may be powered by any source sufficient to run the pump. A single pump with the appropriate valving may be used or several pumps may be used. It is also contemplated that no pump is necessary at all if an elevated water tank is employed to provide sufficient water flow to the system or if present water systems provide sufficient water pressure and flow. Dechlorinization of Aqueous Solution The chemistry of dechlorinization of aqueous solution using sulphur gases is known. Unlike known technology, the present invention provides apparatuses, methods and means for controllably, inexpensively, safely and reliably generating the needed sulphur gases or acids of sulphur used to dechlorinate aqueous solution on-site and on-demand. By employing either the Sulphur Gas Injectors or the Sulphurous Acid Introducers disclosed above, the present invention provides heretofor unknown systems and methods capable of effecting dechlorinization of aqueous solution. The expensive and large tanks, tankers, rails, trains, trucks, containment, piping and other equipment needed by known systems and methods are entirely eliminated by the simple, self-contained, on-site, on-demand production of sulphur gases and/or sulphurous acids from the combustion of sulphur. By utilizing the gas and acid generators and introducers of the present invention, water treatment plants or other facilities may inexpensively, safely and successfully dechlorinate water as needed to meet EPA and other safety and health requirements. The present invention may be embodied in other specific forms without departing from its spirit or essential characteristics. The described embodiments are to be considered in all respects only as illustrative and not restrictive. The scope of the invention is, therefore, indicated by the appended claims rather than by the foregoing description. All changes which come within the meaning and range of equivalency of the claims are to be embraced within their scope.

This invention presents a sulphurous acid generator which employs a combination of novel blending, contact and mixing mechanisms which injects sulphur gases into aqueous solution or which maximize the efficiency and duration of contact between sulphur dioxide gas and water or aqueous solution to form sulphurous acid in an open nonpressurized system, without employing a countercurrent absorption tower. The present invention also incorporates a novel high temperature concrete for use in constructing portions of the present invention.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] This application claims priority under 35 USC 119 of German Application No. 10 2006 013 809.0 filed on Mar. 22, 2006. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] The invention relates to a method and a device for measuring operational density and/or operational sound velocity in a gaseous medium. [0003] In the sector of gas measurement technology, one constantly encounters the same measurement tasks. A characteristic variable of natural gas, which is very important, is density. However, determination of density is not trivial. Previous measurement methods are either expensive or require a lot of space. [0004] Such a measurement method is described in German Patent No. DE 37 41 558 A1, in which a device for determining the resonance frequency of a vibrating organ fundamentally in the form of a Helmholtz resonator is described. The density and the flow velocity of a fluid are determined from the resonance frequency. In this connection, the vibrating organ is fundamentally disposed in a housing, in the form of a Helmholtz resonator, and chambers having the same volume are provided on both sides of the vibrating organ, through which chambers the fluid flows. In this connection, the vibration of the vibrating organ is influenced by the fluid, and thereby changes the vibration behavior of the vibrating organ, in measurable manner, as a function of the density of the fluid. However, only a single frequency is measured as the resonance frequency, and the measurement device is optimized in targeted manner, to simplify the underlying interpretation of the measurement values. In the case of such an arrangement, no determination of the sound velocity is possible, either, since the determined single frequency does not yield this. Furthermore, this is a self-exciting vibration circuit, the resonance frequency of which can only be determined for an impedance maximum. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0005] It is therefore the task of the present invention to further develop a method of the type stated and a device of the type stated, in such a manner that a more precise determination of the operational density is made possible, with the simultaneous possibility of determining the operational sound velocity. [0006] The invention comprises a method for measuring operational density and/or operational sound velocity in a gaseous medium, using a sound transducer that is capable of vibrating, and is disposed in a housing in such a manner that chambers having the same volume are formed on both sides of the sound transducer, which are filled by the gaseous medium. The method provides that the chambers are connected with one another by way of an open channel having defined dimensions. The impedance of the sound transducer, which is influenced, in particular, by the density of the gaseous medium, is determined within a frequency range that can be established, using an exciter vibration applied to the sound transducer, as a function of the exciter frequency. From this, the operational density and/or the operational sound velocity of the gaseous medium are determined using a plurality of characteristic frequencies of the sound transducer vibrating in the gaseous medium. [0007] This inventive method is based on the property of all gases of having not only a certain mass per volume, but also a surface-related resilience. Both variables are accessible by means of the measurement method presented here. In this way, the possibility exists to determine not only the operational density but also the operational sound velocity. In this connection, not only is a single resonance frequency determined, but rather, on the basis of the geometry of the chambers, the sound transducer, and the properties of the gaseous medium, an entire frequency spectrum is determined and examined for characteristic frequencies. Using theoretical derivations, the operational density and/or the operational sound velocity of the gaseous medium can be clearly determined, with a reasonable amount of calculation effort, from these characteristic frequencies and geometric variables that are stable over a long period of time, which depend on the configuration of the sound transducer and its surroundings, and can be reliably determined in advance. In this connection, the determination takes place essentially in real-time operation, since the vibration excitation and the vibration response of the sound transducer can be pre-determined and determined, respectively, essentially at the same time, in accordance with the superimposition principle. [0008] Therefore, the values determined can be processed further very close in time, something that can be particularly advantageous in the case of time-critical regulation processes. In this connection, the sound transducer, the chambers having the same volume, and the open channel form approximately the arrangement of a Helmholtz resonator. [0009] In contrast to known evaluation methods having a similar approach, a complete frequency range is evaluated in the case of the method according to the invention, and a plurality of characteristic frequencies is determined from the measurable progression of the impedance within the frequency range, which are representative for the operational density and the operational sound velocity of the gaseous medium, as can be shown analytically. It is therefore possible to determine both variables. In this connection, it is advantageous that the mechanical impedance of the vibrating, excited sound transducer, which is influenced by the density of the gaseous medium, is evaluated at the same time as an electrical impedance of the sound transducer. [0010] In practice, it is advantageous to determine three characteristic frequencies for determining the impedance of the sound transducer, of which one of the characteristic frequencies of the sound transducer results from the geometry of the sound transducer, and other, advantageously two other characteristic frequencies result from the interaction between sound transducer and gaseous medium. In this connection, each characteristic frequency is determined from the measured progression of the impedance, in that it occurs at locations of the frequency response at which the imaginary part of the impedance becomes zero. In this way, a clear criterion that can be formulated in a mathematically simple manner is obtained for determining the characteristic frequencies, using the measured impedances. [0011] It is advantageous if the impedance measurement is carried out by means of a current measurement and a voltage measurement on the sound transducer, which can be carried out at the same time, particularly in accordance with the superimposition principle. In the case of the current measurement, the current that changes over time is determined, which is applied to the sound transducer to excite the vibration. In this connection, the current that changes over time can be formed from a frequency spectrum consisting of a current having frequencies with the same amplitude and different phase relation, the ratio of effective value and peak value of which is maximal. In the case of the voltage measurement, the voltage that changes over time is determined, which can be detected as a reaction to the vibrations of the sound transducer influenced by the gaseous medium. [0012] It is particularly advantageous that the evaluation of the current measurement and the voltage measurement can be carried out analytically. It is particularly advantageous if the evaluation of the current measurement and the voltage measurement is carried out using Fast Fourier Transformation. In this way, no particular numerical effort is required for the evaluation, but instead, the variable being sought, in each instance, can be directly determined from the transformed or back-transformed values, by means of suitable formulation. In this way, the calculation effort is clearly reduced. [0013] It can be shown that the operational density ρ B can be calculated, in particularly advantageous manner, from [0000] ρ B = S K · m M S M 2 · l K · ( f 3 2 f 2 2 - 1 ) · ( 1 - f 1 2 f 2 2 ) , [0014] wherein: S M —surface size of the region of the sound transducer that is capable of vibrating, m M —mass of the region of the sound transducer that is capable of vibrating, S K —cross-sectional surface of the channel between the chambers, l K —length of the channel between the chambers, and f 1 ,f 2 ,f 3 —determined characteristic frequencies. [0020] In this way, the operational density ρ B can be determined solely from variables of the sound transducer that are pre-determined in fixed manner and remain essentially the same over time, as well as from the determined characteristic frequencies, so that the main effort of calculation can be seen in determining the characteristic frequencies. If applicable, additional correction factors are added to the factors that influence the operational density, which are derived, for example, from the geometry of the measurement element, as well as from other influence variables, and are required for calibration, for example. [0021] Analogously, it holds true for the calculation of the operational sound velocity c B that the operational sound velocity c B is calculated from [0000] c B = 2  π · f 2 · V · l K 2 · S K [0022] wherein: V—volume of the two chambers, S K —cross-sectional surface of the channel between the chambers, l K —length of the channel between the chambers, and f 2 —determined characteristic frequency. [0027] Here again, only variables of the sound transducer that remain essentially the same over time, as well as one of the characteristic frequencies, are required. In this connection, operational density ρ B and operational sound velocity c B can be determined independent of one another. If applicable, here again additional correction factors are added to the factors that influence the operational sound velocity, which are derived, for example, from the geometry of the measurement element, as well as from other influence variables, and are required for calibration, for example. [0028] It is furthermore advantageous if temperature and pressure of the gaseous medium within the chambers are determined during the impedance measurement. In this way, in a further embodiment, the standard densities and the standard sound velocity of the gaseous medium can be calculated from the temperature and the pressure of the gaseous medium within the chambers, using the status equation for ideal gases, from the determined operational density and the operational sound velocity. In this way, the values for operational density ρ B and operational sound velocity c B that were determined directly can be converted into the corresponding standard variables, without significant measurement effort having to be expended for this purpose. [0029] It is advantageous if the determination of the impedance of the sound transducer is carried out in an evaluation unit to which the measurement values of current and voltage that change over time are applied by way of a digital/analog converter or analog/digital converter, respectively, in a further embodiment. In the evaluation unit, which can be particularly designed to carry out the corresponding calculation methods, all of the necessary calculations, evaluations, and protocols can therefore be carried out centrally. [0030] The invention also relates to a device for measuring operational density and/or operational sound velocity in a gaseous medium, using a sound transducer that is capable of vibrating, which is disposed in a housing in such a manner that chambers having the same volume are formed on both sides of the sound transducer, which are filled by the gaseous medium so that the gaseous medium has the same volume in each chamber. The chambers are connected with one another by way of an open channel having defined dimensions. A defined exciter vibration can be applied to the sound transducer, and a measurement device detects the vibration response of the sound transducer, which is influenced, in particular, by the density of the gaseous medium, within a frequency range that can be established, and corresponds to the impedance of the sound transducer, as a function of the exciter frequency. From this, an evaluation unit calculates the operational density and/or the operational sound velocity of the gaseous medium, using a plurality of characteristic frequencies of the sound transducer vibrating in the gaseous medium. [0031] It is advantageous in the embodiment of such a device if the chambers are configured of equal size and symmetrically, and furthermore the geometric dimensions of the chambers and/or of the open channel are configured in such a manner that similar conditions for gaseous medium and sound transducer form for both chambers. In this way, simple geometrical and physical conditions form in the chambers and for the interaction of the gaseous medium between the chambers and the sound transducer, which simplify a calculation of the characteristic frequencies and therefore of the operational density and/or operational sound velocity. [0032] In a further embodiment, the open channel can be configured in the form of a pipe-shaped section that projects into the chambers on both sides of the sound transducer. The cross-section of the open channel should preferably be configured to be greater than one-tenth of the vibrating surface of the sound transducer, in order to reduce the mechanical losses. Likewise, the feed lines for the gaseous medium to the chambers having equal volume should have a great length in relation to their cross-section. [0033] For the embodiment of the sound transducer, it is advantageous if the sound transducer is an electro-acoustical transducer, which can be configured as an electrostatic sound transducer, a piezoelectric sound transducer on a polymer basis, or also as an electrodynamic sound transducer. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0034] A particularly preferred embodiment of the device according to the invention as well as of the deliberations and conditions in the implementation of the method according to the invention are shown in the drawing. [0035] This shows: [0036] FIG. 1 —fundamental structure of a measurement cell of the device according to the invention, [0037] FIG. 2 —simplified equivalent circuit diagram, [0038] FIG. 3 —expanded equivalent circuit diagram, [0039] FIG. 4 —phase response of the system, with L 0 =0 and L 0 =0.4 mH, [0040] FIG. 5 —phase responses of the system with L 0 calculated out when halving and doubling the operational density as compared with the normal state, assuming the sound velocities are the same, [0041] FIG. 6 —phase responses at 0.71 times and 1.41 times the sound velocity, assuming the operational densities are the same, and [0042] FIG. 7 —block schematic of the device components for determining the impedance. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS [0043] In FIG. 1 , the fundamental structure of a measurement cell of the device according to the invention is shown. In this connection, the measurement cell has a closed housing 7 , which is divided into two chambers 3 , 4 of equal size by a partition 6 . An open channel 2 that is well defined in terms of its dimensions, as well as a sound transducer 1 , are let into the partition 6 . The gaseous medium to be measured enters and leaves the housing 7 through comparatively thin and long feed pipes 5 . By measuring the electrical impedance of the sound transducer 1 above the frequency, not only the operational density but also the operational sound velocity can be derived, after correction and conversion that will be explained in detail below, as can the dynamic viscosity, if applicable (although this will not be explained in greater detail below). By additional determination of the operational pressure and the operational temperature by means of suitable measurement pick-ups 8 , 9 , whereby the pressure pick-up stands in connection with one of the chambers 3 , 4 by way of a connecting line 10 , standard density and standard sound velocity can be determined after calculation. [0044] In the following, the fundamental physical relationships between measurement values and target values of the method will be derived and explained. [0045] The sound transducer 1 possesses a membrane that is capable of vibrating, which has an effective membrane surface S M . The membrane can either move in piston form, or can perform a bending vibration of the 1 st order. Independent of the movement mode of the membrane, the membrane is additionally described by its mass m M as well as the active resilience c M . In this way, a system capable of vibrating, having the resonance frequency f 0 , is obtained. The following holds true: [0000] f 0 = 1 2  π · 1 C M  m M ( G1 ) [0046] By means of the installation of the sound transducer 1 into the closed housing 7 , the membrane is stressed by the two equally large volumes V of the housing chambers 3 , 4 . If one imagines the open channel 2 not to be present, the two volumes V act as additional resiliences C V , which increase the resonance frequency of the membrane. The resiliences C V are calculated from the volume V, the membrane surface S M , the operational pressure P B , as well as the adiabatic coefficient κ, as: [0000] C V = V κ · P B · 1 S M 2 (G2) [0047] Since the resiliences C V act on both sides of the membrane, the total load for the membrane is C V /2. [0048] Now the open channel 2 comes into play. It can be characterized by its length l K as well as its cross-section S K . Together with the volumes V of the two housing chambers 3 , 4 , it also forms a system capable of vibrating, having the resonance frequency f 2 , which can be calculated as follows, taking the operational sound velocity c B into consideration: [0000] f 2 = c B 2  π · 2  S K V · l K ( G3 ) [0049] The operational sound velocity can also be described by means of the operational density ρ B , the operational pressure P B , as well as the adiabatic coefficient κ, as: [0000] c B = κ · P B ρ B (G4) [0050] Therefore the resonance frequency f 2 can also be expressed as follows: [0000] f 2 = 1 2   π · 2  S K · κ · P B V · I K · ρ B ( G5 ) [0051] If one now considers the stress that acts on the membrane, this consists not only of the total volume resilience C V /2, but rather of a mass m K that is additionally produced by the communication channel. It can be calculated from the resonance frequency f 2 , because: [0000] f 2 = 1 2   π · 2 C V · m K ( G6 ) [0052] Inserting C V from (G2) and equating with (G5) yields: [0000] κ · P B · S M 2 V · m K = S K · κ · P B V · I K · ρ B ⇒ m K = S M 2 · I K · ρ B S K ( G7 ) [0053] If one considers the sound transducer 1 to be ideal, it can be described with its transducer constant W, which converts the mechanically complex variables v M (membrane velocity) and F M (membrane force), which act on the membrane, into the electrically complex variables u (voltage) and i (current), and vice versa: [0000] u = W · v M   and   i = F M W ( G8 ) [0054] With this, the electrical equivalent circuit diagram according to FIG. 2 allows itself to be presented: [0055] In this connection, C1 is the equivalent of the membrane mass, L1 is the equivalent of the membrane resilience, C2 is the equivalent of the medium mass in the communication channel, [0059] L2 is the equivalent of the resilience of the medium in the volumes. [0060] Proceeding from the equivalent circuit diagram, the complex electrical impedance Z turns out to be [0000] Z = jω   L   1 - j   ω 3  L   1  L   2  C   2 1 - ω 2  ( L   1  C   1 + L   2  C   2 + L   1  C   2 ) + ω 4  L   1  C   1   L   2   C   2 ( G9 ) [0061] Z has three characteristic circuit frequencies, in which the imaginary part disappears. The squares of these circuit frequencies can be calculated as [0000] ω 1 2 = 1 2 · ( 1 L   1  C   1 + 1 L   2  C   2 + 1 L   2  C   1 ) - 1 4 · ( 1 L   1  C   1 + 1 L   2  C   2 + 1 L   2  C   1 ) 2 - 1 L   1  C   1  L   2  C   2 ( G10 ) ω 2 2 = 1 L   2  C   2 ( G   11 ) ω 3 2 = 1 2 · ( 1 L   1  C   1 + 1 L   2  C   2 + 1 L   2  C   1 ) + 1 4 · ( 1 L   1  C   1 + 1 L   2  C   2 + 1 L   2  C   1 ) 2 - 1 L   1  C   1  L   2  C   2   From this it can be derived that: ( G   12 ) ω 1 2 · ω 3 2 = 1 L   1  C   1  L   2  C   2 ⇒ 1 L   1  C   1 = ω 1 2 · ω 3 2 ω 2 2 ( G   13 ) ω 1 2 + ω 3 2 = 1 L   1  C   1 + 1 L   2  C   2 + 1 L   2  C   1 ⇒ 1 L   2  C   1 = ω 1 2 + ω 3 2 - ω 2 2 - ω 1 2 · ω 3 2 ω 2 2 ( G   14 ) [0062] The single variable that is precisely quantifiable and stable in the long term is the equivalent of the membrane mass, so that the other reactances must relate to C1, in order to arrive at an analytical solution: [0000] L   1 = 1 C   1 · ω 2 2 ω 1 2 · ω 3 2 ( G   15 ) L   2 = 1 C   1 · ω 2 2 ω 1 2 · ω 2 2 + ω 3 2 · ω 2 2 - ω 2 4 - ω 1 2 · ω 3 2 ( G   16 ) C   2 = C   1 · ( ω 1 2 ω 2 2 + ω 3 2 ω 2 2 - 1 - ω 1 2 · ω 3 2 ω 2 4 ) ( G   17 ) [0063] Thus all of the reactances can be derived from the three characteristic frequencies. [0064] Now the variables calculated from (G15) to (G17) are converted to the mechanical variables that are of interest, and the circuit frequencies are replaced with frequencies: [0000] C M = 1 m M · f 2 2 f 1 2 · f 3 2 ( G   18 ) C v = 2 m M · f 2 2 f 1 2 · f 2 2 + f 3 2 · f 2 2 - f 2 4 - f 1 2 · f 3 2 ( G   19 ) m K = m M · ( f 1 2 f 2 2 + f 3 2 f 2 2 - 1 - f 1 2 · f 3 2 f 2 4 ) ( G   20 ) [0065] From (G20) and (G7), the operational density ρ B proves to be: [0000] ρ B = S K · m M S M 2 · I K · ( f 1 2 f 2 2 + f 3 2 f 2 2 - 1 - f 1 2 · f 3 2 f 2 4 ) = S K · m M S M 2 · I K · ( f 3 2 f 2 2 - 1 ) · ( 1 - f 1 2 f 2 2 ) ( G21 ) [0066] The operational sound velocity c B follows from (G3): [0000] c B = 2  π · f 2 · V · I K 2 · S K ( G22 ) [0067] Herein lies the advantage of the device and of the method: After measurement of the three characteristic frequencies f 1 , f 2 , and f 3 , the operational density ρ B results from the known geometric variables S K , S M , and l K , which are stable in the long term, as well as the membrane mass m M of the sound transducer. The operational sound velocity c B is also based on the geometric variables V, l K , and S K , which are stable in the long term. [0068] A practical implementation of the theoretical relationships explained above can be carried out as follows, for example: [0069] An advantageous experimental arrangement for carrying out the method consists, for example, of an electrodynamic loudspeaker having a diameter of 45 mm as a sound transducer. The idealized defaults must be supplemented with four additional characteristic variables, which the sound transducer and the housing bring with them. These are the vibration coil resistance R 0 , the vibration coil inductance L 0 , the mechanical loss resistance of the membrane clamp R 1 (here already transformed into the electrical branch), as well as the mechanical flow resistance R 2 in the open channel (also transformed). With a current source as the signal generator and a voltage measurement by way of the electrical connectors of the sound transducer, an expanded equivalent circuit diagram according to FIG. 3 is obtained: [0070] By measuring the impedance of the loudspeaker without housing, as well as in a closed housing having a defined volume, the following concrete mechanical and electrical variables can be determined: [0000] R 0 =47 Ω, R 1 =100 Ω, f 0 =485 Hz, c M =2.2 E− 4 m/N, m M =5.0 E− 4 kg, [0000] C 1 =40 uF, L 0 =0.4 mH, L 1 =2.7 mH. [0071] The design of the chamber volumes as well as of the open channel takes place in such a manner that under the expected operational conditions, C 1 =C 2 and L 1 =L 2 . The cross-section of the open channel should be greater than one-tenth of the membrane surface, in order to keep the mechanical losses small (R 2 as small as possible). [0072] Since the three characteristic frequencies occur at locations at which the imaginary part of the impedance disappears, the critical influence variable proves to be the vibration coil impedance L 0 . The diagram according to FIG. 4 shows the phase response of the system with L 0 =0 and L 0 =0.4 mH: [0073] The different zero crossings of the phases at the frequency f 2 can be recognized: At L 0 =0.4 mH, the zero crossing shifts towards a lesser frequency. Thus L 0 must be calculated out. The frequencies f 1 and f 3 are hardly affected. [0074] FIG. 5 shows the phase responses with L 0 calculated out when halving and doubling the operational density as compared with the normal state, assuming the same sound velocities. [0075] FIG. 6 shows the phase responses at 0.71 times and 1.41 times sound velocity, assuming the same operational densities. [0076] An advantageous method for measuring impedance could be carried out as follows, for example, according to FIG. 7 : [0077] The determination of the impedance of the sound transducer 1 takes place by way of an evaluation unit and by means of excitation of the sound transducer 1 with a well-defined current signal i (t) , and determination of the voltage u (t) that occurs over the sound transducer 1 . For this purpose, a block schematic is indicated in FIG. 7 : [0078] The current signal i (t) is generated by way of a digital/analog converter 11 . For this purpose, an output sequence A consisting of N digital values is periodically passed to the D/A converter 11 . The individual output digital values A(n) have the equidistant time interval t s , so that the output sequence repeats after t p . For the length N of the output sequence A, the following holds true: [0000] N = t p t s = 2 M   with   M   as   a   positive   whole   number ( G23 ) [0079] The individual output values A(n) of the output sequence A satisfy the calculation formula: [0000] A  ( n ) = A 0 · ∑ k = 1 N 2 - 1   cos  ( 2 · π · k · n - k 2 N )   with   0 ≤ n ≤ N - 1 ( G24 ) [0080] Shown in illustrative manner, the output sequence A(n) and therefore the current signal i(t) consist of a frequency spectrum formed from discrete frequencies having the same amplitude and optimally distributed different phase relation. The smallest frequency that occurs, identical with the distance of the discrete frequencies from one another, is f p =1/t p . The greatest frequency that occurs is f s /2−f p with f s =1/t s . The different phase relation of the individual frequencies relative to one another is optimal in the sense that the ratio of effective value and peak value of the current signal is maximal. [0081] Because of the composition of the current signal i(t) as indicated above, the use of a Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT) without windows for the N output values of the output sequence A offers loss-free representation of the complex frequency spectrum I(f). [0082] Detection of the voltage u(t) that occurs over the sound transducer 1 takes place using an analog/digital converter 12 . The time between scans amounts to t s . N scanning values yield the input sequence B and thereby replicate u(t). [0083] By means of using FFT on the input sequence B, the complex frequency spectrum U(f) is obtained. Thus the complex impedance of the sound transducer Z(f) can be determined by means of discrete complex division of U(f) by I(f). [0084] Afterwards, subtraction of the impedance of L 0 and a search for the three characteristic frequencies f 1 to f 3 take place in the evaluation unit 16 . These lie in those intervals in which a change in sign of the imaginary part has taken place. By means of interpolation into the surroundings of these intervals, the zero crossings can be precisely determined. [0085] For the practical implementation explained above, a signal scanning rate f s of at least 3000 Hz is required. A sufficiently accurate resolution of the phase response presupposes a distance between the individual frequency lines of less than 2 Hz. As a result, M=11 and therefore N=2048. Thus, the sound velocity and the density can be measured approximately 1.5 times per second. The variation can be reduced by means of averaging over several measurements. [0086] An expansion of the method can take place in that the values determined for operational density and operational sound velocity are converted to the standard values, as shown below. [0087] By means of additional measurement of the operational pressure P B and the operational temperature T B by means of two pick-ups 8 , 9 , which are introduced into the chambers 3 , 4 , the standard density ρ n and the standard sound velocity c n can be calculated from the operational sound velocity c B and the operational density ρ B , by means of the use of the status equation for ideal gases. In this connection, P n and T n establish the standard state. As long as T B and T n as well as P B and P n do not lie more than 20% apart from one another, the error due to the real gas behavior is less than 0.1%. [0088] The following holds true: [0000] ρ n = ρ B · T B · P n T n · P B ( G25 ) c n = c B · T B T n ( G   26 ) [0089] Data recording in the evaluation unit 16 , of the electrical signals 14 , 15 generated by the pressure and temperature pick-up 8 , 9 , takes place by means of A/D conversion in a dual converter module 13 , and therefore the measurement values are available to the evaluation unit 16 in digital form. [0090] For operation of the evaluation unit 16 , an optional operating unit 17 is available, as is a power supply unit 19 for a connection to the power supply, and a communication unit 18 for passing on the values that have been determined. REFERENCE NUMBER LIST [0000] 1 —sound transducer 2 —open channel 3 —chamber 4 —chamber 5 —feed lines 6 —partition 7 —housing 8 —pressure pick-up 9 —temperature pick-up 10 —connecting line, pressure pick-up 11 —D/A converter 12 —A/D converter 13 —A/D converter 14 —temperature signal 15 —pressure signal 16 —evaluation unit 17 —operating unit 18 —communication unit 19 —power supply unit

A method for measuring operational density and/or operational sound velocity in a gaseous medium uses a sound transducer that is capable of vibrating, which is disposed in a housing in such a manner that chambers having the same volume are formed on both sides of the sound transducer, which are filled by the gaseous medium. The chambers are connected with one another by way of an open channel having defined dimensions. Using an exciter vibration applied to the sound transducer, the impedance of the sound transducer, which is influenced by the density of the gaseous medium, is determined within a frequency range that can be established, as a function of the exciter frequency. From this, the operational density and/or the operational sound velocity of the gaseous medium are determined using a plurality of characteristic frequencies of the sound transducer vibrating in the gaseous medium.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to article carriers and particularly to article carriers suitable for holding a group of metal cans and to the polymer composition from which the articles are formed. In the past, several varieties of carriers have been used to contain metal cans in six packs and other arrangements. Such plastic web carriers are fabricated from a low density polyethylene (LDPE) resin material cut from a continuous plastic extruded sheet. The carriers have a unitary web main structure which has a plurality of can supporting and engaging loops or aperture portions. Six packs of beer and soft drinks are packaged in such band-type unitary flexible plastic web carriers. During the application of the carriers the cans are grouped in continuous arrangements. The plastic carriers are installed on the cans by packaging equipment which applies the carrier to the cans at a very high speed, often as high as 1500 cans per minute. During the high speed application of the carrier the engaging loop portions of the carrier are stretched, placed over the cans, and subsequently released so that the stretched loops contract and securely engage the cans. It is important during the stretching of the carrier loop portions over the cans that the resin material not be necked down. If a plastic material "necks down" during stretching, then that material is unacceptable for use as a web-type article carrier material. The resin material which "necks down" is unacceptable partly because it creates an unattractive display of the cans and partly because there is loss of the desired mechanical properties of elasticity and strength of the carrier. In addition, during the application of the carrier it is important that there is a quick build up of sufficient tension in the loop portion such that the plastic material quickly snaps back and engages the can. If a plastic material does not "snap back" quickly, the packaging equipment cannot operate at its maximum line speed. It is also important that the resin of the carriers rapidly establish sufficient tension to prevent can release during or immediately after the carrier application process. Therefore, the plastic material must have good short term recoverable stress characteristics. Even if the plastic material of the carrier has sufficient tension to prevent can release during the application process, it is also important that the carriers not lose much tension after a period of time due to relaxation of the plastic material and that the cans not slip from the plastic carrier. Therefore, any plastic material utilized for such carriers must maintain good resistance to stress relaxation over a prolonged period of time. In addition to the severe demands required of resins useful for web carriers it is also desirable that the resin material be capable of being used with existing conventional processing and application equipment as well as being used with new and more efficient processing and application equipment. The resin material must maintain the desirable properties of the currently used web carriers. The carriers should be able to withstand rotation or "facing" of the cans within the carrier during display in retail outlets. This rotation of the cans sometimes results in necking or breakage of the loops and the undesirable premature release of the cans. Also, it is desirable that the resin material of the carrier have sufficient stiffness so that the resin material does not flex during the production, storage or application process of the carrier. In addition, it is desirable that the carriers have sufficient stiffness so that a consumer may easily pick up the beverage package without having the carrier bend. Also, the carriers should be resistent to various severe conditions during the application of the carrier on the cans. Sometimes these conditions cause environmental stress cracks in the carrier. Such conditions include exposure to grease and machine oil from the packaging equipment and cause the plastic material of the carrier to develop cracks to such a point that the plastic carrier becomes weakened, loses tension, and becomes more prone to tearing, thereby prematurely releasing the can from the carrier. Due to competitive pressures, there is a desire to reduce the cost and improve the quality of the plastic web carriers. One possible way to reduce cost and improve quality would be to replace the LDPE resin material with a lower cost, higher quality resin material. The LDPE resin currently used to make the Hi Cone® (Hi Cone® is a registered trademark of Illinois Tool Works) plastic web carriers commands a premium price among the various grades of LDPE resins. The LDPE resin useful for a web carrier requires a unique combination of properties that are at the edge of technological and economical feasibility. Such LDPE resins require the unique properties of a low melt index, a relatively high density and an extremely broad molecular weight distribution. These requirements for the LDPE resins were established in order to to optimize stiffness and processability of the carriers. There are various grades of linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE) resin material which are stiffer, stronger and tougher than LDPE resins. The LLDPE resins also are generally more resistant to environmental stress cracking conditions than LDPE resins. The LLDPE resins are more cost attractive than LDPE resins because LLDPE resins are manufactured using a low pressure process which is less costly than the high pressure process used to manufacture LDPE resins. However, there are several difficulties and drawbacks to using LLDPE resins in place of LDPE resins for use in making web carriers. The LLDPE resins have shorter molecular branches and a lower entanglement density which allows the molecules to "slip" past each other more easily. This "slipping" causes the tension in the LLDPE resins to relax over a period of time. The less "rubbery" characteristics associated with linear versus long branched polyethylene molecules interfere with the severe demands put on the resin material during the application process, handling and storage of the carriers. These severe demands on the web carriers include absence of "necking down" of the resin during stretching, rapid elastic recovery or snap back during carrier application to the cans, establishment of sufficient tension to prevent can release during application, and long-term can retention in the carrier during handling and storage. Also, LLDPE resins are known to be difficult to cut, thereby causing problems of achieving a clean cut during a punching press operations. Excessive scrap material of the LLDPE resin is generated and frequent cleaning of the punching press is required. Until the present invention, carriers were not made using linear low density polyethylene resin materials. One obstacle in using a LLDPE resin is that LLDPE resins have a greater tendency to neck down during stretching than LDPE resins. The LLDPE resins have inferior elastic recovery characteristics such that during a high speed article carrier application process it would be expected that the loop portions would fail to rapidly snap back and maintain a firm tension grip against the cans. Also, LLDPE resins have been reported to show less resistance to creep and to stress relaxation. Creeping (or stretching of the material) occurs when the resin material is held under a constant force and the material stretches under such constant force. Stress relaxation occurs when the resin material is elongated and held constant at a predetermined elongated length for a period of time, during which time the force to maintain that elongated length decreases. Further, it would be expected that excessive generation of scrap material would occur during the punch press operations since the LLDPE resin material does not cut cleanly, and the stamping presses would need frequent cleaning. Accordingly, there is a benefit to develop a web-type article carrier having advantageous cost, chemical and mechanical properties such that the use of such carrier increases manufacturing economics and finished product performance of the carrier. The carrier material should not neck down while being stretched during the application of the carrier on the cans. Further, the carrier material should snap back quickly to engage the can and should quickly build up sufficient tension such that the carrier material firmly engages the cans and allows the cans to be rapidly processed through the conventional application equipment. The carrier should continue to firmly engage the cans after application to the cans at least as well as present article carriers to insure can retention during packaging, storage, shipping to wholesalers and retailers, and final consumer use. The carrier material should be capable of being formed into a variety of designs and be capable of gripping a variety of can surface finishes. The carrier material should resist degradation during packaging and processing of the packaged cans. The carrier also should have sufficient stiffness so that there is consumer ease of handling of the article carrier. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to article carriers formed from a low density polyethlene (LDPE) resin material blended or admixed with a linear low density polyethylene resin (LLDPE) material. According to one aspect of the invention, there is provided a blend of a LLDPE resin having a density of approximately between 0.923 and 0.940 grams/cc and a melt index of approximately between 0.75 and 5.0 grams/10 minutes admixed with a LDPE resin having a density of approximately between 0.920 and 0.935 grams/cc and a melt index of approximately between 0.5 and 1.0 grams/10 minutes. The article of the invention comprises between 10-75%, by weight of the LLDPE resin and between 25-90%, by weight of the LDPE resin. In one embodiment of the invention, the article carrier comprises approximately 25% of a LLDPE resin having a density of approximately 0.926 g/cc and a melt index of approximately 1.0 g/10 minutes admixed with approximately 75% of a LDPE resin having a density of approximately 0.9265 g/cc and a melt index of approximately between 0.5 and 0.8 g/10 minutes. In another embodiment of the invention, the article carrier comprises approximately 25% of a butene base LLDPE resin having a density of approximately between 0.923 and 0.935 g/cc and a melt index of approximately between 1.0 and 3.0 g/10 minutes admixed with approximately 75% of a LDPE resin having a density of approximately 0.9265 g/cc and a melt index of approximately 0.8 g/10 minutes. The article carrier of the present invention is well suited for use with high speed conventional application equipment since the LDPE/LLDPE blend material of the carrier of the present invention does not neck down while stretching over the cans, and the LDPE/LLDPE blend material snaps back quickly to engage the can firmly. Further, sufficient tension in the material is quickly built up such that existing production and application equipment may be used to apply the carrier to the cans. The article carrier of the present invention retains sufficient tension during loading and handling of the article over a prolonged period of time such that the shelf life of the article carriers is greatly increased. The article carrier of the present invention comprised of a LDPE/LLDPE blend resin has several key advantages over pure LDPE resin article carriers. The use of LLDPE resins admixed with LDPE resins reduces product cost while improving product quality. Not only are the LLDPE resins less expensive to manufacture than LDPE resins, but also the LLDPE resins are generally stronger than LDPE resins, stiffer or less likely to flex than LDPE resins, tougher or less likely to break than LDPE resins, and have a greater resistance to environmental stress cracks than LDPE resins. The addition of a LLDPE resins to a LDPE resin to form an article carrier thus gives an article carrier having advantageous cost, chemical and mechanical properties not found previously. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The details of the invention will be described in the accompanying specification in view of the drawing, in which: FIG. 1 is a perspective view of an article carrier, according to the present invention, suited to contain cans. FIG. 2 is a graph showing a stress strain curve of a blend of low density polyethylene resin and linear low density polyethylene resin at 20 inches per minute. FIG. 3 is a plan view of samples of various resin materials stretched beyond the yield point of the material. DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides a blend of a low density polyethylene (LDPE) resin with a linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE) resin for use in article carriers. While blends of low density polyethylene and linear low density polyethylene resins have been used for trash bags and various other products, it was previously unknown to use such blends for web-type article carriers. LLDPE resins are not as "rubbery" as LDPE resins, and straight LLDPE resins cause problems in the use of LLDPE resins for web-type carriers. The web-type article carriers have various unique requirements including absence of necking down of the resin material during stretching over the cans, rapid snap back during the application process, rapid establishment of sufficient tension in the resin material during the application process, and maintenance of tension during transportation, storage and retail of the filled article carriers. The present invention relates, in particular, to article carriers, particularly can carriers, fabricated from a low density polyethylene (LDPE) resin intimately admixed with an amount of linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE) resin. As defined herein, "low density polyethylene" is a branched homopolymer of ethylene produced by high pressure processes having a density of approximately between 0.920 and 0.935 grams/cc and a melt index of approximately between 0.5 to 1.0 grams/10 minutes. As defined herein, "linear low density polyethylene" is a linear backbone copolymer with short side branches of an alpha olefin such as ethylene, butene, hexene, heptene, or octene which is generally produced by low pressure processes. The LLDPE resins for use in the article carriers of the present invention generally have a density of approximately between 0.923 grams/cc and 0.940 grams/cc and a melt index of approximately between 0.75 to 5.0 gram/10 minutes. Additionally, slip agents, anti-block agents, and anti-oxidizing agents may be added to the LDPE/LLDPE resin material to aid in production and processing of the article carriers of the present invention. Also, photo-reactive agents may be added to the LDPE/LLDPE resin material to induce the photo-degredation of the carriers after their useful life. Such agents are known in the art and may be added using existing techniques. A variety of designs of carriers maybe used. One such carrier 10, according to the present invention, is shown in FIG. 1 and includes a unitary web portion 12 which includes a plurality of can supporting and engaging loop portions 14 which form the circular can accepting apertures 16. Typically, the article carrier 10 includes a pair of hand grip portions 18 for carrying the contained cans. Typically, such carriers are about 16 mils thick, but can be downgauged up to approximately 6 to 7%, if desired, relative to existing LDPE resins. Various samples of resin materials were compared to the currently used resin materials. The resin materials selected for evaluating included low density polyethylene, (LDPE), high density polyethylene (HDPE) and linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE). The Union Carbide LDPE resin DHDG 4163 and Dow LDPE resin PE-357 are currently used in the formation of Hi-Cone R web-type carriers such as the configuration shown in FIG. 1. The linear low density polyethylene resins included: Dow 2049; Dow 2045; Dow 2042; Dow 2038; Dow 2032; and Union Carbide UCC-7341. The high density polyethylene resin (HDPE) evaluated was Union Carbide DGDA 6097. Fifteen samples were prepared and evaluated. Each sample had a sheet thickness of 16.5±0.5 mils. The first 7 samples were either straight LDPE or LLDPE resins. Samples #8 through #14 were blends of LDPE/LLDPE resins while sample #15 was a blend of LDPE/HDPE resins. The selection of the various grades of LLDPE resins was based upon their melt index and density values. The slope of the viscosity versus shear rate of the LLDPE resins in the molten state, known as shear sensitivity, makes the LLDPE resins relatively more difficult to process than the LDPE resins. The comparatively lower shear sensitivity of LLDPE resins versus LDPE resins indicates that the use of higher melt-index grades of LLDPE resins may be preferred in order to prevent excessive extrusion pressures, temperatures and torque (or horsepower). However, a resin with an overly high melt index can result in a reduction in the melt strength of the resin which also can result in the reduction in the thickness uniformity of the extruded resin sheet. Also, a resin with an overly high melt index sacrifices mechanical as well as environmental stress crack resistance properties. The density of a resin influences the stiffness of the material. It is desirable to have stiffness of the LLDPE resins which are larger than or comparable with the LDPE resins. The densities of the LLDPE resins chosen for the first phase of testing are between 0.920 and 0.935 grams/cc and the melt indexes of the LLDPE resins are between 0.80 and 2.0 grams/10 minutes. A summary of the resins used, their source, and various proportions in which they were combined is shown in Table I below. The evaluations included a measurement of necking strain, i.e., the elongation of the material at which necking occurs. Necking strain was evaluated in the transverse direction since necking was found to occur earlier in the transverse direction as opposed to in the machine direction. A measurement of such necking strain is critical because if the material necks (i.e., it loses its shape), the material is unacceptable for use as an article carrier. Additionally, visual observation was made as to whether the material necked in the transverse direction when the material was rapidly stretched to 45% which is approximately the level of stretch during the application process. At low elongation speeds, the samples produced stress-strain curves of a type where there is a maximum in the curve which represents the yield point. However, at the relatively high rates employed in the evaluation, all samples exhibited a characteristic plateau as shown in FIG. 2. A series of tests involving similar samples were stopped and examined after being stretched to various levels. Some of these samples are shown in FIG. 3. Only after stretching beyond the end point of the plateau could necking be observed with the naked eye. It is estimated that the elongation rate during the application process is an order of magnitude faster than the elongation rate used during the evaluations. Thus, if a resin sample was on the verge of necking during the evaluations, then that resin sample would most likely neck during the application process. At the "necking point" the material becomes unacceptable and unfit for use as an article carrier. In the currently used web carrier application processes, the LDPE resin stretches beyond the yield point, but not beyond the necking point. Once the plateau region is reached, the material has changed permanently --but the damage is not so severe as to prevent its use. Determination of the necking point offers a confirmation of what is visually observed with regard to the material stretchability range and allows for a quantitative ranking of different compositions of matter. The "neck/no neck" judgment, as shown in Table II below, was based on visual inspection of the sample that were rapidly stretched to 45%. If necking did occur, it was generally much more severe in the transverse direction. As such, only transverse direction necking information is reported in Table II. As shown in Table II and FIG. 3, the LDPE/LLDPE resin blends show total recovery with no visible signs of necking down. The samples were also evaluated to determine whether the resins meet acceptable snap back requirements. The time it takes the plastic material to snap back is defined as the elastic recovery time. The method used to determine the elastic recovery time involves rapid stretching of rectangular test specimens of the various extruded sheet samples for a fixed distance using a tensile tester. Once the specimen has been elongated to a preset length, the load is automatically released and the crosshead is rapidly retracted to a preset final distance. During evaluation the specimen was stretched 45% and retracted to 20%. The elapsed time between the point in time at which the clamps start to retard and the point in time at which stress reappears in the specimen is the elastic recovery time. If a sample resin material takes too long to snap back once it has been stretched, the material could be unfit for use as a web carrier because, at the high application speeds the cans might fall out before being grabbed by the loop portions of the carrier. Thus maximum speed of the application equipment is dependent upon the elastic recovery time of the resin material. As shown by the data in Table II, the resin materials can be compared with each other, or ranked in increasing time order. If the resin materials show comparable resistance to necking, rapid establishment of sufficient tension and maintenance of tension over prolonged periods of time, then the resin material having the shorter elastic recovery time will be more preferable for use in carrier applications. However, while the LDPE/LLDPE resins have elastic recovery times of from 0.663 to 0.742 seconds the LDPE/LLDPE resins are comparable to the elastic recovery times 0.651 to 0.659 for the standard LDPE resins currently being used commercially (runs #5 and #6) for the Hi Cone® carriers, and as shown by the evaluations of a LDPE/LLDPE resin applied to cans (as discussed in detail below with reference to Table III), the LDPE/LLDPE resins having a longer elastic recovery time than the LDPE resin are still expected to perform well in the high speed application process and are considered to be acceptable LDPE/LLDPE resins for use as web carriers. The sample sheets were also evaluated to determine whether the resins establish sufficient tension to prevent can release during application of the carrier. This requirement is evaluated by measuring the short-term recoverable stress when the sample is initially stretched 45% and then allowed to retard to 20% strain. While there is a slight loss in the short-term recoverable stress for some of the LDPE/LLDPE resins when compared to the LDPE resins of runs #5 and #6, the LDPE/LLDPE resins do show acceptable short-term recoverable stress measurements. Note that run #10, a blend of 25% LDPE and 75% LLDPE, exhibits an unexpectedly higher amount of short-term recoverable stress (and only a slightly slower elastic recovery time) than the standard LDPE resin show in run #5. To further illustrate the advantageous characteristics of the article carrier of the present invention, the amount of tension the LDPE/LLDPE blend carrier materials are able to maintain over a prolonged period of time was evaluated. Without this long-term tension, the carrier may tend to relax too much over a period of time thereby permitting the cans to prematurely release from the carrier. The maintenance of tension of the resins was evaluated by measuring the recoverable stress at 5 seconds and at 100 hours. The following samples were evaluated: 100% LLDPE resin (run #3); 100% LDPE resin (run #5); 100% LDPE resin (run 190 6); 50% LDPE/50% LLDPE resin (run #9); 75% LDPE/25% LLDPE resin (run #11); and 75% LDPE/25% LLDPE resin (run #13). In each case the sample was initially stretched 45% at high speeds (at 20 inches per minute). The sample was immediately allowed to retard to 35% strain. The results of these tests are shown in Table II. The long-term recoverable stress of the LDPE/LLDPE blend resins of the present invention are comparable to and sometimes better than the standard LDPE resins, while the short-term recoverable stress is comparable to the prior art resins. Note that the LDPE/LLDPE resins tested (runs #9, #11 and #13) have a higher recoverable stress after 5 seconds than the straight LDPE resin (run #5) which was used as the standard for comparison. After 100 hours, two of the LDPE/LLDPE resins (runs #9 and #11) have a higher long-term recoverable stress than the standard LDPE resin, while the third LDPE/LLDPE resin (run #13) has only a slightly lower long-term recoverable stress than the standard LDPE resin (run #5). In addition, the LDPE/LLDPE resin (run #11) has a long-term recoverable stress that is unexpectedly higher than the long-term recoverable stress of either of its components in pure form. Surprisingly, not only are the LDPE/LLDPE resins not inferior in long-term recoverable stress, but sometimes are better than the standard LDPE resin. The LDPE/LLDPE resin carriers according to the present invention show acceptable long-term recoverable stress needed for retention over a prolonged period of time. High density polyethylene resins (HDPE) consist of very linear molecules. The HDPE grade resins having a density of approximately 0.960 g/cc. have been shown to neck severely. The HDPE resins having a relatively low density of 0.948 g/cc. was selected for blending with a LDPE resin in order to attempt to minimize the negative effects of the higher density resins and to achieve a HDPE/LDPE resins having desirable "rubbery" characteristics. A blend of 25% higher density polyethylene (HDPE) resin and 75% LDPE resin (run #15) was compared to the LDPE/LLDPE resins. The LDPE/HDPE resin was observed to be on the verge of necking at the 45% elongation level, which is attributed to the HDPE resin's "linearity" of its molecules. Further, the LDPE/HDPE resin also exhibited a relatively long elastic recovery time of 0.818 seconds. As such, the LDPE/HDPE resin is unacceptable as a candidate resin for web carriers. TABLE I__________________________________________________________________________Summary of Resin Type, Source and Proportions Used in Evaluations (FirstPhase) Resin LLDPE LDPE HDPE DOW DOW DOW DOW DOW UCC DHDG DOW DOW UCCGrade 2049 2045 2042 2038 2032 7341 4163 PE-357 683 DGDA 6097__________________________________________________________________________Density g/cc. .926 .920 .930 .935 .926 .920 .9265 .9265 .923 .948Melt Index g/10 min. 1 1 1 1 2 .8 .8 .5 .7 .09Straight Runs1 1002 1003 1004 1005 1006 1007 100Blends8 25 759 50 5010 75 2511 25 7512 50 5013 25 7514 50 5015 75 25__________________________________________________________________________ TABLE II__________________________________________________________________________Summary of Sample Evaluations (First Phase)__________________________________________________________________________ RUN 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 SAMPLE LLDPE LLDPE LLDPE LLDPE LDPE LDPE LDPE LDPE/LLDPE LDPE/LLDPE DOW DOW DOW UCC DHDG PE PE 4163/2049 4163/2049 2049 2045 2042 7341 4163 357 683 75%/25% 50%/50%__________________________________________________________________________Modulus (PSI) 64950 49400 70500 60350 55600 62600 62000 60150 68050Yield Stress (PSI) 1695 1340 2005 1510 1540 1630 1635 1615 1775Yield Strain (%) 19.1 22.4 21.5 18.0 18.4 18.5 17.7 18.3 19.1TD Necking Strain 71.5 92.3 64.0 77.1 93.1 81.3 89.6 80.5 73.6Ultimate Stress (PSI) 3420 2750 3355 2720 2605 2620 2650 2895 3270Ultimate Strain (%) >1333 >1333 >1333 >1333 1021 1024 1144 1333 1333Elastic Recovery Time .678 .616 .771 .692 .651 .659 .642 .736 .669(SEC)Recoverable Stress 651 612 656 583 710 673 679 703 658*(After 5 sec., PSI)Does TD Sample Neck? No No No No No No No No NoRecoverable Stress 976 964 952 970**(After 5 sec., PSI)Recoverable Stress 834 819 770 885**(After 100 hrs, PSI)__________________________________________________________________________ RUN 10 11 12 13 14 15 SAMPLE LDPE/LLDPE LDPE/LLDPE LDPE/LLDPE LDPE/LLDPE LDPE/LLDPE LDPE/HDPE 4163/2049 4163/2042 4163/2042 4163/2038 4163/2032 4163/DGDA 25%/75% 75%/25% 50%/50% 75%/25% 50%/50% 75%/25%__________________________________________________________________________Modulus (PSI) 60500 66600 64900 67450 53800 72750Yield Stress (PSI) 1635 1780 1745 1830 1500 2015Yield Strain (%) 18.4 19.5 20.5 19.7 18.7 19.6TD Necking Strain 78.9 78.1 60.0 78.4 80.8 47.2Ultimate Stress (PSI) 3170 3155 3255 3145 2795 2960Ultimate Strain (%) >1333 997 1333 1333 1333 1128Elastic Recovery Time .663 .709 .735 .742 .674 .818(SEC)Recoverable Stress 742 648 648 685 626 637*(After 5 sec., PSI)Does TD Sample Neck? No No No No No MarginalRecoverable Stress 1055 965**(After 5 sec., PSI)Recoverable Stress 867 792**(After 100 hrs, PSI)__________________________________________________________________________ *Sample was initially stretched 45% and then allowed to retard to 20% strain. **Sample was initially stretched 45% and then allowed to retard to 35% strain. Article carriers fabricated from the LDPE/LLDPE resin shown in run #11 (75% LDPE/25% LLDPE) were evaluated to determine whether the carriers lose their can retention properties over a period of time. The carriers were evaluated by monitoring the responses of a six-pack type can-filled carrier to severe shaking forces. An official NSDA Package Drop Test made by the Federal Paper Board Company, Montvale, NJ, was used. The equipment was modified with a side bumper to minimize package dancing and the holding fixture was replaced by a horizontal rod to prevent failure through tearing. The equipment was run at 80 strokes per minute at room temperature using 25/8 inch strokes. The number of strokes causing can drop-out represents the measure of can retention. Several of the tests were stopped after 1500 strokes without reaching failure because of excessive time requirements. Table III below sets forth the comparative experimental results. Quite unexpectedly, after one month storage the average of the number of strokes to failure for the LDPE/LLDPE resin carrier exceeds the standard LDPE carrier by a factor of 100. These results clearly establish that the LDPE/LLDPE resins are suitable as a material for carriers. Even more surprising is the fact that the LDPE/LLDPE resin carriers of the present invention maintain their retention capabilities over several months. A four month evaluation period was used with stroke testing conducted at 1, 2 and 4 months after storage of the six-pack carriers. As can clearly be seen from the results set forth in Table III, the LDPE/LLDPE resin carrier outperformed the standard LDPE resin carriers. At the one month interval the LDPE/LLDPE resin carrier, on the average, endured 1134 more strokes before failure occurred. At the two month interval the LDPE/LLDPE resin carriers still exceeded the failure rate of the standard LDPE resin carrier by an average of 738 strokes. By four months, the standard and experimental carriers were somewhat closer in the number of strokes to failure but the LDPE/LLDPE resin carrier still exhibit superior can retention capabilities. TABLE III______________________________________Evaluation of Long-Term Can Retention (First Phase)Standard Experimental LDPE Carriers LDPE/LLDPE CarriersStorage Time After Application (months)1 2 4 1 2 4______________________________________Strokes to 3 >1500 >1500 >1500 >1500 >1500Failure* 14 >1500 1399 >1500 >1500 >1500 7 332 >1500 >1500 >1500 >1500 4 10 >1500 296 >1500 >1500 >1500 12 >1500 >1500 711 >1500 18 5 >1500 977 >1500 8 18 >1500 14 368 34 504 4 >1500Average 161 575 1480 1295 1313 >1500______________________________________ *Using 25/8" strokes In addition to the resins evaluated above, an additional sample consisting of 75% Union Carbide LDPE resin DHDB 4163, (which varies from the LDPE resin evaluated above (DHDG 4163) only in various additives which do not effect the performance of the LDPE resin) and 25% butene based USI-PA 432-16 resin was evaluated. The sample had a sheet thickness of 16.0±0.5 mils. This additional grade of LLDPE resin was selected in order to attempt to achieve good extrudability of LDPE/LLDPE resin blend. Improvement in extrudability is achieved by selection of a resin with higher melt index. In addition, the butene based LLDPE resin was selected because butene based resins are typically less expensive than those LLDPE resins based on octene. The LDPE/butene base LLDPE sample and a control sample were evaluated in a manner similar to the methods described above. The LDPE/butene base LLDPE resin was judged to be acceptable with regard to necking resistance during stretching, rapid snap back during application, and rapid establishment of sufficient tension. In addition, a use of a butene base LLDPE resin having a relatively high density and melt index reduces the toughness of the resin blend and thereby facilitates maintaining clean cuts of the LDPE/LLDPE resin carrier during the die cut punching process. The butene based LLDPE resin USI-PA 432-16 is thus an attractive candidate for blending with a LDPE resin to produce article carriers. A further advantage of the LDPE/LLDPE article carriers according to the present invention is resistance to environmental stress cracking. Samples of the 75% LDPE (UCC-4163)/25% LLDPE (Dow 2042) and the 75% (UCC 4163)/25% LLDPE (UPI-butene base) resins of the present invention were evaluated to determine their resistance to environmental stress cracks using the Lander's tests, ASTM-D1693.08. The samples were exposed to a 10% solution of Igepal®, a nonionic surfactant, at 30° C. No cracks or failures occurred in any of the LDPE/LLDPE resins tested within a 30 day testing period. This is especially surprising since the LDPE resins typically show cracks or failure within 5 to 7 days or less. An optimum time of 2 weeks, before failure in the LDPE resins normally occurs, can be obtained only if the LDPE resins are extruded under very controlled laboratory conditions, which extrusion conditions are impractical in a commercial extrusion process. These results further establish that the LDPE/LLDPE resins are suitable as a material for article carriers. Still another advantage of the LDPE/LLDPE article carriers according to the present invention is the possibility of downgauging, or reduction in thickness, due to the qualities of the LDPE/LLDPE blends. The amount of downgauging is generally dependent upon the stiffness, or flexural modulus, of the material. The relationship between stiffness and thickness is approximated by the equation: Force/Deflection=Constant×Modulus×(Thickness).sup.3. Equation 1. If the bending resistance of the new material (LDPE/LLDPE) is to be maintained relative to the old material (LDPE) then the modulus (M 1 ) multiplied by the thickness cubed (T 1 ) 3 of the new material must equal the modulus (Mo) times the thickness cubed (To) 3 of the old material or (M.sub.1 T.sub.1.sup.3 =MoTo.sup.3). Equation 2. Rearranging this equation, the ratio becomes T.sub.1 /To=(Mo/M.sub.1)1/3. Equation 3. Using equation 3, and runs #5 and #13 as an example, M.sub.1 /Mo=67450/55600=1.21. Inserting the value for M 1 /Mo into equation 3 and solving for T 1 /To yields T.sub.1 /To=(55600/67450)1/3=0.938. As shown from the equations above, it can be estimated that the particular LDPE/LLDPE blend of run #14 can be downgauged (1-0.938)×100=6.2% while still retaining the same stiffness as the standard LDPE. This same calculation can be used with the other blends to calculate their potential reduction in thickness. The significance of this reduction is that the article carrier of the present invention can be made using less material and thus at a potentially lower cost without causing a sacrifice in the performance of the product. Consequently, the LDPE/LLDPE resin blends are very attractive for use in carriers from the standpoint of both performance and economy. The LDPE/LLDPE resins according to the present invention, possess the necessary properties for use as a carrier material. The LDPE/LLDPE resins demonstrate resistance to necking, have acceptable elastic recovery times and short- and long-term recoverable stress characteristics which are important requirements for a resin useful for a web carrier. This is quite unexpected since web carriers formed from pure LLDPE resins were regarded as having lower elastic recovery capabilities and stress relaxation characteristics than carriers formed from LDPE resins alone. Having thus defined the invention in detail it should be understood that various modifications and changes can be made in the invention without departing from the scope and content of the following claims.

A polymer composition and articles are disclosed wherein the composition comprises a low density polyethylene resin having a density between approximately 0.920 and 0.935 gram/cc and a melt index between approximately 0.5 and 1.0 grams/10 minutes, admixed with a linear low density polyethylene resin having a density between approximately 0.923 and 0.940 grams/cc and a melt index between approximately 0.75 and 5.0 gram/10 minutes. The composition is useful for forming article carriers, especially those used in carrying groups of metal cans.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0001] 1. Field of the Invention [0002] The present invention relates to a skin treatment device by applying heat to the skin and a method of controlling the same, and more particularly, to a portable skin treatment device. [0003] 2. Description of the Related Art [0004] Technology for treatment of skin inflammation, skin itch and other skin diseases by applying heat of a predetermined temperature to the skin is known. There is a representative example thereof, disclosed in U.S. Application Publication No. US 2001/0008974 entitled “Method and apparatus for treatment of skin itch and disease”. In the related art, skin treatment effects are achieved by applying heat of a temperature of 49-62° C. to an area of a skin disease. Furthermore, the related art suggests a portable skin treatment apparatus powered by a self-contained battery. [0005] Unlike special treatment devices used in a dermatology clinic, since portable devices using power of a self-contained battery are generally low-priced, the range of customers using the devices increases. Furthermore, since the devices are portable, they can be more freely used without the limitation in places and time. Thus, when treatment by a special medicine or a precise treatment device is not necessarily required, the portable treatment devices will be helpful to ordinary patients, in particular. [0006] For example, skin diseases such as acne that is common in adolescents, itch such as athlete's foot, itch when a man is bitten by the insect such as mosquito, occur frequently in a daily life. When symptoms of a patient are severe, it is recommended that the patient gets treatment in a clinic. However, when symptoms of a patient are not severe and a skin disease is a usual disease, it will be best not to go to the clinic but to do treatment on site immediately for himself/herself. For example, when a man is bitten by mosquito and has an itch, a man does not need to go to the clinic. Thus, the use of portable treatment devices will be a worldwide trend. [0007] However, since the portable treatment devices are portable devices that a patient uses for himself/herself, it is difficult to say that treatment effects thereof are more excellent than those in the clinic. This is because there are limitations such as power consumption of the portable treatment devices, limitations in using time, non-combination with special treatment methods, and the like. Due to the problems, many efforts for improving treatment effects have been made in the field of the portable treatment devices. In detail, the efforts for improving the performance of portable devices that may achieve treatment effects by the application of heat have been made. [0008] When a doctor treats a patient by using a treatment device, the patient is not concerned about whether he/she is getting treatment or not. This is because it is a matter of course that he/she goes to the clinic and thus gets treatment. However, when the patient wants to treat himself/herself by using a portable treatment device, the patient wants to know whether the portable treatment device operates properly and he/she is getting treatment accurately. However, in the case of a treatment method using heat shock, a user cannot easily check whether the user gets treatment by the treatment method using heat shock. Since a treatment means in a heat shock technique depends on heat of a predetermined temperature and a time variable for applying heat, it is difficult to easily check whether heat that the user feels is warm-up heat to be used to perform a heat treatment operation, heat applied during the operation, or heat that remains after the operation is completed. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0009] The present invention provides a portable skin treatment device having an improved structure for treating skin diseases such as skin itch that occurs due to athlete's foot or when a man is bitten by the insect such as mosquito, acne, and the like, and a method of controlling the same. [0010] The present invention also provides a portable skin treatment device having an improved structure that achieves improved treatment effects compared to those of a related art heat applying method by applying heat to the area of a skin disease and by irradiating light in a predetermined wavelength range onto the area of the skin disease, and a method of controlling the same. In other words, an aspect of treatment of the present invention may be classified into treatment using heat and treatment using light, and the present invention improves treatment effects by combining treatment using heat and treatment using light. [0011] The present invention also provides a portable skin treatment device having an improved structure that secures visibility of treatment. Since not professional but a patient operates the portable skin treatment device for himself/herself so as to use it, a user has a desire to check for himself/herself whether the user is getting treatment or the portable skin treatment device operates properly. The present invention is provided to satisfy the user's desire. The objective of the present invention has a meaning that the present invention is a new and inventive product based on new technology for combining two treatment methods. [0012] The present invention also provides a portable skin treatment device having an improved structure in which a treatment device can be used using a battery that a user can easily purchase so as to avoid inconvenience in time required for charging or loss or failure of a charging device. [0013] Meanwhile, unspecified other objectives of the present invention will be additionally considered within the range where they can be easily inferred from the following detailed description and effects thereof. [0014] According to an aspect of the present invention, there is provided a method of controlling an operation of a portable skin treatment device, the method comprising: [0015] heating a heater to prepare heating of a tip of the treatment device in a predetermined temperature range, if a control button of the treatment device is pressed; and [0016] turning on a light source disposed inside a housing of the treatment device and performing light irradiation treatment of irradiating light onto the skin through the tip together with heat, if heating of the tip is completed, [0017] wherein the light source is a blue light emitting diode (LED), a red LED, an LED having red, green, and blue (RGB) color, or an LED that optionally emits blue or red light, and [0018] when the light irradiation treatment is performed together with heat, a temperature of the tip is 47.2 to 49.4° C., and the time when the light irradiation treatment is performed together with heat is 120 to 180 sec. [0019] According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a method of controlling an operation of a portable skin treatment device, the method comprising: [0020] determining an input of a control button of the treatment device; [0021] turning on a light source disposed inside a housing of the treatment device and irradiating light onto the skin through the tip together with heat, if the input is performed; [0022] heating a heater so that a temperature of a tip of the treatment device reaches a predetermined temperature, while the light irradiation treatment is performed; and [0023] outputting a heating completion signal to a display unit of the treatment device if heating is completed, and performing heat treatment in addition to the light irradiation treatment, [0024] wherein the light source is a blue light emitting diode (LED), a red LED, an LED having red, green, and blue (RGB) color, or an LED that optionally emits blue or red light, and [0025] when the light irradiation treatment is performed together with the heat treatment, a temperature of the tip is 47.2 to 49.4° C., and the time when the light irradiation treatment is performed together with the heat treatment is 120 to 180 sec. [0026] According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a portable skin treatment device that operates by using the above-described method, the portable skin treatment device including: [0027] a housing which comprises a control button, a display unit, and a tip for skin contact and in which a printed circuit board (PCB) is disposed, [0028] wherein internal circuit elements are mounted on the PCB, the internal circuit elements comprising: a heater heating the tip and a heater controller controlling the heater; a light source irradiating light onto an outside of the treatment device through the tip; a microcomputer controller controlling an operation of the treatment device; and a power supply unit supplying power, and wherein the light source is attached to an edge surface of an end of the PCB that contacts the tip. [0034] According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a portable skin treatment device in which a printed circuit board (PCB) on which an internal circuit unit is mounted, is inserted in a housing having a hollow tube shape, the portable skin treatment device comprising: [0035] a tip for skin contact installed on one end of the housing; [0036] a battery cap installed on the other end of the housing, sealing the housing and simultaneously electrically contacting a terminal inside the housing; [0037] a battery unit in which two alkaline batteries having a specification of AAA or AA and an electromotive force of 1.5 V are inserted in the housing; and [0038] a control button and a display unit installed on a surface of the housing, [0039] wherein internal circuit elements are mounted on the PCB, the internal circuit elements including: a heater heating the tip and a heater controller controlling the heater; a light source irradiating light being a light emitting diode (LED) attached to an edge surface of the end of the PCB that contacts the tip and irradiating light onto an outside of the treatment device through the tip; and a microcomputer controller receiving an input of the control button, controlling an operation of the treatment device and displaying an operating state on the display unit, wherein heat treatment and light irradiation treatment are performed by the input of the control button. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0044] The above and other features and advantages of the present invention will become more apparent by describing in detail exemplary embodiments thereof with reference to the attached drawings in which: [0045] FIGS. 1 and 2 are perspective views illustrating an example of a housing of a portable skin treatment device 100 according to an embodiment of the present invention; [0046] FIGS. 3A and 3B illustrate examples of charging devices of the portable skin treatment device 100 illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 2 , and FIG. 3C illustrates a state where a jack of a charging device is inserted in the portable skin treatment device 100 ; [0047] FIG. 4 is an enlarged perspective view of a configuration example of an operating unit having a tip 10 for skin contact of the portable skin treatment device 100 illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 2 ; [0048] FIGS. 5 and 6 are perspective views illustrating an example of a housing of a portable skin treatment device 100 according to another embodiment of the present invention; [0049] FIG. 7 illustrates a state where two alkaline batteries are inserted in the housing of the portable skin treatment device 100 illustrated in FIGS. 5 and 6 ; [0050] FIG. 8 is an enlarged perspective view of a configuration example of an operating unit having a tip for skin contact of the portable skin treatment device 100 illustrated in FIGS. 5 and 6 ; [0051] FIG. 9 illustrates a state where a printed circuit board (PCB) 250 and a tip 10 for skin contact are fixed in the housing of the portable skin treatment device illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 2 and FIGS. 5 and 6 ; [0052] FIGS. 10 and 11 are schematic circuit diagrams of the portable skin treatment device 100 illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 2 and FIGS. 5 and 6 ; [0053] FIG. 12 are graphs showing wavelength of light to be irradiated by the portable skin treatment device 100 and a light irradiation method, according to an embodiment of the present invention; [0054] FIG. 13 is a graph showing heating versus temperature of the portable skin treatment device 100 , according to an embodiment of the present invention; [0055] FIG. 14 illustrates a state where the portable skin treatment device 100 illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 2 and FIGS. 5 and 6 is used; [0056] FIG. 15 are images showing treatment effects of the portable skin treatment device 100 , based on FIGS. 12 and 13 ; and [0057] FIGS. 16 through 18 are flowcharts illustrating various control processes of an operation of the portable skin treatment device 100 . DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0058] The present invention will now be described more fully with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which exemplary embodiments of the invention are shown. In the description of the present invention, if it is determined that a detailed description of commonly-used technologies or structures related to the invention may unnecessarily obscure the subject matter of the invention, the detailed description will be omitted. First Embodiment [0059] FIGS. 1 and 2 are perspective views illustrating an example of an external structure of a portable skin treatment device 100 according to an embodiment of the present invention. A housing of the portable skin treatment device 100 may be cylindrical to be easily carried by a user and to be easily grasped by hands. A control button 50 that is a user interface and one or more display lamps 20 and 30 may be formed on an outer circumferential surface of the housing. The two display lamps 20 and 30 may be lamps that emit light having different colors, for example, green and blue, so that the user easily differentiates two treatment effects according to the present invention from each other. The display lamps 20 and 30 may be light emitting diodes (LEDs). [0060] A tip 10 for skin contact is formed on an end of the housing that contacts the skin, and a tip fixing portion 14 for fixing the tip 10 in the housing, and a cap combining portion 16 that combines with a cap (not shown) for protecting the tip 10 in a screw manner are formed on the housing. In another embodiment, the cap may be attached to or detached from the cap combining portion 16 of the housing of the portable skin treatment device in a sliding manner. Since the tip 10 may be attached to one end of a printed circuit board (PCB) installed in the portable skin treatment device, the tip 10 may be fixed in the housing by using the tip fixing portion 14 and simultaneously, the PCB may also be fixed in the housing. [0061] A length of the housing of the portable skin treatment device 100 may be about 60 to 80 mm, and a diameter thereof may be 22 to 26 mm. However, the length and diameter of the housing may be changed in various sizes according to configuration of an internal circuit unit, the type of battery, a design factor, or the like. However, the sizes of the length and diameter of the housing may be easily carried and grasped by the user. Material used to form the housing may be an acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) resin that is easily processed and has a good impact resistance and a good thermal resistance. [0062] The tip 10 transfers heat to the skin and thus may be formed of a component having good thermal conductivity. The tip 10 may be formed of metal or non-metal having good thermal conductivity, for example. When the tip 10 is formed of metal, gold (Au), silver (Ag), aluminum (Al), tungsten (W), copper (Cu), or the like may be used to form the tip 10 . However, in consideration of an economical aspect, Al having a thickness of 0.5 mm may be used. When the tip 10 is formed of non-metal, thermal conductive plastics, fine ceramics such as aluminum nitride (AlN), or the like may be used. [0063] As illustrated in FIG. 2 , a charging hole 40 in which a self-contained battery can be charged may be formed on an opposite end of the housing to the end of the housing that contacts the skin. One of charging jacks 61 and 71 of each of charging devices 60 and 70 to be separately provided may be inserted in the charging hole 40 so as to charge the self-contained battery. As illustrated in FIG. 3A , the charging device 60 may be an adaptor that outputs a voltage of 5V by putting a plug in a commonly-used power supply of 100 to 240 V so as to supply the voltage of 5V to the portable skin treatment device 100 . Also, as illustrated in FIG. 3B , the charging device 70 may be a universal serial bus (USB) cable charged using a USB voltage of a computer. As illustrated in FIG. 3C , one of the charging jacks 61 and 71 of each of the charging devices 60 and 70 is inserted in the charging hole 40 of the portable skin treatment device 100 so as to charge the self-contained battery. Power supplies of the charging devices 60 and 70 charge the self-contained battery through an internal charging circuit. In this regard, a microcomputer controller 111 may display a charging state to the user by using the two display lamps 20 and 30 . For example, when charging starts, the green lamp 20 that emits green light is turned on, and when charging is completed, the blue lamp 30 that emits blue light may be turned on. [0064] FIG. 4 is an enlarged perspective view of configuration of an upper portion of the housing of the portable skin treatment device 100 , i.e., the end of the housing that contacts the skin. First, a protrusion of the cap combining portion 16 wound around the cap combining portion 16 in an oblique line direction is a screw thread to be combined with the cap. The skin contact a surface 12 of the tip 10 for skin contact that protrudes from the tip fixing portion 14 , and thus, heat from the heated tip 10 is applied to the skin. The tip 10 has a hollow cylindrical shape, and a light source (not shown) may be disposed inside the tip 10 . A light irradiation hole 13 may be formed in the center of the surface 12 of the tip 10 . Light emitted from the light source may be irradiated onto an outside of the surface 12 of the tip 10 through the light irradiation hole 13 . [0065] Considering the light source is disposed in the housing of the portable skin treatment device 100 and a visible light transmission distance of a built-in LED as a light source is just several centimeters, in order to improve light irradiation effects, the light source may be disposed most adjacent to the surface 12 of the tip 10 . However, in the case of a laser pointer that transmits visible light to a farther distance, a long light irradiation path may be formed in the housing, and a laser light source may be disposed at an inner position of the housing. Second Embodiment [0066] FIGS. 5 and 6 are perspective views illustrating an example of an external structure of a portable skin treatment device 100 according to another embodiment of the present invention. The portable skin treatment device 100 illustrated in FIGS. 5 and 6 has a structure of a longer and thinner housing than that of the portable skin treatment device 100 illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 2 . However, materials used to form the housing and a tip of the portable skin treatment device 100 illustrated in FIGS. 5 and 6 are the same as those of the portable skin treatment device 1000 illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 2 . [0067] In the current embodiment, a length of the housing of the portable skin treatment device 100 may be about 140 to 160 mm, and a diameter thereof may be 14 to 20 mm. However, the length and diameter of the housing may be changed in various sizes according to configuration of an internal circuit unit, the type of battery, a design factor, or the like. [0068] For example, when an alkaline battery having a specification of AAA is built in the housing, a diameter of a cross-section of the housing may be about 15 mm. However, in the case of an alkaline battery having a specification of AA, a diameter thereof may be further increased. Also, when two alkaline batteries are built in the housing, a better output performance can be achieved compared to a case where one alkaline battery is built in the housing, but the length of the housing is increased. When one alkaline battery is built in the housing, the length of the housing may be about 70 mm. Various modifications of the specification of the size of the housing may be possible. However, it will be emphasized that the size of the housing may be easily carried and grasped by the user. [0069] As illustrated in FIG. 7 , a battery 60 may be inserted in the housing through an opposite end of the housing to the end of the housing that contacts the skin. The battery may be an alkaline battery having an electromotive force of 1.5 V. In order to make the housing thinner and simultaneously to easily produce a desired output performance, two alkaline batteries having the specification of 1.5 V AAA may be inserted in the housing in series. Two alkaline batteries having the specification of 1.5 V AA may be inserted in the housing. However, the diameter of the cross-section of the housing may be increased as the specification of the battery is increased. Since a change of the size of the housing is determined by a design factor, the protection scope of the present invention is not limited by an AA or AAA specification. [0070] In FIG. 6 , two alkaline batteries having the specification of AAA are inserted in the order of +/− and are sealed by a battery cap 45 . The battery cap 45 has a contact portion 42 that electrically contacts the inserted battery, and the contact portion 42 electrically contacts a terminal inside the housing, thereby supplying power to an internal circuit of the portable skin treatment device 100 . The battery cap 45 may be connected to the end of the housing in a screw combining method or may be disconnected therefrom. Also, for convenience of connection and disconnection, a groove 41 may be formed in the battery cap 45 . This is as illustrated in FIG. 7 . [0071] Even when the battery 60 is inserted, if the portable skin treatment device 100 does not operate, a supply of power is cut off. When a control button 50 installed on the surface of the housing is pressed, the supply of power starts. In this regard, the microcomputer controller 111 may display a charging state to the user by using the two display lamps 20 and 30 that the supply of power is on and heating by a heater starts. For example, if the control button 50 is pressed, the green lamp 20 may be turned on, and if the control button is pressed for a long time in the state where the green lamp 20 is turned on, the supply of power may be off, and the green lamp 20 may be turned off. Here, both the green lamp 20 and the blue lamp 30 may be turned off. [0072] FIG. 8 is an enlarged perspective view of a configuration example of an operating unit having a tip for skin contact of a portable skin treatment device 100 illustrated in FIGS. 5 and 6 . First, an inside of a cap (not shown) closely contacts a cam combining portion 16 and is slid so that the cap and the portable skin treatment device 100 are detached from each other. The skin contacts a surface 12 of a tip for skin contact 10 that protrudes from a tip fixing portion 14 , and thus, heat from the heated tip 10 is transferred to the skin. The tip 10 has a hollow cylindrical shape, and a light source (not shown) may be disposed inside the tip 10 . A light irradiation hole 13 may be formed in the center of the surface 12 of the tip 10 . Light emitted from the light source may be irradiated onto an outside of the surface 12 of the tip 10 through the light irradiation hole 13 . [0073] Considering the light source is disposed in the housing of the portable skin treatment device 100 and a visible light transmission distance of a built-in LED as a light source is just several centimeters, in order to improve light irradiation effects, the light source may be disposed most adjacent to the surface 12 of the tip 10 . However, in the case of a laser pointer that transmits visible light to a farther distance, a long light irradiation path may be formed in the housing, and a laser light source may be disposed at an inner position of the housing. <Internal Configuration of Portable Skin Treatment Device 100 > [0074] FIG. 9 illustrates an internal configuration of the tip 10 for skin contact of the portable skin treatment device 100 illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 2 and FIGS. 5 and 6 , and the relationship between light and heat in detail. Internal circuit elements are mounted on a printed circuit board (PCB) 250 having an approximately rectangular shape to be built in a housing but are omitted in the drawings for convenience of explanation. [0075] A width of an end of the PCB 250 that contacts a tip 10 may be reduced in a step manner. A heater 121 formed of a resistor may be disposed at a front portion 251 of the PCB 250 . Also, a predetermined temperature sensor and a heating control circuit may be disposed adjacent to each other. A front end portion 252 of the PCB 250 may be inserted in the tip 10 . A light source 127 such as a light emitting diode (LED) is attached to an edge surface 253 of the front end portion 252 inserted in the tip 10 so that the light source 127 is most adjacent to a surface 12 of the tip 10 . In this way, the LED light source 127 is attached to the edge surface 253 of the front end portion 252 of the PCB 250 so that a light irradiation direction of the LED light source 127 is identical with a user contact direction of the tip 10 and efficiency of light irradiation treatment is improved. [0076] The LED light source 127 may be a blue LED, a red LED, or an LED that emits blue or red light alternately. Also, the LED light source 127 may be a red, green, and blue (RGB) LED that optionally emits blue light and red light. In particular, in the case of an LED that optionally emits blue or red light or the RGB LED, a controller 110 controls the LED light source 127 to emit which color light. Also, in the RGB LED, blue or red light is irradiated when treatment is performed, and other light (for example, green light) may be off or may be instantaneously irradiated when a power button is initially pressed. Thus, light may be used to display signals. [0077] Since an inside of the tip 10 is vacant, when the front end portion 252 of the PCB 250 is inserted in the tip 10 , the front end portion 252 needs to be fixed in the tip. Furthermore, when the inside of the tip 10 is vacant and the air is filled in the space of the tip 10 , thermal conductivity of the tip 10 may be greatly lowered. In this regard, in order to fix the front end portion 252 of the PCB 250 while maintaining a performance in which heat from the heater 121 is transferred to the tip, a thermal conductive tip filling material 19 may be filled in the space of the tip 10 . The thermal conductive tip filling material 19 may be a thermal conductive silicon material, and hot melt, a thermal conductive epoxy resin, or the like may be used as the thermal conductive tip filling material 19 . [0078] FIGS. 10 and 11 illustrate a configuration example of an internal circuit of the portable skin treatment device illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 2 and FIGS. 5 and 6 . FIG. 10 corresponds to an internal configuration of the portable skin treatment device 100 illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 2 , and FIG. 11 corresponds to an internal configuration of the portable skin treatment device 100 illustrated in FIGS. 5 and 6 . [0079] The internal circuit of the portable skin treatment device 100 may include five portions, i.e., a controller 110 , an input unit 130 , an operating unit 120 , a display unit 140 , and a power supply unit 150 . The controller 110 controls the entire operation of the portable skin treatment device 100 , and the input unit 130 transmits an input command for controlling the operation of the controller 110 . The input unit 130 is a control button ( 50 of FIG. 7 ) installed on the housing of the portable skin treatment device 100 . The input command may be transmitted by pressing a plurality of buttons installed to be physically differentiated from one another. Also, by using one control button 50 , programming may be performed so that an input signal is interpreted and different commands are transmitted at the time when the control button 50 is pressed. [0080] The operating unit 120 performs light irradiation treatment and thermal treatment on the user's skin, and the display unit 140 displays the state of the operating unit 120 and the operating state of the power supply unit 150 to the user. The green lamp 20 and the blue lamp 30 described above constitute an LED of the display unit 140 , and a buzzer may generate a buzzing sound. [0081] Referring to FIG. 10 , the power supply unit 150 includes a charging circuit 151 a that supplies power to a circuit element using an external power supply 80 as a charging source, a lithium (LI)-polymer battery 152 charged by the charging circuit 151 a, and a power controller 153 that controls power on or off. The power supply unit 150 of FIG. 11 supplies power of an alkaline battery 151 b ( 60 of FIG. 7 ) of 3 VA, maximum. [0082] The controller 110 performs a control operation by using a chip of a microcomputer 111 having a built-in firmware. The controller 110 controls an input/output operation, an operation of the display unit 140 , and the operation of the operating unit 120 . Also, if a predetermined amount of time set by a timer circuit 112 has been elapsed, the controller 110 controls the internal circuit of the portable skin treatment device 100 so as to cut off a supply of power. For example, when the operating time of the operating unit 120 is set to 2 min 30 sec, counting is performed at the time when heating is completed, and if 2 min 30 sec has been elapsed, a supply of power is cut off [0083] The operating unit 120 performs two skin treatments. [0084] In light irradiation treatment, the light source 127 irradiates light onto the skin. The light source 127 may be a blue LED. Blue light emitted from the blue LED having a wavelength of 400 to 480 nm is applied to the skin so that skin treatment effects are achieved. Also, heat treatment may be performed by heating the heater 121 formed of a resistor to increase the temperature of the heater 121 to the temperature of the tip 10 of 47.2 to 49.4□ and to make the tip 10 contact the skin. A heating system may maintain the temperature of the heater 121 within the set temperature range and may be controlled by a heater controller 123 formed of a thermistor chip and a temperature sensor 125 . Treatment Embodiment Using Portable Skin Treatment Device 100 [0085] <1> In the current embodiment of the present invention, a high-brightness blue LED having a single wavelength of 470 nm was used as a light source. Also, blue light having the wavelength of 470 nm was irradiated while providing a periodic peak of 5 V, as illustrated in FIGS. 12A and 12B . [0086] <2> In heat treatment, the operating temperature of the portable skin treatment device 100 was set to 47.2 to 49.4° C. The heater 121 was preheated at the set temperature. It took about 65 seconds to reach 47.2° C. This is the same as in FIG. 13 . Heated heat was applied to the skin for 2 min 30 sec, and the temperature of the heater 121 was controlled so that the range of an output temperature is 47.2 to 49.4° C. [0087] <3> Heat treatment and light irradiation treatment were simultaneously performed in the state where the portable skin treatment device 100 contacts the skin area of a skin disease such as acne, as illustrated in FIG. 4 , and the termination time was the same. [0088] <4> As a result, treatment effects illustrated in FIG. 15 were shown. <Method of Controlling Operation of Portable Skin Treatment Device 100 > [0089] FIGS. 16 through 18 illustrate a method of controlling an operation of the portable skin treatment device 100 , according to embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 16 illustrates an embodiment in which the portable skin treatment device 100 automatically performs a treatment operation by using a preset program, and FIG. 17 illustrates an embodiment in which a treatment operation is performed by an input event occurrence caused by an input unit 130 , and FIG. 18 illustrates an embodiment in, after light irradiation treatment is first performed, a heater 121 is controlled to simultaneously perform heat treatment and light irradiation treatment. [0090] The embodiment of FIG. 16 will now be described. In operation S 10 , if a user presses a control button 50 installed on a housing in a standby state, heating starts. Here, heating may be displayed to the user by generating a buzzing sound to turn on a green lamp 20 . The portable skin treatment device 100 heats the heater 121 until the temperature of the tip 10 stably reaches a predetermined temperature range, for example, 47.2 to 49.4° C. A reference temperature T 0 at the time when an operation starts may be set to 47.2° C. In operation S 11 , if it is determined whether an internal temperature T of the tip 10 sensed by a temperature sensor reaches T 0 and if T=T 0 as a result of determination, in operation S 12 , heating by the heater 121 stops, and in operation S 13 , the temperature of the tip 10 is controlled to be maintained at the set temperature range, and simultaneously, a light source disposed inside the tip 10 is turned on. If the tip 10 contacts the skin, heat may be transferred to the skin through the tip 10 , and simultaneously, light emitted from the light source may be irradiated onto the skin. In this regard, light irradiated onto the skin may be blue light. [0091] The user may not contact the tip 10 the skin while the heater 121 is heated. Thus, in order to efficiently inform the user of the time when the tip 10 contacts the skin, i.e., the time when heating is completed and treatment starts, the buzzing sound may be generated to sequentially turn on/off a green lamp 20 and a blue lamp 30 . Then, the blue lamp 30 is turned on after several seconds have been elapsed, it may be more efficiently informed to the user that blue light is being irradiated onto the skin. [0092] A heater controller 123 controls a heating operation of the heater 121 so that the temperature of the heater 121 is out of the set range. In operation S 14 , if it is determined whether the temperature of the tip 10 falls under the reference temperature T 0 and if the temperature of the tip 10 falls under the reference temperature T 0 , in operation S 15 , the operation of heating the heater 121 is performed again. [0093] Since heat is applied to the skin in an artificial manner, it is not good to a human body to apply heat to the skin for a long time. Thus, an operating time needs to be set. Treatment may be terminated within the range of about 120 to 180 sec by automatically measuring time from the time when the heating operation stops and treatment starts. [0094] The embodiment of FIG. 17 will now be described. [0095] In operation S 20 , an operation stands by in a power off state so as to remove power consumption of a self-contained battery when a control button 50 is not pressed. In operation S 21 , it is determined whether the control button 50 installed on a housing is pressed or not. If an input signal is transmitted to a controller 110 , the controller 110 controls a heater 121 to start heating, and the heater 121 starts heating in operation S 22 . Here, heating may be displayed to the user by generating a buzzing sound to turn on a green lamp 20 . The portable skin treatment device 100 heats the heater 121 until the temperature of the tip 10 stably reaches a predetermined temperature range, for example, 47.2 to 49.4° C. A reference temperature T 0 at the time when an operation starts may be set to 47.2° C. [0096] In operation S 23 , if it is determined whether an internal temperature T of the tip 10 sensed by a temperature sensor reaches T 0 and if T=T 0 as a result of determination, in operation S 24 , heating by the heater 121 stops, and the temperature of the tip 10 is controlled to be maintained at the set temperature range, and simultaneously, heat treatment starts. In order to efficiently inform the user of the time when heating is completed and treatment starts, the buzzing sound may be generated to sequentially turn on/off a green lamp 20 and a blue lamp 30 . Until now, there is no substantial difference between the embodiment of FIG. 16 and the embodiment of FIG. 17 . [0097] However, in operation S 25 , a user's second input is waited without immediately performing light irradiation treatment. If the user's second input is performed through the control button 50 , the controller 110 turns on a light source inside a tip 10 in addition to heat treatment being currently performed and thereby, light irradiation treatment starts. Heat may be transferred to the skin through the tip 10 that contacts the skin, and simultaneously, light emitted from the light source may be irradiated onto the skin. Here, light irradiated onto the skin may be blue light, like in the embodiment of FIG. 16 . If the second input starts, the buzzing sound is generated, and the blue lamp 30 is turned on and thereby, it may be more efficiently informed to the user that blue light is being irradiated onto the skin. [0098] In the embodiment of FIG. 17 , heat treatment is performed prior to light irradiation treatment. However, heat treatment in operation S 24 is performed after operation S 25 and thereby operation S 24 is combined with operation S 26 so that heat treatment and light irradiation treatment are simultaneously performed only after the second input is performed. Here, the blue lamp 30 may be turned on. In a modified embodiment, even when a predetermined amount of time has been elapsed after the buzzing sound indicating that heating is completed is generated and if the input event does not occur, the controller 110 may control the portable skin treatment device 100 to cut off a supply of power and to return to the operation standby state. Here, the predetermined amount of time may be set to 60 sec. [0099] Also, treatment may be terminated within the range of about 120 to 180 sec by automatically measuring time from the time when the heating operation stops and treatment starts. [0100] The embodiment of FIG. 18 will now be described. [0101] In operation S 31 , if a control button 50 is pressed in an operation standby state in operation S 30 , a controller 110 turns on a light source inside a tip 10 , thereby starting light irradiation treatment in operation S 32 and simultaneously heating a heater in operation S 33 . In operation S 34 , if it is determined whether an internal temperature T of the tip 10 sensed by a temperature sensor reaches T 0 and if T=T 0 as a result of determination, in operation S 35 , heating by the heater 121 stops, and the temperature of the tip 10 is controlled to be maintained at the set temperature range, and simultaneously, heat treatment starts. [0102] In order to efficiently inform the user of the time when heating is completed and treatment starts, a buzzing sound may be generated to sequentially turn on/off a green lamp 20 and a blue lamp 30 . The controller 110 controls the portable skin treatment device 100 to stop sequential turn on/off after several seconds and to turn on only the blue lamp 30 . Also, like in the embodiment of FIG. 17 , treatment may be terminated within the range of about 120 to 180 sec by automatically measuring time from the time when the heating operation stops and treatment starts. [0103] In the current embodiment, heating is performed while light irradiation treatment in operation S 32 is performed, and heat treatment in operation S 35 and light irradiation treatment S 32 are simultaneously performed from the time when heating is completed. Thus, the time when light irradiation treatment is performed is longer than the time when heat treatment is performed, so that the time when P. acne is destroyed by an active oxygen is secured by blue light. Furthermore, unlike heat, blue light does not cause a burn and is harmless to the human body and thus, there is no limitation in an irradiation time. [0104] As described above, blue light is used during light irradiation treatment, and a high-brightness blue LED is used as a light source. However, light to be used in light irradiation treatment is not limited to blue light. Blue light is best absorbed in porphylin that is metabolite of inflammatory pimple P-acne virus and causes generation of an active oxygen, and the generated active oxygen destroys P-acne virus, and thereby, treatment effects are improved. However, a red LED may also be used as the light source to emit red light. It is known that red light has anti-inflammatory effects. In this way, blue or red light is irradiated onto the skin while heat is applied to the skin, so that improved treatment effects are shown compared to treatment effects that may be achieved when only heat treatment is performed, in related art. [0105] As described above, skin diseases such as itch such as athlete's foot, itch in a case where a man is bitten by the insect such as mosquito, acne, and the like can be efficiently treated in any place any time. [0106] Furthermore, improved treatment effects compared to those of a related art heat applying method can be achieved by irradiating light in a predetermined wavelength range onto the area of the skin disease as well as heat treatment. [0107] Furthermore, invisible heat treatment and visible light treatment are simultaneously performed so that a user can easily check an operation of a portable skin treatment device and the user can do treatment for himself/herself on site immediately. [0108] Furthermore, since an alkaline battery having the specification of AAA or AA that the user can easily purchase is inserted in or removed from the portable skin treatment device, inconvenience that occurs during the use of a battery can be avoided. [0109] While the present invention has been particularly shown and described with reference to exemplary embodiments thereof, it will be understood by those of ordinary skill in the art that various changes in form and details may be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention as defined by the following claims.

A method of controlling an operation of a portable skin treatment device, the method including: if a control button of the treatment device is pressed, heating a heater to prepare heating of a tip of the treatment device in a predetermined temperature range; and if heating of the tip is completed, turning on a light source disposed inside a housing of the treatment device and performing light irradiation treatment of irradiating light onto the skin through the tip together with heat. By using the method of controlling the operation of the portable skin treatment device by applying heat to the skin area of a disease of sebaceous glands such as acne etc. or itch and by irradiating light onto the skin area, treatment effects can be improved, and the fact that a user is getting treatment can be more realistically recognized.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/765,253 filed Jan. 27, 2004, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/964,487 filed Sep. 28, 2001, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,710,711. The 10/765,253 application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/444,369 filed Jan. 31, 2003. The 09/964,487 application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/236,730 filed Oct. 2, 2000. All of the above-listed applications are incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0002] The present invention relates to methods for responding to chemical, biological and/or nuclear attacks in areas such as cities, states and nations, and more particularly relates to on-going, real-time sensing and response to such attacks. BACKGROUND INFORMATION [0003] In an era where chemical, biological or nuclear attacks at one or more locations either globally or within a country or region are possible, it is desirable to have a detection system capable of locating and identifying the type of attack so that a rapid preemptive response can be initiated. Such attacks can occur both as a result of enemy or terrorist activity and as a result of a chemical, biological or nuclear accident at a domestic facility. In such cases, a prompt response with medical treatment will tend to minimize injury and loss of life. [0004] Sensors exist which will detect various chemical and biological agents as well as nuclear radiation, but these sensors are impractical because several thousands are required for effective use in a global, national, regional, or even local detection system. Sensors have been effectively used to detect hazardous airborne agent attacks on very limited areas, such as buildings or compounds, but a problem still remains as to how an attack occurring in a large area, such as a city, state, country, continent or even the world, can effectively and rapidly be identified. To this point, as illustrated by U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,278,539 to Lauterbach et al., and 5,576,952 to Stutman et al., hazardous material and medical alerts have originated from small, specific locations or from specific, affected individuals. [0005] There is a need to coordinate and integrate preparedness efforts against chemical, biological and nuclear terrorism into a regional or nationwide preemptive sensor-based detection system. Of particular concern are weaponized and/or contagious biological agents. The current state of the biodefense industry is focused on obtaining data of ongoing signs and symptoms throughout the country—so called “syndromic detection.” The thought is that when abnormal patterns emerge (e.g., possibly indicative of a bioattack) mitigation and prevention strategies could ensue much earlier than before and hence the outcome is improved. However, this fundamental model is flawed and represents essentially little change from the response paradigms of the previous centuries. This is still an after-the-fact reactive approach providing too little too late. Upon analyzing the best possible outcomes using this current methodology, the death and illness rates are still horrible and unacceptable. Such outcomes can be thwarted if a preemptive sensor-based detection system is employed. [0006] The present invention has been developed in view of the foregoing. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0007] The present invention provides methods for responding to chemical, biological and/or nuclear attacks in areas such as cities, states and nations. Modeling may be conducted to position sensors that continuously collect real-time detection data, such as contaminant types and concentrations, weather conditions, terrain data, dispersion data or the like. When unsafe contaminant levels are detected, a response system may be immediately activated. The response system may implement a variety of protective measures, including, but not limited to, medical response procedures for emergency rooms and hospitals, warning alarms, instructions for personal protection, sealing of buildings, introduction of positive pressure in buildings, and introduction of clean air in confined spaces. The methods of the present invention are designed to protect the public before significant exposure occurs, utilizing a preventive approach rather than a purely reactive approach. An information technology (IT) infrastructure may provide a means of communication between the modeling, detection and response components. During the response period, actual affects of the contaminant release may be determined, such as symptoms developed by people, animals and plants, treatments given to patients, medication consumption, assessments of environmental damage and remediation thereof, etc. The response to the contaminant release may then be modified based on the determined actual affects of the contaminant release. [0008] An embodiment of the present invention involves the initial and subsequent use of modeling and simulation components. Initially, the modeling and simulation functions are run, stored and analyzed to best determine the most optimal and efficient locations for sensors to be placed. Subsequently, multiple sensors are arrayed in a given geographic area, then real-time modeling and simulation capabilities are integrated with real-time sensor data inputs to formulate real-time dispersion plume(s) so as to enable a response in real-time before a targeted population gets exposed. Response to an identified attack may require a trained public that would assist in active preventive defense, i.e., masks, PPE, antibiotics, antidotes, etc. Additionally, as more new defensive technologies are developed and deployed, such as anti-aerosol bombs and remote ground and/or space-based diagnostic and defensive capabilities, the response may be controlled without the necessity of public involvement, e.g., either by local, state, and/or federal capabilities. [0009] An aspect of the present invention is to provide a method for responding to a contaminant release in an area. The method comprises detecting a contaminant release, predicting future affects of the detected contaminant release, and responding to the contaminant release based on the predicted future affects of the contaminant release. The method may further include the steps of determining the actual affects of the contaminant release, and modifying the response to the contaminant release based on the determined actual affects of the contaminant release. [0010] These and other aspects of the present invention will be more apparent from the following description. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0011] FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram depicting a target area, sub-areas and IT infrastructure in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. [0012] FIG. 2 is a flow diagram illustrating a typical method that may be used in accordance with a detection system of the present invention. [0013] FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram depicting a point source of contamination. [0014] FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram depicting a line source of contamination. [0015] FIG. 5 is a plan view of point sources of contamination along a river system. [0016] FIG. 6 is a plan view of line sources of contamination along a river system. [0017] FIG. 7 is a plan view of point sources of contamination at landfills and hazardous materials locations. [0018] FIG. 8 is a plan view of point and line sources of contamination along road systems. [0019] FIG. 9 is a schematic diagram illustrating point and line sources of contamination positioned at varying elevations. [0020] FIG. 10 is a schematic diagram illustrating the positioning of modeling locations at varying elevations in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. [0021] FIG. 11 is a schematic diagram illustrating the positioning of modeling locations in concentric circles in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. [0022] FIG. 12 is a schematic diagram illustrating the positioning of modeling locations at varying elevations in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. [0023] FIG. 13 is a schematic diagram depicting a comprehensive modeling strategy in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. [0024] FIG. 14 is a schematic diagram depicting the spacing of sensors in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. [0025] FIG. 15 is a schematic diagram illustrating the positioning of fixed and mobile sensors in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. [0026] FIG. 16 is a schematic diagram illustrating the positioning of fixed and mobile sensors in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. [0027] FIG. 17 is a schematic diagram illustrating the positioning of fixed and mobile sensors in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. [0028] FIG. 18 is a schematic diagram illustrating the positioning of fixed and mobile sensors in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0029] In accordance with the present invention, methods are provided for detecting and responding to chemical, biological and/or nuclear attacks in large areas such as cities, states and nations. The methods provide continuous, real-time sensing of such attacks and immediate protective measures that mitigate human health risks, e.g., medical response procedures for emergency rooms and hospitals, warning alarms, instructions for personal protection, dispatch of medicine, sealing of buildings or the like. Additionally, the methods provide for remote ground and space-based diagnostic and “neutralizing” capabilities in the not-too-distant future (i.e., anti-aerosol bombs, remote deactivating/neutralizing laser and other anti-aerosol capabilities, etc.). [0030] First, an area of concern (“target area”) is defined. This area may comprise any large geographic tract of land, such as a city, state, country, nation, continent or even the world. Within this large area, sub-areas may be defined, and these sub-areas may be further divided as needed until the target area is segmented into manageable parts. For example, if the initial target area is a country, the sub-areas may comprise individual states within the country, and each state may be further subdivided into counties or cities. Next, a system is established in each sub-area for modeling, detecting and responding to contaminant releases within, or in the general vicinity of, that sub-area. All sub-area systems within the target area may be connected through an IT infrastructure. The individual system for each sub-area may contain a network of modeling locations, sensor locations for collecting detection data, and points of response, which are connected to a central processing unit. The central processing unit may control the system for that sub-area, and may be connected to a master processing unit, which controls all systems for the entire target area. The electronic network that connects the system components, including the central processing units and the master processing unit, is known as the IT infrastructure. The IT infrastructure may comprise computer and telecommunications features. [0031] FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram illustrating a typical scenario in which the target area 2 comprises the United States and the sub-areas 4 comprise individual cities located throughout the United States. Each sub-area 4 may contain its own individual system for modeling, detecting, and responding to contaminant releases, which is connected to the systems in other sub-areas through an IT infrastructure 6 . [0032] In accordance with a particular embodiment of the present invention, modeling is conducted to selectively position sensors that continuously collect real-time detection data, such as contaminant types and concentrations, weather conditions, terrain data, dispersion data and the like. Contaminants may comprise any hazardous substance or agent, such as a chemical, biological, nuclear or radiological agent, alone or in combination with other hazardous substances or agents. The detection data is compared to background data and modeled data to identify unsafe contaminant levels. When unsafe contaminant levels are detected, a response system is immediately activated. The response system may implement a variety of protective measures, including, but not limited to, medical response procedures for emergency rooms and hospitals, warning alarms, instructions for personal protection, sealing of buildings, introduction of positive pressure in buildings, and introduction of clean air in confined spaces. The response system may be selectively implemented for distinct areas within the area of concern, or for the entire area of concern itself. The response system is designed to protect the public before significant exposure occurs, utilizing a preventive approach rather than a reactive approach. The IT infrastructure provides a means of communication between all system components located throughout the area of concern. [0033] FIG. 2 is a flow diagram illustrating a typical method that may be used in accordance with a particular embodiment of the present invention. The method includes establishing modeling locations within the area of concern, modeling contaminant dispersion patterns, recording background and simulation data at the modeling locations, selectively positioning sensor locations for the optimal collection of detection data, collecting detection data, comparing the detection data to the background and simulation data to detect unsafe contaminant levels, and notifying the response system of unsafe contaminant levels. [0034] A significant component of the present invention is on-going, periodic modeling (i.e., simulation) of expected patterns of contaminant dispersion, also known as dispersion plumes. During an attack, a chemical, biological or nuclear agent may be released in a number of different ways, including release from the air, on the land, or in the sea. The agent may be released from a stationary source, resulting in a “point source” of contamination 10 as shown in FIG. 3 . The point source 10 is affected by environmental factors such as wind speed and direction 12 to produce a zone of contamination 14 . [0035] Alternatively, the agent may be released from a moving source, resulting in a “line source” of contamination 20 as shown in FIG. 4 . The line source 20 is affected by environmental factors such as wind speed and direction 12 to produce a zone of contamination 24 . [0036] The dispersion pattern of the agent will depend on the type of agent released, the concentration of the agent released, the geographic location of the release, weather patterns in the vicinity of the release including wind speed and direction, dispersion physics, and whether the release occurred as a point source or a line source. Thus, the release of a chemical, biological or nuclear agent may be accomplished using a variety of attack scenarios, and multiple dispersion patterns may occur for any given contaminant. [0037] To account for changing weather conditions, the present invention may periodically generate new models over time. Each separate modeling event is referred to as a “run.” To account for changing attack scenarios, the present invention may generate multiple models for each modeling event or run, taking into account variations in contaminant type, contaminant concentration, and source of release (point source or line source), etc. This detailed and continuous modeling increases the probability of accurately detecting an attack before significant exposure occurs through enabling more accurate and efficient positioning of sensors via analysis of stored data. The modeling process also involves establishing normal background conditions for the area of concern. [0038] Modeling locations may be established throughout each sub-area or across the entire target area of concern. Point sources may be located at random locations or at regular intervals, e.g., according to a grid or the like. Line sources may comprise straight lines or curved and irregular lines that follow wind direction, roadways, the flow direction of surface water, rivers, or streams, or the like. The position of the modeling locations may change over time. Existing locations may be adjusted or eliminated and new locations may be added as needed. Using a city as an example, modeling locations could be strategically positioned along mass transit systems, rivers, harbors and roadways, or at known sources of hazardous materials, mass gathering locations, or symbolic cultural entities and events. FIG. 5 illustrates the typical positioning of point sources of contamination 10 along a river system that surrounds a city. FIG. 6 illustrates the typical positioning of line sources of contamination 20 along the same river system. FIG. 7 illustrates point sources 10 positioned at landfill and hazardous materials locations surrounding the city. FIG. 8 illustrates point 10 and line 20 sources along major road systems surrounding the city. [0039] Modeling locations may also be positioned in the air space above the city or in the vicinity of the city at varying elevations. FIG. 9 depicts multiple point 10 and line 20 sources positioned at varying elevations for a single latitude and longitude location in the center of the city. FIG. 10 illustrates a strategy in which modeling locations are positioned at increasing elevations with increasing radial distance from the center of the city. [0040] FIG. 11 illustrates a strategy in which modeling locations are positioned in concentric circles C 1 , C 2 , C 3 and C 4 around the center of the city. For each concentric circle C, modeling locations may be established at multiple elevations as shown in FIG. 12 . [0041] FIG. 13 illustrates a comprehensive modeling strategy that incorporates point and line locations along river systems, major road systems, and HAZMAT locations, and along concentric circles around the center of the city. This strategy is a “traversal of all possibilities” approach of multiple attack scenarios in which contamination is spread by air, land and water routes around the city. While this description primarily refers to modeling locations for a city, similar strategies may be employed for counties, states, countries, or other areas of concern. The present disclosure focuses on a city merely to provide an example of one specific embodiment of the present invention. [0042] At each modeling location, various parameters may be measured or collected as input data for the model. These parameters may include, but are not limited to, weather conditions such as wind speed, wind direction, precipitation, temperature, barometric pressure and humidity, terrain data such as elevation, slope and vegetation, and ambient air data such as pollution levels and background levels of chemicals, radiation and naturally occurring constituents. The modeling process may combine one or more of these parameters with information about the contaminant type (e.g., toxicology information, molecular weight, solubility, density, pressure and state) assuming a given concentration and volume. Background conditions are defined by background data, and each model is defined by simulation data, which the system may generate and record for later use in detecting chemical, biological and nuclear contaminants. The background data describes typical conditions within the area of concern when no contaminant release has occurred. These background conditions may include concentrations of naturally occurring constituents and typical weather patterns (e.g., typical wind speed and temperature). The simulation data describes the pattern of dispersion when a hypothetical contaminant release has occurred, and may comprise modeled contaminant concentrations at varying latitudes, longitudes and elevations. [0043] There are a number of known, state of the art systems that can provide the modeling and simulation component of the present invention. These systems include, but are not limited to, Hazard Predictions and Assessment (HPAC) prepared by Defense Threat Reduction Agency and Science Applications International Corporation of San Diego, Calif., and Consequences Assessment Tool Set (CATS) prepared by Science Applications International Corporation. These systems include software packages that model dispersion patterns and may also quantify the probabilistic ranges of toxicological effects of human exposure to hazardous contaminants, as well as resulting logistical requirements. [0044] Another component of the present invention is the continuous collection of real-time detection data, which may comprise contaminant types and concentrations, weather conditions, terrain data, dispersion data or the like. Continuous detection refers to an on-going series of detection events that provide a real-time snapshot of conditions within the area of concern. The term “detection” collectively refers to all sampling and analysis or sensing (or simulated data) activities that may retrieve or collect detection data. The frequency of detection events may vary, depending on the area of concern, weather conditions and the nature of the suspect contaminants. [0045] Detection data is collected at “sensor locations,” the position of which may be established before or after modeling has occurred and has been analyzed. If modeling has not yet occurred, sensor locations 30 may be positioned randomly, at evenly spaced intervals, e.g., in a grid-like formation as shown in FIG. 14 , or according to a best guess format. If modeling with data analysis has occurred, the analyzed modeled simulation data may be used to determine the most effective placement of sensor locations. [0046] The sensor locations may be stationary or mobile or a combination thereof, and their positions may change over time. Existing sensor locations may be adjusted or eliminated and new locations may be added as needed. Mobile (i.e., robotic, etc.) sensors 32 and stationary sensors 34 may be strategically positioned to account for variations in wind direction, as shown in FIGS. 15-18 . The sensor locations may be positioned at varying latitudes, longitudes and elevations. In one embodiment of the present invention, a sensor location may be placed on an airplane that periodically collects data from both high and low altitudes. In addition, the actual sensing device may be physically located at the sensor location, or detection data may be remotely collected using a laser scan or similar technology. Remote data collection may be accomplished using a stationary sensing device that is located some distance from the sensor location, or using a moving sensing device capable of collecting data from multiple sensor locations. [0047] Sensors may include, but are not limited to, the following types: optically based sensors, infrared sensors, reagentless optical sensors, bio-chip sensors, fiber optic sensors, direct sensors and/or sensing arrays. These sensors may be remotely reprogrammable in the event that enemy technology is developed to bypass the sensors. [0048] In addition, the sensor locations may be established for periodically sampling the air, groundwater, surface water, sediment and/or soil. These samples may be sent for analysis at a laboratory or analyzed on-site for chemical, biological and nuclear contaminants. In addition, detection data may be obtained from sensors that detect weather conditions such as wind flow, wind direction, precipitation, temperature, barometric pressure and humidity, and ambient air data such as pollution levels and background levels of chemicals, radiation and naturally occurring constituents. These parameters may be combined with information about the contaminant type (e.g., toxicology information, molecular weight, solubility, density, pressure and state), concentration and volume. [0049] In accordance with a particular embodiment of the present invention, the detection system may be augmented with a secondary system that collects and analyzes syndromic data for humans, plants and animals (i.e., delayed data). This secondary system may serve as a back-up in the event the primary detection system fails. The secondary system may also serve as a periodic system check to gauge the effectiveness of the primary system. The secondary system may incorporate an analytical methodology known as GLOBDISS (the Global Disease Detection System), which is described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/964,487, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. System checks may also be accomplished using extrapolation or empirical methods. [0050] Another component of the present invention is the detection of a contaminant release through comparison of actual conditions to modeled conditions or background conditions. This is accomplished using expert or artificial intelligence software that immediately signals the response system when the detection data resembles the modeled simulation data or deviates from background data. When this occurs, a contaminant release is likely, and the response system is activated to protect against human exposure. The background and simulation data may be stored and retrieved from previous modeling events, or retrieved in real-time during an on-going modeling event. [0051] When unsafe contaminant levels are detected, a response system may be immediately notified, e.g., using an IT infrastructure. The response system then activates protective measures, including, but not limited to, medical response procedures for emergency rooms and hospitals, warning alarms, instructions for personal protection, law enforcement procedures, closing of roads, airways and other routes of travel, dispatch of medicine, dispatch of medical equipment and/or personnel, sealing of buildings, introduction of positive pressure in buildings, and introduction of clean air in confined spaces. The response system is designed to protect the public before significant exposure occurs, utilizing a preventive approach rather than a reactive approach. In a preferred embodiment, the response system immediately and instantaneously implements protective measures. However, depending on the circumstances, the response system may also implement protective measures on a delayed or periodic basis. [0052] The response system activates its protective measures by sending signals through the IT infrastructure or any other suitable system to established points of response. These points of response may be positioned at hospitals, buildings, residences, public areas, roadways, airports or the like, depending on the type of protective measure being employed. In addition, individuals or vehicles may be equipped with personal response systems that connect with the main response system, providing alerts, updates and instructions. U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,979,565 (Automatic Response Building Defense System and Method) and Ser. No. 6,293,861 (Emergency Ventilation System for Biological/Chemical Contamination), which are incorporated herein by reference, disclose response measures involving positive-pressure building protection. [0053] An IT infrastructure may utilize computer and telecommunications technology to connect the modeling, detection and response systems. The IT infrastructure may also connect individual sub-area systems with a central processing unit for the sub-area and the master processing unit for the target area. [0054] In accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, complex dynamical systems (CDS) modeling may be used in the response to the detected contaminant release. CDS takes a given problem (or model, or working paradigm, or application), defines and integrates as many of the component parameters as is feasible, defines and integrates the properties of those parameters, and then determines what consequential outcomes ensue as a result of the application of varying internal and external stressors to a given system. By incorporating and measuring both the causative stressors and each reactive parameter(s) (a/k/a “agent(s)”), the inductive, deductive and predictive capabilities of a system can be quickly and efficiently determined. Furthermore, as this system is fine-tuned, “reach-back” capability can be produced wherein initial/early inductive phenomena (also “agent(s)” in the system) can be collectively interpreted (deduced) so as to be useful to predict details of the changes on ensuing global outcome(s) in/of the overall system. This is the emergence component and capability. [0055] For example, if the WMD sensor array system(s) detected a line source was released on the west side of a given city at a specific day and time, the terrain and weather data may be incorporated into the dispersion models predicting a specific plume and concentration pattern, and this is then superimposed with/on demographics data finding a predictive outcome of roughly who would get sick, how bad and where (assuming a nighttime release, etc.), after an analysis determined who and what percentage of the population heeded the WMD alarm(s) and donned PPE (personal protective equipment) and/or sought predetermined protective shelter as determined in advance and with/by the system. This data would elicit predetermined response plans based on stored data for activation city- and area-wide. However, a wind shift occurred during the release and the sensors detected this, then this whole process would be readjusted—and in real or near-real time. Say the wind shifted to the south (from the due north), 1 hour into the line source release. This would then put at greater risk the population in the central southern sector, as determined by modeling. Then, other locations of predetermined shelters and of predetermined treatment locations and facilities (not necessarily hospitals) would be determined and the logistical support, equipment, personnel, medicines, vaccines, etc. would be re-directed to these newly determined locales. Further into this process, the number of patients, medications being used up, etc. can all be monitored quantitatively and compared against the previously predicted modeling projections. If there is a discrepancy (i.e., say more patients and meds, etc. are being used up in the northeast sector) a new/further adjustment can and will be made to the earlier modeling and simulation components (i.e., weather, terrain, dispersion, etc.) which will in turn re-predict and further refine the more refined response model(s). This ongoing “reach back” capability continuously and in near-real time refines the overall (“global”) process aiming for efficient predictive capability from any and all starting points (“agent(s)”) in/of the systems to anywhere else (to any other agent(s)) in/of the system including all the other parameters—over—the-counter pharmacy meds, telecommunication, etc. An organic, dynamic system and predictive capability is provided, and instructive forward and backward near-real time adjustment capabilities from each and every component agent. [0056] Whereas particular embodiments of this invention have been described above for purposes of illustration, it will be evident to those skilled in the art that numerous variations of the details of the present invention may be made without departing from the invention.

A system is provided for responding to chemical, biological and/or nuclear attacks in large areas such as cities, states and nations. The system protects the public before significant exposure occurs, utilizing a preventive approach rather than a purely reactive approach. Modeling may be conducted to selectively position sensors for the on-going collection of real-time detection data, such as contaminant types and concentrations, weather conditions, terrain data, dispersion data and the like. The detection data is compared to background data and modeled data to detect unsafe contaminant levels and immediately activate a response system. The integrated modeling and simulation component may function to interface with real-time data from the sensors providing integrated real-time plume depiction, prediction, and verification, as well as real-time response and mitigation. This is testable and serves as an advanced redundant scientific control. The response system may implement a variety of measures, including, but not limited to, medical response procedures for emergency rooms and hospitals, warning alarms, instructions for personal protection, sealing of buildings, introduction of positive pressure in buildings, and introduction of clean air in confined spaces. During the response period, actual affects of the contaminant release may be determined, such as symptoms developed by people, animals and plants, treatments given to patients, medication consumption, assessments of environmental damage and remediation thereof, etc. The response to the contaminant release may then be modified based on the determined actual affects of the contaminant release.

TECHNICAL FIELD [0001] The present invention relates to a powdered medicine dispensing apparatus and a powdered medicine dispensation packaging apparatus using the same. More particularly, it relates to a powdered medicine dispensing apparatus and a powdered medicine dispensation packaging apparatus using the same that may significantly reduce the production cost of equipment to enable a more precise uniform dispensing of the powdered medicine while relying on half-manual work by a worker, allow many distribution operations to be performed easily and speedily, and dispense responsively according to an amount that is dispensed and an amount that is packaged, and a powdered medicine dispensation packaging apparatus using the same. BACKGROUND OF ART [0002] In general, medicines are classified into tablet form, capsule form, powdered medicine, liquid medicine and the like. [0003] These medicines are prescribed by a physician to be taken routinely 1 to 3 times a day depending on the needs of each patient. [0004] However, of the medicines mentioned above, most tablets, capsules, and liquid medicine may be dispensed easily according to one uniform dose, but due to the characteristic of powdered medicine, a precise machine must be used or a worker must use a specific sized spoon and the like for every single one. [0005] However, powdered medicine dispensing apparatuses of the prior arts are not precise, and require much time for many distribution operations or the costs are very high, and have a disadvantage that a different machine must be used according to formulation (Patent document 1: Korean granted patent No. 10-0699689, Patent document 2: Korean patent application publication No. 10-2008-0017333). [0006] Furthermore, in a case of dispensation by hand, the work must be done in a constantly tense state along with skills by hand, causing not only severe stress for workers, but also there is a problem of the dispensation not being done precisely. DISCLOSURE OF THE INVENTION Technical Problem [0007] The present invention has been designed to improve the aforesaid characteristics of the prior arts, and its object is to provide a powdered medicine dispensing apparatus and a powdered medicine dispensation packaging apparatus using the same that may significantly reduce the production cost of equipment to enable a more precise uniform dispensing of the powdered medicine while relying on half-manual work by a worker, allow many distribution operations to be performed easily and speedily, and dispense responsively according to an amount that is dispensed and an amount that is packaged, and a powdered medicine dispensation packaging apparatus using the same. Technical Solution [0008] In order to accomplish the above present object, the present invention is configured as follows. [0009] A powdered medicine dispensation packaging apparatus according to the present invention comprises, a partition means having a frame with a space of predetermined size, that divides the frame horizontally and vertically to form unit cells for powdered medicine to be uniformly distributed; a driving means connected to a vertically partitioning member whereby a vertical spacing of a member is adjusted; a dispensing means arranged under the partition means dispensing divided powdered medicine to split inject into a medicine wrapping paper; and a holding unit supporting the medicine wrapping paper. [0010] On the other hand, a powdered medicine dispensation packaging apparatus according to the present invention is configured to comprise a partition means having a frame with a space of predetermined size, that divides the frame horizontally and vertically to form unit cells for powdered medicine to be uniformly distributed; a driving means connected to a vertically partitioning member whereby a vertical spacing of a member is adjusted; a dispensing means arranged under the partition means that dispenses divided powdered medicine; a plurality of individual slots whereby the divided powdered medicine dispensed from a powdered medicine dispensing apparatus is moved individually; an upper guide plate supporting the individual slots horizontally; a first horizontal driving unit that moves the individual slots horizontally as it moves horizontally along the upper guide plate; a first vertical driving unit provided at one side of the first horizontal driving unit, that moves the individual slots vertically; a second horizontal driving unit located at a lower part of the first horizontal driving unit, that moves the individual slots which were transferred by the first vertical driving unit, horizontally; an auxiliary slot unit provided under the second horizontal driving unit, which simultaneously opens an upper part of a medicine wrapping paper moving horizontally and injects powdered medicine stored in the individual slots into medicine wrapping paper; a lower guide plate arranged between the second horizontal driving unit and auxiliary slot unit to guide movement of individual slots; and a second vertical driving unit that moves individual slots which moved the lower guide plate, towards the upper guide plate of an upper part. [0011] And the partition means is configured to have a frame, a plurality of horizontal partition members that divide the frame horizontally, a plurality of vertical partition members that are perpendicular to the horizontal partition members and divide the frame vertically, and a sliding plate arranged at a lower part of the frame, which folds as unit cells partitioned by the horizontal partition members and vertical partition members open and close downwardly and slides. [0012] Further, a guide groove is formed at a lower part of the partition means whereby the dispensing means is slidably attached and detached. [0013] And the dispensing means allow a dispensing slot corresponding with horizontal unit cells to be arranged and each vertical unit cell to be slidably attached and detached into a respective divided segment. [0014] Further, the vertical partition member is configured to have a vertical plate with slots formed to be spaced in correspondence with the horizontal partition member, a perpendicular plate extending perpendicularly at both ends of the vertical plate, an extending plate extending horizontally in a direction opposing each other at the perpendicular plate, and a flat plate extending orthogonally to the extending plate to be connected with the driving means. [0015] And an upper end of the vertical plate is formed to have an inclined surface in a thickness direction. [0016] Further, the driving means is configured to have a driving rotary shaft arranged horizontally in a vertical direction to the partition means, that is operated by a handle, a driven rotary shaft arranged at a position facing the driving rotary shaft, a plurality of rotating bodies each coupled to the driving rotary shaft and driven rotary shaft, and a moving member connecting to each of the plurality rotating bodies. [0017] And the rotary body is arranged in a number corresponding to the vertical partition member of the partition means. [0018] Further, the rotating bodies increase in diameter towards an outer direction from the shaft. [0019] And the diameters of the rotating bodies are in proportion to a distance moved horizontally by the vertical partition member connected to each rotating body. [0020] Further, the powdered medicine dispensing apparatus is configured to further include a horizontal separating plate and a vertical separating plate whereby, out of the unit cells partitioned by the vertical partition members and horizontal partition members, only the unit cells where powdered medicine is injected and partitioned are distinguished and partitioned. [0021] And the vertical separating plate differs in length according to the position of the horizontal separating plate which is positioned at the horizontal partition means. [0022] Further, the dispensing means is configured to have a plurality of slots partitioned by the partition means, that enables divided powdered medicine to be dispensed towards the individual slot arranged below, a fixing unit fixing the slot on a belt, a roller and shaft for step-moving the slot vertically, a cover arranged at a lower part of the slot to open and close the lower part as it rotates by a hinge, and a hanging bar extended towards a side of the cover, which is pressed by a pressing bar according to a movement of the slot to open the cover. [0023] And the individual slot is configured to have a slot storing powdered medicine divided and dropped from the dispensing means, a cover blocking a lower part of the slot, an opening means operating the cover to open and close the lower part of the slot, and a side fixing unit enabling the slot to be guided horizontally by the first horizontal driving unit. [0024] Further, the opening means is configured to have a hinge rotatably connecting the cover to the slot, a link with a side coupled to the hinge side and a link shaft formed on the other side, a perpendicular bar rotatably connected to the link shaft, a pressing unit installed at an end part of the perpendicular shaft, and a guiding unit guiding the perpendicular bar in a state of being supported on the slot. [0025] And the first and second horizontal driving units are configured to have a pressing unit pressing the individual slot horizontally, a belt with the pressing unit fixed, and a roller operating the belt. [0026] Further, the first and second vertical driving units are configured to have a roller coupled to a shaft, a belt rotating by the roller, and a guiding unit coupled to the outer side of the belt, which seats the horizontally transferred individual slot. [0027] And the auxiliary slot unit is configured to have a plurality of perpendicular shafts, an upper fixing bar installed at an upper part of the perpendicular shaft, a first spring positioned between a lower fixing bar installed at a position spaced with a predetermined spacing at the upper fixing bar, a guide bar installed at a perpendicular bar so that the guide bar is supported at an upper end of the first spring, and a pair of powdered medicine guiders rotatably installed on the guide bar, expand operating by the individual slot to guide powdered medicine to medicine wrapping paper. [0028] Further, a second spring which is elastically supported in a direction opposite to each other on the powdered medicine guiders in connection with the guide bar is further provided. [0029] And the second spring is formed to be less elastic than the first spring. [0030] Further, a split sealing machine which is arranged in a proceeding direction of medicine wrapping paper supplied in a roll form to enable the medicine wrapping paper to be divided vertically is further provided in the powdered medicine dispensing apparatus. [0031] And a powdered medicine dispensing apparatus, according to the present invention comprises a multilayered partition means having a frame with a space of predetermined size, that divides the frame horizontally and vertically to form unit cells for powdered medicine to be uniformly distributed; a first driving means connected to a vertically partitioning member of the multilayered partition means whereby a vertical spacing of a member is adjusted; and a second driving means which moves each of the multilayered partition means individually. [0032] And the first driving means is arranged at a lower part of the frame and individually connected to a vertically partition member, whereby each is operated individually. [0033] Further, a diameter of a rotating body is formed so that each of the first driving means operates proportionally to a distance moved by a vertical partition member. [0034] And the multilayered partition means is configured to have a frame stacked with a plurality thereof and arranged to be slidable with each other, a plurality of horizontal partition members that divide the frame horizontally, a plurality of vertical partition members that divide in a vertical direction perpendicular to the horizontal partition members, and a bottom plate for controlling a bottom surface of a frame arranged at the lowermost part of the frame. [0035] Further, the vertical partition member is configured to have a lower guide groove formed to have an inclined upper part and stepped lower part, and a first to third member formed to have a plurality of guide grooves in which the horizontal partition member is inserted into and slides along a length direction. [0036] And an upper protrusion is formed closely contacting the lower guide groove at an inclined surface of the second and third members so that the vertical partition member may be guided as it moves in a length direction by closely contacting the lower guide groove. [0037] On the other hand, as a powdered medicine dispensation packaging apparatus for packaging using a powdered medicine dispensing apparatus, it comprises a dispensing means arranged under a partition means to load powdered medicine partitioned into unit cells as it falls, a third driving means for lifting the dispensing means, an auxiliary slot unit provided under the dispensing means to open the upper part of the medicine wrapping paper by a falling force of the vertically moved distribution means and simultaneously inject powdered medicine stored in the dispensing means into medicine wrapping paper, and a plurality of split sealing machines for individually separating and packaging medicine wrapping paper in a state in which powdered medicine is injected. Advantageous Effects [0038] According to the present invention, there are effects of significantly reducing the production cost of equipment to enable a more precise uniform dispensing of the powdered medicine while relying on half-manual work by a worker, allowing many distribution operations to be performed easily and speedily, and dispensing responsively according to an amount that is dispensed and an amount that is packaged. [0039] Further, according to the present invention, through a semi-automatic method, split injected powdered medicine is easily packaged. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0040] FIG. 1 is a plan view showing a powdered medicine dispensation packaging apparatus according to a first embodiment of the present invention. [0041] FIG. 2 is a side view showing a powdered medicine dispensation packaging apparatus according to a first embodiment of the present invention. [0042] FIG. 3 is a perspective view showing the vertical partition member shown in FIG. 1 . [0043] FIG. 4 is a perspective view showing a dispensing means according to the present invention. [0044] FIG. 5 is a perspective view showing a horizontal separating means according to the present invention. [0045] FIG. 6 is a perspective view showing a vertical separating means according to the present invention. [0046] FIGS. 7 to 10 are operational state views showing the operation of a powdered medicine dispensation packaging apparatus according to a first embodiment of the present invention. [0047] FIG. 11 is a front view showing a powdered medicine dispensation packaging apparatus according to a second embodiment of the present invention. [0048] FIG. 12 is a plan view showing a powdered medicine dispensation packaging apparatus according to a second embodiment of the present invention. [0049] FIG. 13 is a schematic diagram showing a dispensing means shown in FIG. 11 . [0050] FIG. 14 is a schematic diagram showing an individual slot shown in FIG. 12 . [0051] FIG. 15 is a perspective view showing a powdered medicine guider of an auxiliary slot unit shown in FIG. 12 . [0052] FIGS. 16 to 20 are operational state views showing the operation of a powdered medicine dispensation packaging apparatus according to a second embodiment. [0053] FIG. 21 is a view showing a partition means of a powdered medicine dispensation packaging apparatus according to a third embodiment. [0054] FIG. 22 is a view showing a vertical partition member shown in FIG. 21 . [0055] FIG. 23 is a view showing a first driving means shown in FIG. 21 . [0056] FIG. 24 is a schematic view showing a dispensing means and auxiliary slot unit according to a third embodiment of the present invention. [0057] FIG. 25 is a view showing a dispensing means shown in FIG. 24 . [0058] FIG. 26 is a view showing an auxiliary slot unit shown in FIG. 24 . [0059] FIGS. 27 to 30 are operational state views of a powdered medicine dispensation packaging apparatus according to a third embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE EMBODIMENTS [0060] Hereinafter, preferred embodiments of the present invention will be described in more detail with reference to the accompanying drawings. The embodiments of the present invention can be modified in various forms, and the scope of the present invention should not be construed as limited to the embodiments set forth below. The present embodiments are provided to describe the present invention in more detail to those skilled in the art to which the present invention pertains. Accordingly, the shape of each element shown in the figures may be exaggerated in order to emphasize a more clear description. [0061] The terms first, second, etc. may be used to describe various components, but the components should not be limited by the terms. The terms are used only to distinguish one component from another. [0062] The terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limited the present invention. Singular forms include plural referents unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. In this application, the terms “comprises” or “having”, etc. are for specifying the presence of a feature, number, step, operation, component, or a combination thereof presented in the specification, and it should be understood that it does not pre-exclude the possibility of the presence or addition of one or more of other features, numbers, steps, operations, components or a combination thereof. [0063] As shown in FIGS. 1 and 2 , a powdered medicine dispensation packaging apparatus 100 according to a first embodiment of the present invention comprises a partition means 110 , driving means 120 , dispensing means 130 , and a holding unit 140 . [0064] The partition means 110 is provided with a frame 111 having a predetermined size and is configured to divide the frame 111 horizontally and vertically to form unit cells 114 for powdered medicine to be uniformly distributed in the unit cells 114 . [0065] For this, a frame 111 in a rectangular form having a predetermined height and an open upper and lower part, a horizontal partition member 112 arranged evenly spaced in a horizontal direction in the frame 111 to divide the space inside the frame horizontally, a vertical partition member 113 arranged in a vertical direction of the frame 114 in plurality to divide vertically, and a sliding plate 115 arranged at a lower part of the frame 114 to open and close the lower part is comprised. [0066] Further, a guide groove 116 guiding the sliding plate 115 and a guide groove 117 guiding the dispensing means 130 are formed respectively at the lower part of the frame 111 . [0067] In addition, the vertical partition member 113 is connected to a driving means 120 thereby partitioning unit cells 114 , and horizontal spacing thereof is adjusted to allow powdered medicine that is injected in a unit cell to be uniformly distributed inside the unit cell. [0068] Further, the vertical partition member 113 , as shown in FIG. 3 a , is configured to have a vertical plate 113 a , having slots 113 b formed to be spaced in correspondence with the horizontal partition member and an inclined surface 113 c at an upper surface inclined in a thickness direction, a perpendicular plate 113 e extending perpendicularly at both ends of the vertical plate 113 a , having an elastic member 113 d formed which pressurizes the vertical plate 113 a towards a sliding plate 116 , an extending plate 113 f extending horizontally in a direction opposite to each other from the upper end of the perpendicular plate 113 e , and a flat plate 113 g extending orthogonally from an end part of the extending plate 113 f to be connected with a moving member. [0069] Here, the inclined surface 113 c is formed to prevent the vertical plate from being weakened by a slot 113 b extending to an upper end while preventing powdered medicine that is injected from being piled at the upper end of the vertical partition member. [0070] Further, the sliding plate 115 is provided with a hinge 115 a so that the sliding plate may be folded at regular intervals as shown in FIG. 3 b. [0071] The driving means 120 is a component that is connected to the vertical partition member which divides the horizontal direction, to adjust the horizontal spacing of the member. [0072] As a specific configuration of the driving means 120 , it is configured to have a driving rotary shaft 122 arranged on one side of the frame 111 , that is operated by a handle 121 , a driven rotary shaft 123 arranged on the other side of the frame 111 , that is linkage driven by a rotation force of the driving rotary shaft, a plurality of rotating bodies 124 having different diameters in a shaft direction, coupled to the driving rotary shaft 122 and driven rotary shaft 123 , respectively, and a moving member 125 connecting the rotating bodies 124 to make them mutually linkage driven. [0073] At the exterior circumference of the moving member 125 , the vertical partition member 113 is arranged in a number corresponding to the moving member, allowing each of the connected vertical partition members to operate with a different moving distance by the rotation of the rotating body. [0074] Further, each of the rotating bodies 124 have diameters proportional to the moving distance of each of the vertical partition members 113 inside the frame, so as much as the diameter gradually expands from the rotating body of N 1 to the rotating body of N 5 , the moving distance of the vertical partition members connected to N 1 to N 5 respectively by a moving means each change from L 1 to L 5 , so that the horizontal expansion spacing of the unit cells are made uniform. [0075] For example, each rotating body 124 gradually increases in diameter from N 1 to N 5 , and the moving distance of the vertical partition member 113 which is sequentially connected to N 1 to N 5 of the rotating body from the left side to the right side in reference to the drawings, are moved in proportion to the diameter of the rotating bodies. The moving distance moves as much as L 1 by the rotation of N 1 , as much as L 2 by the rotation of N 2 , and in this way of moving in distance, the moving distance increases from L 1 to L 5 , so the diameter of the rotating bodies are to be correspondent thereto. [0076] Accordingly, the unit cells 114 partitioned by the vertical partition member and the horizontal partition member are extended according to the movement interval, and a uniform space may be ensured. [0077] The driving means 120 is described in the form of a belt in the drawing, but it may be operated by a gear method, and if it is configured to move the vertical partition member horizontally evenly spaced, then any of the sort may be included. [0078] The dispensing unit 130 , as shown in FIG. 4 is configured to have a dispensing slot 132 arranged in plurality, which has a predetermined size and a funnel shape that decreases in size from the upper part towards the lower part, and a sliding plate 131 to be slid and inserted along a guide groove 117 arranged at both ends of the dispensing slot 132 and formed on the frame 111 . [0079] The dispensing means 130 is arranged in a number corresponding to the spacing of the unit cells that divide the frame horizontally, and the unit cells that are divided vertically, are assembled in a block shape as to be adjusted according to the amount of powdered medicine to be dispensed and packaged. [0080] That is, the dispensing means 130 is detachable in a cartridge manner according to the quantity of the unit cells in which powdered medicine is vertically divided. [0081] The holding unit 140 is arranged at a lower part of the partition means 110 and is not shown in the drawings as a means to support a medicine bag located under the dispensing means 130 , but may be guided from the partition means and coupled as a slidingly detachable structure. [0082] On the other hand, as shown in FIG. 5 and FIG. 6 , a horizontal separating plate 150 and a vertical separating plate 160 are further provided. [0083] The horizontal separating plate 150 is configured to have a horizontal plate 151 having a length corresponding with a horizontal spacing of the frame 111 , a handle 152 arranged at both ends of the horizontal plate 151 , and a gap blocker 154 arranged in a length direction at a lower part of the horizontal plate 151 , and the gap blocker 154 may be in form of a sol or use urethane, silicone, etc. that has excellent elasticity. [0084] That is, the horizontal separating plate 150 is arranged having a corresponding length with the horizontal partition member at the upper part of the horizontal partition member. [0085] The vertical separating plate 160 is configured to have slots 162 corresponding to the number of horizontal partition members, and a vertical plate 161 having a groove 163 formed in a length direction to be fixed to the vertical partition member in a clip form. [0086] Further, the vertical separating plate 160 includes a plurality thereof that is formed with different vertical length according to the location the horizontal separating plate 150 is partitioned. [0087] For example, the horizontal separating plate 150 and the vertical separating plate 160 are configured to separate the partitioned unit cells 114 according to the number of powdered medicine being divided to separate them from unit cells not being used. [0088] Here, the number of vertical partition members is illustrated as 5, and the number of horizontal partition members is illustrated as 11, but it is noted that the number of vertical partition members and horizontal partition members may be increasingly formed according to the number of packages of powdered medicine, and it is also noted that the rotating bodies of the driving means is correspondingly increased. [0089] Hereinafter, the operation state of the first embodiment of the present invention will be described with reference to the accompanying drawings. [0090] First, a dispensing means 130 which is blocked in the form of a cartridge to match the quantity of medicine to be packaged, is slidingly inserted into the lower part of the partition means and then, as shown in FIG. 2 , a necessary amount of medicine wrapping paper (MB) is arranged on the holding unit 140 to enable the opening of each medicine wrapping paper to be inserted in the dispensing slot of the dispensing means 130 . [0091] Then, as illustrated in FIG. 7 , the unit cell 114 is separated by using the horizontal separating plate 150 and vertical separating plate 160 as needed and powdered medicine (PW) is injected in the separated unit cell 114 . At this time, the horizontal separating plate 150 is located on an upper part of the horizontal partition member 112 , and the vertical separating plate 160 is closely arranged on a side of the vertical partition member arranged at the very right side out of the vertical partition members 113 in reference to the drawing, and an end part of a side of the vertical separating plate is closely arranged to a side of the horizontal separating plate. [0092] Further, medicine that is mixed according to a prescription that is pulverized in a large number and arranged is used as the powdered medicine. [0093] If the amount of powdered medicine to be injected is large, horizontal separating plate is moved towards another horizontal partition member to partition the horizontal separator plate, and a vertical separating plate corresponding thereto is arranged on the vertical partition member side. That is, the vertical separating plate is prepared individually in plurality to have a length corresponding to the spacing of the divided horizontal partition member. [0094] In this state, if the powdered medicine (PW) is injected into the separated unit cells 114 , the injected powdered medicine is piled up to have a higher height than the one partitioned by the horizontal partition member and vertical partition member, so this must be adjusted so that powdered medicine is uniformly distributed to the unit cells. [0095] For this, as shown in FIG. 8 , the handle 121 is operated so that as the driving rotary shaft 122 and the driven rotary shaft 123 are rotated the connected moving means 125 is moved in the rotating direction. [0096] At this time, a vertical partition member 113 is connected to the moving means 125 so the vertical partition member moves as much as the moving distance of the moving means. [0097] Further, each of the vertical partition members is moved in different distances by rotating bodies having different diameters, so the partitioned unit cells are expanded with uniform spacing, and powdered medicine (PW) as shown in FIG. 9 for the expanded unit cells 114 ′ is horizontally aligned with the upper end of the unit cell 114 ′ [0098] According to another method, when the total volume of the powdered medicine is known, the spacing of the vertical partition members at which the powdered medicine becomes aligned horizontally with the upper end of each unit cell may be calculated by a simple calculation, and the vertical partition member is moved at the same interval and then the powdered medicine is injected, and the upper part of the partition member is evened out. At this time, it is possible to install a scale along the vertical direction to accurately identify the spacing between the vertical partition members. [0099] Then, as shown in FIG. 10 , if the moving means 125 is moved by rotating the rotating body to inject a uniformly divided powdered medicine to the medicine wrapping paper, each of the connected vertical partition members 113 are vertically aligned with the unit dispensing slots 132 arranged underneath. [0100] In this state, when the sliding plate 115 disposed at the lower part of the partition means is slid out along the guide groove 116 , the powdered medicine placed in the unit cell is naturally introduced towards the medicine wrapping paper (MB) arranged respectively along the dispensing slot 132 . At this time, the sliding plate 115 is arranged with a hinge 115 a at regular intervals in a sliding direction so that the sliding plate is lowered downward when the sliding plate is slid off, thereby minimizing the space occupied by the sliding plate. [0101] When the powdered medicine is injected into the medicine wrapping paper, uniformly distributed powdered medicine is stored in each medicine wrapping paper when the powdered medicine is separated from the dispensing slot. [0102] At this time, when the holding unit 140 is enabled to slide off from the partition means, it is possible to easily perform a packaging operation by separating a medicine wrapping paper in a state inserted into the dispensing slot at once. [0103] As shown in FIGS. 11 and 12 , the powdered medicine dispensation packaging apparatus 200 according to a second embodiment of the present invention comprises a partition means 110 , driving means 120 , a dispensing means 210 , an individual slot 220 , an upper guide plate 230 , a first horizontal driving unit 240 , a first vertical driving unit 250 , an auxiliary slot unit 260 , a lower guide plate 270 , a second horizontal driving unit 280 and a second vertical driving unit 290 . [0104] The partition means 110 and the driving means 120 use the structure used in the first embodiment, and thus the detailed description thereof will be omitted. [0105] As shown in FIG. 13 , the dispensing unit 210 is provided under a partition means 110 and a driving means 120 , and as a component to sequentially store the powdered medicine divided into unit cells by the partition means and driving means, is arranged to have a width and area corresponding to the lower area of the partition means and driving means so a roller 215 is driven by a shaft 214 connected to a motor (not shown), and a plurality of slots 211 are coupled to a fixing unit 212 on a belt 213 wound on the roller 215 . The slot 211 is preferably arranged in a number corresponding to the horizontal direction of the unit cells partitioned by the partitioning means. [0106] Further, a pressing bar 216 a capable of opening the lower part of each slot 211 under the dispensing means 210 is arranged inclining in the slot direction while being orthogonal to a horizontal bar 216 b , wherein the slot 211 is configured to have a cover 211 a pressurized by the pressing bar 216 a to open or close the lower part of the slot, a hinge 211 b that turns the cover 211 a , and a hanging bar 21 c at the pressing bar, which is caught by the pressing bar according to a movement of the slot thereby opening the cover. [0107] The individual slots 220 are located under the dispensing means 210 , and a quantity corresponding to the number of slots of the dispensing means is arranged to be pressed and moved individually by the first horizontal driving unit and is separately moved towards the first vertical driving unit. [0108] Further, the separate slot has an open upper part and a lower part that is opened and closed by the cover 222 , and as shown in FIG. 14 , is configured to have a slot 221 having a gradually narrowing width gradually from the upper part to the lower part, an opening means 223 connected to the cover 222 and performing an operation for opening and closing the cover 222 from the slot, and a side fixing unit 224 arranged in a position opposite to the slot 221 side. [0109] And the opening means 223 is configured to have a hinge 223 a rotatably connecting the cover 222 and the slot 221 , a link 223 b with a side fixed to the hinge 223 a , provided with a link shaft 223 c on its end in a state where it is extended to a certain length, a perpendicular bar 223 d rotatably connected to the link shaft 223 c and extended to a certain length, a pressing unit 223 e extending orthogonally at an end part of the perpendicular bar 223 d , which is pressurized by the auxiliary slot unit described below, and a guiding unit 223 f having a guiding groove 223 g to guide the perpendicular bar 223 d when moving vertically. The guiding unit 223 f is connected to a side of the slot 221 . [0110] The upper guide plate 230 is arranged on the lower part of the individual slots 220 to guide the individual slots 220 and has a cutting hole 231 , 232 cut on both ends to a size big enough to allow the individual slots 220 to pass through. [0111] The first horizontal driving unit 240 is configured to horizontally move the individual slots 230 , wherein a roller 242 installed to a shaft 244 with a spacing corresponding to the moving distance of the individual slots is arranged, and a belt 243 is wound on the roller 242 and operated, and a pressing unit 241 is provided on the belt 243 that pressurizes and pushes the individual slot horizontally. [0112] That is, the first horizontal driving unit 240 is configured to horizontally move the pressing unit 241 , and move the individual slots in a state where they are seated on the upper guide plate from the side of the second vertical driving unit to the side of the first vertical driving unit, wherein the individual slots are pushed stepwise so the individual slots may be discharged one by one towards the cutting hole 231 of the upper guide plate, by the first vertical driving unit. [0113] The first vertical driving unit 250 is configured to have a roller 252 connected to a shaft 251 which is spaced apart evenly, a rotating belt 253 wound on the roller 252 , and a guiding unit 254 which is fixed to the belt 253 , and a coupling groove 255 in which a side fixing unit of the individual slot is inserted and seated is formed on the guide plate 254 . [0114] That is, the first vertical driving unit is configured to grab the individual slots which move by the first horizontal driving unit to move to the auxiliary slot unit underneath. [0115] The auxiliary slot 260 is arranged at a lower side of the first vertical driving unit 250 as shown in FIG. 15 , to guide the powdered medicine stored in the individual slots 220 moved by the first vertical driving unit 250 to a medicine wrapping paper, wherein it is configured to have a pair of perpendicular shafts 261 which are arranged at both sides of the medicine wrapping paper (MB) moving the lower part in the horizontal direction, an upper fixing bar 262 fixed to the upper end of the perpendicular shaft 261 , and a lower fixing bar 263 arranged at a position spaced apart with a certain spacing from the upper fixing bar 262 , a first spring 264 arranged between the upper fixing bar and the lower fixing bar, a guide bar 265 inserted into a perpendicular shaft to be supported by the first spring 264 , and a powdered medicine guider 266 rotatably coupled to the guide bar 265 . [0116] Here, the powdered medicine guider 266 is arranged to have a curved shape as a pair, and a second spring 267 is further included between the powdered medicine guider and guide bar so that the pair of powdered medicine guiders 266 are pressed in a direction opposite to each other. [0117] It is preferable that the second spring 267 has a relatively strong elasticity relative to the first spring 264 . This is to allow the powdered medicine guider to be opened by pressurizing the individual slot after the first spring is first compressed and constantly compressed by the pressing force when the powdered medicine guider is pressurized by the individual slots entering the upper part. [0118] The lower guide plate 270 is a means to guide the individual slots when moving horizontally to move back to the upper guide plate after the individual slots drop the powdered medicine into the medicine wrapping paper, wherein a cutting hole 271 cut so that the individual slot may move towards the auxiliary slot unit with a length corresponding to the upper guide plate is formed on one side. [0119] The second horizontal driving unit 280 and the second vertical driving unit 290 are arranged in a position corresponding to the first horizontal driving unit 240 and the first vertical driving unit 250 , respectively, and the description thereof is omitted. [0120] According to the second embodiment of the present invention, a split sealing machine 300 which is neighboring the auxiliary slot unit 260 while being arranged on the side of the proceeding direction of the medicine wrapping paper (MB) to allow the cartridge to be divided vertically, is further arranged to enable the powdered medicine injected in medicine wrapping paper to be packaged in divided areas. [0121] Further, the medicine wrapping paper is guided by the guide roller 310 in the form of a roll, and passes between the auxiliary slots, and stores a powdered medicine that is dropped from the auxiliary slot. [0122] Here, the dispensing means, the first horizontal driving unit, and the second horizontal driving unit, the first vertical driving unit and the second vertical driving unit are respectively operated by a motor (not shown) connected to a shaft, and the motor is not shown, but is controlled by a control unit for controlling each operation. [0123] Hereinafter, the operation state of the second embodiment of the present invention will be described with reference to the accompanying drawings. [0124] First, as in the first embodiment of the present invention, a partition means 110 and a driving means 120 is used for dividing the powdered medicine into unit cells, and then as shown in FIG. 16 , the lower part of divided powdered medicine is opened stepwise to allow the divided powdered medicine to be moved to a slot 211 of a dispensing means 210 . At this time, in the present embodiment, the distribution means is moved vertically from the lower part of the partition means and driving means so that the powdered medicine is separated, but on the other hand, an entire partition means and driving means may move stepwise and the medicine may be dropped by the dispensing unit. [0125] The powdered medicine injected to the dispensing means is made to be present in a slot closed by a cover 211 a , and a hanging bar 211 c arranged in the cover according to the movement of the slot is caught by a pressing bar 216 a and is turned by a hinge 211 b to be slowly opened to allow the powdered medicine to be dropped towards the individual slots 220 arranged underneath to store the powdered medicine inside each individual slot. Then, as shown in FIG. 17 , the first horizontal driving unit 240 is operated to push the individual slots 220 to the first vertical driving unit 250 , thereby enabling the individual slots 220 ′ of the front end of the unit individual slots to be connected to the guiding unit 254 of the first vertical driving unit 250 . [0126] That is, the dispensing means is able to inject the powdered medicine from the dispensing means in a stepwise manner as it is moved towards the powdered medicine of the state stored in the unit cells, and are opened by a pressing bar arranged on the lower part of the individual slots to allow the powdered medicine to be dropped into individual slots. [0127] In this state, the first vertical driving unit 250 is operated to move the individual slots 220 ′ of the grabbed state to a lower side and move to the auxiliary slot unit 260 to allow the individual slots 220 ′ to be located on the powdered medicine guider 266 side of the auxiliary slot unit 260 . [0128] Next, as shown in FIG. 18 , when the individual slot is lowered by operating the first vertical driving unit 250 , the pressing unit 223 e of the opening means 223 coupled to the individual slots 220 ′ pushes the guide bar 265 and the pressurized guide bar compresses the first spring 264 and is lowered so the lower end of the powdered medicine guider 266 is inserted between the medicine wrapping paper (MB), making the gap in between the medicine wrapping paper to be spaced apart from each other. [0129] Thereafter, as shown in FIG. 19 , by the individual slots that descend when the compressive force generated by the continuous compression of the first spring 264 is stronger than the spring force of the second spring, powdered medicine guider 266 is opened apart oppositely from each other and the medicine wrapping paper becomes even more spaced apart while a cover 222 of the lower part of the individual slots is opened by an operation of a link and a perpendicular shaft of an opening means of a pressed state, so that the powdered medicine that used to be stored is dropped and stored in a medicine wrapping paper. [0130] After dropping the powdered medicine from the individual slots, as shown in FIG. 20 , the medicine wrapping paper is horizontally moved, while simultaneously the stored powdered medicine is partitioned by using the split fusion machine 300 . [0131] Further, the individual slots 220 ′ to which the dropping of powdered medicine is finished, operates the first vertical driving unit 250 in an upper direction to pass through the cutting hole 271 of the lower guide plate 270 while simultaneously operating a second horizontal driving unit 280 to move while being guided by the lower guide plate 270 towards the second vertical driving unit 290 , and then by the second vertical driving unit 290 passing through the cutting hole 232 of the upper guide plate 230 of the upper part and may be positioned in the first horizontal driving unit. [0132] Then, the first horizontal driving unit operates a movement that moves the individual slots horizontally again to move the individual slots to be located under the distribution unit. [0133] This operation is repeatedly performed and the powdered medicine, which is divided by the partition means, can be injected into a continuous process. [0134] As described above, the present invention may be able to correspond to an appropriate amount required by the patient as well as allow quick uniform separation of the powdered medicine to be divided, thereby obtaining high efficiency at low cost in a hospital dealing with a large amount of powdered medicine. [0135] As shown in FIGS. 21 and 24 , the powder dispensing packaging apparatus 300 according to a third embodiment of the present invention comprises a partition means 310 , a first driving means 320 , a second driving means 330 , a dispensing means 340 , a third driving means 350 , an auxiliary slot unit 360 , and a split sealing machine 370 . [0136] The partition means 310 comprises a frame 311 which is formed in a predetermined space by four closed surfaces and is stacked in plurality layers, as shown in FIGS. 21 to 23 , a horizontal partition member 312 which divides the horizontal direction inside the frame 311 into even intervals, a plurality of vertical partition members 313 arranged in a direction perpendicular to the horizontal partition member 312 , and a bottom plate 311 a which controls the bottom surface of the frame arranged at the lowermost side of the frame. [0137] The horizontal partition member 312 and the vertical partition member 313 are arranged to form a unit cell 314 partitioned in a frame so that a predetermined amount of powdered medicine is stored in the unit cells 314 . [0138] The horizontal partition members 312 are provided individually on each of a plurality of frames 3111 , 3112 , 3113 stacked in plurality layers, to be able to move together with each frame as it is operated individually, and as shown in FIG. 23 , a guide groove 3113 a is formed on a lower surface of a frame 3113 arranged on the lowermost layer out of each frame stacked in plurality layers so that each unit cell is expanded so when vertically moving, a holding protrusion 323 may pass in a state where powdered medicine is uniformly distributed. [0139] The vertical partition member 313 is configured to have a first to third members 3131 , 3132 , 3133 , and the first member 3131 comprises a guide groove 3131 a formed to be evenly spaced along a length direction in the form of a plate having a certain length, an inclined surface 3131 b formed on the upper surface thereof, and a lower guide groove 3131 c formed on the lower surface thereof, and the second member 3132 comprises a guide groove 3132 a formed to be evenly spaced along a length direction in the form of a plate having a certain length, an inclined surface 3132 b formed on the upper surface thereof, a lower guide groove 3132 c formed on the lower surface thereof, and an upper protrusion 3132 d formed on a side of the inclined surface 3132 b formed in plurality, and the third member comprises a guide groove 3133 a formed to be evenly spaced along a length direction in the form of a plate having a certain length, an inclined surface 3133 b formed on the upper surface thereof, a hanging groove 3133 c formed on the lower surface thereof, and an upper protrusion 3133 d formed on a side of the inclined surface 3133 d in plurality. [0140] Further, the first through third members 3131 , 3132 , 3133 are provided, stacked on each of the multilayered frames 311 , and the first member slides along the upper surface of the second member if the frame 3111 of the uppermost layer moves when the multilayered frame is individually operated by the second driving member, and the second member slides along the upper surface of the third member and the frame 3113 of the lowermost layer moves and is separated from the bottom plate when the frame 3112 of a middle layer moves. [0141] The first driving means 120 , as shown in FIG. 23 is configured to have a rotating body 321 arranged at the lowermost frame 3113 of the frame 311 and connected via a shaft to operate, an endless track 322 which surrounds the rotating body 321 and moves by the rotation of the rotating body, and a hanging protrusion 323 which is arranged on one side of the upper surface of the endless track 322 to be inserted into the lower guide groove 3133 c formed on the third member 3133 of the lowermost layer out of the vertical partition member 313 . [0142] Further, the first driving means 320 moves the third member as an endless track 322 operates between the grooves 311 b formed on the bottom plate 311 a to change the sizes of the unit cells dividing the frame. [0143] Here the first driving means 320 is arranged in a number corresponding to a plurality of vertical partition members 313 forming unit cells as it moves horizontally to individually operate each vertical partition member, and a diameter of the rotating body is formed to allow each of the vertical partition members to operate in proportion to the distance moved. [0144] That is, the first driving means 320 performs an operation for individually moving a plurality of vertical partition members to a predetermined length in a horizontal direction. [0145] For example, when the first driving means 320 are individually connected to the vertical partition members, the first driving means referred to as M 1 to M 6 respectively, and the vertical partition members referred to as L 1 to L 6 , respectively, they are connected in a manner in which M 1 and L 1 are connected, and M 2 and L 2 are connected, and the moving distance of L 2 is moved farther than L 1 , and thus the rotating body may have a corresponding diameter thereto. In such a way, the diameter of the rotating body is differed from each other so as to perform the operation of M 1 to M 6 to correspond to a moving distance of L 1 to L 6 , and apart from this, a measurement means (not shown) capable of measuring the number of rotations of the rotary body is provided whereby the moving distances of the vertical partition members may be adjusted by varying the number of rotations of a motor in a rotating body with a same diameter. [0146] The second driving means 330 is configured to have a rotating body 331 arranged at both sides of the frame horizontally, an endless track 332 which surrounds the rotating body and operates by the rotating body, and a bracket (not shown) for individually connecting the endless track 332 to the respective frames 3111 , 3112 , 3113 . [0147] That is, the second driving means 330 is arranged in a number corresponding to each frame that is stacked and performs an operation of moving the frame in a vertical direction. [0148] Here, the first driving means 320 is described in the form of a belt in the drawing, but it may be operated by a gear method, and if it is configured to move the vertical partition member horizontally evenly spaced, then any of the sort may be included, and it is described to be operated by the handle but it is also possible to be connected to a motor and such to be operated. [0149] The dispensing means 340 is located under the partition means 310 as shown in FIGS. 24 and 25 , and a plurality thereof is arranged to have spacing which corresponds with the spacing of the unit cells partitioned by a the vertical partition members. A storage slot 341 having an open upper part and a lower part which is opened and closed by a cover 346 a , formed to decrease gradually more towards the bottom part, to store powdered medicine that is partitioned from the unit cells, and an opening means 346 which is connected to the cover 346 a and performs an operation for opening and closing the cover 346 a from the storage slot 341 is configured. [0150] The opening means 346 is configured to have a hinge 346 b for rotatably connecting the cover 346 a and the storage slot 341 , a link 346 c which a side thereof is fixed to the hinge 346 b and has a link shaft 346 d in a state extended to a certain length on an end, a perpendicular bar 346 e which is rotatably connected to the link shaft 346 d and has a certain length extended in a vertical direction, a pressing plate 346 g which extends orthogonally at the end of the perpendicular bar 346 e and is pressed by an auxiliary slot unit which will be described below, and a guide unit 346 f having a guide groove 346 h formed to guide the perpendicular bar 346 e when moving in a vertical direction. The guide unit 346 f is connected to a side of the storage slot 341 . [0151] The third driving unit 350 is arranged in a vertical direction and configured to have a plurality of rotating bodies 351 arranged respectively on both lateral sides of the dispensing means 340 , an endless track 352 which surrounds each rotating body 351 and operates to be connected vertically, and a bracket 353 for connecting the endless track 352 and the dispensing means 340 . [0152] The auxiliary slot unit 360 is arranged under the dispensing means 340 to be operated by the dispensing means 340 moving downward, as shown in FIG. 24 , a pair of perpendicular shafts 361 which are arranged at both sides of the medicine wrapping paper (MB) moving the lower part in a horizontal direction, an upper fixing bar 362 fixed on the upper end of the perpendicular bar 361 and a lower fixing bar 363 arranged at a position spaced apart with a certain spacing from the upper fixing bar 362 , a first spring 364 arranged between the upper fixing bar and the lower fixing bar, a guide bar 365 inserted into a perpendicular shaft to be supported by the first spring 364 , and a powdered medicine guider 366 rotatably coupled to the guide bar 365 . [0153] Here, the powdered medicine guider 366 is arranged to have a curved shape as a pair in group in a number corresponding to the dispensing means 340 and storage slot 341 , and a second spring 367 is further included between the powdered medicine guider and guide bar so that the pair of powdered medicine guiders 366 are pressed in a direction opposite to each other. [0154] It is preferable that the second spring 367 has a relatively strong elasticity relative to the first spring 164 . This is to allow the powdered medicine guider to be opened by pressurizing the individual slot after the first spring is first compressed and constantly compressed by the pressing force when the powdered medicine guider is pressurized by the individual slots entering the upper part. [0155] The split sealing machine 370 is arranged between a plurality of powdered medicine guiders 366 arranged evenly spaced in the proceeding direction of the medicine wrapping paper and configured to moves towards the medicine wrapping paper to seal the medicine wrapping paper using heat or high frequency waves when powdered medicine is injected in the medicine wrapping paper, wherein a general sealer for sealing medicine wrapping paper and the like is used. [0156] Hereinafter, the operation state of the third embodiment of the present invention will be described with reference to the accompanying drawings. [0157] According to the present invention, the horizontal sections of the unit cells 314 are described as three in number. [0158] The powdered medicine filled in the unit cells, must change the volume of the unit cells according to a dose since the powdered medicine corresponding to a single dose is accommodated in one unit cell, and the volume of the unit cells must be changed through the movement of the vertical partition member and the capacity of the powdered medicine being filled in each unit cell must be uniform. For this, as shown in FIG. 27 , a predetermined amount of powdered medicine (PW) is injected and filled in a separated space by the unit cells 314 partitioned to be evenly spaced inside a frame 311 by horizontal partition members 312 and vertical partition members 313 . [0159] In the multilayered frame, the lowermost frame and the intermediate frame are in a state completely filled with the powdered medicine, but at the uppermost frame it is in a piled up state and since the volume spacing of the unit cells don't meet the capacity of one dosage, the uniform distributions of the powdered medicine has not been performed on all of the unit cells. [0160] In this state, to uniformly distribute in respect to each unit cell of the powdered medicine, as shown in FIG. 28 , the first driving means 320 is operated to move the vertical partition member 313 in a horizontal direction to a certain extent. [0161] At this time, the first driving means 320 are divided into M 1 to M 6 and are individually connected to each of the vertical partition members distinguished as L 1 to L 6 , so that the moving distance of L 1 to L 6 is different depending on the operation of M 1 to M 6 . [0162] That is, in order to uniformly distribute the powdered medicine in the unit cells, L 1 and L 2 , L 3 and L 4 , L 5 and 16 are in close contact respectively, and M 1 to M 6 are operated respectively, so that L 3 and L 4 is moved twice as much as the distance L 1 and L 2 moved, and L 5 and L 6 are moved four times as much in distance. At this time, the operation of the first driving means is operated by a control signal of a control unit (not shown). [0163] Shown here is, the frame when seen from a plan view, so the frames stacked at a lower part are simultaneously operated by the connection of the first member to third member of the vertical partition member so the operation of the vertical partition member in the entire frame can be described as the operation of the uppermost frame. [0164] When a generally uniform powdered medicine is distributed in the unit cells by the horizontal expansion of the vertical partition members, as shown in FIG. 29 , the spacing of unit cells 314 ′ in a state where it is expanded to match the spacing of the dispensing means arranged underneath is maintained as the spacing of the unit cells filled with the powdered medicine is adjusted. [0165] That is, the spacing between the first ({circle around ( 1 )}) to third ({circle around ( 3 )}) unit cells filled with powdered medicine distributed between L 1 and L 2 , L 2 and L 3 , L 4 and L 5 respectively, is maintained as L 2 to L 6 are generally moved in a horizontal direction, to form a space between L 1 and L 2 , L 3 and L 4 , and L 5 and L 6 respectively, so that through this spacing, the space in between the storage slots of the dispensing means arranged at a lower part is adjusted to match, and also by maintaining the spacing in between the first ({circle around ( 1 )}) to third ({circle around ( 3 )}), when the frame is moved vertically the powdered medicine is prevented from falling over to a frame of the middle layer from a frame of the uppermost layer while powdered medicine may be dropped to the dispensing means. [0166] Also, as shown in FIG. 29 , after expanding the vertical partition member, a frame of the uppermost layer is moved vertically, so that the powdered medicine in the frame is dropped while simultaneously the height of the powdered medicine placed on the middle layer is uniformly weighed using the frame, and the vertical partition member of L 1 to L 6 is returned as shown in FIG. 28 after dropping the powdered medicine of the uppermost layer and the middle layer, so the vertical partition member is expanded to its maximum at a state where L 2 is attached to L 1 , L 4 to L 3 , and L 6 to L 5 , and then moving the uppermost layer vertically to drop, wherein this method is used to sequentially drop the powdered medicine of each layer to have it stacked on the dispensing means. At this time, through a guide groove 3113 a formed at a lower part of the horizontal partition member of the lowermost layer, it is possible to move without being interrupted by a hanging protrusion. [0167] According to another method, when the total volume of the powdered medicine is known, the spacing of the vertical partition members at which the powdered medicine becomes aligned horizontally with the upper end of each unit cell may be calculated by a simple calculation, and the vertical partition member is moved at the same interval and then the powdered medicine is injected, and the upper part of the partition member is evened out. At this time, it is possible to install a scale along the vertical direction to accurately identify the spacing between the vertical partition members. [0168] Next, as shown in FIGS. 30 and 31 , a powdered medicine which is partitioned by a partition means 310 drops to a dispensing means arranged under the partition means, and a second driving means 330 connected to the uppermost frame 3111 is operated first to allow the powdered medicine to drop into the unit cells 314 ′ divided by the horizontal partition member 312 and the vertical partition member. [0169] That is, the second driving means 330 moves the frames 3111 , 3112 , 3113 of the partition means in the vertical direction and the powdered medicine filled in the unit cells is dropped stepwise to the distribution means, wherein the powdered medicine in the frame located at a lower part thereof is weighed to be compared to be equal with the height of the frame, thereby preventing the powdered medicine in the unit cell from being lost in the process of moving the frame to the storage slot side by the guide plate 341 a which is extended with an incline to one side of the storage slot 341 . [0170] On the other hand, in the operation of the present invention only the process of dropping from the first unit cell of the uppermost frame 3111 will be described as follows. This is because the dropping process of powdered medicine is the same to that of other frames. [0171] When the uppermost frame 3111 is moved in a vertical direction by the operation of the second driving means, a powdered medicine (PW) is dropped inside the storage slot 341 by way of a guide plate 341 a of a storage slot 341 located on a lower part. [0172] The dropped powdered medicine is placed in the storage slot 341 , and is lowered by operation of the third driving means 350 as shown in FIG. 32 . [0173] As shown in FIG. 33 , it is located on the upper side of the auxiliary slot unit 360 arranged under the dispensing means 340 , and when the storage slot 341 is lowered, the pressing unit 346 g of the opening means 346 coupled to the storage slot 341 ′ presses the guide bar 365 and the pressurized guide bar compresses and lowers the first spring 364 and the lower end of the powdered medicine guider 366 is inserted between the medicine wrapping paper (MB), making the gap in between the medicine wrapping paper to be spaced apart from each other. [0174] In this state, as shown in FIG. 34 , the powdered medicine guider 366 cancels out the spring force of the second spring due to the storage slot which is lowered when the compressive force generated by the continuous compression of the first spring 364 is stronger than the spring force of the second spring, and the powdered medicine guider 366 is opened apart oppositely from each other and the medicine wrapping paper becomes more spaced apart while a cover 364 a of the lower part of the storage slots 341 ′ is opened by an operation of a link 346 c and a perpendicular shaft of an opening means in a pressed state, so that the powdered medicine (PW) that used to be stored is dropped and stored in a medicine wrapping paper (MB). [0175] A plurality of split sealing machines 370 arranged in evenly spaced manner as shown in FIG. 32 operate oppositely facing the medicine wrapping paper in a direction towards it to seal it to make the medicine wrapping paper separated from each other. [0176] Here, each shaft is connected to a motor (not shown) to operate, and the motor is not shown but is controlled by a control unit for controlling each operation. [0177] This operation is repeatedly performed and the powdered medicine divided by the partition means may be injected in a continuous process. [0178] In this way, it is possible not only to respond to an appropriate amount in compliance with the amount required by a patient, but also to rapidly divide the powdered medicine uniformly, and thereby it is possible to obtain a large effect with less expense in a hospital handling a large amount of powdered medicine. [0179] Although the present invention has been described with reference to the preferred embodiments, it is intended to aid in the understanding of the technical content of the present invention, and the technical scope of the invention is not intended to be limited thereto. [0180] That is, it would be obvious to those skilled in the art that various changes and modifications can be made to the invention without departing from the technical gist of the present invention, and such changes and modifications are within the technical scope of the present invention in view of the interpretation of the claims.

The present invention relates to a powdered medicine dispensing apparatus, and a powdered medicine dispensation packaging apparatus using the same. According to the present invention, the production cost of the apparatus is significantly reduced, and thereby more precise uniform dispensing of the powered medicine can be facilitated while relying on half-manual operation by a worker, many distribution operations can be performed easily and speedily, and dispensing can be made responsive according to the amount that is dispensed and the amount that is packaged.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application is a divisional of application Serial No. 09/065,799, filed Apr. 23, 1998, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,229,323, issued May 8, 2001. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to handling of multi-chip modules (MCMs) to facilitate automated testing and sorting thereof and, more specifically, to a magazine for carrying a plurality of MCMs in cooperative association with an automated module handler adaptable to handle different types and configurations of such modules. 2. State of the Art Production and quality demands of the computer industry, and particularly the personal computer industry, have compelled automation of component testing with ever-higher throughputs. Individual semiconductor dice are at least subjected to a nominal level of testing and burn-in prior to being mounted on carrier substrates, such as printed circuit boards, and complete testing and characterization of dice to qualify what are termed “known good die” or “KGD” are becoming more prevalent, although by no means standard procedures. Over and above the testing of individual dice, however, is the requirement that a multi-chip module, comprising a carrier substrate, such as a circuit board bearing a plurality of dice thereon, be tested and characterized as an operational unit before being installed in a personal computer, either as original equipment or as part of an upgrade. One particularly common type of multi-chip module is a multi-chip memory module, wherein a plurality of memory dice is mounted to one or both sides of a carrier substrate, which is then installed in a card slot in a personal computer chassis to provide or upgrade the memory capacity of the computer by connection of the module to the computer motherboard bearing the processor and logic circuits. The most common types of memory modules are currently Single In-line Memory Modules (SIMMs) and Dual In-line Memory Modules (DIMMs). Both SIMMs and DIMMs employ multiple pin edge connectors running along a single edge of the carrier substrate, the edge connectors providing electrical connections to the motherboard through the chassis of the computer. The edge connectors may include a single set of contacts extending about the edge, as in the case of a SIMM, or discrete contacts on each side of the carrier substrate adjacent the edge to provide more separate contact locations, as in the case of a DIMM. As noted above, it is required that multi-chip modules, including without limitation memory modules, be tested prior to installation to ensure that they will be fully operational. Module handlers have been developed to automatically present modules to a testing device or “tester”, which conducts the test of a module, the results of which test, in comparison to criteria preprogrammed in the tester, dictate the sort category of the module. The sort categories are conventionally either “pass” or “fail”, although sorting into operational subcategories depending on variations in operational module performance is becoming more common. Handlers may include a hopper or tray into which a plurality of modules is preloaded before placement on the handler, which then feeds one module at a time to a test site for testing through the multiple pin edge connector of the carrier substrate and, subsequently, to a receptacle based upon the module's exhibited test characteristics. Handlers, and specifically the module conveyance systems thereof, are ideally reconfigurable to accommodate different thicknesses of modules, the term “thickness” being used herein to denote the dimension of a module perpendicular to the plane of the carrier substrate, termed a “card” or “printed circuit board”. Module thickness depends in part on carrier substrate thickness, in part on the height of the dice (including packaging) carried by the carrier substrate, and in part on whether dice are mounted to one or both sides of the carrier substrate. Many prior art handlers are only reconfigurable to accommodate different module thicknesses through extensive and complex removal and replacement of a substantial number of parts, which takes time and often requires the use of various tools. One relatively simple approach to handler conveyance system reconfiguration is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,667,077, wherein an existing module handler conveyance channel is made reconfigurable to accommodate thicker or thinner modules through the insertion within the channel of one of a plurality of different-thickness, removable, justifying plates, the channel being sized to accommodate the thickest module contemplated for testing by the absence of any justifying plate whatsoever. The handler type to which the modifications are suggested, exemplified by the MC Systems, Inc. Model 828-MCM and Model 838-SIMM/DIMM Module Handlers, includes a vertical magazine or hopper which feeds modules to a belt-driven conveyance system employing the aforementioned variable-width channel to transport the modules in series to a test site and then to receptacles in a plurality of sort categories. Disadvantages of such an apparatus include the need for a large number of justifying plates if modules of a wide variety of thicknesses are to be tested, the practice of physical stacking of modules on top of one another (which may lead to damage), inability to ensure precise module alignment entering the conveyance system, lack of a positive grip on each module as it is conveyed to the test site (which may present alignment and jamming problems), lack of positive engagement and alignment of each module with the test contacts at the test site, and the lack of a positive and certain displacement of each tested module from the test site when it is to be moved toward the sort receptacles. Another approach to module handlers is exhibited by the Exatron, Inc. Model 3000B SIMM/DIMM Handler, which employs gravity feed of singulated modules from a magazine along an inclined track to a test site, after which a tested module either slides directly into a bin of the appropriate sort category or into an output arm over a movable tray, the arm opening to release the module into a slot of the tray when aligned therewith. This handler is very operator time-intensive as it fails to provide a mechanism for receiving a large number of modules for test as it is limited to a single hand-loadable magazine of a set configuration fixed to a carriage on the handler, fails to provide positive retrieval of modules from the magazine and placement at the test site, fails to provide positive alignment of the modules at the test site, fails to provide positive displacement of a tested module from the test site, and does not appear to be quickly or easily adaptable to modules of varying thicknesses. In short, conventional multi-chip module handlers suffer from insufficient automated input capacity, as well as a lack of positive module retrieval and placement at the test site, positive module alignment for test, and positive displacement of a tested module from the test site for sorting. Finally, the adaptability of conventional handlers to various types of modules is limited and cumbersome. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In accordance with one aspect of the invention, a magazine is provided for carrying a plurality of multi-chip modules (MCMs) in cooperative association with an automated MCM handler. The magazine and automated handler may be cooperatively used in conjunction with any of a variety of testers. The magazine includes a body having a row of mutually parallel receptacles formed therein. Each receptacle extends from a first body side to a second opposing body side. The first body side is defined to have a height relative to the plurality of receptacles, and the second body side is defined to have a height which is lesser than the height of the first body side relative to the plurality of receptacles. A plurality of baffle elements longitudinally extend between the first and second body sides and are positioned such that each of the baffle elements is located between two adjacent receptacles. A plurality of notches are formed in the baffles with at least one notch in each baffle element and contiguous with the two receptacles adjacent the baffle elements. The plurality of notches define an aligned row of notches positioned inwardly of the first and second body sides which extends across all of the receptacles. The magazine may include additional features, such as, for example, a second row of aligned notches which extends across the plurality of receptacles; one or more recesses in the underside of the magazine which transversely intersect the plurality of receptacles; structure for engaging a drive for moving the magazine; or elements formed on the magazine for accommodating the stacking of a plurality of like magazines. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 comprises a schematic top elevation of an embodiment of the module handler of the present invention, the perspective being perpendicular to the incline of the front of the handler; FIG. 2 comprises a schematic side elevation of the module handler embodiment of FIG. 1; FIG. 3 comprises a schematic rear elevation of the module handler embodiment of FIG. 1; FIG. 4 comprises a top perspective view of a module magazine for the module handler of the present invention; FIG. 5 comprises a bottom perspective view of the magazine of FIG. 4; FIG. 6 is a top elevation of an exemplary multi-chip module in the form of a DIMM which may be handled by the magazine and module handler of the present invention; FIG. 7 is a perspective view of a shipping tray usable with the handler of the present invention; and FIGS. 8 through 10 comprise detailed perspective views of some of the component assemblies of the handler of the present invention, illustrating the manner in which certain components may be relocated to accommodate modules of differing thicknesses. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Referring now to FIGS. 1 and 2 of the invention, an embodiment 10 of the module handler of the present invention is schematically illustrated. As depicted in FIG. 2, the front face 12 of handler 10 is inclined at about a 35° angle to the horizontal to provide gravity assist to module movement. A tester 14 for testing the modules being processed by handler 10 , which may comprise any one of a number of commercially offered testers, resides within the housing 16 of handler 10 . One preferred tester usable with handler 10 is the Sigma 2 Tester offered by Darkhorse Systems, Inc. of Austin, Tex. The operation of handler 10 as to activation and sequencing of the various movable components and assemblies thereof, as well as initiation of the test sequence of tester 14 , is controlled by a programmed controller 18 , which may comprise any suitable commercially offered controller. One preferred controller is the Model 101-0092 Controller offered by Z World Engineering of Davis, Calif. As noted below, various sensors may also be employed to provide signals to controller 18 for initiation or cessation of activity of a particular component or assembly. Commencing at the top of handler 10 , magazine input station 20 includes a magazine input zone 22 where a plurality of magazines 100 may be stacked. As can best be seen in FIG. 2, the magazine input stack (and also the output stack, as described later herein) is actually vertical or perpendicular with respect to the inclined front face 12 of handler 10 and not in the absolute sense, but will be described herein as being a “vertical” stack for the sake of convenience. Each magazine 100 of the input stack contains a plurality of multi-chip modules 200 such as, by way of example only, DIMMs or SIMMs, which are located in slots 102 in the magazines 100 and which are oriented in a mutually parallel relationship (see FIGS. 4 and 5 ). As seen in FIG. 3, input station 20 also includes an elevator 24 having upwardly projecting rams 26 located between drive belts 30 and 32 (FIG. 2) to lower the magazine stack as required when the former lowermost magazine 100 a has moved horizontally out from under the stack so as to provide another full magazine 100 b in the lowermost position. Input station 20 also includes a plurality (preferably four, spaced near each of the four corners of the input zone 22 ) of selectively extendable and retractable dogs 28 carried by a structure (not shown) extending above the front face 12 of handler 10 and located at an elevation to suspend a second-lowest magazine 100 c in the input stack above the lowermost magazine 100 b so that when elevator 24 has lowered magazine 100 b completely, it may move horizontally from under the suspended magazine 100 c. Magazines 100 are positively driven horizontally away from input station 20 and toward an indexing station 40 by two parallel, continuous, toothed drive belts 30 and 32 , each sliding on underlying rails 34 extending between input station 20 and output station 90 for vertical support, belt 32 engaging cooperating teeth 104 of like pitch at each end of each magazine 100 (see FIGS. 4 and 5 ). It is also contemplated that smooth-surfaced drive belts may be employed, engagement with and movement of the magazines 100 being effected by friction alone, but such alternative is less preferred due to the potential for reduced precision in positioning the magazine 100 . Before proceeding further with a description of handler 10 , it will be helpful to further describe magazine 100 , which itself comprises part of the present invention, with reference to FIGS. 4 and 5. Each magazine 100 includes, as noted previously, a plurality of mutually parallel slots 102 oriented transversely to the length of the magazine 100 and its direction of travel through handler 10 . One side 106 of magazine 100 is of a height substantially the same as the baffles 108 which define slots 102 therebetween, while the other, “open” side 110 is of a substantially lower height, providing only a small lip against which modules 200 rest when magazine 100 is tilted at a 35° angle to the horizontal on the front face 12 of handler 10 (see FIG. 2 ). Teeth 104 are located on the bottom of side 110 at each end of magazine 100 . Baffles 108 are each notched at the same two locations 112 and 114 toward side 106 to provide, in combination, two longitudinally extending slots into which a metal, slat, bar or rod 115 may be inserted to shorten, if necessary, the effective length of each slot 102 to snugly accommodate modules 200 shorter than the total slot length and prevent shifting and possible damage to the modules 200 during handling of the magazine 100 . Upwardly extending post-like elements 116 with protrusions 118 are located at each corner of magazine 100 , and receptacles 120 are formed on the underside of each magazine 100 at locations to receive the protrusions 118 of another magazine 100 placed there underneath. The underside of each magazine 100 also includes two longitudinally-extending, mutually parallel recesses 122 and 124 which extend upwardly from the bottom of the magazine 100 a distance slightly larger than the height of side 110 . Recesses 122 and 124 intersect slots 102 , so that the carrier substrates of modules 200 loaded into slots 102 will extend into and across the recesses 122 and 124 . Finally, the underside of magazine 100 may include a shallow, longitudinally extending recess 126 running along and under side 106 to assist magazine 100 in tracking on drive belt 30 . Any suitable number of slots 102 may be employed in magazine 100 as sized and configured for use with input station 20 and output station 90 , at appropriate spacing to accommodate adjacent modules 200 received therein without interference. As shown in FIG. 4, magazine 100 comprises a thirty-five slot magazine adapted to receive modules with dice on only one side of the carrier substrate, although twenty-five slot magazines of the same length are also preferred for relatively thicker modules such as those having dice on both sides of the carrier substrate. Returning to FIGS. 1-3, as magazine 100 a moves through indexing station 40 , each module 200 is removed by indexing head 42 in cooperation with elevating ramps 44 (see FIGS. 1 and 3) as that module 200 is in vertical alignment with indexing head 42 . Indexing head 42 is movable in the X- and Y- directions as shown in FIG. 2, and indexing fingers 46 and 48 are spaced to closely bracket the leading and trailing edges of a module 200 when indexing head 42 is moved downwardly thereover. As magazine 100 a approaches indexing station 40 , the bottom of each module 200 is contacted by inclined leading surfaces 44 a of ramps 44 (see FIG. 3 ), the ramps 44 being aligned with recesses 122 and 124 of magazine 100 a traveling thereover, each module 200 being gradually raised as it rides on ramps 44 as the magazine 100 a travels toward indexing station 40 until that module 200 is resting on a horizontal upper surface 44 b of the ramp 44 when aligned with the indexing head 42 at an elevation slightly above the height of a retaining lip provided by side 110 of the magazine 100 a . At this point, indexing head 42 moves in the X-direction to test site 50 , sliding and guiding module 200 therewith. It is also contemplated that elevating rams aligned with indexing station 40 might be employed in lieu of ramps 44 to raise each module for engagement and movement by the indexing head 42 , but this alternative structure would add some cost and complexity to the handler 10 , as well as requiring additional programming for controller 18 . At test site 50 , between test site guide rails 52 (see FIGS. 1 and 2) and while still constrained by indexing head 42 , module 200 , still in a vertical orientation as removed from magazine 100 , is precisely aligned with respect to the test contacts which will engage the module's edge connectors 202 at the edge of carrier substrate 204 (see FIG. 6, wherein semiconductor memory dice 208 borne by carrier substrate 204 are also depicted) by insertion of locating pins 54 extendable transversely on carriage 56 (also termed a module locator bar) through tooling holes 206 in substrate 204 . In FIGS. 1 and 9, right-hand guide rail 52 has been cut away for a better view of locating pins 54 and carriage 56 therebelow. Carriage 56 is replaceable by the operator to accommodate multiple module configurations having tooling holes 206 at different locations on the variously sized substrates. For example only, and not by way of limitation, carriage 56 may be changed out to accommodate a change from a 72-pin to 168-pin module handling. The unused or “spare” carriage or locator bar or bars 56 to accommodate different module configurations may be carried on the handler 10 at the test site. After alignment, test contact clamps 58 (see FIG. 2) clamp test contacts to their target edge connectors 202 , as known in the art, and indexing head 42 is withdrawn upwardly in the Y-direction and moved back over magazine 100 a at indexing station 40 in the X-direction for retrieval of the next module 200 , which is advanced for retrieval by movement of magazine 100 a by drive belts 30 and 32 . Tester 14 conducts a test of module 200 at the test site through test contact clamps 58 in accordance with the tester's programming and as known in the art. When the next module 200 is advanced to test site 50 by indexing head 42 , the tested module 200 a at test site 50 has already been released and will normally slide downwardly along output track 60 between guide rails 62 . However, if the tested module 200 a has not moved from test site 50 , indexing head 42 guiding the next module 200 from magazine 100 at indexing station 40 will positively eject the tested module 200 a from test site 50 , pushing it onto output track 60 . If tested module 200 a has passed the testing, it will be stopped at either upper stop 70 or lower stop 72 , both of which are located above slide gate 74 which covers an aperture 76 in the bottom of output track 60 . Upper stop 70 is located on output track 60 to stop a module 200 above a slot 302 of an upper row of slots 302 in a shipping tray 300 (see FIG. 7 for shipping tray details), while lower stop 72 is located to stop a module above a slot 302 of a lower row of slots 302 in the shipping tray 300 , which is secured to a motor-driven carriage 80 movable on linear bearings transversely under output track 60 from left to right (as looking at FIG. 1 ). In operation, carriage 80 with an empty shipping tray 300 (see FIG. 7 for a detailed view of an exemplary shipping tray) is initially moved from a start position to the left of the output track 60 toward the right a distance so that the right-hand uppermost row tray slot 302 and lower row tray slot 302 are respectively aligned with upper and lower stops 70 and 72 . When a tested, passed module 200 slides down output track 60 , lower stop 72 is actuated to stop it above lower slot 302 , whereupon slide gate 74 is retracted and module 200 drops a short distance into aligned lower tray slot 302 . The next passed module 200 is stopped by upper stop 70 and dropped by retracted slide gate 74 into upper tray slot 302 . Carriage 80 then advances to the right a distance equal to that between adjacent, parallel slot centers in the same slot row of shipping tray 300 to align the next set of empty upper and lower tray slots 302 with output track 60 , and the sequence is repeated during module testing until shipping tray 300 is full. If a failed module 200 is released from the test site 50 , neither stop 70 or 72 is actuated and the module 200 slides the length of output track 60 into discard bin 82 at the bottom thereof. As the shipping tray 300 is filled with passed modules 200 , it moves progressively toward the right until it has passed completely under output track 60 . When completely full, the shipping tray 300 is cycled back to the left on carriage 80 and removed therefrom, and an empty shipping tray 300 secured thereto. If different shipping trays are to be employed with carriage 80 , changeable adapters 84 (see FIG. 2) boltable to carriage 80 may be employed to accommodate different trays. Returning to the top of handler 10 , when a magazine 100 such as magazine 100 a has passed completely through indexing station 40 , it continues its movement on drive belts 30 and 32 to output stack zone 92 of output station 90 , wherein an elevator 94 having rams 96 and a set of four spring-loaded, extendable dogs 98 respectively operate to lift and then suspend an empty magazine 100 from drive belts 30 and 32 at a level higher than that of a magazine 100 . Specifically, and with reference to FIG. 3, the previous empty magazine 100 d , as shown, has been raised to a level immediately above spring-loaded dogs 98 , which are located at an elevation higher than the height of magazines 100 , so that magazine 100 a may travel under magazine 100 d to a position in vertical alignment therewith. Magazine 100 a is then raised by rams 96 of elevator 94 extending between drive belts 30 and 32 to contact the underside of magazine 100 d , which retracts spring-loaded dogs 98 by contact therewith as it moves upwardly, and the stack of magazines 100 is further raised by movement of magazine 100 d until the output station dog locations are cleared by the underside of magazine 100 a , at which point dogs 98 are again extended by their biasing springs in a “ratchet” effect and elevator rams 96 are lowered by elevator 94 so as not to interfere with the next magazine 100 arriving at output station 90 on drive belts 30 and 32 . It will also be understood that powered, selectively extendable dogs as employed at the input station 20 might optionally be employed at output station 90 . However, such an arrangement would, of necessity, add complexity and cost to handler 10 as well as require additional programming for controller 18 . It should be noted at this time that the various components of handler 10 may be easily adjusted to accommodate different lengths, heights and thicknesses of modules 200 as required. For example, and with reference to FIGS. 8 through 10, wherein detailed views of various components and assemblies of handler 10 are depicted, quick release pins P are employed at various locations in conjunction with appropriately located receiving apertures A to position the components connected by the quick release pins P to underlying stationary components to accommodate various widths and heights of modules. In a similar manner, Allen head bolts B are employed with different threaded bores T to relocate other components, such as changing the height of test site guide rails 52 . In a similar manner, the longitudinal location of upper and lower stops 70 and 72 along output track 60 to accommodate different shipping trays may be changed by loosening bolts B, sliding the associated stop up or down the track, and retightening the bolts B. Stop elements 70 a and 72 a of each respective stop 70 and 72 (see FIG. 10) include thicker and thinner ends to alternately project into output track 60 , and are rotatably reversible (see arrows) to accommodate double or single-sided modules 200 (i.e., in terms of dice on both or only one side of the carrier substrate) in combination with output track guide rail 62 locational changes. Different sets of stop elements (each stop element being reversible as described) may be also used, for example, to precisely accommodate different dice heights, such as thin small outline package (TSOP) dice versus small outline j-lead (SOJ) dice. If used, the different sets of elements may be carried on handler 10 next to output track 60 . While not illustrated in detail, indexing fingers 46 and 48 may be adjusted in height, and indexing finger 48 adjusted in longitudinal location on indexing head 42 using bolts B and in combination with different threaded bores T on indexing head 42 , while stop block 49 is rotationally reversible to provide a different stop point when retrieving DIMMs versus SIMMs from a magazine 100 (see FIG. 2 ). For simplicity, components previously identified in conjunction with FIGS. 1-7 bear the same reference numerals in FIGS. 8-10. It should also be noted that the drive systems of the various mechanisms described herein are conventional, and that electric, hydraulic and pneumatic drives may be interchanged as appropriate and dictated by suitability of each for a particular purpose. For example, indexing head 42 is preferably driven by two double-acting air (pneumatic) cylinders, one each for the X-and Y-directions. Similarly, carriage 56 bearing locating pins 54 is driven by a similar air cylinder, as are test contact clamps 58 , as well as upper and lower stops 70 and 72 , slide gate 74 , elevators 24 and 94 and dogs 28 and 98 . However, hydraulic or electric drives for these components, or any of them, may be substituted. Belts 30 and 32 are preferably driven by an electric rotary stepper motor or precise control of magazine advance through indexing station 40 . Finally, in order to confirm proper operational positioning of the various movable components of the handler 10 and of the modules 200 being handled for test and sort and avoid unnecessary cycling and jamming of handler 10 , it is preferred that a number of sensors be placed at suitable locations. Depending on the parameter to be detected by a sensor, or control to be effected in response to the position of a component or module, proximity or through-beam sensors, or autoswitch sensors, all as know in the art, may be employed and signals therefrom communicated to controller 18 to trigger or halt a particular operational sequence of the handler 10 . Such sensors and their use being well known in the art, and their placement being a matter of discretion by the designer as a function of the need to confirm various component and module positions, no further description thereof will be offered herein. While the present invention has been described in the context of a certain preferred embodiment, those of ordinary skill in the art will understand and appreciate that it is not so limited. Specifically, additions, deletions and modifications to the invention as disclosed herein may be made without departing from the scope of the invention as defined by the claims hereinafter set forth.

A magazine for carrying a plurality of multi-chip modules (MCMs) in association with an automated MCM handler for automated module testing. The magazine includes a body defining a plurality of mutually parallel receptacles extending between two opposing body sides, each body side having a different height relative to the height of the receptacles. Each receptacle is separated from an adjacent receptacle by a baffle member. At least one notch ins formed in each baffle member so as to form at least one row of aligned notches extending across and contiguous with each receptacle. The aligned row of notches is configured to receive an elongated element for effectively altering the length of each receptacle. At least one recess is formed in an underside of the magazine and transversely intersects each receptacle. The magazine may also include structure to accommodate vertical stacking of the magazine with a plurality of like magazines.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a transfer method, transfer apparatus, and recording medium for transferring, from a master carrier having microscopic asperities formed thereon, one of the asperities and transfer information represented by the asperities onto a slave medium. 2. Description of the Related Art There has recently been a demand for size reduction and capacity increase in various information recording media such as a magnetic disk, optical disk, and magneto-optical disk. Additionally, the widespread use of mobile terminals and other factors has increased the demand for the downsizing of devices such as an electronic device and optical device and the mass production of the devices. Against this background, for example, recording media have decreased to several tens to hundreds of nm in the track width of recorded recording signal bits, the magnetization reversal interval in a linear recording direction, and the like. To accurately retrieve information from such a recording medium having a narrow track pitch, it is necessary for a head which reads and writes information to accurately perform scanning within a narrow track width. Servo signals for tracking, address information signals, reproduction clock signals, and the like are preformatted and recorded on a magnetic disk at predetermined intervals to perform tracking servo control for a magnetic head. Although the recording can also be performed by a magnetic head, batch transfer from a master disk serving as a master carrier having format information and address information written thereon is more efficient and preferable. For example, there is proposed a magnetic transfer method in which a master disk having a magnetic layer with an asperity pattern corresponding to information to be transferred is prepared for a slave disk serving as a slave medium which is a high-density magnetic recording medium, a magnetic layer of the slave disk is initially magnetized in one direction along tracks, and then a transfer magnetic field is applied to the magnetic layer in a direction almost opposite to the initial magnetization direction while the initially magnetized slave disk and master disk are in close contact (see, e.g., Japanese Patent Application Laid-Open No. 2001-14667). There are problems such as generation of erased noise or crosstalk noise between adjacent tracks caused by an increase in track density and demagnetization due to thermal fluctuation in recording magnetization caused by an increase in linear recording density. To cope with these problems, there are also proposed magnetic recording media of types called discrete track medium and patterned medium. In a magnetic recording medium of a type called discrete track medium or patterned medium, a surface thereof needs to be patterned into a predetermined shape. In patterning, since microfabrication of the whole of a recording medium is difficult, an imprinting method in which a master disk (stamper) having a predetermined pattern formed thereon is pressed against a slave disk to transfer the pattern on the master disk onto the slave disk is used, as in the mass production of small electronic devices or optical devices. In any of the above-described recording medium transfer methods, it is important to uniformly press a master disk and slave disk all over the surfaces and bring the disks into close contact with each other. If there is a portion exhibiting poor adhesion, a signal dropout occurs in transferred information, and the signal quality deteriorates. For example, if recorded signals are servo signals, a satisfactory tracking function cannot be obtained, and the reliability decreases. To cope with such a problem, there is proposed a magnetic transfer apparatus holder for holding a master disk which is provided with a shock absorbing material to improve adhesion (see, e.g., Japanese Patent Application Laid-Open No. 2004-86995). However, there are limits to the machining accuracy of a holder and shock absorbing material in pressing using the holder and shock absorbing material. Accordingly, a master carrier may be deformed at the time of pressing to cause a difference between a pattern on the master carrier and a transferred pattern, depending on the machining accuracy of the members. Fluid pressurization is conceivable as a method for uniformly pressing a master carrier regardless of machining accuracy. However, even by this method, a master carrier directly pressed by fluid may be deformed. Or, when a master carrier is indirectly pressed through a flexible film which is interposed between the fluid and the master carrier, the flexible film may be deformed, consequently, the master carrier may also be deformed because the deformed flexible film drags the master carrier by friction. Therefore, use of the method without change is difficult. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention has been made in consideration of the above-described problems, and has as its object to provide a transfer method, transfer apparatus, and recording medium for reproducing, with fidelity, asperities formed on a master carrier or transfer information represented by the asperities on a slave medium without deforming the master carrier. In order to achieve the above-described object, according to an aspect of the present invention, when bringing a master carrier on which microscopic asperities are formed into close contact with a slave medium by pressing the master carrier by pressure of fluid in a direct manner or an indirect manner through a flexible film, and transferring the asperities or transfer information represented by the asperities onto the slave medium, deformation of the master carrier or the flexible film in a pressed region where the pressure by the fluid is applied is prevented, and transfer is performed while the master carrier is in close contact with the slave medium. According to this aspect, master carriers on which asperities are formed are brought into close contact with a surface of a slave medium. The slave medium whose surface is in close contact with the master carriers is placed in a closed container, and fluid such as compressed air is enclosed in the container. The master carrier is uniformly pressed all over surface by the enclosed fluid in a direct manner or an indirect manner through a flexible film which is in close contact with the master carrier and is brought into close contact with the slave medium. At this time, deformation of the master carriers or the flexible films in pressed regions under pressure by the fluid is prevented. This makes it possible to transfer asperities on the master carrier and transfer information represented by the asperities, onto the slave medium with fidelity in the order of nanometers. According to another aspect of the present invention, in the above-described aspect, the deformation of the master carrier or the flexible film in the pressed region is prevented by adjusting a width of a space left in an in-plane direction of the slave medium and a width of a space left in a thickness direction of the slave medium. According to this aspect, widths of slight space left in an in-plane direction of the slave medium and a thickness direction of the slave medium are adjusted to be small. The width of the space left in the in-plane direction of the slave medium may be adjusted to be not more than five times a thickness of the master carrier or the flexible film. The width of the space left in the thickness direction of the slave medium may be adjusted to be not more than 0.2 mm. This prevents the master carrier or the flexible film from being deformed to cave in toward the spaces and makes it possible to transfer one of asperities on the master carrier and transfer information represented by the asperities onto the slave medium with fidelity in the order of nanometers. According to another aspect of the present invention, in the above-described aspects, the space left in the in-plane direction of the slave medium is a space left between the slave medium and a spacer which is arranged in an inner periphery or an outer periphery of the slave medium at the time of transfer and has a shape corresponding to a shape of the inner periphery of the slave medium or a shape corresponding to a shape of the outer periphery of the slave medium, and the width of the space left in the in-plane direction of the slave medium is adjusted based on the shape of the spacer. According to this aspect, a size of a shape of the inner periphery of the spacer arranged in the inner periphery of a slave medium and a size of a shape of the outer periphery of the spacer arranged in the outer periphery of the slave medium are selected based on the size of the slave medium in the corresponding region. With this selection, the space left in an in-plane direction of the slave medium is adjusted to reduce deformation of the flexible film or the master carrier at a portion corresponding to the space in the in-plane direction, and it becomes possible to transfer the asperities on the master carrier or transfer information represented by the asperities onto the slave medium with fidelity in the order of nanometers. According to another aspect of the present invention, in the above-described aspects, the space left in the thickness direction of the slave medium is a space left between the master carrier and the flexible film, and the width of the space is adjusted based on a thickness of the spacer arranged in the one of the inner periphery and the outer periphery of the slave medium at the time of transfer. According to this aspect, a thickness of a spacer arranged in an inner periphery of the slave medium and a thickness of a spacer arranged in an outer periphery of the slave medium are selected based on thicknesses of the master carrier and the slave medium. With this selection, the space left in the thickness direction of the slave medium is adjusted to reduce deformation of the flexible film at a portion corresponding to the space in the thickness direction, and it becomes possible to transfer the asperities on the master carrier or transfer information represented by the asperities onto the slave medium with fidelity in the order of nanometers. According to another aspect of the present invention, in the above-described aspects, the space left in the thickness direction of the slave medium is a space left between the master carrier and the slave medium, and the width of the space is adjusted based on a thickness of the spacer arranged in the inner periphery or the outer periphery of the slave medium at the time of transfer. According to this aspect, a thickness of the spacer arranged in the inner periphery of the slave medium and a thickness of the spacer arranged in the outer periphery of the slave medium are selected based on a thickness of the slave medium. With this selection, the space left in the thickness direction of the slave medium is adjusted to reduce deformation of a master carrier at a portion corresponding to the space in the thickness direction, and it becomes possible to transfer the asperities on the master carrier or transfer information represented by the asperities onto the slave medium with fidelity in the order of nanometers. According to another aspect of the present invention, in the above-described aspects, the width of the space left in the in-plane direction of the slave medium is adjusted by a position where an edge of the master carrier or the flexible film is fixed. According to this aspect, when an edge of the master carrier or the flexible film is to be fixed to a transfer apparatus, the master carrier or the flexible film is fixed by adhesion or the like at a position where the width of the space left in the in-plane direction of the slave medium becomes not more than five times a thickness of the master carrier or the flexible film. With this fixation, the space left in the in-plane direction of the slave medium is adjusted to reduce deformation of the master carrier or the flexible film at a portion corresponding to the space in the in-plane direction, and it becomes possible to transfer the asperities on the master carrier or the transfer information represented by the asperities onto the slave medium with fidelity in the order of nanometers. As has been described above, according to a transfer method, transfer apparatus, and recording medium according to aspects of the present invention, deformation of a master carrier in close contact with surface of a slave medium is prevented, and it becomes possible to reproduce asperities formed on the master carriers or transfer information represented by the asperities on the slave medium with fidelity. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a main portion of a magnetic transfer apparatus which performs magnetic transfer; FIG. 2 is a plan view showing a method for applying a transfer magnetic field; FIGS. 3A and 3B are views showing basic processes of a magnetic transfer method; FIG. 4 is a sectional view showing a first embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 5 is a sectional view showing a second embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 6 is a sectional view showing a third embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 7 is a sectional view showing a fourth embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 8 is an enlarged sectional view showing a fixed state in the first embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 9 is an enlarged sectional view showing a fixed state in the second embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 10 is an enlarged sectional view showing a fixed state in the third embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 11 is an enlarged sectional view showing a fixed state in the fourth embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 12 is a chart showing data obtained when pieces of transfer information were transferred according to the first embodiment. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Preferred embodiments of a transfer method, transfer apparatus, and recording medium according to the present invention will be described in detail below with reference to the accompanying drawings. A magnetic transfer method that is a technique for producing hard disks or the like to which a transfer method and transfer apparatus according to the present invention are applied will be described first. FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a main portion of a magnetic transfer apparatus 20 for performing magnetic transfer using master disks 10 as master carriers. At the time of magnetic transfer, slave surfaces (magnetic recording surfaces) of a slave disk 14 as a slave medium after initial DC magnetization (to be described later) shown in FIG. 3A are made to contact information bearing surfaces 13 of the master disks 10 as the master carriers and are brought into close contact with the information bearing surfaces 13 by a predetermined pressing force. While the slave disk 14 and master disks 10 are in close contact with each other, transfer magnetic fields are applied by a magnetic field generating device 30 to magnetically transfer asperity patterns P as pieces of transfer information formed on the master disks 10 onto the slave disk 14 . The slave disk 14 is a disk-shaped recording medium such as a hard disk or flexible disk which has magnetic recording layers formed on two surfaces. Before being brought into contact with the master disks 10 , the slave disk 14 is subjected as needed to cleaning processing (e.g., varnishing) for removing microscopic projections or dust at the surfaces by a glide head, abrasive body, or the like. Coated magnetic recording layers, plated magnetic recording layers, or metal thin-film magnetic recording layers can be adopted as the magnetic recording layers of the slave disk 14 . Available magnetic materials for a metal thin-film magnetic recording layer include Co, Co alloys (e.g., CoPtCr, CoCr, CoPtCrTa, CoPtCrNbTa, CoCrB, and CoNi), Fe, Fe alloys (e.g., FeCo, FePt, and FeCoNi), Ni, and Ni alloys (e.g., NiFe). These substances are preferable because they each have a high magnetic flux density and a magnetic anisotropy in the same direction as that of an applied magnetic field (in-plane direction in the case of in-plane recording), which allow clear transfer. It is preferable to provide a non-magnetic underlayer to give a required magnetic anisotropy under the magnetic material (to the side of a support). It is necessary to make the crystal structure and lattice constant of the underlayer coincide with those of magnetic layers 12 . For this purpose, it is preferable to use Cr, CrTi, CoCr, CrTa, CrMo, NiAl, Ru or the like as the material for the underlayer. The magnetic field generating device 30 for applying transfer magnetic fields has electromagnet devices 34 , each composed of a core 32 having a gap 31 extending in the radial direction of a combination of the slave disk 14 and master disks 10 that are held in close contact with each other and a coil 33 wound therearound, on two sides of the combination to apply transfer magnetic fields whose lines G (see FIG. 2 ) of magnetic force are in the same direction along tracks. FIG. 2 is a view showing the relationship between circumferential tracks 14 A and the lines G of magnetic force. At the time of magnetic field application, transfer magnetic fields are applied by the magnetic field generating device 30 while integrally rotating the slave disk 14 and master disks 10 , thereby magnetically transferring pieces of transfer information represented by asperity patterns on the master disks 10 onto the slave surfaces of the slave disk 14 . Note that the magnetic field generating device may be rotationally moved instead of the above-described configuration. In each transfer magnetic field, there is generated, in a portion of a track, a magnetic field having a magnetic field intensity distribution in which there is no magnetic field intensity exceeding the upper limit of an optimum transfer magnetic field intensity range (0.6 to 1.3 times a coercive force Hc of the slave disk 14 ) in any direction along tracks, the magnetic field intensity is within the optimum transfer magnetic field intensity range at least one position in one direction along the tracks, and the magnetic field intensity is less than the lower limit of the optimum transfer magnetic field intensity range at any position in the opposite direction along the tracks. FIGS. 3A and 3B are views for explaining basic processes of a magnetic transfer method using in-plane recording. First, as shown in FIG. 3A , an initial magnetic field Hi is applied to the slave disk 14 in one direction along the tracks in advance to subject the slave disk 14 to initial magnetization (DC demagnetization). As shown in an upper portion of FIG. 3B , each recording surface (magnetic recording portion) of the slave disk 14 and the information bearing surface 13 of the corresponding master disk 10 having the asperity pattern P formed thereon are then brought into close contact with each other, and a transfer magnetic field Hd is applied in a direction along the tracks of the slave disk 14 opposite to that for the initial magnetic field Hi, thereby performing magnetic transfer. Since the transfer magnetic field Hd is absorbed at projections of the asperity patterns P of the magnetic layers 12 , the magnetization directions for the portions are not reversed while those for the remaining portions are reversed. As a result, as shown in a lower portion of FIG. 3B , pieces of transfer information represented by the asperity patterns P of the master disks 10 are magnetically transferred and recorded onto the magnetic recording surfaces of the slave disk 14 . A transfer method, transfer apparatus, and recording medium according to the present invention will now be described. FIG. 4 is a sectional view showing a first embodiment of a transfer method and transfer apparatus according to the present invention. A transfer apparatus 1 A is divided into a container upper portion 2 and a container lower portion 3 . The container upper and lower portions 2 and 3 unite together with a fastening device 9 such as a bolt or air cylinder. At the container upper portion 2 is provided a joint 8 A which serves as an inlet for fluid supplied to bring a master carrier into close contact with a slave medium. A joint 8 B is also provided at the container lower portion 3 . Pipes connected to the joints 8 A and 8 B branch from a common pipe connected to a fluid source (not shown) as a pressure device which generates fluid such as compressed air. With this configuration, fluids with a single pressure are respectively supplied to the container upper portion 2 and container lower portion 3 through the joints 8 A and 8 B. Master disks 10 A and 10 B serving as master carriers and a slave disk 14 serving as a slave medium are housed in the container upper portion 2 and container lower portion 3 such that information bearing surfaces of the master disks 10 A and 10 B are in close contact with two respective surfaces of the slave disk 14 . In the center portion which is inner side of the slave disk 14 and master disks 10 A and 10 B, a columnar inside spacer 5 having an external shape corresponding to the shapes of the inner sides (center portion) of the slave disk 14 and master disks 10 A and 10 B is arranged. Around the outer periphery which is outer side of the slave disk 14 and master disks 10 A and 10 B, a ring-shaped outside spacer 6 having an internal shape corresponding to the external shapes of outer side (periphery portion) of the slave disk 14 and master disks 10 A and 10 B is arranged Sealing members 7 A and 7 B made of, e.g., nitrile rubber, are respectively provided above and below the outside spacer 6 . Sheets 4 A and 4 B which are flexible films made of, e.g., a stainless material or PET resin for pressing the master disks 10 A and 10 B are respectively held between the outside spacer 6 and the sealing members 7 A and 7 B. The slave disk 14 and master disks 10 A and 10 B are housed between the sheets 4 A and 4 B such that the master disks 10 A and 10 B are in close contact with the two surfaces of the slave disk 14 . The outside diameter of the inside spacer 5 is slightly smaller than the inside diameters of the slave disk 14 and master disks 10 A and 10 B, and a space A is left between the inside spacer 5 and the slave disk 14 and master disks 10 A and 10 B. The inside diameter of the outside spacer 6 is slightly larger than the outside diameters of the slave disk 14 and master disks 10 A and 10 B, and a space B is left between the outside spacer 6 and the slave disk 14 and master disks 10 A and 10 B. Thicknesses t of the inside spacer 5 and outside spacer 6 are slightly larger than the sum of the thicknesses of the slave disk 14 and master disks 10 A and 10 B, and spaces C are left between the sheet 4 A and the master disk 10 A and between the sheet 4 B and the master disk 10 B. At this time, the outside diameter of the inside spacer 5 and the inside diameter of the outside spacer 6 are selected based on the inside and outside diameters of the slave disk 14 and master disks 10 A and 10 B such that the width of each of the spaces A and B is adjusted to not more than five times the thickness of the sheet 4 A or 4 B. The thicknesses t of the inside spacer 5 and outside spacer 6 are selected not to be larger than the sum of the thicknesses of the slave disk 14 and master disks 10 A and 10 B by more than 0.2 mm. The width of each space C is adjusted to not more than 0.2 mm. FIG. 8 is an enlarged sectional view showing a fixed state in the first embodiment of the present invention. By making the inside diameter of the sealing member 7 A or 7 B close to the outside diameter of the slave disk 14 , as shown in FIG. 8 , and fixing the sheet 4 A or 4 B to the sealing member 7 A or 7 B, the width of a portion of the sheet 4 A or 4 B, the portion is unfixed and adjacent to the space B may be set to not more than five times the thickness of the sheet 4 A or 4 B. In the transfer apparatus with the above-described configuration, when the information bearing surfaces of the master disks 10 A and 10 B having pieces of transfer information such as track signals recorded thereon are to be brought into close contact with the slave disk 14 by a predetermined pressing force, the container upper portion 2 and container lower portion 3 are first coupled together by the fastening device 9 . This operation forms a void surrounded by the container upper portion 2 , sealing member 7 A, and sheet 4 A and a void surrounded by the container lower portion 3 , sealing member 7 B, and sheet 4 B. In this state, fluid with a pressure of 0.1 to 1 MPa is supplied to the voids from the fluid source (not shown) through the respective joints 8 A and 8 B. With this operation, the sheets 4 A and 4 B are uniformly pressed all over pressed regions whose widths are equal to the inside diameters of the sealing members 7 A and 7 B. Letting d be a thickness and E be a Young's modulus and assuming that the widths of the pressed regions under the pressure of the fluid are 1 m, the sheets 4 A and 4 B each have a rigidity which satisfies the following relation: d 3 E/12≦8N·m 2 . The pressing force of the fluid is transmitted to the master disks 10 A and 10 B through the sheets 4 A and 4 B, and the pressed master disks 10 A and 10 B come into close contact with the slave disk 14 with predetermined pressing forces. Since the pressing forces are produced by fluid, pressurization is uniform over the pressed regions. In addition, since the fluid is supplied from a single pipeline, the pressing forces applied to master disks 10 A and 10 B in close contact with the two surfaces of the slave disk 14 are equal. The sheets 4 A and 4 B are adjusted such that they do not cave in toward the adjusted spaces A and B and that the amount of deformation in each pressed region is small. The sheets 4 A and 4 B are also adjusted such that the amount of deformation at a portion corresponding to each space C is small. Accordingly, the sheets 4 A and 4 B press the master disks 10 A and 10 B without excessively deforming the master disks 10 A and 10 B in the pressed regions. In this state, when manufacturing a recording medium, magnetic transfer is performed according to the above-described magnetic transfer procedure. Pieces of transfer information represented by asperities formed on the master disks 10 A and 10 B are magnetically transferred onto the slave disk 14 with fidelity in the order of nanometers. A second embodiment of a transfer method, transfer apparatus, and recording medium according to the present invention will be described. FIG. 5 is a sectional view showing the second embodiment. A transfer apparatus 1 B is divided into a container upper portion 2 and a container lower portion 3 . The container upper and lower portions 2 and 3 unite together with a fastening device 9 . At the container upper portion 2 is provided a joint 8 A which serves as an inlet for fluid. A joint 8 B is also provided at the container lower portion 3 . Pipes connected to the joints 8 A and 8 B branch from a common pipe connected to a fluid source (not shown). With this configuration, fluids with a single pressure are respectively supplied to the container upper portion 2 and container lower portion 3 through the joints 8 A and 8 B. Master disks 40 A and 40 B serving as master carriers and a slave disk 14 serving as a slave medium are housed in the container upper portion 2 and container lower portion 3 such that the slave disk 14 is sandwiched between the master disks 40 A and 40 B. A columnar inside spacer 5 is arranged in the center of the slave disk 14 , and a ring-shaped outside spacer 6 is arranged around the outer periphery of the slave disk 14 . Sealing members 7 A and 7 B are respectively provided above and below the outside spacer 6 . Edges of the master disks 40 A and 40 B are held by the outside spacer 6 and sealing members 7 A and 7 B. The outside diameter of the inside spacer 5 is slightly smaller than the inside diameter of the slave disk 14 , and a space A is left between the inside spacer 5 and the slave disk 14 . The inside diameter of the outside spacer 6 is slightly larger than the outside diameter of the slave disk 14 , and a space B is left between the outside spacer 6 and the slave disk 14 . Thicknesses t of the inside spacer 5 and outside spacer 6 are slightly larger than the thickness of the slave disk 14 , and spaces C are left between the slave disk 14 and the master disks 40 A and 40 B. At this time, the outside diameter of the inside spacer 5 and the inside diameter of the outside spacer 6 are selected based on the inside and outside diameters of the slave disk 14 such that the width of each of the spaces A and B is adjusted to not more than five times the thickness of the master disk 40 A or 40 B. The thicknesses t of the inside spacer 5 and outside spacer 6 are selected not to be larger than the thickness of the slave disk 14 by more than 0.2 mm. The width of each space C is adjusted to not more than 0.2 mm. FIG. 9 is an enlarged sectional view showing a fixed state in the second embodiment of the present invention. By making the inside diameter of the sealing member 7 A or 7 B close to the outside diameter of the slave disk 14 , as shown in FIG. 9 , and fixing the master disk 40 A or 40 B to the sealing member 7 A or 7 B, the width of a portion of the master disk 40 A or 40 B, the portion is unfixed and adjacent to the space B may be set to not more than five times the thickness of the master disk 40 A or 40 B. In the transfer apparatus with the above-described configuration, when information bearing surfaces of the master disks 40 A and 40 B are to be brought into close contact with the slave disk 14 by a predetermined pressing force, the container upper portion 2 and container lower portion 3 are first coupled together by the fastening device 9 . This operation forms a void surrounded by the container upper portion 2 , sealing member 7 A, and master disk 40 A and a void surrounded by the container lower portion 3 , sealing member 7 B, and master disk 40 B. In this state, fluid with a pressure of 0.1 to 1 MPa is supplied to the voids from the fluid source (not shown) through the respective joints 8 A and 8 B. With this operation, the master disks 40 A and 40 B are uniformly pressed all over pressed regions whose widths are equal to the inside diameters of the sealing members 7 A and 7 B. Letting d be a thickness and E be a Young's modulus and assuming that the widths of the pressed regions under the pressure of the fluid are 1 m, the master disks 40 A and 40 B each have a rigidity which satisfies the following relation: dE 3 /12≦8N·m 2 . The pressed master disks 40 A and 40 B come into close contact with the slave disk 14 with predetermined pressing forces. Since the pressing forces are produced by fluid, pressurization is uniform over the pressed regions. In addition, since the fluid is supplied from a single pipeline, the pressing forces applied to the master disks 40 A and 40 B in close contact with the two surfaces of the slave disk 14 are equal. The master disks 40 A and 40 B are adjusted such that they do not cave in toward the adjusted spaces A and B and that the amount of deformation in each pressed region is small. The master disks 40 A and 40 B are also adjusted such that the amount of deformation at a portion corresponding to each space C is small. In this state, when manufacturing a recording medium, magnetic transfer is performed according to the above-described magnetic transfer procedure. Pieces of transfer information represented by asperities formed on the master disks 40 A and 40 B are magnetically transferred onto the slave disk 14 with fidelity in the order of nanometers. A third embodiment of a transfer method, transfer apparatus, and recording medium according to the present invention will be described. FIG. 6 is a sectional view showing the third embodiment. A transfer apparatus 1 C is divided into a container upper portion 2 and a container lower portion 3 . The container upper and lower portions 2 and 3 unite together with a fastening device 9 . At the container upper portion 2 , a joint 8 A which serves as an inlet for fluid is provided. A joint 8 B is also provided at the container lower portion 3 . Pipes connected to the joints 8 A and 8 B branch from a common pipe connected to a fluid source (not shown). With this configuration, fluids with a single pressure are respectively supplied to the container upper portion 2 and container lower portion 3 through the joints 8 A and 8 B. Master disks 41 A and 41 B serving as master carriers and a slave disk 42 serving as a slave medium are housed in the container upper portion 2 and container lower portion 3 such that the master disks 41 A and 41 B are in close contact with two respective surfaces of the slave disk 42 . Unlike the slave disk 14 , transfer layers 43 made of a resin which is cured by light, heat, or the like or low-melting glass, etc., are provided on the two surfaces of the slave disk 42 . Asperities on the master disks 41 A and 41 B corresponding to the shapes of recording bits or the like are satisfactorily transferred onto the transfer layers 43 by irradiating with light, heating, or cooling the transfer layers 43 while the master disks 41 A and 41 B are pressed against the transfer layers 43 or after the master disks 41 A and 41 B are peeled from the transfer layers 43 . A ring-shaped outside spacer 6 is arranged around the outer peripheries of the slave disk 42 and master disks 41 A and 41 B. Sealing members 7 A and 7 B are respectively provided above and below the outside spacer 6 . Sheets 4 A and 4 B which are flexible films are respectively held between the outside spacer 6 and the sealing members 7 A and 7 B. The slave disk 42 and master disks 41 A and 41 B are housed between the sheets 4 A and 4 B such that the master disks 41 A and 41 B are in close contact with the transfer layers 43 on the two surfaces of the slave disk 42 . The inside diameter of the outside spacer 6 is slightly larger than the outside diameters of the slave disk 42 and master disks 41 A and 41 B, and a space B is left between the outside spacer 6 and the slave disk 42 and master disks 41 A and 41 B. Thicknesses t of the outside spacer 6 are slightly larger than the sum of the thicknesses of the slave disk 42 , master disks 41 A and 41 B, and transfer layers 43 . In addition, spaces C are left between the sheet 4 A and the master disk 41 A and between the sheet 4 B and the master disk 41 B. At this time, the inside diameter of the outside spacer 6 is selected based on the outside diameters of the slave disk 42 and master disks 41 A and 41 B such that the width of the space B is adjusted to not more than five times the thickness of the sheet 4 A or 4 B. The thickness t of the outside spacer 6 is selected not to be larger than the sum of the thicknesses of the slave disk 42 , master disks 41 A and 41 B, and transfer layers 43 by more than 0.2 mm. The width of each space C is adjusted to not more than 0.2 mm. FIG. 10 is an enlarged sectional view showing a fixed state in the third embodiment of the present invention. By making the inside diameter of the sealing member 7 A or 7 B close to the outside diameter of the slave disk 42 , as shown in FIG. 10 , and fixing the sheet 4 A or 4 B to the sealing member 7 A or 7 B, the width of a portion of the sheet 4 A or 4 B, the portion is unfixed and adjacent to the space B may be set to not more than five times the thickness of the sheet 4 A or 4 B. In the transfer apparatus with the above-described configuration, when information bearing surfaces of the master disks 41 A and 41 B are to be brought into close contact with the transfer layers 43 on the two surface of the slave disk 42 by a predetermined pressing force, the container upper portion 2 and container lower portion 3 are first coupled together by the fastening device 9 . This operation forms a void surrounded by the container upper portion 2 , sealing member 7 A and sheet 4 A, and a void surrounded by the container lower portion 3 , sealing member 7 B and sheet 4 B. In this state, fluid with a pressure of 0.1 to 1 MPa is supplied to the voids from the fluid source (not shown) through the respective joints 8 A and 8 B. With this operation, the sheets 4 A and 4 B are uniformly pressed all over pressed regions whose widths are equal to the inside diameters of the sealing members 7 A and 7 B. Letting d be a thickness and E be a Young's modulus and assuming that the widths of the pressed regions under the pressure of the fluid are 1 m, the sheets 4 A and 4 B each have a rigidity which satisfies the following relation: dE 3 /12≦8N·m 2 . The pressing force of the fluid is transmitted to the master disks 41 A and 41 B through the sheets 4 A and 4 B, and the pressed master disks 41 A and 41 B come into close contact with the transfer layers 43 with predetermined pressing forces. Since the pressing forces are produced by fluid, pressurization is uniform over the pressed regions. In addition, since the fluid is supplied from a single pipeline, the pressing forces applied to the master disks 41 A and 41 B in close contact with the transfer layers 43 are equal. The sheets 4 A and 4 B are adjusted such that they do not cave in toward the adjusted space B and that the amount of deformation in each pressed region is small. The sheets 4 A and 4 B are also adjusted such that the amount of deformation at a portion corresponding to each adjusted space C is small. Accordingly, the sheets 4 A and 4 B press the master disks 41 A and 41 B without excessively deforming the master disks 41 A and 41 B in the pressed regions. The asperities formed on the master disks 41 A and 41 B are transferred onto the transfer layers 43 , against which the master disks 41 A and 41 B are pressed. The transfer layers 43 are cured by irradiating with light, heating, or cooling the transfer layers 43 while the master disks 41 A and 41 B are pressed against the transfer layers 43 or after the master disks 41 A and 41 B are peeled from the transfer layers 43 . The asperities as pieces of transfer information are transferred onto the slave disk 42 , which becomes a recording medium. A fourth embodiment of a transfer method, transfer apparatus, and recording medium according to the present invention will be described. FIG. 7 is a sectional view showing the fourth embodiment. A transfer apparatus ID is divided into a container upper portion 2 and a container lower portion 3 . The container upper and lower portions 2 and 3 unite together with a fastening device 9 . At the container upper portion 2 , a joint 8 A which serves as an inlet for fluid is provided. A joint 8 B is also provided at the container lower portion 3 . Pipes connected to the joints 8 A and 8 B branch from a common pipe connected to a fluid source (not shown). With this configuration, fluids with a single pressure are respectively supplied to the container upper portion 2 and container lower portion 3 through the joints 8 A and 8 B. Master disks 44 A and 44 B serving as master carriers and a slave disk 42 serving as a slave medium are housed in the container upper portion 2 and container lower portion 3 such that the slave disk 42 is sandwiched between the master disks 44 A and 44 B. Transfer layers 43 made of, a resin which is cured by light, heat, or the like or low-melting glass, etc., are provided on the two surfaces of the slave disk 42 . Asperities on the master disks 44 A and 44 B corresponding to the shapes of recording bits or the like are satisfactorily transferred onto the transfer layers 43 by irradiating with light, heating, or cooling the transfer layers 43 while the master disks 44 A and 44 B are pressed against the transfer layers 43 or after the master disks 44 A and 44 B are peeled from the transfer layers 43 . A ring-shaped outside spacer 6 is arranged around the outer periphery of the slave disk 42 . Sealing members 7 A and 7 B are respectively provided above and below the outside spacer 6 . Edges of the master disks 44 A and 44 B are held by the outside spacer 6 and sealing members 7 A and 7 B. The inside diameter of the outside spacer 6 is slightly larger than the outside diameter of the slave disk 42 , and a space B is left between the outside spacer 6 and the slave disk 42 . A thickness t of the outside spacer 6 is slightly larger than the sum of the thicknesses of the slave disk 42 and transfer layers 43 , and spaces C are left between the slave disk 42 and the master disks 44 A and 44 B. At this time, the inside diameter of the outside spacer 6 is selected based on the outside diameter of the slave disk 42 such that the width of the space B is adjusted to not more than five times the thickness of the master disk 44 A or 44 B. The thickness t of the outside spacer 6 is selected not to be larger than the sum of the thicknesses of the slave disk 42 and transfer layers 43 by more than 0.2 mm. The width of each space C is adjusted to not more than 0.2 mm. FIG. 11 is an enlarged sectional view showing a fixed state in the fourth embodiment of the present invention. By making the inside diameter of the sealing member 7 A or 7 B close to the outside diameter of the slave disk 42 , as shown in FIG. 11 , and fixing the master disk 44 A or 44 B to the sealing member 7 A or 7 B, the width of a portion of the master disk 44 A or 44 B, the portion is unfixed and adjacent to the space B may be set to not more than five times the thickness of the master disk 44 A or 44 B. In the transfer apparatus with the above-described configuration, when information bearing surfaces of the master disks 44 A and 44 B are to be brought into close contact with the transfer layers 43 of the slave disk 42 by a predetermined pressing force, the container upper portion 2 and container lower portion 3 are first coupled together by the fastening device 9 . This operation forms a void surrounded by the container upper portion 2 , sealing member 7 A and master disk 44 A, and a void surrounded by the container lower portion 3 , sealing member 7 B and master disk 44 B. In this state, fluid with a pressure of 0.1 to 1 MPa is supplied to the voids from the fluid source (not shown) through the respective joints 8 A and 8 B. With this operation, the master disks 44 A and 44 B are uniformly pressed all over pressed regions whose widths are equal to the inside diameters of the sealing members 7 A and 7 B. Letting d be a thickness and E be a Young's modulus and assuming that the widths of the pressed regions under the pressure of the fluid are 1 m, the master disks 44 A and 44 B each have a rigidity which satisfies the following relation: dE 3 /12≦8N·m 2 . The pressed master disks 44 A and 44 B come into close contact with the transfer layers 43 with predetermined pressing forces. Since the pressing forces are produced by fluid, pressurization is uniform over the pressed regions. In addition, since the fluid is supplied from a single pipeline, the pressing forces applied to the master disks 44 A and 44 B in close contact with the transfer layers 43 are equal. The master disks 44 A and 44 B are adjusted such that they do not cave in toward the adjusted space B and that the amount of deformation in each pressed region is small. The master disks 44 A and 44 B are also adjusted such that the amount of deformation at a portion corresponding to each adjusted space C is small. Asperities formed on the master disks 44 A and 44 B are transferred onto the transfer layers 43 , against which the master disks 44 A and 44 B are pressed. The transfer layers 43 are cured by irradiating with light, heating, or cooling the transfer layers 43 while the master disks 44 A and 44 B are pressed against the transfer layers 43 or after the master disks 44 A and 44 B are peeled from the transfer layers 43 . The asperities as pieces of transfer information are transferred onto the slave disk 42 , which becomes a recording medium. EXAMPLES Concrete examples of a transfer method, transfer apparatus, and recording medium according to the present invention will now be described. FIG. 12 is a chart showing data obtained when pieces of transfer information represented by asperities formed on the master disks 10 A and 10 B were transferred by the transfer apparatus 1 A shown in FIG. 4 . In transfer, master carriers for magnetic transfer (inside diameter: 20.0 mm, outside diameter: 65.0 mm, thickness: 0.30 mm) were used for each slave medium (inside diameter: 20.0 mm, outside diameter: 65.0 mm, thickness: 0.50 mm) which was manufactured by a known manufacturing method and was subjected to initial DC magnetization. The thicknesses of flexible films were set to 0.1 mm. Six combinations of the outside diameter and thickness of an inside spacer, the inside diameter and thickness of an outside spacer, the widths of spaces around the inner and outer peripheries of a slave medium, and the width of a space in the thickness direction of the slave medium were prepared, as shown in FIG. 12 . Air with a pressure of 0.2 MPa was supplied, magnetic transfer was performed by a transfer method according to the present invention, and track signals were transferred from the master carriers onto the slave medium. Evaluation of each slave medium after transfer was performed by an electromagnetic conversion characteristics measuring device (SS-60, made by KYODO DENSHI SYSTEM CO., LTD.). An inductive head having a head gap of 0.32 μm and a track width of 3.0 μm was used as a head. Signals of one track at a distance of 25 mm from the center of the slave medium were read by the head. Out-of-roundness was calculated from the positional information of the head obtained by removing components associated with vibrations of the head, eccentricity of a spindle, and the like from the signals. As for each of slave media Nos. 1 to 4 meeting the conditions of the width of a space in a thickness direction being not more than 0.2 mm and the widths of spaces around the inner and outer peripheries of a slave medium being not more than five times the thickness of flexible films, i.e., not more than 0.5 mm, a satisfactory result was obtained: the out-of-roundness was not more than 500 nm, which is a threshold value for identifying good products. Pieces of transfer information represented by asperities formed on the master disks 40 A and 40 B were transferred by the transfer apparatus 1 B shown in FIG. 5 . When a slave medium and master carriers were configured to meet the same conditions as those in the example using the transfer apparatus 1 A, an inside spacer was configured to have an outside diameter of 19.95 mm and a thickness of 0.53 mm, and an outside spacer was configured to have an inside diameter of 65.05 mm and a thickness of 0.53 mm, a satisfactory result was also obtained: the out-of-roundness was 343 nm. In the transfer apparatus 1 C shown in FIG. 6 , a nickel substrate having a thickness of 0.2 mm and a diameter of 65 mm on which a circular pattern concentric with the nickel substrate having a line width of 100 nm and a height of 100 nm was provided was used as each master carrier, and a glass substrate having a thickness of 0.5 mm and a diameter of 65 mm which was spin-coated with light-curing resin was used as a slave medium. Films of PET resin having a thickness of 0.1 mm were additionally used as flexible films, an outside spacer was configured to have an inside diameter of 65.05 mm and a thickness of 0.53 mm, and the pressure of air to be supplied was set to 0.1 MPa. Under these conditions, transfer of the circular pattern onto the slave medium was performed while pressing the master carriers against the slave medium. A satisfactory result was obtained: the out-of-roundness of the transferred circular pattern measured by the roundness measuring machine was 220 nm. Similarly, in the transfer apparatus ID shown in FIG. 7 , a nickel substrate having a thickness of 0.3 mm and a diameter of 65 mm on which a circular pattern concentric with the nickel substrate having a line width of 100 nm and a height of 100 nm was provided was used as each master carrier, and a glass substrate having a thickness of 0.5 mm and a diameter of 65 mm which was spin-coated with light-curing resin was used as a slave medium. An outside spacer was configured to have an inside diameter of 65.05 mm and a thickness of 0.53 mm, and the pressure of air to be supplied was set to 0.1 MPa. Under these conditions, transfer of the circular pattern onto the slave medium was performed while pressing the master carriers against the slave medium. A satisfactory result was obtained: the out-of-roundness of the transferred circular pattern measured by the roundness measuring machine was 480 nm. As has been described above, according to a transfer method, transfer apparatus, and recording medium of embodiments of the present invention, deformation of a master carrier caused by a space left at the time of pressing is reduced, and it is possible to transfer asperities formed on the master carrier or transfer information represented by the asperities onto a slave medium with fidelity in the order of nanometers.

A transfer method for transferring asperities formed on a master carrier or transfer information represented by the asperities onto a slave medium, comprises the step of bringing the master carrier on which microscopic asperities are formed into close contact with the slave medium by pressing the master carrier by pressure of fluid in a direct manner or an indirect manner through a flexible film. Deformation of the master carrier or the flexible film in a pressed region where the pressure of the fluid is applied is prevented, and transfer is performed while the master carrier is in close contact with the slave medium.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a National Stage application under 35 U.S.C. §371 of PCT Application No. PCT/GB2007/001365, filed Apr. 13, 2007, entitled “Mass Spectrometer With Ion Storage Device”, which claims the priority benefit of U.K. Application No. GB0607542.8, filed Apr. 13, 2006, entitled “Mass Spectrometer With Ion Storage Device”, which applications are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a mass spectrometer and a method of mass spectrometry, in particular for performing MS n experiments. BACKGROUND TO THE INVENTION Tandem mass spectrometry is a well known technique by which trace analysis and structural elucidation of samples may be carried out. In a first step, parent ions are mass analysed/filtered to select ions of a mass to change ratio of interest, and in a second step these ions are fragmented by, for example, collision with a gas such as argon. The resultant fragment ions are then mass analysed usually by producing a mass spectrum. Various arrangements for carrying out multiple stage mass analysis or MS n have been proposed or are commercially available, such as the triple quadrupole mass spectrometer and the hybrid quadrupole/time-of-flight mass spectrometer. In the triple quadrupole, a first quadrupole Q1 acts as a first stage of mass analysis by filtering out ions outside of a chosen mass-to-charge ratio range. A second quadrupole Q2 is typically arranged as a quadrupole ion guide arranged in a gas collision cell. The fragment ions that result from the collisions in Q2 are then mass analysed by the third quadrupole Q3 downstream of Q2. In the hybrid arrangement, the second analysing quadrupole Q3 may be replaced by a time-of-flight (TOF) mass spectrometer. In each case, separate analysers are employed before and after the collision cell. In GB-A-2,400,724, various arrangements are described wherein a single mass filter/analyser is employed to carry out filtering and analysis in both directions. In particular, an ion detector is positioned upstream of the mass filter/analyser, and ions pass through the mass filter/analyser to be stored in a downstream ion trap. The ions are then ejected from the downstream trap back through the mass filter/analyser before being detected by the upstream ion detector. Various fragmentation procedures, still employing a single mass filter/analyser, are also described, which permit MS/MS experiments to be carried out. Similar arrangements are also shown in WO-A-2004/001878 (Verentchikov et al). Ions are passed from a source to a TOF analyser, which acts as an ion selector, from where ions are ejected to a fragmentation cell. From here, they pass back through the TOF analyser and are detected. For MS n , the fragment ions can be recycled through the spectrometer. US-A-2004/0245455 (Reinhold) carries out a similar procedure for MS n but employs a high sensitivity linear trap rather than a TOF analyser to carry out the ion selection. JP-A-2001-143654 relates to an ion trap, ejecting ions on a circular orbit for mass separation followed by detection. The present invention seeks against this background to provide an improved method and apparatus for MS n . SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION According to a first aspect of the present invention there is provided a method of mass spectrometry comprising the steps of, in a first cycle, storing sample ions in a first ion storage device, the first ion storage device having an exit aperture and a spatially separate ion transport aperture; ejecting the stored ions out of the exit aperture; transporting the ejected ions into an ion selection device which is spatially separated from the said first ion storage device; carrying out ion selection within the spatially separated ion selection device; returning at least some of the ions ejected from the first ion storage device, or their derivatives, back from the spatially separate ion selection device to the first ion storage device, following the step of ion selection; receiving the said returned ions through the ion transport aperture of the first ion storage device; and storing the received ions in the first ion storage device. This cycle may be repeated, optionally, multiple times, so as to allow MS n . The present invention thus employs a cyclical arrangement in which ions are trapped, optionally cooled, ejected from an exit aperture and transported to a separate location. These ions (or a subset thereof, following external processing such as fragmentation, ion selection, and so forth) are returned to the ion storage device, where they re-enter this ion storage device via a second, spatially separate ion transport aperture (acting in this case as an inlet aperture). This cyclical arrangement provides a number of advantages over the art identified in the introduction above, which instead employs a “back and forth” procedure via the same aperture in the ion trap. Firstly, the number of devices required to store and inject ions into the ion selector is minimised (and in the preferred embodiment is just one). Modern storage and injection devices that permit very high mass resolution and dynamic range are expensive to produce and demanding to control so that the arrangement of the present invention represents a significant cost and control saving over the art. Secondly, by using the same (first) ion storage device to inject into, and receive ions back from, an external ion selection device, the number of MS stages is reduced. This in turn improves ion transport efficiency which depends upon the number of MS stages. Typically, ions ejected from an external ion selector will have very different characteristics to those of the ions ejected from the ion storage device. By loading ions into the ion storage device through a dedicated ion inlet port (the first ion transport aperture), particularly when arriving back at the ion storage device from an external fragmentation device, this process can be carried out in a well controlled manner. This minimises ion losses which in turn improves the ion transport efficiency of the apparatus. In a preferred embodiment of the invention, a fragmentation device is located externally of the ion storage device. In certain preferred embodiments, the fragmentation device is located between the ion selection device (but externally thereof) and the ion storage device. An ion source may be provided to supply a continuous or pulsed stream of sample ions to the ion storage device. In one preferred arrangement, the optional fragmentation device may be located between such an ion source and the ion storage device instead. In either case, complicated MS n experiments may be carried out in parallel by allowing division of (and, optionally, separate analysis of) sub populations of ions, either directly from the ion source or deriving from previous cycles of MS. This in turn results in an increase in the duty cycle of the instrument and can likewise improve the detection limits of it as well. Although preferred embodiments of the invention may employ any ion selection device, it is particularly suited to and beneficial in combination with an electrostatic trap (EST). In recent years, mass spectrometers including electrostatic traps (ESTs) have started to become commercially available. Relative to quadrupole mass analysers/filters, ESTs have a much higher mass accuracy (parts per million, potentially), and relative to quadrupole-orthogonal acceleration TOF instruments, they have a much superior duty cycle and dynamic range. Within the framework of this application, an EST is considered as a general class of ion optical devices wherein moving ions change their direction of movement at least along one direction multiple times in substantially electrostatic fields. If these multiple reflections are confined within a limited volume so that ion trajectories are winding over themselves, then the resultant EST is known as a “closed” type. Examples of this “closed” type of mass spectrometer may be found in U.S. Pat. No. 3,226,543, DE-A-04408489, and U.S. Pat. No. 5,886,346. Alternatively, ions could combine multiple changes in one direction with a shift along another direction so that the ion trajectories do not wind on themselves. Such ESTs are typically referred to as of the “open” type and examples may be found in GB-A-2,080,021, SU-A-1,716,922, SU-A-1,725,289, WO-A-2005/001878, and US-A-20050103992 FIG. 2. Of the electrostatic traps, some, such as those described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,300,625, US-A-2005/0,103,992 and WO-A-2005/001878 are filled from an external ion source and eject ions to an external detector downstream of the EST. Others, such as the Orbitrap as described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,886,346, employ techniques such as image current detection to detect ions within the trap without ejection. Electrostatic traps may be used for precise mass selection of externally injected ions (as described, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 6,872,938 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,013,913). Here, precursor ions are selected by applying AC voltages in resonance with ion oscillations in the EST. Moreover, fragmentation within the EST is achieved through the introduction of a collision gas, laser pulses or otherwise, and subsequent excitation steps are necessary to achieve detection of the resultant fragments (in the case of the arrangements of U.S. Pat. No. 6,872,938 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,013,913, this is done through image current detection). Electrostatic traps are not, however, without difficulties. For example, ESTs typically have demanding ion injection requirements. For example, our earlier patent applications number WO-A-02/078046 and WO05124821A2 describe the use of a linear trap (LT) to achieve the combination of criteria required to ensure that highly coherent packets are injected into an EST device. The need to produce very short time duration ion packets (each of which contains large numbers of ions) for such high performance, high mass resolution devices means that the direction of optimum ion extraction in such ion injection devices is typically different from the direction of efficient ion capture. Secondly, advanced ESTs tend to have stringent vacuum requirements to avoid ion losses, whereas the ion traps and fragmentors to which they may interface are typically gas filled so that there is typically at least 5 orders of magnitude pressure differential between such devices and the EST. To avoid fragmentation during ion extraction, it is necessary to minimise the product of pressure by gas thickness (typically, to keep it below 10 −3 . . . 10 −2 mm*torr), while for efficient ion trapping this product needs to be maximised (typically, to exceed 0.2 . . . 0.5 mm*torr) Where the ion selection device is an EST, therefore, in a preferred embodiment of the present invention, the use of an ion storage device with different ion inlet and exit ports permits the same ion storage device to provide ions in an appropriate manner for injection into the EST, but nevertheless to allow the stream or long pulses of ions coming back from the EST via the fragmentation device to be loaded back into that first ion storage device in a well controlled manner, through the second or in certain embodiments, the third ion transport aperture. Any form of electrostatic trap may be used, if this is what constitutes the ion selection device. A particularly preferred arrangement involves an EST in which the ion beam cross-section remains limited due to the focusing effect of the electrodes of the EST, as this improves efficiency of the subsequent ion ejection from the EST. Either an open or a closed type EST could be used. Multiple reflections allow for increasing separation between ions of different mass-to-charge ratios, so that a specific mass-to-charge ratio of interest may, optionally, be selected, or simply a narrower range of mass-to-charge ratios than was injected into the ion selection device. Selection could be done by deflecting unwanted ions using electric pulses applied to dedicated electrodes, preferably located in the plane of time-of-flight focus of ion mirrors. In the case of closed EST, a multitude of deflection pulses might be required to provide progressively narrowing m/z ranges of selection. It is possible to use the fragmentation device in two modes: in a first mode, precursor ions can be fragmented in the fragmentation device in the usual manner, and in a second mode, by controlling the ion energy, precursor ions can pass through the fragmentation device without fragmentation. This allows both MS n and ion abundance improvement, together or separately: once ions have been injected from the first ion storage device into the ion selection device, specific low abundance precursor ions can be ejected controllably from the ion selection device and be stored back in the first ion storage device, without having been fragmented in the fragmentation device. This may be achieved by passing these low abundance precursor ions through the fragmentation device at energies insufficient to cause fragmentation. Energy spread could be reduced for a given m/z by employing pulsed deceleration fields (e.g. formed in a gap between two flat electrodes with apertures). When ions enter a decelerating electric field on the way back from the mass selector to the first ion storage device, higher energy ions overtake lower energy ions and thus move to a greater depth in the deceleration field. After all the ions of this particular m/z enter the deceleration field, the field is switched off. Therefore ions with initially higher energy experience a higher drop in potential relatively to ground potential than the lower energy ions, thus making their energies equal. By matching the potential drop to the energy spread upon exit from the mass selector, a significant reduction of the energy spread may be achieved. Fragmentation of ions may thereby be avoided, or, alternatively, control over the fragmentation may be improved. In accordance with a second aspect of the present invention, there is provided a mass spectrometer comprising an ion storage device and an ion selection device. The ion storage device has an ion exit aperture for ejecting, in a first cycle, ions stored in the said ion storage device, and a spatially separate ion transport aperture for capturing, in the said first cycle, ions returning to the ion storage device. The ion selection device is discrete and spatially separated from the ion storage device but is in communication therewith. The ion selection device is also configured to receive ions ejected from the ion storage device, to select a subset of those ions and to eject the selected subset for recapture and storage of at least some of those ions or a derivative of these, within the ion storage device, via the said spatially separate ion transport aperture. The invention in this aspect also extends to such a mass spectrometer including an external ion fragmentation device. In accordance with a further aspect of the present invention, there is provided a method of mass spectrometry comprising storing ions in a first ion storage device; ejecting ions from the first ion storage device to an ion selection device; selecting a subset of ions within the ion selection device; ejecting the ions from the ion selection device; capturing at least some of the selected ions in one of a fragmentation device or second ion storage device; and returning at least some of the ions captured in the said one of the fragmentation device or second ion storage device respectively, or their products, to the first ion storage device along a return ion path that bypasses the ion selection device. The present invention may also extend to a mass spectrometer arranged to perform this method. In still a further aspect of the present invention there is provided a method of improving the detection limits of a mass spectrometer comprising generating sample ions from an ion source; storing the sample ions in a first ion storage device; ejecting the stored ions into an ion selection device; selecting and ejecting ions of a chosen mass to charge ratio out of the ion selection device; storing the ions ejected from the ion selection device in a second ion storage device without passing them back through the ion selection device; repeating the preceding steps to so as to augment the ions of the said chosen mass to charge ratio stored in the second ion storage device; and transferring the augmented ions of the said chosen mass to charge ratio back to the first ion storage device for subsequent analysis. This technique allows the detection limit of the instrument to be improved, where the ions of the chosen mass to charge ratio are of low abundance in the sample. Once a sufficient quantity of these low abundance precursor ions have been built up in the second ion storage device, they can be injected back to the first ion storage device for capture there (again, bypassing the ion selection device) and subsequent MS n analysis, for example. Although preferably the ions leave the first ion storage device through a first ion transport aperture and are received back into it via a second separate ion transport aperture, this is not essential in this aspect of the invention and ejection and capture through the same aperture are feasible. Optionally, at the same time as the low abundance precursor ions are being moved to the second ion storage device to improve total population of these particular precursor ions, the ion selection device may continue to retain and further refine the selection of other desired precursor ions. When sufficiently narrowly selected, these precursor ions can be ejected from the ion selection device and fragmented in a fragmentation device to produce fragment ions. These fragment ions may then be transferred to the first ion storage device, and MS n of these fragment ions may then be carried out or they may likewise be stored in the second ion storage device so that subsequent cycles may further enrich the number of ions stored in this way to again increase the detection limit of the instrument for that particular fragment ion. Thus in accordance with a further aspect of the present invention there is provided a method of improving the detection limits of a mass spectrometer comprising (a) generating sample ions from an ion source; (b) storing the sample ions in a first ion storage device; (c) ejecting the stored ions into an ion selection device; (d) selecting and ejecting ions of analytical interest out of the ion selection device; (e) fragmenting the ions ejected from the ion selection device in a fragmentation device; (f) storing fragment ions of a chosen mass to charge ratio in a second ion storage device without passing them back through the ion selection device; (g) repeating the preceding steps (a) to (f) so as to augment the fragment ions of the said chosen mass to charge ratio stored in the second ion storage device, and (g) transferring the augmented fragment ions of the said chosen mass to charge ratio back to the first ion storage device for subsequent analysis. As above, ion ejection from the first ion storage device and ion capture back there may be through separate ion transport apertures or through the same one. Ions in the first ion storage device may be mass-analysed either in a separate mass analyser, such as an Orbitrap as described in the above-referenced U.S. Pat. No. 5,886,346, or may instead be injected back into the ion selection device for mass analysis there. In accordance with still another aspect of the present invention there is provided a method of mass spectrometry comprising accumulating ions in an ion trap, injecting the accumulated ions into an ion selection device, selecting and ejecting a subset of the ions in the ion selection device, and storing the ejected subset of the ions directly back in the ion trap without intermediate ion storage. Other preferred embodiments and advantages of the present invention will become apparent from the following description of a preferred embodiment. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The present invention may be put into practice in a number of ways and one preferred embodiment will now be described by way of example only and with reference to the accompanying drawings in which: FIG. 1 shows, in block diagram form, an overview of a mass spectrometer embodying the present invention; FIG. 2 shows a preferred implementation of the mass spectrometer of FIG. 1 , including an electrostatic trap and a separate fragmentation cell; FIG. 3 shows a schematic representation of one particularly suitable arrangement of an electrostatic trap for use with the mass spectrometer of FIG. 2 ; FIG. 4 shows a first alternative arrangement of a mass spectrometer embodying the present invention; FIG. 5 shows a second alternative arrangement of a mass spectrometer embodying the present invention; FIG. 6 shows a third alternative arrangement of a mass spectrometer embodying the present invention; FIG. 7 shows a fourth alternative arrangement of a mass spectrometer embodying the present invention; FIG. 8 shows a fifth alternative arrangement of a mass spectrometer embodying the present invention; FIG. 9 shows an ion mirror arrangement for increasing energy dispersion of ions prior to injection into the fragmentation cell of FIGS. 1 , 2 , and 4 - 8 ; FIG. 10 shows a first embodiment of an ion deceleration arrangement for reducing energy spread prior to injection of ions into the fragmentation cell of FIGS. 1 , 2 , and 4 - 8 ; FIG. 11 shows a second embodiment of an ion deceleration arrangement for reducing energy spread prior to injection of ions into the fragmentation cell of FIGS. 1 , 2 , and 4 - 8 ; FIG. 12 shows a plot of energy spread of ions as a function of the switching time of a voltage applied to the ion deceleration arrangement of FIGS. 10 and 11 ; and FIG. 13 shows a plot of spatial spread of ions as a function of the switching time of a voltage applied to the ion deceleration arrangement of FIGS. 10 and 11 . DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Referring first to FIG. 1 , a mass spectrometer 10 is shown in block diagram format. The mass spectrometer 10 comprises an ion source 20 for generating ions to be mass analysed. The ions from the ion source 20 are admitted into an ion trap 30 which may, for example, be a gas-filled RF multipole or a curved quadrupole as is described, for example, in WO-A-05124821. The ions are stored in the ion trap 30 , and collisional cooling of the ions may take place as is described for example in our co-pending application number GB0506287.2, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. Ions stored in the ion trap 30 may then be pulse-ejected towards an ion selection device which is preferably an electrostatic trap 40 . Pulsed ejection produces narrow ion packets. These are captured in the electrostatic trap 40 and experience multiple reflections therein in a manner to be described in connection particularly with FIG. 3 below. On each reflection, or after a certain number of reflections, unwanted ions are pulse-deflected out of the electrostatic trap 40 , for example to a detector 75 or to a fragmentation cell 50 . Preferably, the ion detector 75 is located close to the plane of time-of-flight focus of the ion mirrors, where the duration of the ion packets is at a minimum. Thus, only ions of analytical interest are left in the electrostatic trap 40 . Further reflections will continue to increase the separation between adjacent masses, so that further narrowing of the selection window may be achieved. Ultimately, all ions having a mass-to-charge ratio adjacent to the mass-to-charge ratio m/z of interest are eliminated. After the selection process is completed, ions are transferred out of the electrostatic trap 40 into the fragmentation cell 50 which is external to the electrostatic trap 40 . Ions of analytical interest that remain in the electrostatic trap 40 at the end of the selection procedure are ejected with sufficient energy to allow them to fragment within the fragmentation cell 50 . Following fragmentation in the fragmentation cell, ion fragments are transferred back into the ion trap 30 . Here they are stored, so that, in a further cycle, a next stage of MS may be carried out. In this manner, MS/MS or, indeed, MS n may be achieved. An alternative or additional feature of the arrangement of FIG. 1 is that ions ejected from the electrostatic trap (because they are outside the selection window) may be passed through the fragmentation cell 50 without fragmentation. Typically, this could be achieved by decelerating such ions at relatively low energies so that they do not have sufficient energy to fragment in the fragmentation cell. These unfragmented ions which are outside of the selection window of immediate interest in a given cycle can be transferred onwards from the collision cell 50 to a auxiliary ion storage device 60 . In subsequent cycles (for example, when further mass spectrometric analysis of the fragment ions as described above has been completed), the ions rejected from the electrostatic trap 40 in the first instance (because they are outside of the selection window of previous interest) can be transferred from the auxiliary ion storage device 60 to the ion trap 30 for separate analysis. Moreover the auxiliary ion storage device 60 can be used to increase the number of ions of a particular mass to charge ratio, particularly when these ions have a relatively low abundance in the sample to be analysed. This is achieved by using the fragmentation device in non-fragmentation mode and setting the electrostatic trap to pass only ions of particular mass to charge ratio that is of interest but which is of limited abundance. These ions are stored in the auxiliary ion storage device 60 but are augmented by additional ions of that same chosen mass to charge ratio selected and ejected from the electrostatic trap 40 using similar criteria in subsequent cycles. Ions of multiple m/z ratios could be stored together as well, e.g. by using several ejections from the trap 40 with different m/z. Of course, either the previously unwanted precursor ions, or the precursor ions that are of interest but which have a low abundance in the sample and thus first need to be increased in number, can be the subject of subsequent fragmentation for MS n . In that case, the auxiliary ion storage device 60 could first eject its contents into the fragmentation cell 50 , rather than transferring its contents directly back to the ion trap 30 . Mass analysis of ions can take place at various locations and in various ways. For example, ions stored in the ion trap may be mass-analysed in the electrostatic trap 40 (more details of which are set out below in connection with FIG. 2 ). Additionally or alternatively, a separate mass analyser 70 may be provided in communication with the ion trap 30 . Turning now to FIG. 2 , a preferred embodiment of a mass spectrometer 10 is shown in more detail. The ion source 20 shown in FIG. 2 is a pulsed laser source (preferably a matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization (MALDI) source in which ions are generated through irradiation from a pulsed laser source 22 ). Nevertheless, a continuous ion source, such as an atmospheric pressure electrospray source, could equally be employed. Between the ion trap 30 and the ion source 20 is a pre-trap 24 which may, for example, be a segmented RF-only gas-filled multipole. Once the pre-trap is filled, ions in it are transferred into the ion trap 30 , which in the preferred embodiment is a gas-filled RF-only linear quadrupole, via a lens arrangement 26 . The ions are stored in the ion trap 30 until the RF is switched off and a DC voltage is applied across the rods. This technique is set out in detail in our co-pending applications, published as GB-A-2,415,541 and WO-A-2005/124821, the details of which are incorporated herein in their entirety. The applied voltage gradient accelerates ions through ion optics 32 which may, optionally, include a grid or electrode 34 arranged to sense charge. The charge-sensing grid 34 permits estimation of the number of ions. It is desirable to have an estimate of the number of ions since, if there are too many ions, the resulting mass shifts become difficult to compensate. Thus, if the ion number exceeds a predefined limit (as estimated using the grid 34 ), all ions may be discarded and an accumulation of ions in the pre-trap 24 may be repeated, with a proportionally lowered number of pulses from the pulsed laser 22 , and/or a proportionally shorter duration of accumulation. Other techniques for controlling the number of trapped ions could be employed, such as are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,572,022, for example. After acceleration through the ion optics 32 the ions are focused into short packets between 10 and 100 ns long for each m/z and enter the mass selector 40 . Various forms of ion selection device may be employed, as will become apparent from the following. If the ion selection device is an electrostatic trap, for example, the specific details of that are not critical to the invention. For example, the electrostatic trap, if employed, may be open or closed, with two or more ion mirrors or electric sectors, and with or without orbiting. At present, a simple and preferred arrangement of an electrostatic trap embodying the ion selection device 40 is shown in FIG. 3 . This simple arrangement comprises two electrostatic mirrors 42 , 44 and two modulators 46 , 48 that either keep ions on a recurring path or deflect them outside of this path. The mirrors may be formed of either a circular or a parallel plate. As the voltages on the mirrors are static, they may be sustained with very high accuracy, which is favourable for stability and mass accuracy within the electrostatic trap 40 . The modulators 46 , 48 are typically a compact pair of openings with pulsed or static voltages applied across them, normally with guard plates on both sides to control fringing fields. Voltage pulses with rise and fall times of less than 10-100 ns (measured between 10% and 90% of peak) and amplitudes up to a few hundred volts are preferable for high-resolution selection of precursor ions. Preferably, both modulators 46 and 48 are located in the planes of time-of-flight focusing of the corresponding mirrors 42 , 44 which, in turn, may preferably but do not necessarily coincide with the centre of the electrostatic trap 40 . Typically, ions are detected through image current detection (which is in itself a well known technique and is not therefore described further). Returning again to FIG. 2 , after a sufficient number of reflections and voltage pulses within the electrostatic trap 40 , only a narrow mass range of interest is left in the electrostatic trap 40 , thus completing precursor ion selection. Selected ions in the EST 40 are then deflected on a path that is different from their input path and which leads to the fragmentation cell 50 , or alternatively the ions may pass to detector 75 . Preferably, this diversion to the fragmentation cell is performed through a deceleration lens 80 which is described in further detail in connection with FIGS. 9 to 13 below. The ultimate energy of the collisions within the fragmentation cell 50 may be adjusted by appropriate biasing of the DC offset on the fragmentation cell 50 . Preferably, the fragmentation cell 50 is a segmented RF-only multipole with axial DC field created along its segments. With appropriate gas density in the fragmentation cell (detailed below) and energy (which is typically between 30 and 50 V/kDa), ion fragments are transported through the cell towards the ion trap 30 again. Alternatively or concurrently, ions could be trapped within the fragmentation cell 50 and then be fragmented using other types of fragmentation such as electron transfer dissociation (ETD), electron capture dissociation (ECD), surface-induced dissociation (SID), photo-induced dissociation (PID), and so forth. Once the ions have been stored in the ion trap 30 again, they are ready for onward transmission towards the electrostatic trap 40 for a further stage of MS n , or towards the electrostatic trap 40 for mass analysis there, or alternatively towards the mass analyser 70 which may be a time-of-flight (TOF) mass spectrometer or an RF ion trap or FT ICR or, as shown in FIG. 2 , an Orbitrap mass spectrometer. Preferably, the mass analyser 70 has its own automatic gain control (AGC) facilities, to limit or regulate space charge. In the embodiment of FIG. 2 , this is carried out through an electrometer grid 90 on the entrance to the Orbitrap 70 . An optional detector 75 may be placed on one of the exit paths from the electrostatic trap 40 . This may be used for a multitude of purposes. For example, the detector may be employed for accurate control of the number of ions during a pre-scan (that is, automatic gain control), with ions arriving directly from the ion trap 30 . Additionally or alternatively, those ions outside of the mass window of interest (in other words, unwanted ions from the ion source, at least in that cycle of the mass analysis) may be detected using the detector. As a further alternative, the selected mass range in the electrostatic 40 may be detected with high resolution, following multiple reflections in the EST as described above. Still a further modification may involve the detection of heavy singly-charged molecules such as proteins, polymers and DNAs with appropriate post-acceleration stages. By way of example only, the detector may be an electron multiplier or a microchannel/microsphere plate which has single ion sensitivity and can be used for detection of weak signals. Alternatively, the detector may be a collector and can thus measure very strong signals (potentially more than 10 4 ions in a peak). More than one detector could be employed, with modulators directing ion packets towards one or another according to spectral information obtained, for example, from the previous acquisition cycle. FIG. 4 illustrates an arrangement which is essentially similar to the arrangement of FIG. 2 though with some specific differences. As such, like reference numerals denote parts common to the arrangements of FIGS. 2 and 4 . The arrangement of FIG. 4 again comprises an ion source 20 which supplies ions to a pre-trap which in the embodiment of FIG. 4 is a auxiliary ion storage device 60 . Downstream of that pre-trap/auxiliary ion storage device 60 is a ion trap 30 (which in the preferred embodiment is a curved trap) and a fragmentation cell 50 . In contrast to the arrangement of FIG. 2 , however, the arrangement of FIG. 4 locates the fragmentation cell between the ion trap 30 and the auxiliary ion storage device 60 , that is, on the “source” side of the ion trap, rather than between the ion trap and the electrostatic trap as it is located in FIG. 2 . In use, ions are built up in the ion trap 30 and then orthogonally ejected from it through ion optics 32 to an electrostatic trap 40 . A first modulator/deflector 100 downstream of the ion optics 32 directs the ions from the ion trap 30 into the EST 40 . Ions are reflected along the axis of the EST 40 and, following ion selection there, they are ejected back to the ion trap 30 . To assist with ion guiding in that process, an optional electric sector (such as a toroidal or cylindrical capacitor) 110 may be employed. A deceleration lens is located between the electric sector 110 and the return path into the ion trap 30 . Deceleration may involve pulsed electric fields as described above. Due to the low pressure in the ion trap 30 , ions arriving back at that trap 30 fly through it and fragment in the fragmentation cell 50 which is located between that ion trap 30 and the auxiliary ion storage device 60 (i.e. on the ion source side of the ion trap 30 ). The fragments are then trapped in the ion trap 30 . As with FIG. 2 , an Orbitrap mass analyser 70 is employed to allow accurate mass analysis of ions ejected from the ion trap 30 at any chosen stage of MS n . The mass analyser 70 is located downstream of the ion trap (i.e. on the same side of the ion trap as the EST 40 ) and a second deflector 120 “gates” ions either to the EST 40 via the first deflector 100 or into the mass analyser 70 . Other components shown in FIG. 4 are RF only transport multipoles that act as interfaces between the various stages of the arrangement as will be well understood by those skilled in the art. Between the ion trap 30 and the fragmentation cell 50 may also be located an ion deceleration arrangement (see FIGS. 9-13 below). FIG. 5 shows a further alternative arrangement to that shown in FIG. 2 and FIG. 4 and like components are once again labelled with like reference numerals. The arrangement of FIG. 5 is similar to that of FIG. 2 in that ions are generated by an ion source 20 and then pass through (or bypass) a pre-trap and auxiliary ion storage device 60 before being stored in a ion trap 30 . Ions are orthogonally ejected from the ion trap 30 , through ion optics 32 , and are deflected by a first modulator/deflector 100 onto the axis of an EST 40 , as with FIG. 4 . In contrast to FIG. 4 , however, as an alternative to ion selection in the EST 40 , ions may instead be deflected by modulator/deflector 100 into an electric sector 110 and from there into a fragmentation cell 50 via an ion deceleration arrangement 80 . Thus (in contrast to FIG. 4 ) the fragmentation cell 50 is not on the source side of the ion trap 30 . Following ejection from the fragmentation cell 50 , ions pass through a curved transport multipole 130 and then a linear RF only transport multipole 140 back into the ion trap 30 . An Orbitrap or other mass analyser 70 is again provided to permit accurate mass analysis at any stage of MS n . FIG. 6 shows still a further alternative arrangement which is essentially identical in concept to the arrangement of FIG. 2 , except that the EST 40 is not of the “closed” type trap illustrated in FIG. 3 , but is instead of the open type as is described in the documents set out in the introduction above. More specifically, the mass spectrometer of FIG. 6 comprises an ion source 20 which provides a supply of ions to a pre-trap/auxiliary ion store 60 (further ion optics is also shown but is not labelled in FIG. 6 ). Downstream of the pre-trap/auxiliary ion storage device 60 is a further ion storage device which in the arrangement of FIG. 6 is once again a curved ion trap 30 . Ions are ejected from the curved trap 30 in an orthogonal direction, through ion optics 32 , towards an EST 40 ′ where the ions undergo multiple reflections. A modulator/deflector 100 ′ is located towards the “exit” of the EST 40 ′ and this permits ions to be deflected either into a detector 150 or to a fragmentation cell 50 via an electric sector 110 and an ion decelerator arrangement 80 . From here, ions may be injected back into the ion trap 30 once more, again through an entrance aperture which is distinct from the exit aperture through which ions pass on their way to the EST 40 ′. The arrangement of FIG. 6 also includes associated ion optics but this is not shown for the sake of clarity in that Figure. In one alternative, the EST 40 ′ of FIG. 6 may employ parallel mirrors (see, for example, WO-A-2005/001878) or elongate electric sectors (see, for example, US-A-2005/0103992). More complex shapes of trajectories or EST ion optics could be used. FIG. 7 shows still a further embodiment of a mass spectrometer in accordance with aspects of the present invention. As with FIG. 4 , the spectrometer comprises an ion source 20 which supplies ions to a pre-trap which, as in the embodiment of FIG. 4 , is a auxiliary ion storage device 60 . Downstream of that pre-trap/auxiliary ion storage device 60 is a ion trap 30 (which in the preferred embodiment is a curved trap) and a fragmentation cell 50 . The fragmentation cell 50 could be located on either side of the ion trap 30 though in the embodiment of FIG. 7 the fragmentation cell 50 is shown between the ion source 20 and the ion trap 30 . As with the previous embodiments, an ion deceleration arrangement 80 is located in preference between the ion trap 30 and the fragmentation cell 50 . In use, ions enter the ion trap 30 via an ion entrance aperture 28 and are accumulated in the ion trap 30 . They are then orthogonally ejected through an exit aperture 29 which is separate from the entrance aperture 28 , to an electrostatic trap 40 . In the arrangement shown in FIG. 7 , the exit aperture is elongate in a direction generally perpendicular to the direction of ion ejection (i.e., the exit aperture 29 is slot-like). The ion position within the trap 30 is controlled so that the ions exit through one side (the left hand side as shown in FIG. 7 ) of the exit aperture 29 . Control of the position of the ions within the ion trap may be achieved in a number of ways, such as by applying differing voltages to electrodes (not shown) on the ends of the ion trap 30 . In one particular embodiment, ions may be ejected in a compact cylindrical distribution from the middle of the ion trap 30 whilst being recaptured as a much longer cylindrical distribution (as a result of divergence and aberrations within the system) of a much greater angular size. Modified ion optics 32 ′ are sited downstream of the exit from the ion trap 30 , and, downstream of that, a first modulator/deflector 100 ″ directs the ions into the EST 40 . Ions are reflected along the axis of the EST 40 . As an alternative to the directing of the ions from the ion trap 30 into the EST 40 , the ions may instead be deflected by a deflector 100 ″ downstream of the ion optics 32 ′ into an Orbitrap mass analyser 70 or the like. In the embodiment of FIG. 7 , the ion trap 30 operates both as a decelerator and as an ion selector. The extraction (dc) potential across the ion trap 30 is switched off and the trapping (rf) potential is switched on at the exact point at which ions of interest come to rest in the ion trap 30 following their return from the EST 40 . To inject into and eject from the EST 40 , the voltages on the mirror within the EST 40 ( FIG. 3 ) which is closest to the lenses is switched off in a pulsed manner. After ions of interest are captured in the ion trap 30 , they are accelerated towards the fragmentation cell 50 on either side of the ion trap 30 , where fragment ions are generated and then trapped. After that, the fragment ions can be transferred to the ion trap 30 once more. By ejecting ions from a first side of an elongate slot and capturing them back at or towards a second side of such a slot, the path of ejection from the ion trap 30 is not parallel to the path of recapture into that trap 30 . This in turn may allow injection of the ions into the EST 40 at an angle relative to the longitudinal axis of that EST 40 , as is shown in the embodiments of FIGS. 4 and 5 . Of course, although a single slot-like exit aperture 29 is shown in FIG. 7 , with ions exiting it towards a first side of that slot but being received back from the EST 40 via the other side of that slot, two (or more) separate but generally adjacent transport apertures (which may or may not then be elongate in the direction orthogonal to the direction of travel of ions through them) could instead be employed, with ions exiting via a first one of these transport apertures but returning into the ion trap 30 via an adjacent transport aperture. Indeed, not only could the slot like exit aperture 29 of FIG. 7 be subdivided into separate transport apertures spaced in an generally orthogonal direction to the direction of travel of the ions during ejection and injection, but the curved ion trap 30 of FIG. 7 could itself be subdivided into separate segments. Such an arrangement is shown in FIG. 8 . The arrangement of FIG. 8 is very similar to that of FIG. 7 , in that the spectrometer comprises an ion source 20 which supplies ions to a pre-trap which is a auxiliary ion storage device 60 . Downstream of that pre-trap/auxiliary ion storage device 60 is a ion trap 30 ′ (to be described further below) and a fragmentation cell 50 . As with the arrangement of FIG. 7 , the fragmentation cell 50 in FIG. 8 could be located on either side of the ion trap 30 ′ though in the embodiment of FIG. 8 the fragmentation cell 50 is shown between the ion source 20 and the ion trap 30 ′, the ion trap 30 ′ and the fragmentation cell 50 being separated by an optional ion deceleration arrangement 80 . Downstream of the ion trap 30 is a first modulator/deflector 100 ″″ which directs the ions into the EST 40 from an off axis direction. Ions are reflected along the axis of the EST 40 . To eject the ions from the EST 40 back to the ion trap 30 , a second modulator/deflector 100 ″ in the EST 40 is employed. As an alternative to the directing of the ions from the ion trap 30 into the EST 40 , the ions may instead be deflected by the deflector 100 ′″ into an Orbitrap mass analyser 70 or the like. The curved ion trap 30 ′ comprises in the embodiment of FIG. 8 , three adjoining segments 36 , 37 , 38 . The first and third segments 36 , 38 each have an ion transport aperture so that ions are ejected from the ion trap 30 ′ via the first transport aperture in the first segment 36 , into the EST 40 , but are received back into the ion trap 30 ′ via a second, spatially separate transport aperture in the third segment 38 . To achieve this, the same RF voltage may be applied to each segment of the ion trap 30 ′ (so that in that sense the ion trap 30 ′ acts as a single trap despite the several trap sections 36 , 37 , 38 ) but with different DC offsets applied to each section so that the ions are not distributed centrally in the axial direction of the curved ion trap 30 ′. In use, ions are stored in the ion trap 30 ′. By suitable adjustment of the DC voltage applied to the ion trap segments 36 , 37 , 38 , ions are caused to leave the ion trap 30 ′ via the first segment 36 for off axis injection into the EST 40 . The ions return to the ion trap 30 ′ and enter via the aperture in the third segment 38 . By maintaining the DC voltage on first and second segments 36 and 37 at a lower amplitude than the DC voltage applied to the third segment 38 when the ions are re-trapped from the EST 40 , the ions can be accelerated (eg by 30-50 ev/kDa) along the curved axis of the ion trap 30 ′ so that they undergo fragmentation. In this manner the ion trap 30 ′ is operable both as a trap and as a fragmentation device. The resultant fragment ions are then cooled and squeezed into the first segment 36 by increasing the DC offset voltage on the second and third segments 37 , 38 relative to the voltage on the first segment 36 . For optimal operation, fragmentation devices in particular require that the spread of energies of the ions injected into them is well controlled and held within a range of about 10-20 eV, since higher energies result in only low-mass fragments whereas lower energies provide little fragmentation. Many existing mass spectrometer arrangements, as well as the novel arrangements described in the embodiments of FIGS. 1 to 7 here, on the other hand, result in an energy spread of ions arriving at a fragmentation cell far in excess of that desirable narrow range. For example, in the arrangement of FIGS. 1 to 7 , the ions may spread in energy in the ion trap 30 , 301 due to spatial spread in that trap; due to space charge effects (e.g. Coulomb expansion during multiple reflections) in the EST 40 , and due to the accumulated effect of aberrations in the system. In consequence some form of energy compensation is desirable. FIGS. 9 to 11 show some specific but schematic examples of parts of an ion deceleration arrangement 80 for achieving that goal, and FIGS. 12 and 13 show energy spread reduction and spatial spread for a variety of different parameters applied to such ion deceleration arrangements. In order to achieve a suitable level of energy compensation, employing some of the embodiments described above, it is desirable to increase the ion energy dispersion. In other words, the beam thickness for a hypothetical monoenergetic ion beam is preferably smaller than the separation of two such hypothetical monoenergetic ion beams by the desired energy difference of 10-20 eV as explained above. Although a degree of energy dispersion could of course be achieved by physically separating the fragmentation cell 50 from the ion trap 30 or EST 40 by a significant distance (so that the ions can disperse in time), such an arrangement is not preferred as it increases the overall size of the mass spectrometer, requires additional pumping, and so forth. Instead it is preferable to include a specific arrangement to allow deliberate energy dispersion without unduly increasing the distance between the fragmentation cell 50 and the component of the mass spectrometer upstream from it (ion trap 30 or EST 40 ). FIG. 9 shows one suitable device. In FIG. 9 , an ion mirror arrangement 200 forming an optional part of the highly schematically represented ion deceleration arrangement 80 of FIGS. 2-7 is shown. The ion mirror arrangement 200 comprises an array of electrodes 210 terminating in a flat mirror electrode 220 . Ions are injected into the ion mirror arrangement from the EST 40 and are reflected by the flat mirror electrode 220 resulting in increased dispersion of the ions by the time they exit back out of the ion mirror arrangement and arrive at the fragmentation cell 50 . An alternative approach to the introduction of energy dispersion is shown in FIG. 11 and described further below. Once the degree of energy dispersion has been increased for example with the ion mirror arrangement 200 of FIG. 9 , ions are next decelerated. In general terms this may be achieved by applying a pulsed DC voltage to a decelerating electrode arrangement such as that illustrated in FIG. 10 and labelled 250 . The decelerating electrode arrangement 250 of FIG. 10 comprises an array of electrodes with an entrance electrode 260 and an exit electrode 270 between which is sandwiched a ground electrode 280 . Preferably the entrance and exit electrodes are combined with differential pumping sections so as to reduce the pressure gradually between the (upstream) ion mirror arrangement 200 at a relatively low pressure, the decelerating electrode arrangement 250 at an intermediate pressure, and the relatively higher pressure required by the (downstream) fragmentation cell 50 . By way of example only, the ion mirror arrangement 200 may be at a pressure of around 10 −8 mBar, the decelerating electrode arrangement 250 may have a lower pressure limit of around 10 −5 mBar rising to around 10 −4 mBar via differential pumping, with a pressure in the range of 10 −3 to 10 −2 mBar or so in the fragmentation cell 50 . To provide pumping between the exit of the decelerating electrode arrangement 250 and the fragmentation cell 50 , an additional RF only multipole such as, most preferably, an octapole RF device, could be employed. This is shown in FIG. 11 to be described below. To achieve deceleration, DC voltages on one or both of the lenses 260 , 270 are switched. The time at which this occurs depends upon the specific mass to charge ratio of ions of interest. In particular, when ions enter a decelerating electric field, higher energy ions overtake lower energy ions and thus move to a greater depth in the deceleration field. After all the ions of this particular m/z enter the deceleration field, the field is switched off. Therefore ions with initially higher energy experience a higher drop in potential relatively to ground potential than the lower energy ions, thus making their energies equal. By matching the potential drop to the energy spread upon exit from the mass selector, a significant reduction of the energy spread may be achieved. It will be understood that this technique permits energy compensation for ions of a certain range of mass to charge ratios, and not for an indefinitely wide range of different mass to charge ratios. This is because in a finite decelerating lens arrangement, only ions of a certain range of mass to charge ratios will be caused to undergo an amount of deceleration that can be matched to their energy spread. Any ions of widely differing mass to charge ratios to that selected will of course either be outside of the decelerating lens when it is switched, or likewise undergo a degree of deceleration but, having a largely different mass to charge ratio, the amount of deceleration will not then be balanced by the initial energy spread, i.e. the deceleration and penetration distance of higher energy ions will not then be matched to the deceleration and penetration distance of lower energy ions. Having said that, however, the skilled person will readily understand that this does not prohibit the introduction of ions of widely differing mass to charge ratios into the ion deceleration arrangement 80 , only that only ions of one particular range of mass to charge ratios of interest will undergo the appropriate degree of energy compensation to prepare them properly for the fragmentation cell 50 . Thus, the ions can either be filtered upstream of the ion deceleration arrangement 80 (so that only ions of a single mass to charge ratio of interest enter it in a given cycle of the mass spectrometer) or alternatively a mass filter can be employed downstream of the ion deceleration arrangement 80 . Indeed, it is even possible to use the fragmentation cell 50 itself to discard ions not of the mass to charge ratio of interest and which have been suitably energy compensated. FIG. 11 shows an alternative arrangement for decelerating ions and also optionally defocusing them as well. Here, the defocusing is achieved within the EST 40 (only a part of which is shown in FIG. 11 ) by pulsing the DC voltage on one of the electrostatic mirrors 42 , 44 ( FIG. 3 ) at a time when ions of a mass to charge ratio of interest are in the vicinity of that electrostatic mirror 42 , 44 (because of the manner in which the EST 40 operates, the time at which ions of a particular m/z arrive at the electrostatic mirrors 42 , 44 is known). Applying a suitable pulse to that electrostatic mirror 42 or 44 results in that mirror 42 , 44 having a defocusing rather than a focusing effect on those ions. Once defocused, the ions can then be ejected out of the EST by applying a suitable deflecting field to the deflector 100 / 100 ′/ 100 ″. The defocused ions then travel towards a decelerating electrode arrangement 300 which decelerates ions of the selected m/z as explained above in connection with FIG. 10 , by matching the initial energy spread to the drop in potential across the electric field defined by the decelerating electrode arrangement 300 . Finally, ions exit the decelerating electrode arrangement 300 through termination electrodes 310 and pass through an exit aperture 320 into an octapole RF only device 330 to provide the desirable pumping described above. FIGS. 12 and 13 show plots of energy spread and spatial spread of ions of a specific mass to charge ratio, respectively, as a function of switching time of the DC voltage applied to the ion decelerating electrodes. It can be seen from FIG. 12 that the reduction in energy spread achieved by an embodiment of the present invention can be as much as a factor of 20, reducing a beam with +/−50 eV spread to one of +/−2.4 eV. A longer switching time produces a smaller spatial spot size but a larger final energy spread with the particular decelerator system described here. The example is given here to show that beam characteristics other than energy spread must be considered, not to suggest that deceleration for optimal final energy spread always produces an increase in spatial spread of the final beam. Other designs of decelerating lens used with other energy defocused beams could produce a still greater reduction in energy spread. Those skilled in the art will realise that there are many potential uses for the invention as a result. The use for which the invention was particularly addressed was that of improving the yield and type of fragment ions produced in a fragmentation process. As was noted earlier, for efficient fragmentation of parent ions, 10-20 eV ion energies are required, and clearly a great many ions in a beam having +/−50 eV energy spreads will be well outside that range. Ions having too high an energy predominantly fragment to low mass fragments which can make identification of the parent ion difficult, whilst a higher proportion of ions of low energy do not fragment at all. Without energy compensation, a parent ion beam having +/−50 eV energy spread directed towards a fragmentation cell would either produce a high abundance of low mass fragments, if all the beam were allowed to enter the fragmentation cell, or if only ions having the highest 20 eV of energy were allowed to enter (by use of a potential barrier prior to entry, for example) a great many ions would have been lost, and the process would be highly inefficient. The inefficiency would depend upon the energy distribution of the ions in the beam, with perhaps 90% of the beam being lost or unable to fragment due to insufficient ion energy. By using the foregoing techniques, fragmentation of ions in the fragmentation cell may thereby be avoided if it is desired to pass ions through the fragmentation cell 50 (or store them there) in a given cycle of the mass spectrometer intact. Alternatively, control over the fragmentation may be improved when it is desired to carry out MS/MS or MS^n experiments. Other uses for the ion deceleration technique described may be found in other ion processing techniques. Many ion optical devices can only function well with ions having energies within a limited energy range. Examples include electrostatic lenses, in which chromatic aberrations cause defocusing, RF multipoles or quadrupole mass filters in which the number of RF cycles experienced by the ions as they travel the finite length of the device is a function of the ion energy, and magnetic optics which disperse in both mass and energy. Reflectors are typically designed to provide energy focusing so as to compensate for a range of ion beam energies, but higher order energy aberrations usually exist and an energy compensated beam such as is provided by the present invention will reduce the defocusing effect of those aberrations. Again, those skilled in the art will realise that these are only a selection of possible uses for the described technique. Returning now to the arrangements of FIGS. 2 and 4 - 8 , in general terms, effective operation of each of the gas-filled units shown in these Figures depends upon the optimum choice of collision conditions and is characterised by collision thickness P·D, where P is the gas pressure and D is the gas thickness traversed by ions (typically, D is the length of the unit). Nitrogen, helium or argon are examples of collision gases. In the presently preferred embodiment, it is desirable that the following conditions are approximately achieved: In the pre-trap 24 , it is desirable that P·D>0.05 mm·torr, but is preferably <0.2 mm torr. Multiple passes may be used to trap ions, as described in our co-pending Patent Application No. GB0506287.2. The ion trap 30 preferably has a P·D range of between 0.02 and 0.1 mm·torr, and this device could also extensively use multiple passes. The fragmentation cell 50 (using collision-induced dissociation, CID) has a collision thickness P·D>0.5 mm·torr and preferably above 1 mm·torr. For any auxiliary ion storage device 60 employed, the collision thickness P·D is preferably between 0.02 and 0.2 mm·torr. On the contrary, it is desirable that the electrostatic trap 40 is sustained at high vacuum, preferably at or better than 10 −8 torr. The typical analysis times in the arrangement of FIG. 2 are as follows: Storage in the pre-trap 24 : typically 1-100 ms; Transfer into the curved trap 30 : typically 3-10 ms; Analysis in the EST 40 : typically 1-10 ms, in order to provide selection mass resolution in excess of 10,000; Fragmentation in the fragmentation cell 50 , followed by ion transfer back into the curved trap 30 : typically 5-20 ms; Transfer through the fragmentation cell 50 into a second ion storage device 60 , if employed, without fragmentation: typically 5-10 ms; and Analysis in a mass analyser 70 of the Orbitrap type: typically 50-2,000 ms. Generally, the duration of a pulse for ions of the same m/z should be well below 1 ms, preferably below 10 microseconds, while a most preferable regime corresponds to ion pulses shorter than 0.5 microseconds (for m/z between about 400 and 2000). In alternative terms and for other m/z, the spatial length of the emitted pulse should be well below 10 m, and preferably below 50 mm, while a most preferable regime corresponds to ion pulses shorter than 5-10 mm. It is particularly desirable to employ pulses shorter than 5-10 mm when employing Orbitrap and multi-reflection TOF analysers. Although one specific embodiment has been described, the skilled reader will readily appreciate that various modifications could be contemplated.

A method of mass spectrometry having steps of, in a first cycle: storing sample ions in a first ion storage device, the first ion storage device having an exit aperture and a spatially separate ion transport aperture; ejecting the stored ions out of the exit aperture; transporting the ejected ions into an ion selection device which is spatially separated from the said first ion storage device; carrying out ion selection within the spatially separated ion selection device; returning at least some of the ions ejected from the first ion storage device, or their derivatives, back from the spatially separate ion selection device to the first ion storage device, following the step of ion selection; receiving the said returned ions through the ion transport aperture of the first ion storage device; and storing the received ions in the first ion storage device.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0001] The present invention is in the field of network communications including Internet communications and pertains more particularly to methods for optimizing the networking experience for users by enabling priority profile matching as a predecessor to networking sessions, and in some embodiments enabling close proximity ad and or coupon serving. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] Capability for person-to-person communication has been enhanced greatly through recent development in wireless telephony and Internet technology. Anyone with a suitable wireless digital personal appliance or Internet appliance such as a personal computer with a standard Internet connection may access and communicate with other such equipped persons for the purpose of pleasure, business, or shared activities. There has also been great acceptance of technology for person-to-person communication with the purpose of making initial contact in an anonymous manner so as to provide two parties with a method of determining a desire (or lack) to further communicate semi-anonymously until the two parties decide to, or not to, meet face-to-face. [0003] One problem that is encountered by an individual practicing this manner of communication is a lack of being able to immediately communicate with potentially desirable parties, and in many cases a lack of specific information as to the locality of a person to whom they might wish to communicate. Many prior-art services currently provide communication paths, such as Internet or newsprint personal advertisements, for example. These services provide a capability to respond but that capability is dependent on some time lapse between the time of placing the advertisement and receipt of responses to the advertisements. In these methods there is a considerable time lapse between the receipt of the response and initiating a reply to the initial interest. [0004] In addition to the above, the profile information in such prior-art services is often sketchy and location information may indicate only a city or general geographic location. Time response using Internet paths is dependent on the person placing the advertisement to access the responses to their advertisement and reply. This may be accomplished in a matter of minutes or days depending on personal interests and habits. Time response in newsprint scenarios will take days or weeks depending on the time of placing the advertisement, publication timeframes, and reader search and response. [0005] Another issue placing limitations on prior-art applications of personal communication services is the process in which the replies to personal advertisements are made. In the Internet application described above, one needs a PC or sophisticated digital appliance to search the personals services and reply usually via Internet to an interesting party. In the newsprint application, a responder most often has to reply to a cited telephone number or in some cases, send a letter to designated address. A significant limitation of current and prior-art services is the lack of availability of immediate and specific location information of the two parties utilizing a personal communications service. [0006] A short-range radio technology system, known to the inventors as Bluetooth™, provides a capability for communications among digital devices using local wireless/cellular networks and the Internet and provides simplified data synchronization between such Net devices and computers. [0007] Bluetooth™ firmware installed on a wireless device continually broadcasts and searches within a defined radius for other devices having Bluetooth™ technology capability. When such devices are “in range” they may communicate with one other. It has occurred to the inventors that this technology may be exploited and modified to provide meeting services based on profiling. Any other form of immediate proximity enabled wireless technologies may also be used. [0008] What is clearly needed is an Internet-enhanced networking system applicable to wireless technology that enables users to quickly locate interested parties based on priority profiling wherein profile matching and acceptance is a predecessor for communication and possibly meeting. Such a system greatly would greatly enhance any networking situation wherein it is desired to have knowledge of the participants before initiating non-anonymous communication. [0009] Also in another aspect, the same sort of systems needed to meet the needs described above might be used to provide a proximity-based ad or coupon service, wherein wirelessly transmitting ad servers, in some cases a part of specific business locations, may advertise to, and provide discounts and coupons, for example, to persons having enabled digital communication devices, such as cellular telephones PDAs or other devices. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0010] In an embodiment of the invention a system for commercial promotion is provided, comprising a first computerized appliance enabled for data reception on a close-proximity wireless local area network (LAN) having a limited effective range, and for providing received data in a human-understandable form to a user of the first appliance, and a second computerized appliance enabled for data transmission on the close-proximity wireless LAN and having access to a data repository storing promotional material. The first and the second computerized appliances establish a connection on the wireless LAN by virtue of proximity within the limited effective range, the second appliance transmits promotional material to the first appliance in response to the connection, and the first appliance renders the promotional material in human-understandable form for the user in response to receiving the promotional material. [0011] In one embodiment the first and the second computerized appliances are one of a cellular telephone, a personal digital assistant (PDA), or a pager device, each enabled for the wireless LAN connection and activity. Also in an embodiment the provision of received data in human-understandable form is through audio output, and in an alternative embodiment the provision of received data in human-understandable form is through display on a digital display of the first appliance. [0012] In one embodiment the user of the first appliance is a potential consumer, the second appliance is at a business premise, and the promotional material advertises or otherwise promotes a product or service of the business. The promotional material may include a discount for purchase of the product or service, or a coupon redeemable by the business for a product or service. The coupon may be date and time stamped and may bear an authorization mechanism retrievable at the business for verification. [0013] In one embodiment the second appliance is Internet-capable, and retrieves promotional material from a service provider remote from the business and having an Internet-connected server. The service provider may have a profile for the user of the first appliance as a subscriber, and the second appliance may connect with the first appliance only if the user of the first appliance is a subscriber. [0014] In some embodiments the second appliance is Internet-capable, and retrieves promotional material from a service provider remote from the business and having an Internet-connected server, and the service provider also provides a service for subscribers to trade with the coupons. In some embodiments the service provider also does accounting and billing for trades in coupons. [0015] In yet another embodiment the user of the first appliance is a potential consumer, the second appliance is carried by a vendor person with a product or service to vend, and the promotional material advertises or otherwise promotes the product or service of the vendor person. [0016] In another aspect of the present invention a method for commercial promotion is provided, comprising steps of (a) establishing a connection on a wireless local area network (LAN) having a limited effective range between a first computerized appliance enabled for data reception on the LAN and a second computerized appliance enabled for data transmission on the LAN, the connection in response to the two appliances coming within the effective range; (b) transmitting promotional material from the second appliance to the first appliance in response to the connection; and (c) rendering the promotional material in human-understandable form by the first appliance for a user of the first appliance. [0017] In one embodiment of the method the first and the second computerized appliances are one of a cellular telephone, a personal digital assistant (PDA), or a pager device, each enabled for the wireless LAN connection and activity. In some cases provision of received data in human-understandable form is through audio output, and in some other cases the provision of received data in human-understandable form is through display on a digital display of the first appliance. [0018] In another embodiment the user of the first appliance is a potential consumer, the second appliance is at a business premise, and the promotional material advertises or otherwise promotes a product or service of the business. The promotional material may include a discount for purchase of the product or service, and may include a coupon redeemable by the business for a product or service. The coupon may be date and time stamped and may bear an authorization mechanism retrievable at the business for verification. [0019] In some embodiments the second appliance is Internet-capable, and retrieves promotional material from a service provider remote from the business and having an Internet-connected server. Also in some embodiments the service provider has a profile for the user of the first appliance as a subscriber, and the second appliance connects with the first appliance only if the user of the first appliance is a subscriber. In still other embodiments the second appliance is Internet-capable, and retrieves promotional material from a service provider remote from the business and having an Internet-connected server, and the service provider also provides a service for subscribers to trade with the coupons. The service provider may also do accounting and billing for trades in coupons. [0020] In still other embodiments the user of the first appliance is a potential consumer, the second appliance is carried by a vendor person with a product or service to vend, and the promotional material advertises or otherwise promotes the product or service of the vendor person. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING FIGURES [0021] FIG. 1 is an architectural overview of a communication network wherein priority profile exchange is practiced as a predecessor to networking sessions according to an embodiment of the present invention. [0022] FIG. 2 is a flow chart illustrating logical steps of home PC to home PC communication using priority profile matching, according to an embodiment of the present invention. [0023] FIG. 3 is a flow chart illustrating logical steps of voice box to cell phone communication using priority profile matching according to an embodiment of the present invention. [0024] FIG. 4 is a flow chart illustrating logical steps of a trade show promotion using priority profile matching according to an embodiment of the present invention. [0025] FIG. 5 is an architecture diagram for an advertising server system according to an embodiment of the present invention. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS [0026] According to a preferred embodiment of the present invention, a unique system is provided and adapted to provide services to users who have a capability of using a wireless LAN to communicate directly via Net devices or to users having Internet access capability through wireless or cellular networks and devices. Such a system provides a location-sensitive prioritized profile-matching service for users with a method for accessing that information via handheld and personal digital appliances through a telephony interface direct to established databases. The methods and apparatus of the present invention are described in enabling detail below. [0027] FIG. 1 is an architectural overview of a communications network 9 wherein priority profile exchange is practiced as a predecessor to networking sessions according to an embodiment of the present invention. [0028] Communications network 9 comprises a wireless local-area-network (LAN) 40 , a wireless data network 47 , a cellular network 35 , a data-packet-network (Internet) 25 , and exemplary users 1 and 2 connected by PC/Internet connection to an Internet backbone 23 . LAN 40 is enabled, in this embodiment, by a technology known as Bluetooth™, which provides a communication protocol as well as firmware for local device communication. [0029] Communications network 9 represents a variety of architectures for practicing the present invention according to a plurality of embodiments. Therefore, it is the intent of the inventor to first describe all of the represented devices and communication connections, and then to describe applicable paths and scenarios for practicing the present invention. [0030] LAN 40 , as described above, is existent according to Bluetooth™ technology in that communication exists only when there are more than one device activated within an acceptable vicinity (range) of each other. It may be assumed in this example, that LAN 40 is not fixed in any way, and that it becomes applicable whenever activated devices are within range of one another. [0031] There are a variety of exemplary wireless communications devices illustrated within LAN 40 . These are a handheld computer 43 , a Web-enabled phone 33 , and a wireless device 42 , termed a “meeter” device, by the inventor. Meeter device 42 is a proprietary device especially adapted for practicing the present invention within the scope of a wireless LAN created using Bluetooth™ technology. In this embodiment, handheld device 43 and Web-enabled phone 33 are also adapted with Bluetooth™ technology. [0032] Wireless devices 33 and 43 are standard devices having Internet-connection capability through respective network gateways. For example, palm device 43 may access Internet 25 , also represented by backbone 23 , via an Internet-service-provider (ISP) 49 illustrated within intermediary wireless network 47 , and an associated network gateway (NG) 51 also illustrated within network 47 . NG 51 is connected to backbone 23 by an Internet access line 37 enabling Internet connectivity and communication capability to device 43 . Similarly, Web-enabled phone 33 , which in this embodiment is a cellular telephone, accesses Internet 25 (backbone 23 ) through an illustrated communications tower, a connected ISP 37 , and a network gateway (NG) 39 all illustrated within cellular network 35 . NG 39 is connected to backbone 23 by an Internet access line 41 enabling Internet connectivity and communication capabilities to phone 33 . [0033] In this embodiment, meeter device 42 , roughly the size of a credit card in a preferred embodiment does not have Internet-access capabilities. Rather, device 42 may only communicate in limited fashion with other devices within limited radio range. As previously described above, LAN 40 represents wireless coverage over somewhat localized areas such as 10 to 100 meters in rough diameter. Therefore, devices 33 , 42 , and 45 may directly communicate, using radio signals, with one another only within an operable communication range defined within a cell area as described above. [0034] Internet 25 represents a preferred data-packet-network for practicing the present invention according to variant embodiments. Internet backbone 23 represents all of the lines, equipment, and connection points making up Internet 25 as a whole. Therefore, there are no geographic limitations to the practicing the present invention. As LAN 40 represents just one local area created by virtue of active devices within range of one another, it will be appreciated that a great many such LANs may exist simultaneously, and may be distributed over a large region wherever two or more communication-capable devices come within range of one another. [0035] Exemplary users 1 and 2 represent users operating from home premises using Internet backbone 23 as a conduit. Users 1 and 2 are identically equipped in this example. User 1 has a PC 11 for accessing the Internet through backbone 23 and standard Internet access capabilities as known in the art. The most common of these is dial-up/modem access achieved through an ISP. There are other possibilities as well. User 1 has a voice box (VB) 13 connected to PC 11 and a telephone 15 connected to VB 13 . This configuration allows voice communication over an Internet connection utilizing a standard telephone. Such configurations are known in the art and available to the inventor. User 1 also has a wireless LAN card (WLC) 10 installed on PC 11 . WLC 10 is a Bluetooth™ card in this example and adapts PC 11 as a Bluetooth™ communication device. User 2 is adapted identically as user 1 by way of a PC 17 connected to backbone 23 , a VB 19 connected to PC 17 , a telephone 21 connected to VB 19 , and a WLC 16 installed on PC 17 enabling PC 17 as a Bluetooth™ device. [0036] A service provider 27 is provided within Internet 25 and represents a central-control station for managing and propagating user profiles according to various embodiments of the present invention. Service provider 27 comprises a file server 29 and a connected data repository 31 . File server 29 is adapted as a user-interfacing server for users operating any Internet-capable device including PCs 11 and 17 , device 43 within LAN 40 , and device 33 within LAN 40 . Data repository 31 is adapted to store user profiles and other data about users such as device identification, subscriber information, account information and so on. Profile data included in repository 31 facilitates embodiments of the present invention, which comprises networking based on prioritized profile matching and exchange. [0037] Software (not shown) provided to reside in server 29 and within repository 31 functions to match stored “real” profiles against “request” profiles and propagates selected profiles or notice thereof to participating and requesting devices using a networking protocol. The two separate types of profiles, real and request profiles, are created by users practicing the present invention. The inventor terms the profiles “self” (real) profiles and “meet” (request) profiles. [0038] Various embodiments of the present invention are enabled in this example by various communication paths illustrated herein. Therefore users having varying intents may practice the invention using variant communications paths and obtain results accordingly. An important goal of the present invention is to provide users with an ability to “see” pertinent profiles (real) attributed to any other users before initiating committed contact in a way that enables quick contact and fulfills a variety of user interests. [0039] For example, assume that LAN 40 exists by virtue of a plurality of users congregating at a popular nightclub while practicing the present invention. In this consideration, logical user intent would be to meet other users having desirable qualities purposeful of social interaction. Although not required, assume that the plurality of users all have devices identical to device 42 . Device 42 is, in this scenario, a credit-card sized communication device enabled with Bluetooth™ technology as previously described. Device 42 can be similar in operation to a paging device and has at least a display screen, a limited key-pad, and a capability of receiving and sending messages from and to other like devices. In some embodiments device 42 may also be enhanced with limited range voice transmission and receiving capability. [0040] In this simple example, Internet 25 and other illustrated networks and paths and equipment do not come in to play. Each device 42 has a relatively powerful microprocessor that enables users to configure and store real and request profiles, and enables each device to match received (real) profiles with profiles (request) already stored. Each user, before arriving at the particular nightclub, has configured at least one real profile and one request profile into his or her device 42 . When users activate their devices at the nightclub, LAN 40 comes into existence as devices begin communicating with each other in the sharing and matching of profile information. For example, when one user comes into range of another, each device will send a real profile to the other device. These profiles are received by each participating device and matched against request profiles (what users are looking for) stored on each device. If a match, or in some embodiments, a partial match occurs, the device making the match beeps, vibrates, or alerts the user in some other fashion. The matching profile is displayed on the device with an option to contact the device that sent the matching profile. Contact may be similar to a page, or may be enhanced with voice communication capability in some embodiments. [0041] In one embodiment of the present invention, a range of only 10 meters (about 32 feet) allows an optimum chance for user-identification of the owner of a device that sent a matching profile. When the range is 100 meters, there may be many more profiles being traded and matched lending necessity to device identification and paging capability. If a device is paged because of a matching profile, the owner of the device can see the real profile of the user operating the paging device. If desired, the owner may answer the page and identify him or herself. If the owner does not like the profile, then he or she need not answer. In one embodiment as described above device 42 is further enhanced with short-range voice capabilities allowing consenting users to speak with each other. [0042] The above-described situation represents a simple embodiment wherein only users within range of each other may exchange profile information. It will be appreciated that this technology may be practiced in any location or dynamically, with users moving about. [0043] In another example, consider that users are now operating hand-held devices such as hand-held device 43 , and/or cellular phones such as phone 33 . In this situation LAN 40 is enhanced with accessibility to the Internet network. A new dynamic comes into play in that users may now share profiles with each other and, in some cases, depending on device capability, receive and send profile information from and to server 29 at provider 27 . Still further, Internet enhancement enables remote users to browse locations and associated profiles in order to determine which locations are good meeting places according to their request profiles. [0044] To illustrate the Internet enhancement using the exemplary architecture and communication paths laid out in communications network 9 , consider that users operating within LAN 40 at a nightclub are uploading their real profiles to server 29 , which recognizes the nightclub as a local and popular club for singles. Devices 43 and 33 in this example may accomplish uploading of profile information. [0045] Device 43 may upload profile information through ISP 49 , NG 51 , access line 37 , backbone 23 into server 29 . Server 29 temporarily stores the profile information from device 43 in database 31 . Similarly, device 33 (cell phone) may upload profile information through cell tower and connected ISP 37 , NG 39 , access line 41 , backbone 23 into server 29 whereupon the information is also stored in repository 31 . Now, the profiles of the owners of devices 43 and 33 are available on-line to browsing members. Assume now that Users 1 and 2 have logged on to Internet 25 by accessing backbone 23 and are engaged in browsing of server 29 . Users 1 and 2 may be looking for a popular spot locally where there is a good chance to meet someone in which they might be interested. User 2 may browse uploaded profiles of those users currently patronizing nightclub (LAN 40 ). [0046] If interested, user 2 may download real profiles for matching with his or her request profile stored locally on PC 17 . In another embodiment, user 2 may upload a request profile to server 29 and have it matched with real profiles stored in repository 31 . In either case, if there are matches, user 2 may decide to travel to the popular nightclub with a Bluetooth™ enabled device similar to any of those illustrated within LAN 40 . Alternatively, user 2 may select to send a notice and real profile to the owner of a device whose profile matched the request profile of user 2 . In this case, remote communication may be established between user 2 and a user operating either device 43 or device 33 within LAN 40 . User 1 has the same capability as described with respect to user 2 . It is important to note herein that all real identification information such as names, phone numbers and the like are not provided during initial exchange in order to protect anonymity and privacy of users. [0047] In another embodiment, one or more users may act as Internet hosts for other users if their devices have the required capabilities. In this situation, hand-held device 43 , for example, is capable of storing many downloaded profiles as illustrated by a database (DB) 45 installed therein. Device 43 may share profiles locally, receive profiles from the Internet, and match them with other profiles of other users. It is important to note that service provider 27 may interface with any user operating Internet-capable devices through server 29 in order to the receive profile information described above and, perhaps, location information comprising the name and the location of the nightclub. Server 29 stores this information in repository 31 tagged to the sending user identification. [0048] In the above-described example wherein LAN 40 exists at a popular nightclub, for example, real (self) and request (meet) profiles reflect personal data such as appearance, interests, hobbies, income, marital status, and may include temporary information such as purpose for attending the nightclub. A request profile would essentially carry the same type of information. A request profile reflects a user's desired attributes in someone with whom they might consider socializing. In a nightclub, this information would tend to gravitate around dating and social interaction. For sports, people may meet for sailing, tennis, soccer, golf etc. or for someone to play games like bridge, pool, etc. In other situations, profiles may reflect business capabilities, items for sale, items wanted, or essentially any other information. It is important to note herein that service provider 27 may provide, through server 29 , generic profile templates (electronic forms) for population and submission. In one embodiment, a user may create his or her own profiles having categories not already provided in a template. [0049] Along with configuring and uploading profile information to server 29 , a user may also signify a time period wherein the profiles may be considered active. For example, “activate this profile set from 6 pm to 11 pm tonight”. As users arrive and begin to mingle at the particular location, such as a nightclub, an Internet host connected to server 29 begins communicating profile matches to users by beeping or buzzing the user's devices when a desirable match occurs within the vicinity of the host. This assumes, of course, that matching of profiles occurs at network level within server 29 , or within the Internet host. [0050] Meeter protocol (software) is integrated with Bluetooth™ firmware in order to enhance the former technology with the instructional capabilities for receiving and propagating profiles, matching profiles, and applying flexible “threshold” criteria set by users for defining and accepting a match. Using the protocol along with embedded LAN attributes of each device, up-linking to a central Web site and profile matching and propagation is enhanced with the one-touch data-sync capability offered by the wireless LAN synchronization protocol. In indicating a match, comparison need not be exact, and comparisons may be done in a manner to report, with an alert, a partial match, and in some cases the degree of a match, such as 70%, also the match degree of the other person may be provided. [0051] FIG. 2 is an exemplary flow diagram representing home PC to home PC communication. At step 53 , user 1 logs into the main Web-site, which in this case is service provider 27 of FIG. 1 . At step 57 , user 1 enters a profile of “self” and “meet” into a match server (server 29 ). At step 59 , user 1 enters a start time and an end time to be called. [0052] In a parallel effort, before, during or after user 1 's action exemplified in steps 53 - 59 , user 2 logs into the main Web-site at step 65 . Once logged in and authenticated, user 2 enters a “self” and “meet” profile at step 67 . [0053] It is noted herein that users 1 and 2 are analogous to users 1 and 2 of FIG. 1 having VB capability and IP capabilities through respective PCs 11 and 17 . At step 69 user 2 , still logged into the main Web-site as described at step 65 , observes available profiles of pre-selected individuals. The available profiles are priority-matched profiles of those persons within his location. Matching is accomplished by software capabilities established in server 29 of FIG. 1 . The pre-selection also provides the location of pre-selected individuals and that the real profile of user 1 is the best (highest priority) match for the request profile information entered by user 2 at step 67 . [0054] At step 71 , user 2 clicks on user 1 's status and finds that user 1 is presently logged in to the service. At step 73 , user 2 clicks the interactive indication and sends a message to user 1 , the message to invite user 1 to meet in a chat room. The message technology used may be instant messaging, voice-mail, or other forms. It is important to note that the message is anonymous in that it does not reveal the sender ID or the receiver ID. At step 61 , user 1 proactively receives the message indicating user 2 has left a message, or may receive a direct phone call. At step 75 , user 1 accesses the message left by user 2 and reviews the real profile information of user 2 , which is sent with the message. User 1 likes the information provided in user 2 's profile and clicks the interactive indication to send a message to user 2 accepting the proposed meeting in a chat room. Concluding the initiation activity, user 1 and 2 meet and converse in a chat room at step 77 . It is noted herein that all messaging between user 1 and 2 up until the point of final acceptance of user 1 to meet in a chat room is brokered by the service. Once in a chat room, which may be a private chat room, user 1 and 2 are left to their own devices. In other embodiments chat capability may be provided as a part of service provider 27 . [0055] This exemplary process represents just one of many possible interaction scenarios that may exist between Internet-connected PCs practicing networking according to priority profile matching. It will be apparent to one with skill in the art that the exact steps including communication mediums may be different without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention. Such differences may be decided, for example IP phone instead of interactive chat, or dictated, for example one user cannot use a selected communication medium but can use another. [0056] Also, matching profiles at step 69 is not limited to those profiles of people within any given location which may be local to a browsing user. Selecting those profiles within a given location only enhances the possibility of a physical meeting, which may or may not take place as the result of chat interaction. [0057] FIG. 3 is an exemplary flow diagram representing voice box to cell phone communication. In this embodiment cell phone user 1 logs into the service as ‘available with a cell phone’ at step 79 . In one embodiment of this mode, user 1 may be at one of a plurality of “known” establishments and is seeking interested parties that may be browsing the Web locally. User 1 enters a start time and end time to be called at step 81 . It is noted herein that user 1 has entered or activated her selected profiles at the time of log-in at step 79 . [0058] In a parallel effort, user 2 logs into the service at step 87 . User 2 also enters or activates selected profiles for matching. User 2 observes priority-matched profiles of individuals within the immediate or nearby locations and determines that user 1 best matches the request profile information activated by user 2 . The profile matching is accomplished in the same manner as described in FIG. 2 . User 2 then clicks on user 1 's status and finds that person is presently logged in as ‘available with a cell phone’ at step 91 . It may also be known to user 2 the location of user 1 . [0059] At step 93 user 2 clicks the interactive profile indication of user 1 and initiates a communication using a Voice Box (VB) analogous to VB 19 of FIG. 1 . This action culminates in a voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) call placed to the cell phone of user 1 at step 94 . User 1 receives a call on the target cell phone at step 85 and a voice recording is played announcing user 2 's request. During the recording, the profile of user 2 is made available either through the recording, or displayed on the screen of the target phone. User 1 , in this example, likes the profile of user 2 and elects to take the call in the same step 85 . It is noted herein that all of the normal caller ID is not available through the VB service. In this way, the call from user 2 is made anonymously to user 1 . Conversely, user 1 is anonymous to user 2 during the call request. Once user 1 elects to take the call, they may begin normal communication at step 95 and are left to their own devices. An implementation of this approach would allow a user to log in from home and register as just available, awaiting a call from a match. [0060] This embodiment is similar to the one described in FIG. 2 except that one user is mobile and presumed to be located at a certain establishment. This is, however, not required in order to practice the present invention. A user, for example, in transit from one physical location to another may activate a “destination profile” any time before arrival. It is also noted herein that Bluetooth™ technology is not specifically required to practice the embodiments described in FIGS. 2 and 3 . However, the technology enables the profile synchronization to proceed in a more efficient manner. Short-wave radio technology is not used unless profiles are exchanged locally. [0061] FIG. 4 is an exemplary flow diagram representing a trade show promotion wherein priority-profile matching is practiced according to an embodiment of the present invention. At step 97 a trade show administrator accesses the service (provider 27 ) of FIG. 1 prior to the date of the planned show and registers show “profile” information comprising exhibit information and contact information for represented booths exhibiting at the show. This information represents real profiles and is stored at the service in a data repository analogous to repository 31 of FIG. 1 . Entering of information may be accomplished via a PC set-up at the show or from any remote location. In this case, general show information may include show themes, organizations to be represented, location and time/date parameters, and so on. Individual booth profiles may include items to be exhibited, services available, and cell phone numbers of exhibitors working the booths at pre-selected times. In one embodiment, one cell phone is made available at each booth. [0062] At step 99 , booth attendant A logs into the service at the beginning of the trade show. The profile information of the booth is already known by the service. In a parallel effort, a trade-show seeker/browser logs into the service with a Web-enabled cell phone at step 101 and browses for registered shows in the vicinity. At step 103 , the trade-show browser locates an announcement of a relevant show in his area and reviews content of show information. In the same step, the trade-show seeker selects items of interest. This selection culminates a request profile entered by the trade-show seeker. [0063] At step 105 the trade-show seeker arrives at the scheduled show and logs into the service. The service matches the items of interest (user profile) pre-entered at step 103 with the profile information of all of the participating booths. Profiles are delivered to the trade-show browser who is now at the location of the show at step 107 . It is indicated in step 107 that the profile of booth A is the highest-ranking profile that matches the request profile configured at step 103 . The trade-show seeker receives the profile information from Booth A on his or her cell phone including booth contact information and may call or visit the indicated booth at step 109 . It is noted herein that booth profiles may also be stored locally (at each booth) on respective Bluetooth™ capable devices and they may be sent to the trade-show seeker when he or she comes into range of each booth. In this case, the seeker's device may match the “real” booth profile against a “request” profile held locally on the seeker's device. If a booth profile significantly matches (according to threshold) the seeker's request profile, his or her device may beep or vibrate, or provide some other alert, indicating a match or a partial match. In the just-described case, a meeter device, cell phone, or hand-held device analogous to devices 33 - 43 of FIG. 1 may be used. [0064] In yet another aspect of the present invention advertising services are provided for businesses and individuals, based in one embodiment on proximity of two communication devices having close-range wireless communication, as described in considerable detail above. In another embodiment the service is based on an ad server located at a business establishment, typically a small business, such as a cleaners or a fast-food outlet. In this case the ad server is enabled to communicate with communication devices by a close-range wireless method and protocol, just as in the communication between two devices as described above. [0065] FIG. 5 is an architecture diagram similar to FIG. 1 to aid in description of the ad server aspects of the present invention. In this embodiment there are consumers and advertisers. User 1 in the diagram of FIG. 5 shows a PC station 11 as might be used by a consumer person who subscribes to services in an embodiment of the present invention. The consumer subscriber may use PC 11 to subscribe to services provided by Service Provider 27 , and to configure a profile for use by service provider 27 . In one embodiment the subscriber may select and designate a preference for ads from certain types of businesses or for certain kinds of products and services, and may also establish active times of day and so forth when he or she wishes the service to be active. [0066] In this embodiment services are proved by Internet-connected server 29 having access to data store 31 . It is not required that the subscribing consumer configure through a station such as PC 11 ; the consumer may also use any Internet-capable appliance, such as, but not limited to, devices 33 , 42 , and 45 to configure and edit a profile. [0067] An advertiser represented by station 17 as User 2 also becomes and advertising subscriber, and configures his or her services on server 29 in much the same way as the consumer. The advertiser, however, configures certain advertisements and in some cases coupons, to be transmitted to consumers. Like the consumer, the advertised may also configure through any Internet-capable appliance. [0068] As a specific example, consider a consumer who has become a subscriber to the service, and has configured his profile for only advertisements from fast-food businesses, limited strictly to In_and-Out Burger™ and MacDonalds™. Now consider that a MacDonalds restaurant has subscribed to the service as well, and configured for ads presenting a limited-time offer to subscribing consumers that come within the close-range wireless LAN area at the MacDonalds restaurant. [0069] The premises equipment at the restaurant may be a PC connected to the Internet, as shown in FIG. 5 , or any sort of communication device enabled to detect the local LAN when a consumer subscriber enters the local area. If a PC as shown, then there needs to be a wireless LAN card (WLC) 16 connected to the PC, for participation on the wireless LAN. The premises equipment may also be a cellular telephone, a personal digital assistant (PDA), or any of several other Internet-capable appliances. [0070] Now suppose User 1 , carrying a Palm device (a PDA) enabled for the Internet and also for participation on the wireless LAN comes into range of the enabled MacDonalds restaurant. The wireless LAN is activated by virtue of proximity of the two enabled devices, and the active device at the MacDonalds restaurant informs server 29 of the proximity. The service provider immediately checks the consumer profile to be sure it is active, and no consumer restriction may be abridged, and then serves whatever ad and/or coupon that has been configured by the MacDonalds restaurant to the consumer in close proximity. [0071] In many cases the device carried by the consumer will be capable of alerting the consumer, such as by a buzz or an audible signal. The ad may be a message, such as “MacDonalds close. Big Mac and Biggy fries 79 cents for the next ten minutes. [0072] To avoid counterfeiting, the ad may be authenticated in some manner. For example, the ad may be provided with a displayable code unique to that MacDonalds, that will display on the consumer's device. As another example, the device in use at the MacDonalds will “know” that the particular consumer is or is not still in range of the wireless LAN when the consumer presents the ad at the counter to get the bargain offered in the ad. [0073] In some cases the advertiser may serve coupons with or instead of the advertisement. In this particular case the MacDonalds may transmit to the consumer a coupon good for 50 cents off on any purchase for the next three days. The value of the coupon is not limited to discounts and the like. A car dealer may give away, once per year, a new car, based on almost any formula the dealer desires to implement. [0074] It may also be necessary that coupons be able to be authenticated. In this case the mechanism might be code accompanying the coupon. The coupon may be date and time stamped, and may carry in addition a special, unique code that will have to be matched for redemption. The codes might be randomly changed, but be tracked in the server's database as to date and time, for matching with requests for redemption. There are many possibilities. [0075] The embodiments of the advertiser/consumer system described just above are Internet-enabled, with ads originating at an Internet server. In another embodiment the ads and the coupons and the like to be transmitted to consumers may be locally-stored in a data repository at, for example PC 17 , without Internet cooperation. The premises equipment in this case may be a black box at the advertiser's location, with wireless LAN enablement, and ads and coupons may be server to enabled consumers passing by, just as described above. The local data and software can be provided as a PC application, for example, and may be together with an interactive interface (a GUI for example) whereby a responsible person at the advertiser's location may interact with the system to enable different ads and coupons at different times. [0076] In some embodiments of the invention, discounts and coupons may be traded with other subscribers, or bought and sold. Discounts and coupons may be treated as real property by the consumers, as long as they are honored by the advertisers. A consumer, for example, may be fortunate to get a special coupon, good at a particular MacDonalds, for a twenty-percent discount for the next month. That consumer, however, may be planning to be away for the next month, rendering the property useless to him. The lucky consumer may access server 29 and offer this property for sale to other consumers, who may regularly browse for bargains. The service may provide, along with subscriber profiles, for subscriber accounts to allow the buying and selling, or renting and leasing, of the properties represented by authenticated coupons (in the broad sense). A subscribing consumer's account may be credited and debited over an agreed time period, and settle-up accomplished on some pre-arranged schedule as well. [0077] It will be apparent to one with skill in the art that the present invention may be practiced utilizing a variety of devices and communications paths exemplified in the example architecture of FIG. 1 without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention. For example in a simplest embodiment “meeter” devices are used for short-range profile exchange and matching without benefit of Internet capabilities or host computers. In more advanced embodiments Internet held profiles may be accessed through Internet-capable and Bluetooth™ enabled devices, host computers, Bluetooth™ modems or network bridges and so on. [0078] It will also be apparent to one with skill in the art that the method of the present invention may be tailored according to a number of service criteria such as for social networking, sports, hobbies, commerce, business networking, convention or trade show activity or other conceivable scenarios without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention. The rules governing profile matching and profile storage including where profiles are matched are dictated somewhat by the intent of a specific service variation. In some cases real contact information is desired to be publicized and in some cases it is not. [0079] It will further be apparent to one with skill in the art, that instant messages, following established Bluetooth wireless protocol or any other wireless protocol and standard instant message protocol, can be propagated back and forth between utilizing members and activity providers without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention. [0080] The method and apparatus of the present invention may be practiced by private individuals operating on the Internet, private individuals creating local Bluetooth Wireless LANs, businesses operating on a compatible LAN connected to the Internet, and so on. This includes the use of cell phones. There are many customizable situations. The present invention, as taught herein and above, should be afforded the broadest of scope. The spirit and scope of the present invention is limited only by the claims that follow.

A system for commercial promotion has a first computerized appliance enabled for data reception on a close-proximity wireless local area network (LAN) having a limited effective range, and for providing received data in a human-understandable form to a user of the first appliance, and a second computerized appliance enabled for data transmission on the close-proximity wireless LAN and having access to a data repository storing promotional material. The first and the second computerized appliances establish a connection on the wireless LAN by virtue of proximity within the limited effective range, the second appliance transmits promotional material to the first appliance in response to the connection, and the first appliance renders the promotional material in human-understandable form for the user in response to receiving the promotional material.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to a method for the preparation of siloxane-containing bischloroformates. More particularly the method relates to a continuous method for the preparation of siloxane-containing bischloroformates in a flow reactor. Silicone-containing copolycarbonates are prized for their unique combination of ductility, toughness, and flame retardancy. Silicone copolycarbonates are typically prepared by reaction of a mixture of a siloxane-containing bisphenol and a bisphenol such as bisphenol A under interfacial conditions with phosgene and an aqueous acid acceptor such as sodium hydroxide in water. Alternatively, silicone copolycarbonates may be prepared by reaction of a chloroformate-terminated polycarbonate oligomer with a siloxane-containing bisphenol. Typically, the reaction between the chloroformate-terminated polycarbonate oligomer and the siloxane-containing bisphenol is carried out under interfacial conditions similar to those employed when a bisphenol and a siloxane-containing bisphenol are copolymerized directly with phosgene. Such approaches to silicone-containing copolycarbonates are illustrated in Japanese Patent Application JP 9265663, European Patent Application EP 500131, U.S. Pat. No. 5,530,083, U.S. Pat. No. 5,502,134, and copending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/613,040. Siloxane-containing bischloroformates are potentially attractive chemical intermediates for the preparation of silicone-containing materials, including silicone-containing copolycarbonates in which the silicone-containing monomer is incorporated into the polymer as an electrophilic species. As such, improved methods for the preparation of siloxane-containing bischloroformates represent attractive goals. The present invention provides a simple, continuous, high yield method for the preparation of high purity siloxane-containing bischloroformates which is superior to known methods of bischloroformate preparation. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In one aspect, the present invention provides a continuous method for the preparation of bischloroformates of siloxane bisphenols, said method comprising introducing into a flow reactor at least one siloxane bisphenol, at least one alkali metal hydroxide or alkaline earth metal hydroxide, and phosgene, said phosgene being introduced at a rate such that the ratio of phosgene to siloxane bisphenol OH groups is in a range between about 2.5 and about 6 moles of phosgene per mole of siloxane bisphenol OH group, said alkali metal hydroxide or alkaline earth metal hydroxide being introduced as an aqueous solution, said aqueous solution having a concentration of at least about 5 percent by weight metal hydroxide, said metal hydroxide being introduced at a rate such that the molar ratio of metal hydroxide to phosgene is in a range between about 3.5 and about 6. In another aspect, the present invention relates to the high purity siloxane bischloroformates which may be produced by the method of the present invention. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE DRAWING FIG. 1 illustrates a tubular reactor system suitable for use in the production of bischloroformates of siloxane bisphenols using the method of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The present invention may be understood more readily by reference to the following detailed description of preferred embodiments of the invention and the examples included herein. In this specification and in the claims which follow, reference will be made to a number of terms which shall be defined to have the following meanings. The singular forms “a”, “an” and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. “Optional” or “optionally” means that the subsequently described event or circumstance may or may not occur, and that the description includes instances where the event occurs and instances where it does not. “BPA” is herein defined as bisphenol A and is also known as 2,2-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)propane, 4,4′-isopropylidenediphenol and p,p-BPA. As used herein, the term “bisphenol A polycarbonate” refers to a polycarbonate in which essentially all of the repeat units comprise a bisphenol A residue. As used herein, the terms “siloxane-containing bischloroformates” and the term “siloxane bischloroformates” are used interchangeably and refer broadly to any bischloroformate comprising one or more siloxane units. Siloxane bischloroformates comprise as a subgroup bischloroformates of siloxane bisphenols. As used herein, the term “bischloroformates of siloxane bisphenols” refers to bischloroformates prepared from siloxane-containing bisphenols or their equivalents. The disodium salt of a siloxane bisphenol is an example of a species which would function as the equivalent of a siloxane bisphenol. As used herein, the terms “siloxane-containing bisphenol” and “siloxane bisphenol” are interchangeable and have the same meaning. Siloxane bisphenols are dihydroxy aromatic compounds incorporating one or more siloxane repeat units. Typically, the siloxane bisphenols used to prepare the siloxane bischloroformates are isomeric mixtures, said isomeric mixtures arising in a double hydrosilylation reaction which is typically a synthetic step in the preparation of siloxane bisphenols. Typically, these isomeric mixtures comprise a single major isomer. It will be understood by those skilled in the art, however, that the structure II given for the eugenol siloxane bisphenol used in the Examples and Comparative Examples is idealized in that it represents only the major isomer present in an isomeric mixture. Similarly, each of structures III-IX represents an idealized structure meant to encompass instances in which said structures represent only a major isomer present in an isomeric mixture of siloxane bisphenols or siloxane bischloroformates. The description above should not be construed, however, as limiting the present invention to the use of isomeric mixtures of siloxane bisphenols. The use of siloxane bisphenols which are essentially single isomers falls well within the ambit of the instant invention. As used herein, the term “d-50 eugenol siloxane bisphenol” indicates a eugenol siloxane bisphenol having idealized structure II wherein the average value of the integer p is about 50. For convenience sake the term “d-50 eugenol siloxane bisphenol” is abbreviated EuSiD50. For convenience the mixture of isomeric d-50 eugenol siloxane bisphenols II and X used in the Examples and Comparative Examples of the instant invention has been represented as a single structure II, the structure of the major isomer present in said mixture, wherein p has an average value of about 50. The method of the present invention relates to a method for the continuous preparation of bischloroformates of siloxane bisphenols. By continuous, it is meant that reactants are introduced into a suitable reactor system while products are simultaneously removed from the system. In the present invention at least one siloxane bisphenol, phosgene, and at least one alkali metal hydroxide or alkaline earth metal hydroxide are introduced into a flow reactor. The reactants pass through the flow reactor forming product bischloroformate during the passage from the point, or points, at which the reactants are introduced and the point at which an effluent stream containing product emerges from the reactor. It has been discovered that product yields are strongly and unexpectedly dependent upon reaction parameters such as the relative amounts of siloxane bisphenol, metal hydroxide, and phosgene, even when a substantial excess of phosgene or metal hydroxide is present. Additionally, it has been found that under similar conditions operation of the process in a continuous mode provides unexpectedly high yields relative to analogous batch processes. In the practice of the present invention at least one siloxane bisphenol, phosgene, and at least one alkali metal hydroxide or alkaline earth metal hydroxide are introduced into a flow reactor. The flow reactor is not particularly limited and may be any reactor system which provides for the “upstream” introduction of the reactants and the “downstream” removal of product bischloroformate. Suitable flow reactor systems include tubular reactors, continuous stirred tank reactors, loop reactors, column reactors, and combinations thereof. The flow reactor may comprise a series of flow reactor components, as for example, a series of continuous stirred tank reactors arrayed such that the effluent from a first continuous stirred tank reactor provides the input for a second continuous stirred tank reactor and so forth. Combinations of the various flow reactor components are illustrated by a first column reactor coupled to a downstream continuous stirred tank reactor where the output of the column reactor represents the feed to the continuous stirred tank reactor. Additionally, the flow reactor used according to the method of the present invention may comprise flow reactor components arrayed in a parallel or network fashion, for example, as where the reactants are introduced into a parallel array of two or more tubular reactors the effluent of each of which is introduced into a single continuous stirred tank reactor. In one embodiment of the present invention the flow reactor comprises a series of tubular reactors. In an alternate embodiment the flow reactor comprises a series of continuous stirred tank reactors. The reactants may be introduced into the flow reactor system through one or more feed inlets attached to the flow reactor system. Typically, it is preferred that the reactants be introduced into the flow reactor through at least three feed inlets, for example where a solution of the siloxane bisphenol in an organic solvent such as methylene chloride, aqueous alkali metal hydroxide, and phosgene are introduced through separate feed inlets at or near the upstream end of a tubular reactor. Alternative arrangements wherein one or more of the reactants is introduced through multiple feed inlets at various points along the flow reactor are also possible. Typically, the relative amounts of the reactants present in the flow reactor are controlled by the rate at which they are introduced. For example, a reactant can be introduced into the flow reactor through pumps calibrated to deliver a particular number of moles of said reactant per unit time. The present invention employs phosgene (COCl 2 ) to convert siloxane bisphenol OH groups into the corresponding chloroformate groups. It has been discovered that the amount of phosgene employed strongly influences product yield. Phosgene is preferably used in an amount corresponding to between about 2.5 and about 6, even more preferably between about 3.5 and about 5.5 moles of phosgene per mole of siloxane bisphenol OH group. Expressed in terms of moles of phosgene per mole of siloxane bisphenol employed, it is preferable to use between about 5 and about 12, and even more preferable between about 7 and about 11 moles of phosgene per mole of siloxane bisphenol. The alkali metal hydroxide or alkaline earth metal hydroxide, or combination thereof is employed as an aqueous solution used in an amount preferably corresponding to between about 3.5 and about 6, and even more preferably between about 4 and about 5 moles of metal hydroxide per mole of phosgene employed. The concentration of the aqueous metal hydroxide solution employed is preferably between about 5 and about 25, and even more preferably between about 17 and about 25 percent by weight metal hydroxide. In one embodiment of the present invention the concentration of the metal hydroxide solution is at least about 5 percent by weight. Of course, more concentrated solutions of metal hydroxide may be used, as long as they are supplemented with water such that the net metal hydroxide concentration in aqueous solution is about 25% by weight or less. The siloxane bisphenol is typically introduced into the flow reactor as a solution in a solvent. Typically the solvent is methylene chloride but can be any solvent suitable for use under interfacial reaction conditions. Typically halogenated solvents such as methylene chloride, chloroform, and 1,2-dichloroethane are preferred but other non-halogenated solvents such as toluene or ethyl acetate may also be used. Typically the concentration of the siloxane bisphenol in the solvent is in a range between about 5 and about 95, preferably between about 10 and about 30 percent by weight siloxane bisphenol. As noted, the siloxane bisphenol employed may be a single chemical species or a mixture of chemical species as is typical in siloxane bisphenols which typically comprise a distribution of bisphenols possessing siloxane subunits of varying chain lengths. Alternatively, the siloxane bisphenol may be introduced as an oil, without solvent. In one embodiment of the present invention the siloxane bisphenol employed comprises structure I wherein R 1 is independently at each occurrence a C 1 -C 10 alkylene group optionally substituted by one or more C 1 -C 10 alkyl or aryl groups, an oxygen atom, an oxyalkyleneoxy moiety —O—(CH 2 ) t —O—, or an oxyalkylene moiety —O—(CH 2 ) t —, where t is an integer from 2-20; R 2 and R 3 are each independently at each occurrence halogen, C 1 -C 6 alkoxy, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, or C 6 -C 10 aryl; z and q are independently integers from 0-4; R 4 , R 5 , R 6 and R 7 are each independently at each occurrence C 1 -C 6 alkyl, aryl, C 2 -C 6 alkenyl, cyano, trifluoropropyl, or styrenyl; and p is an integer from 1 to about 100. Representative examples of siloxane bisphenols I include, but are not limited to eugenol siloxane bisphenol II and other siloxane bisphenols, for example structures III-VII shown below in which p is an integer from 1 to about 100. The representative siloxane bisphenols; eugenol siloxane bisphenol II, 4-allyl-2-methylphenol siloxane bisphenol III, 4-allylphenol siloxane bisphenol IV, 2-allylphenol siloxane bisphenol V, 4-allyloxyphenol siloxane bisphenol VI, and 4-vinylphenol siloxane bisphenol VII are named after the aliphatically unsaturated phenols from which they are prepared. Thus, the name eugenol siloxane bisphenol denotes a siloxane bisphenol prepared from eugenol (4-allyl-2-methoxyphenol). Similarly the name 4-allyl-2-methylphenol siloxane bisphenol indicates the siloxane bisphenol prepared from 4-allyl-2-methylphenol. The other names given follow the same naming pattern. Siloxane bisphenols may be prepared by hydrosilylation of an aliphatically unsaturated phenol with a siloxane dihydride in the presence of a platinum catalyst. This process is illustrated below for eugenol siloxane bisphenol II. In one embodiment of the present invention employing eugenol siloxane bisphenol having structure II as a reactant, p is an integer between about 20 and about 100. In an alternate embodiment eugenol siloxane bisphenol II has a value of p of about 50 said eugenol siloxane bisphenol being represented by the abbreviation EuSiD50. Those skilled in the art will understand that the values given for p in structures I-VIII represent average values and that, for example, eugenol siloxane bisphenol having a value of p of 50 represents a mixture of siloxane bisphenol homologues having an average value of p of about 50. Typically the reactants, siloxane bisphenol, aqueous metal hydroxide, and phosgene are introduced at one or more upstream positions along the flow reactor. As mentioned, the reactants pass through the flow reactor forming product bischloroformate during the passage from the point at which the reactants are introduced and the point at which an effluent stream containing product emerges from the reactor. The time required for a reactant to travel from the point at which it is introduced to the point at which either it or a product derived from it emerges from the flow reactor is referred to as the residence time for the reactant. Typically, residence times for each reactant is in a range between about 5 and about 800 seconds, preferably between about 10 and about 500 seconds. Those skilled in the art will understand however that the most preferred residence time will depend upon the structure of the starting siloxane bisphenol, the type of flow reactor employed and the like, and that the most preferred residence time may be determined by straightforward and limited experimentation. In one embodiment the present invention provides a method for the preparation of eugenol bischloroformate VIII wherein p is an integer from 1 to about 100, said method comprising introducing into a flow reactor a eugenol siloxane bisphenol II wherein p is an integer between 1 and about 100, as a solution in methylene chloride comprising from about 5 to about 50 weight percent eugenol siloxane bisphenol, an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide, and phosgene, said phosgene being introduced at a rate such that the ratio of phosgene to eugenol siloxane bisphenol OH groups is in a range between about 2.5 and about 6 moles of phosgene per mole of eugenol siloxane bisphenol OH group, said aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide having a concentration of at least about 5 percent by weight sodium hydroxide, said aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide being introduced at a rate such that the molar ratio of metal hydroxide to phosgene is in a range between about 3.5 and about 6. One embodiment of the present invention is a siloxane bischloroformate produced by the method described herein. Thus, in one aspect the present invention is a siloxane bischloroformate produced by the method of the present invention said siloxane bischloroformate comprising structure IX wherein R 1 is independently at each occurrence a C 1 -C 10 alkylene group optionally substituted by one or more C 1 -C 10 alkyl or aryl groups, an oxygen atom, an oxyalkyleneoxy moiety —O—(CH 2 ) t —O—, or an oxyalkylene moiety —O—(CH 2 ) t —, where t is an integer from 2-20; R 2 and R 3 are each independently at each occurrence, halogen, C 1 -C 6 alkoxy, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, or C 6 -C 10 aryl; z and q are independently integers from 0-4; R 4 , R 5 , R 6 and R 7 are each independently at each occurrence C 1 -C 6 alkyl, aryl, C 2 -C 6 alkenyl, cyano, trifluoropropyl, or styrenyl; and p is an integer from 1 to about 100. In a further embodiment, the present invention affords high purity bischloroformates having low levels of residual hydroxy endgroups. Thus when siloxane bisphenols having structure I are converted using the method of the present invention to the corresponding siloxane bischloroformates having structure IX, the product bischloroformate IX contains less than 10 percent, preferably less than 5 percent and even more preferably less than 1 percent residual hydroxy endgroups. The term “residual hydroxy endgroups” refers to those hydroxy groups present in the starting siloxane bisphenol which are not converted to the corresponding chloroformate groups in the product bischloroformate. During the course of the present invention it was discovered that the principal impurities present in the product siloxane bischloroformate are the starting siloxane bisphenol and bischloroformate half product as determined by 1 H-NMR spectroscopy. Comparative Example 1 illustrates the high levels of residual hydroxy endgroups present in product siloxane bischloroformate prepared using conventional batch reaction conditions which have been used to prepare other types of chloroformates. In a further embodiment the present invention is a siloxane bischloroformate comprising structure VIII wherein p is an integer between 1 and about 100, said siloxane bischloroformate comprising fewer than 10 percent hydroxy endgroups, said siloxane bischloroformate comprising less than 0.5 percent carbonate groups. EXAMPLES The following examples are set forth to provide those of ordinary skill in the art with a detailed description of how the methods claimed herein are carried out and evaluated, and are not intended to limit the scope of what the inventors regard as their invention. Unless indicated otherwise, parts are by weight and temperature is in ° C. Percent conversion of eugenol siloxane bisphenol OH groups to the corresponding chloroformate groups was determined by proton NMR spectroscopy ( 1 H-NMR). Similarly, carbonate formation could be detected using 1 H-NMR, the detection limit for eugenol siloxane carbonate groups being 0.5%. The starting siloxane bisphenol, d-50 eugenol siloxane bisphenol (EuSiD50), used in the preparation of siloxane bischloroformates was itself prepared by hydrosilylation of approximately two equivalents of eugenol with approximately one equivalent of the d-50 siloxane dihydride, HSiMe 2 (OSiMe 2 ) 50 H, under known hydrosilylation conditions, for example those taught in copending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/613,040. The product eugenol siloxane bisphenol was shown by 1 H-NMR to be a 95:5 mixture of isomeric siloxane bisphenols, said isomeric siloxane bisphenols having structures II and X respectively, wherein p is a range of integers having an average value of about 50. As mentioned, isomeric mixtures such as the mixture of siloxane bisphenols having structures II and X are idealized as having the structure of the major isomer II for reasons of convenience. Those skilled in the art will understand that the olefin hydrosilylation chemistry employed to produce bisphenol siloxanes will almost invariably produce the product siloxane bisphenols as a mixture of isomers, said mixture of isomers frequently being inseparable and yet useful in materials synthesis. Those skilled in the art will likewise understand that the conversion of a mixture of isomeric siloxane bisphenols to the corresponding bischloroformates will necessarily produce an isomeric mixture of siloxane bischloroformates. As in the case of the siloxane bisphenols, the structures of said siloxane bischloroformates are idealized herein as having the structure of the major siloxane bischloroformate isomeric component. Thus, the eugenol siloxane bischloroformate prepared in the Examples and Comparative Examples herein was an approximately 95:5 mixture of the siloxane bischloroformates corresponding to siloxane bisphenols II and X. For convenience in describing the practice and attributes of the instant invention, isomeric mixtures of eugenol siloxane bischloroformates are treated as having idealized structure VIII. Three feed solutions, a 20 weight percent solution of d-50 eugenol siloxane bisphenol (EuSiD50) in methylene chloride, NaOH in water, and phosgene were introduced into a tubular flow reactor in the amounts and feed rates indicated. The tubular flow reactor employed is shown in FIG. 1 . Each feed solution was delivered independently to the reactor. The d-50 eugenol siloxane bisphenol in methylene chloride (CH 2 Cl 2 ) solution was pre-cooled in coil immersed in an ice water bath. The discharge end of the reactor was vented to a scrubber at atmospheric pressure. The pressure at the feed side of the reactor was 3-5 psig. The tubular flow reactor comprised a series of KO-FLO® static mixers configured as follows: one Type A tubular reactor section followed by six Type B tubular reactor sections. The Type A tubular reactor section comprised six static mixers, each of said mixers being 7 inches in length and having an outer diameter of ¼ of an inch. Each of the Type B tubular reactor sections comprised three static mixers; a first static mixer (11 inches in length, ¼ inch outer diameter), a second static mixer (16 inches in length, ⅜ inch outer diameter), and a third static mixer (16 inches in length, ½ inch outer diameter). The total reactor volume was about 252 milliliters (mL). The initial sections of the reactor were wrapped with woven fabric insulating material. Sampling points were located at several locations along the flow reactor and are indicated in FIG. 1 as “Point 1”-“Point 8”, “Point 12” and “Sample Point 13”. Sample point 13 was located at the downstream end of the sixth Type B tubular reactor section and corresponded to a reactor volume of about 252 mL. Sample point 8 was located at the downstream edge of the first type B tubular reactor section (that tubular reactor section following the Type A reactor section) and corresponded to a reactor volume of about 57 mL. Sample point 7 was located at the downstream end of the Type A tubular reactor section. Typical residence times are illustrated by Example 2 wherein the residence time was about 90 seconds at sample point 8 and about 400 seconds at sample point 13. In Examples 1-6 feed solutions (1) and (3) were introduced at the following rates: Feed (1): 7.6 gram/minute (gm/min)EuSiD50 (d-50 eugenol siloxane) 30.4 gram/minute methylene chloride Feed (3): 1.12 gram/minute COCl 2 The data in Table 1 demonstrate that using the method of the present invention greater than 95% conversion of eugenol siloxane bisphenol hydroxy groups to the corresponding bischloroformates can be achieved while avoiding carbonate byproduct formation. In Examples 1-6 optimal performance was achieved when the molar ratio of sodium hydroxide to eugenol siloxane bisphenol hydroxy groups was in a range between about 9 and about 12 and the concentration of the aqueous sodium hydroxide was about 17.5 percent by weight sodium hydroxide in water. TABLE 1 EUGENOL SILOXANE BISCHLOROFORMATE PREPARATION Moles Wt % NaOH Feed 2 % Conversion % Conversion Carbonate Example NaOH a (Feed 2) b rate c at 8 d at 13 e level f 1 6 17.5 5.18 82.8 <0.5% 2 9 17.5 7.77 94.4 95.3 <0.5% 3 12 17.5 10.36 96.3 96.5 <0.5% 4 6 12.5 5.18 72.8 <0.5% 5 9 12.5 7.77 88.9 <0.5% 6 12 12.5 10.36 92.9 93.2 <0.5% a Moles NaOH per mole Eugenol siloxane bisphenol OH endgroup b Concentration of NaOH in Feed 2 expressed as weight percent c Rate at which Feed 2 was introduced expressed in grams per minute d Percent of Eugenol siloxane bisphenol OH groups converted to bischloroformate at sample point 8 e Percent of Eugenol siloxane bisphenol OH groups converted to bischloroformate at sample point 13 f Level of by-product eugenol siloxane carbonate was less than 0.5% Comparative Example 1 A 500 mL Morton flask was charged with d-50 eugenol siloxane bisphenol (5.0 g, 0.12 mmol), methylene chloride (130 mL) and water (10 mL). The pH was adjusted to and maintained at a pH of from about 0 to about 5 with 25 wt % aqueous sodium hydroxide as phosgene (5.0 g, 50 mmol) was added. Following phosgene addition the pH was raised to about 10 to consume excess phosgene. Hydrochloric acid solution (1N HCL, 135 mL) was added and the product bischloroformate solution was separated by centrifugation. Proton NMR analysis showed only about 90% of the eugenol siloxane bisphenol hydroxy groups had been converted to chloroformate groups. There was little or no carbonate coupled product. Examples 7-24 The flow reactor used in Examples 7-24 was essentially identical to that used in Examples 1-6 with the following modifications. The flow reactor was configured as shown in FIG. 1. A sample port was added to the system at the downstream end of the first reactor section (Type A tubular reactor section) and a cooler was installed to provide cooling for the aqueous caustic feed in selected experiments. Examples 17-22 utilized the aqueous caustic cooler. In each of Examples 7-24 the solution of eugenol siloxane bisphenol in methylene chloride (CH 2 Cl 2 ) was chilled in an ice water bath prior to its introduction into the flow reactor solution cooler. Detailed Experimental conditions used in Examples 7-24 are given Table 2. Additional experimental data and results for the conversion of starting eugenol siloxane bisphenol to product eugenol siloxane bischloroformate in Examples 7-24 are gathered in Table 3. Feed rates employed in Examples 7-24 for eugenol siloxane bisphenol, methylene chloride and phosgene are given below. Feed 1: 7.6 gram/minute EuSiD50 30.5 gram/minute CH 2 Cl 2 Feed 2: COCl 2 (see tables for flow rates) Feed 3: Aqueous NaOH (see tables for flow rates) TABLE 2 EUGENOL SILOXANE BISCHLOROFORMATE REACTION CONDITIONS NaOH Point 6 Feed Residence Residence COCl2 Soln NaOH Temp Pressure Time Time Example gm/min gm/min ° C. ° C. a psig Point 7 (sec) Point 13 (sec) 7 1.12 10.38 15.8 43.3 5 —   804 b 8 1.12 12.12 13.2 38.5 2 27 379 9 1.50 16.17 14.9 41.1 3 25 349 10 1.12 15.16 14.5 35.5 2.5 25 356 11 1.50 20.21 16.2 40.5 4 23 323 12 1.12 9.09 12.6 38.1 3 29 410 13 1.50 12.12 12.2 42.5 4.2 27 384 14 1.12 11.37 11.9 34.9 2.0 28 390 15 1.50 15.16 12.9 41.5 3.8 26 361 16 1.31 11.93 12.8 40.0 3 27 383 17 1.50 15.16 8.5 30.5 3 26 361 18 1.69 17.05 8.8 33.1 3 25 347 19 1.87 18.94 5.8 31.4 3 24 335 20 1.50 12.63 6.7 34.3 3 27 383 21 1.69 14.21 6.2 36.5 3.8 26 371 22 1.87 15.79 7.2 39.3 4 26 360 23 1.87 15.79 11.4 40.2 5 26 360 24 1.87 17.22 14.0 43.8 4.5 26 360 a Point 6 located between the fifth and sixth static mixing elements of the Type A tubular reaction section (Label “Point 6” in FIG. 1) b Each Type B tubular reactor section was followed by a 10 foot long ¼″ o.d. copper tube having a volume of 48 mL. The total reactor volume for this example was 540 mL. TABLE 3 EUGENOL SILOXANE BISCHLOROFORMATE PREPARATION Molar ratio % Conversion to % Conversion to COCl 2 /Eugenol NaOH/ wt % Chloroformate Chloroformate Example siloxane OH COCl 2 a NaOH Sample Point 7 Sample Point 13 7 3 4 17.5 — 97.7 8 3 4 15 84.7 b 91.3 9 4 4 15 93.0 97.1 10 3 5 15 85.8 91.7 11 4 5 15 97.6 98.5 12 3 4 20 88.4 96.6 13 4 4 20 98.0 98.5 14 3 5 20 91.3 95.7 15 4 5 20 99.0 99.0 16 3.5 4.5 17.5 97.1 97.1 17 4 5 20 85.5 97.6 18 4.5 5 20 87.3 98.0 19 5 5 20 88.1 99.5 20 4 5 24 84.4 98.0 21 4.5 5 24 85.1 99.0 22 5 5 24 94.8 99.5 23 5 5 24 — >99.5 24 5 5 22 — >99.5 a mole NaOH per mole of phosgene b Sample taken at sample point No. 8 instead of sample point No. 7 The data in Table 3 demonstrate that essentially complete conversion of eugenol siloxane bisphenol to eugenol siloxane bischloroformate is achievable using the method of the present invention. With the single exception of Example 11 in which approximately 1 percent of the eugenol siloxane bisphenol OH groups were converted to carbonate groups, no carbonate was detected by proton NMR. Thus, the method of the present invention is clearly superior to the batch preparation of eugenol siloxane bischloroformate illustrated by Comparative Example 1. The invention has been described in detail with particular reference to preferred embodiments thereof, but it will be understood by those skilled in the art that variations and modifications can be effected within the spirit and scope of the invention.

Siloxane bischloroformates are prepared in a continuous process by phosgenating siloxane bisphenols in a flow reactor using a substantial excess of phosgene and sodium hydroxide. While very high levels (>95%) of conversion of the siloxane bisphenol to the corresponding siloxane bischloroformate are achieved using a flow reactor according to the method of the invention, only more modest conversion (˜90%) of the siloxane bisphenol to the corresponding siloxane bischloroformate is attained when analogous batch processes are employed. The process holds promise for use in the manufacture of silicone-containing copolycarbonates which requires high purity siloxane bischloroformate intermediates.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to blister packs, for example for small items of hardware such as screws, nails, bolts, or wall anchors. 2. Description of the Prior Art Blister packs for small items of hardware such as those just discussed conventionally comprise a transparent plastics blister attached to a sheet of relatively thin card which rigidifies the pack and facilitates suspension of the pack from a hanger of a point-of-sale display. The card will usually be printed with appropriate data concerning the product within the pack. The pack is configured so that on the point-of-sale display, the blister is at the front so that the contents within the blister are clearly visible to the customer, with the card closing the rear of the blister, access to the contents being afforded by tearing the card for which purpose the card is usually provided with perforations. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION According to the invention, there is provided a blister pack, said pack comprising a support card with a transparent plastics blister at the rear of the card, the card closing an open side of the blister to enclose product within the blister, the front face of the card being covered with a transparent plastics sheet and including a window through which the contents of the blister can be viewed from the front of the pack, the plastics sheet providing a closure for the window and the sheet being removable from the card to open the window for withdrawal of the product via the open window. Further according to the present invention, there is provided a blister pack, said pack comprising a support card with a transparent plastics blister at the rear of the card, the card closing an open side of the blister to enclose product within the blister, the front face of the card being laminated with a transparent plastics sheet over substantially its entire area and including a window through which the contents of the blister can be viewed from the front of the pack, wherein the front face of the card is printed with indicia relating to the product and viewable through the transparent plastics sheet and the transparent plastics sheet is laminated to the front of the card by a compound which penetrates into the outer surface portion of the card whereby opening of the pack can be effected by pulling the plastics sheet and the surface portion of the card adhering thereto away from the remainder of the thickness of the card so as to open the window for withdrawal of product via the window without requiring tearing of the card to increase the open area of the window. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS An embodiment of the invention will now be described, by way of example only, with reference to the accompanying drawings in which: FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a blister pack in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the invention, the pack being shown prior to opening; and FIG. 2 is a perspective view showing the pack after opening. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT In accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention, a blister pack for small items of hardware such as those discussed at the outset comprises a card 2 carrying a transparent blister 4 of a semi-rigid plastics material, the card 2 closing the open side of the blister 4 . In contrast to conventional blister packs of this general type, the card 2 is designed to lie at the front of the blister 4 when the pack is hung via a suspension aperture 5 or otherwise mounted in the point-of-sale display, and to facilitate viewing of the contents the card 2 is provided with a window 6 through which the contents within the pack can be observed by a customer viewing the pack from the front. The detailed structure of the pack will now be described with reference to the following description of the method by which the pack is produced. The pack is manufactured using the following process steps: 1. The front and rear sides of the card 2 are printed. 2. One or more coats of heat seal compound are applied to the front and rear faces of the card 2 . 3. The aperture for forming the window 6 is cut within the card 2 , for example using a die cutting process. 4. The front of the card 2 is laminated with a transparent plastics film or other transparent plastics sheet 8 using a heat sealing process by applying heat and pressure. 5. The card and the suspension aperture 5 is cut, for example using a die cutting process, followed by stripping of the suspension aperture 5 . 6. The blister 4 is adhered to the back of the card 2 using a heat seal blister machine. In the step of laminating the front of the card 2 with the transparent plastics film 8 , the heat seal compound bonds through the printed surface of the card to the fibres lying adjacent the surface of the card. In order to open the pack, all that is necessary is to lift a corner of the laminate 8 and pull the laminate away from the card in the zone of the window 6 . In so doing, a thin surface layer of the card to which the laminate 8 is adhered will simply tear away from the remainder of the card thickness. Product can then be withdrawn via the open window 6 . Although suitable plastics for use as the film 8 , and suitable heat seal compounds for laminating the film to the front of the card will be well known and understood to those skilled in the art, by way of example in a preferred form the film is P.E.T. of a thickness of from about 50 micron to 75 micron, and the heat seal compound is polyurethane-based water soluble having a temperature sealing range through the film of from 110° C. to 130° C. Although opening of the pack is accomplished very easily by a consumer in the manner just described, nevertheless the laminated structure of the card reinforces the card and provides a secure closure for the window to reduce the risk of pilferage of product when the pack is within the point-of-sale display. In contrast, conventional packs of the type discussed at the outset are highly susceptible to pilferage of product while within the point-of-sale display by pressing the blister at the front of the card to force a product against the card which is readily torn due to the presence of the perforations. In a pack in accordance with the invention, the card is not weakened by the presence of perforations as these are not needed. Instead, the dispensing window of predetermining dispensing size is always present, but is closed by the secure closure formed by the laminate. The design of the pack described whereby the card lies at the front of the pack with the contents being visible through the small window 6 at the front of the card provides a display in which substantial product information printed on the front of the card is immediately visible to a potential customer without having to remove the pack from the display. In contrast in current packs in which the blister lies to the front of the card in the display, the blister and the contents within the blister tend to obscure some of the data visible at the front face of the card. The embodiment has been described by way of example only and modifications are possible within the scope of the invention.

A blister pack comprises a support card with a transparent plastics blister at the rear of the card. The card closes an open side of the blister to enclose product within the blister. The front face of the card is laminated with a transparent plastics sheet and includes a window through which the contents of the blister can be viewed from the front of the pack.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0001] 1) Field of the Invention [0002] The invention relates generally to feeding stations and more particularly to a system for organizing and preventing bowls and the like from being turned over or moved about during feeding. [0003] 2) Prior Art [0004] The literature on feeding stations primarily reads on feeding children in high chairs. U.S. Pat. No. 5,975,628 to Larry L. Russell teaches a tray for a child's high chair. A section of interlocking elements (not Velcro™) that engage a complementary surface on eating utensils or toys permits removably securing the eating utensil or toy to the tray surface. Tray dimensions may be customized to fit tables of commercially available children's high chairs. The tray may also include a smooth surface that accommodates eating utensils and toys that do not have interlocking elements. [0005] Des. 386,838 to Pini et al. discloses a Mat For Pet Feeding Dish, however nothing is taught about the mat or dishes, nor a system for organizing and preventing bowls and the like from being turned over or moved about during feeding. With a greater percentage of the population taking care of pets indoors there is a need for a feeding system that is better organized and easier to maintain. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0006] The invention is a system for organizing and preventing bowls and the like from being turned over or moved about during feeding. An advantage of one embodiment is the system keeps the feeding bowls distributed so that an animal, such as a pet, is not crowded from access to a bowl. The system uses Limited Eating Area Hardware (hereinafter known as LEAH ), where the system includes a mat having an upper layer with an outer surface that is substantially impervious to water and oils. The system restrains movement of vessels, such as bowls, to a limited eating zone, wherein the zone is substantially limited to the space on and above the mat. [0007] The surface of the mat has one or more planar fastening areas, where a planar fastening area is fitted with hardware, such as one or more hook or loop fastening membranes or a combination thereof (i.e., Velcro™). The hardware enables vessels appropriately fitted with hook or loop fastening membranes or a combination thereof to be reversibly secured. Adhesion is attained when a hook membrane is pressed against a loop membrane, causing the hook and loop fibrous elements to become entangled. A hook membrane adheres to a loop membrane, but not to another hook membrane. Hook membranes are not repelled by other hook membranes, they simply don't adhere. Similarly, loop membranes are not repelled by other loop membranes, they simply don't adhere. Hook and loop membranes are separated by peeling one from the other, with enough force to disentangle the hook and loop fibrous elements. [0008] Examples of vessels appropriately fitted with hook or loop fastening membranes or a combination thereof include the following: containers, holding devices, protective covers and protective holders. Containers typically have hook or loop fastening membranes on the bottom, and examples include bowls, dishes, plates, jars and glasses. Holding devices include cup holders, sippy cups holders, and conventional bowls (for instance for feeding pets and infants), where a holding device holds the utensil that actually contains the drink or food. Protective covers include trivets and mat covers, where a mat cover is used to provide a protective cover for a planar fastening area when the area is not in use. Protective holders include holders that provide protection against mechanical shock and/or thermal or electrical insulation. An examples of a protective holder is an insulated cup holder. [0009] An aspect of the invention is that the mat and vessel can be selected to be disposable and recyclable, such as a plastic mat having a planar fastening area with several strips of loop fastening membranes, and a plastic vessel having a bottom outer surface with a strip of a hook membrane. Alternatively, conventional non-disposable eating utensils and containers can also be selected. [0010] A object of the invention is that the system is suitable as a station for feeding animals, and especially pets such as dogs and cats. In an exemplary applications of the system, the system is fitted as a feeding station for dogs. Typically, during feeding, a bowl containing water, a bowl containing food, and a small treat bowl are presented to the dog(s). Following eating, all bowls are removed, the water bowl is refreshed, the mat is cleaned, mat covers are positioned over the food and treat planar fastening areas, and the water bowl is repositioned on the water planar fastening area. The mat covers prevent food and other detritus from contaminating the hook or loop membrane of the planar fastening area, therein preventing the infestation of insects and bacteria, which can reduce the performance of the hook or loop element fastening membranes. [0011] Another aspect of the invention is that the mat has excellent lay-flat characteristics, that is it is not internally stressed, so that after a rather short period of time it does not tend to curl or buckle, as is commonly the case with many plastic mats. Another object is that the mat is color fast, even in direct sunlight. Cloth and plastic mats are typically not color fast, and often fade or crack after relatively short durations of exposure to the sun. Another object of the invention is that the mat is resistant to staining even to tomato and mustard based foods, and it can be cleaned in a washing machine. Another object of the invention is that the mat is composed of materials to which the hook or loop membranes can be permanently affixed. A good combination is a mat having a high count scrim interlayer coated on both sides with an annealed PVC composition, where the interlayer has a needled fleece (so that the fleece is on both sides of the interlayer), and where one side of the fleece is then impregnated with an over-layer of a highly stable plastic such as PVC or PVDC, which forms the upper layer with the outer surface that is substantially impervious to water and oils. [0012] Another aspect of the invention is that the opposing side of needled fleece has some adherence to the loop side of Velcro, and when combined with cements, such as bituminous, acrylic and epoxy glues it has very good adhesion to properly prepared metal and excellence adhesion to ceramic tiles and the like. The system can include adhering the mat to plates like metal or tiles or other earthen based plates. Tiles are much heavier than just the mat, and in applications where additional weight is required, tiles are an inexpensive addition that are suitable for use with food products. Tiles can also be interlocked, so that a mosaic of tiles faced with the LEAH mat system can be formed. No matter what the size of the animal the LEAH system can be configured so that the bowls remain stationary. [0013] Applications that employ one or a mosaic of tiles faced with the LEAH system would also be appropriate for applications in the bathroom, such as a soap or shampoo holder. [0014] As previously stated, the needled fleece side of the mat has some adherence to the loop side of Velcro. Trucks, cars, boats, planes and trains having trays fitted with strips of loop membrane would serve to secure the relatively light weight mat so that to reversibly secure vessels appropriately fitted with hook or loop fastening membranes or a combination thereof. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0015] The foregoing and other objects will become readily apparent by referring to the following detailed description and the appended drawings in which; [0016] FIG. 1 is a plan view of an embodiment of the invention, a limited eating area hardware system, for organizing and preventing bowls and the like from being turned over or moved about during feeding; [0017] FIG. 1 a is a side view of the invention shown in FIG. 1 , illustrating that the containers, such as bowls, have a bottom surface fitted with a hook and loop fastener layer that is fastened to a complementary planar fastening area on the mat; [0018] FIG. 2 is a plan view of a mat having one or more planar fastening areas with various configurations of hook and loop membranes that are sewn to the mat, where the planar fastening areas enable container(s) to be secured to the mat. FIG. 2 also illustrates several embodiments of a lift tab that is sewn to the mat, where lift tab s facilitate decoupling a container secured to a planar fastening area; [0019] FIG. 3 is a bottom view of the bowls shown in FIG. 1 a illustrating that the bottom of the bowls have a complimentary hook and loop layer that when positioned on the planar fastening area will fasten to the mat; [0020] FIG. 4 is a plan view of a mat having a pair of rectangular planar fastening areas, where in one embodiment the hook membrane is sewn to the mat as strips, and it the other embodiment the hook membrane is adhered to the mat with glue and stitches. The rectangular planar fastening areas are particularly suitable for securing rectangular dishes, such as a partitioned plates which are often used when feeding children and securing trivets; [0021] FIG. 5 is a bottom view of a rectangular container illustrating that the bottom of the container would have a loop layer that when positioned on the planar fastening area will fasten to the mat. The loop layer has some adhesion to fuzzy materials such as carpet, fleece, knits and velvet, and a container fitted with the loop layer would be partially secured to a car's carpeted floor; [0022] FIG. 6 is an enlarged partial view of an edge of a planar fastening area laminated to the mat, wherein the enlargement also illustrates details of the composition of a mat having particularly suitable properties for the invention; [0023] FIG. 7 is a planar view of a mat mounted on a base, such as a square tile, where the mat has loop fastening membrane mounted to the mat and a lift tab having an end that is sewn to the mat; [0024] FIG. 7 a is a cross-sectional view of the mat illustrated in FIG. 7 taken along sectional line 7 a - 7 a; [0025] FIG. 8 is a planar view of a container which is a bowl, adhered to loop fastening membrane mounted to the mat and a lift tab having an end that is sewn to the mat, where the mat is mounted on a base, such as a square tile as illustrated in FIG. 7 ; [0026] FIG. 8 a is a cross-sectional view of the bowl and mat illustrated in FIG. 8 taken along sectional line 8 a - 8 a; [0027] FIG. 9 is a diagrammatic view illustrating how a tab is used to lift the bowl from mat attached to the tile illustrated in FIG. 8 a; [0028] FIG. 10 is a plan view of an embodiment of the invention, a limited eating area hardware system, for organizing and preventing bowls and the like from being turned over or moved about during feeding, wherein the mat is printed, and in this embodiment printed to label where each bowl is to be positioned; [0029] FIG. 11 is a plan view of an embodiment of the invention, illustrating the use of a protective cover over a planar fastening area mounted to the mat when it is not being used to secure a bowl or other container, therein prevent food and other detritus from fouling the planar fastening area. [0030] FIG. 11 a is a cross-sectional view of the protective cover over the planar fastening area illustrated in FIG. 11 taken along sectional line 11 a - 11 a; [0031] FIG. 12 is a plan view of an embodiment of the invention, a limited eating area hardware system, for organizing and preventing bowls and the like from being turned over, wherein the secured container is a holding device that holds the cup or bowl that actually contains the drink or food, where the of illustrated embodiment is a cup holder. [0032] FIG. 12 a is a diagrammatic view of the cup holder illustrated in FIG. 12 . [0033] FIG. 13 is a plan view of an embodiment of the invention, where the holding device is a retainer (in this case clear—similar to a Petri dish) which intersects an interior underside of bowls that have a partially shallow bottom, such as a dog bowl with flared walls (sometimes called a skid shirt), and as illustrated the planar fastening area has horizontal strips of Velcro and the holding device has vertical strips of Velcro; and [0034] FIG. 13 a is a diagrammatic view that illustrates how the cut away view of the holding device retains the dog bowl when the bowl is positioned on the holding device. An advantage of a holding device is that it enables the user to keep using his existing feeders with the easy clean up the invented system for organizing and preventing bowls and the like from being turned over or moved about during feeding. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0035] The invention 10 is a system for organizing and preventing bowls and the like from being turned over or moved about during feeding. An embodiment of the invention is shown in FIG. 1 , which is a plan view of an embodiment of the invention 10 . The invention utilizes limited eating area hardware system, for organizing and preventing bowls and the like from being turned over or moved about during feeding. In the figure are shown a mat 12 and three vessels 20 . The illustrated mat 12 is substantially rectangular and it has rounded corners 14 , eliminating the possibility of accidentally cutting a user. The exact shape of the mat is not a limitation, so long as it can accommodate the vessels. It could for instance be oval, but in general, a rectangular shape is more material conservative and an easy shape to cut. The mat 12 has an upper surface 18 that is oil and water resistant and at least one planar fastening area 16 under the attached vessels 20 . In general the dimensions of a planar fastening area 16 are selected to accommodate the vessel. Therefore, lines 20 a and 20 b , lines 20 a ′ and 20 b ′, and line 20 c define the dimensions of the planar fastening area 16 . The type of vessel 20 is indefinite from this view, only the diameters 20 a , 20 b , 20 c . It is apparent that 20 c is much shorter than 20 a and 20 b , which are comparable. Vessels generally can be characterized as either containers, holding devices, protective covers and protective holders. One of the planar fastening areas has a lift tab 60 , which can be used to release the vessel from the mat, and lift tabs are discussed in greater detail below. [0036] Referring to FIG. 1 a , which is a side partially exploded view of the invention shown in FIG. 1 , where each of the vessels 20 is appropriately fitted with vessel hook or loop fastening membranes 50 or a combination thereof. The vessel membrane 50 is composed of a hook or loop layer 52 and it is integral to the membrane layer 54 . Similarly, the planar fastening area 16 has mat a hook or loop fastening membranes 30 or a combination thereof. The mat hook or loop fastening membrane 30 is typically composed of a hook or loop layer 32 that is integral to the membrane layer 34 . The vessel membrane is normally attached to a bottom outer surface 22 of the vessel, as illustrated in the drawing, using an adhesive. The adhesive is not shown. The exact configuration is selected so that hook and loop layers are aligned. In the figures FIG. 1 and FIG. 1 a all three vessels are containers, where containers have hook or loop fastening membranes on a bottom surface of the container. Examples of containers include bowls, casseroles, dishes, plates, jars and glasses. Based on size and shape two of the containers are bowls 32 and one is a dish 34 . [0037] Other types of vessels include holding devices include cup holders, sippy cups holders and feeding bowls (for pets and infants), where a holding device holds the utensil that actually contains the drink or food. Protective covers include trivets and mat covers, where a mat cover is used to provide a protective cover for a planar fastening area when the area is not in use. Protective holders include holders that provide protection against mechanical shock and/or thermal or electrical insulation. An example of a protective holder is an insulated cup or drink holder. [0038] FIG. 2 is a plan view of a mat having one or more planar fastening areas with various configurations of hook and loop membranes that are sewn to the mat, where the planar fastening areas enable container(s) to be secured to the mat. In this view all of the planar fastening areas 16 , which are just zones on the mat that have been fitted or will be fitted with a hook and loop membranes hook or loop fastening membranes or a combination thereof that are loops 33 . One of the configurations 30 ′ of mat membranes is made up of strips arranged into a plus shape, a second configurations 30 ″ is a circular curvilinear shape, and a third configuration 30 ″′ is hexagonal. Note, that in each of the illustrated embodiments shown in FIG. 2 the membrane has a perimeter skirt 36 . The perimeter skirt enables the membrane to be fastened with perimeter stitches 40 . The second configuration 30 ″ additionally has interior stitches 42 A couple of lift tabs 60 , 60 ′ are also illustrated. An end of the rectangular lift tab 60 is secured to the mat with tab stitches 44 , therein facilitating the act breaking an attached vessel (see FIG. 9 ) free from the mat. An alternate version of the lift tab 60 ′ is illustrated. Lift tab 60 ′ runs parallel to strip of mat membrane 30 ′. Lift tab 60 ′ is sewn to the mat 12 by stitches 44 . The lift tab 60 ′ has a hem 62 ′ with a batten (not visible) to stiffen the wider lift tab 60 ′. The smaller planar fastening area 16 has a hook or loop fastening membrane 30 ″′ with loops 33 . As with the other two membranes, 30 ′, 30 ″, there is a perimeter skirt 36 that enables the membrane to be fastened with perimeter stitches 40 . [0039] Referring to FIG. 3 , which is a bottom view bowls 26 , 26 ′ with a flat bottom and a dish 28 with a flat bottom, where the outer surface 22 is fitted with vessel hook or loop fastening membranes 50 ′, 50 ″, 50 ″′ that are hooks 51 . As is readily apparent from the illustrated embodiment, the orientation of the vessel membrane on the mat membrane is neutral, meaning that a vessel hook membrane will align and adhere with a mat loop membrane on the mat ( 50 ′ to 30 ′), ( 50 ″ to 30 ″) ( 50 ″′ to 30 ″′). [0040] FIG. 4 and FIG. 5 illustrate how the bottom surface 22 of a vessel, in this case a rectangular dish 25 , such as a casserole or partitioned plate, can be fitted with a vessel membrane 50 ″′ having only loops 55 and the planar fastening areas 16 are fitted with a mat fastening membrane 30 ″″ having only hooks 35 . The mat 12 has a pair of rectangular planar fastening areas 16 , where in one embodiment the hook membrane is sewn to the mat as three narrow strips 31 and in the other embodiment as a single wide strip 31 ′. The perimeter stitches 40 and are in the perimeter skirt 36 , and interior stitches 42 run between the strips 31 . Adhesion to the mat can be augmented with a cement, and in other embodiments the hook membrane is adhered to the mat with glue only. Rectangular planar fastening areas are particularly suitable for securing rectangular dishes and securing trivets. [0041] FIG. 6 is an enlarged partial view of an edge of a planar fastening area 16 a having a hook or loop fastening membranes 30 laminated to the mat 12 . The enlargement also illustrates details of a mat material 70 having properties and a composition particularly suitable properties for the invention. The finished mat material 70 has a top layer 72 of plastic and a bottom layer of fleece 76 emanating from an interlayer 80 , where the interlayer 80 is a coated scrim 82 , 84 , 86 . The bottom layer of fleece 76 is formed by needling a felt 76 (shown as a dashed line) through the coated scrim 80 creating an intermediate product that is a double-sided fleece formed on the coated scrim. In other words, there is a top 72 and bottom layer of fleece 76 needled 78 to the coated scrim 80 . In a final step, one side of the double-sided fleece is coated with what becomes the top layer 72 of plastic. The plastic used in the top layer 72 is selected to have excellent weathering properties, oil and stain resistant, and water proof. The mat material 70 is very difficult to delaminate because the needling pushes fibers of the felt 78 through the interlayer 80 , and the final coating of the top layer 72 of plastic is embedded with fibers (as shown by the dashed line), and delaminating forces, such as caused by peeling apart adhered layers of hook and loop (Velcro) are distributed by the nearly continuous fibers which are both needled and embedded. Typically the coated scrim is a polyester woven material coated on both sides with a plastic very similar to plastic used in the top layer. After each coating the coated material is annealed, eliminating almost all curl or internal stress. The use of a mat material 70 having both a top layer 72 and an interlayer 80 furthermore reduces any tendency to curl. Typically, the plastic coatings are plasticized PVC or PVDC. The total thickness is from about 60 mils to about 120 mils. A PVC top layer is advantageous because there are known adhesives for use with it. The polyester fleece on the bottom side 76 also forms excellent bonds, and the bottom layer of fleece 76 has some natural adherence to loop membranes, which can be utilized to adhere to Velcro type products. [0042] Also illustrated in FIG. 6 is the hook or loop fastening membranes 30 , previously shown in FIG. 1 a . The mat hook or loop fastening membrane 30 is typically composed of a hook or loop layer 32 that is integral to the membrane layer 34 . In the illustrated embodiment the membrane layer 34 has a skirt 36 that is used to stitch 40 to the hook or loop fastening membrane 30 to the mat 12 . [0043] Referring to FIG. 7 , which is a planar view of a square mat 12 ′, versus the previously illustrated rectangular mat 12 in FIG. 1 , is mounted on a base 90 , such as a square tile, where illustrated square mat 12 ′ as shown has a loop fastening membrane 30 ″ as shown in FIG. 3 has a lift tab 60 having an end that is sewn 40 to the mat 12 ′. FIG. 7 a , which is a cross-sectional view of the mat taken along sectional line 7 a - 7 a illustrates that the base 90 (tile or other type of plate) is relatively thick compared to the membrane 12 ′. [0044] Referring to FIG. 8 , which is a planar view of a container 20 which is substantially a flat bottom bowl fitted with a hook fastening membrane 50 is in contact with the loop fastening membrane 30 ″ mounted to the mat. There is a lift tab 60 having an end 44 that is sewn to the mat, and the mat is mounted on a base 90 that is visible in FIG. 8 a . FIG. 8 a is a cross-sectional view of the bowl and square mat 12 ′ illustrated in FIG. 8 taken along sectional line 8 a - 8 a. [0045] Referring to FIG. 9 , the mat 12 ′ is mounted to a base 90 with a cement type permanent adhesive 92 such as an epoxy, acrylic, urethane, PVC, or bituminous adhesive based polymer. Notice that the fleece fibers 76 on the bottom of the mat become embedded in the permanent adhesive 92 . The base adds weight, and is appropriately selected to immobilize translational movement. It can be combined with other bases to further secure it position. In this embodiment the container 20 is fitted with a loop fastening membrane 30 ″ and the mat is fitted with a hook fastening membrane 50 . The selection of hook and loop is matter of the user's preference. A hook fastening membrane 50 has some adhesion to fuzzy materials, such as carpets, and this may be desirous if the user plans on using the bowl on a carpeted surface without the mat. As shown in the drawing, the lift tab 60 pivots at the sewn end 44 . [0046] The invention in one embodiment utilizes the characteristic that the mat can be printed, for instance using screen printing or decals that adhere to PVC. Referring to FIG. 10 , which is a plan view the limited eating area hardware system, where the system organizes and prevents bowls and the like from being turned over or moved about during feeding. As can be seen, each planar fastening area is labeled for its intended application. In the embodiment the use is a feeding station for pets. There is an area for water 8 , an area for food 6 , and an area for treats 4 , as indicated by the dashed lines (which are optional) and bowls. In another variation, the areas could be designated as to the dog or cat. [0047] An embodiment of the invention illustrating the use of a protective cover 92 is shown in FIG. 11 and FIG. 11 a . The protective cover 92 is a placed on a planar fastening area of the mat when the planar fastening area is not being used to secure a bowl or other container. The a protective cover 92 prevents food and other detritus from fouling the hook or loop fastening membrane on the mat 12 . FIG. 11 a is a cross-sectional view of the protective cover taken along sectional line 11 a - 11 a . The protective cover includes a plastic layer 94 , not unlike the to top layer of the mat 72 and a vessel hook or loop fastening membrane 50 and mat hook or loop fastening membrane 30 , where upon contacts the membranes adhere. [0048] In addition to containers and protective covers, the invention includes holding devices, and protective holders FIG. 12 and FIG. 12 a and FIG. 13 and FIG. 13 a are views of a holding device 94 , where the holding device holds the utensil that actually contains the drink or food. Holding devices are especially useful because they allow a user to use utensils that they already own, and require no special adaptation to fit the utensil with a vessel hook or loop fastening membrane 50 . Referring first to FIG. 12 and FIG. 12 a , which are illustrations of a mat fitted with a cup holder 95 having side walls, a slot 96 and floor 97 , an outer surface of the floor 97 with a vessel hook or loop fastening membrane 50 . The cup holder 95 can be selected to be comprised of an insulating material, therein also functioning as protective holding device. [0049] Referring to FIG. 13 and FIG. 13 a , the holding device is a retainer tray 99 with a retainer wall 100 and a retainer floor 101 . In this embodiment the retainer floor 101 is transparent so that in FIG. 13 a backside of the vessel hook or loop fastening membrane 50 is visible and portions of the mat hook or loop fastening membrane 30 are also visible. The illustrated membranes are strips. The bowl 104 shown in FIG. 13 a has not be positioned in FIG. 13 . The illustrated bowl 104 is a conventional bowl in that it has a rounded bottom 105 . Like many dog bowls and other pet bowls the bottom is elevated with either a ring or an exterior wall 106 . The elevation is required to provide the bowl with a flat stabilizing surface on the bottom of the bowl, and still have bowl where liquids will naturally flow to center of the rounded bottom 105 . In the illustrated embodiment the bowl 104 has an exterior wall 106 also and an interior wall 107 . The invented retainer tray 99 is selected so that the retainer wall 100 has a height and diameter such that when the bowl is seated on the retaining tray, the bowl exterior wall 104 slides over the retainer wall 100 , therein preventing the bowl from translational movement. [0050] The system using a Limited Eating Area Hardware, can be used to accommodate substantially any shape vessels, either by directly attaching the hook or loop fastening membrane to the vessel or by attaching the hook or loop fastening membrane to a device that holds the vessel. The system includes a mat having an upper layer with an outer surface that is substantially impervious to water and oils and containers, holding devices, protective covers and protective holders. [0051] The descriptions above and the accompanying drawings should be interpreted in the illustrative and not the limited sense. While the invention has been disclosed in connection with the preferred embodiment or embodiments thereof, it should be understood that there may be other embodiments which fall within the scope of the invention as defined by the following claims. Where a claim is expressed as a means or step for performing a specified function, it is intended that such claim be construed to cover the corresponding structure, material, or acts described in the specification and equivalents thereof, including both structural equivalents and equivalent structures.

The invention is a system for organizing and preventing bowls and the like from being turned over or moved about. The system includes a mat having an upper surface with one or more planar fastening areas, where each planar fastening area is fitted with one or more mat hook or loop fastening membranes or a combination thereof, and a vessel having a floor with an lower surface appropriately fitted on with one or more vessel hook or loop fastening membranes or a combination thereof. In the system a reversible bond between the mat membrane and the vessel membrane is attained when a hook membrane is pressed against a loop membrane, causing hook and loop fibrous elements to become entangled. The reversible bond can be broken by peeling the loop membrane from the hook membrane, causing hook and loop fibrous elements to become disentangled.

TECHNICAL FIELD OF INVENTION The present invention relates to a hydraulically actuated camshaft phaser for varying the phase relationship between a crankshaft and a camshaft in an internal combustion engine; more particularly to such a camshaft phaser that is a vane-type camshaft phaser, and more particularly to a vane-type camshaft phaser which includes a first oil control valve located coaxially within the camshaft phaser to control engagement and disengagement of a lock pin and a second oil control valve that is coaxial with the first oil control valve for varying the phase relationship between the crankshaft and the camshaft. BACKGROUND OF INVENTION A typical vane-type camshaft phaser generally comprises a plurality of outwardly-extending vanes on a rotor interspersed with a plurality of inwardly-extending lobes on a stator, forming alternating advance and retard chambers between the vanes and lobes. Engine oil is selectively supplied to one of the advance and retard chambers and vacated from the other of the advance and retard chambers in order to rotate the rotor within the stator and thereby change the phase relationship between an engine camshaft and an engine crankshaft. Camshaft phasers also commonly include an intermediate lock pin which selectively prevents relative rotation between the rotor and the stator at an angular position that is intermediate of a full advance and a full retard position. The intermediate lock pin is engaged and disengaged by vented oil from the intermediate lock pin and supplying pressurized oil to the intermediate lock pin respectively. Some camshaft phasers utilize one or more oil control valves located in the internal combustion engine to control the flow of pressurized oil to and from the advance chambers, retard chambers, and lock pin. One example of such a camshaft phaser is shown in U.S. patent application Publication No. 2010/0288215. In this arrangement, three separate supply signals need to be included in the camshaft bearing for communication to the camshaft phaser. More specifically, a first passage for the advance chambers, a second passage for the retard chambers, and a third passage for the lock pin is included in the camshaft bearing. Including three separate passages in the camshaft bearing undesirably increases the length of the camshaft bearing. Additionally, space may be limited in the internal combustion engine to package oil control valves therein which are needed to control oil to and from each of the three passages. In order to eliminate the packaging concerns and increased camshaft bearing length issues associated with packaging the oil control valve in the internal combustion engine, some manufacturers have included the oil control valve coaxially within the camshaft phaser. While this arrangement is common for oil control valves that need to supply oil to the advance and retard chambers, the arrangement is less common for oil control valves that need to supply oil not only to the advance and retard chambers, but the intermediate lock pin as well. One example of such a camshaft phaser is shown in U.S. patent application Publication No. 2004/0055550. However, including a single oil control valve coaxially within the camshaft phaser to control oil to the lock pin in addition to the advance and retard chambers requires an increased camshaft phaser thickness in order to accommodate the passage supplying oil to and from the lock pin. A single oil control valve also prevents independent control of the lock pin function and the phasing function which may make engaging the intermediate lock pin with its lock pin seat difficult. What is needed is an axially compact camshaft phaser with valving located coaxially within the camshaft phaser for controlling the phase relationship and for controlling the lock pin. What is also needed is such a camshaft phaser which allows for control of the phase relationship independent of the lock pin. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Briefly described, a camshaft phaser is provided for controllably varying the phase relationship between a crankshaft and a camshaft in an internal combustion engine. The camshaft phaser includes a stator having a plurality of lobes and connectable to the crankshaft of the internal combustion engine to provide a fixed ratio of rotation between the stator and the crankshaft. The camshaft phaser also includes a rotor coaxially disposed within the stator and having a plurality of vanes interspersed with the stator lobes defining alternating advance chambers and retard chambers. The advance chambers receive pressurized oil in order to change the phase relationship between the crankshaft and the camshaft in the advance direction while the retard chambers receive pressurized oil in order to change the phase relationship between the camshaft and the crankshaft in the retard direction. The rotor is attachable to the camshaft of the internal combustion engine to prevent relative rotation between the rotor and the camshaft. A lock pin is disposed within one of the rotor and the stator for selective engagement with a lock pin seat in the other of the rotor and the stator for substantially preventing relative rotation between the rotor and the stator when the lock pin is engaged with the lock pin seat. Pressurized oil is selectively supplied to the lock pin in order to disengage the lock pin from the lock pin seat while oil is selectively vented from the lock pin in order to engage the lock pin with the lock pin seat. A phase relationship control valve which is coaxial with the rotor is provided for controlling the flow of oil into and out of the advance and retard chambers. A lock pin control valve which is coaxial with the phase relationship control valve is provided for controlling the flow of oil to and from the lock pin. The phase relationship control valve is operational independent of the lock pin control valve. Further features and advantages of the invention will appear more clearly on a reading of the following detail description of the preferred embodiment of the invention, which is given by way of non-limiting example only and with reference to the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS This invention will be further described with reference to the accompanying drawings in which: FIG. 1 is an exploded isometric view of a camshaft phaser in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 2A is an axial cross-section of the camshaft phaser in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 2B is the axial cross-section of FIG. 2A showing a phase relationship control valve in a first position for supplying pressurized oil to retard chambers of the camshaft phaser and for venting oil from the advance chambers the camshaft phaser; FIG. 2 B′ is an enlarged view of the pertinent elements of FIG. 2B without reference numbers to clearly shown the oil flow through the camshaft phaser; FIG. 2C is the axial cross section of FIG. 2A showing the phase relationship control valve in a second position for supplying pressurized oil to the advance chambers and for venting oil from the retard chambers; FIG. 2 C′ is an enlarged view of the pertinent elements of FIG. 2C without reference numbers to clearly shown the oil flow through the camshaft phaser; FIG. 3A is an axial cross section of the camshaft phaser showing a lock pin control valve in a first position for supplying pressurized oil to lock pins of the camshaft phaser for retracting the lock pins from their lock pin seats; FIG. 3 A′ is an enlarged view of the pertinent elements of FIG. 3A without reference numbers to clearly shown the oil flow through the camshaft phaser; FIG. 3B is an axial cross section of the camshaft phaser showing the lock pin control valve in a second position for vented oil from the lock pins for seating the lock pins in their lock pin seats; FIG. 3 B′ is an enlarged view of the pertinent elements of FIG. 3B without reference numbers to clearly shown the oil flow through the camshaft phaser; FIG. 4 is a radial cross-section of the camshaft phaser taken in the direction of arrows 4 in FIG. 2A ; FIGS. 5A-5D are enlarged isometric views of a manifold of the camshaft phaser where each Fig. is shown rotated 90° from the previous view; FIG. 6A is an enlarged isometric view of a bushing adaptor of the camshaft phaser; FIG. 6B is an isometric cross-section of the bushing adaptor of FIG. 6A ; FIG. 7A is an axial cross section of a second embodiment of a camshaft phaser showing a lock pin control valve in a first position for supplying pressurized oil to lock pins of the camshaft phaser for retracting the lock pins from their lock pin seats; FIG. 7 A′ is an enlarged view of the pertinent elements of FIG. 7A without reference numbers to clearly show the oil flow through the camshaft phaser; FIG. 7B is an axial cross section of the second embodiment camshaft phaser showing the lock pin control valve in a second position for venting oil from the lock pins for seating the lock pins in their lock pin seats; FIG. 7 B′ is an enlarged view of the pertinent elements of FIG. 7B without reference numbers to clearly show the oil flow through the camshaft phaser; FIG. 8A is an enlarged isometric view of a manifold of the camshaft phaser of the second embodiment; and FIG. 8B is an isometric cross-section of the manifold of FIG. 8A . DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF INVENTION In accordance with a preferred embodiment of this invention and referring to FIGS. 1 , 2 A, and 4 , internal combustion engine 10 is shown which includes camshaft phaser 12 . Internal combustion engine 10 also includes camshaft 14 which is rotatable based on rotational input from a crankshaft and chain (not shown) driven by a plurality of reciprocating pistons (also not shown). As camshaft 14 is rotated, it imparts valve lifting and closing motion to intake and/or exhaust valves (not shown) as is well known in the internal combustion engine art. Camshaft phaser 12 allows the timing between the crankshaft and camshaft 14 to be varied. In this way, opening and closing of the intake and/or exhaust valves can be advanced or retarded in order to achieve desired engine performance. Camshaft phaser 12 includes sprocket 16 which is driven by a chain or gear (not shown) driven by the crankshaft of internal combustion engine 10 . Alternatively, sprocket 16 may be a pulley driven by a belt. Sprocket 16 includes a central bore 18 for receiving camshaft 14 coaxially therethrough which is allowed to rotate relative to sprocket 16 . Sprocket 16 is sealingly secured to stator 20 with sprocket bolts 22 in a way that will be described in more detail later. Stator 20 is generally cylindrical and includes a plurality of radial chambers 24 defined by a plurality of lobes 26 extending radially inward. In the embodiment shown, there are four lobes 26 defining four radial chambers 24 , however, it is to be understood that a different number of lobes may be provided to define radial chambers equal in quantity to the number of lobes. Rotor 28 includes central hub 30 with a plurality of vanes 32 extending radially outward therefrom and central through bore 34 which is stepped and extends axially therethrough. The number of vanes 32 is equal to the number of radial chambers 24 provided in stator 20 . Rotor 28 is coaxially disposed within stator 20 such that each vane 32 divides each radial chamber 24 into advance chambers 36 and retard chambers 38 . The radial tips of lobes 26 are mateable with central hub 30 in order to separate radial chambers 24 from each other. Preferably, each of the radial tips of vanes 32 includes one of a plurality of wiper seals 40 to substantially seal adjacent advance and retard chambers 36 , 38 from each other. Although not shown, each of the radial tips of lobes 26 may include a wiper seal similar in configuration to wiper seal 40 . Central hub 30 includes a plurality of oil passages 42 A, 42 R formed radially therethrough (best visible as hidden lines in FIG. 4 ). Each one of the plurality of oil passages 42 A is in fluid communication with one of the advance chambers 36 for supplying oil thereto and therefrom while each one of the plurality of oil passages 42 R is in fluid communication with one of the retard chambers 38 for supplying oil thereto and therefrom. Bias spring 44 is disposed within annular pocket 46 formed in rotor 28 and within central bore 48 of camshaft phaser cover 50 . Bias spring 44 is grounded at one end thereof to camshaft phaser cover 50 and is attached at the other end thereof to rotor 28 . When internal combustion engine 10 is shut down, bias spring 44 urges rotor 28 to a predetermined angular position within stator 20 in a way that will be described in more detail in the subsequent paragraph. Now referring to FIGS. 1 , 3 A, and 3 B; camshaft phaser 12 includes a staged dual lock pin system for selectively preventing relative rotation between rotor 28 and stator 20 at the predetermined angular position which is between the extreme advance and extreme retard positions. Primary lock pin 52 is slidably disposed within primary lock pin bore 54 formed in one of the plurality of vanes 32 of rotor 28 . Primary lock pin seat 56 is formed in camshaft phaser cover 50 for selectively receiving primary lock pin 52 therewithin. Primary lock pin seat 56 is larger than primary lock pin 52 to allow rotor 28 to rotate relative to stator 20 about 5° on each side of the predetermined angular position when primary lock pin 52 is seated within primary lock pin seat 56 . The enlarged nature of primary lock pin seat 56 allows primary lock pin 52 to be easily received therewithin. When primary lock pin 52 is not desired to be seated within primary lock pin seat 56 as shown in FIG. 3A , pressurized oil is supplied to primary lock pin 52 , thereby urging primary lock pin 52 out of primary lock pin seat 56 and compressing primary lock pin spring 58 . Conversely, when primary lock pin 52 is desired to be seated within primary lock pin seat 56 as shown in FIG. 3B , the pressurized oil is vented from primary lock pin 52 , thereby allowing primary lock pin spring 58 to urge primary lock pin 52 toward camshaft phaser cover 50 . In this way, primary lock pin 52 is seated within primary lock pin seat 56 by primary lock pin spring 58 when rotor 28 is positioned within stator 20 to allow alignment of primary lock pin 52 with primary lock pin seat 56 . Secondary lock pin 60 is slidably disposed within secondary lock pin bore 62 formed in one of the plurality of vanes 32 of rotor 28 . Secondary lock pin seat 64 is formed in camshaft phaser cover 50 for selectively receiving secondary lock pin 60 therewithin. Secondary lock pin 60 fits within secondary lock pin seat 64 in a close sliding relationship, thereby substantially preventing relative rotation between rotor 28 and stator 20 when secondary lock pin 60 is received within secondary lock pin seat 64 . When secondary lock pin 60 is not desired to be seated within secondary lock pin seat 64 as shown in FIG. 3A , pressurized oil is supplied to secondary lock pin 60 , thereby urging secondary lock pin 60 out of secondary lock pin seat 64 and compressing secondary lock pin spring 66 . Conversely, when secondary lock pin 60 is desired to be seated within secondary lock pin seat 64 as shown in FIG. 3B , the pressurized oil is vented from the secondary lock pin 60 , thereby allowing secondary lock pin spring 66 to urge secondary lock pin 60 toward camshaft phaser cover 50 . In this way, secondary lock pin 60 is seated within secondary lock pin seat 64 by secondary lock pin spring 66 when rotor 28 is positioned within stator 20 to allow alignment of secondary lock pin 60 with secondary lock pin seat 64 . When it is desired to prevent relative rotation between rotor 28 and stator 20 at the predetermined angular position, the pressurized oil is vented from both primary lock pin 52 and secondary lock pin 60 , thereby allowing primary lock pin spring 58 and secondary lock pin spring 66 to urge primary and secondary lock pins 52 , 60 toward camshaft phaser cover 50 respectively. In order to align primary and secondary lock pins 52 , 60 with primary and secondary lock pin seats 56 , 64 respectively, rotor 28 may be rotated with respect to stator 20 by one or more of supplying pressurized oil to advance chambers 36 , supplying pressurized oil to retard chambers 38 , urging from bias spring 44 , and torque from camshaft 14 . Since primary lock pin seat 56 is enlarged, primary lock pin 52 will be seated within primary lock pin seat 56 before secondary lock pin 60 is seated within secondary lock pin seat 64 . With primary lock pin 52 seated within primary lock pin seat 56 , rotor 28 is allowed to rotate with respect to stator 20 by about 10°. Rotor 28 may be further rotated with respect to stator 20 by one or more of supplying pressurized oil to advance chambers 36 , supplying pressurized oil to retard chambers 38 , urging from bias spring 44 , and torque from camshaft 14 in order to align secondary lock pin 60 with secondary lock pin seat 64 , thereby allowing secondary lock pin 60 to be seated within secondary lock pin seat 64 . Supply and venting of oil to and from advance chambers 36 , retard chambers 38 , and primary and secondary lock pins 52 , 60 will be described in more detail later. Now referring to FIGS. 1 and 2A , camshaft phaser cover 50 is sealingly attached to stator 20 by sprocket bolts 22 that extend through sprocket 16 and stator 20 and threadably engage camshaft phaser cover 50 . In this way, stator 20 is securely clamped between sprocket 16 and camshaft phaser cover 50 in order to axially and radially secure sprocket 16 , stator 20 , and camshaft cover 50 to each other. Now referring to FIGS. 1 , 2 A, 2 B, 2 C, 6 A, and 6 B; bushing adaptor 68 is coaxially disposed within pocket 70 of camshaft 14 in a close fitting relationship. Bushing adaptor 68 is also coaxially disposed within central through bore 34 of rotor 28 in a press fit relationship to prevent relative rotation therebetween and may be press fit within central through bore 34 until bushing adaptor 68 abuts stop surface 72 formed by the stepped nature of central through bore 34 . When camshaft phaser 12 is attached to camshaft 14 , bushing adaptor 68 coaxially aligns camshaft phaser 12 with camshaft 14 . This allows the rotor 28 to be made more axially compact because axial space is not needed within rotor 28 for receiving camshaft 14 therewithin in order to coaxially align camshaft phaser 12 with camshaft 14 . A network of oil passages is defined in part by bushing adaptor 68 in a way that will be described in detail later. Camshaft phaser 12 is attached to camshaft 14 with camshaft phaser attachment bolt 74 which extends axially through bushing adaptor 68 in a close fitting relationship. Rotor 28 is positioned against axial face 76 of camshaft 14 which is provided with threaded hole 78 extending axially into camshaft 14 from pocket 70 . Annular oil chamber 80 is formed radially between camshaft phaser attachment bolt 74 and pocket 70 for receiving oil from camshaft oil passages 82 formed radially through camshaft 14 . Oil is supplied to camshaft oil passages 82 from internal combustion engine 10 through an oil gallery (not shown) in camshaft bearing 84 . When camshaft phaser attachment bolt 74 is tightened to a predetermined torque, head 86 of camshaft phaser attachment bolt 74 acts axially on bolt surface 88 of rotor 28 . In this way, camshaft phaser 12 is axially secured to camshaft 14 and relative rotation between rotor 28 and camshaft 14 is thereby prevented. Bushing adaptor 68 defines at least in part supply passage 90 for communicating pressurized oil from internal combustion engine 10 to phase relationship control valve 92 . Supply passage 90 may be defined in part by first annular groove 94 formed on the inside diameter of bushing adaptor 68 . First annular groove 94 may be positioned axially within rotor 28 . Supply passage 90 may be further defined by axial grooves 96 which extend axially part way into central through bore 34 of rotor 28 . Axial grooves 96 may be in fluid communication with first annular groove 94 through first connecting passages 98 which extend radially through bushing adaptor 68 . Supply passage 90 may be further defined by second annular groove 100 formed on the inside diameter of bushing adaptor 68 and which may be positioned axially within pocket 70 of camshaft 14 . Second annular groove 100 may be in fluid communication with axial grooves 96 through second connecting passages 102 which extend radially through bushing adaptor 68 . Supply passage 90 may be further defined by third annular groove 104 formed on the outside diameter of bushing adaptor 68 and axially between first annular groove 94 and second annular groove 100 . Third annular groove 104 may be in fluid communication with second annular groove 100 through second connecting passages 102 and may also be in fluid communication with axial grooves 96 by axially positioning third annular groove 104 on the outside diameter of bushing adaptor 68 such that axial grooves 96 at least partly overlap axially with third annular groove 104 . Supply passage 90 may be further defined by blind bore 106 formed axially within camshaft phaser attachment bolt 74 . Blind bore 106 begins at the end of camshaft phaser attachment bolt 74 defined by head 86 and may extend to a point within camshaft phaser attachment bolt 74 that is axially aligned with annular oil chamber 80 . First radial drillings 108 extend radially through camshaft phaser attachment bolt 74 and provide fluid communication from annular oil chamber 80 to blind bore 106 while second radial drillings 110 are spaced axially apart from first radial drillings 108 and extend radially through camshaft phaser attachment bolt 74 to provide fluid communication from blind bore 106 to second annular groove 100 . Now referring to FIGS. 1 , 2 A, 2 B, 2 C, and 5 A- 5 D; supply passage 90 may be further defined by manifold axial grooves 112 of manifold 114 which is press fit into blind bore 106 . Manifold axial grooves 112 are formed in the outer surface of manifold 114 and begin at an end of manifold 114 proximal to first radial drillings 108 and extend to overlap with second radial drillings 110 . Each manifold axial groove 112 is aligned with and overlaps one second radial drilling 110 . Other features and functions of manifold 114 will be described later in more detail. Filter 116 may be captured in blind bore 106 between manifold 114 and shoulder 118 formed in blind bore 106 . Filter 116 substantially prevents foreign matter that may be present in the pressurized oil from being communicated to manifold axial grooves 112 and subsequently to other critical interfaces of camshaft phaser 12 . Camshaft phaser attachment bolt 74 includes supply drillings 120 extending radially therethrough for providing fluid communication between first annular groove 94 and blind bore 106 . Supply drillings 120 allow pressurized oil to be supplied to phase relationship control valve 92 . Now referring to FIGS. 1 , 2 A, 2 B, 6 A, and 6 B; in addition to defining at least in part supply passage 90 , bushing adaptor 68 , also defines at least in part advance passage 122 for selectively communicating pressurized oil from phase relationship control valve 92 to advance chambers 36 and for venting oil therefrom. Advance passage 122 may be defined at least in part by fourth annular groove 124 formed on the inside diameter of bushing adaptor 68 and axially between first annular groove 94 and second annular groove 100 . Through advance oil connecting passages 126 , fourth annular groove 124 is in fluid communication with oil passages 42 A that are in fluid communication advance chambers 36 . Advance oil connecting passages 126 extend radially from fourth annular groove 124 through bushing adaptor 68 . Camshaft phaser attachment bolt 74 includes advance drillings 128 extending radially therethrough for providing fluid communication between fourth annular groove 124 and blind bore 106 . Advance drillings 128 allow pressurized oil to be selectively supplied from phase relationship control valve 92 to advance chambers 36 . In addition to defining at least in part supply passage 90 and advance passage 122 , bushing adaptor 68 also defines at least in part retard passage 130 for selectively communicating pressurized oil from phase relationship control valve 92 to retard chambers 38 . Retard passage 130 may be defined by axial space 132 formed axially between axial end 134 and head 86 . Axial end 134 may be defined by reduced diameter section 136 which provides radial clearance between central through bore 34 of rotor 28 and reduced diameter section 136 . Axial space 132 is further defined radially between rotor 28 and camshaft phaser attachment bolt 74 . Axial space 132 is in fluid communication with oil passages 42 R that are in fluid communication with retard chambers 38 . Camshaft phaser attachment bolt 74 includes retard drillings 138 extending radially through camshaft phaser attachment bolt 74 for providing fluid communication between axial space 132 and blind bore 106 . Retard drillings 138 allow pressurized oil to be selectively supplied from phase relationship control valve 92 to retard chambers 38 . Phase relationship control valve 92 is disposed within camshaft phaser attachment bolt 74 and retained therein by retaining ring 140 which fits within groove 142 of camshaft phaser attachment bolt 74 . Phase relationship control valve 92 includes phase relationship valve spool 144 with phase relationship body 146 that is generally cylindrical, hollow and dimensioned to provide annular clearance between phase relationship body 146 and blind bore 106 of camshaft phaser attachment bolt 74 . Phase relationship valve spool 144 also includes advance land 148 extending radially outward from phase relationship body 146 for selectively blocking fluid communication between supply drillings 120 and advance drillings 128 . Advance land 148 fits within blind bore 106 of camshaft phaser attachment bolt 74 in a close fitting relationship to substantially prevent oil from passing between advance land 148 and blind bore 106 . Phase relationship valve spool 144 also includes retard land 150 extending radially outward from phase relationship body 146 for selectively blocking fluid communication between supply drillings 120 and retard drillings 138 . Retard land 150 is positioned axially away from advance land 148 and fits within blind bore 106 of camshaft phaser attachment bolt 74 in a close fitting relationship to substantially prevent oil from passing between retard land 150 and blind bore 106 . Now referring to FIGS. 1 , 2 A, 2 B, and 2 C; phase relationship valve spool 144 is axially moveable within blind bore 106 with input from phase relationship control valve actuator 152 and phase relationship spool spring 154 . Phase relationship control valve actuator 152 is preferably an electrically actuated solenoid, but may be any type of actuator for axially moving phase relationship valve spool 144 . Phase relationship spool spring 154 is grounded to camshaft phaser attachment bolt 74 by seat 156 which is formed on the end of manifold 114 distal from first radial drillings 108 . A first end of phase relationship spool spring 154 is seated on seat 156 while a second end of phase relationship spool spring 154 is seated within phase relationship spool spring pocket 158 formed in an end of phase relationship valve spool 144 . In this way as shown in FIG. 2B , phase relationship spool spring 154 biases phase relationship valve spool 144 away from seat 156 when phase relationship control valve actuator 152 is not energized, thereby positioning phase relationship valve spool 144 within blind bore 106 such that pressurized oil is supplied to retard drillings 138 from supply drillings 120 while oil is vented from advance drillings 128 through central passage 160 of phase relationship valve spool 144 and through the end of blind bore 106 that is adjacent to head 86 . In contrast as shown in FIG. 2C , when phase relationship control valve actuator 152 is energized, the biasing force of phase relationship spool spring 154 is overcome to position phase relationship valve spool 144 within blind bore 106 such that pressurized oil is supplied to advance drillings 128 while oil is vented from retard drillings 138 to the end of blind bore 106 that is adjacent to head 86 . Now referring to FIGS. 1 , 2 A, 2 B, 3 A, 3 B, and 5 A- 5 D; the function and additional features of manifold 114 will now be described. Manifold 114 is cylindrical and hollow and is included to provide passages for selectively supplying pressurized oil to primary and secondary lock pins 52 , 60 for removing primary and secondary lock pins 52 , 60 from primary and secondary lock pin seats 56 , 64 respectively. Manifold 114 is also included to provide passages for selectively venting oil from primary and secondary lock pins 52 , 60 for seating primary and secondary lock pins 52 , 60 from primary and secondary lock pin seats 56 , 64 respectively. Manifold supply connecting passages 162 extend radially through manifold 114 in order to provide fluid communication from manifold axial grooves 112 to manifold central bore 164 which contains lock pin control valve 166 in a close fit sliding relationship. Manifold 114 also includes blind axial grooves 168 for selectively supplying pressurized oil to primary and secondary lock pins 52 , 60 and for selectively venting oil from primary and secondary lock pins 52 , 60 . Blind axial groves 168 extend axially on the outer circumference of manifold 114 and are not open to either the end of manifold 114 proximal to first radial drillings 108 or the end of manifold 114 distal from first radial drillings 108 . Lock pin connecting passages 170 (shown as hidden lines in FIGS. 5A-5D ) extend radially through manifold 114 to provide fluid communication between manifold central bore 164 and blind axial grooves 168 . Manifold 114 also includes vent grooves 172 for communicating oil from manifold central bore 164 that has been vented from primary and secondary lock pins 52 , 60 . Vent grooves 172 are located in the outer circumference of manifold 114 and extend axially into manifold 114 from the end of manifold 114 that is distal from first radial drillings 108 . Vent connecting passages 174 extend radially through manifold 114 to provide fluid communication between manifold central bore 164 and vent grooves 172 . Vent connecting passages 174 are spaced axially away from lock pin connecting passages 170 in the direction toward the end of manifold 114 that is distal from first radial drillings 108 . One of the vent grooves 172 extends axially further than the other vent grooves 172 and includes auxiliary vent connecting passage 176 to provide fluid communication between manifold central bore and vent groove 172 as shown best in FIGS. 5C and 5D . Auxiliary vent connecting passage 176 is spaced axially away from lock pin connecting passages 170 and manifold supply connecting passages 162 in the direction toward the end of manifold 114 that is proximal to first radial drillings 108 . The function of auxiliary vent connecting passage 176 will be discussed in more detail later. Now referring to FIGS. 1 , 2 A, 2 B, 3 A, 3 B, 6 A, and 6 B; bushing adaptor 68 includes fifth annular groove 178 formed on the inside diameter thereof. Fifth annular groove 178 is axially aligned with lock pin drillings 180 that extend radially through camshaft phaser attachment bolt 74 as best shown in FIGS. 3A and 3B . Each lock pin drilling 180 is aligned with and is in fluid communication with one blind axial groove 168 . In this way, each blind axial groove 168 is in fluid communication with fifth annular groove 178 . Primary lock pin drilling 182 and secondary lock pin drilling 184 extend from fifth annular groove 178 radially through bushing adaptor 68 . Primary lock pin drilling 182 is in fluid communication with primary lock pin passage 186 that extends through camshaft 14 and rotor 28 for supplying pressurized oil to primary lock pin 52 and for venting oil from primary lock pin 52 . Similarly, secondary lock pin drilling 184 is in fluid communication with secondary lock pin passage 188 that extends through camshaft 14 and rotor 28 for supplying pressurized oil to primary lock pin 52 and for venting oil from primary lock pin 52 . Lock pin control valve 166 includes lock pin valve spool 190 with lock pin valve spool body 192 that is generally cylindrical and dimensioned to provide annular clearance between lock pin valve spool body 192 and manifold central bore 164 . Lock pin control valve 166 also includes vent land 194 extending radially outward from lock pin valve spool body 192 for selectively blocking fluid communication between manifold central bore 164 and vent grooves 172 through vent connecting passages 174 as shown in FIG. 3A . Vent land 194 fits within manifold central bore 164 in a close fitting relationship to substantially prevent oil from passing between vent land 194 and manifold central bore 164 . Lock pin control valve 166 also includes supply land 196 extending radially outward from lock pin valve spool body 192 for selectively blocking fluid communication between manifold central bore 164 and blind axial grooves 168 through manifold supply connecting passages 162 . Supply land 196 fits within manifold central bore 164 in a close fitting relationship to substantially prevent oil from passing between supply land 196 and manifold central bore 164 . Lock pin control valve 166 is axially moveable within manifold central bore 164 with input from lock pin control valve actuator 198 and lock pin valve spool spring 200 . Lock pin control valve actuator 198 is preferably an electrically actuated solenoid, but may be any type of actuator for axially moving lock pin control valve 166 . Lock pin valve spool spring 200 is grounded to closed end 202 of manifold 114 which gives manifold 114 a cup-shaped cross-sectional shape. A first end of lock pin valve spool spring 200 is seated against closed end 202 while a second end of lock pin valve spool spring 200 is seated within spring recess 204 formed in the end of lock pin valve spool 190 proximal to closed end 202 as best shown in FIG. 3B . In this way, lock pin valve spool spring 200 biases lock pin valve spool 190 away from closed end 202 when lock pin control valve actuator 198 is not energized, thereby positioning lock pin valve spool 190 within manifold central bore 164 such that supply land 196 blocks pressurized oil from entering manifold central bore through manifold supply connecting passages 162 while oil is allowed to vent to vent grooves 172 from primary and secondary lock pins 52 , 60 through vent connecting passages 174 which are in fluid communication with manifold central bore 164 , lock pin connecting passages 170 , blind axial grooves 168 , lock pin drillings 180 , fifth annular groove 178 , and primary and secondary lock pin passages 186 , 188 . When lock pin control valve actuator 198 is not energized as shown in FIG. 3B , auxiliary vent connecting passage 176 is in fluid communication with manifold central bore 164 . In this way, the volume defined between closed end 202 and spring recess 204 is vented to prevent a sealed chamber from being formed that would require added force from lock pin control valve actuator 198 to compress a volume of air when actuated. In contrast, when lock pin control valve actuator 198 is energized as shown in FIG. 3A , the biasing force of lock pin valve spool spring 200 is overcome to position lock pin valve spool 190 within manifold central bore 164 such that pressurized oil is allowed to be communicated to primary and secondary lock pins 52 , 60 through manifold supply connecting passages 162 (not visible in FIG. 3A ), manifold central bore 164 , lock pin connecting passages 170 , blind axial grooves 168 , lock pin drillings 180 , fifth annular groove 178 , and primary and secondary lock pin drillings 182 , 184 while vent land 194 blocks vent connecting passages 174 . When lock pin control valve actuator 198 is energized, auxiliary vent connecting passage 176 is blocked by supply land 196 to prevent fluid communication between manifold central bore 164 and vent groove 172 through auxiliary vent connecting passage 176 . In operation and referring to FIGS. 2A , 2 B, 3 A, 3 A′, 3 B, and 3 B′; when a change in phase relationship between camshaft 14 and the crankshaft of internal combustion engine 10 is desired, pressurized oil from internal combustion engine 10 is supplied to primary and secondary lock pins 52 , 60 where the path taken by the pressurized oil is represented by arrows P. This is accomplished by energizing lock pin control valve actuator 198 to prevent fluid communication from blind axial grooves 168 to vent connecting passages 174 , to block auxiliary vent connecting passage 176 , and to allow fluid communication from manifold axial grooves 112 to manifold supply connecting passages 162 . In this way, pressurized oil from internal combustion engine 10 is supplied to annular oil chamber 80 through camshaft oil passages 82 . From annular oil chamber 80 , the pressurized oil is supplied to blind bore 106 through first radial drillings 108 . The pressurized oil is then passed through filter 116 before reaching manifold axial grooves 112 . Oil flow through this area is shown as hidden lines in FIGS. 3 A and 3 A′ because manifold axial grooves 112 are not visible in FIGS. 3A , 3 A′, 3 B, and 3 B′. The pressurized oil then passes through manifold supply connecting passages 162 (also not visible in FIGS. 3A , 3 A′, 3 B, and 3 B′) to reach manifold central bore 164 . After reaching manifold central bore 164 , the pressurized oil passes through lock pin connecting passages 170 to reach blind axial grooves 168 . The pressurized oil then passes through lock pin drillings 180 which supply the pressurized oil to fifth annular groove 178 . Fifth annular groove 178 subsequently supplies pressurized oil to primary and secondary lock pin drillings 182 and 184 which cause primary and secondary lock pins 52 , 60 to retract from primary and secondary lock pin seats 56 , 64 respectively. For clarity, FIG. 3 A′ is provided without reference numbers and without elements that do not define the oil passages to clearly show the path taken by the pressurized oil as represented by arrows P. Now referring to FIGS. 2A , 2 B, 2 B′, 2 C, and 2 C′; with primary and secondary lock pins 52 , 60 now retracted from primary and secondary lock pin seats 56 , 64 respectively, the phase relationship between camshaft 14 and the crankshaft of internal combustion engine 10 can now be altered. This is accomplished by supplying pressurized oil to either the advance chambers 36 or to the retard chambers 38 while oil is vented from the chambers that are not receiving pressurized oil. A portion of the pressurized oil that is supplied to manifold axial grooves 112 passes through second radial drillings 110 to supply the pressurized oil to second annular groove 100 . The pressurized oil is then communicated to third annular groove 104 through second connecting passages 102 which then communicate the pressurized oil to axial grooves 96 . The pressurize is then supplied to first annular groove 94 through first connecting passages 98 before being supplied to phase relationship control valve 92 through supply drillings 120 . If the pressurized oil is desired to be supplied to retard chambers 38 , phase relationship control valve actuator 152 is placed in an unenergized state of operation. In this state of operation and as shown in FIG. 2C , phase relationship valve spool 144 is positioned within blind bore 106 to allow the pressurized oil to be communicated to retard drillings 138 from first connecting passages 98 where the path taken by the pressurized oil is represented by arrows P. Retard drillings 138 then communicate the pressurized oil to axial space 132 where the pressurized oil is then communicated to retard chambers 38 through oil passages 42 R. At the same time, the pressurized oil is prevented from being communicated from first connecting passages 98 to advance drillings 128 by advance land 148 . Also at the same time, advance land 148 allows the oil to be vented from advance chambers 36 by placing advance drillings 128 in fluid communication with central passage 160 where the path taken by the vented oil is represented by arrows V. In this way, oil is allowed to be vented from advance chambers 36 through oil passages 42 A. The vented oil then passes from oil passages 42 A to fourth annular groove 124 through advance oil connecting passages 126 . The oil is then communicated to central passage 160 through advance drillings where the oil is then vented through the end of camshaft phaser attachment bolt 74 . Oil communicated through the end of camshaft phaser attachment bolt 74 is shown as hidden lines because the passages therethrough are not visible in this view. For clarity, FIG. 2 B′ is provided without reference numbers and without elements that do not define the oil passages to clearly show the path taken by the pressurized oil represented by arrows P and the path taken by the vented oil represented by arrows V. However, if the pressurized oil is desired to be supplied to advance chambers 36 , phase relationship control valve actuator 152 is placed in an energized state of operation. In this state of operation as shown in FIG. 2C , phase relationship valve spool 144 is positioned within blind bore 106 to allow the pressurized oil to be communicated to advance drillings 128 from first connecting passages 98 where the path taken by the pressurized oil is represented by arrows P. Advance drillings 128 then communicate the pressurized oil to fourth annular groove 124 where the pressurized oil is then communicated to advance chambers 36 through advance oil connecting passages 126 and oil passages 42 A. At the same time, the pressurized oil is prevented from being communicated from first connecting passages 98 to retard drillings 138 by retard land 150 . Also at the same time, retard land 150 allows the oil to be vented from retard chambers 38 by placing retard drillings 138 in fluid communication with central passage 160 where the path taken by the vented oil is represented by arrows V. In this way, oil is allowed to be vented from retard chambers 38 through oil passages 42 R. The vented oil then passes from oil passages 42 R to axial space 132 and then through retard drillings 138 and out the end of camshaft phaser attachment bolt 74 . For clarity, FIG. 2 C′ is provided without reference numbers and without elements that do not define the oil passages to clearly show the path taken by the pressurized oil represented by arrows P and the path taken by the vented oil represented by arrows V. In operation and referring to FIGS. 2A and 3B , when it is desired to lock rotor 28 at the predetermined angular position with respect to stator 20 , oil is vented from primary and secondary lock pins 52 , 60 in order to seat primary and secondary lock pins 52 , 60 within primary and secondary lock pin seats 56 , 64 respectively. This is accomplished by placing lock pin control valve actuator in an unenergized state of operation. In the unenergized state of operation, lock pin valve spool 190 is positioned within manifold central bore 164 to prevent fluid communication between manifold supply connecting passages 162 and lock pin connecting passages 170 with supply land 196 . In this way, pressurized oil is prevented from being supplied to primary and secondary lock pins 52 , 60 . At the same time, vent land 194 no longer blocks vent connecting passages 174 and auxiliary vent connecting passage 176 , and as a result, lock pin connecting passage 170 is now in fluid communication with vent connecting passage 174 . In this way, the oil is vented from primary and secondary lock pins 52 , 60 through primary and secondary lock pin passages 186 , 188 where the path taken by the vented oil is represented by arrows V. The oil from primary and secondary lock pin passages 186 , 188 is then passed to fifth annular groove 178 through primary and secondary lock pin drillings 182 , 184 respectively before being communicated to blind axial grooves 168 through lock pin drillings 180 . The oil is then communicated from blind axial grooves 168 to manifold central bore 164 through lock pin connecting passages 170 before being communicated to vent grooves 172 through vent connecting passages 174 . The oil is then vented through the end of camshaft phaser attachment bolt 74 by passing through central passage 160 . Oil communicated through the end of camshaft phaser attachment bolt 74 is shown as hidden lines because the passages therethrough are not visible in this view. For clarity, FIG. 3 B′ is provided without reference numbers and without elements that do not define the oil passages to clearly show the path taken by the vented oil represented by arrows V. With the oil vented from primary and secondary lock pins 52 , 60 , primary and secondary lock pin springs 58 , 66 urge primary and secondary lock pins 52 , 60 respectively toward camshaft phaser cover 50 . However, unless primary and secondary lock pins 52 , 60 are already aligned with primary and secondary lock pin seats 56 , 64 respectively, one or both of the primary and secondary lock pins 52 , 60 will not be seated within primary and secondary lock pin seats 56 , 64 respectively. In order to seat primary and secondary lock pins 52 , 60 within primary and secondary lock pin seats 56 , 64 respectively, the phase relationship between rotor 28 and stator 20 will need to be altered. This may be accomplished by supplying the pressurized oil to either advance chambers 36 or retard chambers 38 as needed to achieve the predetermined angular relationship of rotor 28 within stator 20 . This may also be accomplished by allowing bias spring 44 to urge rotor 28 to the predetermined angular position. Furthermore, this may be accomplished by allowing torque from camshaft 14 to urge rotor 28 to the predetermined angular position. As described earlier, primary lock pin 52 will be seated within primary lock pin seat 56 first thereby holding rotor 28 near the predetermined angular position. Secondary lock pin 60 will then be seated within secondary lock pin seat 64 when secondary lock pin 60 is aligned with secondary lock pin seat 64 . Now referring to FIGS. 7A , 7 B, 8 A, and 8 B; a second embodiment camshaft phaser 12 ′ in accordance with the present invention is shown. Reference numbers of elements used in the description of camshaft phaser 12 will also be used in the description of element of camshaft phaser 12 ′ that are identical to the elements of camshaft phaser 12 . The differences of camshaft phaser 12 ′ relative to camshaft phaser 12 will now be described. Rather than using a spool-type valve to control oil being supplied to and from primary and secondary lock pins 52 , 60 as camshaft phaser 12 uses, camshaft phaser 12 ′ uses a poppet-type valve to control oil being supplied to and from primary and secondary lock pins 52 , 60 . In order to implement a poppet-type valve to control oil being supplied to and from primary and secondary lock pins 52 , 60 , manifold 114 ′ is provided which is press fit within blind bore 106 . Manifold 114 ′ includes manifold axial grooves 112 which are formed in the outer surface of manifold 114 ′ and begin an end of manifold 114 ′ proximal to first radial drillings 108 and extend to overlap with second radial drillings 110 (not visible in FIGS. 7A , 7 B, 8 A, and 8 B) of camshaft phaser attachment bolt 74 . Each manifold axial groove 112 is aligned with and overlaps one second radial drilling 110 to supply pressurized oil to phase relationship control valve 92 in the same way manifold axial grooves 112 of manifold 114 supply pressurized oil to phase relationship control valve 92 the embodiment of camshaft phaser 12 . Manifold 114 ′ includes manifold central bore 164 ′ that extends axially through manifold 114 ′. Manifold central bore 164 ′ includes inner annular rib 206 which defines a portion of manifold central bore 164 ′ that is smaller in diameter than the remainder of manifold central bore 164 ′. Inner annular rib 206 is offset axially from each end of manifold central bore 164 ′ and defines supply seat 208 on the side of manifold 114 ′ proximal to first radial drillings 108 . Inner annular rib 206 also defines vent seat 210 on the side of manifold 114 ′ distal to first radial drillings 108 . Lock pin connecting passages 170 ′ extend radially through inner annular rib 206 to provide fluid communication between manifold central bore 164 ′ and blind axial grooves 168 . Each blind axial groove 168 is aligned with and is in fluid communication with one lock pin drilling 180 in the same way as in camshaft phaser 12 . Manifold 114 ′ together with ball 212 and plunger 214 define lock pin control valve 166 ′. Ball 212 is disposed within the side of manifold central bore 164 ′ that is adjacent to supply seat 208 . Ball 212 is selectively seated against supply seat 208 by pressurized oil and is selectively unseated from supply seat 208 by plunger 214 . Plunger 214 includes plunger shaft 216 that extends through central passage 160 of phase relationship valve spool 144 and is sized to provide radial clearance therebetween. Plunger shaft 216 also extends coaxially through phase relationship control valve actuator 152 . Plunger 214 extends part way through inner annular rib 206 and is sized provide radial clearance therebetween. Plunger 214 also includes outer annular rib 218 which extends radially outward therefrom. Outer annular rib 218 is sized to provide radial clearance between manifold central bore 164 ′ and to seat against vent seat 210 . Plunger 214 also includes spring stop 220 which extends radially outward from plunger shaft 216 . A first end of lock pin valve spring 222 is seated against spring stop 220 while a second end of lock pin valve spring is grounded to plunger guide 224 which is disposed in blind bore 106 adjacent to manifold 114 ′. Lock pin valve spring 222 biases plunger 214 to unseat outer annular rib 218 from vent seat 210 when lock pin control valve actuator 198 is unenergized. Plunger guide 224 includes axial through holes 226 to provide fluid communication through plunger guide 224 as will be discussed later in more detail. In operation as shown in FIG. 7A , when a change in phase relationship between camshaft 14 and the crankshaft of internal combustion engine 10 is desired, pressurized oil from internal combustion engine 10 is supplied to primary and secondary lock pins 52 , 60 . This is accomplished by energizing lock pin control valve actuator 198 to seat outer annular rib 218 against vent seat 210 and to unseat ball 212 from supply seat 208 . In this way, pressurized oil from internal combustion engine 10 is supplied to annular oil chamber 80 through camshaft oil passages 82 where the path taken by the pressurized oil is represented by arrows. From annular oil chamber 80 , the pressurized oil is supplied to blind bore 106 through first radial drillings 108 . The pressurized oil is then passed through filter 116 and supplied to manifold central bore 164 ′. Because outer annular rib 218 is seated against vent seat 210 , the pressurized oil is forced to exit manifold central bore 164 ′ through lock pin connecting passages 170 ′ to blind axial grooves 168 . The pressurized oil then passes through lock pin drillings 180 which supply the pressurized oil to fifth annular groove 178 . Fifth annular groove 178 subsequently supplies the pressurized oil to primary and secondary lock pin drillings 182 and 184 which cause primary and secondary lock pins 52 , 60 to retract from primary and secondary lock pin seats 56 , 64 respectively. For clarity, FIG. 7 A′ is provided without reference numbers and without elements that do not define the oil passages to clearly shown the path taken by the pressurized oil as represented by arrows P. With primary and secondary lock pins 52 , 60 now retracted from primary and secondary lock pin seats 56 , 64 respectively, the phase relationship phase relationship between camshaft 14 and the crankshaft of internal combustion engine 10 can now be altered. This is accomplished in the same way as in camshaft phaser 12 and will not be further described. In operation as shown in FIG. 7B , when it is desired to lock rotor 28 at the predetermined angular position with respect to stator 20 , oil is vented from primary and secondary lock pins 52 , 60 in order to seat primary and secondary lock pins 52 , 60 within primary and secondary lock pin seats 56 , 64 respectively. This is accomplished by placing lock pin control valve actuator 198 in an unenergized state of operation. In the unenergized state of operation, lock pin valve spring 222 urges plunger 214 away from ball 212 such that plunger 214 no longer prevents ball 212 from seating against supply seat 208 . As a result, pressurized oil from internal combustion engine 10 now seats ball 212 against supply seat 208 . In this way, pressurized oil is prevented from being supplied to primary and secondary lock pins 52 , 60 . At the same time, outer annular rib 218 is unseated from vent seat 210 which places lock pin connecting passage 170 ′ in fluid communication with central passage 160 of phase relationship valve spool 144 . In this way, the oil is vented from primary and secondary lock pins 52 , 60 through primary and secondary lock pin passages 186 , 188 where the path taken by the vented oil is represented by arrows. The oil from primary and secondary lock pin passages 186 , 188 is then passed to fifth annular groove 178 through primary and secondary lock pin drillings 182 , 184 respectively before being communicated to blind axial grooves 168 through lock pin drillings 180 . The oil is then communicated from blind axial grooves 168 to manifold central bore 164 ′ through lock pin connecting passages 170 ′ before being communicated through axial through holes 226 of plunger guide 224 . The oil is then vented through the end of camshaft phaser attachment bolt 74 by passing through central passage 160 . Oil communicated through the end of camshaft phaser attachment bolt 74 is shown as hidden lines because the passages therethrough are not visible in this view. For clarity, FIG. 7 B′ is provided without reference numbers and without elements that do not define the oil passages to clearly show the path taken by the vented oil represented by arrows V. While internal combustion engine 10 has been described as having camshaft phaser 12 applied camshaft 14 , it should now be understood internal combustion engine 10 may include multiple camshafts and that each camshaft may include its own camshaft phaser. It should also be understood that one camshaft may use a camshaft phaser in accordance with the present invention, while the second camshaft phaser may be another type of camshaft phaser, for example, an electrically actuated camshaft phaser. It should also be understood that the present invention applies to both internal combustion engines with a single bank of cylinders and to internal combustion engines with multiple banks of cylinders. The operation of camshaft phaser 12 has been described as supplying pressurized oil to retard chambers 38 when phase relationship control valve actuator 152 is not energized, while at the same time venting oil from advance chambers 36 . It should now be understood that operation of camshaft phaser 12 could also be arranged to supply pressurized oil to advance chambers 36 when phase relationship control valve actuator 152 is not energized, while at the same time venting oil from retard chambers 38 . Similarly, the operation of camshaft phaser 12 has been described as supplying pressurized oil to advance chambers 36 when phase relationship control valve actuator 152 is energized, while at the same time venting oil from retard chambers 38 . It should now be understood that the operation of camshaft phaser 12 could also be arranged to supply pressurized oil to retard chambers 38 when phase relationship control valve actuator 152 is energized, while at the same time venting oil from advance chambers 36 . While this invention has been described in terms of preferred embodiments thereof, it is not intended to be so limited, but rather only to the extent set forth in the claims that follow.

A camshaft phaser is provided for varying the phase relationship between a crankshaft and a camshaft in an engine. The camshaft phaser includes a stator having lobes. A rotor is disposed within the stator includes vanes interspersed with the stator lobes to define alternating advance and retard chambers. A lock pin is provided for selective engagement with a lock pin seat for preventing relative rotation between the rotor and the stator. Pressurized oil disengages the lock pin from the seat while oil is vented for engaging the lock pin with the seat. A phase relationship control valve is coaxial with the rotor and controls the flow of oil into and out of the chambers. A lock pin control valve is coaxial with the phase relationship control valve and controls the flow of oil to and from the lock pin. The control valves are operational independent of each other.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention generally relates to the dispensing of filtered, bottled water. More specifically, the invention relates to a water dispenser that provides variable filtration capacity together with replaceable cartridge filters. The dispenser assembly of the invention monitors the number of bottles used and then disables further use of the filter when the filter has reached the end of its useful life. Self-contained filters for removing unwanted minerals and chemicals such as chlorine have become increasingly popular with bottled water users. These filters may be threadably attached or otherwise connected to the opening of a bottled water container, or may be contained within the water dispenser unit. Various devices are also known for monitoring water flow and then interrupting water flow after a predetermined use. Prior art devices are briefly discussed in the backround section of assignee's own U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,354,344 and 6,561,234, each of which are incorporated by reference hereto in their entirety. As discussed there it is desirable to provide an economical self-contained dispenser shutoff and filter cartridge which may be easily replaced when a monitor indicates that the filter has reached the end of its useful life. In general, prior art patents and known water dispensing disabling devices (herein termed “shutoff devices”) with a filter have tended to concentrate on ways of interrupting water flow through the bottle opening once the filter has reached the end of its useful life, by physically blocking water flow. However, this may result in an interruption in dispensing when the water container still has a substantial volume of water in it. Some prior devices have required a separate filter monitor device. Shutoff devices have also tended to have a number of moving parts, increasing the risk of part malfunction. U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,354,344 and 6,561,234 provide solutions to these problems. The inventions disclosed here are believed to provide several improvements to the technology disclosed in these prior patents, which will be apparent from the disclosure below. For example, the counting and disabling mechanism is improved as to both function and structure. In addition to providing enhanced functions, including the ability to sense variable volumetric capacity, instead of one piece having opposing teeth, which has been found difficult to mold, a two-piece design which is easier to tool is provided, and which also provides enhanced quality control. A replaceable cartridge designed to work in sequence with the disabling mechanism is also provided, along with other improvements discussed below. Accordingly, there is a need for a water filter shutoff device which monitors water usage and automatically disables dispensing when the filter has reached the end of its useful life, without the need to rely on visual or audible warning signals. Given space and economic constraints, an improved shutoff device would preferably be integral with the filter, and would not unduly impede flow through the filter. The shutoff device would also preferably allow presetting at the time of manufacture to change the allowable water flow or application uses, so that the device could be used with differently rated filters and differently sized water containers. The device should be economical to manufacture, providing reduced tooling costs and enhanced quality control, while also being relatively simple in design with few moving parts. The shutoff device would also preferably disable dispensing, without interrupting water flow from the currently used water container, when a monitor indicates the useful life of the filter is over. An improved filter shutoff device would also preferably meet NSF criteria, including qualifying as a filter “performance indication device” (PID) under NSF standards, and include component materials that have existing NSF approval for extraction. Filter shutoff devices must also be provided with venting in some manner to allow continuous water flow, without “lock up”. One problem with such devices is that, upon initial use, as water from the inverted water bottle flows into the device, water pressure/water hammer conditions may cause unfiltered water to leak or spurt out of the venting channels and into the dispensing unit. A sufficient volume of water may escape filtration in this manner, such that the device may not receive NSF approval for, e.g., lead testing. It is also desirable to provide a filter shutoff device which overcomes this problem. Accordingly, an object of the present invention is to provide a shutoff device integral with a filter and useable with a water dispenser, in which the water dispenser is automatically disabled at the end of the useful life of the filter. Another object of the invention is providing a device with the ability to differentiate between dissimilar reservoir volumes and supply a constant effluent capacity. Still another object of the invention is to provide a filter shutoff device which does not impede or interrupt water flow between the water dispensing device and a water source such as an inverted water bottle. A further object is to provide such a device that qualifies as a filter PID under NSF standards. Yet another object is to provide a filter shutoff device which may be manufactured in an economical manner, such that the device monitors the number of water containers used, disables further dispensing after a predetermined number of uses, and then may be discarded and replaced with a new device. A further object is to provide a filter shutoff device which automatically disables the connection between the device and a water container, rather than simply providing a visual indication of end of filter life, and rather than maintaining the ability to make this connection and physically impeding or interrupting water flow. Yet another object is to provide a replaceable filter cartridge for the dispensing assembly. Another object is to provide a device which may be manufactured for reduced tooling costs while enhancing quality control issues. A still further object is to provide such a device with an appropriate size and configuration, together with appropriately located and sized vent holes, to ensure that any substantial amount of unfiltered water does not leak out of the device and be dispensed. DEFINITION OF CLAIM TERMS The following terms are used in the claims of the patent as filed and are intended to have their broadest meaning consistent with the requirements of law. Where alternative meanings are possible, the broadest meaning is intended. All words used in the claims are intended to be used in the normal, customary usage of grammar and the English language. “Automatic indexing-reset mechanism” means a mechanism which causes the indexer to be reset automatically upon changing a water container, e.g., a water bottle. “Automatic filter shutoff device” means a device in fluid communication with a water container which filters water and then interferes with the ability to dispense water from the container after a predetermined amount of water usage (i.e., the “shutoff” feature), which may but need not generally correspond to the useable life of the filter, has been reached. “Automatic” in this context means that shutoff occurs without the need for user acknowledgment of the need for filter replacement and intervention, such as without the need for the user to respond to a visual or audible signal from a filter monitor. “Monitoring and disabling apparatus” means an apparatus which monitors filter life by monitoring water dispensed, and which includes a shutoff feature. “Semi-automatic cartridge-eject mechanism” means a mechanism which provides an indication to a user, via either visible and/or tactile feedback, that the filtration capacity of a filter has been depleted and that the filter cartridge should be discarded and replaced with a new filter cartridge. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The objects mentioned above, as well as other objects, are solved by the present invention, which overcomes disadvantages of prior water dispensers, while providing new advantages not believed associated with such devices. In one preferred embodiment, an automatic, water dispensing, filter shutoff device is provided. The shutoff device includes a replaceable and disposable filter. The shutoff device is in removable engagement and fluid communication with a water container, such as a water bottle. The shutoff device is also adapted to disable dispensing after a predetermined amount of dispensing has occurred, which may but need not substantially correspond to the filtration capacity of the filter. The shutoff device may include a monitoring and disabling apparatus having a shutoff mechanism moveable between dispensing and disabling locations. In the disabling location, the shutoff apparatus is placed in an interfering position with the engagement between the shutoff device and the water container. In the preferred embodiment, the shutoff mechanism is able to automatically move into the interfering position once the predetermined amount of dispensing has occurred, and without interrupting dispensing from an engaged water container. Accordingly, the used filter may first be removed and replaced with a new filter prior to reestablishing engagement and fluid communication between the shutoff device and a new water container. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the filter shutoff device is capable of distinguishing between water containers having different volumetric capacities, and of moving the shutoff mechanism to the disabling location once the filtration capacity has been met, despite engagement of the device to differently-sized water containers. The shutoff device may also provide tactile and/or visual feedback to a user that filter replacement should occur. In one embodiment, the shutoff mechanism includes a plunger whose vertical height may be varied to obstruct engagement between the shutoff device and a water container. The plunger may also include plunger teeth located about an outer periphery of the plunger, as well as downwardly extending plunger teeth. In another embodiment, the monitoring and disabling apparatus may include an indexing ring carrying indexing teeth. The indexing ring may rotate as successive water bottles are used, with each incremental rotation corresponding to a single water bottle usage. The number of indexing teeth may be chosen to correspond with the predetermined amount of dispensing, given volumetric capacity of the water container. When a used water bottle is removed from engagement with the shutoff device, an automatic indexing-reset mechanism may be used to allow the indexing ring to be reset to an initial rotation position. The indexing ring may also include, or communicate with, a retractable tooth for use in distinguishing differently-sized water containers. In a preferred embodiment, the filter includes filter media such as a carbon-loaded, non-woven media as the primary filtering mechanism. Preferably, the filter is a replaceable filter cartridge that is automatically ejected once the predetermined amount of dispensing has occurred. The shutoff device may include a valve mechanism, such as two or more valves, allowing air to enter the shutoff device during water dispensing, and preventing water from exiting the filter during engagement of a water container to the shutoff device. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The novel features which are characteristic of the invention are set forth in the appended claims. The invention itself, however, together with further objects and attendant advantages thereof, will be best understood by reference to the following description taken in connection with the accompanying drawings. The drawings illustrate currently preferred embodiments of the present invention. As further explained below, it will be understood that other embodiments, not shown in the drawings, also fall within the spirit and scope of the invention. FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a water bottle being filled, together with one preferred embodiment of a filter shutoff device according to the present invention; FIG. 2 is a perspective view showing a threaded connection between a preferred embodiment of a filter shutoff device of the present invention and a water bottle; FIG. 3 is a perspective view showing a filter shutoff device, now engaged to the water bottle, just prior to seating onto the upper housing of a water dispenser according to the present invention; FIG. 4 is a perspective, exploded view showing various components of a preferred filter shutoff device according to the present invention; FIG. 5 is a partial cross-sectional view of a preferred embodiment of the filter shutoff device of the present invention; FIG. 6 is a top view of the indexing features of the filter shutoff device shown in FIG. 5 ; FIGS. 7-9 are side views of the upper/outer and lower/inner teeth of the filter shutoff device of FIG. 5 , during the period of engagement of a water bottle to the device; FIG. 10 is a side view similar to FIGS. 7-9 during the period when a water bottle is disengaged from the device; FIG. 11 is a side view showing indexing components of the device, including the upper/outer teeth, plunger and lower/inner teeth; FIG. 12 is a side view of the components shown in FIG. 11 during engagement of a water bottle; FIG. 13 is a side view similar to FIG. 12 during disengagement of a water bottle; FIG. 14 is a side view similar to FIG. 12 showing the position of indexing components following the completion of one indexing cycle; FIG. 15 is a partial side cross-sectional view of certain shutoff design components, including the indexing ring, retractable tooth and retainer ring, useful in sensing water container size; FIG. 16 is a view similar to FIG. 15 showing the retractable tooth in engaged position; FIG. 17 is a perspective view of the components shown in FIGS. 15-16 ; FIG. 18 is partial top perspective and side cross-sectional view of the shutoff filter according to one preferred embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 19 and 20 are sectional and sectional isometric views of a preferred filter shutoff device according to the present invention; FIG. 21 is a sectional view of a preferred filter shutoff device according to the present invention incorporating a filter shutoff mechanism and a preferred replaceable cartridge; FIG. 22 is a top and side perspective view of a preferred interface mechanism; FIG. 23 is a perspective view of a lid useful for covering the shutoff mechanism of the present invention; FIG. 24 is a top and side perspective view of a preferred plunger according to the present invention; FIG. 25 is a top and side perspective view of a preferred indexing ring according to the present invention; FIGS. 26-28 show perspective views of a spring, retractable tooth and filter media, respectively, useable with the present invention; FIG. 29 is a top and side perspective view of a spring retainer useful with the present invention; FIG. 30 is a top and side perspective view of a media cap useful with the present invention; FIGS. 31-35 are enlarged, partial sectional views of the indexing ring and spring retainer, including a retractable tooth, useful in sensing water container size, as shown in FIG. 4 , showing the retractable tooth moving toward and then engaging the space retainer, in a preferred embodiment; FIG. 36 is a side and bottom view of the spring retainer showing the retractable tooth of the indexing ring in a retracted position; FIG. 37 is a perspective view showing a lid embodiment with a guiding groove for circumscribing a guiding pin on the replaceable cartridge; FIGS. 38 and 39 show perspective views of a preferred embodiment of a replaceable cartridge; FIG. 40 is a sectional view of the replaceable cartridge shown in FIGS. 38-39 ; FIG. 41 is a perspective view of an indexing piece for the replaceable cartridge; FIGS. 42 and 43 are bottom and sectional views of the indexing piece shown in FIG. 41 ; FIGS. 44-53 are successive sectional views of the interaction between the lockout arms and the indexing piece of a preferred embodiment of the replaceable cartridge, when engaged to a 2-gallon water bottle ( FIGS. 44 , 46 , 48 , 50 and 52 ) and when engaged to a 3-gallon water bottle ( FIGS. 45 , 47 , 49 , 41 and 53 ); FIG. 54 is a partial sectional, partial perspective view of the indexing piece shown in FIG. 41 ; FIG. 55 is a partial perspective view of a preferred valve within the filter shutoff lid according to the present invention; FIG. 56 is a sectional view of the valve and lid portion shown in FIG. 55 ; FIG. 57 is a partial perspective view of a second, alternative preferred valve within the filter shutoff lid according to the present invention; FIG. 58 is a sectional view of the valve and lid portion shown in FIG. 57 ; FIG. 59 is a sectional view of the filter shutoff/replaceable cartridge mechanism, showing two preferred valves; FIG. 60 is an enlarged view of the left-side valve shown in FIG. 59 ; FIG. 61 is an enlarged view of the right-side valve shown in FIG. 59 ; FIG. 62 is a top view of a preferred embodiment of the indexing mechanism shown in FIGS. 22 and 24 ; FIG. 63 is a bottom view of the components shown in FIG. 62 ; FIG. 64 is a view similar to FIG. 36 showing the spring retainer locked in position; FIG. 65 is a top view of the filter cartridge showing the reduced throat thickness and vent holes; and FIGS. 66-71 are top views of a paper mock-up illustrating the tooth interaction during successive filter use leading to a lock-out condition. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Set forth below is a description of what are currently believed to be the preferred embodiments and/or best examples of the invention claimed. Future and present alternatives and modifications to these preferred embodiments are contemplated. Any alternatives or modifications which make insubstantial changes in function, in purpose, in structure or in result are intended to be covered by the claims of this patent. In the following description, all clockwise directions assume a view from above. Referring first to FIGS. 1-3 , a water container such as water bottle 20 is shown, together with a preferred embodiment of the filter shutoff device of the present invention, generally referred to as 30 . While it is preferred that water bottle 20 have threads 35 that allow threaded connection with mating threads 25 on the neck of water bottle 20 , a threaded connection is not required. Referring to FIG. 3 , filter shutoff device 30 is sized and shaped to permit its placement within opening 27 of water cooler housing 26 . (The particular water dispenser chosen for use is of little importance to the present invention.) For example, a lower portion of filter device 30 may rest on the top peripheral wall 27 a of water cooler housing opening 27 . Referring now to FIGS. 4 , one preferred embodiment of filter shutoff device 30 includes the following components, from top to bottom: interface 40 , lid 50 , plunger 60 , indexing ring 80 , retractable tooth 100 , spring 110 , spring retainer 120 , filter media 130 and media cap 140 . Spring retainer 120 may be ultrasonically welded to the inner periphery of the lower edge of lid 50 , maintaining spring 110 under compression so that these components are maintained in place, as further explained below. During assembly, indexing ring 80 , having sides 80 a (FIG. 25 ), may be placed up into the center opening of plunger 60 . Spring 110 may be compressed between the lower side of upstanding center 82 ( FIG. 25 ) on indexing ring 80 and the upper side of center ring 121 on spring retainer 120 using spring locators 123 (FIG. 29 ). Filter media 130 may be contained between spring retainer 120 and media cap 140 , as better shown in FIGS. 19 and 20 . In a preferred embodiment, filter shutoff device 30 may be replaced, rather than cleaned and re-used, when the useful life of the filter is over; alternatively, device 30 may be cleaned and reused, though for sanitary reasons this may be less desirable. Referring to FIGS. 1-4 , a preferred filter lid 50 may include threads 52 for connection to mating threads 25 on water-bottle 20 . Ribs 53 may be provided on the outside surface of lid 50 to facilitate gripping of the housing by the user. Of course, a threaded connection between bottle 20 and the filter/shutoff mechanism is not required. For example, filter shutoff device 30 could be used with non-threaded connections between device 30 and water bottle 20 such as those described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,222,531 and 5,289,855, incorporated herein by reference, such that a cap could be press-fit onto the filter device. As another example, instead of both the water container and the filter shutoff device having threads, one could have a partial thread and the other a simple projection that would engage the partial thread when the filter shutoff device is rotated; this could act as a helical ramp for the projection, pulling the two components tightly together. The structure of plunger 60 and indexing ring 80 of the preferred embodiment of the filter shutoff device 30 will now be more specifically described. In a preferred embodiment shown in FIGS. 4 and 11 - 12 , plunger 60 may include an outer ring 61 with a predetermined number of lower, generally-rectangular shaped, inner, ridged teeth 62 spaced about its outer periphery. The outer periphery of indexing ring 80 may include a predetermined number of lower, upwardly depending, angled teeth 81 , as shown in FIGS. 11-12 , and designed to mesh with plunger teeth 62 , as further described below. The precise number of teeth used with a particular shutoff device 30 is based upon the volumetric capacity of the water bottles to be used with device 30 , as further explained below. The function and operation of the preferred embodiment of the preferred filter shutoff device 30 shown in FIGS. 1-4 and 18 - 20 will now be described. When a bottle is initially connected to shutoff device 30 , the act of connection compresses spring 110 and moves plunger 60 in a downward direction. This is because interface 40 is forced down by the bottle neck during bottle connection, forcing down lower periphery 41 and, thus, upstanding plunger periphery 65 and plunger 60 , as may be best understood by reference to FIGS. 4 , 19 and 20 . Referring now to FIGS. 11-12 , plunger teeth 61 , 62 are, accordingly, forced in a downward direction, as well, meshing outer plunger teeth 62 with lower indexing ring teeth 81 , and aligning lid teeth 51 over (outside of and aligned with) inner plunger teeth 61 as shown in FIG. 62 . Still referring to FIGS. 11-12 , because plunger 60 is spring-loaded in an upward direction, and due to the configuration of the teeth, indexing ring teeth 81 will slide along plunger teeth 62 , causing rotation of indexing ring 80 in a clockwise direction an amount about equal to the width of half of one tooth 51 , after passing the lowest part of lid teeth 51 . At this point, water bottle 20 is now in fixed engagement with filter shutoff device 30 . Referring now to FIGS. 13 and 14 , when water bottle 20 is depleted and it is disconnected from lid 50 (e.g., by unscrewing and removing the water bottle), plunger 60 is now free to move up, as it is no longer retained in a lowered position by interface 40 . Accordingly, plunger teeth 62 move in an upward direction, while ring teeth 81 move in an upper rotational direction, as indicated by the arrows of FIG. 13 . As unscrewing of the water bottle continues, and referring now to FIG. 14 , plunger 60 moves upwardly, allowing indexing ring teeth 81 to rotate and move upward as shown by the arrow, such that indexing teeth 81 slide past lid teeth 51 and into engagement with plunger teeth 62 . One indexing cycle has now been completed. In this manner, successive bottles may be replaced and indexing cycles completed, with each bottle use corresponding to one indexing cycle. The number of indexing cycles, accordingly, matches the number of teeth in one complete revolution about the indexing ring. For example, if the chosen filter has a filtration capacity of 100 gallons, and 2-gallon bottles are used for dispensing, then an indexing ring with 50 teeth may be used. Indexing mechanism 40 may be used to show the consumer the state of the filter, by indicating the index position (FIG. 22 ). Referring now to FIGS. 4 , 19 - 20 and 26 , when the bottle is completely dispensed and one complete revolution has been made, plunger tabs 66 will be permitted to enter corresponding lid slots 58 shown in FIGS. 4 , 23 and 63 . When this occurs, the distal ends of plunger tabs 66 will be allowed to pop outwardly, moving locking tabs 66 ( FIG. 24 ) onto lid shelf 58 ( FIGS. 4 , 23 ), and locking the plunger and thus also interface 40 in place. Interface 40 now covers lid threads 52 , preventing further threadable engagement to a new water bottle. Filter shutoff device 30 (whose filter may be designed for a flow-through of 100 gallons or 50 2-gallon bottles, for example) may now be discarded and a new filter shutoff device 30 may now be used. It has been found that the distal edges and angles of teeth 51 and 81 should be toleranced to within 6 micro-inches (thousandths of inches) using ABS plastic and EDM machining. Those of ordinary skill will appreciate that the two-piece components bearing opposed teeth of the present invention will be much easier to mold and quality control, and substantially save in tooling costs, as compared to the one-piece mold having opposing teeth disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,354,344. Referring now to FIGS. 5-10 , an alternative embodiment of filter shutoff device 30 which does not include plunger 60 is provided. In this embodiment, lid 150 includes downwardly, fixed teeth 151 , while indexing ring 180 employs a predetermined number of upwardly depending, fixed, angled teeth 181 . Referring to FIG. 6 , a counter-rotation cantilever/pin 210 rotates in an indexing direction as shown by the arrow, and includes rotating pins 210 A (a pin for teeth 181 ) and 210 B (a pin for teeth 151 ). As shown in FIG. 6 , two cantilever/pins 210 are sitting on teeth 151 , while two pins 210 sit inside the grooves between adjacent teeth 151 . The teeth 151 /pin 210 interaction is depicted in FIGS. 7-9 . As shown in FIG. 7 , outer pin 210 B is a pin whose distal end sits within the groove between teeth 151 , while inner pin 210 A is a pin whose distal end sits on teeth 181 . Still referring to FIG. 7 , as a water bottle is engaged to lid threads 152 , upper teeth 151 remain fixed, and inner pin 210 A moves downwardly in the direction of the arrow. Two of the four counter-rotation cantilever/pins 210 prevent backward movement, as they sit inside the grooves between adjacent teeth 151 , while the other two pins 210 simply rest on teeth 151 . As threaded engagement with the water bottle continues, successive pin movement, including downward movement of pin 210 A, is shown in FIGS. 8 and 9 . Counter-rotation pins 210 prevent backward movement in the transition area shown by the dotted circle X in FIG. 8 . As shown in FIG. 9 , pin 210 A contacts the angle of lower teeth 181 , and then slides down into the next groove between teeth 181 in the direction of the arrow as shown. Transitioning between FIGS. 8 and 9 , cantilever/pin 210 within dotted circle X will climb up and down tooth 151 ; indexing forward a half-notch rotation thus occurs, and the water bottle is now fully engaged to filter shutoff device 30 . Referring now to FIG. 10 , and still with regard to the alternative embodiment shown in FIGS. 5-10 , when the water bottle is empty and disengaged, the indexing pins move in an upward direction as shown. Again, moving between FIGS. 9 and 10 , two of the four cantilever/pins 210 will climb up teeth 151 when unscrewing the water bottle; then, pin 210 B contacts teeth 151 and starts rotating forward a half-notch in the direction of the arrow. At the same time, pins 210 climb down teeth 151 , completing one indexing cycle. Referring to FIG. 25 , arrow 87 provides a visual indicator to the user of the iteration position for the indexing mechanism, by indicating the position shown in the top of interface 40 , in rotational degrees, as shown in FIG. 62 . Referring now to FIGS. 15-17 , as well as the alternative embodiment shown in FIGS. 4 , 27 and 31 - 35 , an additional feature of the present invention is the ability to differentiate between dissimilar reservoir volumes while supplying a predetermined filtration capacity. Thus, using the present invention, bottles with varying volumetric capacities may be sensed, and the disabling/lockout function may be varied depending upon the results, as will now be described. Water bottles may be designed such that, in a preferred embodiment, the 2-gallon bottle has a longer neck than the 3-gallon bottle. In the preferred embodiment, an indexing mechanism with 75 positions is used. Assuming a filtration capacity of 150 gallons, the 2-gallon bottle traverses 75 indexing positions before the filtration capacity is reached, whereas the 3-gallon bottle traverses 50 indexing positions. Thus, referring first to the embodiment shown in FIGS. 15-17 , retractable tooth 100 engages opening 83 in indexing ring 80 . As bottle engagement occurs and indexing ring 80 and tooth 100 move downward to abut spring retainer 120 (FIG. 15 ), tooth 100 is permitted to move peripherally outward via opening 83 (FIG. 16 ), locking tooth 100 in place and ensuring that the indexing ring and other components are also locked in place such that the components which should be used for the determined volumetric capacity will in fact be used. (It may be noted that the indexing ring and other components are still moving freely. FIGS. 15-16 depict actions occurring during connection of 2-gallon water bottle only, ensuring that the indexing piece traverses 75 indexing positions.) Using this retractable tooth, if a different bottle neck length is associated with a 2-gallon bottle as opposed to a 3-gallon bottle (for example), locking tooth 100 may be engaged for one reservoir size but not the other. Thus, with the current design, longer-necked 2-gallon bottles will engage tooth 100 and cause the indexing components to move, ensuring the lock-out function will not be engaged. In the preferred embodiment, the 3-gallon water bottle has a shorter bottle neck than the 2-gallon water bottle, such that the indexing piece only traverses 50 indexing positions, and the action shown in FIGS. 15-16 does not come into play. Similarly, referring now to the alternative embodiment shown in FIGS. 4 , 27 and 31 - 36 , it will now be understood that retractable tooth 100 generally works in the same manner as in the embodiment shown in FIGS. 15-17 . As shown in FIGS. 31-36 , as indexing occurs retractable tooth 100 moves downward, impacting angled flange 122 on spring retainer 120 , until tooth 100 is finally locked in place as shown in FIG. 64 . Using these embodiments, when the teeth are aligned directly over their corresponding apertures, whether at the 50 th or 75 th index (assuming a 150 gallon filtration capacity), lockout will occur. Of course, using the principles of the present invention, it will be readily apparent that reservoirs of any size (e.g., 1 gallon and 5 gallon, etc.) may be used in connection with filter shutoff device 30 , as the number of teeth and relative geometries may be adjusted to account for varying reservoir and filtration capacities. Using these principles, it may also be easily envisioned that a single shutoff device may account for even more than 2 different reservoir sizes. Referring now to FIGS. 21 and 37 - 49 , another aspect of the present invention employs a replaceable filter cartridge 260 designed to work with the above-described shutoff mechanism. As further described below, replaceable filter cartridge 260 may be designed to interact within shutoff device 30 so that when shutoff is enabled, a built-in index reset occurs as the used filter cartridge is removed and replaced. In one embodiment, replaceable cartridge filter 260 is designed to interact with shutoff device 30 automatically during initial installation, and then again when reaching the end of the cartridge's useful life. More specifically, as the indexing mechanism for filter shutoff 30 reaches the last index, and the filter is shut off preventing further usage, filter cartridge 260 provides a built-in index reset during filter cartridge replacement, by moving the indexing mechanism to its starting position during the used cartridge ejection process, as now described in detail immediately below. In a preferred embodiment, replaceable filter cartridge 260 is designed to fit inside the lower portion of lid 50 , and beneath the filter shutoff mechanism, as shown in FIG. 21 . Referring to FIGS. 38-40 , filter cartridge 260 includes seal ring 261 , four lockout arms 262 , guiding pin 263 and grip area 264 . Referring to FIGS. 37 and 38 , guiding pin 263 moves circumscribed by groove 57 of lid 50 . Cartridge indexing piece 270 ( FIGS. 41-49 ) includes cartridge base 271 and upstanding cartridge cylinder 276 . Cartridge base 271 includes cartridge base teeth 272 . Referring to FIGS. 42 and 43 , cartridge base 271 also includes annular locking arm retainer ring 277 and resetting notch 278 . During use, seal ring 261 is initially in the location with respect to lockout arms 262 as shown in FIGS. 21 and 38 . During first bottle installation, ring 261 moves in a downward direction, as shown in FIG. 39 , allowing lockout arms 262 to begin to blossom. As shown in FIG. 37 , guiding pin 263 may move within guiding groove 57 of lid 50 , tracing Paths A, B and C. By following paths B and C, the cartridge may be rotated out and removed. (In the embodiment disclosed here, a 120° revolution may correspond to 25 teeth though, of course, other shutoff embodiments may be employed.) A new cartridge is inserted by following Path C and then Path B on lid 50 . The new cartridge is set in final position upon finishing Path A, which may be confirmed by a tactile and sound (“click”) feedback. The operation of the replaceable filter cartridge using either a 2-gallon or a 3-gallon water bottle will now be described. As will be understood, lockout arms 262 are designed to prevent a used filter cartridge from again being installed and reused. During engagement with a 3-gallon water bottle, in the preferred embodiment, two of the four lockout arms 262 will be used to prevent engagement of a used filter cartridge, while the remaining two lockout arms will be used to reset the indexing mechanism during the cartridge removal procedure. Referring first to FIG. 38 and then to FIG. 39 , seal ring 261 moves during first bottle installation as shown. Lockout arms 262 will remain within indexing piece 270 . Referring now to the mechanism as used with a 2 -gallon water bottle, shown in FIG. 44 , at indexing position 49 (assuming indexing position 50 is the final indexing position when the 3-gallon water bottle is engaged), retractable teeth 272 will be extended, allowing the indexing mechanism to pass indexing position 50 and move forward to indexing position 75 and lockout. Horizontal line “A” shown in FIG. 44 is the lockout position achieved by the shutoff mechanism when using either 2-gallon or 3-gallon water bottles, while line “B” is the filter shutoff position when the water bottle has been removed. Lines “C” and “D” are the filter shutoff locations when the 3-gallon and 2-gallon water bottles are engaged, respectively. Continuing on, and referring now to FIG. 46 , at indexing position 50 , for the 2-gallon bottle, retractable teeth 272 are extended out, and no missing teeth are present on indexing piece 270 . At the position shown in FIG. 46 , the four lockout arms 262 will remain within indexing piece 270 . At indexing position 51 (FIG. 48 ), the retractable teeth set will retract back and disengage, ready for the next cycle, while all four lockout arms 262 will again remain within indexing piece 270 . This will continue to be the position for indexing positions 52 - 74 , when the 2-gallon bottle is engaged. Then, upon reaching indexing position 75 (still using the 2-gallon water bottle), missing teeth 272 on indexing piece 270 will line up with steps 51 on lid 50 , leaving indexing piece 270 free to bounce upward (under influence of spring 110 ) to its lockout position. At this lockout position, each of the four lockout arms 262 will stretch out and sit beneath indexing piece 270 , preventing indexing piece 270 from moving any further in a downward direction, as shown in FIG. 50 . Lockout in the “up” position has now been achieved. Pushing on interface ring 40 with more force again automatically triggers the ejection sequence for the used filter cartridge, as shown in FIG. 52 . Tactile feedback (the force difference) may be provided; visual feedback (e.g., a red warning message) may also be provided on the outside surface of the cartridge, using over-mold or in-mold decorations, or using a pad printing or screen printing process. When the filter cartridge is ejected along path A, the visual feedback may be shown around grip area 264 . Referring back to FIG. 37 , path A along lid 50 has now been completed. In contrast, when a 3-gallon bottle is used, and referring now to FIG. 45 , seal ring 261 again moves during first bottle installation as shown, while lockout arms 262 again remain within indexing piece 270 . However, now retractable teeth set 272 will not be extended out and engaged at indexing position 49 , since the performance indication device (PID) stroke is shorter, as controlled by the shorter, 3-gallon bottle neck. At indexing position 50 for the 3-gallon bottle (FIG. 47 ), retractable teeth 272 were not extended out, and missing teeth 272 on indexing piece 270 are free to line up with steps 51 on lid 50 , so that indexing piece 270 is permitted to bounce upwardly to a lockout position. Still referring to FIG. 47 , at this position, one pair of lockout arms 262 will still be sitting inside indexing piece 270 for resetting purposes, as shown, nestled against annular tabs 278 . Still at indexing position 50 , and referring now to FIG. 53 , the remaining pair of lockout arms 262 will stretch out and sit beneath indexing piece 270 to prevent indexing piece 270 from moving any further in a downward direction. Lockout in the “up” position has now been achieved. Finally, referring to FIG. 51 , pushing on interface ring 40 with more force again automatically triggers the ejection sequence for the used filter cartridge. Again, tactile feedback (the force difference) and/or visual feedback may be provided, as discussed above. Referring back again to FIG. 37 , path A along lid 50 has now been completed. To review, for filter lockout to occur interface 40 pushes against indexing ring 80 , exerting a force on retractable tooth 100 . Referring now to FIGS. 66-71 , a paper mock-up showing the tooth interaction of the filter shutoff mechanism is shown to better illustrate the interplay of lid teeth 51 , plunger teeth 62 and indexing teeth 81 (shown in FIG. 4 , for example). A starting position is shown in FIG. 66 . At indexing position 49 , the tooth interference shown by the arrows in FIG. 67 prevents locking of the filter mechanism. Referring to FIG. 68 , at indexing position 49.5, the tooth interference shown by the arrows continues to prevent locking; as shown, for the 3-gallon water bottle of the present embodiment, retractable teeth 100 are not yet actuated. At indexing position 50 shown in FIG. 69 , the tooth alignment shown by the arrows, in which plunger teeth 62 are aligned with the apertures between lid teeth 51 , allowing the upward action of spring 110 to cause lockout to occur. Finally, referring now to FIGS. 70-71 , retractable teeth 100 are actuated for the 2-gallon embodiment, following 75 cycles (i.e., at the 75th indexing position), and locking occurs. Used cartridge removal will now be described. With the 2-gallon water bottle engaged, the used cartridge 260 may be rotated out by following path B and then path C as shown in FIG. 37. A new cartridge 260 may be inserted by rotating it, first along path C and then path B. Preferably, the cartridge is locked in position firmly to complete path A, using a tactile and click sound feedback, for example. With the 3-gallon water bottle engaged, while removing the cartridge by rotating it along path B, one pair of lockout arms 262 will contact resetting notches 278 on indexing piece 270 , best shown in FIG. 54 . This will enable indexing piece 270 to be rotated 25 indexing steps forward to indexing position 75 . The cartridge may now be removed by following Path C, disengaging between lockout arms 262 and indexing piece 270 . Again, a new cartridge may be rotated in, clicking firmly into locked position at Path A. Preferred filter characteristics for use with the present invention are now described. The pressure drop and flow characteristics of a filter are influenced by basic properties of the filtering media and configuration which are presented to the contaminated fluid. A PureSmart® water filter available from Elkay Manufacturing Company, Watertech Division, of Oakbrook, Ill. utilizes a carbon-loaded, non-woven media as the primary filtering mechanism. The carbon-loaded filter media may be too restrictive to be utilized in a simple flat configuration. As a result, for use with the present invention the filter media may be combined with a support/separation media. The combined media may be pleated to increase the available surface area within the canister. Once pleated, the pleated media pack may be die-cut to the proper diameter for insertion into the canister. A retainer ring may be inserted into the canister and a sealant may be injected onto the distribution plane of the retainer. The cartridge may then be spun in place using centrifugal force at a rate effective to direct the sealant to the peripheral edge of the filter media element without wetting the filtering surface of the filter media. Sufficient sealant material is dispensed into the dispersion member of the spinning respirator cartridge assembly, forming a seal along the peripheral edge of the filter media. This seal is allowed to cure, thereby affixing the filter media to the body element of the respirator cartridge. The resulting structure exhibits a filtering surface substantially free of undesired sealant material, with the sealant perimeter-filling the void space between the internal wall of the canister and the die-cut edge of the filter media. Further details concerning the preferred filter media and process for making it are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,063,926, which is incorporated by reference in this disclosure in its entirety. In an alternative filter arrangement, the retainer ring may be molded as an integral component of the canister or cover. A spacer may be inserted between the media pack and canister to aid in the distribution of sealant. Additional media layers may be introduced to enhance the filtering efficiency or capacity, or to increase the variety of contaminates removed. Referring now to FIGS. 55-61 , use of a preferred venting mechanism will now be described. As backround, when water bottle 20 is inverted into a dispensing position, a seal may be created between the filter shutoff mechanism lid 50 and bottle seat ledge 27 a . To allow continuous dispensing without lock-up, air passes from outside the filter through vent holes 290 in filter lid 50 ( FIGS. 55-56 , or alternative embodiment FIGS. 57 - 58 ), and into water bottle 20 . When the filter is initially installed on the bottle and the bottle is rotated into the functioning position, during the time that water flows down and wets and fills the filter media, the water flow path that presents the least amount of resistance, and thus the path the water actually travels, is through the vent holes. This is believed due to a water hammer effect such that the existing air already in the filter will tend to escape through these vent holes, carrying water with it. This initial condition may result in some (less than about 1 cc.) untreated water escaping through the vent holes and into the treated water. This initial condition may result in a failure to comply with NSF regulations regarding lead treatment, for example. To solve this problem, a reduced throat diameter is provided as best shown in FIGS. 62 and 63 . Still referring to FIG. 63 , in the preferred embodiment, six vent holes 290 are provided on the lower surface of the indexing mechanism. One preferred size of the vent holes is about 0.031 inches; however the vent holes may be sized larger, in which case fewer than six may be used. Vent holes 290 permit air to escape from and enter the filter to maintain an appropriate pressure balance, to avoid lock-up. Using this restricted throat diameter, when water bottle 20 is inverted, water slowly passes into filter shutoff device 30 , such that the water level in the device slowly rises. As shown in the drawings, a convoluted flow passage through the shutoff mechanism, in conjunction with providing vent holes in the location indicated (on the same side as the side on which the water bottle handle is located, as shown in FIG. 2 ), results in little opportunity for water to escape and geyser out of the vent holes during filter cartridge or water bottle replacement. In a previous embodiment disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,354,344, 0.7266 minutes was required for 3500 ml. of water to flow through a filter shutoff device having a throat diameter of about ¾ inches (a fill rate of 4,817 ml./min), whereas only 0.1728 minutes was required for the same volume of water to flow through an identical filter with a throat diameter of about 1.5 inches (a fill rate of 20,255 ml./min). It was noted that water hammer continued to cause water passage through the vent holes until the fill rate was reduced below about 7,500 ml./min. Unlike prior art designs, even during the filling stage and before the water reaches its final level within the filter due to the pressure head created by the bottle neck, the water level never reaches above the level of vent holes 120 . With such an improved design, water does not flow out through the vent holes, allowing NSF compliance, and reducing spillage and mess. Referring now to FIGS. 56 and 58 , instead of using vent holes 290 to prevent lock-up, as shown in alternative embodiments in FIGS. 55 and 57 (though the preferred embodiment is shown in FIG. 62 ), two alternative embodiments using umbrella valves 296 or 298 may be used. These umbrella valves may be obtained from DaPro Rubber, Inc. of Tulsa, Okla., whose valves are molded to be stress-free throughout the convolute section with a uniform convolute thickness to +/−0.0015 inches. As yet another alternative to that shown in FIGS. 55-58 and 62 , a “duckbill” valve 300 shown in FIGS. 59 and 60 may be used, also available from DaPro Rubber. Yet another alternative is the “reed” valve 335 shown in FIGS. 59 and 61 and specially designed for this application. Air pressure opens valves 300 , 335 , while water pressure closes the valves. These valves allow air to enter the filter during normal operation, but prevent influent water from exiting the filter during engagement of a water bottle to the dispenser. It will now be understood that changes in structure to components of filter dispensing assembly 30 which do not materially change the function of the assembly and which fit within the principles of the invention are intended to be covered by the following claims. For example, it will be understood that differently sized water bottles other than 2-gallon and 3-gallon water bottles may be used, with appropriately-sized necks as desired. Further, inherently understood 1 differences in structure and design may be made to the disclosed preferred embodiments shown in the drawings, while keeping within the principles of the present invention as expounded in the claims. The above description is not intended to limit the meaning of the words used in the following claims that define the invention. Rather, it is contemplated that future modifications in structure, function or result will exist that are not substantial changes and that all such insubstantial changes are intended to be covered by the following claims. In other words, the invention is not limited to the embodiment disclosed but is of a scope defined by the following claim language which may be broadened by an extension of the right to exclude others from making, using or selling the invention as is appropriate under the doctrine of equivalents.

An automatic, water dispensing, filter shutoff device having a disposable and replaceable filter. The shutoff device is in removable engagement and fluid communication with a water container such as a water bottle, and is adapted to disable dispensing after a predetermined amount of dispensing has occurred, which may but need not substantially correspond to the filtration capacity of the filter. In a preferred embodiment, the shutoff device includes a monitoring and disabling with plunger components moveable between dispensing and disabling locations, and a rotating indexing mechanism. At the disabling location, a plunger component is placed in an interfering position with the engagement between the shutoff device and the water container. The shutoff device can distinguish between water bottles having different volumetric capacities, and terminate dispensing accordingly. Preferable, a replaceable filter cartridge is provided which, when removed, causes the indexing mechanism to be reset.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit under of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/927,091 filed May 1, 2007 titled “OSCILLOSCOPE” the contents thereof being incorporated herein by reference. This application is also a Continuation-In-Part application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/102,946 filed Apr. 15, 2008 titled “High Bandwidth Oscilloscope for Digitizing an Analog Signal Having a Bandwidth Greater than the Bandwidth of Digitizing Components of the Oscilloscope”, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,653,514 which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/729,606, filed Mar. 29, 2007 by Peter Pupalaikis et al., entitled “High Bandwidth Oscilloscope”, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,373,281, which in turn is a continuation application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/281,075, filed Nov. 17, 2005 by Peter Pupalaikis et al., entitled “High Bandwidth Oscilloscope”, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,219,037. The '037 patent in turn claims the benefit of i) U.S. Provisional Patent Application 60/629,050, filed Nov. 18, 2004 by Pupalaikis and entitled “High Bandwidth Oscilloscope,” ii) U.S. Provisional Patent Application 60/656,865, filed Feb. 25, 2005 by Pupalaikis et al. and entitled “The Digital Heterodyning Oscilloscope,” and iii) U.S. Provisional Patent Application 60/656,616, filed Feb. 25, 2005 by Mueller et al. and entitled “Method and Apparatus for Spurious Tone Reduction in Systems of Mismatched Interleaved Digitizers.” The '037 patent is also a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/693,188, filed Oct. 24, 2003 by Pupalaikis et al. and entitled “High Bandwidth Real Time Oscilloscope,” now U.S. Pat. No. 7,058,548, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application 60/420,937, filed Oct. 24, 2002 by Pupalaikis et al. and entitled “High Bandwidth Real Time Oscilloscope.” FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a high bandwidth digital storage oscilloscope (DSO) design that incorporates heterodyning or other combination of multiple acquisition channels to increase the bandwidth of a traditional oscilloscope design. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION A real-time digital storage oscilloscope (DSO) is one of the primary tools of engineers in the development of all kinds of electronic items. A high-bandwidth DSO is of particular use in the development of newer and faster items because the performance of the DSO must be higher than that of the electronic items in development. Thus, as the speed of various electronic items increases, so does the need for ever higher bandwidth DSOs. In an age of rapid speed increases of electronics, a high bandwidth oscilloscope is needed that can be developed and deployed quickly. These desired increases in DSO performance produce a dilemma because the bandwidth of the DSO is mostly related to the speed of the front-end amplifiers and analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) used therein. These components are traditionally designed using custom application specific integrated circuits (ASICs). These ASICs, in turn, must be built utilizing the highest performance integrated circuit (IC) design processes available. Their development along with the design and development of the rest of the DSO must be designed in time for the DSO to be utilized for design and development activities utilizing chips designed with these fast processes. In other words, the DSO is preferably built in and using the same processes as the chips that the DSO is designed to test. a. The fastest IC design processes are expensive and difficult to utilize when they are first introduced, especially for low volume IC production. Also, while new IC design processes tend to be optimized for digital IC development (such as the development of faster computers, serial data links, etc.), DSO front-end designs in particular utilize analog ICs. ASIC development has been becoming increasingly expensive, almost to a point whereby the huge development costs cannot be recaptured in a relatively low volume production area, such as the oscilloscope market. Additionally, the development time for higher performance ASICs and the supporting hardware can be prohibitively long and cumbersome which can extensively delay the time to market for a product. As has been determined by the inventors of the present invention, as well as of by the inventors of the applications and patents to which this application claims priority and benefit, by using multiple channel combining through the digital bandwidth interleaving method with previously developed and deployed hardware, the time to market for a new higher performance oscilloscope can be significantly reduced. OBJECTS OF THE INVENTION It is an object of this invention to provide a high bandwidth real-time oscilloscope design that provides for large increases in oscilloscope bandwidth. It is another object of this invention to provide a method that combines a plurality of channel resources to multiply not only sample rate and memory length, but also bandwidth. It is a further object of this invention to provide for all of these benefits while simultaneously providing good specifications regarding signal fidelity including: Wide input dynamic range. High signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). Low signal distortion. High effective number of bits (ENOB). Good input return loss. Good magnitude response flatness Good time domain performance including low overshoot and preshoot. It is yet another object of the invention to provide a high bandwidth real-time oscilloscope that overcomes the drawbacks of current real-time oscilloscopes. Still other objects and advantages of the invention will in part be obvious and will in part be apparent from the specification and the drawings. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION FIG. 1 shows a (Digital Bandwidth Interleaved) DBI enabled oscilloscope constructed in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. Normally, in a non DBI enabled oscilloscope, four input channels CH 1 [ 100 ], CH 2 [ 101 ], CH 3 [ 102 ], and CH 4 enter an oscilloscope, such as a LeCroy® WaveMaster® 8620A DSO and are connected to the inputs to each of four front-end amplifiers [ 105 ], [ 106 ], [ 107 ], and [ 108 ]. In particular, an oscilloscope such as the 8620A is designed to digitize waveforms at sample rates of up to 20 GS/s at bandwidths up to 6 GHz into memories up to 50 Mpoints long. These are the banner specifications of the 8620A. When DBI operation is enabled, up to four channels can be grouped together to form a single high bandwidth channel, or a number of higher bandwidth channels, or other combinations as desired. This operation enables the instrument to acquire and display a signal with higher frequency content than a single non-DBI enabled channel. The process of channel combination involves splitting an input signal into multiple frequency bands, translating at least on of these bands to lower frequency bands through downconversion, and acquiring each band with independent analog-to-digital converters (ADCs). Each translated band is then digitally upsampled, upconverted, and finally summed together in its original phase relationship which will thereby create an accurate representation of the original input waveform. The channel 1 input of the oscilloscope may be connected to a frequency multiplexer. The purpose of the multiplexer is to split the input signal into more than one frequency band, preferably in an exemplary embodiment, four frequency bands which are placed at four outputs of the multiplexer. In the particular exemplary embodiment described above, these four frequency bands are approximately delimited by frequency boundaries of DC to 6 GHz, 6 GHz to 11 GHz, 11 GHz to 18 GHz, and 18 GHz to 25 GHz, herein designated as the LF, MF, HF, and VF band respectively. The LF band output of the multiplexer is connected to the CH 1 front end amplifier. The MF, HF, and VF band outputs of the multiplexer are connected to their respective band's downconverter. The purpose of the downconverter is to translate high radio frequency (RF) content to lower intermediate frequency (IF) content so that they will land within the passband of the analog-to-digital converters (ADC) input. The outputs of the MF, HF, and VF band downconverters are connected to the input of a programmable solid-state input selector switch on the CH 2 , CH 3 , and CH 4 ADC, respectively. In the non-DBI enabled mode of operation, the ADC input selector switch is connected to the oscilloscope input via a 6 GHz front-end amplifier. However, when DBI operation is enabled the ADC input selector switch is connected to the output of its respective downconverter thereby enabling channel combination. One additional benefit of this switching scheme is that it potentially leaves the channel whose ADC is used to receive a downconverted band with a front-end amplifier available for triggering function. The oscilloscope preferably acquires the LF, MF, HF, and VF frequency bands simultaneously, but may be acquired consecutively or at any other desired timing relationship as appropriate. During waveform processing by the instrument software the MF, HF, and VF bands are translated back to their original locations at approximately 6 GHz to 11 GHz, 11 GHz to 18 GHz, and 18 GHz to 25 GHz, respectively, after which the LF, MF, HF, and VF bands are recombined to form a 25 GHz bandwidth acquisition. During this processing, each band is upsampled resulting in a quadrupling of base sample rate and since four channels are utilized, quadrupling of the sample memory length is also realized. The most important result, however, is a more than quadrupling of a single non-DBI channel's bandwidth. The invention accordingly comprises the several steps and the relation of one or more of such steps with respect to each of the others, and the apparatus embodying features of construction, combinations of elements and arrangement of parts that are adapted to effect such steps, all as exemplified in the following detailed disclosure, and the oscilloscope of the invention will be indicated in the claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS For a more complete understanding of the invention, reference is made to the following description and accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is a block diagram showing the splitting of an input signal for DBI operation and the switching of DBI hardware outputs with the non-DBI signals passing to an Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 2 is a block diagram showing the downconversion scheme for a grouping of up to four channels in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 3 is a plot of the power levels applied to each stage within the MF band downconverter in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 4 is a plot of the power levels applied to each stage within the HF band downconverter in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 5 is a plot of the power levels applied to each stage within the VF band downconverter in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 6 is a plot of the accumulated gain relative to the input for each stage within the MF band downconverter in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 7 is a plot of the accumulated gain relative to the input for each stage within the HF band downconverter in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 8 is a plot of the accumulated gain relative to the input for each stage within the VF band downconverter in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 9 is a diagram showing the organization of the circular memory buffer within the oscilloscope in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 10 is a plot showing the digital LO generator when using an LO multiplication scheme for LO generation in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 11 is a plot showing the delay calibration clocks that are injected into the IF section of each downconverter used to perform the ADC delay calibration in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 12 is a graphic showing all the channel grouping combinations within this DBI enabled oscilloscope in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 13 is a block diagram representation of a DBI processor configuration inside the processing web internal to the WaveMaster 8620A DSO in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 14 is a block diagram representation of a digital signal processing (DSP) system that processes the LF, MF, HF, and VF waveforms acquired by a DBI equipped oscilloscope and produces the DBI output waveform in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 15 is a representation of an internal configuration menu of DBI DSP system settings that apply to all bands in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 16 is a representation of an internal configuration menu of DBI DSP system settings for the LF band signal recovery menu in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 17 is a representation of an internal configuration menu of DBI DSP system settings for the LF band signal low image filtering menu in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 18 is a representation of an internal configuration menu of DBI DSP system settings for the LF band signal high image filtering menu in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 19 is a block diagram representation of how the phase of the reference tone is calculated utilizing the Goertzel algorithm in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 20 is a graphical representation of the low frequency (LF) low pass (LP) filter magnitude response in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 21 is a graphical representation of the digitally mixed combination of the MF low image showing the multiple images created by the mixing action in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 22 is a graphical representation of the MF high image filter magnitude response in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 23 is a graphical representation of the result of application of the MF high image filter to the digitally mixed MF low image which forms the overall MF digital filter response in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 24 is a graphical representation of the digitally mixed combination of the HF low image showing the multiple images created by the mixing action in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 25 is a graphical representation of the HF high image filter magnitude response in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 26 is a graphical representation of the result of application of the HF high image filter to the digitally mixed HF low image which forms the overall HF digital filter response in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 27 is a graphical representation of the digitally mixed combination of the VF low image showing the multiple images created by the mixing action in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 28 is a graphical representation of the VF high image filter magnitude response in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 29 is a graphical representation of the result of application of the VF high image filter to the digitally mixed VF low image which forms the overall VF digital filter response in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 30 is a representation of a digital LO tone generator in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 31 is a graphical representation of the LF, MF, HF, and VF path digital filter response along with the resulting response as a result of the digital recombination showing a vertical zoom that enhances the view of the magnitude response flatness in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 32 shows a DSO oscilloscope screen showing the horizontal settings menu with the user selections for utilizing each of groups of four channels for either quad 6 GHz operation or single 25 GHz operation and all combinations in between in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention; FIG. 33 shows a DSO oscilloscope screen fragment showing the internal DBI acquisition configuration in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention; and FIG. 34 shows a DSO oscilloscope screen fragment showing the DBI calibration items MF, HF, and VF delay, Variable Gain and Attenuation for each Volt/div (vdiv) setting and band in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS FIG. 1 shows a block diagram of a DBI enabled oscilloscope constructed in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the invention. This diagram shows a single channel DBI implementation. In this preferred implementation, oscilloscope channels 1 [ 101 ], 2 [ 102 ], 3 [ 103 ], and 4 [ 104 ] can be selectively grouped together in a sequential order to form a single high bandwidth channel. A user can operate the oscilloscope in a non-combined configuration with four independent 6 GHz channels or can combine up to four channels into a single 25 GHz channel. There are other selectable grouping schemes where the user can choose two 6 GHz channels and one 11 GHz channel that is created by grouping channels 1 and 2 , or one 6 GHz channel and one 18 GHz channel that is created by grouping channels 1 , 2 , and 3 . While not particularly shown, two 11 GHZ channels may also be selected by a user. These channel groupings are illustrated in FIG. 12 . For the most general discussion, the implementation of the maximum bandwidth configuration with all four channels combined will be described with the understanding that the removal of a channel from a grouping is a subset of the overall implementation. Additionally, any description of a particular hardware element should be considered to be by way of example only. It should be understood that other components or elements that are known in the art to perform similar jobs, or provide similar results may be substituted in the described implementation and should therefore be considered as part of the present invention. One of the cornerstones of this method is the splitting of the input frequency spectrum into smaller spectral bands which will be downconverted and then reassembled further in the signal processing chain. Before discussing the specific implementation of this method, a few definitions relating to the divided spectral bands are needed that will be referred to throughout the remainder of the discussion. Frequency bands are approximately delimited with the following frequency boundaries: DC to 6 GHz, 6 GHz to 11 GHz, 11 GHz to 18 GHz, and 18 GHz to 25 GHz. These bands are designated as the LF, MF, HF, and VF bands respectively. These designators will be used throughout the following discussion. FIG. 1 depicts the CH 1 input [ 100 ] connected to a frequency diplexer [ 110 ]. The purpose of the diplexer is to split the signal into two frequency bands, one with frequency content from DC to 18 GHz which will be split further, and another from 18 GHz to 25 GHz which forms the VF band. The VF output of the diplexer is connected directly to the input of the VF downconverter [ 123 ]. The other output of the diplexer [ 110 ] is connected to a second diplexer [ 115 ]. The second diplexer again splits the input frequency content into two bands, one with frequency content between DC to 6 GHz, which forms the LF band, and another between 6 GHz to 18 GHz which will be split further. The LF band output is connected to the front-end amplifier [ 105 ] of the oscilloscope whose output is connected to the ADC where the LF signal is acquired [ 125 ]. In this implementation, the cascade of the two diplexers is grouped together within a single module called a triplexer which is shown in FIG. 2 [ 200 ]. In FIG. 1 the output of the second diplexer [ 115 ] with frequency content between 6 GHz to 18 GHz may be connected to a Wilkinson power divider [ 130 ], or simply referred to as a Wilkinson. The purpose of the Wilkinson is to create two copies of the input signal each with a nominal power level that is 3 dB lower than the input power level. The frequency content of both outputs of the Wilkinson has the same 6 GHz to 18 GHz frequency content as the input and one output is connected to the MF band downconverter [ 121 ] and the other output is connected to the HF band downconverter [ 122 ]. There are other alternatives to using a Wilkinson to provide these two outputs, such as a resistive power splitter or another diplexer. Each method of splitting the signal implies various tradeoffs that those skilled in the art would be able to identify. As mentioned above, the implementation allows for selective enabling of DBI channel groupings depending on the maximum acquisition bandwidth that the user wants. Selection is accomplished by using solid-state multiplexing circuits (MUXs) whose selection state is controlled by software programmable registers. The MUX for the MF, HF, and VF, band are shown in FIG. 1 as [ 140 ], [ 141 ], and [ 142 ] respectively. One MUX input of each channel is connected to an output of each downconverter [ 121 ], [ 122 ], and [ 123 ]. Each channel's respective direct, non-downconverted input [ 101 ], [ 102 ], and [ 103 ] goes through Front End amplifiers [ 106 ], [ 107 ], and [ 108 ]. Each channel's respective front end amplifier output is then connected to the other input of each MUX. A channel's MUX state can then be programmed to either select a downconverted signal or a non-downconverted signal to be acquired by an ADC. In this embodiment, DBI can only be enabled by sequentially combining channels, however, the limitations of sequentially enabling channels can be overcome with an alternate, more complex multiplexing topology. A detailed description of the implementation of the downconverter sections follows and is depicted in the block diagram shown in FIG. 2 . The primary purpose of a downconverter in this invention is to take high frequency content, commonly known as RF content, and translate it to relatively lower frequency band known as IF band such that IF frequency content falls within the passband of the ADC. The secondary purpose of the downconverter in this invention is to match the nominal power level of the input signal to the acceptable nominal input power level of the ADC. The nominal input power level ranges from −18 dBm to +22 dBm whereas the nominal acceptable input power level of the ADC is fixed at −4 dBm. These two functions are discussed below The downconverter is comprised of a chain of multiple components. First an overview of the components in the downconverter chain is given followed by a detailed description of each component's functions and design. In FIG. 2 , the signal designated as the MF exits the Wilkinson divider [ 201 ] with 6 GHz to 18 GHz of frequency content. This signal travels through a fixed 4 dB front end attenuator [ 202 ], commonly referred to as a pad, which is connected to a programmable digital step attenuator [ 204 ]. The output of the attenuator is connected to a low noise amplifier (LNA) [ 206 ]. The LNA is connected to a fixed 2 dB pad [ 208 ]. The 2 dB pad is connected to a band pass filter [ 210 ], herein referred to as a band filter, with a passband approximately from 6 GHz to 11 GHz. The output of the band filter is connected to a variable voltage attenuator (VVA) [ 212 ] which is designed to provide between 0-4 dB of attenuation is 0.001 dB increments. The output of the VVA is connected to a second LNA [ 214 ] with 15 dB of gain and the output of the LNA is connected to a 3 dB pad [ 216 ]. The output of the 3 dB pad runs to the RF input port of a mixer [ 218 ]. The cascade of components described above comprises the RF chain for the MF band. The mixer requires a local oscillator (LO) frequency tone which is generated by a dielectric resonant oscillator (DRO) [ 220 ] that is applied to the LO input port of the mixer. The DRO receives a reference signal from the ADC called SyncOut [ 221 ] and multiplies it up to the frequency of the LO tone. Before reaching the mixer, a portion of the LO tone is coupled to the input of a clock divider [ 224 ] via a 20 dB directional coupler [ 222 ]. The clock divider creates a tone at half the frequency of the LO with a fixed phase relationship to the LO. This divided frequency is often referred to as a pilot tone. After mixing the input frequency band with the LO tone, the output of the mixer has desired frequency content approximately between 0.46 GHz and 5.46 GHz. The output of the mixer passes through a 3 dB pad [ 226 ] and then a second directional coupler [ 228 ]. The pilot tone is coupled into the output of the mixer via the coupled arm of the second directional coupler [ 228 ] so that the output of this second directional coupler has the downconverted frequency content and the pilot tone. The combination of these two components is considered the intermediate frequency (IF) band. The IF band will also have unwanted spurious components, such as LO feedthrough and distortion products, that must be rejected by downstream components. The IF band enters an IF signal conditioning module [ 230 ] comprised of a cascade of components. The first component of the IF module is a diplexer [ 232 ]. The diplexer takes the IF frequency content and splits it into two bands, one with frequency content approximately less than 10 GHz and one with frequency content approximately greater than 10 GHz. The frequency content above 10 GHz is undesirable and is terminated by a termination network [ 234 ] while the frequency content below 10 GHz is passed to an IF amplifier [ 236 ]. The output of the IF amplifier is connected to a stub [ 238 ] tuned to the LO frequency that will shunt out practically all remnants of the LO tone that might have leaked into the IF band. The output of the LO stub is connected to a power amplifier [ 240 ] with nominally 16.5 dB of gain. The output of the power amplifier is connected to a programmable PIN diode SPDT switch [ 242 ]. In normal operational mode, the PIN diode switch passes the signal to bias tee [ 244 ]. The output of the bias tee is applied to a voltage limiter [ 246 ] whose output is connected to a resistive power splitter [ 248 ] that creates two copies of the IF signal that each with nominal power 8 dB less than the power level at the input of the divider. Each output of the resistive divider is applied to the two inputs of the CH 2 ADC [ 250 ] where the IF signal is digitized. The components described in the paragraph above comprise the IF chain. A summary of the cascaded stages, where each stage is composed of one or more of the components described above, is presented in Table 1. The stage number designators correspond to the stage number designators in FIGS. 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 and 8 . As previously mentioned, one purpose of the downconverter is to normalize the power level of the input ranging from +22 dBm to −18 dBm to −4 dBm which is the nominal full scale range of the ADC. FIG. 3 shows how the signal power in the MF band varies as the signal travels through each stage. Similarly, FIG. 4 shows the signal power level for the HF band through each stage in the chain and FIG. 5 shows the signal power level for the VF band for each stage in the chain. The cumulative gain that has been applied to the signal at each point in the signal processing chain for the MF, HF, and VF bands is shown in FIGS. 6 , 7 , and 8 respectively. TABLE 1 Summary of cascaded components Stage Number Designator Description 0 input 1 diplexer/divider 2 fe pad 3 digital attenuator 4 LNA 1 5 pad 6 band filter 7 VVA 8 LNA 2 9 pad 10 mixer CL 11 pad 12 diplexer/filter 13 IF Amp 14 LO Filter and pad 15 power amp 16 switch/bias tee/limiter 17 splitter The function and design constraints of each of the components described above will now be discussed. The front end 4 dB pad [ 202 ] is needed to reduce the signal power before the following stage to prevent clipping of the peak voltage. The programmable digital step attenuator [ 204 ] is designed to provide 0-30 dB of attenuation in 5 dB increments. The specific programming depends on the oscilloscope's vertical scale setting selected by the user from the user interface. It is designed to coarsely match the input signal power level to an acceptable power level that can be handled by the first LNA [ 206 ]. The typical input power level for the first LNA is approximately −30 dBm. The first LNA buffers the input before it is filtered by the band filter [ 210 ] by providing isolation from reflections caused by downstream components. For instance, the band filter will reflect power that is in its stop band and it is desirable to isolate this reflected power from the input and other downconverters within a channel grouping. In addition to applying gain to the signal, the LNA also amplifies the input signal by approximately 15 dB. The 2 dB pad following the attenuator [ 208 ] serves to improve the output reflection coefficient of the first LNA which will attenuate reflections between the band filter and the LNA output. The value of this pad can be chosen to be much higher to attenuate reflections, which can improve frequency response flatness, however additional attenuation will require more gain in the LNA which is not always desirable. The band filter plays an important role in this design. The band filter is intended to pass RF frequencies that are in the MF passband and reject all other frequencies. It is widely know to those skilled in the art that it is critical to reject frequencies that are greater than the LO frequency. Otherwise, after passing through the mixer, these image frequencies will alias back into the IF band where they cannot be distinguished from desired frequency content and will corrupt the recovered single content. They will typically modulate the desired IF output which is undesirable in a measurement instrument. A good band filter will reject out of band components by 40 dB or better. The VVA [ 212 ] is intended to be a fine adjustment of the nominal signal power level that appears at the output of the downconverter module. Since all of the remaining downstream components operate in a fixed gain mode, the VVA is the only way to finely tune the ultimate power level that will appear at the output of the IF module [ 230 ] and hence the input of the ADC [ 250 ]. The primary purpose of the second LNA [ 214 ] is to normalize the RF signal to the desired power that the mixer [ 218 ] should be driven. It also has the benefit of buffering the RF signal from the mixer. Typical mixers have a tendency to have poor input VSWR characteristics which will cause RF power to be reflected away from their inputs, but the LNA will provide isolation between the main input and the mixer. At this point it should be noted that the order of the first LNA and band filter could be interchanged, however the benefit of isolation would not be realized. Also the second LNA and the VVA could have been interchanged, however the order presented is more optimal in for minimizing noise figure. Those skilled in the art of microwave circuit design should know that generally gain should be applied with low noise components before attenuation in order to minimize the apparent noise figure of the cascade. By this principle, the second LNA could have been cascaded immediately after the first LNA which might be more optimal from a noise figure however the benefit of isolation would have been lost. Finally the last component before the mixer is a 3 dB pad [ 216 ] simply improves the mixer's apparent VSWR which will mitigate the effect of reflections caused by the mixer's inherently poor input VSWR. The mixer takes the RF input and multiplies it with a LO tone. It has a nominal conversion loss of 9 dB. The mixer used in this design is a medium power triple balanced mixer (TBM). The required LO tone power is on the order of 20 dBm. A higher power mixer could be used which will tend to reduce the mixer's spurious response however a medium power mixer was sufficient for this design as the RF power level was sufficiently below the mixer's IP3 compression point. Other mixer topologies can be used such as the IQ image reject mixer topology; however this design did not require the benefits associated with those topologies. The 2 dB pad [ 226 ] at the mixer output helps to improve its output impedance and mitigate the effects of standing waves created by the mixer's output impedance mismatch with the following stage. Again a higher attenuation value could have been chosen however additional gain would have been needed in the signal path. The directional coupler located in the IF path [ 228 ] is a 30 dB coupler which means that the amount of power coupled to its thru arm is 30 dB lower than the power applied to the coupled arm. This will allow a small copy of the pilot tone to be injected into the IF band without corrupting or overriding the downconverted frequency content. Other types of couplers or power combiners can be used, such as a resistive power combiner or a Lange coupler, however their properties are not helpful in this design and a directional coupler is the preferred method of coupling the pilot tone in this design. Before proceeding, it is useful to note that there is an alternative to using the second directional coupler [ 228 ] for injecting the pilot tone. In certain cases it might be beneficial to inject the pilot tone further down stream in the IF section to reduce intermodulation distortion or if the pilot tone frequency is outside the passband of the filters located in the IF section. To overcome these limitations, the pilot tone can be added back to the IF signal by injecting it into the Tone Inj. port [ 241 ]. The purpose of the diplexer at the input of the IF module [ 243 ] is to pass desired IF frequencies and terminate spurious frequencies produced by the RF chain and the mixer. It should also help to reject the LO feedthrough from the mixer. The desired IF frequency band is typically 0.5 GHz to 7 GHz. A good diplexer should attenuate spurious content by 30 dB or better. If the spurious frequencies are not rejected then they could create unwanted in-band intermodulation products with the desired IF frequencies. Also the LO feedthrough at the output of the mixer is typically 0 dBm which is large enough to saturate the IF amplifier. Therefore these components are separated from the IF input by the diplexer whose output is terminated. The high pass output of the diplexer is therefore terminated and the low pass output of the diplexer is passed to the IF amplifier. After the mixer's conversion loss, output padding, and filtering, the IF signal power is typically 20 dB less than the required full scale voltage swing of the ADC. It is important to drive the ADC near its full scale input voltage to maximize the fidelity of the acquired signal. The IF amplifier [ 236 ] partially fulfills this need by typically adding 14 dB of gain to the IF signal. The IF amplifier typically does not have enough gain to get the IF signal power to the ADC's full scale range, so a second power amplifier [ 240 ] is needed with a high compression point. In this case the output power amplifier has an output 1 dB compression point (OP1 dB) of 32 dBm whereas the required IF output power is −4 dBm which is 36 dB lower than the power amplifier's OP1 dB. This separation is required to eliminate the possibility of distortion caused by the non linearity of the power amplifier. The IF amplifier also serves to drive the output power amplifier at an appropriate input power level. There is one filter [ 238 ] between the IF amplifier and the power amplifier. This filter is a stub that is tuned to shunt out any remnants of the LO feedthrough. It is critical to eliminate the LO feedthrough so as second not to saturate the power amplifier. A good shunt should be able to attenuate the LO feedthrough by 30 dB. In the normal DBI enabled mode of operation, the SPDT PIN diode switch [ 242 ] is connected to the output of the IF power amplifier and passes the signal down the IF chain. However periodically, while the oscilloscope is operating, all the ADCs in the system need a dynamic calibration for a variety of reasons. The primary functions of the ADCs that are calibrated are the gain, offset, and delay of the ADCs. This dynamic calibration requires a delay calibration clock which is a square wave with roughly a 300 ps rise and fall time which is injected into the port labeled NCO Cal [ 243 ] of the IF module. A sample delay calibration clock is shown in FIG. 11 . The dynamic calibration also requires a programmable DC voltage level that is controlled by the calibration software routine. The SPDT switch can be programmed by the software to disconnect the IF output from the signal path and connect the delay calibration clock. It is desirable to disconnect the IF signal so that it does not interfere with the calibration signals used by the calibration routine. In FIG. 2 , the programmable DC level is generated by a 12-bit digital-to-analog converter (DAC) and is injected into the signal path through the bias tee [ 245 ] connected to the SPDT output via the port labeled DC Cal. Since both the delay calibration clock and DAC outputs are below the low frequency cutoff of the IF filters, they must be injected at the end of the chain bypassing the filters. While the SPDT switch and the bias tee add complexity to the signal path, these are desirable in order to gain the benefit of using a secondary input of the ADC to receive the downconverted signal. The voltage limiter [ 246 ] connected to the output of the bias tee serves to protect the ADC from an over voltage condition. Under certain operating conditions, the voltage at the output of the IF could exceed the absolute maximum voltage rating of the ADC inputs. If this were to happen, the ADCs could be damaged and rendered unusable or might accelerate their mean time before failure (MTBF). To prevent this from happening, the voltage limiter is included to prevent such an over voltage condition from happening at the ADC input. The final resistive power splitter [ 248 ] serves to create two copies of the IF signal to drive the inputs of two interleaved ADCs. The input of each interleaved ADC must be driven by a copy of the same signal. A simple 6 dB resistive splitter is used to accomplish this. In this design each output of the resistive splitter has a 2 dB pad giving a total attenuation of 8 dB. The additional 2 dB pads aid the voltage limiting of the IF output. The design of the HF and VF band signal processing chains is nearly identical to the design of the MF band except for differences in the front end pads, band filter passband edges, LO frequencies, clock dividers, IF bandwidths and the nominal gains or attenuations of certain components. The front end pad attenuating for the HF band [ 252 ] is 2 dB and the front end pad attenuation for the VF band [ 254 ] is 1 dB. The decrease of pad attenuation with increasing RF frequency is a consequence of the increase of insertion loss associated with other components in the RF chain as their operating frequency increases. The pass band of the band filter for the HF band [ 256 ] approximately spans from 11 GHz to 18 GHz. The pass band of the band filter for the VF band approximately spans from 18 GHz to 25 GHz. The LO frequencies for each band are mentioned below. The clock divider for the VF band calls for a divide by 3 circuit [ 264 ]. The IF passband for the HF band is preferably approximately 0.541 GHz to 7.541 GHz. The IF passband for the VF band is preferably approximately 0.416 GHz to 7.416 GHz. The nominal gains of various amplifiers in each band's RF chain vary by up to 2 dB between bands depending on their operating frequency range. The nominal insertion loss of various attenuators in each band's RF chain also vary by up to 2 dB depending on the operating frequency range. However, aside from these minor differences between the MF, HF, and VF band downconverters relative to the MF band downconverter, each band is substantially structurally and functionally identical. All downconverter outputs are acquired by their respective ADC nearly simultaneously (or employing other desirable time relationships as noted above) and are processed by software to be reassembled. The signal reassembly scheme is discussed below. Before proceeding with a description of the signal acquisition and reassembly, it is important to discuss the LO generation scheme in this design. The ADCs used in this design preferably employ a synchronization output signal, herein referred to as SyncOut, that is effectively a division of the ADC sample clock. Internal to the ADC module is a circular memory buffer. This circular buffer is arranged into blocks that are 96 samples wide shown in FIG. 9 . Each time the first location of a 96 sample block is filled, SyncOut is raised high. The memory is filled at 20 GSamples/second which will imply that SyncOut will be raised every 20/96 GHz. A low pass filter is applied to this signal to create a sinusoidal signal with a frequency of 20/96 GHz which is approximately 208.333 MHz. SyncOut is used as a reference for a frequency multiplier to generate the LO frequencies used in each band. The frequency multiplier in this design is a phase locked dielectric resonant oscillator or PDRO. Each PDRO in this design generates a frequency that is a phase locked integer multiple of the SyncOut frequency to drive the LO inputs of the mixers. The integer multiple is known as the LO multiplier. By using this LO scheme, the phase of the LO for each sample can be determined by the signal reassembly software, which is desirable to translate the acquired downconverted signals back into their original positions relative to the LF band, by looking up the original position in the circular buffer associated with that sample. The sequence that is used to calculate the digital LO is presented in Equation 1. A plot of the LO signal plotted against the SyncOut signal is shown in FIG. 10 which shows that the digital LO sequence repeats after 96 samples of the SyncOut signal. Other divisions of the sample clock, in addition to SyncOut, such as any multiple of SyncOut may also be equivalently employed. ∀ k = 0 , ⁢ 1 , ⁢ 2 ⁢ ⁢ … ⁢ ⁢ LO ⁡ [ k ] = cos ⁡ ( 2 ⁢ ⁢ π ⁢ ⁢ M ⁢ mod ⁡ ( k , 96 ) 96 ) ⁢ ⁢ Where ⁢ ⁢ M ⁢ ⁢ is ⁢ ⁢ the ⁢ ⁢ LO ⁢ ⁢ multiplier Equation ⁢ ⁢ 1 The PDROs for the MF, HF, and VF band use multiplication factor of the SyncOut signal off 55 , 89 , and 122 respectively and are shown in FIG. 2 [ 220 ], [ 260 ], and [ 262 ], respectively. The corresponding LO frequencies are approximately 11.45833 GHz 18.54166 GHz, and 25.4166 GHz, respectively. This method of determining the phase of the LO is redundant with the method of the pilot tone injection shown in FIG. 2 . This redundancy is used to recalculate an accurate LO when or wherever one of the methods is insufficiently accurate. In a particular embodiment which is not currently the preferred embodiment, the pilot tone is turned off. This scheme frees up the part of the dynamic range that was being used by the pilot tone injection, for a better signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). A beneficial side effect of this scheme for deriving the clock from the start-of-memory block clock, the LO clocks are intrinsically synchronized to the main clock of the DSO. In particular, it is then possible for the scope as a whole to be slaved to an external reference clock using the scope's external reference clock option. Once the acquisition has been configured, the oscilloscope arms the acquisition and acquires LF, MF, HF and VF portions of the input signal. The remainder of this section describes the digital processing of the waveforms and the final recombination into a single DBI waveform acquisition. FIG. 14 is a block diagram of the digital system utilized to process a single DBI channel. FIG. 13 shows the DBI processor in the processing web of the WaveMaster oscilloscope, and FIG. 14 serves as a block diagram of the processor. The processor has four input pins LF, MF, HF and VF to which CH 1 , CH 2 , CH 3 and CH 4 are connected respectively. The high bandwidth resultant waveform comes out of the output pin. When waveforms are acquired by the LeCroy® WaveMaster® oscilloscope, they are applied appropriately to the MF, HF, VF input and LF input in FIG. 14 . Each waveform acquired by the oscilloscope contains not only the waveform data consisting of an array of voltage levels, but also extra information that helps in the interpretation of the data points, including horizontal offset, horizontal interval, number of points, ADC sampling phase, vertical offset, and vertical step. Horizontal offset is defined as the time (relative to the oscilloscope trigger point) associated with the first point of the waveform. Horizontal interval is the time between each sample point; the reciprocal being the sample rate. The number of points is the number of points in the waveform. The ADC sampling phase describes which of the two interleaved 10 GS/s digitizers sampled the first waveform point (with the understanding that every other point is taken from every other digitizer). The vertical offset is the voltage associated with code 0. Vertical step is the voltage between each code. FIG. 34 shows, in addition to the variable gain and attenuation settings determined for each vdiv, displayed results of a performed delay calibration. These depicted values [ 3401 ] represent the measured path delay of the MF, HF, VF paths relative to the LF path. Described differently, the LF, MF, HF and VF portions of the signal travel through different paths with the MF, HF and VF portions, in particular, traveling through a very long array of analog processing elements. These long paths serve to delay these waveforms relative to the LF waveform. The delay values are used to correct for the calculated difference in path propagation times and depends on the volts/div or vdiv setting. A negative delay means that the particular waveform must be advanced to arrive at the proper time. In accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention, the DBI system does nothing in the hardware to account for the path propagation time differences. Rather, the propagation amount is measured and accounted for in the digital system by adding the respective delays to the horizontal offset of the MF, HF and VF waveforms acquired prior to processing. Of course, corresponding hardware compensation could be applied as desired. Prior to processing the waveforms, all of the digital elements shown in FIG. 14 in the MF, HF, VF and LF path are assembled, except for the elements designated as adaptors and upsampler and fractional delay filters. The filters are built according to specifications shown in FIGS. 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 . Once these elements are assembled, the system built with these elements is analyzed to account for three possible effects of each filter: The upsample factor, the startup samples, and the delay. The upsample factor is the factor by which the waveform sample rate is increased as it passes through a filter element and is generally 1 for all filters, except the upsampler and fractional delay filter, where the upsample factor is generally 4 [ 1501 ] when in the 25 GHz acquisition mode. The startup samples are the time required for the impulse response to end or die down to an acceptable amount. In the case of the DBI system constructed in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the present invention, almost all of the filters are finite impulse response (FIR) filters for simplicity of design and for simplicity in calculating delay and startup, and are symmetric (therefore producing no group delay variations). In the case of the symmetric FIR filter, the startup time is the filter length and the delay (in samples) is half the filter length. The analysis of the system paths with filter upsample factors, startup samples, and delay accounted produces overall equivalent filters from the standpoint of these three factors for the digital signal paths leading from the waveform inputs to the mixing node and the summing node. Calculation of these equivalent filters leads to a determination of integer and fractional delay of each path relative to the other. The integer delay portion is accounted for in the design of the adaptors, whose only purpose is to delay the waveform an appropriate number of integer samples. The fractional delay portion is accounted for in the design of the upsampler. Each upsampler is preferably designed utilizing a polyphase filter arrangement where each filter phase is calculated by sampling a Sync pulse. Simply shifting the Sync prior to sampling accomplishes the fractional delay. The design of fractional delay filters and upsampling filters (sometimes referred to as interpolating filters) is well known. An exhaustive discussion of the design of these type of filters can be found in Smith, Julius O., MUS420/EE367A Lecture 4A, Interpolated Delay Lines, Ideal Bandlimited Interpolation, and Fractional Delay Filter Design, Stanford University 1-50, dated Dec. 28, 2005. In general, all of the digital processing elements are built once at inception, except for the adaptors and upsampler and fractional delay filters. These are built on each waveform acquisition to account for variations in the horizontal waveform information. These are always built so that the processed waveforms arrive at the summing node at the correct time. Consider the LF input in FIG. 14 . The path begins with the LF signal entering the LF Interleave correction filter. A description of this filter is described in Mueller, et al., U.S. Provisional Patent application 60/656,616, filed Feb. 25, 2004 titled Method and Apparatus for Spurious Tone Reduction in Systems of Mismatched Interleaved Digitizers, as listed above, and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/280,493, filed Nov. 16, 2005, titled “Method and Apparatus for Artifact Signal Reduction in Systems of Mismatched Interleaved Digitizers”, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,386,409 and claiming the benefit of the '616 provisional application noted above. It suffices to say that this filter is designed to improve the digitizer matching of the two interleaved 10 GS/s digitizers that produce the 20 GS/s. As such, it serves to reduce the size of distortion components resulting from inadequate digitizer frequency response matching. The LF waveform then enters the LF adaptor, which serves to delay the waveform by an integer number of samples. The waveform then enters the upsampler and fractional delay filter. This filter, as mentioned previously, serves to provide fractional sample delay and to increase the sample rate from 20 GS/s to 40 GS/s or 60 GS/s or 80 GS/s depending on the user's choice of acquisition modes shown in FIG. 32 . This upsampling is perfectly valid because the frequency content of the LF input signal has been band limited to 6 GHz by the diplexer at the DBI channel input and by limitations of the oscilloscope front-end. The upsampler is configured based on upsampler settings in the dialog shown in FIG. 15 [ 1501 ], 16 [ 1601 ]. This dialog specifies the upsample factor, the sample distance and an optimization. The upsample factor is generally set to 4, but higher upsample factors can be utilized. The sample distance refers to the distance in samples from the input waveform to apply the sin(x)/x interpolation. Said differently, it is one half the length of each filter phase where the number of phases is determined by the upsample factor. The optimization enables special processing utilizing Intel performance libraries in which the input waveform to the upsampler is fed into each filter phase and interleaved using Intel performance primitives (IPP). The description of all Intel performance library functionality can be found in Intel Integrated Performance Primitives for Intel Architecture, Reference Manual, Volume 1: Signal Processing, 2003. Referring once again to FIG. 14 , the upsampled LF waveform then enters a low pass filter. The response of this low pass filter is shown in FIG. 20 . This filter has been built according to the low pass filter specifications shown in FIG. 18 [ 1801 ] and has been designed using a well known technique called frequency sampling, as described in Jong, Methods of Discrete Signal and Systems Analysis, McGraw Hill, 1982, pg. 369. The low pass filter specifications dictate 400 filter coefficients, a low cutoff at 0, a high cutoff at 6.4 GHz, and a transition band of 800 MHz. The purpose of this filter is to reject any extra noise and spurs in the LF path beyond 6 GHz. As will be shown, there is an approximately 200-300 MHz wide region where the LF-MF, MF-HF and HF-VF bands interfere. This region is designated as the crossover region. It is important that this interference be constructive in nature. One way to ensure this is to ensure that the phase of the low frequency band relative to the high frequency band is essentially zero while the bands are transitioning. A topic ignored up to this point in the design of the DBI hardware is that sharp filters tend to have extreme phase changes near the band edges. The crossover phase correction element is a filter designed to compensate for this by making the relative phase approximately zero throughout the crossover region. A description of an example of such a crossover phase correction element is found in Pupalaikis, et al., U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/960,137, filed Dec. 19, 2007, titled Method of Crossover Region Phase Correction When Summing Multiple Frequency Bands, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,711,510, which claims priority to, in part, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/280,671, filed Nov. 16, 2005, now abandoned. Depending on the response of the hardware filters, a crossover phase correction might be needed. In this design because of slow roll-offs of the hardware filters, the phase transition in the crossover region is nearly zero. So no crossover phase correction is needed. The low pass filtered LF band then enters a scaling element and then the summing node. This operation will be described following the description of the MF, HF and VF path processing. Note that the processing on MF, HF and VF waveforms is similar as shown by the block diagram in FIG. 14 . Now, the processing of the MF path is described. The MF waveform enters an interleave correction filter, an adaptor, and an upsampler and fractional delay filter that works in the same manner as previously described for the LF path, but with different internal design specifications depending on the ADC matching of the MF signal path, and the delay of the MF path. There are separate dialog pages for MF, HF and VF each of which are similar to the ones shown for LF in FIGS. 16-18 . The specifications for the upsampler are entered in a dialog page shown in FIG. 15 [ 1501 ], 16 [ 1601 ]. The LO tone generated for the MF band is a 55 times multiple of the ADC SyncOut signal of 208.333 MHz. The tone frequency is 11.458 GHz. The injected LO reference tone is 5.729 GHz. The MF waveform can now be passed through the low image filters depending on the noise performance of the hardware. If there are spurs outside 5.5 GHz the low image filters can eliminate them, improving the noise performance of the system. The specifications for this filter can be set on the dialog page similar to the one shown in FIG. 17 . In this design due to good hardware performance and better specifications of the MF high image filter the low image filter is not needed. The rejection provided by the MF high image filter for the 11.458 GHz frequency does the same job as the MF low image filter, eliminating its need. The MF waveform can pass through a 5,729 GHz notch filter. This filter is specifically designed to remove the 5.729 GHz LO reference tone riding on the signal. Here in this design the use of this filter is bypassed as the MF high image filter attenuates the 5.729 GHz frequency by more than 50 dB, thus saving some processing time. The MF waveform then enters a digital mixer. The discussion of the processing of the MF path will now be postponed while the method of generating the digital LO is described. The specifications for the LO tone generation and phase recovery can be set on the dialog page similar to one shown in FIG. 16 [ 1602 ]. The generation of the digital LO begins with the split in the MF path. Before the digital LO is generated, the phase of the LO must first be determined. The LO phase is determined based on the LO reference riding on the MF waveform. Referring back to FIG. 2 , one can see that the PLO output is delivered to the mixer LO input along one signal path [ 222 ], and is simultaneously picked off, divided down in frequency [ 224 ], and inserted into the MF waveform [ 228 ] as the LO reference at the splitter combiner. This LO reference signal has a constant phase relationship to the LO waveform delivered to the mixer. It is not important that the exact phase of the LO be known, only that the LO reference have a constant phase relationship to it. As such, the LO reference tone carries the phase information required to determine the phase of the LO (with a constant offset). The constant offset difference between the LO reference and the actual LO is accounted for through the calibration of MF delay shown in FIG. 34 . One way to generate the digital LO that is phase locked to the LO reference tone is to utilize a digital phase-locked loop (PLL). While certainly possible, this has been deemed as overkill for this design and a digital PLL would be computationally intensive. Instead, the design makes use of the fact that the frequency of the LO reference tone relative to the oscilloscope sample clock is extremely stable due to the fact that the 100 MHz PLO reference output is supplied to the oscilloscope as the reference that generates the oscilloscope's sample clock. Therefore, the frequency is stable. Furthermore, because the LO reference is so high in frequency (essentially as high as possible for capture by an oscilloscope front-end with 6 GHz of bandwidth), only a small number of cycles are required to accurately determine the phase of the LO reference. One way to determine the phase of the 5.729 GHz LO reference is to take the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) of some number of samples of the MF waveform and pick out the frequency component that occurs at 5.729 GHz. The phase of this frequency component is the phase of the LO reference. Since the sample clock generator in the oscilloscope and the LO are generated using the same 100 MHz reference (i.e. the LO and the sample clocked are locked together), there is no ambiguity regarding the exact frequency bin in the DFT containing the 5.729 GHz component. In other words, even if there were slight errors in the exact frequency of the LO and therefore the 5.729 GHz LO reference, these slight errors would occur simultaneously in the frequency of the sample clock, and if one assumed that the oscilloscope sample rate was exactly 20 GS/s, he would measure the LO reference to be exactly 5.729 GHz. a. Since the DFT and even the fast Fourier transform (FFT) are somewhat computationally expensive, and because the DFT provides more information than is actually needed, a well known, easier method for tone detection is utilized. This method is called the Goertzel algorithm and is described in Digital Signal Processing Applications Using The ADSP-2100 Family, Prentice Hall, 1990, pg. 458. The block diagram of a digital processing element that accomplishes the LO reference phase is shown in FIG. 19 , where the number of points utilized (K) and the frequency bin (n) is determined by the local oscillator and reference specifications shown in [ 1602 ]. The specifications dictate that the LO reference is at 5.729 GHz, to use a maximum of 5000 cycles for LO determination, and that the acquisition should have multiples of 192 points. The cycles multiple makes the number of samples integer and therefore allows for phase detection without resorting to the well known technique of windowing. The minimum number of LO reference cycles available in a given waveform is dictated indirectly by the specification of the minimum acquisition duration, as specified in FIG. 33 . Knowing the phase of the LO, tone can be generated using Intel IPP libraries. For another embodiment of this invention, once the phase detector has measured the phase of the LO reference has (which must be performed for every individual waveform acquired), it is passed to the digital LO generator. A block diagram of the LO generator is shown in FIG. 30 . It shows that the tone is generated utilizing a lookup table utilizing the local oscillator and reference specifications similar to what is shown in [ 1602 ]. The specifications dictate that the cycles multiple is 23, which means that the sine wave, regardless of phase, will repeat every 80 samples. Therefore, a table of 80 sine wave values is generated for the lookup table. The lookup table is utilized to calculate the sine wave output for each point k by looking up the value at element mod(k,K) to generate the proper LO waveform at point k. This means that for every waveform point in the MF signal, an accompanying LO waveform can be generated that is phase locked relative to the MF signal to the LO applied to the mixer LO input shown in FIG. 2 . Returning to the description of the MF path, and particularly the mixer in FIG. 14 , the digitally generated LO is multiplied with the MF waveform applied to the mixer. This digital mixing action causes the input frequency band from 458 MHz to 5.458 GHz to produce two new images, as shown in FIG. 21 . It is important to note that the band located from 6 to 11 GHz contains the desired frequency content provided in the 458 MHz to 5.458 GHz range, but flipped in frequency. The frequency flipping action caused by the DBI hardware due to the high-side downconversion has now been undone and the frequency band has been restored to its correct frequency band location. Another image is produced from 12 to 17 GHz that is an undesired image. At this point, the requirement for upsampling should be apparent. If the MF waveform was not upsampled, the 12 to 17 GHz band would be aliased into a band from 3 to 8 GHz and would cause problems. Upsampling allows this band to have a benign effect. The MF waveform proceeds from the digital mixer to the MF high image filter. The specifications of this filter can be changed on the dialog page similar to one shown in FIG. 18 . It is a symmetric FIR built utilizing frequency sampling methods. The specifications dictate 400 filter coefficients, a low cutoff at 6.12 GHz, a high cutoff at 11.25 GHz, and a transition band of 600 MHz. Its response is shown in FIG. 22 . It is important to examine the region around 11.458 GHz to ensure the proper rejection of the input DC component. The purpose of this filter is to reject the image produced by the mixing action in the 12 to 17 GHz range as shown. This filter also limits the band of interest from 6 to 11 GHz and attenuates by more than 50 dB the 5.75 GHz LO reference frequency and the DC component which shows up at 11.458 GHz as seen in FIG. 23 . The combination of all of the filters in the MF path is shown in FIG. 23 . This represents the response of the digital system to the MF input. The scaling of the LF waveform is simply 1. It has already been acquired under the correct conditions. The scaling of the MF waveform depends simply on the relationship of the DBI channel vdiv setting (which is the same as the LF front-end vdiv setting) and the 50 mV/div range used to acquire the MF waveform. The MF waveform scaling is calculated as simply: MFGain = LFVdiv MFVdiv · 2 Equation ⁢ ⁢ 2 MF vdiv is, in this situation, a constant 50 mV/div and the factor of 2 accounts for the fact that each frequency band created by the mixing action is half size. While this factor could have been accounted for by doubling the size of the digital LO, in the present example processing is performed within the oscilloscope utilizing integer arithmetic. This would have caused an overflow. It is more efficient to account for this scaling utilizing Equation 2. The HF and VF waveform go through the exact sequence of digital processing as the MF waveform. The specifications of the processing units like the filter bandwidth, filter start and stop frequencies, LO reference and mixer frequency are different, but the theory is the same. The scaling is the same as the MF. FIGS. 24-29 depict the specifications of the image filters used for the particular paths and the final responses for HF and VF bands. Also the dialog pages where the specifications for the image filters and LO generators are specified are similar for LF, MF, HF and VF bands. The dialog pages for LF bands are shown in FIGS. 16-18 . After scaling the LF, MF, HF and VF waveform using the gain element, the scaled waveforms are combined by the summer that simply adds them together. The overall response of the digital system as a result of this processing is shown in FIG. 31 where the LF, MF, HF and VF path response is shown along with the combined response. It can be seen that the digital processing preserves the 25 GHz bandwidth specification. FIG. 31 shows the non-flatness caused by the band combination. These non-flat regions are designed specifically to take care of hardware filter characteristics, so that the system response is flat in the band overlap region. Obvious improvements can be made to the flatness of the resulting signal based on minor tweaks of the filter specifications. The result of the processing in FIG. 14 up to this point is to split the signal into four frequency bands, inject one band into oscilloscope ADC via front-end amplifiers, and the others directly to ADCs to acquire the waveforms, and digitally process the waveform to provide a 25 GHz waveform acquisition. The analog processing of these waveforms leads to magnitude response and group delay non-flatness, which causes distortion in the frequency response and time domain response of the system. For this reason, techniques are utilized to compensate the magnitude response and group delay to provide a good overall response. Methods for performing this process are described in Pupalaikis, U.S. Pat. No. 6,701,335, (Reissued as U.S. Pat. No. RE 39,693). It will thus be seen that the objects set forth above, among those made apparent from the preceding description, are efficiently attained and, because certain changes may be made in carrying out the above method and in the construction(s) set forth without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention, it is intended that all matter contained in the above description and shown in the accompanying drawings shall be interpreted as illustrative and not in a limiting sense. It is also to be understood that the following claims are intended to cover all of the generic and specific features of the invention herein described and all statements of the scope of the invention which, as a matter of language, might be said to fall therebetween.

A method of digitizing an analog signal is provided, comprising the steps of separating the analog signal spanning a frequency range into a plurality of frequency bands, and then translating at least one of the signals to a lower frequency band in accordance with a local oscillator and digitizing the at least one translated signal with digitizing elements having a frequency range less than the analog signal frequency range. A fixed relationship of the phase of the local oscillator and a repetitive signal generated in accordance with a writing to a circular buffer of the digitized representation of the at least one of the plurality of frequency bands is then defined. Signals corresponding to the other of the plurality of frequency bands are digitized and written to corresponding circular buffers. Finally, a digital representation of the analog signal is formed from the digitized signals.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of application Ser. No. 08/950,542, filed Oct. 15, 1997 now U.S. Pat. No. 6,825,169; which is a continuation of application Ser. No. 08/459,654, filed Jun. 2, 1995, now abandoned; which is a divisional of application Ser. No. 08/093,302, filed Jul. 15, 1993, now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 5,462,928; which is a continuation of application Ser. No. 07/781,552, filed Oct. 22, 1991, now abandoned. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to inhibitors of the amino peptidase activity of dipeptidyl peptidase type IV (DP-IV). DP-IV is a postproline cleaving enzyme with a specificity for removing Xaa-Pro (where Xaa represents any amino acid) dipeptides from the amino terminus of polypeptides. DP-IV will also remove Xaa-Ala dipeptides from amino termini, albeit less efficiently. DP-IV is present in many mammalian cells and tissues, for example, renal tubule cells, intestinal epithelium, and blood plasma. It is also present on the surface of CD4+ and some CD8+T-cells. It is thought to be involved in the regulation of the immune response; occurrence of DP-IV on a cell surface is associated with the ability of cells to produce interleukin-2 (IL-2). DP-IV is also referred to as dipeptidyl-peptide hydrolase DAP-IV or DPP-IV; it is assigned EC number 3.4.14.5. Three different inhibitors of DP-IV are known. One of these is a suicide inhibitor: N-Ala-Pro-O-(nitrobenzyl-) hydroxylamine. (The standard three letter amino acid codes are used in this application; O represents oxygen.) Another is a competitive inhibitor: e-(4-nitro) benzoxycarbonyl-Lys-Pro. The third is a polyclonal rabbit anti-porcine kidney DP-IV immunoglobulin. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The enzymatic activity of DP-IV involves cleaving of a dipeptide from the free amino terminus of a polypeptide. DP-IV has a preference for cleaving after a proline, i.e., a proline-in the penultimate position from the amino terminus. A free amino terminus is required; thus, DP-IV is a postproline cleaving enzyme with a specificity for removing an N-terminal Xaa-Pro dipeptide from a polypeptide (where Xaa can be any amino acid, including proline). DP-IV also will remove a Xaa′-Ala dipeptide from an amino terminus of a polypeptide when Xaa′ is an amino acid with a bulky side group, e.g., tyrosine. This invention concerns provision of potent inhibitors of the enzymatic activity of DP-IV. Generally, an α-amino boronic acid analog of proline (boroPro is used to designate one such analog which has the carboxyl group of proline replaced with a B(OH) 2 group, where (OH) 2 represents two hydroxyl groups and B represents boron) is bonded to an amino acid to form a dipeptide with boroPro as the carboxy terminal residue. These dipeptide prolyl-boronic acids are potent and highly specific inhibitors of DP-IV, with K i values in the nanomolar range. Dipeptides having the boroPro moiety are relatively unstable; thus, we have designed inhibitors having at least two other amino acid residues. Generally, the structure of these inhibitors is X-Pro-Y-boroPro where X and Y are chosen from any amino acid residue (including proline). This tetrapeptide may be lengthened at its amino-terminus by addition of one or more dipeptides, each dipeptide having the general formula Z-Pro or Z-ala, where each Z independently is any amino acid residue (including proline). This general structure is defined in more detail below. These inhibitors function as inhibitors of DP-IV because each dipeptide portion is a substrate for DP-IV and the final product of the reaction of such an inhibitor with DP-IV is the dipeptide inhibitor Y-boroPro. The amino terminus of these inhibitors must not be blocked or they lose their inhibitory capacity for DP-IV, since DP-IV cannot cleave a dipeptide from a blocked N-terminal polypeptide. Thus, in a first aspect, the invention features an inhibitory compound having the structure: Group I–Group II. Group I has the structure: where H represents a hydrogen; C represents a carbon; O represents an oxygen; N represents a nitrogen; each R, independently, is chosen from the group consisting of the R groups of an amino acid, including proline; each broken line, independently, represents a bond to an H or a bond to one R group, and each H′ represents that bond or a hydrogen; and p is an integer between 0 and 4 inclusive. Alternatively, Group I has the structure: where n is between 0 and 3 inclusive, each G2 and G3 independently is H or C1–3 (one to three carbon atoms) alkyl, G1 is NH3 (H3 represents three hydrogens), (H2 represents two hydrogens), or NG4, where G4 is where G5 and G6 can be NH, H, or C1–3 alkyl or alkenyl with one or more carbons substituted with a nitrogen. G1 bears a charged, and G1 and Group II do not form a covalently bonded ring structure at pH 7.0. Group I may also have the structure: where one or two of the a, b, c, d, e, and f group is N, and the rest are C, and each S1–S6 independently is H or C1–C3 alkyl. Group I may also include a five membered unsaturated ring having two nitrogen atoms, e.g., an imidazole ring. Group II has the structure: where T is a group of the formula: where each D1 and D2, independently, is a hydroxyl group or a group which is capable of being hydrolysed to a hydroxyl group in aqueous solution at physiological pH; a group of the formula: where G is either H, fluorine (F) or an alkyl group containing 1 to 20 carbon atoms and optional heteroatoms which can be N, S (sulfur), or O; or a phosphonate group of the formula: where each J, independently, is O-alkyl, N-alkyl, or alkyl. Each O-alkyl, N-alkyl or alkyl includes 1–20 carbon atoms and, optionally, heteroatoms which can be N, S, or O. T is generally able to form a complex with the catalytic site of a DP-IV. Y is and each R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, and R8, separately is a group which does not significantly interfere with site specific recognition of the inhibitory compound by DP-IV, and allows a complex to be formed with DP-IV. In preferred embodiments, T is a boronate group, a phosphonate group or a trifluoroalkyl ketone group; each R1–R8 is H; each R1 and R2 is H, and each Y is the CH 2 —CH 2 ; each R is independently chosen from the R group of proline and alanine; the ihibitory compound has a binding or dissociation constant to DP-IV of at least 10 −9 M, 10 −8 M or even 10 −7 M; the inhibitory compound is admixed with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier substance; and each D1 and D2 is, independently, F, or D1 and D2 together are a ring containing 1 to 20 carbon atoms, and optionally heteroatoms which can be N, S, or O. In a second aspect, the invention features a method for inhibiting the enzymatic activity of DP-IV in a mammal. The method includes administering to the mammal an effective amount of an inhibitory compound described above. Most preferably, the amount of compound administered is between 1 and 500 mg/kilogram of animal treated/day. In a third aspect, the invention features an inhibitor of DP-IV, having the structure: wherein m is an integer between 0 and 10, inclusive; A and A′ are L-amino acid residues (for glycine there is no such distinction) such that the A in each repeating bracketed unit can be a different amino acid residue; the C bonded to B is in the L-configuration; the bonds between A and N, A′ and C, and between A′ and N are peptide bonds; and each X 1 and X 2 is, independently, a hydroxyl group or a group capable of being hydrolysed to a hydroxyl group at physiological pH. By “the C bonded to B is in the L-configuration” is meant that the absolute configuration of the C is like that of an L-amino acid. Thus the group has the same relationship to the C as the —COOH group of an L-amino acid has to its a carbon. In various preferred embodiments, A and A′ are independently proline or alanine residues; m is 0; X 1 and X 2 are hydroxyl groups; the inhibitor is L-Ala-L-boroPro; and the inhibitor is L-Pro-L-boroPro. In a fourth aspect, the invention features a method for inhibiting DP-IV in a mammal. The method includes administering to the mammal an effective amount of the compound: described above. In a preferred embodiment, the amount is 1 mg/kg of the mammal per day to 500 mg/kg of the mammal per day. Other features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following description of the preferred embodiments, and from the claims. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The drawings will first be briefly described. DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a diagrammatic representation of the synthesis of a boro proline compound; and FIG. 2 is a diagrammatic representation of several embodiments of the invention. STRUCTURE The inhibitory compounds of the invention have the general structure recited in the Summary of the Invention above. Examples of preferred structures are those referred to as preferred embodiments above. The structure of the preferred inhibitory compounds is such that at least a portion of the amino acid sequence near the cleavage site of a DP-IV substrate is duplicated, or nearly duplicated. This duplication is in part responsible for the ability of the inhibitory compounds to inhibit DP-IV, by a mechanism thought to involve competitive inhibition between a DP-IV inhibitory compound or a DP-IV cleavage product of the inhibitory compound, and the actual DP-IV substrate. The choice of amino acid sequence affects the inhibitory activity of the inhibitory compound, and its specificity. Peptide fragments can be synthesized and then tested to determine their efficacy as inhibitors, using standard techniques. Specificity is determined in a similar fashion, by testing the inhibitory effect of a particular inhibitory compound on the enzyme activity. The inhibitory compounds preferably inhibit the enzymatic activity of DP-IV and do not inhibit enzymes necessary for normal cell functions. The inhibitory compounds include a group (T) which causes the inhibitory compound to complex with DP-IV, not only in a competitive fashion, but in a chemically reactive manner to form a strong bond between the inhibitory compound and DP-IV. This group thus acts to bind the inhibitory compound to DP-IV, and increases the inhibitory binding constant (K i ) of the inhibitory compound. Examples of such groups include boronates, fluoroalkyl ketones and phosphoramidates (of the formulae given in the Summary above). These groups are covalently bonded to the prolyl residue of the compound, as in the above formula. The praline or praline analog, represented by above, is chosen so that it mimics the structure of praline recognized by the active site of DP-IV. It can be modified by providing R1 and R2 groups which do not interfere significantly with this recognition, and thus do not significantly affect the K i of the compound. Thus, one or more hydroxyl groups can be substituted to form hydroxyproline, and methyl or sugar moieties may be linked to these groups. One skilled in the art will recognize that these groups are not critical in this invention and that a large choice of substituents are acceptable for R1 and R2. In part, the requirement that the above described praline analog mimics the structure of praline recognized by the active site of DP-IV means that the C bonded to N and Y has the same stereochemistry as the alpha carbon of L-proline. Synthesis of BoroProline Referring to FIG. 1 , the starting compound I is 4-bromo-1-chlorobutyl boronate pinacol and is prepared essentially by the procedure of Matteson et al. ( Organometallics 3:1284, 1984), except that a pinacol ester is substituted for the pinanediol ester. Similar compounds such as boropipecolic acid and 2-azetodine boronic acid can be prepared by making the appropriate selection of starting material to yield the pentyl and propyl analogs of compound I. Further, C1 can be substituted for Br in the formula, and other diol protecting groups can be substituted for pinacol in the formula, e.g., 2,3-butanediol and alpha-pinanediol. Compound II is 4-bromo-1[(bistrimethylsilyl)amino]butyl boronate pinacol is prepared by reacting compound I with [(CH 3 )O 3 Si] 2 N—Li + . In this reaction hexamethyldisilazane is dissolved in tetrahydrofuran and an equivalent of n-butyllithim added at −78° C. After warming to room temperature (20° C.) and cooling to −78° C., an equivalent of compound I is added in tetrahydrofuran. The mixture is allowed to slowly come to room temperature and to stir overnight. The alpha-bis[trimethylsilane]-protected amine is isolated by evaporating solvent and adding hexane under anhydrous conditions. In soluble residue is removed by filtration under a nitrogen blanket, yielding a hexane solution of Compound II. Compound III is 1-trimethylsilyl-boroProline-pinacol, the N-trimethylsilyl protected form of boroProline is obtained by the thermal cyclization of compound II during the distillation process in which compound 2 is heated to 100–150° C. and distillate is collected which boils 66–62° C. at 0.06–0.10 mm pressure. Compound IV, boroProline-pinacol hydrogen chloride, is obtained by treatment of compound III with HCl:dioxane. Excess HCl and by-products are removed by trituration with ether. The final product is obtained in a high degree of purity by recrystallization from ethyl acetate. The boroProline esters can also be obtained by treatment of the reaction mixture obtained in the preparation of compound II with anhydrous acid to yield 1-amino-4-bromobutyl boronate pinacol as a salt. Cyclization occurs after neutralizing the salt with base and heating the reaction. Preparation of BoroProline-Pinacol The intermediate, 4-Bromo-1-chlorobutyl boronate pinacol, was prepared by the method in Matteson et al. ( Organometallics 3:1284, 1984) except that conditions were modified for large scale preparations and pinacol was substituted for the pinanediol protecting group. 3-bromopropyl boronate pinacol was prepared by hydrogenboronation of allyl bromide (173 ml, 2.00 moles) with catechol borane (240 ml, 2.00 moles). Catechol borane was added to allyl bromide and the reaction heated for 4 hours at 100° C. under a nitrogen atmosphere. The product, 3-bromopropyl boronate catechol (bp 95–102° C., 0.25 mm), was isolated in a yield of 49% by distillation. The catechol ester (124 g, 0.52 moles) was transesterified with pinacol (61.5 g, 0.52 moles) by mixing the component in 50 ml of THF and allowing them to stir for 0.5 hours at 0° C. and 0.5 hours at room temperature. Solvent was removed by evaporation and 250 ml of hexane added. Catechol was removed as a crystalline solid. Quantitative removal was achieved by successive dilution to 500 ml and to 1000 ml with hexane and removing crystals at each dilution. Hexane was evaporated and the product distilled to yield 177 g (bp 60–64° C., 0.35 mm). 4-Bromo-1-chlorobutyl boronate pinacol was prepared by homologation of the corresponding propyl boronate. Methylene chloride (50.54 ml, 0.713 moles) was dissolved in 500 ml of THF, 1.54 N n-butyllithium in hexane (480 ml, 0.780 moles) was slowly added at −100° C. 3-Bromopropyl boronate pinacol (178 g, 0.713 moles) was dissolved in 500 ml of THG, cooled to the freezing point of the solution, and added to the reaction mixture. Zinc chloride (54.4 g, 0.392 moles) was dissolved in 250 ml of THG, cooled to 0°, and added to the reaction mixture in several portions. The reaction was allowed to slowly warm to room temperature and to stir overnight. Solvent was evaporated and the residue dissolved in hexane (1 liter) and washed with water (1 liter). Insoluble material was discarded. After drying over anhydrous magnesium sulfate and filtering, solvent was evaporated. The product was distilled to yield 147 g (bp 110–112° C., 0.200 mm). N-Trimethylsilyl-boroProline pinacol was prepared first by dissolving hexamethyldisilizane (20.0 g, 80.0 mmoles) in 30 ml of THF, cooling the solution to −78° C., and adding 1.62 N n-butyllithium in hexane (49.4 ml, 80.0 mmoles). The solution was allowed to slowly warm to room temperature. It was recooled to −78° C. and 4-bromo-1-chlorobutyl boronate pinacol (23.9 g, 80.0 mmoles) added in 20 ml of THF. The mixture was allowed to slowly warm to room temperature and to stir overnight. Solvent was removed by evaporation and dry hexane (400 ml) added to yield a precipitant which was removed by filbration under a nitrogen atmosphere. The filtrate was evaporated and the residue distilled, yielding 19.4 g of the desired product (bp 60–62° C., 0.1–0.06 mm). H-boroProline-pinacol.HCl (boroProline-pinacol.HCl) was prepared by cooling N-trimethylsilyl-boroProline pinacol (16.0 g, 61.7 mmoles) to −78° C. and adding 4 N HCL:dioxane 46 ml, 135 mmoles). The mixture was stirred 30 minutes at −78° C. and 1 hour at room temperature. Solvent was evaporated and the residue triturated with ether to yield a solid. The crude product was dissolved in chloroform and insoluble material removed by filtration. The solution was evaporated and the product crystallized from ethyl acetate to yield 11.1 g of the desired product (mp 156.5–157° C.). Synthesis of BoroProline Peptides General methods of coupling of N-protected peptides and amino acids with suitable side-chain protecting groups to H-boroProline-pinacol are applicable. When needed, side-chain protecting and N-terminal protecting groups can be removed by treatment with anhydrous HCl, HBr, trifluoroacetic acid, or by catalytic hydrogenation. These procedures are known to those skilled in the art of peptide synthesis. The mixed anhydride procedure of Anderson et al. ( J. Am. Chem. Soc. 89:5012, 1984) is preferred for peptide coupling. Referring again to FIG. 1 , the mixed anhydride of an N-protected amino acid or a peptide is prepared by dissolving the peptide in tetrahydrofuran and adding one equivalent of N-methylmorpholine. The solution is cooled to −20° C. and an equivalent of isobutyl chloroformate is added. After 5 minutes, this mixture and one equivalent of triethylamine (or other sterically hindered base) are added to a solution of H-boroPro-pinacol dissolved in either cold chloroform of tetrahydrofuran. The reaction mixture is routinely stirred for one hour at −20° C. and 1 to 2 hours at room temperature (20° C.). Solvent is removed by evaporation, and the residue is dissolved in ethyl acetate. The organic solution is washed with 0.20N hydrochloric acid, 5% aqueous sodium bicarbonate, and saturated aqueous sodium chloride. The organic phase is dried over anhydrous sodium sulfate, filtered, and evaporated. Products are purified by either silica gel chromatography or gel permeation chromatography using Sephadex™ LH-20 and methanol as a solvent. Previous studies have shown that the pinacol protecting group can be removed in situ by preincubation in phosphate buffer prior to running biological experiments (Kettner et al., J. Biol. Chem. 259:15106, 1984). Several other methods are also applicable for removing pinacol groups from peptides, including boroProline, and characterizing the final product. First, the peptide can be treated with diethanolamine to yield the corresponding diethanolamine boronic acid ester, which can be readily hydrolyzed by treatment with aqueous acid or a sulfonic acid substituted polystyrene resin as described in Kettner et al. (supra). Both pinacol and pinanediol protecting groups can be removed by treating with BC13 in methylene chloride as described by Kinder et al. ( J. Med. Chem. 28:1917). Finally, the free boronic acid can be converted to the difluoroboron derivative (—BF2) by treatment with aqueous HF as described by Kinder et al. (supra). Similarly, different ester groups can be introduced by reacting the free boronic acid with various di-hydroxy compounds (for example, those containing heteroatoms such as S or N) in an inert solvent. Preparation of H-Ala-boroPro Boc-Ala-boroPro was prepared by mixed anhydride coupling of the N-Boc-protected alanine and H-boroPro prepared as described above. H-Ala-boroPro (Ala-boroPro) was prepared by removal of the Boc protecting group at 0° C. in 3.5 molar excess of 4N HCl-dioxane. The coupling and deblocking reactions were performed by standard chemical reaction. Ala-boroPro has a K i for DP-IV of in the nanomolar range. Boc-blocked Ala-boroPr has no affinity for DP-IV. The two diastereomers of Ala-boroPro-pinacol, L-Ala-D-boroPro-pinacol and L-Ala-L-boroPro-pinacol, can be partially separated by silica gel chromatography with 20% methanol in ethyl acetate as eluant. The early fraction appears by NMR analysis to be 95% enriched in one isomer. Because this fraction has more inhibits DP-IV to a greater extent than later fractions (at equal concentrations) it is probably enriched in the L-boroPro (L-Ala-L-boroPro-pinacol) isomer. One significant drawback with H-Ala-boroPro as an inhibitor for DP-IV is that is decomposes in aqueous solution at neutral pH and room temperature (20–25° C.) with a half-life of around 0.5 hour. Many dipeptide derivatives with a free N terminal amino group and a functional group (such as a difluoromethyl ketone) on the C-terminus are similarly unstable due to intramolecular reaction. A six member ring is formed between the amino and C-terminal functional groups and undergoes subsequent further reaction, such as hydrolysis. DP-IV bound inhibitor is more stable, consistent with the hypothesis that decomposition is due to an intramolecular reaction. H-Pro-boroPro is more stable than H-Ala-boroPro. The K i of H-Pro-boroPro for DP-IV is about 1×10 −8 M, and it decomposes in aqueous solution at room temperature (20–25° C.) with a half life of about 1.5 hours. Although the affinity of H-Pro-boroPro is about 10-fold less than that of H-Ala-boroPro, the increased stability is advantageous. Because of the relatively short half life of the above dipeptides inhibitory compounds of the invention are formed as tetrapeptides or longer peptides as shown in the general formula above. These inhibitory compounds are substrates for DP-IV yielding the dipeptide inhibitor A′-boroPro. These polypeptide boronic acids are generally stable and can be administered by any standard procedure to act as a substrate for DP-IV and then as a source of a potent DP-IV inhibitor. The advantages of such molecules is that inhibitor is released only in the vicinity of active DP-IV. These polypeptide boronic acids can be made by the method of mixed anhydride coupling by one of ordinary skill in the art, e.g., Mattason ( Organometallics 3:1284, 1984). Assays for DP-IV Inhibition The following are examples of systems by which the inhibitory activity of the above described inhibitory compounds can be tested on DP-IV. As an example H-Ala-boroPro is used to test each of these systems. Inhibitory compounds can be tested by simply substituting them for H-Ala-boroPro. DP-IV is purified from pig kidney cortex by the method of Barth et al. ( Acta Biol. Med. Germ. 32:157, 1974) and Wolf et al. ( Acta Biol. Med. Germ. 37:409, 1978) and from human placenta by the method of Puschel et al. ( Eur. J. Biochem. 126:359, 1982). H-Ala-boroPro inhibits both enzymes with a K i in the nanomolar range. Human Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells H-Ala-boroPro was tested for its influence on PHA-induced proliferation of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Human peripheral blood mononuclear cells were obtained from healthy human donors by Ficoll-Hypaque density gradient centrifugation. The cells are washed three times in RPMI 1640 medium and resuspended to a concentration of a 1×10 6 in RPMI. 10% human serum was used as necessary. The proliferative response of lymphocytes was measured using 3H-Thymidine incorporation. 5×10 3 MNC cells (Ford in Handbook of Experimental Immunology , Weir, ed., Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, 1978) were distributed into wells of round-bottom microtiter plates and incubated in the presence or absence of various dilutions of antigen, mitogen, lymphokine or other agent of interest. Cells were cultured in an atmosphere of 5% CO 2 in air for 72 hours after which 3 H-Thymidine (0.5μ C1/well; 2.0 Ci/mM, New-England Nuclear) was added 6 hours before termination of culture. The cells were harvested with a multiple automatic harvester, and 3 H-thymidine incorporation assessed by liquid scintillation counting. 3 H thymidine incorporation was determined relative to control values in the absence of inhibitor. Inhibitor was added to give a final concentration of 1×10 −4 M, but lower concentrations can be used. HIV Gene Replication We examined the effect of H-Ala-boroPro on HIV-1 replication in vitro. The rational for these experiments comes from the reported connection between T-cell activation, IL-2 production, and HIV replication and expression of HIV proteins. For example, inductive signals associated with HIV replication include mitogens, antigens, lymphokines, and transcriptions factors such as NF-κB, all of which have been shown to be associated with induction of IL-2 production, T-cell activation, or both. Cell lines used in the present studies include A3.5 cells (a monocyte cell line which is CD4+, HLA−DR+, and CD3—) and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). The A3.5 cells grow continuously in culture without exogenous growth factors. PBMC cells require IL-2 for propagation in vitro. Cells were infected with HIV-1-IIIB at a multiplicity of infection (moi) of 5×10 −4 tissue culture infectious dose 50 (TCID50)/cell for both the A3.5 cells and the PMBC cells. Dilutions of inhibitor were made in RPMI-1640 and subsequently passed through a 0.22 um filter. At the start of each experiment, 1×10 6 cells/well, in 24-well plates, were infected with HIV-1-IIIB at the moi indicated above. Inhibitor was added simultaneously at the appropriate dilutions. All cultures were maintained at 5% CO 2 and 37° C. in RPMI-1640 supplemented with penicillin, streptomycin, L-glutamine, hepes buffer, and 20% heat-inactivated fetal calf serum. Cell counts and viability were determined by trypan blue exclusion. Culture supernatants were harvested and assayed for HIV-1 p24 antigen by ELISA (NEN-DuPont, Boston, Mass.). Fresh media and inhibitor were added on each day. For PBMC cultures, cells were collected from HIV-1 seronegative donors and stimulated with PHA-P (Difco, Detroit, Mich.; 10 μg/ml) and 10% IL-2 (Electronnucleonics, Silver Spring, Md.) 3 days prior to infection with HIV-1. PBMC cultures for all experiments included uninfected and infected cells without inhibitor, uninfected cells with inhibitor at the various concentrations, and infected cells in the presence of 1 μm zidovudine (azidothymidine, AZT). With A3.5H-Ala-boroPro suppresses HIV below detectable levels in a manner similar to the anti-HIV effect of AZT at 1 μm. Similar results were observed with the PBMC cells. Thus, inhibitors of this invention have an anti-HIV effect. Cell viability assays show that these inhibitors are not cytotoxic even at relatively high concentration (10 −3 M for A3.5 cells). Determination of DP-IV Activities in Biological Samples The ability to determine DP-IV activities associated with cells and tissues is highly desirable. For example, it will permit correlations to be made between level of inhibition of DP-IV and the magnitude of the observed biological affect, e.g., on cell proliferation, and IL-2 production. Such correlation is helpful in establishing whether or not the biological effect is due to inhibition of DP-IV. We have found that such determinations can be reproducibly and reliably made using the readily available chromogenic substrates for DP-IV: X-Pro-p-nitroanilides and X-Pro-7-amino-4-trifluoromethyl coumarins (AFC). The AFC substrates are fluorescent and thus provide greater sensitivity. DP-IV activity is measured as release of p-nitroanilide spectrophotometrically at 410 nM, or using X-Pro-AFC derivatives and measuring fluorescence at 505 nM. Reduction in activity in the presence of inhibitor provides an easy test for inhibitory activity. Effect of Inhibitor Stereochemistry on DP-IV Inhibition Experiments described below demonstrate that Ala-boroPro and Pro-boroPro are potent inhibitors of DP-IV with K i values in the nanomolar range. In addition, the L,L form of Pro-boroPro is shown to be a far more potent inhibitor of DP-IV than the L,D form of Pro-boroPro. The activity of DP-IV, isolated from porcine kidneys by the method of Wolf et al. ( ACTA Bio. Mes. Ger. 37:409, 1972), was measured using Ala-Pro-p-nitroanilide as a substrate. Briefly, a reaction containing 50 μmol sodium Hepes (pH 7.8), 10 μmol Ala-Pro-p-nitroanilide, 6 milliunits of DP-IV, and 2% (vol/vol) dimethylformamide in a total volume of 1.0 ml. The reaction was initiated by the addition of enzyme and reaction rates were measured at 25° C. Th rates of DP-IV-catalyzed hydrolysis of Ala-Pro-p-nitroanilide were determined at 3 to 5 different concentration of Ala-boroPro Pro-boroPro, boroPro and N-Boc-Ala-boroPro. In some cases, the initial reactions rates were not linear. The rates became linear after 10 min; this linear portion can be duplicated by preincubating enzyme with inhibitor for 10 min before adding substrate. Table 1 presents the results of K i measurements made over the linear range. TABLE 1 Inhibition constants of some inhibitors of DP-IV Inhibitor K i nM N-Boc-Al-boroPro >1,000,000*   BoroPro 110,000 Ala-boroPro 2 Pro-boroPro 3 *NO inhibition detected. Ala-boroPro was a potent inhibitor of DP-IV, having a K i value of 2×10 −9 M (Table 1). Blocking the N terminus of this inhibitor (e.g., N-Boc-Ala-boroPro; Table 1) abolished inhibition, demonstrating that a free, positively charged amino group is likely essential for enzyme recognition and binding. The K i of 3×10 −9 M for Pro-boroPro demonstrates that DP-IV tolerates an imino group in place of the amino functional group on the N terminus as well as the substitution of a proline side chain in place of the alanine methyl group. This shows that the S2 specificity subsite is not highly restrictive. Although DP-IV will accept nearly any amino acid at th N terminus, interactions between this amino acid and the enzyme are critical for binding. This is illustrated by the 10 5 –10 6 decrease in affinity on going from Ala-boroPro or Pro-boroPro to boroPro itself (Table 1). The inhibition experiments presented in Table 1 were carried out on DP-IV isolated from pig kidneys. Pro-boroPro and Ala-boroPro inhibit DP-IV from human placenta equally well. The Ala-boroPro and Pro-boroPro used in the experiments described above were raecemic mixtures in which the boroPro moiety was present as both the D-form and L-form while Ala and Pro were both the L-isomer. High pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) can be used to separate L-Pro-D-boroPro from L-Pro-L-boroPro. A 4.6 mm×250 mm Nucleosil C18 (5μparticle) column employing a two buffer system (Buffer A is 100% H 2 O with 0.1% TFA, and buffer B is 70% CH 3 CN, 30% H 2 O, 0.86% TFA) can be used to carry out the seperation. From 0 to 5 min 5% B and 95% A is used, and from 5 to 25 min 5% to 100% B is used. The L,L isomer comes off first at about 7 min, followed by the L,D isomer at about 10 min. NMR and mass spectra analysis were consistent with both compounds being Pro-boroPro. Rechromatography of the purified isomers indicated that the first pass on the HPLC column achieved an isomeric purity of about 99–6% for each isomer. High pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) can similarly be used to be used to separate L-Ala-D-boroPro from L-Ala-L-boroPro or to separate the D-boroPro form of other inhibitors from the L-boroPro form. When L-Pro-L-boroPro and L-Pro-D-boroPro were used in a DP-IV inhibition assay, the K i for L-Pro-L-boroPro was 3.2–10 −11 M, while for L-Pro-D-boroPro the K i was 6.0–10 −8 M. The L,L-isomer constitutes a much better inhibitor for DP-IV than the L,D-isomer. Further it is preferred that all of the amino acid residues of the DP-IV inhibitors of the invention be the L-isomer rather than the D-isomer. Use The inhibitory compounds can be administered in an effective amount either alone or in combination with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or diluent. The above inhibitory compounds are useful for treatment of a wide variety of disease; for example, an autoimmune disease, the pathogenesis of which is dependent on T cell activity. DP-IV plays a role in such autoimmune disease and inhibition of DP-IV activity allows regulation of the progress of the disease. Such diseases include arthritis, rejection of transplanted organs, as well as SLE and AIDS. When administered to mammals (e.g., orally, topically, intramuscularly, intraperitoneally, intravenously, parenterally, nasally or by suppository), the inhibitory compounds of this invention enhance the ability of, e.g., the immune system of the mammal, to fight the disease. Inhibitors of DP-IV can suppress IL-2 production and thus diseases in which the production of IL-2 is altered may be treated by use of these inhibitors. These inhibitors can also delay catabolism of growth hormone releasing factor, and block DP-IV activity of amoebae and microbial pathogens to allow an immune system to act more efficiently. The inhibitory compounds or compositions can be administered alone or in combination with one another, or in combination with other therapeutic agents. The dosage level may be between 1–500 mg/kg/day. OTHER EMBODIMENTS Other embodiments are within the following claims. For example, other inhibitors can be created which mimic the structure of Ala-boroPro. Examples of such inhibitors are shown in FIG. 2 and include Ala-boroPro. These inhibitors generally have a boroPro group, or its equivalent, described above in the Summary of the Invention, and a positively charged amine group. The inhibitors are designed so that minimal interaction of the amine and boroPro groups occurs, and thus no cyclic structure is formed at pH 7.0. These inhibitors interact and/or bind with DP-IV, and thereby reduce the DP-IV enzymatic activity toward a normal substrate. These inhibitors-are synthesized by-procedures well known to those of ordinary skill in this art.

Peptide inhibitors of dipeptidyl-aminopeptidase type IV (DP-IV) are provided. The peptide inhibitors have an isomeric purity of about 96–99 percent. The peptide inhibitors include one or more amino acids covalently coupled to boroproline moiety. The compounds are useful as DP-IV inhibitors, in vivo and in vitro.

This is a Continuation of application Ser. No. 08/386,767 filed Feb. 10, 1995, now abandoned. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a sealing method and an apparatus therefor, for pneumatically cutting off a vacuum chamber from atmospheric air at the time of execution of vacuum treatment such as glow discharge treatment, etc. and more specifically relates to a sealing method and a sealing apparatus in the case where a support for light-sensitive material is continuously subjected to glow discharge treatment. Heretofore, various surface treatments, such as vacuum glow discharge treatment, low-temperature plasma treatment such as electrodeless plasma discharge treatment, etc., corona discharge treatment, ultraviolet-ray radiation treatment, and so on, have been carried out onto a plastic film, a metal plate, or the like, for the purpose of improving adhesive force between such a plastic film, a metal plate or the like and a resin or metal layer provided on the surface of the former. It is known that vacuum glow discharge treatment is carried out particularly on a polymer film for the purpose of improvement of the adhesive property, hydrophilic property, dye-affinity, and so on. The vacuum glow discharge treatment is described, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,462,335, 3,761,299, 4,072,769, and so on. Particularly, examples in which glow discharge treatment is preferably used for a support of photographic light-sensitive material without spoiling the flatness and surface characteristic are disclosed in Japanese Patent Unexamined Publication No. Sho-59-56430, Japanese Patent Post-Examination Publication Nos. Sho-60-16614 and Hei-3-39106, etc. and are proposed in Japanese Patent Application Nos. Hei-5-147864, Hei-5-199704, etc. filed by the applicant of the present application. In the case where a thin-film web is to be subjected to vacuum treatment continuously, the web is led into a vacuum chamber from atmospheric air and backout to atmospheric air after treatment. Accordingly, means for performing leading-in and leading-out of the support while atmospheric air and the vacuum chamber are being sealed from each other are required. As such means, a sealing apparatus in a vacuum vapor depositing apparatus is proposed, for example, in Japanese Patent Unexamined Publication Nos. Hei-1-272767, Hei-1-259169 and Hei-1-287275, PCT-Domestic Publication No. Hei-5-507383, and so on, and an example of a sealing apparatus in a low-temperature plasma treatment apparatus is disclosed in PCT-Domestic Publication No. Hei-5-507383. FIG. 5 shows a sealing apparatus in a vacuum vapor depositing apparatus described in Japanese Patent Unexamined Publication No. Hei-1-287275. The sealing apparatus described in Japanese Patent Unexamined Publication No. Hei-1-287275 has a structure in which the portion between atmospheric air to a vacuum chamber is partitioned into a plurality of pressure chambers by seal rollers 100 each of which is constituted by a set of three pinch rollers, and a web W is made to move while lapped at a lap angle not lower than 10° around the seal rollers 100. This apparatus is effective for preventing fluttering of the web W having a thickness of about 20 μm, but in the case where the thickness of the web W is not smaller than 80 μm, the moving condition of the web W however varies in accordance with the stiffness of the web W, or the like, so that the quantity of the atmospheric air in a space between the web W and the rollers 100 also varies. For example, in the case of a web W such as a polyester film for a support of photographic light-sensitive material, conveyance performance by the rollers 100 at a lap angle of about 10 degrees is insufficient to solve the problem of fluttering. If fluttering of the web W occurs as described above, slight scratching occurs in a surface portion of the web W contacting the rollers 100 so that the flatness and surface characteristic of the web are spoiled. On the other hand, a structure in which a web is conveyed while nipped by rollers is disclosed in PCT-Domestic Publication No. Hei-5-507383, but in this structure, sliding contact between the rollers and the web is not avoidable, so that scratching occurs in the web and accordingly the flatness and surface characteristic of the web are spoiled. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An object of the present invention is to provide a vacuum treatment sealing method and an apparatus therefore, in which a material mechanically sensitive to failure, particularly such as a support for photographic light-sensitive material, is prevented from fluttering during the conveyance thereof in a vacuum so that occurrence of scratching can be prevented. The foregoing object of the present invention is achieved by a sealing method for vacuum treatment of a support for light-sensitive material, in which a thin-film web is continuously led into a vacuum chamber from the atmospheric air, subjected to surface treatment and then backout to the atmospheric air, characterized in that a pneumatical cutoff portion of a leading-in and leading-out section is constituted by seal roller sets each of which is formed by aligned pairs of leading-in rollers and leading-out rollers which are close to each other through slight distances, and in that the support is led-in and led-out while lapped at an angle of from 30 to 150 degrees around the pair of rollers of the seal roller set nearest to atmospheric air. The present invention is particularly effective in the case where a polyethylene naphthalate or polyethylene terephthalate film having a thickness of from 80 to 190 μm is used as the support. In the present invention, in the case where a knurling treatment is applied to both side edge portions of the support, the support is preferably led-in and led-out while lapped around the seal rollers at a lap angle in a range of from 50 to 120 degrees. In the present invention, the width of the support is selected preferably to be not smaller than 400 mm, more preferably in a range of from 1000 to 2000 mm. By leading-in and leading-out the support while lapping the support at a lap angle in a range of from 30 to 150 degrees around the pair of rollers of the seal roller set nearest to the atmospheric air, fluttering of the support during the conveyance thereof can be prevented, so that scratching of the support caused by the fluttering can be prevented. Although an effect of preventing fluttering and scratching can be obtained even in the case where the seal roller pair with a lap angle set in a range of from 30 to 150 degrees is selected to be only the pair of rollers nearest to the atmospheric air, the lap angle around each and every of all the pairs of seal roller may be selected to be in a range of from 30 to 150 degrees. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is an overall structural diagram of a vacuum treatment apparatus used in the present invention. FIG. 2 is an enlarged explanatory diagram of a leading-in and leading-out section in which a support is led into a vacuum chamber from the atmospheric air continuously, subjected to surface treatment in the vacuum chamber and led-out to the atmospheric air again. FIG. 3 is a graph showing relations between the lap angle of the support and fluttering. FIG. 4 is a graph showing relations between the presence/absence of a knurling treatment and scratching. FIG. 5 is a structural diagram of a seal device of a vacuum vapor depositing apparatus showing a conventional technique. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The structure of the present invention will be explained with reference to FIGS. 1 and 2. FIG. 1 shows an overall conceptual view of a vacuum treatment apparatus used in the present invention, and FIG. 2 shows an explanatory view of a support leading-in and leading-out section in which a support is continuously led to a vacuum chamber from the atmospheric air, subjected to surface treatment in the vacuum chamber and then backout to the atmospheric air. In FIG. 1, the vacuum treatment apparatus 2 comprises a vacuum treatment chamber 3, a leading-in and leading-out section 4, and an external conveyance system 5. The inside of the vacuum treatment chamber 3 is provided with a surface treatment portion 6 (for example, a glow discharge treatment portion) and an internal conveyance system 7 for guiding the support 1 to the surface treatment portion 6. The internal conveyance system 7 may be additionally provided with means necessary for conveyance control (control for speed, tension, edge position, etc.), temperature control (control for heating to a surface treatment temperature, cooling after treatment, etc.), charge control (removal of electric charge during conveyance, etc.), and so on, in accordance with the selected condition. The leading-in and leading-out section 4 for the support 1 shown in FIG. 2 includes a leading-in roller group having a plurality of leading-in rollers 9 aligned in a vertical line in a casing 8, a leading-out roller group having a plurality of leading-out rollers 10 aligned in a vertical line in the casing 8, and an auxiliary seal roller group having auxiliary seal rollers 11 aligned in a vertical line for aiding sealing in respective sections in the casing 8. And, these leading-in roller 9, leading-out roller 10 and auxiliary seal roller 11 form a set of seal rollers. The leading-in and leading-out section 4 further includes auxiliary rollers 12 provided between respective rollers in the leading-in and leading-out roller groups and for giving a predetermined lap angle θ to the leading-in and leading-out roller groups. By adjusting the positions of the auxiliary rollers 12 in the left and right directions in the drawing, the lap angle θ of the support 1 around the leading-in and leading-out roller groups can be adjusted. The leading-in rollers 9 and the leading-out rollers 10 are arranged so that adjacent rollers aligned in horizontal lines form pairs respectively at an interval of a slight distance S. In FIG. 2, the auxiliary seal rollers 11 and the leading-out rollers 10 are also arranged so as to form pairs respectively at an interval of the same slight distance S as described above further as shown in FIG. 2 each leading in roller 9 is spaced from auxiliary rollers 12 by greater than distance S. In portions of proximity between the casing 8 and the leading-in rollers 9 and in portions of proximity between the casing 8 and the auxiliary seal rollers 11, there are provided seal bars 14 slidably attached to the respective rollers and for intercepting the movement of gas between respective small chambers in the casing 8. The respective small chambers of the casing 8 partitioned by the seal bars 14 are connected individually to decompression means not shown and are formed so that the degree of vacuum is heightened gradually from a portion facing the atmospheric air to the vacuum treatment chamber. The distance S between the leading-in rollers 9 and the leading-out rollers 10 aligned in horizontal lines respectively, as well as the distance between the leading-in roller 9 and the auxiliary roller 12, is selected to be larger by 50 μm or more than the thickness of the support. Although setting the distance to zero as described preliminarily in the prior art, that is, nipping by rollers, is advantageous in that a necessary degree of vacuum is obtained through a short leading-in and leading-out section, the nipping by the rollers cannot be adapted to a support sensitive to scratching, such as a support for photographic light-sensitive material. Further, in the case where supports are joined with one another for continuous treatment, a special operation is required for making joint portions of the supports pass through the nip portion appropriately. Accordingly, the formation of the distance between rollers as in the present invention is very effective for completion of prevention of scratching. On the other hand, in the method of the present invention, the support is conveyed while successively passing through small chambers which are different stepwise in the degree of vacuum, so that there is the necessity of consideration of preventing the fluttering of the support caused by the air flow at the respective distance as created by pressure difference. In the present invention, by conveying the support with a lap angle θ in a range of from 30 to 150 degrees, preferably from 50 to 120 degrees, taking into account the physical properties, thickness, etc. of the material for the support as a subject, fluttering of the support can be prevented, that is, conveyance can be made without occurrence of scratching. On the contrary, in the case of a lap angle θ of not more than 30 degrees, the opportunity of occurrence of scratching caused by the fluttering increases and, in the case of a lap angle θ of not less than 150 degrees, the opportunity of occurrence of scratching caused by creaking between the support and the rollers, and the like, increases. Examples of the support material which can be used as a subject of treatment in the present invention, include: polyester such as polyethylene terephthalate, polyethylene naphthalate, polybutylene terephthalate, poly-1,4-cyclohexanedimethylene terephthalate, polyethylene 1,2-diphenoxyethane-4,4'-dicarboxylate, copolymerization polyester containing aromatic dicarboxylic acid having polyethylene phthalate metallosulfonate as a copolymerization component, copolymerization polyester containing aromatic dicarboxylic acid and aliphatic dicaroxylic acid having metal sulfonate as copolymerization components, etc.; cellulose ester such as cellulose triacetate, cellulose diacetate, cellulose propionate, cellulose acetate propionate, cellulose butylate, cellulose acetate butylate, etc.; polyamide; polycarbonate; polystyrene; polypropylene; polyethylene; polymethylpentene; polysulfone; polyethersulfone; polyallylate; aromatic polyetherimide; polyphenylene sulfide; and so on. Other examples of the support which can be used in the present invention have been disclosed in Japanese Patent Unexamined Publication Nos. Hei-1-244446, Hei-3-54551, Hei-3-84542, Hei-4-220329, Hei-4-234039, Hei-4-235036, Hei-5-307229 and Hei-5-307230, and European Patent No. 572,275-A1. The present invention can be applied to any one of the aforementioned supports or any polymer blend thereof, especially preferably applied to a film of polyester such as polyethylene terephthalate, polyethylene naphthalate, etc. In the case where these polyester films are used, the preferred thickness thereof is selected to be in a range of from 80 to 190 μm. Conditions used for vacuum glow discharge treatment of polymer film, that is, conditions such as the degree of vacuum, discharge treatment intensity, discharge frequency, treatment temperature, atmospheric gas, etc. are selected suitably in accordance with the composition of the support as a subject of the treatment and the purpose of the treatment. For example, pressure is selected to be in a range of from 0.005 to 20 Torr, preferably, from 0.02 to 2 Torr, voltage is selected to be in a range of from 500 to 5000 V, preferably from 2000 to 4000 V, discharge frequency is selected to be in a range of from DC to the order of thousands of MHz, preferably from 50 Hz to 20 MHz, more preferably from 1 KHz to 1 MHz, and discharge treatment intensity is selected to be in a range of from 0.01 to 5 KV·A·min/m 2 , preferably from 0.15 to 1 KV·A·min/m 2 . The temperature for vacuum glow discharge treatment is selected under the consideration of the glass transition point of the support as a subject and, with respect to the aforementioned support materials, the temperature is substantially selected to be in a range of from about 50° C. to about (glass transition point+40) °C. For example, the temperature in a range of from 50° to 100° C. is preferably used for a polyethylene terephthalate film and the temperature in a range of from 50° to 120° C. is preferably used for a polyethylene naphthalate film. Incidentally, there are some cases where the temperature of the support rises to exceed greatly the glass transition point because of the application of glow discharge treatment but, for example, a method of cooling the support to a temperature of not higher than the glass transition point in a predetermined pattern in accordance with the method described in Japanese Patent Post-Examination Publication No. Hei-3-39106 can be employed after the glow discharge treatment. That is, there can be employed a method in which the support after the glow discharge treatment is cooled by several cooling rollers successively so that the temperature difference of the cooled support is not higher than 40° C. In a vacuum, the support holding force of the rollers is generally strengthened because there is no air layer carried when the support is conveyed by the rollers. Under such conditions, foreign matter carried with the support or coming by flying from the atmosphere may be deposited on the support and ridden on the pass rollers to thereby damage the support. It is therefore important in the present invention that dust-proof/dust-removal means is applied particularly to the portion in which the support is led into a vacuum from the atmospheric air. Further, electrostatic charge created by conveyance of the support in a vacuum is hardly escaped because of the absence of media such as water vapor, etc. compared with the inside of the atmospheric air, so that electrostatic charge with high voltage may be led-out to the atmospheric air. If the charge voltage is high, dust is apt to be attracted in conveyance in the atmospheric air and apt to damage the support in the same manner as described above. It is therefore preferable that charge removing means such as electrically conductive bars, etc. are provided in the leading-out portion in the present invention. In order to heighten the conveyance property in the case where the support is conveyed in the atmospheric air or in a vacuum chamber, a knurling treatment is often applied to both side edge portions of the support. The knurling treatment is a treatment in which both side edge portions of the support are nipped by rollers having roughness so as to be deformed to have rough patterns. For example, embodiments of the knurling treatment are introduced in Japanese Post-Examination Publication No. Sho-57-36129. These embodiments may be employed. For example, the respective rough patterns are shaped like stripes along the lengthwise direction at the side edge portions of the support. The stripe patterns are formed so that one or more stripes may be provided in each side edge portion. The height of the roughness is selected to be preferably in a range of from about 10% to about 60% of the thickness of the support. The width of each of the stripe patterns is selected to be preferably in a range of from 3 to 15 mm, more preferably from 8 to 12 mm. The pitch of the roughness is selected to be preferably in a range of from 0.5 to 5 mm, more preferably from 0.8 to 3 mm. The thus knurled supports are useful to solve the problems in conveyance, because the intensity of contact between the supports or the intensity of contact between the supports and the pass rollers is reduced at the time of conveyance in a process or at the time of preservation in a wound state as a roll to thereby prevent harmful adhesion so that security of air-permeability in the roll, or the like, can be made. In the case where such a knurled support is applied to the present invention, the optimum range for the lap angle θ in the leading-in and leading-out section is slightly narrowed because apparent stiffness is considered to be heightened. That is, the preferred range is from 50 to 120 degrees. Embodiments of the present invention will be explained to make the effect of the present invention clear. (EXAMPLE 1) Using a 1500 mm-width polyethylene naphthalate film as a support, the fluttering state of the support was evaluated by eye while the lap angle θ around rollers was changed in the case of the thickness of the support of 20 μm and in the case of the thickness of the support of 80 μm. Each of the distances between the pairs of leading-in and leading-out rollers was selected to be larger by 50 μm than the thickness of the support. FIG. 3 shows results of the evaluation in the degree of fluttering. It was apparent from FIG. 3 that in the case of the thickness of the support of 20 μm, fluttering could be confirmed even by eye at a lap angle θ smaller than 10 degrees and that there was no fluttering at a lap angle θ not smaller than 10 degrees. In the case of the thickness of the support of 80 μm, however, fluttering could be confirmed even by eye at a lap angle θ smaller than 20 degrees. It is considered this was caused by the heightening of the stiffness of the support. In this manner, in the case of the thickness of the support of 80 μm, a fluttering prevention effect appears at the lap angle θ not smaller than 20 degrees, so that it is apparent that a lap angle θ not smaller than 20 degrees is required for prevention of fluttering. (EXAMPLE 2) With respect to the aforementioned range for the lap angle θ, the fluttering state of the support was checked while the thickness of the support was changed. Using supports having thicknesses of 100 μm, 130 μm, 150 μm, 170 μm and 190 μm, the fluttering state depending on the change of the lap angle θ was observed by eye. As a result, there was no fluttering observed at a lap angle θ not smaller than 20 degrees like Example 1. It is accordingly apparent that the fluttering of the support can be prevented steadily when the lap angle θ around the rollers is not smaller than 20 degrees in the case where the thickness of the support is in a range of from 80 to 190 μm. (EXAMPLE 3) In the 80 μm-thick support in Example 1, the lap angle θ around the rollers and the state of occurrence of scratching were examined in accordance with the presence/absence of the knurling treatment. As the knurling treatment, 10 μm-height projections (conically shaped or semispherically shaped) were embossed on both side edge portions of the support so as to form stripes (10 mm wide) at intervals of 2 mm pitch along the lengthwise direction thereof. For judgment of occurrence of scratching, a sample having allowable scratching was prepared so that relative comparison between this sample and the aforementioned sample was made by eye to thereby judge whether the aforementioned sample was allowable (OK) or not (NG). As shown in FIG. 4, in the aforementioned knurled support, scratching occurred even at a lap angle θ of 20 degrees and there was no scratching at a lap angle θ in a range of from 50 degrees to 120 degrees. It is apparent from this fact that in the case of an unknurled support, scratching can be prevented at a lap angle θ in a range of from 30 to 150 degrees and, in the case of a knurled support, scratching can be prevented at a lap angle θ in a range of from 50 to 120 degrees to obtain stable results. Incidentally, in the case of the thickness of the support of 20 μm the same subjected to comparison, good results without scratching were obtained at a lap angle θ in a range of from 15 to 180 degrees. In contrast to the case of the 20 μm-thick support, prevention of fluttering was observed by eyes even at a lap angle θ of 10 degrees but it was actually apparent that scratching caused by slight fluttering occurred. According to the method and apparatus of the present invention, distances are provided between the leading-in and leading-out roller groups and the lap angle is selected to be in a range of from 30 to 150 degrees or, in the case of a knurled support, the lap angle is selected to be in a range of from 50 to 120 degrees to thereby make it possible to prevent fluttering and scratching of the support completely, so that leading-in of the support into the vacuum treatment apparatus and leading-out of the support from the vacuum treatment apparatus can be continuously stably performed. While the invention has been particularly shown and described with reference to preferred embodiments thereof, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that the foregoing and other changes in form and details can be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention.

In a method in which a thin-film support is continuously led into a vacuum chamber from the atmospheric air, subjected to surface treatment and led-out to the atmospheric air again, a pneumatical cutoff portion of a leading-in and leading-out section is constituted by seal roller sets each of which is formed by aligned pairs of leading-in rollers and leading-out rollers which are close to each other through slight distances, and the support is led-in and led-out while lapped at an angle of from 30 to 150 degrees around the pair of rollers nearest to the atmospheric air of the seal roller sets.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0001] This invention relates generally to the field of diplex filters used in cable television systems, and more particularly to a low pass diplex filter which reduces high pass resonance. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] A diplex circuit, or more simply a “diplexer,” is a device which separates or combines RF signals. Diplexers are used in connection with CATV equipment in a number of situations, some of which use two diplexers back-to-back. These include step attenuators, power bypass circuits, cable simulators and equalizer circuits. Many of the prior art CATV diplex circuits are used to act on signals traveling in so-called forward and return paths, e.g., relatively high frequency RF signals pass from a source of such signals to a television set at subscriber premises in the forward direction over one leg of the circuit while lower frequency (DC) signals pass from the premises in the return direction. [0003] Bandstop or “notch” filters are commonly employed in the CATV industry to block transmission of signals in a specified frequency range. For example, certain channels may be designated as premium channels, requiring payment of a fee from the subscriber in order to receive the signals carrying information representing such channels. If the service is not ordered, i.e., the fee is not paid, an appropriate filter is installed in the cable line coming into the non-paying premises. This is but one of the more traditional uses of bandstop filters, i.e., as a so-called trap. A more recent example is the aforementioned use in the handling of forward and return path signals between a head end and subscriber facilities. [0004] Using typical minimum inductor or capacitor design techniques in the lowpass leg of a diplex bandstop filter creates a problem in achieving a flat upper passband, thus causing return loss and increased delay. The capacitor and coil combination that is used to make up the low frequency lowpass filter contains capacitors and coils that are extremely large in value. In fact, the values are large enough to create multiple re-resonances in the upper passband of the highpass leg of the filter, which are undesirable. See, for example, FIG. 1 . SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0005] Briefly stated, a hybrid diplex bandstop filter includes a lowpass filter circuit which passes a first range of frequencies and a highpass filter circuit passes a third range of frequencies. The filter blocks a second range of frequencies. The third range of frequencies is higher than the second range and the first range. A tuning circuit times at least one re-resonance of a frequency inside the first range of frequencies to either within the second range of frequencies or outside an industry specified upper limit which is in the third range of frequencies. [0006] According to an embodiment of the invention, a hybrid diplex bandstop filter includes means for allowing a first range of frequencies to pass through the filter from an input to an output; means for blocking a second range of frequencies from passing through the filter from the input to the output, wherein the second range of frequencies is higher than the first range of frequencies; means for allowing a third range of frequencies to pass through the filter from the input to the output; wherein the third range of frequencies is higher than the second range of frequencies; and tuning means for tuning at least one re-resonance of a frequency within the first range of frequencies to either within the second range of frequencies or outside an industry specified upper limit within the third range of frequencies. [0007] According to an embodiment of the invention, a hybrid diplex bandstop filter includes a lowpass filter circuit which allows a first range of frequencies to pass through the filter from an input to an output; a bandstop circuit which blocks a second range of frequencies from passing through the filter from the input to the output, wherein the second range of frequencies is higher than the first range of frequencies; a highpass filter circuit which allows a third range of frequencies to pass through the filter from the input to the output, wherein the third range of frequencies is higher than the second range of frequencies; and a tuning circuit which tunes at least one re-resonance of a frequency within the first range of frequencies to either within the second range of frequencies or outside an industry specified upper limit within the third range of frequencies. [0008] According to an embodiment of the invention, a method of manufacturing a hybrid bandstop filter includes the steps of: (a) making a lowpass filter circuit which allows a first range of frequencies to pass through the filter from an input to an output; (b) making a bandstop filter circuit which prevents a second range of frequencies from passing through the filter from the input to the output; wherein the second range of frequencies is higher than the first range of frequencies; (c) making a highpass filter circuit which allows a third range of frequencies to pass through the filter from the input to the output, wherein the third range of frequencies is higher than the second range of frequencies; and (d) making a tuning circuit which tunes at least one re-resonance of a frequency within the first range of frequencies to either within the second range of frequencies or outside an industry specified upper limit within the third range of frequencies. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0009] FIG. 1 shows a frequency performance chart of a typical diplex filter. [0010] FIG. 2 shows a hybrid low pass diplex filter according to a first embodiment of the invention. [0011] FIG. 3 shows a hybrid low pass diplex filter according to a second embodiment of the invention. [0012] FIG. 4 shows a hybrid low pass diplex filter according to a third embodiment of the invention. [0013] FIG. 5 shows a hybrid low pass diplex filter according to a fourth embodiment of the invention. [0014] FIG. 6 shows a hybrid low pass diplex filter according to a fifth embodiment of the invention. [0015] FIG. 7 shows a hybrid low pass diplex filter according to a sixth embodiment of the invention. [0016] FIG. 8 shows a hybrid low pass diplex filter according to a seventh embodiment of the invention. [0017] FIG. 9 shows a hybrid low pass diplex filter according to a eighth embodiment of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT [0018] Referring to FIG. 1 , the typical prior art minimum inductor or minimum capacitor design in the lowpass leg of a diplex bandstop filter creates a problem in achieving a flat upper passband, thus causing poor return loss and increased delay. This problem arises because the capacitors and coils used in combination to make the low frequency lowpass leg are extremely large in value, causing multiple re-resonances in the upper passband of the highpass leg of the filter. For example, the primary resonance at around 55.25 MHZ, as identified by reference numeral 12 , causes a re-resonance at around 550 MHz as identified by reference numeral 14 . [0019] As known in the art, the lowpass leg of a diplex bandstop filter is one of four types: (1) minimum capacitor filter, (2) minimum inductor filter, (3) minimum inductor elliptic function filter, and (4) minimum capacitor elliptic function filter. In the present invention, a hybrid filter is defined as a filter which is a hybrid of at least two of these four filter types. [0020] Referring to FIG. 2 , an embodiment of the present invention includes a hybrid diplex filter 20 with an upper passband leg 30 and a lower passband leg 40 . Resonance tanks 42 and 44 in series are indicative of a minimum inductance elliptic function filter, whereas an LC combination 46 (which consists of an inductor 45 and a capacitor 47 ) is indicative of a minimum inductance filter. The combination of a capacitance shunt 48 with the LC combination 46 forms a typical lowpass Pi filter. In the present invention, inductors 50 a, 50 b, and 50 c are added in series with capacitance shunts 48 a, 48 b, and 48 c, respectively, to locate the re-resonance of filter 20 higher than any one of the four types of typical filters (minimum capacitance, minimum inductance, minimum inductance elliptic, and minimum capacitance elliptic) can by itself. The goal is to locate the re-resonances outside whatever the current industry specified upper limit of usable bandwidth in the cable industry is. For example, the first industry specified upper limit was 216 MHz; at the present time the industry specified upper limit is 860 MHz in the United States, but some systems go to 1.0 Ghz. The industry specified upper limit for Japan is 2.185 GHz because of the manner in which satellite and cable are combined. As far as is known, the techniques of the present invention can be used to tune at least one re-resonance from a frequency within the lowpass filter range to outside the industry specified upper limit, no matter what the upper limit is. [0021] The circuit of this embodiment is useful when the lowpass filter has a cutoff below 200 MHz. The circuit of this embodiment has fewer parasitics than the prior art designs, because it breaks up the circuit so that the loading is less. [0022] Note that the circuit of lower passband leg 40 is symmetrical about a middle capacitance shunt 52 , so description concerning the right half of lower passband leg 40 is omitted. Additional sections can be added in pairs, i.e., on the right side and on the left side of lower passband leg 40 to make the filter sharper. For example, the section on the left side would consist of another inductor in series with a shunt capacitor similar to the capacitance shunt 48 a and inductor 50 a combination but connected at a point 49 , with another inductor similar to inductor 45 connected between point 49 and a point 51 . A symmetrical section would also be added on the right side of the circuit. [0023] Referring to FIG. 3 , a hybrid diplex filter 60 includes upper passband leg 30 and a lower passband leg 70 . Lower passband leg 70 is similar to lower passband leg 40 of FIG. 2 , but has tuning capacitors 62 a, 62 b, and 62 c across inductors 50 a, 50 b, and 50 c, respectively. Adding tuning capacitors 62 a, 62 b, and 62 c to lower passband leg 70 in this manner adds capacitance to inductors 50 a, 50 b, and 50 c and lowers the resonance of inductors 50 a, 50 b, and 50 c. This embodiment moves the re-resonance lower into the stop band of filter 60 . [0024] Referring to FIG. 4 , a hybrid diplex filter 80 includes upper passband leg 30 and a lower passband leg 90 . Lower passband leg 90 is similar to lower passband leg 70 of FIG. 3 , but includes tuning inductors 82 a and 82 b which tune tank circuits 84 a and 84 b, respectively, down into the stop band by increasing the loading inductance. [0025] Referring to FIG. 5 , a hybrid diplex filter 100 includes upper passband leg 30 and a lower passband leg 110 . Lower passband leg 110 is similar to lower passband leg 90 in FIG. 4 in that it includes tuning inductors 82 a and 82 b which tune tank circuits 84 a and 84 b, respectively, as well as tuning capacitors 62 a, 62 b, and 62 c, but differs from the previous embodiments in that it includes additional tuning capacitors 92 a, 92 b which have the effect of further tuning the waveform produced by lower passband leg 110 and making the waveform sharper. [0026] Referring to FIG. 6 , a hybrid diplex filter 120 includes upper passband leg 30 and a lower passband leg 130 . Lower passband leg 130 is similar to lower passband leg 70 of FIG. 3 but with capacitors 94 a, 94 b added in parallel with inductors 45 a, 45 b, which makes inductors 45 a, 45 b a notch filter section instead of a lowpass filter section. This embodiment makes the passband to stopband transition produced by the embodiment of FIG. 3 sharper. [0027] Referring to FIG. 7 , a hybrid diplex filter 140 includes upper passband leg 30 and a lower passband leg 150 . Lower passband leg 150 is similar to lower passband leg 130 of FIG. 6 but with more tanks to ground, i.e., by adding tanks 96 a, 96 b, which makes the passband to stopband transition sharper by tuning the re-resonance into the stop band. [0028] Referring to FIG. 8 , a hybrid diplex filter 160 includes upper passband leg 30 and a lower passband leg 170 . Lower passband leg 170 is similar to lower passband leg 90 of FIG. 4 but with tuning inductors 98 a, 98 b added to tank circuits 102 a, 102 b respectively to further sharpen the passband to stopband transition produced by the embodiment of FIG. 4 . [0029] Referring to FIG. 9 , a hybrid diplex filter 180 includes upper passband leg 30 and a lower passband leg 190 . Lower passband leg 190 is similar to lower passband leg 170 of FIG. 8 but with additional tank circuits 104 a, 104 b to ground, which has the effect of tuning more re-resonances down into the stop band. [0030] While the present invention has been described with reference to a particular preferred embodiment and the accompanying drawings, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that the invention is not limited to the preferred embodiment and that various modifications and the like could be made thereto without departing from the scope of the invention as defined in the following claims.

A hybrid diplex bandstop filter includes a lowpass filter circuit which passes a first range of frequencies and a highpass filter circuit passes a third range of frequencies. The filter blocks a second range of frequencies. The third range of frequencies is higher than the second range and the first range. A tuning circuit tunes at least one re-resonance of a frequency inside the first range of frequencies to either within the second range of frequencies or outside an industry specified upper limit which is in the third range of frequencies.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0001] This invention is directed to fiber-containing rice-based cereals and methods of preparation. More specifically, this invention is directed to methods for providing cooked rice with enhanced levels of fiber, wherein the fiber-containing cooked rice is suitable and especially adapted for use in preparing fiber-containing rice-based cereal products and especially for preparing fiber-containing puffed rice-based cereal products. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] Fiber is an important dietary component. Typical grains (including cereals prepared from such grains), fresh vegetables and fruits, and the like are an important source of dietary fiber. Rice, including rice-based cereals, however, do not typically provide a significant amount of fiber. [0003] Most of the nutrients (including fiber and B vitamins) of whole rice are found in the outer layer or kernel (i.e., the bran). Rice bran also contains lipase enzymes which can cause rancidity within a relatively short time after harvesting. Thus, typically the bran (along with its fiber and nutrients) are removed before using the rice to prepare commercial food products (e.g., cereals). Such treated rice (e.g., cleaned and hulled) generally contains less than about 1 percent total dietary fiber (including soluble and insoluble fiber). Thus, cereals prepared from rice are typically not good sources of fiber. [0004] Incorporation of fiber in rice without adversely affecting its performance in cereal manufacture has not been possible on a commercial scale. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,248,390 (Jun. 19, 2001) provides a “fiber water” containing significant levels of water soluble dietary fiber. This fiber water can be used to enrich foods, such as rice, by cooking the foods in fiber water. Cooked rice prepared in this manner does indeed provide a good source of fiber. The cooked rice, however, is not suitable for preparing rice-containing cereals, especially, puffed rice cereals, due to both its high water levels and the stickiness of the cooked rice. Such rice is simply not suitable for use in a conventional commercial cereal making production line. [0005] Moreover, adding fiber after the rice has been cooked (i.e., during the later stages of cereal manufacture) has not been successful. The added fiber interferes with the manufacture process (e.g., prevent other coating materials to adhere to or penetrate the cereal particles), simply fails to adhere to the cereal particles themselves, and/or tends to agglomerate the cereal particles together. In any event, a satisfactory cereal product has not been possible. [0006] Consequently, there remains a need to provide rice-based cereals containing relatively high levels of fiber. The present invention provides such methods using a fiber-infusion process during the cooking step. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0007] This invention is directed to fiber-containing or fiber-infused rice-based cereals and methods of preparation. More specifically, this invention is directed to methods for providing cooked rice with enhanced levels of fiber, wherein the fiber-containing cooked rice is suitable and especially adapted for use in preparing fiber-containing or fiber-infused rice-based cereal products and especially for preparing fiber-containing puffed rice-based cereal products. [0008] In the present invention, the soluble fiber is infused into the rice during the cooking process. Dried rice, preferably cleaned and hulled rice, is first partially cooked to for a partially hydrated rice with a moisture content of about 10 to 20 percent. The partially hydrated rice is then mixed with a soluble fiber and gently mixed to form a homogenous mixture of the partially cooked rice and soluble fiber. The homogenous mixture is then further cooked to complete cooking of the rice to obtained a cooked rice with a moisture content of about 28 to about 42 percent and which is infused with the soluble fiber. Although not wishing to be limited by theory, it appears that the soluble fiber is solubilized during this final cooking step and then imbibed into the rice particles as they swell. In any event, the resulting cooked rice has an enhanced level of soluble fiber as well as good physical and chemical properties (i.e., non-sticky and suitable moisture content) which make it ideal for cereal manufacture. Indeed, the resulting cooked rice surprisingly has better physical properties (i.e., non-stickiness) than conventional rice prepared without soluble fiber normally used to prepare rice-based cereal. [0009] The present invention provides method for producing a fiber-containing rice-based cereal, said method comprising: (1) precooking dried rice to form a partially hydrated rice having a first moisture content of about 10 to about 20 percent; (2) adding soluble fiber to the partially hydrated rice to form a rice-fiber composition; (3) gently mixing the rice-fiber composition to form a homogeneous mixture of the partially hydrated rice and soluble fiber; (4) cooking the homogenous mixture to complete hydration of the rice to obtain a cooked rice composition wherein the rice is infused with the soluble fiber and wherein the cooked rice composition has a second moisture content of about 28 to about 42 percent; (5) drying the cooked rice composition to a third moisture content of about 15 to about 23 percent to obtain a dried cooked rice composition; and (6) treating the dried cooked rice composition to form the fiber-containing rice-based cereal; wherein the fiber-containing rice-based cereal contains about 5 to about 25 percent total dietary fiber. [0017] This invention also provides a method of preparing fiber-infused cooked rice, said method comprising: (1) precooking dried rice to form a partially hydrated rice having a first moisture content of about 10 to about 20 percent; (2) adding soluble fiber to the partially hydrated rice to form a rice-fiber composition; (3) gently mixing the rice-fiber composition to form a homogeneous mixture of the partially hydrated rice and soluble fiber; (4) cooking the homogenous mixture to complete hydration of the rice to obtain a cooked rice composition wherein the rice is infused with the soluble fiber and wherein the cooked rice composition has a second moisture content of about 28 to about 42 percent; and (5) drying the cooked rice composition to a third moisture content of about 15 to about 23 percent to obtain the fiber-infused cooked rice, wherein the fiber-infused cooked rice contains about 5 to about 25 percent total dietary fiber. The fiber-infused cooked rice is ideally suited for preparing fiber-enriched rice-based cereals. The fiber-infused cooked rice can, however, be used in other rice-containing food products or used to prepare other rice-containing food products. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING [0024] FIG. 1 provides a general flow diagram illustrating the process of this invention for preparing a fiber-containing rice-based cereal product. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0025] The general process of the present invention for preparing a fiber-containing or fiber-infused rice-based cereal product is shown in FIG. 1 . Rice and water are precooked to partially hydrate the rice. Generally the extent of precooking should be sufficient to provide a moisture content of about 10 to 20 percent, and preferably about 14 to about 16 percent, for the precooked rice. Optional ingredients can be present during the precooking step; such optional ingredient include, for example, colorants, salt, minerals, emulsifiers, other processing aids, and the like which are normally used in cereal manufacture. The soluble fiber is then added to the precooked rice and gently agitated (e.g., by gently rotating the cooker or other container) until a homogenous precooked rice and soluble fiber is obtained. If desired, optional additives including, for example, colorant, salt, minerals, emulsifiers, other processing aids, and the like which are normally used in cereal manufacture can be added during the mixing step rather than before the precooking step. Preferably, at least the colorant (if used) is added in this mixing step at levels normally used in cereal manufacture since the homogenous distribution of colorant throughout the rice can effectively be used to determine the length of this mixing step necessary to achieve a homogenous mixture of the precooked rice and soluble fiber. Although the time required to obtain a homogenous mixture will vary depending on the equipment used, generally a mixing time of about 10 to 60 minutes is sufficient. The agitation should generally not introduce significant mechanical stress into the mixture to break the individual rice grains, especially when the rice is intended to be puffed and otherwise desired to maintain the individual grains in the final cereal product. [0026] Once the homogenous precooked rice and soluble fiber mixture is obtained, it is subjected to a cooking step to complete cooking of the rice. Generally, the moisture content of the final cooked is about 28 to about 42 percent, and preferably about 30 to about 35 percent. Although not wishing to be limited by theory, it appears that the soluble fiber is solubilized during this final cooking step and then imbibed into the rice particles as they swell. In any event, the resulting cooked rice has an enhanced level of soluble fiber as well as good physical and chemical properties (i.e., non-sticky and suitable moisture content) which make it ideal for cereal manufacture. Indeed, the resulting cooked rice surprisingly has better physical properties (i.e., non-stickiness) than conventional rice prepared without soluble fiber normally used to prepare rice-based cereal. The fully cooked rice is then dried or tempered to a moisture content of about 17 to 23 percent, and preferably about 19 to 21 percent. The dried cooked rice is then treated using conventional cereal manufacturing techniques (e.g., bumping, flaking, puffing, toasting, coating, and the like) to obtain the fiber-enriched cereal product of this invention. Importantly, the infused fiber does not appear to adversely effect the remainder of the process using such conventional techniques. Indeed, it has surprisingly been found that the fiber-infused cooked rice of this invention is actually less sticky than cooked rice normally used to prepare conventional rice-based cereal produces and, thus, is easier to use in the remainder of the cereal making process as compared to conventional cooked rice. [0027] The fiber-infused rice-based cereal products of this invention generally have total dietary fiber (i.e., soluble and insoluble fiber) of about 5 to about 25 percent; more preferably the fiber-infused rice-based cereal products have total dietary fiber of about 10 to about 15 percent total dietary fiber. These values compare with a typical fiber content of less than about 1 percent (and more generally in the range of about 0.5 to about 0.7 percent) in conventional rice-based cereals. [0028] Preferably, the precooking, mixing, and cooking steps of FIG. 1 are carried out in a single vessel, preferably in a rotatable pressurized steam cooker. In an especially preferred embodiment, the steam cooker is preheated using steam. After draining out excess water, the dry rice and water (even more preferably with optional ingredients such as emulsifiers and minerals) are added and the rice is partially cooked in the rotating cooker for about 35 to about 50 minutes at a pressure of about 9 to about 20 psi (temperature of about 240 to about 260° F.) to provide a precooked rice having a moisture of about 10 to 20 percent. Typically, the amount of water mixed with rice in this precooking stage is about 5 to about 15 percent based on the rice. After the precooked rice has obtained its desired moisture content, the steam is turned off and the cooker is vented to atmospheric pressure. After opening the cooker, soluble fiber, additional water, and other optional ingredients (i.e., salt, colorant, and the like) are added. The cooker is sealed and then rotated without steam to homogeneously mix the various ingredients; generally a mixing time of about 10 to 60 minutes is sufficient. Thereafter, steam is reintroduced and cooking is continued for about 10 to 40 minutes at a pressure of about 9 to 20 psi (temperature of about 240 to about 260° F.) to provide a cooked rice infused with soluble fiber and having a moisture of about 28 to 42 percent. [0029] The fiber-infused rise is preferably removed from the cooker, cooled, and then dried to a moisture content of about 17 to about 23 percent and preferably to about 19 to 21 percent. The resulting dried rice is then further processed using conventional cereal making techniques (e.g., bumping, flaking, puffing, toasting, coating, and the like) to obtain the fiber-enriched cereal product of this invention. [0030] Any soluble fiber may be used in the present invention so long as, using the process of this invention, the fiber is infused into the rice particles or grains and the presence of the particular soluble fiber does not adversely effect the remainder of the cereal making process (i.e., after preparation of the fiber infused rice) in a significant manner. Suitable soluble fibers include, for example, polydextrose, maltodextrins, resistant maltodextrins, inulin, guar gum, carbomethyl cellulose, high methoxy pectin, and the like as well as mixtures thereof. The preferred soluble fiber is polydextrose. [0031] Advantages and embodiments of this invention are further illustrated by the following examples but the particular materials and amounts thereof recited therein, as well as other conditions and details, should not be construed to unduly limit the invention. All parts, ratios, and percentages are by weight unless otherwise directed. All publications, including patents and published patent applications, are hereby incorporated by reference. EXAMPLE 1 [0032] A rotatable steam pressure cooker was preheated for about 30 minutes at atmospherics pressure with steam of about 10 psi. Rice (35.5 lbs), water (3.5 lbs), emulsifier (29.5 g; Myvaplex—a glycerol monostearate emulsifier from Eastman Chemical Co.), and minerals (6.3 g; reduced iron/zinc oxide blend) were added to the preheated cooker. As the cooker rotated, the rice was precooked with steam at a pressure of about 15 psi (temperature at about 250° F.) for about 40 minutes to obtain the precooked rice with a moisture content of about 15 percent. After turning the steam off, the cooker was vented to atmospheric pressure; a cooker syrup (14.8 lbs) containing polydextrose as the soluble fiber was added. The cooker syrup contained water (19.8 percent), liquid polydextrose (52.2 percent; obtained from Danisco USA, Inc.), salt brine (25.2 percent; consisting of about 25 percent water and about 75 percent salt), and colorant (188 g; Caramel RT-80 from Sethness Products Co.). The cooker was sealed and then rotated without steam for about 25 minutes to form a homogenous mixture; visually, the colorant was homogeneously distributed throughout the rice. The homogenous mixture was then cooked for an additional 25 minutes at a pressure of 15 psi (temperature of about 250° F.) to obtain fiber-infused cooked rice with a moisture content of about 33 percent. After turning the steam off, the cooker was then vented to atmospheric pressure; the fiber-infused rice was cooled with air and then removed from the cooker. [0033] The fiber-infused cooker rice was then dried to about 19 percent moisture and then used to prepare a puffed rice cereal using conventional cereal making procedures. The resulting puffed rice cereal contained about 13.9 percent total dietary fiber. In spite of the significant level of fiber, the cereal has the appearance and organoleptic properties of conventional puffed rice cereal.

Methods for providing cooked rice with enhanced levels of fiber, wherein the fiber-containing cooked rice is suitable and especially adapted for use in preparing fiber-containing rice-based cereal products and especially for preparing fiber-containing puffed rice-based cereal products, are provided.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION [0001] This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/741148, filed Dec. 1, 2005, which is incorporated herein by reference as if set forth in its entirety. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] The present invention relates generally to a crystallized whole sugar and to methods for producing the sugar. The whole sugar contains a plurality of reducing sugars, and minerals, and has a characteristic organoleptic flavor, color and scent like sugar cane syrup. In contrast, conventional raw or white sugar contains at least about 98 percent, often at least about 99.7 percent saccharose (also known as sucrose), but is substantially free of other sugars and minerals. [0003] Raw and white sugars are conventionally produced from cleaned sugar cane. Harvested sugar cane is wet- or dry cleaned to eliminate vegetable and mineral impurities from the harvested cane. The cleaned cane is chopped and shredded to release fibres. Cells in the fibres and in the rind are opened, and squeezed, for example in a mill, to extract raw juice that contains saccharose, minerals, vitamins, organic acids and waxes. The extraction process typically opens more than about 75 percent of the cells in the chopped cane and at least about 90 percent of the cells in the shredded cane. [0004] Water is added to the raw juice and the diluted raw juice is decanted to obtain a clear juice and mud. The mud is filtered in rotatory vacuum filter to produce a filter cake and a filtered juice that is sent to a limed juice stage. The clear juice is concentrated by evaporation to form a syrup from 15° Brix (concentration of dissolved solids) to 65° Brix. The syrup is clarified, for example by phosphoflotation with a flocculent polymer—and a mixture of lime and phosphoric acid—that traps the impurities in high molecular weight aggregates. The aggregates can be removed in a flotation clarifier when exposed to air by microinjection. For a related clarifying process, see U.S. Pat. No. 6,146,645, incorporated by reference in its entirety as if set forth herein. [0005] Under controlled temperature and pressure, water is removed from the clarified syrup using a vacuum pan, to further concentrate the solids and to induce saccharose crystal growth in a crystal-rich massecuite. The massecuite is centrifuged to separate saccharose-crystal-containing syrup from molasses. To maximize saccharose recovery, the concentration and centrifugation steps (together, a purging cycle) are carried out three times, designated A, B, and C. After the A massecuite is centrifuged, crystal saccharose (sugar) is recovered, dried and packed. Depending on the quality of the starting material and on whether a color reducing agent is employed in the process, the recovered sugar can be a white sugar (color ranging between 80 UI and 250 UI), or a raw sugar (average color of about 2000 UI). UI designates International Units associated with the analytical method of ICUMSA (International Commission for Uniform Methods of Sugar Analysis). Saccharose crystals are repeatedly separated from the remaining syrup, so each successive purging cycle yields a seed having relatively less saccharose and relatively more non-saccharose nutrients, reducing sugars (glucose and fructose) and impurities. Accordingly, the saccharose-containing material recovered after the B- and C massecuites are centrifuged (referred to as the B- and C-seeds, respectively) are incorporated back into A- and B massecuites, respectively, to encourage development of increasingly larger saccharose crystals. A typical final (or purge) molasses separated during the C centrifugation contains 87 percent solids, including 25 percent to 33 percent saccharose, as well as reducing sugars like glucose and fructose, minerals, and cane impurities from the fields. Because of its high nutritional value, the final molasses is used mainly as raw material for balanced animal food. Clarified final molasses can be prepared by diluting the final molasses to 60° Brix, heating to 90° C., and then clarifying by phosphoflotation (as described, supra) or by sedimentation, depending upon the concentration of soluble solids and viscosity. Refined sugar can be prepared from raw sugar by melting the raw sugar in hot water and clarifying the resulting syrup by flotation, purification and decoloration in high retention filters to obtain a refined liquor. Saccharose is recovered from the refined liquor via the same repetitive purging cycles as were described for the direct white or the raw sugar. The refined sugar (“refino”), having a color below 45 UI, is then dried and packed. [0006] In addition to such sugars, amorphous sugar is popular in Portugal and Brazil, and has been known in Portugal since the end of the 17th century. In modem Brazilian methods, raw sugar and/or direct white sugar are melted, clarified and double filtered with old process of deep bed and resins to produce a clear and bright liquor. The liquor is concentrated, for example in a falling film- or plate evaporator, to produce a concentrated liquor from 65° to 80° Brix. The concentrated liquor is boiled at a temperature above about 125° C. in the presence of a whitener (up to about 30 g/ton) to produce a massecuite having a color below 40 UI. The massecuite thus produced is crystallized rapidly, for example in a vertical crystallizer for 45 seconds, and then agitated for at least several minutes at a speed below about 50 rpm to avoid fainting lumps of sugar. Any lumps are separated and the amorphous product is dried to a final humidity (water content) of 0.15% bringing the temperature up to about 60° C., then cooling to 45° C. The amorphous product is dispersed through a mesh (0.25-0.45 mm) to yield a final product having a typical polarization of 99 and color of 60 UI. The remaining lumps are melted. [0007] Portuguese amorphous sugar is made from refined sugar, using a different process than is used in Brazil. To produce Portuguese amorphous sugar, refined sugar syrup at 75° Brix is concentrated for 50 minutes under vacuum to a temperature of 105° C. to 92° Brix to produce an supersaturated massecuite. The massecuite is crystallized into amorphous crystals, for example in an aerator or crystallizer at 6 rpm under vacuum as the temperature is reduced to 60° C. with a humidity of 3.5%. The remaining operations are similar. The final product has a polarization of 96° Z-97° Z and a color of 2000-2500 UI. [0008] All of the foregoing sugars are composed principally of saccharose, but in the process of producing such sugars, other beneficial sugars, elements, vitamins, minerals and nutrients found in sugar cane are discarded. It would be desired to produce a sugar that retains such sugars, elements, vitamins, minerals and nutrients. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0009] The present invention is summarized in that a solid crystalline whole sugar having a saccharose purity of at least about 83% or at least about 90% or a least about 95% contains vitamins, minerals, nutrients and other minor elements of sugar cane that are substantially absent from conventional sugars. Unlike conventional sugars, centrifuged whole sugar has nutritious and therapeutic properties, and organoleptic flavor, scent and taste characteristic of sugar cane syrup. The whole sugar spontaneously crystallizes, has a typical polarization of at least about 83° Z and a color of at least about 5,000 UI or between about 5,000 UI and about 7,000 UI, depending on the starting materials used. Like conventional sugars, centrifuged whole sugar is suited for use as a sweetener or as an energy source. [0010] The invention is further summarized in that a process for making the whole sugar can employ intermediate products of a conventional sugar production process, as disclosed infra. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0011] A method for producing whole sugar of the invention, which is advantageously but not essentially carried out in parallel and simultaneous with a traditional sugar production process, includes the steps of: [0012] heating a saccharose-containing base syrup having a purity of at least about 83 percent and a Brix of 68° to 74° to form a supersaturated massecuite having a purity of at least about 83%; and [0013] crystallizing whole sugar from the massecuite. [0014] The base syrup includes but need not be limited to water, a B-seed having a saccharose purity (i.e., saccharose content per 100 g of dissolved solids) of at least about 83%, at least about 90%, at least about 92%, or at least about 94%, along with minerals and the like sought to be included in the whole sugar, and at least a by-product of a purging cycle, evaporating or milling step of a traditional sugar production process. These by-products are suitable and desirable sources of additional saccharose, minerals and the like, but these components can be added as supplements to a syrup such that a syrup having sufficient saccharose purity and concentration is formed. The by-products typically have a purity lower than that of the B-seed, for example, in the range of about 32% to about 89%. In a typical base syrup, between about 59% and about 73%, or between about 64% and about 73%, of the syrup (by weight) is a B-seed, between about 1% and about 20%, or between about 1% and about 10%, of the syrup is a material of lower purity and the balance is water. In a special case, when the base syrup includes B-seed and cane juice without added water, endogenous water can be evaporated to reach supersaturation. As noted, small quantities of one or more vitamins, minerals, and the like can be included as supplements. Another by-product suitable for use is refilled liquor. [0015] Representative characteristics of some by-products of a conventional sugar production process are shown in Table 1. The skilled person will appreciate that the % purity, ° Brix and % saccharose of the by-products can each vary from batch to batch, e.g., by about 0.1 to 5%. [0000] TABLE 1 By-product % Purity ° Brix % Saccharose Cane juice 89 15 13.3 Syrup 88 58 51.0 A Molasses 76 76 58 B Molasses 53 76 40 Final Molasses 32 87 28 C Seed 78 93 72 A Massecuite 89 92 82 B Massecuite 58 96 56 C Massecuite 76 93 71 Crystal 66 89 59 [0016] Table 2 describes several typical, suitable base syrups and the respective contributions by weight percent of the components, but is not intended to embrace the full range of possible syrups. As noted, the purity and Brix of the components can vary, as can the purity and Brix of the base syrup produced. [0000] TABLE 2 Syrup # Saccharose source Intermediate product(s) Water 1 B-seed (94% purity) [66.7%] Clarified Final molasses (32% purity) [0.6%]   [22%] Cane Syrup (88% purity) [10.7%] 2 B-seed (94% purity) [71%] Clarified Final molasses (32% purity) [0.7%] [25.6%] A-molasses (77.5% purity) [2.7%] 3 B-seed (94% purity) [73%] Clarified Final molasses (32% purity) [1.25%] [25.75%]  4 B-seed (94% purity) B-molasses (53% purity) [1.1%] [25.9%] [72.4%] Clarified Final molasses (32% purity) [.6%] [0017] The saccharose crystals can be readily dissolved in the syrup by continuous agitation. An antifoaming agent can be added after dissolution. [0018] The syrup can be supersaturated by known atmospheric- or vacuum supersaturation methods to produce a massecuite having a residual water content in the range of about 2 to about 6%, until crystals form spontaneously, at about a concentration of at least 94% solids. In an atmospheric method, the syrup at atmospheric pressure can be heated to a temperature between about 126° and 155° C. with live steam (100 psig/190° C.) for a time sufficient to obtain the massecuite. In a vacuum method, the syrup can be maintained in a vacuum (less than 25 in. Hg) at a constant temperature between about 56° C. and about 98° C. heated with saturated steam (15 psig/120° C.) to obtain the massecuite. In the final stage of boiling, the vacuum is released and the temperature of the massecuite is raised to at least 105° C. [0019] The massecuite is cooled until it spontaneously crystallizes with heat liberation by natural or induced convection, radiation or conduction, or a combination thereof (e.g., using heat-conductive fluid, direct air injection, or the like) at atmospheric pressure or under vacuum. During or after this cooling, the massecuite is divided under force into small particles, e.g., by agitation at between about 40-60 RPM, or by forming droplets from the mass in its liquid state, or by grinding the mass in its solid state. After crystallization, the centrifuged whole sugar has a residual humidity of less than about 1%. [0020] The whole sugar is dried to a final residual humidity of 1.5% or less, or 0.2% or less, at ambient temperature to yield particles having a size in the range of about 0.18 mm-0.45 mm. Particles of the dried sugar can be further sieved before packing to remove any chunks that may have formed during crystallization. An analysis of a typical dried whole sugar follows in Table 3. The whole sugar contains, for example, policosanol that is beneficially associated with cholesterol management. This compound, like the minerals and nutrients, is not found in conventional white, raw or refined sugar. [0000] TABLE 3 Component Saccharose Minimum 83% Glucose + Fructose Max. 3.5% Calcium 65 mg/100 g Potassium 240 mg/100 g Sodium 19 mg/100 g Magnesium 47 mg/100 g Phosphorus 7 mg/100 g Iron 0.95 mg/100 g Policosanols Max 500 mg/100 g

A whole sugar contains saccharose and additional ingredients from sugar cane not found in conventional raw, white, refined, or amorphous sugars. Processes for making the whole sugar are disclosed.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0001] This invention relates to automatic identification systems, methods and program products. More particularly, the invention relates to an RFID system: methods, systems and program products. BACKGROUND OF INVENTION [0002] In computing, an operating system (OS) is the system software responsible for the direct control and management of hardware and basic system operations, as well as running application software. In general, the operating system is the first layer of software loaded into computer memory when it starts up. As the first software layer, all other software that gets loaded after it depends on this software to provide them with various common core services. These common core services include, but are not limited to: disk access, memory management, task scheduling, device interfacing and user interfacing. Since these basic common services are assumed to be provided by the OS, there is no need to re-implement those same functions over and over again in every other piece of software that you may use. The portion of code that performs these core services is called the “kernel” of the operating system. Operating system kernels had been evolved from libraries that provided the core services into unending programs that control system resources because of the early needs of accounting for computer usage and then protecting those records. A program or application compatible with the OS, executes instructions written in a high-level language and may use kernels to activate the basic services of the OS. There are two ways to run programs written in a high-level language. The most common is to compile the program; the other method is to pass the program through an interpreter. An interpreter translates high-level instructions into an intermediate form, which it then executes. In contrast, a compiler translates high-level instructions directly into machine language. Compiled programs generally run faster than interpreted programs. The advantage of an interpreter, however, is that it does not need to go through the compilation stage during which machine instructions are generated. This process can be time-consuming if the program is long. The interpreter, on the other hand, can immediately execute high-level programs. For this reason, interpreters are sometimes used during the development of a program, when a programmer wants to add small sections at a time and test them quickly. Both interpreters and compilers are available for most high-level languages. [0003] ERP (enterprise resource planning) is an industry term for the broad set of activities supported by multi-module application software that help a manufacturer or other business manage the important parts of its business, including product planning, parts purchasing, maintaining inventories, interacting with suppliers, providing customer service, and tracking orders [0004] API (application programming interface) is an interface that is used by one application program to communicate with programs of other systems. ERP vendors provide APIs for integrating other applications with their ERP systems. [0005] Bolt-On is a software application that performs specific tasks and that interfaces with an ERP system, such as the one offered by Intermec, Inc. “Manufacturing Execution Systems” and “Warehouse Management Systems”. [0006] DLL (dynamic link library) is a library of core elements required by the Windows architecture, a DLL contains all the functions and definitions needed to communicate with a program at run time. [0007] Function Library is a body of ready-made, reusable units of code for specific programming tasks that can be implemented in an ERP program or called by external applications. [0008] Middleware: The software interface or link that enables data to pass from the source to a client, such as the middleware that enables a mobile terminal to interface with ERP applications. [0009] Template Libraries are code libraries used by applications to access pre-defined sets of instructions by reference of headers. [0010] Smart Cards are small devices that resemble a credit card but contain an embedded microprocessor to store and process information. Magnetic-stripe cards, which store a very small amount of information (most typically used to identify the owner) and have no processing capability of their own, can be thought of as primitive smart cards. A true smart card contains 80 or more times as much memory, and the microprocessor allows information to be read and updated every time the card is used. Contact cards, which must be swiped through card readers, are less prone to misalignment and being misread but tend to wear out from the contact; contactless cards, which are read by holding the card in front of a low-powered laser, can be used in mobile applications, such as collecting tolls from cards as drivers pass through toll booths without stopping. Integrated Circuit (IC) Memory Cards can hold up to 1-4 KB of data, but have no processor on the card with which to manipulate that data. Thus, they are dependent on the card reader for their processing and are suitable for uses where the card performs a fixed operation. Memory cards represent the bulk of the 600 million smart cards sold in 2000, primarily for pre-paid, disposable-card applications like pre-paid phone cards. Memory cards are popular as high-security alternatives to magnetic stripe cards. Integrated Circuit (IC) Microprocessor Cards offer greater memory storage and security of data than a traditional magnetic stripe card. Chip cards also can process data on the card. The recent generation of chip cards has an eight-bit processor, 16 KB ROM, and 512 bytes of RAM. These cards are used for a variety of applications, especially those that have cryptography built in, which requires manipulation of large numbers. Java Card belongs to this category. [0011] Short-range wireless communications systems find use in automatic identification systems (AIS). Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) systems are one embodiment of AIS which find use in short-range wireless communication system. The typical RFID system includes a RFID reader and a RFID transponder linked together by a radio frequency generated by the reader. The transponder is attached or coupled to an item for identification purposes. RFID readers are typically connected to or integrated into microprocessor driven devices or computers, running software applications under a specific OS. RFID systems are described in the text “RFID Handbook-Radio-Frequency Identification Fundamentals and Applications” by K. Finkenzeller, published by John Wiley & Sons LTD, New York, N.Y. (ISBN 0-471-988510) 1999, pages 6-7, and fully incorporated herein by reference. [0012] The reader may be incorporated into a fixed or a mobile device which communicates with the RFID transponder via a radio frequency signal. The reader sends out a RF signal that “wakes up” the RFID transponder. The transponder may be active or passive. In response to the RF signal, the transponder transmits a data signal back to the reader via a RF frequency signal. The transponder or “tag” includes a memory and is incorporated into an item. The tag stores data descriptive of the item for identification purposes. The memory may be random access or read only or erasable read only memory and the like. Data is stored in the memory in a customized data structure and format, according to the requirements of an application executable in the mobile devices or in an external network. [0013] RFID tags are manufactured with a unique identification number (ID) or can have such ID stored in a specific memory location, usually ROM using a process called masking. [0014] The Electronic Product Code, (EPC), is an ID used in RFID tags that is intended as an improvement on the UPC barcode system. The EPC is a 96-bit tag which contains a number called the Global Trade Identification Number (GTIN). Unlike a UPC number, which only provides information specific to a group of products, the GTIN gives each product its own specific identifying number, giving greater accuracy in tracking. The EPC was the creation of the MIT AutoID Center, a consortium of over 120 global corporations and university labs. The EPC system is currently managed by EPCGlobal Inc., a subsidiary of the Electronic Article Numbering International group and the Uniform Code Council (UCC), creators of the UPC barcode. EPC's vision is sometimes referred to as the “Internet of Things”. EPC would leverage the benefits of RFID's non-line-of-sight reading, large data capacity and anti-theft/anti-counterfeiting features. This combined with the ability to retrieve information over the internet about the product (who manufactured it and when, where it has been, when is its expiration or warranty date, etc) is enabling a powerful and flexible supply chain. [0015] Auto-ID Reader Protocol 1.0 defines Version 1.0 of the wire protocol by which tag readers interact with Auto-ID compliant software applications. The Reader Protocol specifies the interaction between a device capable of reading (and possibly writing) tags, and application software. [0016] Auto-ID Savant Specification 1.0 defines a Savant as software that sits between tag readers and enterprise applications, providing a variety of computational functions on behalf of applications. [0017] The art is limited since all RFID reader devices compatible with EPC must be programmed in advance to recognize a specific format mandated by the standard, so older RFID reader devices must be reprogrammed and when new standards or formats appear it shall be also necessary to reprogram the devices. [0018] CPU enabled RFID tags, such as those incorporating Inside Contactless' Micropass chip, allow that applications are run in the RFID tag by means of a tag OS. There are companies such Inseal, Inc. (Jaycos) and Sun Microsystems (Javacard) which offer OSs for cards that control the way applications run when read by a reader to provide strong security requirements for RFID applications. Reader devices running RFID applications can be programmed to read the tag applications and interact with them. The art is limited because the RFID application in the reader device must already be programmed in order to run and interact with the tag application. In addition, the current art is limited because the OS does not offer a solution on how to control I/Os and other sensors connected to the RFID reader devices. [0019] Sun Microsystems' Javacard allows that RFID applications are stored in RFID cards and loaded into the RFID reader device to control the display of text and to prompt an user for input. This art is limited because it requires a Java Virtual Machine program to be running in the RFID reader device, and only devices with OS compatible with this program can use it. In addition, this art is limited because this program is generic and cannot be programmed to interact with I/Os such as sensors connected to the reader device. In addition, this solution does not allow parsing applications over more than one tag and does not provide a control file that allows selective execution of applications contained in the tags. In addition, this solution requires specific knowledge of the Java programming language in order to program the applications. [0020] RFID reader devices may incorporate sensors of location (such as global positioning technology (GPS) devices), temperature, pressure, chemicals, radiation, etc. The data deriving from this sensors is used in combination with software applications running in the RFID devices to allow users to make decisions or allow systems to record relevant information related to the item to which the RFID tag is pegged. The art is limited in that the software applications running in the RFID devices must be preprogrammed, so for each new item type requiring a different decision type or recording of information the devices must be reprogrammed. [0021] Electronic controllers are used to control the operation of a variety of industrial, commercial and consumer devices. The operation of these controllers is handled by a control software which changes depending on the specific use or destination of the device and which is updated from time to time to correct bugs or improve performance. Generally, to perform changes or updates in the control software it is required to have physical access to electronic interfaces created for this purpose. [0022] What is needed in the art is: [0023] A method or an apparatus used for RFID systems in a fixed or mobile environment for creating and loading into the reader devices new applications with minimum effort by using a reduced instruction or command set which facilitates reading the instruction or command set by devices and executing the instruction or command set to provide customized “ad-hoc” processing depending on the tag read. [0024] A method that uses the same tags used for identifying items as storage means of software applications used for managing the way the items are handled and stored and/or used to provide a service related to the items. [0025] A method to use the reader to load applications from the tag for execution by the reader device thus avoiding the need to have the applications preprogrammed or preloaded into the device. [0026] A method that uses an interpreter or a compiler adapted to the OS of RFID devices to facilitate execution of applications loaded from tags without need of specific compatibility with the device's OS. [0027] A convenient, low cost method that for each tag read, allows the device to execute a RFID application specific to the item identified by the tag. [0028] A method to update applications running in off-line devices conveniently and at a low cost. [0029] A method that conveniently deals with changes and updates to the sets of APIs, Bolt-Ons, DLLs, Function Libraries, Middleware functions and Template Libraries used by the RFID applications to execute complex sets of instructions required to complete a process integrating the RFID system with an ERP. [0030] An apparatus that operates without any preprogrammed or preloaded application and only executes applications read from tags. [0031] An apparatus that is integrated into the electronics of a device that includes the interpreter for use by the device. [0032] A method that allows easy and convenient update of the software programs used in RFID reader devices compatible with EPC for recognizing the EPC format mandated by the standard, when new standards or formats appear. [0033] A method that allows tag applications to automatically interact I/Os and other sensors connected to the RFID reader devices. [0034] A method that allows applications stored in tags to load and run in reader devices without need of a Java Virtual Machine program to be running in the RFID reader device. [0035] A method that allows parsing of Javacard applets so that they can be easily stored in several tags and later retrieved for execution. [0036] A method that allows performing changes or updates in the control software used in electronic controllers without requiring physical access to electronic interfaces created for this purpose. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0037] A first software program running on a PC is used to create and optimize applications destined to run in fixed or mobile devices incorporating RFID readers. The applications are created using a custom command set. The first program optimizes the application to fit in the memory of one or more RFID memory tags. The first program stores the applications in one or more RFID tags in memory locations whose starting and ending addresses are recorded in a control file. The first program also stores in a predetermined location in the memory of the RFID tags the control file specifying the location, contents and other control information regarding the applications. To read and run the applications, the devices are loaded with a second program adapted for interfacing with the OS of the device and which runs alongside the normal RFID application running in the device. The second program runs when the reader function of the device is activated and automatically checks the predetermined location of the tag. If the file is not found, the second program transfers control of the device to the normal RFID application. If the control file is found, the second program reads the information contained in the file and executes the application or applications as indicated by the control file. When the applications finish running, the second program transfers the control of the device to the normal RFID application. [0038] An aspect of the invention is running the first program from a custom chip embedded in a PC card or in a device attached to a PC, and have the program accessed from the PC. [0039] Another aspect of the invention is to have the first program operate as a compiler or having it replaced by a compiler of a high level language that creates the application as an executable file compatible with the OS of the RFID reader device, and have the second program to cause the execution of the executable file as is. [0040] Another aspect is to have the first program accessed and operated remotely via internet. [0041] Another aspect is the first program always using the same specific block of memory to store the control file and the second program always looking for the control file in the same specific block of memory. [0042] Another aspect is the first program encrypting the applications so that they can be run only when a second program holds the correct decryption key. [0043] Another aspect is the first program capable of parsing an application over multiple tags to overcome the constraint of limited memory of tags. [0044] Another aspect of the first program is that it stores in the tags additional data files for use by the applications, it includes the location and control information relative to this data files in the control file, it interacts with and programs the OS of cpu-enabled tags to set conditional access to this data and it programs the application for use of the conditional access. [0045] Another aspect of the first program is that it can use Java or Javacard Java applets as applications to be stored in the tags and parse them over several tags if necessary. [0046] Another aspect is the control file including commands that direct the second program how to read the applications when they are parsed over several tags. [0047] Another aspect is the control file including commands that direct the second program on whether to interpret the applications commands into commands recognized by the OS of the RFID reader devices, or cause to execute it as an executable file. [0048] Another aspect is the control file including commands that direct the second program in which order to execute the applications. [0049] Another aspect is the control file including commands that direct the second program how to condition or restrict access to the applications. [0050] Another aspect is the control file including information on the location and access restrictions of additional data stored in the tags that may be required by the applications depending on the reader device that runs them. [0051] Another aspect of the control file is that includes security features that combine with security features of the second program to authenticate the origin of the applications, as a means to avoid that software viruses are loaded into the devices. [0052] Another aspect of the control file is that it may be located using predefined identifiers instead of using a predetermined location. [0053] Another aspect of the first program is that it stores in each tag where one or more applications are stored or parsed, a control file that contains control information about the whole set of tags, so that the second program can run the applications in the proper order notwithstanding the order in which the tags are read. [0054] Another aspect is the second program accessing the device's OS to control external devices connected to the RFID reader device, such as sensors, and create a set of commands understood by the second program such that each command in the set is mapped to a corresponding command used by the OS to operate the external device and the set is used by the first program when creating the applications so that when the applications are loaded and run they can interact with the sensor devices. [0055] Another aspect of the second program is that it creates an internal memory stack in the device's memory where it stores all the applications read from the tags, and it validates the applications before running them. [0056] Another aspect of the second program is that it enables the applications to interact with the OS of the tag in order to control the tag applications for tags with CPUs. [0057] Another aspect of the second program is accessing the control file by interaction with the tag OS. [0058] Another aspect of the second program is causing the execution of a tag application commanded by the OS of the tag. [0059] Another aspect of the applications created is that they may be configured as a processing module of a Savant, as defined in “Auto-ID Savant Specification 1.0” [0060] Another aspect of the applications created is that they may be configured to run independently from Savants, as defined in “Auto-ID Savant Specification 1.0” [0061] Another aspect of the applications created is that they may be configured to remotely invoke APIs, Bolt-Ons, DLLs, Function Libraries, Middleware functions and Template Libraries using an index accessed via internet. [0062] Another aspect of the second program is that it can be adapted to interact with a Java Virtual Machine so that the second program uses the control file to direct precedence of execution of Javacard applets read from the tags and to regroup parsed Javacard applets so that they can be executed by the Java Virtual Machine. [0063] Another aspect of the invention is that it is tag type (active/passive) independent, tag RF frequency independent and RFID protocol independent and correspondingly independent of type, frequency and protocol used in RFID readers. [0064] Another aspect of the invention is that it can be implemented in devices incorporating an RFID reader which do not have a specific RFID application running, but only the second program. [0065] Another aspect of the invention is that applications can be programmed to run only in pre-authorized devices by doing authentication checks such as mac address verification, reader ID verification or other unique identifiers of the devices. [0066] Another aspect of the invention is that the second program can use an application read from the tag to control the RFID reader to correctly read from the tag an otherwise unrecognizable ID format, for example a new EPC standard. [0067] Another aspect of the invention is that the first program compresses, encrypts and stores in tags, data files containing data required for EDI documents, using a unique identifier stored at the beginning of the file to identify the type of document and EDI standard used, and writes corresponding information in the control file stored in the tag. [0068] Another aspect of the invention is that an application stored in the tag interacts with the second program to provide selective access and read files containing data required for EDI documents, using the unique identifier to create a standard EDI document. [0069] Another aspect of the invention is that the second program is stored and run in electronic controllers used for controlling equipment or devices, and which are equipped with RFID readers, so that a tag application can be used to modify the controlling software. [0070] Another aspect of the invention is that the application loaded and run by the second program becomes itself a second program that retrieves and executes the application from another remote source, such as an URL. [0071] Another aspect of the invention are tags which at the time of manufacturing or at a later stage prior to the use of the first software program, are masked or programmed with a control file and/or one or more applications for use in conjunction with a second software program, or a similar program running in RFID reader devices, for the execution of the application read from the tag. [0072] Another aspect of the invention and of the subsequent aspects indicated above is the use of smart cards instead of RFID tags to store the applications, and use smart card reader devices instead of RFID reader devices. [0073] Further areas of applicability of the present invention will become apparent from the detailed description provided hereinafter. It should be understood that the detailed description and specific examples, while indicating the preferred embodiment of the invention, are intended for purposes of illustration only and are not intended to limit the scope of the invention. DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS [0074] FIG. 1 is a representation of the setting required to operate an RFID application generator and writer system in the preferred embodiment, incorporating a PC with access to a remote index of applications via a network (internet, intranet, etc.), and equipped with a RFID reader/writer device used to store an RFID application in one or more RFID tags. This FIG. 1 describes the preferred embodiment of the setting required to create RFID applications that are stored in RFID tags, which is required to operate the method incorporating the principles of the present invention. [0075] FIG. 2 is a representation of the method used in the RFID application generator and writer system incorporating the principles of the present invention and which operates in the setting described in FIG. 1 . [0076] FIG. 3 is a representation of a typical RFID reader device implied in the preferred embodiment, incorporating a CPU, memory, display, input output means and connectors, a communications module with access to a remote index of applications via a network (internet, intranet, etc.), and equipped with a RFID reader/writer device used to read the RFID application stored in one or more RFID tags. This FIG. 3 describes the preferred embodiment of the setting required to read and run RFID applications that are stored in RFID tags, which is required to operate the method incorporating the principles of the present invention. [0077] FIG. 4 is a representation of the method used in the RFID reader device for reading an running applications, incorporating the principles of the present invention and which operates in the setting described in FIG. 3 . [0078] FIG. 5 is a representation of the method used in the RFID reader device for interpreting and executing the commands integrating the applications that are stored in RFID tags, which is a subset of the representation described in FIG. 4 , incorporating the principles of the present invention and which operates in the setting described in FIG. 3 . DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0079] FIG. 1 discloses the setting required to operate an RFID application generator and writer system in the preferred embodiment, incorporating a personal computer (PC) 100 comprising a central processing unit (CPU) 101 , a memory module 102 , a monitor 103 , a communications module 104 , and a RFID reader-writer 105 . A keyboard (not shown) enables a user to input instructions and/or data to the processor. An operating system (not shown) residing in the memory module 102 , typically a Microsoft Windows Version controls the operation of the PC. A software application for the creation of RFID applications and which incorporates principles of the present invention (SW 1 ) 121 is stored in the memory module 102 and run by the CPU 101 . The PC 100 is linked to a remote index 106 via an external network which can be the internet 107 or an Intranet, a mobile phone network, a PSTN, a PBX or the like (not shown). The RFID reader-writer 105 contains a radio frequency interface consisting of a receiver and transmitter with an antenna (all not shown). The interface may have two separate data paths for reading and writing from/to passive RFID transponders or tags 108 , 109 and 110 . Further details describing the reader are described in the text “RFID Handbook”, supra, Chapter 11. [0080] A passive RFID tag included in the preferred embodiment 108 uses an antenna 111 , a RF interface 112 and a logic circuit 113 which may be a CPU, to hold and manage communications with the RFID reader-writer 105 . Any type of tag, active or passive, operating in any frequency 114 may be used in the present invention. RFID tags can be either active or passive. Active tags require an internal battery or another type of power source and are often read/write tags. Passive tags do not require a dedicated power source, but rather obtain operating power generated from RF signals provided by a reader. Tags may come in a variety of shapes and sizes, but are generally based on a custom-designed silicon integrated circuit. Any transponder/tag with memory may be used in connection with the present invention, and the tag type, size, etc., depends on the particular environment and identification purpose. [0081] Before further describing the invention, a brief description of RFID technology is believed appropriate. RFID technology utilizes electromagnetic or electrostatic coupling in the radio frequency (RF) portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. The reader/writer 105 (hereinafter the “reader”) is miniaturized and includes an interface network layer. Readers are described in the text “RFID Handbook”, supra, at Chapter 11. The reader includes an antenna (not shown) for transmitting a RF signal that activates the transponder or tag 108 . When the tag 108 is activated, it transmits information back to the reader 105 . In the case of a passive tag, the tag may be energized by a time-varying electromagnetic RF wave generated by the reader. When the RF field passes through the antenna coil associated with the tag, a voltage is generated across the coil. This voltage is ultimately used to power the tag and make possible the tag's return transmission of information to the reader, sometimes referred to as back-scattering. The reader passes the information to the memory stack for delivery to the application in the device or to an application in the external network. A processor is coupled to the memory and to the reader. The processor is configured to invoke at least the application and to provide the content to the local application as directed by the reader application. In the tag 108 , a radio frequency interface 112 is linked to an address logic unit or cpu 113 for reading and writing data from/to a memory 114 , typically a ROM or EEPROM or the like. The radio frequency unit serves as the interface with the reader 105 and may transmit a signal when within the RF zone of the reader. The interface demodulates the reader signals for processing in the address logic unit 113 . The address/logic unit 113 controls all reading and writing processes on the tag via a state machine (not shown). Data is stored in the memory 114 using logical addressable partitions depending on the use and type of tag, and typically the partitions may be defined and modified by a means of a reader software application which controls the address/logic unit 113 . The memory can be logically controlled by the address/logic unit 113 to provide conditional access to partitions and specify read only, read/write, write once, etc. features. Typically there's a ROM/EEPROM memory were a unique identifier (ID) 115 is masked by the tag manufacturer. The ID may also be defined by an user in a first partition of a RAM module. Further details on the operation of the tag are described in the text “RFID Handbook”, supra pages 171-177. [0082] Returning to the invention, FIG. 2 discloses the method used in SW 1 121 to create and optimize applications 200 destined to run in fixed or mobile devices incorporating RFID readers, incorporating the principles of the present invention and which operates in the setting described in FIG. 1 . The method commences by mapping and sizing 201 of the memory of the tag or tags deemed to store the applications, a step that is required to allow flexibility in the type and memory sizes of tags employed. The applications are created using a custom command set, such as write (to memory address/file), read (from memory address/file), display (text), prompt (an user to enter data), open port (an i/o port in a device), execute (code such as an API, Bolt-On, etc. referred to via a unique identifier as described below), etc. The command set is defined by name (command name) and each command is uniquely identified by a number to reduce memory size usage when the application is stored in the tag. Applicable commands are provided with argument definition capabilities. The user selects one or more commands by name from a command set library 202 and orders them as an executable flow which SW 1 stores in a memory stack 204 . The flow is stored using a structured format which identifies command by number, corresponding arguments, order of execution of the commands and the required iterations and decision trees typical of applications. SW 1 provides an interface for the user to include in the application commands that execute pre-defined code such as APIs, Bolt-Ons, DLLs, Function Libraries, Middleware functions and Template Libraries each code referred to by a unique identifier, by selecting the unique identifier 203 from a remote index 106 accessed via internet 107 . The remote index 106 is a listing by name of standard, publicly known code used by commercial ERP and data base systems, each code identified by a unique identifier. The remote index should be periodically updated so it is sensible to propose such a centralized index administered by a capable administrator in charge of continuously updating the index. After selection of commands 202 and additional code from remote index 203 , the flow for execution is completed an stored in the memory stack 204 . The method of SW 1 then proceeds to apply a known data lossless compression algorithm 205 which may be chosen from publicly available sources such as those described in http://datacompression.info/, with the only constraint that the decompression algorithm can be implemented in all reader devices destined for running the application. The method then proceeds with a process of testing and optimizing 206 consisting in decompressing back and executing the application (the integrated flow of commands stored in the memory stack) and reviewing the flow for consistency and completeness from the point of view of the user's requirements, followed by a comparison test that checks that the resulting application size does not exceed the memory available in the tag memory deemed for storing the application 117 , after reserving a specific memory block to contain the control file 116 and reserving a memory block for additional data 119 and 120 that may be required to operate the application and about which the user is prompted. In the case that it exceeds the allocated memory space, the user chooses between parsing the storage of the application among several tags or re-doing the process of creating the application choosing less commands. Once optimized, the application is saved in a temporary memory 207 . The process then creates a control file 208 which contains in a structured form information regarding number of tags used, number assigned to current tag (to distinguish the tags from each other), number of applications saved, location of each application, indication of parsed applications with reference to tag number and starting and ending memory blocks, control information regarding unique identifiers of authorized readers to run each applications, access controls to each applications, tag number and memory location of data required by each application, and any other relevant information required to access and run the applications. One control file is created for each tag containing parsed or grouped applications, with the difference between control files being that a different tag number is stored in each control file to be able to distinguish them from one another. The control file 208 is then stored in a predefined location in the tag 116 and the corresponding application is saved in the memory block assigned 117 ( 118 and 119 if more applications are stored). In addition, if application data has been entered by the user, it is then stored in the memory block assigned for this purpose 120 . This operation is repeated for each additional tag 109 , 110 required by the number of applications or parsed applications. The use of memory blocks in each tag may be conveniently assigned differently, where applications are grouped in one or more tags and application data in other tag or tags. [0083] FIG. 3 discloses the setting of a typical RFID reader device 300 implied in the preferred embodiment, incorporating a central processing unit (CPU) 301 , a memory module 302 , a display 303 , a communications module 304 , a RFID reader-writer 305 , and input/output means such as a keyboard (not shown) and input/output electronic connectors (I/O) 306 controlled by the CPU 301 . An operating system (OS) (not shown) residing in the memory module 302 , controls the operation of the RFID reader device 300 . A software application for reading, interpreting and executing applications stored in tags and which incorporates principles of the present invention (SW 2 ) 313 is stored in the memory module 302 and run by the CPU 301 . Another software application (normal RFID application) used for “normal” handling of RFID data (not shown) is also stored in the memory module 302 and run by the CPU 301 automatically or upon command by a user. The RFID reader device 300 is linked to a remote index 310 via an enterprise server 307 , a mobile gateway 308 , or an external network which can be the internet 309 . The I/Os 306 provide the RFID reader device 300 with connection to sensors 311 such as sensors of location (such as global positioning technology (GPS) devices), temperature, pressure, chemicals, radiation, etc. The RFID reader-writer 305 operates in a similar fashion to the one described previously regarding FIG. 1 . [0084] SW 2 313 is adapted to work under the OS controlling the operation of the RFID reader device 300 . The method to do the said adaptation consists of mapping, for each command included in the command set used by SW 1 112 , a corresponding command recognized by the OS, and creating a correspondence index (not shown) that can be used to interpret the command used by SW 1 112 to create the application into the command recognized by the OS. In addition, SW 2 is adapted to interact with the OS in a fashion such that when a “read tag” command is issued to the OS by the normal RFID application, the execution of the normal RFID application is interrupted and command is handed to SW 2 . [0085] FIG. 4 discloses the method used in the RFID reader device for reading an running applications. The RFID reader device 300 is activated 401 and a read command is issued 402 by the normal RFID application. The execution of the normal RFID application is interrupted and a command is given to read the tag's ID, as it would be read by the normal RFID application, and in addition, a command is given to the RFID reader to read 403 the control file 116 from the tag 108 . The method then verifies if the control file is valid 104 . In the event it is not valid, the program hands over control to the normal RFID application 405 . In the event the control file is a valid one, the method proceeds with the application interpreter process 406 and 500 described in FIG. 5 . The program uses the control file to identify the application controls that may restrict the use of the application and performs the controls if required, and proceeds to identify the number of applications stored in the tag or tags 501 , identify the execution order 502 , identify the tag number and memory locations where the applications and related data are stored 503 , and based on the information gathered proceeds to read the allowed application 504 , decompress it 505 by reversing the algorithm used for compression by SW 1 112 , and storing the decompressed file in a temporary file 506 . If more than one application is allowed or required for execution (as per the controls defined by SW 1 in the control file), the process of reading 504 , decompressing 505 and storing 506 is repeated. The method then proceeds to read 507 and interpret 508 the commands into OS recognizable commands using the library mapped when adapting the software to the OS, and stores the command in a memory stack 509 . The interpretation process is repeated until all commands have been interpreted and stored in the memory stack. The program then issues the OS an execute command of the application 510 . Back in FIG. 4 , the loaded RFID application runs and may issue commands to write data to tag or retrieve data or other application file 407 assisted with data provided by the control file, may interact with a tag application (application embedded in a tag with cpu) 408 , or interact 409 with data read via I/Os 306 originated by sensors 311 or other I/O devices 312 . In addition, the application may interact with enterprise applications 410 either directly (store or retrieve commands) or by invoking code from the remote index 412 , accessed via Internet 411 either directly from the RFID reader device 300 or via the enterprise application 410 . [0086] The invention has been described in terms of particular embodiments. Other embodiments are within the scope of the invention, including the following: [0087] An aspect of the invention is running SW 1 from a custom chip embedded in a PC card or in a device attached to a PC, and have the program SW 1 accessed from the PC. [0088] Another aspect of the invention is to have SW 1 operate as a compiler or having it replaced by a compiler of a high level language that creates the application as an executable file compatible with the OS of the RFID reader device, and have SW 2 to cause the execution of the executable file as is. [0089] Another aspect is to have SW 1 accessed and operated remotely via internet. [0090] Another aspect is SW 1 always using the same specific block of memory to store the control file and SW 2 always looking for the control file in the same specific block of memory. [0091] Another aspect of SW 1 is that it tests and optimizes the application before storing it in the tag, and checks the application's size to have it fit the available memory in the tag. [0092] Another aspect is SW 1 encrypting the applications so that they can be run only when the correct decryption key is entered into SW 2 . [0093] Another aspect is SW 1 parsing one or more applications over multiple tags to overcome the constraint of limited memory of tags. [0094] Another aspect of SW 1 is that it stores in the tags additional data files for use by the applications, it includes the location and control information relative to this data files in the control file, it interacts with and programs the OS of cpu-enabled tags to set conditional access to this data and it programs the application for use of the conditional access. [0095] Another aspect of SW 1 is that it can use Java or Javacard Java applets as applications to be stored in the tags and parse them over several tags if necessary. [0096] Another aspect is the control file including commands that direct SW 2 how to read the applications when they are parsed over several tags. [0097] Another aspect is the control file including commands that direct SW 2 on whether to interpret the applications commands into commands recognized by the OS of the RFID reader devices, or cause to execute it as an executable file. [0098] Another aspect is the control file including commands that direct SW 2 in which order to execute the applications. [0099] Another aspect is the control file including commands that direct SW 2 how to condition or restrict access to the applications. [0100] Another aspect is the control file including information on the location and access restrictions of additional data stored in the tags that may be required by the applications depending on the reader device that runs them. [0101] Another aspect of the control file is that includes security features that combine with security features of SW 2 to authenticate the origin of the applications, as a means to avoid that software viruses are loaded into the devices. [0102] Another aspect of the control file is that it may be located using predefined identifiers instead of using a predetermined location. [0103] Another aspect of SW 1 is that it stores in each tag where one or more applications are stored or parsed, a control file that contains control information about the whole set of tags, so that SW 2 can run the applications in the proper order notwithstanding the order in which the tags are read. [0104] Another aspect is SW 2 accessing the device's OS to control external devices connected to the RFID reader device, such as sensors, and create a set of commands understood by SW 2 such that each command in the set is mapped to a corresponding command used by the OS to operate the external device and the set is used by SW 1 when creating the applications, so that when the applications are loaded and run they can interact with the sensor devices. [0105] Another aspect of SW 2 is that it creates an internal memory stack in the device's memory where it stores all the applications read from the tags, and it validates the applications before running them. [0106] Another aspect of SW 2 is that it enables the applications to interact with the OS of the tag in order to control the tag applications for tags with CPUs. [0107] Another aspect of SW 2 is accessing the control file by interaction with the tag OS. [0108] Another aspect of SW 2 is causing the execution of a tag application commanded by the OS of the tag. [0109] Another aspect of the applications created is that they may be configured as a processing module of a Savant, as defined in “Auto-ID Savant Specification 1.0” [0110] Another aspect of the applications created is that they may be configured to run independently from Savants, as defined in “Auto-ID Savant Specification 1.0” [0111] Another aspect of the applications created is that they may be configured to remotely invoke APIs, Bolt-Ons, DLLs, Function Libraries, Middleware functions and Template Libraries using an index accessed via internet. [0112] Another aspect of SW 2 is that it can be adapted to interact with a Java Virtual Machine so that the SW 2 uses the control file to direct precedence of execution of Javacard applets read from the tags and to regroup parsed Javacard applets so that they can be executed by the Java Virtual Machine. [0113] Another aspect of the invention is that it is tag type (active/passive) independent, tag RF frequency independent and RFID protocol independent and correspondingly independent of type, frequency and protocol used in RFID readers. [0114] Another aspect of the invention is that it can be implemented in devices incorporating a RFID reader which do not have a specific RFID application running, only SW 2 . [0115] Another aspect of the invention is that applications can be programmed to run only in pre-authorized devices by doing authentication checks such as mac address verification, reader ID verification or other unique identifiers of the devices. [0116] Another aspect of the invention is that SW 2 can use an application read from the tag to control the RFID reader to correctly read from the tag an otherwise unrecognizable ID format, for example a new EPC standard. [0117] Another aspect of the invention is that SW 1 compresses, encrypts and stores in tags, data files containing data required for EDI documents, using a unique set of identifiers stored at the beginning of the file or in a control file to identify the type of document and EDI standard used, and writes corresponding information in the control file stored in the tag, so that SW 2 can produce the corresponding EDI document. [0118] Another aspect of the invention is that SW 2 is stored and runs in electronic controllers used for controlling equipment or devices, and which are equipped with RFID readers, so that a tag application can be used to modify the controlling software. [0119] Another aspect of the invention is that the application loaded and run by SW 2 itself becomes a kind of SW 2 that retrieves and executes the application from another remote source, such as an URL. [0120] Another aspect of the invention are tags which at the time of manufacturing or at a later stage prior to the use of SW 1 , are masked or programmed with a control file and/or one or more applications for use in conjunction with SW 2 , or a similar program running in RFID reader devices, for the execution of the application read from the tag. [0121] Another aspect of the invention and of the subsequent aspects indicated above is the use of smart cards instead of RFID tags to store the applications, and use smart card reader devices instead of RFID reader devices. [0122] The invention contemplates that there exist other embodiments of SW 1 regarding mapping and assignment of tag memory areas for storage, creation of command sets, selection of commands, selection from remote index, compression, test and optimization, configuration or format of the control file and storage allocation for the control file all which are within the scope of the present invention. The invention also contemplates that there exist other embodiments of the control file that may include additional data, a different format or a different positioning strategy, all which are within the scope of the present invention. In addition the invention contemplates that there exist other embodiments of SW 2 regarding the process indicated in FIG. 4 and FIG. 5 , all which are within the scope of the present invention.

Method and apparatus for creating, storing, loading and running programs used by devices incorporating a microprocessor and integrating or connected to RFID readers, such as data collection stations, data collection terminals, access gates, cellular phones and electrical or electronic devices, which may incorporate sensors for determining temperature, location, weight, or any other physical or chemical characteristic of the area o material surrounding the sensor.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to a capacitor input type rectifier having a circuit for preventing or reducing inrush current, and more particularly to a capacitor input type rectifier having a circuit for preventing or minimizing inrush current by applying power when the input current becomes a minimum by detecting the phase of an AC voltage at the time of applying the AC power. RELATED ART A rectifier is a circuit for converting an AC current into a DC current. Rectifier circuits are classified as full-wave rectifiers and half-wave rectifiers according to the rectifying method; and into a capacitor input type, a choke input type, a phi (π) input type, and the like, according to the smoothing function. The DC output which is output from the rectifying circuit has a ripple component and thus a voltage regulation of the DC output is necessary, such that a smoothing circuit following the rectifying circuit is required to remove this unbalance and output a smooth DC with no ripple component or oscillations. With respect to such smoothing circuits, there is a capacitor input type in which a capacitor is directly connected into an output portion of the rectifying circuit; a choke input type in which the capacitor is connected after the choke is connected into an output portion of the rectifying circuit; and a phi (π) input type in which the above two types are combined. The capacitor input type has a high voltage at the time of outputting DC and has a small ripple component. However, it has the disadvantage that an inrush current flows when the circuit is started. However, the choke input type has a low voltage unlike the capacitor input type at the time of outputting the DC signal. But since it has advantages in that the voltage regulation is low and the amount of the inrush current is small, generally it is used for a large current circuit. FIG. 1 shows a conventional rectifier of the capacitor input type with rectifying block 2 connected to an AC voltage source 1, and a smoothing block 3 is connected to an output terminal of the above-mentioned rectifying block 2. The rectifying block 2 is a bridge rectifying circuit formed by four diodes. The smoothing block 3 is constituted by a thermistor TH1 connected to the output terminal of the rectifying block 2, and an input type capacitor C1 connected to the above-mentioned thermistor TH1. An operation of the conventional rectifier of the capacitor input type according to the above-mentioned construction is as follows. If the switch SW of the AC voltage source 1 is closed (turned ON), and the voltage of the AC voltage source is applied to a bridge rectifying circuit 2, then the AC voltage is rectified by the bridge rectifying circuit 2. The voltage rectified by the bridge rectifying circuit 2 is a pulsating voltage. If a pulsating voltage is applied to the thermistor TH1 of the smoothing block 3 the small amount of the pulsating voltage is applied to the input type capacitor C1 by a voltage drop through the thermistor TH1 and then is smoothed by the input type capacitor C1. If the resistance value of the thermistor TH1 becomes gradually small, because of a temperature rise in accordance with the power dissipation of the thermistor TH1, the voltage drop across the thermistor TH1 becomes small and a large amount of the pulsating voltage is smoothed by the input type capacitor C1. In the case where the temperature of the thermistor Th1 rises and the resistance value of the thermistor TH1 becomes small, if the switch SW1 is closed (turned off) and immediately is turned ON the resistance of the thermistor TH1 remains small and so a large amount of inrush current due to an initial momentary short flows through the input type capacitor C1. Accordingly, to prevent the inrush current, as just described, and only when the resistance value of the thermistor TH1 restores to an original state, is the switch SW turned ON. As explained above, in the capacitor input type rectifier of the prior art, a power type thermistor was added to an output portion of the rectifying circuit to prevent the inrush current. A thermistor represents a thermally sensitive resistor such that the resistance value varies in accordance with the temperature variation. There is a negative temperature characteristic thermistor wherein the resistance value drops in accordance with a temperature rise, and to the contrary, a positive temperature characteristic thermistor in which the resistance value rises in accordance with the temperature rise. Generally, the thermistor that is used has a negative temperature characteristic. Accordingly, if such a thermistor is used, the AC voltage is rectified before being input into the smoothing circuit, and an initial voltage drop across the thermistor occurs. Gradually, the temperature of the thermistor rises because of the heat generated by the resistance of the thermistor, and the resistance value of the thermistor falls. As a result of that, the inrush current caused by the initial momentary short of the input type capacitor can be prevented to a certain extent. However, the above-described conventional capacitor input type rectifier has the following disadvantages. After the capacitor input type rectifier operates normally, if the supply of the AC voltage is suspended and the supply of the AC voltage is immediately begun, the resistance value of the thermistor remains small, because the temperature of the thermistor does not drop quickly. Accordingly, the inrush current caused by the initial momentary short of the input type capacitor can not be prevented. Therefore, there is an inconvenience in that an input type capacitor having a rated capacity is not able to prevent the inrush current. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION A primary object of the invention is to provide a capacitor input type rectifier having a circuit for preventing or minimizing an inrush current generated by initiation of rectification. It is another object of the present invention to provide a capacitor input type rectifier having a circuit for preventing a inrush current which improves product reliability by preventing the breakdown of parts due to the flow of a sudden inrush current. To accomplish the above objects, the present invention is constituted by an Ac voltage source; a phase detection circuit is connected to the above the AC voltage source and detects the phase of the AC power supply; a rectifying circuit is connected to the phase detection circuit and rectifies the AC voltage according to the output of the phase detection circuit; and a smoothing circuit connected to the rectifying circuit is and smoothes the output of the rectifying circuit. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The above objects, advantages and features of the invention are believed to be readily apparent from the following description of a preferred embodiment of the best mode of carrying out the invention when taken in conjunction with the following drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 is a circuit diagram showing a prior art capacitor input type rectifier. FIG. 2 is a detailed circuit diagram illustrating a capacitor input type rectifier according to the present invention having a circuit for preventing inrush current; and FIG. 3 is a waveform chart of the phase detection circuit for detecting the phase of an AC voltage according to an embodiment of the present invention. Throughout the figures the same reference numerals are applied to identical components. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT FIG. 2 is a detailed circuit diagram showing a capacitor input type rectifier having a circuit for preventing inrush current according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention. As shown in FIG. 2, a capacitor input type rectifier having a circuit for preventing inrush current comprises: an AC voltage source 1; a phase detection circuit 4 for detecting the phase of an AC voltage with the input terminals thereof connected to an output of the AC voltage source 1; a phase control rectifying circuit 5, the input terminals of which are connected to the output terminals of the AC voltage source 1 and the phase detection circuit 5 for detecting the AC voltage; and a smoothing circuit 3 the input terminals of which are connected to an output terminal of the phase control rectifying circuit 5. The AC voltage source 1 comprises an AC voltage source; a switch SW with one side terminal connected to the AC voltage source; and a fuse Fl with one side terminal connected to the other side of the switch SW. Also, the phase detection circuit 4 for detecting the AC voltage comprises a transformation rectifying section 41 connected to the AC voltage source 1 and which outputs a rectified voltage after transforming the AC voltage into DC voltage; and a comparing section 42 connected to the transformation rectifying section 41, and which compares the output voltage of the transformation rectifying section 41 with a reference voltage and outputs the result thereof into rectifying block 41. The transformation rectifying section 41 comprises a transformer TRN1 with a first coil connected to the output terminal of the AC voltage block 1; and a bridge rectifying circuit with an input terminal is connected to the second coil of the transformer TRN1. And the comparing section 42 comprises; a resistor R3 connected between the output terminals of the transformation rectifying section 41; an operational amplifier OP with a noninverting terminal connected to a reference voltage Vref, and an inverting terminal connected to the output terminal of the transformation rectifying section 41; a diode D1 which an anode connected to the inverting terminal of the operational amplifier OP; a capacitor C2 connected between a cathode of the diode D1 and a ground terminal of the operational amplifier OP. In the embodiment of the present invention, a bridge rectifying circuit is used as a transformation rectifying section, however, such use is for purposes of description and it is to be understood that the invention is not limited to the specific bridge rectifying circuit described herein. Additionally, a phase control rectifying circuit 5 comprises: a bridge rectifying circuit consisting of two diodes and two silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRs); resistors R1, R2 respectively connected to gate terminals of the SCR. The above SCR is a rectifying element having a property that once the SCR is turned ON, and if the current flowing in the SCR is kept at more than the cut in current, the SCR is conditioned to be turned ON, regardless of the existence or non-existence of the gate current, and if the SCR is conditioned to be turned OFF, the gate signal is restored to control the SCR A smoothing circuit 3 consists of; a thermistor TH1 with one side terminal connected to the output of a phase control rectifying circuit 5; and a capacitor C1 connected between the other terminal of the thermistor TH1 and ground. The operation of a capacitor input type rectifier having a circuit for preventing inrush current according to the embodiment of the present invention embodied as described above is as follows. If the voltage of an AC voltage source is assumed to have the waveform as shown FIG. 3A is input to the transformer TRN1 of a transformation rectifying section 41, the transformer TRN1 transforms the AC voltage into a low voltage of 15 V, and then outputs the transformed voltage to a bridge rectifying circuit B. FIG. 3B illustrates the voltage transformed by transformer TRN1. If the voltage having the waveform shown in FIG. 3B and transformed into a +15 V DC output is applied to the bridge rectifying circuit B, the applied voltage is rectified by the bridge rectifying circuit B to produce a pulsating voltage which is then applied to resistor R3 of a comparing section 42. If the pulsating voltage is applied to the resistor R3, the diode D1 is turned ON. And as the capacitor C2 is charged, the power is supplied to the operational amplifier OP, and thus the operational amplifier OP is operated. The voltage applied to the resistor R3 is compared with a reference voltage Vref, and in the situation where the voltage applied to the resistor R3 is lower than the reference voltage Vref, a pulse is output from an operational amplifier OP. FIG. 3C shows a pulsating voltage applied to a resistor R3, and a reference voltage Vref is input to an operational amplifier OP. In the embodiment of the present invention, a reference voltage Vref is 2.5 V; however, the technical scope of the present invention is not limited to this voltage and the reference voltage Vref can be varied in order to precisely detect the phase of an AC voltage. Also, FIG. 3D shows the output signal of operational amplifier OP. If the SCR of the phase control rectifying circuit 5 is turned ON by the output signal of the operational amplifier OP having the waveform of FIG. 3D, the voltage signal of the AC voltage of the AC voltage source 1 starts to be rectified. If the voltage signal of the AC voltage decreases so that the SCR o the phase control rectifying circuit 5 is turned OFF, the output signal of the phase detection circuit 4 for detecting the AC voltage turns ON the SCR of the phase control rectifying circuit 5. As a result, the voltage of the AC voltage is rectified continuously. The output signal of the rectified pulsating voltage of the phase control rectifying circuit 5 is output to the smoothing circuit 3, the pulsating voltage is smoothed by the capacitor C1 of the smoothing circuit 3. As shown in FIG. 2, the comparing section 42 of the phase detection circuit 4 for detecting the AC voltage outputs the pulsating signal, and so makes the SCR of the phase control rectifying circuit 5 turn ON when the voltage value of a sine wave signal, the AC voltage is the smallest phase, namely, when the phase angles are 0, 180, 360 and 540 degrees. Accordingly, only when the AC voltage of the AC voltage source is the smallest is the phase control rectifying circuit 5 allowed to operate. Thus, the inrush current caused by the initial sudden short of the input type capacitor C1 of the smoothing circuit 3 can be minimized. As explained herein, the capacitor input type rectifier having an effect of preventing an inrush current caused by the initial sudden shorting of the input type capacitor can be provided by starting to rectification, when the AC voltage is the smallest in the embodiment of the present invention. The effect achieved by the present invention can be applied to all power supply circuits using capacitor input type rectifying and smoothing circuitry. The above description is presented solely for the purpose of describing the invention and those skilled in the rectifier art will readily recognize modifications, alterations and changes to the structure described herein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention which is too be determined by the appended claims and the equivalents to which the claimed invention is entitled.

A capacitor input type rectifier having a circuit for preventing an inrush current uses an AC phase detector for detecting the time that an AC voltage input has the smallest phase angle and provides an output signal indicative thereof to a phase control rectifier for initiating rectification of the AC voltage to provide a rectified output to a smoothing circuit for smoothing the rectified output of the phase control rectifier.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to an ink employed for an ink jet printing apparatus, and particularly to an ink for an electrostatic ink jet printing which is used in an electrostatic ink jet printing apparatus cohering and discharging color material particles in the ink due to an electrostatic force so as to apply a printing to a recording medium. BACKGROUND INFORMATION An increased attention is recently paid to a non-impact printing technique in view that a generation of a sound at a recording time is significantly as small as can be ignored. In particular, an ink jet method which can print on a plain paper at a high speed by using a comparatively simple mechanism is a significantly useful printing technique, various kinds of techniques have been suggested, and a technique which is suitable for a high speed printing, a high resolution and a full color printing has been eagerly going to be researched. Among them, there is representatively a multi nozzle type which prints a plurality of dots in parallel, for example, a bubble jet method which discharges an ink drop due to a pressure of a steam generated by a heat of a heat generating body and a piezoelectric method which discharges an ink drop due to a mechanical pressure pulse generated by a piezoelectric element. However, there is a problem that the conventional ink jet printer is not suitable for improving a resolution. That is, in the bubble jet method which employs the pressure of the steam, it is hard to generate an ink drop having a diameter smaller than 20 μm, and in the piezoelectric method which employs the pressure generated by the piezoelectric element, it is hard to produce a head having a high resolution due to a problem on a processing technology since the recording head has a complex structure. Further, the ink employed in the conventional ink jet method has a lot of technical problems. In this case, as characteristics required in the ink for the ink jet, firstly, an even image having a high density without a bleeding and a photographic fog can be obtained on a paper, secondly, a weather resistance of the image is good, thirdly, a drying property of the ink is good on the paper, and fourthly, no clogging is generated and a discharge stability and a discharge response are excellent. In order to obtain these characteristics, there has been proposed various kinds of electrostatic ink jet methods which apply a voltage on an electrode array formed in a thin film and employ an electrostatic force so as to discharge the ink. Here, a description will be given of a technique disclosed in Japanese Patent National Publication of translated version 7-502218, as the conventional electrostatic type ink jet method. The conventional electrostatic ink jet technique in accordance with the publication is structured such as to apply a voltage having the same polarity as that of a charged color material particle to an electrode at a front end of a slit so as to form an aggregate of the color material particles and discharge the aggregate of the color material particles from a front end of a printing electrode. Then, in accordance with the technique, since the color material particles are discharged in a cohered state, an ink having a little solvent is formed on the paper as a dot, so that a printing having a high density and a less bleeding can be realized. Further, since the solvent is reduced, the ink is quickly dried on the printing medium. Further, since a pigment is employed for the color material particles of the ink as is different from the other ink jet methods which employ a dye ink, it is possible to obtain an image having an improved weather resistance. Further, in the conventional electrostatic type ink jet technique, since the printing head is structured such as to be formed in a slit shape which does not require independent nozzles at every dots, it is effective for preventing and repairing a clogging which causes a great problem for putting the ink jet head to a practical use, so that the discharge stability is always good and a reliability can be maintained. Further, the conventional electrostatic ink jet technique can easily form a printing dot having a diameter about 10 to 20 μm in accordance with a length of a printing signal pulse, and can also form a large printing dot having a diameter equal to or more than 100 μm. Accordingly, since it is possible to achieve a multi value area gradation as well as a high resolution, it can be said to be an ink jet method which is most suitable for obtaining a high resolution and a full color. Hereinafter, a description will be given of a structure and an ink discharge process of an electrostatic type ink jet head, and a characteristic of an ink for the electrostatic type ink jet. In this case, hereinafter, the ink for the electrostatic type ink jet is simply referred to as an ink. FIG. 1 is a schematic view which shows a structure of an electrostatic type ink jet head, FIG. 2 is a schematic view which shows a structure of an inner portion of the electrostatic type ink jet head shown in FIG. 1, FIG. 3 is a side cross sectional view of the electrostatic type ink jet head shown in FIG. 1, and FIGS. 4 to 7 are schematic views which show a discharge motion of an ink performed by the electrostatic type ink jet head shown in FIG. 1 in a subsequent manner. As illustrated, a printing head has a lower casing 7 and an upper casing 8 which are bonded to each other so as to be integrally formed. A slit hole 2 is formed at a front end of the printing head, and a plurality of printing electrodes 1 which are driven by a printing electrode driver so as to discharge an ink drop are provided in such a manner as to extend inward from the slit hole 2 . A front end of the printing electrode 1 s formed in a convex shape and is placed so as o protrude from the slit hole 2 corresponding to discharge hole at a degree of 50 to 200 μm so that the printing electrode 1 can concentrate an electric field to the ink existing near the front end of the printing electrode 1 and a stable discharge can be performed by stably forming a meniscus. Further, the printing electrode 1 is constituted by a lead wire 3 for applying a signal voltage, and a tab wiring substrate 4 which is integrally formed with a pad (not shown) for being electrically connected to the printing electrode driver. An ink tank 6 in which an ink is charged is formed within the printing head by an opposing space between the lower casing 7 and the upper casing 8 so as to be communicated with the slit hole 2 . A migration electrode 5 is provided on an inner surface of the ink tank 6 for applying an electrophoresis in a direction of the slit hole 2 to the color material particle within the ink tank 6 and increasing a density of the color material near the slit hole 2 . Here, the tab wiring substrate 4 and the migration electrode 5 mentioned above are bonded to the lower casing 7 . Further, the pad is bonded to an FPC wiring substrate (not shown). In this case, a matrix circuit, a driver IC and the like are mounted on the FPC wiring substrate. As shown in FIG. 4, in this electrostatic type ink jet head, in a state that the ink is charged within the ink tank 6 and within a slit-like ink flow passage, the ink forms a meniscus 9 within a periphery of the slit hole 2 due to a surface tension. Then, since a back pressure about ±100 Pa is applied to the ink within the ink tank 6 , the meniscus 9 is formed in a state of gently protruding from the ink discharge hole. In this case, a printing paper 10 corresponding to a printing medium for the ink is arranged in a direction of discharging the ink, and an opposing electrode 11 which discharges the ink toward the printing paper 10 due to an electrostatic force is arranged on a back surface of the printing paper 10 . In this case, in the case that a color material particle 12 is charged in a positive potential, a negative voltage about −1 kV is applied to the opposing electrode 11 at a time of printing, whereby a potential difference with respect to the printing electrode 1 is controlled. Further, as a voltage applied to the printing electrode 1 , a positive voltage in a range between 200 and 1000 V is used. However, a printing voltage has no upper limit, and is generally determined in accordance with a specification of a usable driver IC. Since the driver IC tends to be expensive as the drive voltage becomes higher, in the case of using an electrostatic ink jet printer as a wide use printer for an office and a personal use, an inexpensive printer can be provided when a signal voltage is made lower. A description will be given of an ink discharge operation by the electrostatic type ink jet head having the structure mentioned above with reference to FIGS. 4 to 7 . FIG. 4 shows a state that a printing is not performed. A voltage is applied to the opposing electrode 11 and a voltage is not applied to the printing electrode 1 . In this state, the meniscus 9 is formed in the slit hole 2 in such a manner as to gently protrude along a shape of a front end of the printing electrode. Then, at a time of printing, the charged color material particle 12 within the ink tank 6 is performed an electrophoresis in a direction of the slit hole 2 corresponding to the front end of the printing electrode 1 when a voltage equal to or more than the printing voltage is applied to the migration electrode 5 (refer to FIGS. 2 and 3 ). At this time, when a signal pulse voltage is applied to the printing electrode 1 by the printing electrode driver, an electric field is concentrated to the front end of the printing electrode 1 and the color material particle 12 is cohered, so that the meniscus 9 constituted by the color material particle 12 having a high density and a little amount of solvent starts deforming. Then, as shown in FIG. 5, the meniscus 9 is formed in an ink drop shape due to the electrostatic force and grows toward the opposing electrode 11 . Then, finally, as shown in FIG. 6, an ink drop 13 is separated from the meniscus 9 and is discharged in a state of a liquid drop. When the signal pulse voltage is turned off, the discharged ink drop is attached to the printing paper 10 arranged between the printing electrode 1 and the opposing electrode 11 , as shown in FIG. 7 . Finally, the ink is heated and fixed to the printing paper 10 by a heater (not shown), thereby printing on the printing paper 10 . When the discharge of a desired ink drop 13 is finished, the color material particle 11 within the ink tank 6 moves in a direction of the slit hole 2 , whereby the color material particle 11 is supplied near the printing electrode 1 and as shown in FIG. 7, the meniscus 9 of the printing electrode 1 is formed in the slit hole 2 so as to gently protrude along the front end shape of the printing electrode 1 in the same manner as that of an initial state before discharging the ink. Thereafter, the operation of discharging the ink mentioned above is repeated, and the printing is continuously performed. The ink discharge in the electrostatic type ink jet head mentioned above is characterized by increasing a density of the color material particle 12 near the discharge position so as to take out the ink having a high color material particle density. Then, since the ink which is taken out includes the color material particle 12 having a high density and the same polarity, the ink is separated due to an electrostatic repulsion between the color material particles 12 so as to form fine ink drops and is discharged toward the opposing electrode 11 . The electrostatic type ink jet heat mentioned above is characterized by injecting the color material particle 12 in a state of making the density of the color material particle 12 in the ink higher than that of the original ink, thereby improving a selecting property of generating the ink drop from each of the printing electrodes 1 by utilizing the difference in density of the color material particle. Next, a description will be given of a characteristic of a conventional ink employed for the electrostatic type ink jet head. For example, in Japanese Patent National Publication of translated version 8-512069, there is disclosed an ink composition for an ink jet which contains a solvent having an electric resistance equal to or more than 10 9 Ωcm, a marking particle being insoluble and capable of being electrically charged, a particle charging agent, and is structured such as to be indispensable for the ink used in the conventional electrostatic type ink jet head. That is, the conventional ink is characterized by using the ink in which the color material particle charged in the solvent having a high volume resistivity is dispersed. The details thereof is not disclosed in the publication, however, generally, for example, there is employed an isoparaffin hydro carbon, a silicone oil or the like is employed for the solvent, and an ink constituted by a color material structured such as to contain a color material particle such as a carbon black or the like on a binder made of a resin or a wax or a surface, a dispersing agent, an electric charge controlling agent and the like. Here, a dielectric solvent having a high electric resistivity is required for the solvent. This is because the electric field applied to the ink can reach the color material particle via the solvent by employing the dielectric solvent. Then, in order to perform an electrophoresis the color material particle, it is necessary to charge the color material particle itself. Since a fixed liquid drop amount of color material particle is discharged from the ink by utilizing the electrostatic repulsion, a static amount of the charge is required. Further, the ink contains an addition agent. That is, for example, adding a dispersion assisting agent to a printing liquid, the color material particle can stably disperse in the solvent without being cohered. Further, by adding the electric charge controlling agent to the ink, it is possible to improve an electric charge characteristic of the color material particle. As mentioned above, the ink can be obtained by mixing the resin, the coloring agent and the particle electric charging agent and dispersing the color material particle obtained by pulverizing to a desired diameter of the particle, in the solvent together with a little amount of dispersion assisting agent. Further, in Japanese Patent Unexamined Publication No. 9-193389, there is disclosed an ink adjusted so as to have an electric resistivity equal to or more than 10 8 Ωcm by dispersing a developing particle having a predetermined polarity, a dielectric solvent having an electric resistivity equal to or more than 10 10 Ωcm, an ink constituted by a developing particle having a ζ potential equal to or more than 60 mV, an average diameter of the particle between 0.01 and 5 μm and an electric resistivity equal to or more than 10 8 Ωcm, and the like. In the ink mentioned above, since no bleeding is generated on various kinds of printing medium, it is suitable for a high quality printing. Further, in Japanese Patent Unexamined Publication No. 8-291267, there is disclosed an ink in which an amount of specific image (Q/M) of a charged particle is between 10 and 1000 μC/g and an electric resistance of an ink composition is equal to or more than 10 10 Ωcm. In the ink mentioned above, since the ink is discharged by a low applied voltage, it is suitable for a printing having a high image density, a high contrast and a high resolution. However, in the conventional ink mentioned above, there is the following problems at a time of cohering the color material particles so as to discharge. That is, since the electrostatic type ink jet is structured such as to collect the color material particles having a high density to the front end of the printing electrode due to an electrophoresis, it takes a comparatively long time to perform an electrophoresis the color material particles so as to reach near the printing electrode. Accordingly, in the case of printing in a high printing frequency, there is a case that the color material particles are insufficiently supplied to the printing electrode, thereby being discharged in a low density of the color material or not being discharged. Then, as a result thereof, a printing density becomes light and a dispersion of a diameter of the printed dot becomes large, thereby deteriorating a printing quality. However, the conventional ink mentioned above defines a material value of the ink in view of a high quality image. That is, since there is no description concerning the material value of the ink which corresponds to a factor of the printing frequency, it is not said that the ink takes an improvement of the printing frequency into consideration. Then, in order to realize the ink which can obtain a high quality image even by printing at the high printing frequency, it is necessary to define the material value of the ink in view of the printing frequency, for example, in view of increasing a speed of the electrophoresis of the color material particle so as to supply the color material particle near the printing electrode at a high speed and in a stable manner. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Accordingly, an object of the present invention is to provide an ink for an electrostatic type ink jet in which a high quality image can be stably obtained by printing in a high density even at a high printing frequency. In order to solve the problem, in accordance with the present invention, there is provided an ink for an electrostatic type ink jet comprising an ink tank which holds an ink obtained by dispersing a color material particle in an insulative solvent, a slit hole or a nozzle hole which is formed so as to be communicated with the ink tank and from which the ink is discharged, a migration electrode which transfers the color material particle in the ink due to an electrophoresis, and a printing electrode which discharges the color material particle and the insulative solvent migrated by the migration electrode from the slit hole or the nozzle hole, wherein the improvement comprises an insulative solvent having a volume resistivity equal to or more than 10 10 Ωcm, a color material particular which can be electrically charged, and an electric charge controlling agent which applies a function of electrically charging to a predetermined polarity to the color material particular, and the following material values A to E are provided: A: a volume resistivity of the ink for the electrostatic type ink jet is 10 9 to 10 12 Ωcm; B: an average diameter of the color material particle is between 0.1 and 2 μm; C: an absolute value of a ratio (ζ electric potential/viscosity) between a ζ electric potential and a viscosity of the color material particular is 10 to 100 (mV/cp); D: a viscosity of the ink for the electrostatic type ink jet is 2 to 20 cp; and E: an absolute value of the ζ electric potential of the color material particle is 30 mV to 200 mV. Accordingly, it is possible to stably obtain a high quality image by printing in a high density even at a high printing frequency. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a schematic view which shows a structure of an electrostatic type ink jet head; FIG. 2 is a schematic view which shows a structure of an inner portion of the electrostatic type ink jet head shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is a side cross sectional view of the electrostatic type ink jet head shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 4 is a schematic view which shows a part of an ink discharging motion by the electrostatic ink jet head shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 5 is a schematic view which shows a subsequent ink discharging motion by the electrostatic ink jet head shown in FIG. 1 after the motion in FIG. 4; FIG. 6 is a schematic view which shows a subsequent ink discharging motion by the electrostatic ink jet head shown in FIG. 1 after the motion in FIG. 5; FIG. 7 is a schematic view which shows a subsequent ink discharging motion by the electrostatic ink jet head shown in FIG. 1 after the motion in FIG. 6; and FIG. 8 is a schematic view which shows a structure of an electrostatic type ink jet head which is employed for estimating an ink in accordance with the present embodiment. DETAILED DESCRIPTION In order to perform a high density printing even at a high printing frequency, the inventors of the present invention pays attention to a material of an ink. Then, an ink in which a printing frequency is high and a high density printing can be performed is realized by particularly defining a proper range of an ink material value which gives an influence to a high density printing and a high printing frequency. For example, the ink material value which acts on the printing frequency is as follows. That is, a discharge motion of the electrostatic type ink jet head can be explained by three stages of motions which are explained in the conventional art. A first stage corresponds to a stage of supplying the color material particle to the front end of the printing electrode due to an electrophoresis. In order to increase the printing frequency at this stage, it is necessary to make a speed of the electrophoresis high so as to supply the color material particle near the printing electrode at a high speed. Accordingly, the ink material value which is important at this stage corresponds to a material value which is determined in accordance with the speed of the electrophoresis of the color material particle. A second stage corresponds to a stage that the color material particular forms the meniscus formed in an ink drop shape at the front end of the printing electrode. In this stage, since a density of the ink near the meniscus is substantially constant, a speed of forming the meniscus is determined in accordance with a viscosity of the ink. Accordingly, the viscosity is a most important parameter. A third stage corresponds to a stage of discharging the ink as the ink drop after forming the meniscus. In this stage, since the greater the force directing toward the opposing electrode is, the greater the surface potential of the ink drop is, the discharging speed becomes also high. Accordingly, the magnitude of the ζ electric potential of the color material particle is a most important parameter. As mentioned above, with respect to the ink material value, in particular, the ratio between the ζ electric potential applied to the printing frequency and the viscosity, the ζ electric potential and the viscosity are defined by a proper range. Further, the volume resistivity, the average diameter of the color material particular and the ratio between the ζ electric potential and the viscosity are defined by a proper range. In this case, a description of the ink material value applied to the high density printing is omitted here and will be given later. That is, the invention stated in claim 1 of the present invention is the ink used for the electrostatic type ink jet head, has the insulative solvent having the volume resistivity of at least 10 10 Ωcm, the chargeable color material particle and the electric charge controlling agent having the function of charging the color material particle to a predetermined polarity as main components, and is structured such as to be adjusted to have the following material values. That is, the volume resistivity of the ink is within the range between 10 9 and 10 12 Ωcm (hereinafter, this is referred to as “a material value A”). Further, the average diameter of the color material particle is within the range between 0.1 and 2 μm (hereinafter, this is referred to as “a material value B”). Further, the ratio (ζ electric potential/viscosity) between the ζ electric potential and the viscosity of the color material particular is within the range between 10 and 100 (mV/cp) (hereinafter, this is referred to as “a material value C”). Further, the viscosity of the ink is within the range between 2 and 20 cp (hereinafter, this is referred to “a material value D”). Further, the absolute value of the ζ electric potential of the color material particle is within the range between 30 mV and 200 mV (hereinafter, this is referred to as “a material value E”). Accordingly, there can be obtained an effect that a high quality image can be stably obtained by a high density printing even at a high printing frequency. Hereinafter, a description will be given of each of the material values of the ink mentioned above. At fist, a description will be given of the material value A. In the first place, in order to perform the high density printing, it is preferable that the volume resistivity of the ink is high. That is, in the case of using the ink having the volume resistivity less than 10 9 Ωcm, an electric charge is poured into the ink which is in contact with the printing electrode due to a high voltage applied to the printing electrode, whereby the ink near the printing electrode is charged with the electric charge. As a result, the solvent in the ink is charged with the electric charge at the same time when the color material particle is cohered near the printing electrode due to the electrophoresis, whereby the solvent is discharged together with the color material particle, so that a bleeding is generated on the printing medium and the high density printing can not be realized. However, in the case of using the ink having a volume resistivity between 10 9 and 10 12 Ωcm, it is possible to delay a time for which the ink disposed near the printing electrode is charged even when an electric charge is applied to the ink disposed near the printing electrode due to a high voltage applied to the printing electrode. As a result, since the color material particles is cohered near the printing electrode due to the electrophoresis and a lot of color material particles are discharged, it is possible to secure the high density printing. Further, in the case of the ink having a volume resistivity over 10 12 Ωcm, a time for charting the electric charge to the solvent becomes significantly late. As a result, since the solvent is significantly hard to be discharged and only the color material particles are discharged, a diameter of the printing dot becomes significantly small and the case is not actually preferable. Accordingly, it is possible to perform the high density printing by selecting the volume resistivity of the ink within a range between 10 9 and 10 12 Ωcm. Next, a description will be given of the material value B. In the case that the color material particles perform an electrophoresis, the solvent disposed near the color material particles flows together with the color material particles. Then, since a specific surface area is increased in the case that the average diameter of the color material particles is small in comparison with the case that the average diameter of the particles is large, an amount of the solvent which flows together with the color material particles is increased. In particular, in the color material particulars having the average diameter smaller than 0.1 μm, there is seen a significant reduction of a cohesion efficiency. That is, in the ink constituted by the color material having the average diameter smaller than 0.1 μm, the solvent and the color material particles can not be sufficiently separated at a time of discharging the ink drop, so that the color material particles which reach the printing medium contain a lot of solvent. Accordingly, it is impossible to realize the high density printing and a low quality image with the bleeding is obtained. Further, in the case of the color material particles having the average diameter equal to or more than 2 μm, since a dispersing property is reduced and the particles sink for a significantly short time, it is hard to apply the case to the printing apparatus. Further, a fixing property to the printing medium is also deteriorated. Accordingly, the high density printing can be performed by selecting the average diameter of the color material particles within a range between 0.1 and 2 μm. Next, a description will be given of the material value C. A migration velocity v of the color material particles can be expressed by a relation v∝εζE/η. Here, ε is a dielectric constant of an insulative solvent used for the ink. Further, ζ is an electric potential of the color material particular with respect to the insulative solvent. E is a magnitude of an electric field within the ink tank. η is a viscosity of the insulative solvent used for the ink. As is apparent from the formula, a magnitude of the migration velocity of the color material particle is dependent upon an absolute value of a ratio between the ζ electric potential and the viscosity which correspond to the material values of the ink, that is, a value of |ζ/η|. Then, when the absolute value of the ratio between the ζ electric potential and the viscosity becomes less than 10 (mV/cp), the reduction of the printing frequency becomes significant. Accordingly, the larger the absolute value of the ratio between the ζ electric potential and the viscosity is, the larger the cohesion efficiency and the supplying velocity of the color material particle to the front end of the printing electrode become, so that it is possible to stably perform the high density printing and it is also possible to increase the printing frequency. However, in the case that the absolute value of the ratio between the ζ electric potential and the viscosity becomes significantly large, the solvent of the ink is charged in a negative potential when the color material particular is charged in a positive potential, so that the electrophoresis of the solvent along the wall surface of the ink tank, that is, an electroosmotic current can not be ignored. When the absolute value of the ratio between the ζ electric potential and the viscosity is over 100 (mV/cp), a circulating convection of the solvent is generated within the ink tank due to the electroosmotic current, thereby causing a disturbance of the electrophoresis of the color material. In this case, the color material particles flow in the same manner as the circulating convection, so that the cohesion property of the color material particles to the front end of the printing electrode is deteriorated. As a result, it is impossible to realize the high density printing and the high printing frequency. Accordingly, since it is possible to increase the velocity of electrophoresis of the color material and increase the cohesion efficiency and the cohesion velocity by selecting the absolute value of the ratio between the ζ electric potential and the viscosity of the color material particle within the range between 10 and 100 (mV/cp), it is possible to perform the high density printing and increase the printing frequency. Next, a description will be given of the material value D. Since a dielectric solvent having a low polarity is employed for the solvent of the ink, the viscosity becomes small in the case that a molecular weight is small, and a binding force between the solvent molecules is also small. Accordingly, in the case that the viscosity of the ink is less than 2 cp, there occurs a phenomenon that a volatility of the solvent becomes high. The solvent having a high volatility makes a drying velocity of the ink fast. Then, in an actual use, the color material particles are attached to the printing electrode due to the drying, so that the ink drop is not discharged and the meniscus is unstably formed, whereby there is a case that the printing quality is lowered. Further, in the case that the viscosity is large, a lot of time is required for forming the meniscus at the front end of the printing electrode when discharging the ink drop. As a result, since it is necessary to increase a time for applying the printing voltage, it is impossible to make the printing frequency high. Accordingly, the printing with the high printing frequency can be performed without generating the problem with respect to the drying by suitably selecting the viscosity of the ink within the range between 2 and 20 cp. Finally, a description will be given of the material value E. In the case that the absolute value of the ζ electric potential is less than 30 mV, since a surface electric potential of the ink meniscus cohered on the front end of the printing electrode is low, a diameter of a flying dot becomes large when the ink drop is discharged. As a result, a diameter of the printing dot is increased and it is hard to increase the resolution. Further, in the case that the ζ electric potential is small as mentioned above, since a dispersion of the ζ electric potential between the color material particles is large and the color material particles charged in the negative electric potential may exist, the color material particles may be electrically attached to the printing electrode. Then, a shape of the meniscus at the front end of the printing electrode becomes unstable, thereby deteriorating a stability of discharging. Further, when the absolute value of the ζ electric potential becomes high over 200 mV, the ink drop is discharged by the small meniscus. As a result, the diameter of the printing dot becomes significantly small and is not preferable in the actual use. Further, when the ζ electric potential is over 200 mV, a electric charging stability is poor and a change with the passage of time is large. Accordingly, it is impossible to maintain a fixed ζ electric potential for a long time, and it is technically hard to actualize. Accordingly, it is possible to increase the printing frequency by suitably selecting the absolute value of the ζ electric potential of the color material particle within the range between 30 mV and 200 mV. Hereinafter, a description will be given of materials for constituting the ink, a producing method and a ratio of arranging the constituting materials in accordance with the present embodiment. The insulative solvent in accordance with the present embodiment is required to have a low dielectric constant and a high insulating property, and as required properties, at first, there can be exemplified a volume resistivity of at least 10 10 Ωcm or more so as to prevent the volume resistivity of the ink from becoming less than 10 9 Ωcm after mixing the color material, the resin, the electric charge controlling agent and the like. Further, a dielectric constant less than 3.0 is preferable. As the other required properties, there can be exemplified a evaporating velocity within a suitable range at a room temperature so as to make an evaporation of the insulative solvent at the ink discharge port as small as possible and quickly dry and fix the ink after the printing, a flashing point equal to or more than at least the room temperature so as to prevent flashing, and further a high safety against the environment and the human body. A hydrocarbon solvent, a silicone oil or the like which is employed for the insulative solvent in accordance with the present embodiment is sufficient to satisfy the requirements mentioned above and is not particularly limited, however, the following particular examples will be listed up as specifically preferable ones. As the hydrocarbon solvent, there can be exemplified an isoparafine hydrocarbon having a boiling point within a range between 150 and 350° C. and a high purity, and as products on market, there are ISOPER G, L, M, V (product name) and NORPER 12, 13, 15 (product name) manufactured by Exon Chemical, IP SOLVENT 1620, 2028 (product name) manufactured by Idemitsu Petrochemistry, ISOZOR 300, 400 (product name) manufactured by Nihon Petrochemistry and the like. These products correspond to an aliphatic saturated hydrocarbon having a significantly high purity and is structured such that a flushing point is equal to or more than 40° C., a viscosity at 25° C. is less than 3 cp, a surface tension at 25°C. is between 22.5 and 28.0 mN/m, and a volume resistivity at 25° C. is equal to or more than 10 15 Ωcm. Further, there are characteristics that a reactivity is low and stable, a virulence is low and a safety is high, and an offensive smell is little. As the silicone oil, there can be exemplified a synthetic dimethyl polysiloxane having a low viscosity, and as the product on the market, there can be exemplified KF96L (product name) manufactured by Shinetsu Silicone, SH200 (product name) manufactured by Toray Dow Corning Silicone, and the like. These dimethyl polysiloxane is characterized in that the surface tension is lower in comparison with the isoparafine hydrocarbon, and has a surface tension between 18 and 21 mN/m. As the color material particle in accordance with the present embodiment, it is possible to employ a single body of the color material or a structure that the color material is dispersed into the resin which is insoluble to the solvent. As the color material, it is possible to employ various kinds of inorganic and organic color materials, for example, there are a carbon black, a β-naphthol azo color material, a pyrazolone azo color material, an acetoacetic allylic azo color material, a condensed azo color material, a cis azo color material, an anthrapyridine color material, an indanthrene color material, a phthalocyanine color material, a quinacridone color material, an indigo color material, an isoindolinon color material, a dioxazine color material, a perylene color material, a phthaloperinon color material, a quinophthalone color material, a titanium dioxide and the like. Further, as the resin insoluble to the solvent, it is possible to employ various kinds of known natural or synthetic resins, for example, there are an acrylic resin, an epoxy resin, an ethylene-vinyl acetate resin, a vinyl chloride-vinyl acetate resin, a styrene-butadiene resin and the like. As the method of dispersing the color material to the resin, it is possible to employ various kinds of known methods as seen in a dry or wet type color material manufacturing process in an electrophotography. Further, since a work color material obtained by dispersing fine particles of the color material to a rosin ester resin, a vinyl chloride-vinyl acetate resin or the like is sold on the market, these may be employed. To the resin in accordance with the present embodiment, improving a dispersing property of the color material, that is, a function as the dispersing agent, and improving a fixing property of the color material to the printing medium, that is, a function as the binder can be added as main objects. Accordingly, the resin is required to be soluble to the solvent at an amount equal to or more than a fixed amount, preferably to have a high affinity with the color material with taking an effect as the solvent into consideration, and preferably to be a solid by the resin itself at the room temperature or to be a solvent having a very high viscosity with taking an effect as the binder into consideration. The kind of the resin is not particularly limited as far as the above requirements are satisfied, however, there are significantly small kinds of resins which has a sufficient soluble property to the insulative solvent mentioned above and satisfies the properties mentioned above. As a result of considering these points, it has been found that the hydrocarbon resin has an excellent property. As a particular example of the product on the market, there is an ALCON (product name) corresponding to a saturated cycloparaffin manufactured by Arakawa Chemical Industry. Further, with respect to the resin, as a result of considering an adding effect of the color material with respect to the ζ electric potential together with the electric charge controlling agent mentioned below, it has been estimated that it has a relation to the electric charge of the color material. As the electric charge controlling agent in accordance with the present embodiment, it is possible to employ a metallic soap of a naphthenic acid, an octyl acid, a stearic acid and the like, a metallic salt of an alkyl sulfuric acid, a metallic acid of an alkyl phosphoric acid, a fatty acid, a lecithin and the like, however, in particular, in the case of charging the color material to the positive polarity, since the solubility to the solvent is good and the electric charging performance is excellent, the metallic soap of the naphthenic acid and the octyl acid are specifically preferable. As a metallic atom of these metallic soap, a manganese, a lead, a zinc, a calcium, an aluminum, a zirconium, a copper, an iron and the like can be employed. However, since an electric charging mechanism of the color material particle has not been cleared yet, and it is possible to electrically charge the color material without using the electric charge controlling agent mentioned above, the electric charge controlling agent is sufficient to have the function of electrically charging the color material particle, and the kind of the material is not always limited. Further, the electric charge controlling agent mentioned above serves a function of improving the dispersion stability of the color material by electrically charging the color material. The basic constituting materials in the present embodiment are as mentioned above, however, an additive agent such as a dispersing agent, a surface active agent, a wax, a dye or the like may be added. Next, a description will be given of the method of manufacturing the ink and the mixing ratio of the constituting materials. For manufacturing the ink, it is possible to employ a general method which is known as a method of manufacturing various kinds of pigment inks and a solvent developing agent in an electrophotography. For example, there is a method of manufacturing the ink by diluting a mixture obtained by mixing the color material, the resin, the electric charge controlling agent and the other assisting additive agent weighed to be a predetermined mixing ratio to the solvent so as to become within a proper range of viscosity, to a predetermined density at a time of using by a dispersion medium after manufacturing an aggregate liquid of the ink to which the color material of about some hundreds nm to some pm is dispersed, by mixing and crushing the mixture for about some hours to some tens hours with using a dispersing machine such as a beads mill, an atriter, a sand mill, a ball mill or the like. Further, there is a method of adding the electric charge controlling agent after mixing, crushing and diluting only the color material, the resin and the assisting additive agent in the same manner. The density of the color material in the ink in accordance with the present embodiment is preferably within a range between 0.5 and 10 weight % with respect to a total amount of the ink. That is, when the density of the color material is less than 0.5 weight %, a sufficient printing density can not be obtained and it is not preferable. Further, when it becomes more than 10 weight %, the viscosity of the ink significantly increases and it tends that a stable ink discharge can not be performed, so that it is not preferable. The density of the resin in the ink in accordance with the present embodiment is preferably within a range between 0.1 and 20 weight %. That is, when the density of the resin becomes less than 0.1 weight %, there is hardly obtained the effect of improving the dispersion property of the color material and applying the sufficient ζ electric potential to the color material, and when it is more than 20 weight %, the viscosity of the ink significantly increases and it tends that a stable ink discharge can not be performed, so that both are not preferable. The density of the electric charge controlling agent in accordance with the present embodiment is preferably within a range between 0.05 and 2.0 weight % with respect to the total amount of the ink. That is, when the density of the electric charge controlling agent is less than 0.05 weight %, there is hardly obtained the effect of improving the dispersion property of the color material and applying the high ζ electric potential to the color material, and when it is more than 2.0 weight %, the volume resistivity of the ink is significantly reduced and it tends that the printing density is lowered, so that both are not preferable. In particular, when setting the ζ electric potential of the color material to a level equal to or more than 30 mV by selecting the material including the color material and the resin and optimizing the mixing ratio, the electrophoresis property of the color material is improved, whereby the rate of the color material in the ink drop becomes sufficiently high, so that it is possible to perform the high density printing and it is possible to prevent the color material from being electrically attached onto the printing electrode. EMBODIMENT An ink is manufactured on the basis of the constituting materials of the ink, the manufacturing method and the mixing ratio of the constituting materials mentioned above. Further, in order to compare, an ink having a material value out of the ink material value range of the present embodiment mentioned above is simultaneously manufactured. Then, the manufactured inks are estimated by using a conventional electrostatic type ink jet head. Here, FIG. 8 is a perspective view which shows a structure of the electrostatic type ink jet head used for estimating the ink in accordance with the present embodiment. In FIG. 8, the same reference numerals as those in FIGS. 1 to 7 denote the same elements as those of the electrostatic type ink jet head described with respect to FIGS. 1 to 7 and have the same function. In this case, a description of the elements having the same reference numerals as those of the electrostatic type ink jet head in FIGS. 1 to 7 is omitted. In this case, in FIG. 8, the ink and the migration electrode are not illustrated. The electrostatic type ink jet head in accordance with the present invention is structured such that a width of the slit hole 2 is 300 μm, a width of the printing electrode 1 is 80 μm, an arranging interval of the printing electrodes 1 is about 170 μm corresponding to 150 dpi and an interval between the front end of the printing electrode 1 and the printing paper 10 is 0.7 mm. In the electrostatic type ink jet head having the structure mentioned above, an estimation is performed by using the ink in which the color material particle has a positive electric potential or 0 ζ electric potential. Further, a fixed minus voltage (−1.2 kV) is always applied to the opposing electrode 11 so as to form a fixed bias electric field between the opposing electrode 11 and the printing electrode 1 . Then, by applying a plus voltage pulse (+600 V) corresponding to the printing signal to the printing electrode 1 at a fixed frequency while moving the printing paper 10 in a direction perpendicular to the longitudinal direction of the electrostatic type ink jet head, the ink drop is discharged from the front end of the printing electrode 1 toward the opposing electrode 11 due to the electrostatic force so as to form a printing dot on the printing paper 10 at a fixed period. In this case, the voltage of 1000 V which is greater than the signal voltage value is applied to the migration electrode. The printing estimation of the ink in accordance with the present embodiment is performed by using the electrostatic type ink jet head mentioned above. In this case, the printing estimation is performed by measuring the printing density and the printing frequency. The printing density is estimated by comparing with the printing density of the printing material by the marketed ink jet printer. A printing condition is set such that the printing frequency is 500 Hz and the time of applying the printing signal is 500 μsecond. An ordinary paper is used as the printing medium, a rush printing is applied within a 1 cm square on the ordinary paper and an estimation of the printing density is performed by a feeling estimation. As a result, in the case that the printing density of the printing material in accordance with the present embodiment is apparently higher than the marketed product, a symbol ◯ is given. Further, in the case that the printing density is not greatly different by the feeling estimation, a symbol X is given. In this case, an optical density of the printing material to which the symbol ◯ is given is equal to or more than 1.4. Hereinafter, a description will be given of the reason why the estimation of the printing density is performed at 500 Hz. When the color material particles in the ink are sufficiently cohered and discharged near the printing electrode and the printing is performed in this state, it is principally apparent that the printing density is high. Then, in order to estimate with paying attention to the printing density, it is necessary to consider that there is a case that it comparatively takes long time for the color material particles to cohere near the printing electrode due to the electrophoresis. Accordingly, a comparatively low frequency and a long printing signal applying time are preferable for the printing condition. As mentioned above, in the present embodiment, the printing frequency is set to 500 Hz and the printing signal applying time is set to 500 μsecond. The estimation of the printing frequency is performed at 2 kHz and the printing signal applying time is set to 200 μsecond. At this time, in the case that a dot error is less than 0.05% as is the same as that of the marketed ink jet printer, it is judged that the printing at this printing frequency is performed. Further, in the case that the ink discharge in accordance with the present embodiment is performed at 2 kHz, the symbol ◯ is given. Further, in the case that it is not performed at 2 kHz, the symbol X is given. Hereinafter, a description will be given of the reason why the estimation of the printing frequency is performed at 2 kHz. In the case of using the ink having the volume resistivity less than 10 8 Ωcm, a discharging state of the ink is formed in a towed yarn. The discharge like the towed yarn corresponds to the discharge state generated by the whole of the ink including the ink solvent being electrically charged in accordance with the pouring of the electric charge. The electrically charging velocity by pouring the electric charge is apparently faster than the migration velocity of the color material particle. Accordingly, since the ink discharge start velocity is faster in the discharge like the towed yarn than in the discharge like the drop like, it is known that the printing frequency is high. Further, the printing frequency is not determined only by the ink, but is also depend upon the shape of the head. Accordingly, by comparing the printing frequency at a time of discharging by the electrostatic type ink jet head in accordance with the present embodiment with using the ink having the volume resistivity less than 10 8 Ωcm, the printing frequency of the ink in accordance with the present embodiment is estimated. In this case, when using the marketed ink having the volume resistivity less than 10 8 Ωcm and setting the printing signal applying time to 200 μsecond, the maximum printing frequency in the electrostatic type ink jet head in accordance with the present embodiment is 2 kHz. Accordingly, in the present embodiment, the estimation is performed at the printing frequency of 2 kHz. Further, various kinds of material values which are important for the present invention are measured by the following measuring instrument and method. The ζ electric potential of the color material particle is measured by using ELS-6000 type manufactured by Ohtsuka Electronic Co., Ltd. Further, the ink used for the measurement is diluted to 1000 times by the solvent. The viscosity of the ink is measured by using RB-80L type manufactured by Tohki Industry. The volume resistivity of the ink is measured by using 6517 type high resistance gauge manufactured by Keyslay (Toyo Tecnica) and 1 type solvent electric resistance measuring electrode manufactured by Toyo Vacuum Industry. In this case, the temperature at a time of measuring the viscosity of the ink and the volume resistivity is 25° C. The average diameter of the color material particles is measured by a grain size dispersing gauge LA-700 type manufactured by Horiba Manufacturing. Next, a description will be given of particular contents of the present embodiment. (Embodiment 1) A transparent mixed solution is obtained by adding a hydrocarbon resin to an OSOPER (product name) corresponding to an isoparaffin hydro carbon manufactured by Exon Chemical and mixing and stirring at a room temperature until the hydro carbon is completely dissolved. A color material dispersion ink having a color material density of 3 weight % is manufactured by inserting the mixed solution and MICROLITH Black C-T (product name) corresponding to a carbon black color material manufactured by Chiba Speciality Chemicals together with beads made of a zirconia into a crushing container made of an agate and mixing by a planetary type ball mill apparatus. The control of the ζ electric potential and the volume resistivity is performed by adjusting an amount of addition of an octyl acid zirconium corresponding to the electric charge controlling agent and selecting the kind of the hydro carbon solvent. In this case, the control of the viscosity is performed by adjusting the kind of the hydro carbon solvent and the amount of addition of the resin. Further, the control of the diameter of the color material is performed by adjusting the mixing time in the ball mill apparatus. Thirty kinds of inks are manufactured so as to have the following material values. VOLUME RESISTIVITY 10 8 -10 13 Ωcm AVERAGE DIAMETER OF COLOR MATERIAL 0.05-5 μm RATIO BETWEEN ζ ELECTRIC POTENTIAL 0-250 (mV/cp) AND VISCOSITY VISCCSITY 1-30 cp ζ ELECTRIC POTENTIAL 0-400 mV For example, the ink having the constituting material mentioned above and the material values thereof will shown below. CONSTITUTING MATERIAL OF INK HYDRO CARBON SOLVENT (ISOPER G) 93 WEIGHT % MICROLITH Black C-T 3 WEIGHT % HYDRO CARBON RESIN 3 WEIGHT % OCTYL ACID ZIRCONIUM 1 WEIGHT % MIXING TIME 6 HOURS MATERIAL VALUES OF INK VOLUME RESISTIVITY 2 × 10 10 Ωcm AVERAGE DIAMETER OF COLOR MATERIAL 0.9 μm RATIO BETWEEN ζ ELECTRIC POTENTIAL 32 (mV/cp) AND VISCOSITY VISCOSITY 2.5 cp ζ ELECTRIC POTENTIAL 70 mV Then, a relation between a result of estimation of the printing density of the embodiment 1 and the ink material value is as follows. The volume resistivity of the ink and the result of the printing density are shown in Table 1. TABLE 1 VOLUME RESISTIVITY (Ωcm) PRINTING DENSITY LESS THAN 109 In Table 1, the relation between the volume resistivity of the ink and the printing density is classified into three sections. One of them is a case that the volume resistivity of the ink is less than 10 9 Ωcm. Further, the other two of them are cases that the volume resistivity of the ink is between 10 9 and 10 12 Ωcm and over 10 12 Ωcm. In the case that the volume resistivity of the ink is less than 10 9 Ωcm, the discharging state of the ink is the mixed state between the discharge like the towed yarn and the discharge like the drop or the discharge state like the towed yarn. Then, the printing in the drop like discharge state has a low printing density. Further, in the towed yarn like discharge state, the printing density becomes lower. As a result, an unevenness of the density is generated in the printing. Accordingly, in the ink having the volume resistivity less than 10 9 Ωcm, the printing density is low and is not stable. In the case that the volume resistivity of the ink is over 10 12 Ωcm, the discharge state of the ink is the discharge like the drop, however, the printing density is low. That is, the printing dot itself has a high density, however, the diameter of the dot is significantly small and the rush printing can not be performed, so that the printing density becomes low. Further, in the case that the volume resistivity of the ink is between 10 9 and 10 12 Ωcm, the printing density is different in accordance with the kind of the ink. Next, the relation between the average diameter of the color material particles and the printing density is searched in the ink having the volume resistivity between 10 9 and 10 12 Ωcm. The result between the average diameter of the color material particles of the ink and the printing density will be shown in Table 2. TABLE 2 AVERAGE DIAMETER (μm) PRINTING DENSITY LESS THAN 0.1 In Table 2, the relation between the average diameter of the color material particles and the printing density is classified into three sections. One of them is a case that the average diameter is less than 0.1 μm, one of them is a case that the average diameter of the color material particles of the ink is over 2 μm, and the remainder is a case that the average diameter of the color material particles of the ink is between 0.1 and 2 •m. When the average diameter of the color material particles of the ink becomes small, the specific surface area of the color material particles is increased, so that the solvent near the color material particles much flow in the following manner at the same time when the color material particles perform an electrophoresis. Then, in the case that the average diameter of the color material particles of the ink is less than 0.1 μm, the color material particles are not actually cohered. As a result, the cohesion property of the color material particles is insufficient, and the image having a low printing density and a bleeding is obtained. Further, in the case that the average diameter of the color material particles of the ink is equal to or more than 2 μm, the color material particles quickly sink during the printing time, so that the color material particles are insufficiently supplied to the front end of the electrode and the printing density is significantly lowered during the printing. As mentioned above, in the case that the average diameter of the color material particles is less than 0.1 μm or over 2 μim even when the volume resistivity of the ink is between 10 9 and 10 12 Ωcm, the high density printing can not be realized. Further, in the case of the ink in which the volume resistivity is between 10 9 and 10 12 Ωcm and the average diameter of the color material particles is between 0.1 and 2 μm, there is obtained the result that the printing density is different in accordance with the kind of the ink. Next, with respect to the case of the ink in which the volume resistivity is between 10 9 and 10 12 Ωcm and the average diameter of the color material particles is between 0.1 and 2 μm, the relation between the ratio between the ζ electric potential and the viscosity of the color material particles and the printing density will be searched. The results of the ratio between the ζ electric potential and the viscosity of the color material particles and the printing density are shown in Table 3. TABLE 3 RATIO BETWEEN ζ ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND VISCOSITY (mV/cp) PRINTING DENSITY LESS THAN 5 In Table 3, the result of the printing density is classified into three. That is, they are a case that the ratio between the ζ electric potential and the viscosity of the color material particles is less than 5 (mV/cp), a case that it is over 200 (mV/cp) and a case that the ratio between the ζ electric potential and the viscosity of the color material particles is between 5 and 200 (mV/cp). When the ratio between the ζ electric potential and the viscosity is less than 5 (mV/cp), the velocity of electrophoresis of the color material particles is small, so that the ink is discharged without the color material particles being sufficiently supplied near the printing electrode. As a result, it is impossible to realize the high density printing. Further, when the ratio between the ζ electric potential and the viscosity is over 200 (mV/cp), the velocity of electrophoresis of the color material particles is large and the color material particles are sufficiently supplied near the printing electrode immediately after the electrophoresis is started, however, thereafter the circulating convection is generated within the ink tank, and the ink is discharged without the color material particles being sufficiently supplied. As a result, it is impossible to realize the high density printing even in the case that the ratio between the ζ electric potential and the viscosity of the color material particles is over 200 (mV/cp). In this case, when the ratio between the ζ electric potential and the viscosity is between 5 and 200 (mV/cp), the velocity of the electrophoresis is gradually increased and the velocity of the circulating convection is low, thereby not affecting the printing density, so that the high density printing can be realized in all the inks. Accordingly, it is known that the material values of the ink which are necessary for realizing the high density printing are the volume resistivity of the ink between 10 9 and 10 12 Ωcm, the average diameter of the color material particles between 0.1 and 2 μm, and the ratio between the ζ electric potential and the viscosity between 5 and 200 (mV/cp). Further, the printing frequency of the ink having the material values necessary for the high density printing is searched. In this case, at first, the relation between the ratio between the ζ electric potential and the viscosity of the color material particles and the printing frequency is searched. A Result of the ratio between the ζ electric potential and the viscosity of the color material particles and the printing frequency are shown in Table 4. TABLE 4 RATIO BETWEEN ζ ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND VISCOSITY (mV/cp) PRINTING FREQUENCY LESS THAN 10 In Table 4, the result of the ratio between the ζ electric potential and the viscosity of the color material particles and the printing frequency is widely classified into three sections. That is, they are a case that the ratio between the ζ electric potential and the viscosity of the color material particles is less than 10 (mV/cp), a case that it is over 100 (mV/cp), and a case that the ratio between the ζ electric potential and the viscosity of the color material particles is between 10 and 100 (mV/cp). In the case that the ratio between the ζ electric potential and the viscosity of the color material particles is less than 10 (mV/cp), the color material particles are not sufficiently supplied due to the electrophoresis when the printing frequency becomes 2 kHz, so that there are cases that the discharge is performed as the liquid drop with containing a lot of solvent and that the dot error is generated, in a mixed manner. Further, when the ratio between the ζ electric potential and the viscosity is equal to or more than 100 (mV/cp), the velocity of electrophoresis is large and the color material particles are sufficiently supplied to the front end of the printing electrode immediately after the electrophoresis is started, however, thereafter, the ink is discharged without the color material particles being sufficiently supplied due to the stirring of the color material particles within the ink tank caused by the convection. As a result, the same phenomenon as that of the case that the ratio between the ζ electric potential and the viscosity is less than 10 (mV/cp). Then, in the case that the ratio between the ζ electric potential and the viscosity is between 10 and 100 (mV/cp), there are the ink in which a good printing can be performed with no dot error and the ink in which the dot error is generated, in a mixed manner. Next, the viscosity and the printing frequency of the ink in which the ratio between the ζ electric potential and the viscosity is between 10 and 100 (mV/cp) is searched. The viscosity of the ink and the result of the printing frequency are shown in Table 5. TABLE 5 VISCOSITY (cp) PRINTING FREQUENCY LESS THAN 2 In Table 5, the result of the printing frequency is widely classified into three sections. That is, one of them is a case that the viscosity of the ink is less than 2, one of them is a case that it is over 20, and the remainder is a case that the viscosity of the ink is between 2 and 20. When the viscosity of the ink is less than 2 cp, the velocity of drying of the solvent in the ink is significantly large, the front end of the printing electrode is dried during the printing and the ink is not supplied, so that there is a case that the printing itself is not performed. When the viscosity of the ink is over 20 cp, a velocity of displacement of the meniscus in the front end of the printing electrode becomes small, so that the meniscus slowly grows for the signal voltage applying time of 200 μsecond. As a result, it is impossible to separate and discharge the ink drop from the meniscus due to the electrostatic force. Further, when the viscosity of the ink is between 2 and 20 cp, the ink is not dried during the printing, the velocity of forming the meniscus is large and the ink can be discharged within 200 μsecond, so that it is possible to perform the printing with a high printing frequency. Next, the ζ electric potential and the printing frequency of the ink in which the ratio between the ζ electric potential and the viscosity is between 10 and 100 (mV/cp) and the viscosity is between 2 and 20 cp are searched. The ζ electric potential of the color material particles and the result of the printing frequency are shown in Table 6. TABLE 6 ζ ELECTRIC POTENTIAL (mV) PRINTING FREQUENCY LESS THAN 30 In Table 6, the relation between the ζ electric potential of the color material particles and the printing frequency is classified into three sections. That is, one of them is a case that the ζ electric potential is less than 30 mV, one of them is a case that the ζ electric potential is over 200 mV, and the remainder is a case that it is between 30 and 200 mV. When the ζ electric potential is less than 30 mV, the electric charge of the color material particles are largely dispersed and the color material particles having an opposite polarity are mixed. As a result, since the color material particles having the opposite polarity perform an electrophoresis in an opposite direction, a gentle convection is generated within the ink tank. Accordingly, since it is hard to supply the color material particles to the front end of the printing electrode, and the color material particles are insufficiently supplied when the printing frequency becomes equal to or more than 2 kHz, there is a case that the ink is not discharged. When the ζ electric potential becomes high over 200 mV, the ink drop is discharged with the small meniscus. As a result, the diameter of the printing dot becomes significantly small, and it is not preferable in the actual use. Further, there is a case that the ink is discharged without responding to the printing signal, it is hard to control the discharge by the printing signal voltage. Further, the electric charge stability is poor, the change with the passage of time is large, and the printing reproducibility is poor. Accordingly, it is known that the case that the ratio between the ζ electric potential and the viscosity is between 10 and 100 (mV/cp), the viscosity of the ink is between 2 and 20 cp and the ζ electric potential is between 10 and 100 mV is preferable for the material value of the ink which can make the printing frequency high. As mentioned above, it is confirmed that the high density printing and the high printing frequency can be simultaneously realized if the material values of the ink satisfy the conditions that the volume resistivity of the ink is between 10 9 and 10 12 Ωcm, the average diameter of the color material particles is within the range between 0.1 and 2 μm, the ratio between the ζ electric potential and the viscosity is within the range between 10 and 100 (mV/cp), the viscosity of the ink is within the range between 2 and 20 cp and the ζ electric potential of the color material particles is within the range between 30 mV and 200 mV. (Embodiment 2) Ten kinds of inks are manufactured by the same manufacturing method and by using the same constituting materials as those of the embodiment 1. In this case, five kinds of inks among ten kinds are manufactured so as to satisfy the preferable material values of the embodiment 1, and the other five kinds are manufactured within the non-preferable material values of the embodiment 1. The results of the printing estimation are the same as those of the embodiment 1, it is reproduced and confirmed that the material values of the ink which can perform the high density printing and make the printing frequency high are the same as the results of the embodiment 1. (Embodiment 3) Thirty kinds of inks are manufactured by the same manufacturing method of the ink as that of the embodiment 1. Here, in the embodiment 3, the ink is manufactured by changing the constituting materials with respect to the embodiments 1 and 2. That is, a transparent mixed solution is obtained by adding a linseed oil denaturation alkyd resin to a NORPER (product name) corresponding to an isoparaffin hydro carbon manufactured by Exon Chemical and mixing and stirring at a room temperature until the linseed oil denaturation alkyd resin is completely dissolved. A color material dispersion ink having a color material density of 3 weight % is manufactured by inserting the mixed solution and MICROLITH Blue C-T (product name) corresponding to a cyanogen color material manufactured by Chiba Speciality Chemicals together with beads made of a zirconia into a crushing container made of an agate and mixing by a planetary type ball mill apparatus. In this case, the material values such as the volume resistivity, the average diameter of the color material and the like are controlled by the same method as that of the embodiment 1. The inks are manufactured within the following material values. VOLUME RESISTIVITY 10 8 -10 13 Ωcm AVERAGE DIAMETER OF COLOR MATERIAL 0.02-4 μm RATIO BETWEEN ζ ELECTRIC POTENTIAL 0-150 (mV/cp) AND VISCOSITY VISCOSITY 0.9-25 cp ζ ELECTRIC POTENTIAL 0- 300 mV For example, the ink having the constituting material mentioned above and the material values thereof will shown below. CONSTITUTING MATERIAL OF INK HYDRO CARBON SOLVENT (NORPER 12) 93 WEIGHT % MICROLITH Blue C-T 3 WEIGHT % LINSEED OIL DENATURATION ALKYD RESIN 3 WEIGHT % NAPHTHENIC ACID MANGANESE 1 WEIGHT % MIXING TIME 3 HOURS MATERIAL VALUES OF INK VOLUME RESISTIVITY 5 × 10 10 Ωcm AVERAGE DIAMETER OF COLOR MATERIAL 1.5 μm RATIO BETWEEN ζ ELECTRIC POTENTIAL 30 (mV/cp) AND VISCOSITY VISCOSITY 3 cp ζ ELECTRIC POTENTIAL 90 mV In this case, twenty kinds of inks among thirty kinds are manufactured so as to satisfy the preferable material values of the embodiment 1, and the other ten kinds are manufactured within the non-preferable material values of the embodiment 1. The results of the printing estimation are the same as those of the embodiment 1, it is confirmed that the material values of the ink which can perform the high density printing and make the printing frequency high are the same as the results of the embodiment 1. (Embodiment 4) Thirty kinds of inks are manufactured by the same manufacturing method of the ink as that of the embodiment 1. Here, in the embodiment 4, the ink is manufactured by changing the constituting materials with respect to the embodiments 1 to 3. That is, a transparent mixed solution is obtained by adding a vinyl acrylated polymer corresponding to an acrylate resin to a ISOPER (product name) corresponding to an isoparaffin hydro carbon manufactured by Exon Chemical and mixing and stirring at a room temperature until the vinyl acrylate polymer is completely dissolved. A color material dispersion ink having a color material density of 3 weight % is manufactured by inserting the mixed solution and Reflux Blue (product name) corresponding to a cyanogen color material manufactured by Clariant Co., Ltd. together with beads made of a zirconia into a crushing container made of an agate and mixing by a planetary type ball mill apparatus. In this case, the material values such as the volume resistivity, the average diameter of the color material and the like are controlled by the same method as that of the embodiment 1. The inks are manufactured within the following material values. VOLUME RESISTIVITY 10 8 -5 × 10 13 Ωcm AVERAGE DIAMETER OF COLOR MATERIAL 0.05-5 μm RATIO BETWEEN ζ ELECTRIC POTENTIAL 0-250 (mV/cp) AND VISCOSITY 0-250 (mV/cp) VISCOSITY 1-30 cp ζ ELECTRIC POTENTIAL 0- 400 mV For example, the ink having the constituting material mentioned above and the material values thereof will shown below. CONSTITUTING MATERIAL OF INK HYDRO CARBON SOLVENT (ISOPER G) 93 WEIGHT % Reflux Blue 3 WEIGHT % ACRYLATE RESIN 3 WEIGHT % NAPHTHENIC ACID MANGANESE 1 WEIGHT % MIXING TIME 10 HOURS MATERIAL VALUES OF INK VOLUME RESISTIVITY 2 × 10 11 Ωcm AVERAGE DIAMETER OF COLOR MATERIAL 0.5 μm RATIC BETWEEN ζ ELECTRIC POTENTIAL 20 (mV/cp) AND VISCOSITY VISCOSITY 10 cp ζ ELECTRIC POTENTIAL 200 mV In this case, twenty kinds of inks among thirty kinds are manufactured so as to satisfy the preferable material values of the embodiment 1, and the other ten kinds are manufactured within the non-preferable material values of the embodiment 1. The results of the printing estimation are the same as those of the embodiment 1, it is confirmed that the material values of the ink which can perform the high density printing and make the printing frequency high are the same as the results of the embodiment 1. (Embodiment 5) Twenty kinds of inks are manufactured by the same manufacturing method of the ink as that of the embodiment 1. In the embodiment 5, the ink is manufactured by changing the constituting materials with respect to the embodiments 1 to 4. That is, a transparent mixed solution is obtained by adding a vinyl acrylate ter polymer corresponding to an acrylate resin to an IP SOLVENT (product name) manufactured by Idemitsu Petrochemistry and mixing and stirring at a room temperature until the vinyl acrylate ter polymer is completely dissolved. A color material dispersion ink having a color material density of 3 weight % is manufactured by inserting the mixed solution and Black Pearls L (product name) corresponding to a cyanogen color material manufactured by Cabot Co., Ltd. together with beads made of a zirconia into a crushing container made of an agate and mixing by a planetary type ball mill apparatus. In this case, the material values such as the volume resistivity, the average diameter of the color material and the like are controlled by the same method as that of the embodiment 1. The inks are manufactured within the following material values. VOLUME RESISTIVITY 10 8 -5 × 10 12 Ωcm AVERAGE DIAMETER OF COLOR MATERIAL 0.05-10 μm RATIO BETWEEN ζ ELECTRIC POTENTIAL 0-250 (mV/cp) AND VISCOSITY VISCOSITY 1.2-30 cp ζ ELECTRIC POTENTIAL 0-230 mV For example, the ink having the constituting material mentioned above and the material values thereof will shown below. CONSTITUTING MATERIAL OF INK HYDRO CARBON SOLVENT (IP SOLVENT) 93 WEIGHT % Black Pearls L 3 WEIGHT % ACRYLATE RESIN 3 WEIGHT % OCTYL ACID ZIRCONIUM 1 WEIGHT % MIXING TIME 10 HOURS MATERIAL VALUES OF INK VOLUME RESISTIVITY 5 × 10 9 Ωcm AVERAGE DIAMETER OF COLOR MATERIAL 0.5 μm RATIO BETWEEN ζ ELECTRIC POTENTIAL 21.4 (mV/cp) AND VISCOSITY VISCOSITY 7 cp ζ ELECTRIC POTENTIAL 150 mV In this case, fifteen kinds of inks among twenty kinds are manufactured so as to satisfy the preferable material values of the embodiment 1, and the other five kinds are manufactured within the non-preferable material values of the embodiment 1. The results of the printing estimation are the same as those of the embodiment 1, it is confirmed that the material values of the ink which can perform the high density printing and make the printing frequency high are the same as the results of the embodiment 1. As shown in the embodiments 1 to 5 mentioned above, in accordance with the present invention, the ink which can perform the high density printing even at the high printing frequency can be obtained by defining the material values of the ink without relation to the constituting materials of the ink. Accordingly, the constituting material of the ink and the contained amount of each of the constituting materials, that is, the concentration are not specifically limited, however, they are preferably within the range explained in the embodiments. Further, in accordance with the present embodiment, since the material values of only the ink are defined, it is needless to say that the usefulness of the ink of the present invention can be obtained in the other various kinds of electrostatic type ink jet heads than the head used in the present embodiments. In this case, the ink in accordance with the present embodiment is described with respect to the color material particulars which are electrically charged in the positive potential, however, it may be an ink having color material particles which are electrically charged in a negative potential. In this case, the polarity of the set voltage in the discharge conditions may be set to an inverse polarity. That is, as far as the ratio between the ζ electric potential and the viscosity and the magnitude of the absolute value of the ζ electric potential are within the same range, the high density printing can be performed and the ink having the high printing frequency can be realized in the same manner as that of the present embodiment even in the ink which is electrically charged in the negative potential. Accordingly, as far as the material values of the ink satisfy the conditions that the volume resistivity of the ink is between 10 9 and 10 12 Ωcm, the average diameter of the color material particles is between 0.1 and 2 μm, the absolute value of the ratio between the ζ electric potential and the viscosity of the color material particles is within the range between 10 and 100 (mV/cp), the viscosity of the ink is within the range between 2 and 20 cp, and the absolute value of the ζ electric potential of the color material particles is within the range between 30 mV and 200 mV. As mentioned above, in accordance with the present invention, since the conditions are set such as to satisfy the volume resistivity of the ink between 10 9 and 10 12 Ωcm, the average diameter of the color material particles between 0.1 and 2 μm, the absolute value of the ratio between the ζ electric potential and the viscosity of the color material particulars between 10 and 100 (mV/cp), the viscosity of the ink between 2 and 20 cp, and the absolute value of the ζ electric potential of the color material particles between 30 mV and 200 mV, it is possible to obtain a useful effect that the high quality image can be stably obtained by the high density printing even at the high printing frequency.

Ink for an electrostatic ink jet printer in which, inter alia, the ink and its insulative solvent and color material particle have the following properties: the ink has a volume resistivity of 10 9 to 10 12 Ωcm and a viscosity of 2 to 20 cp; the insulative solvent has a volume resistivity equal to or more than 10 10 Ωcm; and the color material particle has an average diameter of between 0.1 and 2 μm, an absolute value for the ratio (ξ electric potential/viscosity) between 10 to 100 (mV/cp), and an absolute value for the ξ electric potential of 30 mV to 200 mV. By means of these conditions, the ink provides higher density images, especially at faster printing speeds.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION There are several different accepted ways to attach a wood sill plate to the top of a foundation wall or slab. One way is to set threaded anchor bolts into the concrete foundation and pour the uncured concrete around the bolts. Holes are then drilled in the sill plate and the plate is then set on the foundation with the anchor bolts protruding through the openings in the sill plate. Several sheet metal connectors have been designed to replace or provide alternatives to using threaded anchor bolts to connect the sill plate or mud sill to the foundation. Examples of such sheet metal anchors are found in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,889,441, 3,750,360, 4,413,456 and 4,739,598. U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,889,441 and 3,750,360 are designed with a pair of arms which protrude on either side of the sill plate. The arm on the inner side of the plate, like an anchor bolt placed in the foundation can interfere with the process of screeding and trowling the slab. The present invention is similar to U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,413,456 and 4,739,598, and improves upon them. The present invention has been designed so that multiple anchors can be spaced along the edge of a foundation with the same spacing that would be used with two of the more common anchor bolt sizes for anchoring a mud sill, specifically anchors bolts having a diameter of either ½″ or 5/8″. That is to say, the mud-sill anchor of the present invention is strong enough to replace a typical, commercially used anchor bolt of either ⅝″ or ½″ diameter set in the same concrete foundation. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The anchor of the present invention provides a cost effective and convenient way to anchor a mudsill to a poured concrete foundation. The anchor of the present invention provides reinforcing to the top-attachment arms to strengthen the anchor. The parallel top-attachment arms provide spacing which meets the requirements of the international conference of building officials (uniform building code) for six (6) or eight (8) nail attachment to the mud sill. The heavily bossed and footed embeddment element provides full withdrawal resistance in any direction. The mud sill anchor can be placed either prior to or immediately after the pouring of the concrete. The present invention provides an anchor which can be attached to the form by driving a flat-head nail through the anchor and into the form, and because of the shape of the anchor and the placement of the nail through the connector into the form, the form board can be stripped from the foundation when the concrete has cured without requiring the removal of the nail attaching the connector to the form. The anchor permits full finishing operations of the concrete without interference from upright elements or double-nail heads. A pair of tab members provides placement stability when the anchor is attached to the foundation form. After installation, the anchor has no upstanding elements and therefore a frame wall does not have to be lifted over any upstanding anchor members. The anchor is shaped and embedded in the concrete in such a manner that there is minimal exposure of the metal of the connector to the elements after the form boards are stripped from the concrete foundation, so as to prevent rusting of the hanger. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES FIG. 1 is a top plan view of the sheet metal blank from which the mud sill anchor of the present invention is constructed. FIG. 2 is a top plan view of the anchor of the present invention as constructed from the blank of FIG. 1 . FIG. 3 is a cross sectional view of a portion of the anchor taken along line 3 - 3 of FIG. 2 . FIG. 4 is a front elevation view of the anchor shown in FIG. 2 taken in the direction of arrows 4 - 4 of FIG. 2 . FIG. 5 is a side elevation view of the anchor with portions in cross section. The anchor is shown embedded in a concrete foundation and attached to a form board. The sill member is illustrated to show its location after the form board has been removed. FIG. 6 is a side view of the anchor connected to the sill member. The concrete foundation is shown in cross section. FIG. 7 is a top view of the anchor member attached to a sill member as shown in FIG. 6 . DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The sheet metal mudsill anchor 1 of the present invention is used for anchoring a sill plate 2 to a concrete foundation 3 . The foundation has a top surface 13 and a perimeter face 104 that meets the top surface at a perimeter edge 105 . The anchor is temporarily attached to a form member 4 by means such as a nail 6 . The anchor is preferably formed from a single piece of sheet metal as illustrated in FIG. 1 . The anchor consists briefly of an embedded leg 7 having a distal end 8 . The embedded leg 7 is positioned downwardly at an angle within the foundation 3 and away from the form member or form board 4 . The embedded leg 7 has an upper end portion 9 that is formed with a T-shaped member 10 for receiving a first mud-sill attachment arm 12 integrally connected to the upper end of the T-shaped member 10 and extends above and outwardly from the form board 4 , during pouring of the concrete, wherein the plane of the arm is generally parallel to the top surface 13 of the foundation. The first mud-sill attachment arm 12 connects to the T-shaped member 10 at bend line 51 which is positioned at the upper terminal edge 106 of leg 7 . A second mud-sill attachment arm 14 integrally connected to the other side of the T-shaped member 10 extends above and outwardly from the form board 4 in generally the same plane as the first mud-sill attachment arm 12 and generally parallel thereto, during the pouring of the concrete. The second mud-sill attachment arm 14 connects to the T-shaped member 10 at bend line 51 . A central, bridge member 100 disposed on the same side of bend line 51 and upper terminal edge 106 of leg 7 as the first and second mud-sill attachment arms 12 and 14 provides a direct connection between the first mud-sill attachment arm 12 and the second mud-sill attachment arm 14 on the side of bend line 51 to which the first and second mud-sill attachment arms 12 and 14 are disposed. Central, bridge member 100 has a preferably scalloped outer edge 101 . Central, bridge member is preferably substantially planar with first and second mud-sill attachment arms 12 and 14 . In the preferred embodiment, three (3), linearly arranged obround openings 102 are formed in the connector along the bend line 51 to provide controlled weakening of the connector so it can be bent in the field as needed. Anchor leg 7 is formed with an embossment 16 which extends substantially the length of the leg 7 . Preferably, the distal end 8 of the leg 7 is formed with an angularly upturned portion 17 which increases the mechanical engagement with the foundation 3 . Arms 12 and 14 are formed with longitudinally aligned embossed portions 18 , 19 , 20 and 21 and are made pre-bent along bend line 51 to a 45 degree angle for the most preferred positioning of the anchor 1 in the foundation 3 . The arms 12 and 14 each have a length selected for extending up the side edge 22 and over a substantial portion of the upper side 23 of the sill 2 . The embossed portions 18 - 21 are interrupted at each of two selected bend points 24 - 27 which occur at the edges 28 and 29 of the sill 2 . Arms 12 and 14 are formed with fastener openings 31 - 36 for driving fasteners 37 - 42 therethrough and into the sill 2 . A restricted opening 44 is formed in the upper end of leg 7 for receiving fastener 6 positioned for engaging the form member 4 and permitting the removal of the form member 4 without withdrawing the fastener 6 from the form 4 . Positioning tabs 45 and 49 may be formed from leg 7 and bent along bend lines 46 and 54 so that it extends rearwardly and engages the face 11 of the foundation form member 4 . When the ends 47 and 55 of tabs 45 and 49 engage the face of the foundation, they cooperate with the arms 12 and 14 resting on top edge 56 of the form in positioning the anchor at a preselected angle 48 with respect to the form member 4 . As an example, referring to FIG. 1 , the anchor 1 may be formed from a 16 gauge galvanized steel blank 3″×10.25″. The leg member 7 to be embedded in concrete is approximately 6.0″ long, with a boss 16 having a 0.625″×0.3125″ draw depth, terminating in a 0.875″ bossed hook element 17 bent to 90 degrees along bend line 53 . Two 0.9375″ by 0.3125″ tapered positioning tabs 45 and 49 are provided at 90 degrees from the leg 7 for standoff positioning purposes when the unit is installed at the required 45 degree angle. Installed, the vertical embedded depth is approximately four (4) inches. The two (2) legs 12 and 14 are 4.25″ long, each having two bosses and four holes sized for N10 nails. Installation assumes concrete having minimum compressive strength characteristics to meet typical code requirements, with spacing and other location control in accordance with typically used building codes in the United States. The legs 12 and 14 are so configured as to provide code-spaced nailing for eight (8) 10d or N10 (1.5″ long) nails when attached to mudsills of nominal 2″ by 4″, 3″ by 4″, 2″ by 6″, 3″ by 6″ or like dimensions. Installation is permitted wherever not less than four (4) inches of concrete depth is provided. If such depth is over a horizontal cold joint such as to a concrete foundation wall, or foundation wall formed of concrete block, then separate means must be provided as required for connecting the elements adjacent to the horizontal cold joint. Referring to FIGS. 5 , 6 and 7 , the anchor 1 is preferably installed prior to pouring the concrete slab. The anchor is placed as shown in FIG. 5 . Nail 6 is driven through opening 44 into form board 4 . After the concrete is poured and sets, the form board 4 may be stripped from the foundation 3 without removing nail 6 . Preferably no other nails are driven through the arms 12 and 14 into the form boards 4 . Because of the shape of the leg 7 , the position, shape and angle of tabs 45 and 49 to leg 7 , and the placement of the attachment nail 6 , when the form board 4 is removed only the ends 47 and 55 of tabs 45 and 49 , nail 6 and the upper terminal edge 106 of the upper end 9 of the leg 6 are exposed below the top surface 13 of the concrete foundation 3 , minimizing the exposure of the anchor 1 to the elements which could cause corrosion of the anchor 1 and the weakening of the connection. To complete the connection, the bottom side 57 of mudsill 2 is placed on top of the concrete 13 and arms 12 and 14 are bent upwardly 90 degrees in areas 24 and 26 , along side edge 22 of the sill member. The arms 12 and 14 are then bent again in areas 25 and 27 so that the arms are in contact with the upper face 23 of the sill member. Nails 37 - 42 are then driven into the sill member 2 . The mudsill anchor 1 is designed so that there is a minimum waste in cutting and so that cutting and forming may be accomplished by progressive die techniques. For example, the leg 7 has an unformed width of 1.25″ and this is the dimension between legs 12 and 14 . Preferably the T-shaped member 10 is embossed in portions 58 to strengthen the upper end 9 of the leg member 7 .

A sheetmetal mud-sill anchor for anchoring a sill plate to a concrete foundation having an embedded leg and a pair of laterally spaced arms connected to the upper end of the leg extending away from the embedded leg. The arms are adapted for bending around a sill member and have fastener openings for connecting the anchor to the sill member.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0001] 1. Field of the Invention [0002] The present invention relates to games played on a board where indicia on the board defines steps or stations and a piece, symbol or man is progressively advanced along a designated path defined by the steps or stations. The board game is a bicycle race game having a track or path, over an area on the game board, with interim hazards, to a finish. [0003] 2. Prior Art [0004] Games, played on a board defining an area or track of play are well known. Several examples of issued US patent on game boards include: U.S. Pat. No. 5,482,288 issued to Cedeno 1996 U.S. Pat. No. 5,350,178 issued to Hollar 1994 U.S. Pat. No. 4,729,568 issued to Welsh 1988 U.S. Pat. No. 4,550,917 issued to Ferris et al 1985 U.S. Pat. No. 4,346,889 issued to Barlow et al 1982 [0005] U.S. Pat. No. 5,482,288 ('288) teaches a board game that is a race-to-the-finish, with obstacles and set-back stations. A plurality of stations, which are fixed indicia on the board, define a fixed track along which a player moves a token, progressively. The track includes hazard stations. Each player has two tokens, one representing himself and a second token representing a public servant. When the “self” token is advanced along the track and lands on a certain hazard or designated event station, the self token must remain on that station until receiving assistance in the form of the second token or public servant token. When the self token lands on other designated event stations, the path of the self token is diverted, favorably or unfavorably, according to the designated event. Dice are used to determine advancement of a token along the track. [0006] U.S. Pat. No. 5,350,178 teaches an automobile race game in which a board game simulates an automobile race track for one of more players. The game board, which is a flexible member, has fixed race track paths printed on both sides of the board, one relatively large and one relatively small. The flexibility of the board permits the board to be placed on a non-flat or uneven surface so that either track may simulate a banked track. The flexibility of the board and the making of an uneven or non-flat surface defining a race track changes the orientation of the track but the tracks over which the races are run, remain fixed. A plurality of charts determine the course and type of movement along the track. A pair of dice are used to determine advancement of the vehicle along the track as well as selection of a chart. Although the board may be flexible, the track on the board is fixed. [0007] The U.S. Pat. No. 4,729,568 teaches a horse race game played on a board. The game includes a fixed game board having a plurality of tracks printed thereon, a pair of gaming dice for determining the play of the game and a plurality of pieces which are moved along the respective racing tracks during play of the game. Prior of the race, but as part of the game, dice are rolled to determine which one of a predetermined number of playing pieces are to be “scratched” for the subsequent race. The remaining playing pieces are placed in starting positions on the respective tracks and are advanced along tracks, in accordance with the roll of the dice. Cards, from a plurality of sets of cards, are randomly dealt to the players. Each set of cards is composed of a plurality of numbered cards corresponding to the numbers of the respective ones of the playing pieces. The first playing piece to reach the “finish line” is declared the winner and the players share a central pot representing a purse. [0008] U.S. Pat. No. 4,550,917 teaches a tiled board racing game. The track consists of a plurality of shiftable or sideway movable straight segments of track positioned between fixed curved segments of track. The fixed curved sections are offset with respect to each other, so that a movable straight track may be aligned with either adjacent fixed curved segment. Players are permitted to shift track segments to assist the advancement of the player's own piece or to interfere with the advancement of the opponent player's piece. [0009] U.S. Pat. No. 4,346,889 teaches a movable tile board game with a path or track created in the tiles for a vehicle. The game is played on a board with a plurality of generally rectangular tiles. Each tile is slidable with respect to other tiles on a board base. The tiles are captured on the board and form a rectangular pattern with at least one vacant space, equal to the size of one tile. Grooves of different orientation are formed in the surface of the tiles and the tiles must be shifted to define a continuous track. The groves on each tile extend between the mid-point of side edges of the tile supporting the groove. A continuous path or track from tile to tile may be formed by orienting tiles on the board. A self-propelled vehicle is provided to move along the track created across the face of tiles, following the track formed by the adjacent tiles. An alarm on the vehicle is sounded when the vehicle reaches the unconnected edge of a tile. [0010] U.S. patents to Brown, U.S. Pat. No. 4,185,823 and to Mazza et al, U.S. Pat. No. 5,149,101 each teach apparatus game, Brown teaches an apparatus for playing a movable vehicle game. The game may be played using one vehicle or two vehicles. A movable vehicle, when played as a single vehicle game, is moved by the apparatus and can release a plug or similar object, during such movement, so as to drop the plug on a target. When the apparatus is played with dual vehicles a lead vehicle can use a trailing line, for temporary detachment by a pursuer vehicle. Mazza et al teach an apparatus for playing a horse racing game on a game board. The game board is formed with fixed spaced game path spaces. A spring loaded apparatus provides a starting gate for the game. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0011] The present invention provides a board game that simulates a bicycle race, known as a “tour”, with an improved game board. A bicycle tour race is a bicycle race that takes place or is run over a predetermined track within a predetermined geographic area. For example, the race may be run along a “track” established in a geographic area of France, or a geographic area of Italy, or of Spain, or any other country or countries, such as Belgium and Holland, for example. The “track” or path on which the race is usually defined by selected public roads of the geographical area. Since the “track” of the race extends through a relatively large geographic area of a country, the “track” may pass through or pass close to places of interest and/or sites within the particular geographic area in which the race is run. For this reason, and the fact that spectators of the race may often travel through and/or “tour” the geographic area in which the race is run, this type of race has become known as a “tour”. Typically, when such race is run in France the race is known as “Tour de France”. When such race is run in Italy, the race is known or as Tour de Italy”, and so forth. In other words the race is a “tour” of the geographic area through which the race is held or run. [0012] In accordance with the nature of the sport simulated by the present invention, a game board or playing area is provided which includes a track or path printed or otherwise fabricated on the game board. The path of the race or “tour” established on the board of the game includes a geographic area with individual sites and/or places or things of interest within the geographic area defined. [0013] In accordance with the present invention, the game board or playing area provides a virtual geographic area, through which the race or tour is run. The track on which the race is run, passes through the geographic area fabricated on the game board so that an illusion or fantasy of the “tour” is created for the players of the game. In addition, a player may create a team of cyclists of the player's selection, essentially forming a fantasy team with which to play the game. In a preferred embodiment of the game and also in a preferred embodiment of the game board, one or more strips or sections of the track are provided, wherein each separate strip or section of the track defines a unique geographic area, complete with sites and/or places of interest within the particular geographic area, with each unique geographic area of a strip different from the geographic area on the basic game board and different from the geographic area on other geographic area strips. A selected geographic area strip may be substituted for or lain over the basic or current geographic area strip thereby creating a “tour” of another geographic area. Any number of geographic area strips may be provided, each with a different geographic area and/or different sites and/or places of interest within the particular geographic area. A substitute strip which defines a different geographic area may be positioned or set in overlay on the game board and held on the game board by a clip, for example. Preferably, the game board is provided with a set of receiving and retaining slots, into which the strip defining the different geographic area is inserted and thereby held on the game board. [0014] The novel board game is played by two or more persons, each of whom begin playing the game with three selected pieces or cyclists which represent a team of cyclists running the race or tour. Tracks through the tour are established on the board so that as many as two through eight teams may run the tour or race together. The Rules of the Game establish “stages” for each geographic area through which the tour is run. The roll of a die, by each player establishes the order of play and, during play, the advancement of the player's team of cyclists along the route of the tour. Hazards and/or penalties are encountered along the tour which may slow down or reverse advancement of a cyclist in a team. There are cash awards, in the form of play money for sprint bonus and mountain bonus, along with stage winners, sprint king elevation, mountain king elevation, tour winner and best team. The tour winner captures the winning prize of the purse. The object of the game is to make the tour in the shortest accumulated time, as advancement of a cyclist is calculated in time increments. Colored shirts, shorts and head gear of the cyclist team are used to enhance excitement and fun. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0015] [0015]FIG. 1 is a representation of a game board on which the tour game is played; [0016] [0016]FIG. 2 is a representation of a strip attachable to the game board showing a different geographic area and local sites from the geographic area and local sites on the game board of FIG. 1; [0017] [0017]FIG. 2 a is a representation of part of a game board such as represented in FIG. 1, with receiving and retaining slots for holding an attachable strip as represented in FIG. 2; [0018] [0018]FIG. 2 b is a representation of a clip which may be used for holding an attachable strip to a game board in lieu of the receiving and retaining slots represented in FIG. 2 a; [0019] [0019]FIG. 3 is a representation of a cyclist or piece used by a player of the game; [0020] [0020]FIG. 4 is a set of rules for playing the novel board game; [0021] [0021]FIG. 5 is a representation of a set of rules establishing the stages in various geographic areas; [0022] [0022]FIG. 6 is a representation of a set of rules establishing awards for the game; [0023] [0023]FIG. 7 is a representation of a stage time card usable with the game; [0024] [0024]FIG. 8 is a representation of a Final Standing card usable with the game; [0025] [0025]FIG. 9 a is a representation of a sprint bonus chip usable in the game; FIG. 9 b is a representation of a penalty chip usable in the game; [0026] [0026]FIG. 9 c is a representation of a mountain bonus chip usable in the game; [0027] [0027]FIG. 9 d is a representation of a die used for playing the game; and [0028] [0028]FIG. 9 e is a representation of play money usable in the game. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0029] As used hereinafter, the term, tour, is defined as a bicycle race of two or more teams of two or more cyclists racing over a continuous track or path which includes public roads in urban and suburban areas, open country road, roads through villages, up, over and down mountains and through valleys of a selected geographic area. The tour has a starting point and a finish point and the continuous track or path of the race may be several hundred miles from the starting point to the finish point. An actual Tour de France, for example, may take place over several days, with intermittent, designated stops along the route. The object of the race is to complete the race, in as many stages as required, in the shortest accumulated time. The present invention is a board game that represents a tour or bicycle race. [0030] Referring to FIG. 1, the board game of the present invention is played on a game board 10 . The board has indicia thereon which sets out a STARTING LINE 15 /FINISH LINE 12 . The track of the tour is defined by intervals or advancement steps set out in seconds with five (5) sets of tracks around the internal periphery of the game board. A geographic area 14 is established along one side of the game board, through which the five sets of tracks pass. A fixed geographic area is represented on the game board as France so that the fixed or basic tour game is in France and the race played on the game board as represented would simulate the Tour de France. The invention provides for other geographic areas to be substituted for the basic geographic area on the game board so that the board game may be played as a race in another geographic area. [0031] Rules for playing the game are set forth in FIG. 4 and are believed to be self explanatory. [0032] Since a tour may be run in any one of several geographic area, there is provided, with the game board, one or more substitute geographic area strips, suitable for overlay, over the established geographic area on the game board. Such a substitute geographic area strip is represented in FIG. 2 at 30 . The substitute geographic area strip 30 may be placed in overlay over the section 14 on the game board 10 of FIG. 1 thereby virtually changing the geographic area through which the tour is run. The substitute strip 30 may be held in place on the game board 10 by a binder clip such as 25 in FIG. 2 b , or any other paper clip or clip means, for example. Preferably the game board 10 includes a set of receiving and retaining slots such as represented in FIG. 2 a . FIG. 2 a includes a representation of part of a game board 10 a. Located at the ends of the geographic area on the game board are short vertical strips 28 (only one show) and, along the bottom of the geographic area of the game board, an horizontal strip 29 . A substitute geographic area strip 30 a , such as represented in FIG. 2 a , for example, suitable for overlay, over the established geographic area on the basic game board, may be slid into the set of receiving and retaining slots 28 and 29 , thereby establishing another, different geographic area through which the tour may be run. In an alternate embodiment the horizontal slot 29 may be eliminated. Opposing vertical slots, coupled to both ends of the geographic area of the board, may be made sufficiently tight for holding and retaining any substitute geographic strip slid into the opposing slots, without using a horizontal slot, such as 29 . [0033] In a preferred embodiment of the elements of the game, at least eight (8) substitute geographic area strips are provided. FIG. 5, which represents apart of the rules of the game establishes the number of stages to be run for each geographic area through which the tour may be run. With a basic or fixed geographic area established on the game board, a selection of other geographic areas, in the form of substitute strips, is provides for playing the game on or over one of nine (9) geographic areas. It will be appreciated that fewer or more substitute geographic area strips may be provided and/or used, if desired. [0034] In order to play the board game, FANTASY TOUR, a player selects a team of three (3) playing pieces or cyclists. A playing piece or cyclist, usable in playing the board game, is represented in FIG. 3. Three (3) playing pieces or cyclists form a team. The base 35 of the cyclist or piece is sufficient to support the figure which represents a cyclist on a bicycle. The base 35 may include identifying indicia, such as the country of the team, and other identification, for example. The shirt or jersey 37 , shorts 38 and head gear 39 may be colored in team colors. Known cyclists, from different times and places may race together, as a fantasy team. A player may name, number and/or identify a cyclist and/or team of cyclists with which the player is playing the board game, with the name, number and/or identity of a contemporary or former bicycle racer, effectively making the cyclist and/or team a fantasy cyclist or team and the race a fantasy tour. Each team is allocated a track around the game board, of which five (5) tracks are shown. More of fewer tracks may be used, if desired. [0035] Referring to FIG. 1, a SPRINT LINE is established at 16 , where a SPRINT BONUS chip, represented in FIG. 9 a and cash awards, in the form of play money, represented in FIG. 9 e , are collected when selected cyclists or pieces reach or pass the corner 18 . A MOUNTAIN LINE is established at the corner 20 where a MOUNTAIN CHIP, represented in FIG. 9 c and additional cash awards are collected when selected cyclists reach or pass corner 20 . The space 22 and 24 each represent a hazard in the form of a FLAT TIRE, and penalty for a cyclist that may stop on that space. A FLAT TIRE chip is represented in FIG. 9 b . FIG. 6 provides a schedule for prize money, payable with play money, FIG. 9 e. [0036] A die, FIG. 9 d is used when playing the board game, to determine order of play and for advancement of the cyclists in a team. The elements of the game include 28 playing cyclists and one non-playing yellow cyclist. The 28 playing cyclists are consecutively numbered and may have colorful attire. A player selects three cyclists, which define a starting team. The game is played in STAGES and the first cyclist to land on or cross the FINISH LINE is a STAGE WINNER. The symbolic Yellow Jersey is awarded to the player whose cyclist is the leader of the race after each STAGE. A yellow, non-playing cyclist is used to represent the symbolic Yellow Jersey. SPRINT BONUS chips and MOUNTAIN BONUS chips are selectively awarded to cyclists who land on or cross an established SPRINT LINE, in the second corner 18 and an established MOUNTAIN LINE in the third corner 20 , during a STAGE. Prize money is awarded for SPRINT BONUS chips and MOUNTAIN BONUS chips collected during the tour. “Pink” and “Green” play money is awarded according to the chips collected. The player collecting the most “Pink” money is proclaimed KING of the MOUNTAIN. The player collecting the most “Green” money is proclaimed SPRINT KING. Prize play money is distributed according to a schedule shown in FIG. 6. A Stage Card, FIG. 7 is used for recording timing of cyclists of a team. The FINAL STANDINGS, FIG. 8, are recorded for the tour run. [0037] A novel board game has been described in the drawings and defined in a description thereof. Those familiar with the sport of tour racing will understand the connotation and denotation of terms used herein as such terms relate to sport of tour racing. In the foregoing description of the invention, no unnecessary limitations are to be implied from or because of the terms used, beyond the requirements of the prior art, because such terms are used for descriptive purposes and are intended to be broadly construed. Furthermore, the description and illustration of the invention are by way of example, and the scope of the invention is not limited to the exact details shown, represented or described. [0038] Having now described a preferred embodiment of the invention, along with certain alternative construction and suggested changes, other changes that may become apparent to those skilled in the art may be made, without departing from the scope of the invention defined in the appended claims.

A board game used for playing a bicycle or tour race with an improved game board. The game board includes indicia thereon which defines a plurality of parallel tracks which extend along an interior periphery of the game board, the tracks extending around the entire game board. At least a section of the parallel tracks pass through indicia on the game board defining a geographic area which includes indicia defining sites and places of interest within the geographic area defined. Overlay strips, defining other geographic areas with sites and places of interest within the other geographic area are provided, for changing the geographic area on the game board. The board includes a set of receiving and retaining slots for receiving and retaining overlay strips for changing the geographic area through which the tracks of the race pass.

[0001] This application is a continuation in part of International Application Serial No. PCT/GB00/04673, filed Dec. 7, 2000. FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0002] The present invention relates to medical implants, particularly cardiac and vascular implants and prostheses. More specifically, the invention relates to a cardiac valve prosthesis comprising a frame and leaflets. Such valves may also be made without rigid frames and may also be used as valves in artificial hearts, whether the latter are intended for permanent implantation or for temporary support of a patient. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0003] In mammals the heart is the organ responsible for maintaining an adequate supply of blood, and hence of oxygen and nutrients, to all parts of the body. Reverse flow of blood through the heart is prevented by four valves which serve as the inlet and outlet of each of the two ventricles, the pumping chambers of the heart. [0004] Dysfunction of one or more of these valves can have serious medical consequences. Such dysfunction may result from congenital defects, or from disease induced damage. Forms of dysfunction include stenosis (reduction in the orifice of the open valve) and regurgitation (reverse flow through the closing or closed valve), either of which increases the work required by the heart to maintain the appropriate blood flows to the body. [0005] In many cases the only effective solution is to replace the malfunctioning valve. A valve replacement operation is expensive and requires specialised facilities for open heart surgery. Replacement of failed artificial heart valves carries increased risk over the initial replacement, so there are practical limits on the number of times reoperation can be undertaken. Consequently, the design and materials of an artificial valve must provide for durability of the valve in the patient. The artificial valve must also operate without high pressure gradients or undue reverse flow during closing or when closed, because these are the very reasons for which a replacement of the natural valve is undertaken. [0006] Mechanical valves, which use a ball or a disc or a pair of pivoting rigid leaflets as the opening member(s) can meet these combined requirements of hemodynamic performance and durability. Unfortunately, a patient who has had a mechanical valve implanted must be treated with anticoagulants, otherwise blood will clot on the valve. Clotting on the valve can either restrict the movement of the valve opening member(s), impairing valve function, or can break free from the valve and obstruct blood vessels downstream from the valve, or both. A patient receiving a mechanical valve will be treated with anticoagulants for life. [0007] Valves excised from pigs and treated with glutaraldehyde to crosslink and stabilise the tissue are also used for replacement of defective valves. These may be mounted on a more or less rigid frame, to facilitate implantation, or they may be unmounted and sewn by the surgeon directly to the vessel walls at operation. A further type of valve replacement is constructed from natural tissue, such as pericardium, treated with glutaraldehyde and mounted on a frame. Valves from pigs or made from other animal or human tissue are collectively known as tissue valves. A major advantage of tissue valves over mechanical valves is that they are much less likely to provoke the blood to clot, and so patients receiving tissue valves are not normally given anticoagulants other than during the immediate post operative period. Unfortunately, tissue valves deteriorate over time, often as a result of calcification of the crosslinked natural tissue. This deterioration presents a problem, particularly in young patients. Thus, although the recipient of a tissue valve is not required to take anticoagulants, the durability of tissue valves is less than that of mechanical valves. [0008] In third world countries, where rheumatic fever is still common, the problems of valve replacement in young patients are considerable. Anticoagulants, required for mechanical valves, are impractical and accelerated calcification of tissue valves precludes their use. [0009] In the Western world, life expectancy continues to increase, and this results in a corresponding rise both in patients requiring cardiac valve replacement, and in those patients needing replacement of deteriorating artificial valves implanted in the past. There is, therefore, a need for a replacement heart valve with good hemodynamics, extended durability and having sufficiently low risk of inducing clotting so that anticoagulants are not necessary. [0010] The natural heart valves use thin flexible tissue leaflets as the closing members. The leaflets move readily out of the orifice as blood begins to flow through the valve so that flow through the open valve is unrestricted by the leaflets. Tissue valves function similarly, providing a relatively unrestricted orifice when the valve is open. For mechanical valves, on the other hand, the closing member rotates in the orifice, but is not removed from the orifice when the valve opens. This provides some restriction to flow, but more importantly, disturbs the blood flow patterns. This disturbance to the flow is widely held to initiate, or at least to contribute significantly to, the observed tendency of mechanical valves to produce clotting. [0011] A number of trileaflet polyurethane valve designs have been described. [0012] A valve design, comprising a leaflet geometry which was elliptical in the radial direction and hyperbolic in the circumferential direction in the closed valve position, with leaflets dip-coated from non-biostable polyurethane solutions onto injection-molded polyurethane frames has attained durabilities in excess of 800 million cycles during in vitro fatigue testing (Mackay T G, Wheatley D J, Bernacca G M, Hindle C S, Fisher A C. New polyurethane heart valve prosthesis: design, manufacture and evaluation. Biomaterials 1996; 17:1857-1863; Mackay T G, Bernacca G M, Wheatley D J, Fisher A C, Hindle C S. In vitro function and durability assessment of a polyurethane heart valve prosthesis. Artificial Organs 1996; 20:1017-1025; Bernacca G M, Mackay T G, Wheatley D J. In vitro function and durability of a polyurethane heart valve: material considerations. J Heart Valve Dis 1996; 5:538-542; Bernacca G M, Mackay T G, Wilkinson R, Wheatley D J. Polyurethane heart valves: fatigue failure, calcification and polyurethane structure. J Biomed Mater Res 1997; 34:371-379; Bernacca G M, Mackay T G, Gulbransen M J, Donn A W, Wheatley D J. Polyurethane heart valve durability: effects of leaflet thickness. Int J Artif Organs 1997; 20:327-331.). However, this valve design became unacceptably stenotic in small sizes. Thus, a redesign was effected, changing the hyperbolic angle from the free edge to the leaflet base, and replacing the injection-molded frame with a rigid, high modulus polymer frame. This redesign permitted the use of a thinner frame, thus increasing valve orifice area. This valve design, with a non-biostable polyurethane leaflet material, was implanted in a growing sheep model. Valve performance was good over the six month implant period, but the region close to the frame posts on the inflow side of the valve, at which full leaflet opening was not achieved, suffered a local accumulation of thrombus (Bernacca G M, Raco L, Mackay T G, Wheatley D J. Durability and function of a polyurethane heart valve after six months in vivo. Presented at the XII World Congress of International Society for Artificial Organs and XXVI Congress of the European Society for Artificial Organs, Edinburgh, August 1999. Wheatley D J, Raco L, Bernacca G M, Sim I, Belcher P R, Boyd J S. Polyurethane: material for the next generation of heart valve prostheses? Eur. J. Cardio-Thorac. Surg. 2000; 17; 440-448). This valve design used non-biostable polyurethane, which had tolerable mechanical durability, but which showed signs of polymer degradation after six months in vivo. [0013] International Patent Application WO 98/32400 entitled “Heart Valve Prosthesis” discloses a similar design, i.e., closed leaflet geometry, comprising essentially a trileaflet valve with leaflets molded in a geometry derived from a sphere towards the free edge and a cone towards the base of the leaflets. The spherical surface, defined by its radius, is intended to provide a tight seal when the leaflets are under back pressure, with ready opening provided by the conical segment, defined by its half-angle, at the base of the leaflets. Were the spherical portion located at the leaflet base it is stated that this would provide an advantage in terms of the stress distribution when the valve is closed and under back pressure. [0014] U.S. Pat. No. 5,376,113 (Jansen et al.) entitled “Closing Member Having Flexible Closing Elements, Especially a Heart Valve” issued Dec. 27, 1994 to Jansen et al. discloses a method of producing flexible heart valve leaflets using leaflets attached to a base ring with posts extending from this upon which the leaflets are mounted. The leaflets are formed with the base ring in an expanded position, being effectively of planar sheets of polymer, which become flaccid on contraction of the ring. The resulting valve is able to maintain both a stable open and a stable closed position in the absence of any pulsatile pressure, though in the neutral unloaded position the valve leaflets contain bending stresses. As a consequence of manufacturing the valve from substantially planar sheets, the included angle between the leaflets at the free edge where they attach to the frame is 60° for a three leaflet valve. [0015] U.S. Pat. No. 5,500,016 (Fisher) entitled “Artificial Heart Valve” discloses a valve having a leaflet shape defined by the mathematical equation z 2 +y 2 =2RL (x−g)−α(x−g) 2 , where g is the offset of the leaflet from the frame, RL is the radius of curvature of the leaflet at (g,0,0) and α is the shape parameter and is >0 and <1. [0016] A valve design having a partially open configuration when the valve is not subject to a pressure gradient, but assuming a fully-open position during forward flow is disclosed in International Patent Application WO 97/41808 entitled “Method for Producing Heart Valves”. The valve may be a polyurethane trileaflet valve and is contained within a cylindrical outer sleeve. [0017] U.S. Pat. No. 4,222,126 (Boretos et al.) and U.S. Pat. No. 4,265,694 (Boretos et al.) disclose a trileaflet polyurethane valve with integral polyurethane elastomeric leaflets having their leading edges reinforced with an integral band of polymer and the leaflets reinforced radially with thicker lines of polyurethane. [0018] The problem of chronic thrombus formation and tissue overgrowth arising from the suture ring of valves has been addressed by extension of the valve body on either side of the suture ring as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,888,009 (Lederman et al.) entitled “Prosthetic Heart Valve”. [0019] Current polyurethane valve designs have a number of potential drawbacks. Close coaptation of leaflets, while ensuring good valve closure, limits the wash-out of blood during hemodynamic function, particularly in the regions close to the stent posts at the commissures. This region of stagnation is likely to encourage local thrombogenesis, with further restriction of the valve orifice in the longer term as well as increasing the risk of material embolising into the circulation. Associated with the thrombosis may be material degradation (in non-biostable polyurethanes) and calcification resulting in localised stiffening the leaflets, stress concentrations and leaflet failure. As previously discussed, animal implants of a trileaflet polyurethane valve design have indicated that thrombus does tend to collect in this region, restricting the valve orifice and damaging the structure of the valve. [0020] Present valve designs are limited by the availability of suitable polyurethanes which possess good mechanical properties as well as sufficient durability to anticipate clinical functionality of up to twenty years or more. Many low modulus materials, which provide good hydrodynamic function, fail during fatigue testing at unacceptably low durations, due to their greater susceptibility to the effects of accumulated strain. Higher modulus polyurethanes may be better able to withstand repeated stress without accumulating significant damage, but are too stiff to provide good hydrodynamic function in conventional almost-closed geometry valve designs. Current design strategies have not been directed towards enabling the incorporation of potentially more durable, higher modulus leaflet materials, nor the creation of a valve design that is able to maintain good hydrodynamic function with low modulus polyurethanes manufactured as thick leaflets. [0021] The nature of the valve leaflet attachment to the frame is such that, in many valve designs, there is a region of leaflet close to the frame, which is restrained by the frame. This region may extend some distance into the leaflet before it interfaces with the free-moving part of the leaflet, or may be directly at the interface between frame and leaflet. There thus exists a stress concentration between the area of leaflet that is relatively mobile, undergoing transition between fully open and fully closed, and the relatively stationary commissural region. The magnitude of this flexural stress concentration is maximized when the design parameters predicate high bending strains in order for the leaflet to achieve its fully open position. [0022] U.S. Pat. No. 4,222,126 (Boretos et al.) and U.S. Pat. No. 4,265,694 (Boretos et al.) disclose a valve which uses thickened leaflet areas to strengthen vulnerable area of the leaflets. However this approach is likely to increase the flexure stress and be disadvantageous in terms of leaflet hydrodynamic function. [0023] The major difficulties which arise in designing synthetic leaflet heart valves can be explained as follows. The materials from which the natural trileaflet heart valves (aortic and pulmonary) are formed have deformation characteristics particularly suited to the function of such a valve. Specifically, they have a very low initial modulus, and so they are very flexible in bending, which occurs at low strain. This low modulus also allows the leaflet to deform when the valve is closed and loaded in such a way that the stresses generated at the attachment of the leaflets, the commissures, are reduced. The leaflet material then stiffens substantially, and this allows the valve to sustain the closed loads without prolapse. Synthetic materials with these mechanical properties are not available. [0024] Polyurethanes can be synthesized with good blood handling and good durability. They are available with a wide range of mechanical properties, although none has as low a modulus as the natural heart valve material. Although they show an increase in modulus at higher strains, this does not occur until strains much higher than those encountered in leaflet heart valves. [0025] Polyurethanes have been the materials of choice for synthetic leaflet heart valves in the last decade or more. More recently, polyurethanes have become available which are resistant to degradation when implanted. They are clearly more suitable for making synthetic leaflet heart valves than non-stable polyurethanes, but their use suffers from the same limitations resulting from their mechanical properties. Therefore, design changes must be sought which enable synthetic trileaflet heart valves to function with the best available materials. [0026] Key performance parameters which must be considered when designing a synthetic leaflet heart valve include pressure gradient, regurgitation, blood handling, and durability. [0027] To minimize the gradient across the open valve, the leaflets must open wide to the maximum orifice possible, which is defined by the inside diameter of the stent. This means that there must be adequate material in the leaflets so they can be flexed into a tube of diameter equal to the stent internal diameter. In addition, there has to be a low energy path for this bending because the pressure forces available to open the valve are small, and the lower the gradient, the smaller the pressure becomes. All the leaflets must open for the lowest cardiac output likely to be encountered by that valve in clinical service. [0028] To minimize closing regurgitation (reverse flow lost through the closing valve) the valve leaflets must be produced at or close to the closed position of the valve. To minimize closed valve regurgitation (reverse flow through the valve once it has closed), the apposition of the leaflets in the commissural region is found to be key, and from this perspective the commissures should be formed in the closed position. [0029] Proper blood handling means minimising the activation both of the coagulation system and of platelets. The material of construction of the valve is clearly a very important factor, but flow through the valve must also avoid exposing blood either to regions of high shear (velocity gradient) or to regions of relative stasis. Avoiding regions of high shear is achieved if the valve opens fully, and relative stasis is avoided if the leaflet/frame attachment and the commissural region in particular opens wide. This is not achieved with typical synthetic materials when the commissures are molded almost closed, because the stiffness of synthetics is too high. [0030] Durability depends to a large extent on the material of construction of the valve leaflets, but for any given material, lifetime will be maximized if regions of high stress are avoided. The loads on the closed valve are significantly greater than loads generated during valve opening. Therefore, the focus should be on the closed position. Stresses are highest in the region of the commissures where loads are transmitted to the stent, but they are reduced when the belly of the leaflet is as low as practicable in the closed valve. This means that there must be sufficient material in the leaflet to allow the desired low closing. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0031] The present invention provides a cardiac valve prosthesis comprising a frame and two or more leaflets (preferably three) attached to the frame. Two embodiments of the invention are disclosed. [0032] 1. First Embodiment [0033] The leaflets are attached to the frame between posts, with a free edge which can seal the leaflets together when the valve is closed under back pressure. The leaflets are created in a mathematically defined shape allowing good wash-out of the whole leaflet orifice, including the area close to the frame posts, thereby relieving the problem of thrombus deposition under clinical implant conditions. [0034] The leaflet shape has a second design feature, by which the pressure required to open the valve and the pressure gradient across the valve in the open position is reduced by creating a valve which is partially open in its stable unstressed position. Molding the leaflets in a partially open position permits them to open easily to a wider angle resulting in an increased effective orifice area, for any given polyurethane/elastomeric material. This permits the use of materials from a wider range of mechanical properties to fabricate the leaflets, including those of a relatively stiff nature, and also permits lower modulus materials to be incorporated as thicker and hence more durable leaflets, while retaining acceptable leaflet hydrodynamic function. [0035] A third design feature is the reduction of a stress concentration in the vicinity of the commissural region of the leaflets. In many valve designs, there exists a region of localised high bending where the opening part of the flexible leaflet merges into the stationary region of the leaflet adjacent to the valve frame. The current design reduces the bending, and hence the local stress concentration, in this region. This feature is designed to enhance the valve durability. [0036] The wide opening of the leaflet coaptation close to the stent posts improves blood washout, reduces thrombogenesis and minimizes embolic risks to the recipient, by allowing a clear channel for blood flow throughout the whole valve orifice. [0037] The partially open design acts to reduce the fluid pressure required to open the valve. This in turn results in lower pressure gradients across the valve, allowing the use of durable, stiffer polyurethanes to fabricate the valve which may be better equipped to deal with a cyclic stress application or thicker leaflets of lower modulus polyurethanes, hence achieving good durability with good hydrodynamic function. The position of the leaflet in its stable unstressed state acts to reduce the stress concentration resulting from leaflet bending, hence increasing valve durability. [0038] In one aspect the invention is a cardiac valve prosthesis comprising a frame defining a blood flow axis and at least two leaflets attached to the frame. The at least two leaflets are configured to be movable from an open to a closed position. The leaflets have a blood inlet side and a blood outlet side and are in the closed position when fluid pressure is applied to the outlet side, and in the open position when fluid pressure is applied to the inlet side. The leaflets are in a neutral position intermediate the open and closed position in the absence of fluid pressure being applied to the leaflets. The at least two leaflets include a first leaflet. The first leaflet has a surface contour such that an intersection of the first leaflet with at least one plane perpendicular to the blood flow axis forms a first composite wave. The first composite wave is substantially defined by a first wave combined with at least a second wave superimposed over the first wave. The first wave has a first frequency and the second wave has a second frequency, different from the first frequency. Alternatively, the first composite wave may be defined by a first wave combined with second and third waves superimposed over the first wave. The third wave has a third frequency which is different from the first frequency. [0039] Both the first wave and the second wave may be symmetric or asymmetric about a plane parallel to and intersecting the blood flow axis and bisecting the first leaflet. The first composite wave may be symmetric or asymmetric about a plane parallel to and intersecting the blood flow axis and bisecting the first leaflet. The at least two leaflets may include second and third leaflets. An intersection of the second and third leaflets with a plane perpendicular to the blood flow axis forms second and third composite waves. The second and third composite waves are substantially the same as the first composite wave. The first and second waves may be defined by an equation which is trigonometric, elliptical, hyperbolic, parabolic, circular, a smooth analytic function or a table of values. The at least two leaflets may be configured such that they are substantially free of bending stresses when in the neutral position. The frame may be substantially cylindrical having first and second ends, one of the ends defining at least two scalloped edge portions separated by at least two posts, each post having a tip, and wherein each leaflet has a fixed edge joined to a respective scalloped edge portion of the frame and a free edge extending substantially between the tips of two posts. The first and second waves may be symmetric about a plane parallel to and intersecting the blood flow axis and bisecting the first leaflet or at least one of the first and second waves may be symmetric about such plane. The first leaflet may have a surface contour such that when the first leaflet is in the neutral position an intersection of the first leaflet with a plane parallel to and intersecting the blood flow axis and bisecting the first leaflet forms a fourth wave. [0040] In another aspect the invention is a method of making a cardiac valve prosthesis. The valve prosthesis includes a frame defining a blood flow axis substantially parallel to the flow of blood through the valve prosthesis and at least two flexible leaflets attached to the frame. The method includes providing a forming element having at least two leaflet forming surfaces. The forming element is engaged with the frame. A coating is applied over the frame and engaged forming element. The coating binds to the frame. The coating over the leaflet forming surfaces forms the at least two leaflets. The at least two leaflets are configured to be movable from an open to a closed position. The leaflets have a blood inlet side and a blood outlet side and are in the closed position when fluid pressure is applied to the outlet side, and in the open position when fluid pressure is applied to the inlet side. The leaflets are in a neutral position intermediate the open and closed position in the absence of fluid pressure being applied to the leaflets. The at least two leaflets include a first leaflet. The first leaflet has a surface contour such that the intersection of the first leaflet with at least one plane perpendicular to the blood flow axis forms a first composite wave. The first composite wave is substantially defined by a first wave combined with a second superimposed wave. The first wave has a first frequency and the second wave has a second frequency different from the first frequency. After the coating is applied the forming element is disengaged from the frame. The first composite wave formed in the coating step may be defined by a first wave combined with second and third waves superimposed over the first wave. The third wave has a third frequency which is different from the first frequency. [0041] The first and second waves formed in the coating step may be either symmetric or asymmetric about a plane parallel to and intersecting the blood flow axis and bisecting the first leaflet. The first composite wave formed in the coating step may be symmetric or asymmetric about a plane parallel to and intersecting the blood flow axis and bisecting the first leaflet. The at least two leaflets formed in the coating step may include second and third leaflets. An intersection of the second and third leaflets with a plane perpendicular to the blood flow axis forms second and third composite waves, respectively. The second and third composite waves are substantially the same as the first composite wave. The first and second waves formed in the coating step may be defined by an equation which is trigonometric, elliptical, hyperbolic, parabolic, circular, a smooth analytic function or a table of values. [0042] The first and second waves in the coating step may be symmetric about a plane parallel to and intersecting the blood flow axis and bisecting the first leaflet or at least one of the first and second waves may be asymmetric about such plane. The at least two leaflets in the coating step are configured such that they are substantially free of bending stresses when in the neutral position. [0043] In a further aspect the invention is a cardiac valve prosthesis comprising a frame defining a blood flow axis and at least two leaflets attached to the frame including a first leaflet. The first leaflet has an internal surface facing the blood flow axis and an external surface facing away from the blood flow axis. The first leaflet is configured such that a mean thickness of a first half of the first leaflet is different than a mean thickness of a second half of the first leaflet. The first and second halves are defined by a plane parallel to and intersecting the blood flow axis and bisecting the first leaflet. The first leaflet may be further configured such that a thickness of the first leaflet between the internal and external surfaces along a cross section defined by the intersection of a plane perpendicular to the blood flow axis and the first leaflet changes gradually and substantially continuously from a first end of the cross section to a second end of the cross section. [0044] In another aspect the invention is a method of making a cardiac valve prosthesis which includes a frame defining a blood flow axis substantially parallel to the flow of blood through the valve prosthesis and at least two flexible leaflets attached to the frame. The method includes providing a mold having a cavity sized to accommodate the frame, inserting the frame into the mold, inserting the mold into an injection molding machine, and injecting molten polymer into the cavity of the mold to form the at least two leaflets. The injection of the molten polymer causes the at least two leaflets to bond to the frame. The cavity is shaped to form the at least two leaflets in a desired configuration. The at least two leaflets are configured to be movable from an open to a closed position. The leaflets have a blood inlet side and a blood outlet side and are in the closed position when fluid pressure is applied to the outlet side, and in the open position when fluid pressure is applied to the inlet side. The leaflets are in a neutral position intermediate the open and closed position in the absence of fluid pressure being applied to the leaflets. The at least two leaflets include a first leaflet having a surface contour such that when the first leaflet is in the neutral position an intersection of the first leaflet with at least one plane perpendicular to the blood flow axis forms a first composite wave. The first composite wave is substantially defined by a first wave combined with at least a second superimposed wave. The first wave may have a first frequency, the second wave may have a second frequency, the first frequency being different from the second frequency. [0045] In a still further aspect the invention is a method of designing a cardiac valve prosthesis which includes a frame and at least two flexible leaflets attached to the frame. The method includes defining a first desired shape of the leaflets in a first position, defining a second desired shape of the leaflets in a second position different from the first position, and conducting a draping analysis to identify values of adjustable parameters defining at least one of the first and second shapes. The draping analysis ensures that the leaflets are comprised of a sufficient amount and distribution of material for the leaflets to assume both the first and second desired shapes. Either of the first and second positions in the defining steps may be a closed position and the other of the first and second positions may be a partially open position. [0046] 2. Second Embodiment [0047] In one aspect, this invention is a cardiac valve prosthesis comprising a substantially cylindrical frame defining a blood flow axis, the frame having first and second ends, one of the ends defining at least two scalloped edge positions separated by at least two posts, each post having a tip; and at least two flexible leaflets attached to the frame, the at least two leaflets being configured to be movable from an open to a closed position, the at least two leaflets having a blood inlet side and a blood outlet side, the at least two leaflets being in the closed position when fluid pressure is applied to the outlet side, being in the open position when fluid pressure is applied to the inlet side and being in a neutral position intermediate the open and closed position, in the absence of fluid pressure being applied to the leaflets, each leaflet having a fixed edge joined to a respective scalloped edge portion of the frame and a free edge extending substantially between the tips of two posts. The at least two leaflets may include a first leaflet having a surface contour such that when the first leaflet is in the neutral position an intersection of the first leaflet with at least one plane perpendicular to the blood flow axis forms a first composite wave, the first composite wave being substantially defined by a first wave combined with at least a second wave superimposed over the first wave, the first wave having a first frequency, the second wave having a second frequency different than the first frequency, the first wave comprising a circular arc. [0048] The first wave may be defined by a first wave combined with second and third waves superimposed over the first wave, the third wave having a third frequency which is different from the first and second frequencies. The first composite wave as well as the second wave may be symmetric or asymmetric about a plane parallel to and intersecting the blood flow axis and bisecting the first leaflet. The at least two leaflets may further include second and third leaflets; and an intersection of the second and third leaflets with the plane perpendicular to the blood flow axis may form second and third composite waves, respectively, the second and third composite waves being substantially the same as the first composite wave. The second wave may be defined by an equation which is one of trigonometric, elliptical, hyperbolic, a smooth analytic function and a table of values. The at least two leaflets may be configured such that they are substantially free of bending stresses when in the neutral position. The first leaflet may have a surface contour such that when the first leaflet is in the neutral position an intersection of the first leaflet with a plane parallel to and intersecting the blood flow axis and bisecting the first leaflet forms a fourth wave. [0049] In a second aspect, this invention is a method of making a cardiac valve prosthesis which includes a substantially cylindrical frame defining a blood flow axis substantially parallel to the flow of blood through the valve prosthesis and at least two flexible leaflets attached to the frame, the method comprising forming at least two scalloped edge portions on the frame, the shape of each scalloped edge portion being defined by the intersection of the frame with a plane inclined with respect to the blood flow axis; treating the frame to raise its surface energy to above about 64 mN/m; providing a forming element having at least two leaflet forming surfaces; engaging the forming element to the frame; applying a coating over the frame and engaged forming element, the coating binding to the frame, the coating over the leaflet forming surfaces forming the at least two flexible leaflets, the at least two leaflets being configured to be movable from an open to a closed position, the at least two leaflets having a blood inlet side and a blood outlet side, the at least two leaflets being in the closed position when fluid pressure is applied to the outlet side, being in the open position when fluid pressure is applied to the inlet side and being in a neutral position intermediate the open and closed position, in the absence of fluid pressure being applied to the leaflets, the at least two leaflets including a first leaflet having a surface contour such that when the first leaflet is in the neutral position an intersection of the first leaflet with at least one plane perpendicular to the blood flow axis forms a first composite wave, the first composite wave being substantially defined by a first wave combined with at least a second superimposed wave, the first wave having a first frequency, the second wave having a second frequency, the first frequency being different from the second frequency, the first wave comprising a circular arc; and disengaging the forming element from the frame. DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS [0050] [0050]FIG. 1 is a diagrammatic view comparing the shape of symmetric (solid line) and asymmetric (dashed line) leaflets. [0051] [0051]FIG. 2 is a perspective view of the valve prosthesis in the neutral or partially open position. [0052] [0052]FIG. 3 is a sectional view similar to the sectional view along line 3 - 3 of FIG. 2 except that FIG. 3 illustrates that view when the leaflets are in the closed position and illustrates the function which is used to define the shape of the closed leaflet belly X Closed (Z) [0053] [0053]FIG. 4A is a front view of the valve leaflet shown in FIG. 2. FIG. 4B is in the same view as FIG. 4A and is a partial schematic view of the same closed valve leaflet shown in FIG. 3 and illustrates that S(X, Y) n and S(X, Y) n−1 are contours enclosing the leaflet between the function X Closed (Z) and the scallop geometry. [0054] [0054]FIG. 5 is a plot of an underlying function used in defining the valve leaflet in the molded leaflet partially open position P for valves made in accordance with the first embodiment. [0055] [0055]FIG. 6 is a plot of a symmetrical superimposed function used in defining the shape of the valve leaflet of the first embodiment in the molded leaflet position P. [0056] [0056]FIG. 7 is a plot of the composite function used in construction of the molded leaflet position P resulting from combining an underlying function (FIG. 5) and a symmetric superimposed function (FIG. 6) for valves made in accordance with the first embodiment. [0057] [0057]FIG. 8 is a plot of an asymmetric superimposed function used in the construction of the molded leaflet position P for valves made in accordance with the first embodiment. [0058] [0058]FIG. 9 is a plot of the composite function resulting from combining an underlying function (FIG. 5) and an asymmetric function (FIG. 8) for valves made in accordance with the first embodiment. [0059] [0059]FIG. 10 is a sectional view of the valve leaflets in the neutral position along line 3 - 3 in FIG. 2 and illustrates the function which is used to define the shape of the molded leaflet belly X open (Z). [0060] [0060]FIG. 11A is a front view of the valve. FIG. 11B is a partial schematic view of the valve leaflets of FIG. 11A and illustrates that P(X, Y) n and P(X, Y) n−1 are contours enclosing the leaflet between the function X open (Z) and the scallop geometry. [0061] [0061]FIG. 12 is a perspective view of a valve of the first embodiment having symmetric leaflets. [0062] [0062]FIG. 13 is a perspective view of a valve of the first embodiment having asymmetric leaflets. [0063] [0063]FIG. 14 is a side view of a former used in the manufacture of the valve of the present invention. [0064] [0064]FIG. 15 is a plot of an underlying function used in defining the valve leaflet in the molded partially open position P for a valve made in accordance with the second embodiment. [0065] [0065]FIG. 16 is a plot of an asymmetrical superimposed function used in defining the shape of a valve leaflet of the second embodiment in the molded leaflet position P for valves made in accordance with the second embodiment. [0066] [0066]FIG. 17 is a plot of the composite function used in construction of the molded leaflet position P resulting from combining an underlying function (FIG. 15) and an asymmetric superimposed function (FIG. 16) for a valve made in accordance with the second embodiment. [0067] [0067]FIG. 18 is a perspective view of a valve of the second embodiment having asymmetric leaflets. DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0068] a. Design Considerations [0069] Consideration of the factors discussed above results in the identification of certain design goals which are achieved by the prosthetic heart valve of the present invention. First, the prosthetic heart valve must have enough material in the leaflet for wide opening and low closing, but more than this amount increases the energy barrier to opening. To ensure that there is sufficient, but not an excess of material, a draping analysis discussed in more detail below is used. Second, to ensure sufficient material for wide opening and low closing, the valve can only be manufactured in a partially open position: (a) by deforming the stent posts outwards during manufacture; (b) by introducing multiple curves in the leaflet free edge (but see below); (c) by making the closed position asymmetric; and (d) combinations of the above. Third, if there is enough material for low closing and wide opening, the energy barrier to opening may be high enough to prevent opening of all leaflets at low flow. The energy barrier can be minimized by: (a) introducing multiple curves in the leaflet; (b) making the leaflet asymmetric; and combinations of the above. Fourth, open commissures are needed for blood handling and closed commissures are needed for regurgitation, so the valve should have partially open commissures. In particular the included angle between adjacent leaflet free edges at the valve commissures (for example see angle a of the symmetric leaflets shown in FIG. 1) should be in the range of 10-55°, preferably in the range 25-55°. [0070] As discussed above, the use of multiple curves in the leaflet helps assure wide opening and more complete closure of the valve and to minimize the energy barrier to opening of the valve. However, the introduction of multiple curves of more than 1.5 wavelengths to the leaflet can be a disadvantage. While there may be sufficient material in the leaflet to allow full opening, in order for this to happen, the bends in the leaflet must straighten out completely. The energy available to do this arises only from the pressure gradient across the open valve, which decreases as the leaflets becomes more open, i.e., as the valve orifice area increases. This energy is relatively small (the more successful the valve design the smaller it becomes), and does not provide enough energy to remove leaflet curves of more than 1.5 wavelengths given the stiffness of the materials available for valve manufacture. The result is they do not straighten out and the valve does not open fully. [0071] A draping analysis is used as a first approximation to full finite element analysis to determine if the starting shape of a membrane is such that it will take on a desired final shape when placed in its final position. From a durability standpoint the focus is on the closed position, and the desired shape of the leaflet in its closed position is defined. Draping analysis allows the leaflet to be reformed in a partially open position. [0072] Draping analysis assumes that very low energy deformation is possible (in reality any form of deformation requires energy). In order for this to occur the bending stiffness of the leaflet/membrane must be small, each element of the membrane should be free to deform relative to its neighbour, and each element should be free to change shape, i.e., the shear modulus of the material is assumed to be very low. In applying the draping analysis, it is assumed that the leaflet can be moved readily from an original defined closed position to a new position in which it is manufactured. When the valve is actually cycled, it is assumed that the leaflet when closing will move from the manufactured position to the originally defined closed position. This allows the closed position to be optimised from a stress distribution aspect, and the manufactured position to be optimised from the point of view of reducing the energy barrier to opening. [0073] Both symmetric and asymmetric shapes of the leaflet can allow incorporation of sufficient material in the leaflet free edge to allow full opening. FIG. 1 is a diagrammatic view comparing the shape of symmetric (solid line) and asymmetric (dashed line) leaflets and also showing the commissure area 12 where the leaflets connect to the frame. An advantage of the asymmetric shape is that a region of higher radius of curvature 14 is produced than is achieved with a symmetric curve having a lower radius of curvature 16 . This region can buckle more readily and thereby the energy barrier to opening is reduced. [0074] An asymmetric leaflet also reduces the energy barrier through producing unstable buckling in the leaflet. During opening symmetric leaflets buckle symmetrically i.e., the leaflet buckles are generally mirrored about the centerline of the leaflet thus balancing the bending energies about this centerline. In the asymmetric valve the region of higher radius buckles readily, and because these bending energies are not balanced about the center line, this buckle proceeds to roll through the leaflet producing a sail-like motion producing a low energy path to open. [0075] An additional feature of the asymmetric valve is that the open position is also slightly asymmetric, as a result of which it offers a somewhat helical flow path, and this can be matched to the natural helical sense of the aorta. Suggested benefits of this helical flow path include reduction of shear stress non-uniformity at the wall, and consequent reduction of platelet activation. [0076] b. The Valve Prosthesis [0077] First and second embodiments of the valve prosthesis will be described with reference to the accompanying drawings. FIG. 2 is a perspective view of a heart valve prosthesis made in accordance with the present invention. The valve 10 comprises a stent or frame 1 and attached leaflets 2 a , 2 b , and 2 c . The leaflets are joined to the frame at scallops 5 a , 5 b , and 5 c . Between each scallop is post 8 , the most down-stream part of which is known as a stent tip 6 . Leaflets 2 a , 2 b , and 2 c have free edges 3 a , 3 b , and 3 c , respectively. The areas between the leaflets at the stent tips 6 form commissures 4 . [0078] 1. First Embodiment of Heart Valve Prosthesis [0079] The following describes a particular way of designing a first embodiment of a valve of the present invention. Other different design methodology could be utilized to design a valve having the structural features of the valve disclosed herein. Five computational steps are involved in this particular method: [0080] (1) Define the scallop geometry (the scallop, 5 , is the intersection of the leaflet, 2 , with the frame, 1 ); [0081] (2) Geometrically define a valve leaflet in the closed position C; [0082] (3) Map and compute the distribution of area across the leaflet in the closed position; [0083] (4) Rebuild the leaflet in a partially open position P; and [0084] (5) Match the computed leaflet area distribution in the partially open or molded position P to the defined leaflet in the closed position C. This ensures that when an increasing closing pressure is applied to the leaflets, they eventually assume a shape which is equivalent to that defined in closed position C. [0085] This approach allows the closed shape of the leaflets in position C to be optimised for durability while the leaflets shaped in the molded partially open shape P can be optimised for hemodynamics. This allows the use of stiffer leaflet materials for valves which have good hemodynamics. An XYZ co-ordinate system is defined as shown in FIG. 2, with the Z axis in the flow direction of blood flowing through the valve. [0086] The leaflets are mounted on the frame, the shape of which results from the intersection of the aforementioned leaflet shape and a 3-dimensional geometry that can be cylindrical, conical or spherical in nature. A scallop shape is defined through intersecting the surface enclosed by the following equations with a cylinder of radius R (where R is the internal radius of the valve): X ell =E sO −E sJ .{square root}{square root over (1−( Z/E sN ) 2 )} H sJ =E sO −E sJ {square root}{square root over ((1−( Z/H sN ) 2 ))}− H sO H sN ( Z )= H sJ .tan(60). f ( Z ) [0087] where f(Z) is a function changing with Z. X hyp =H sO +H sJ {square root}{square root over ((1−( Y/H sN) 2 ))} [0088] The shape of the scallop can be varied using the constants E sO , E sJ , H sO , f(Z). The definition of parameters used in these and the other equations herein are contained in Table 4. [0089] The shape of the leaflet under back pressure (i.e., in the closed position C) can be approximated mathematically using elliptical or hyperbolic co-ordinates, or a combination of the above in an XYZ co-ordinate system where XY is the plane of the valve perpendicular to the blood flow and Z is the direction parallel to the blood flow. The parameters are chosen to define approximately the shape of the leaflet under back pressure so as to allow convenient leaflet re-opening and minimize the effect of the stress component which acts in the direction parallel to the blood flow, whilst also producing an effective seal under back pressure. [0090] The closed leaflet geometry in closed position C is chosen to minimize stress concentrations in the leaflet particularly prone to occur at the valve commissures. The specifications for this shape include: [0091] (1) inclusion of sufficient material to allow a large open-leaflet orifice; [0092] (2) arrangement of this material to minimize redundancy (excess material in the free edge, 3 ) and twisting in the centre of the free edge, 3 ; and [0093] (3) arrangement of this material to ensure the free edge, 3 , is under low stress i.e., compelling the frame and leaflet belly to sustain the back-pressure. [0094] [0094]FIG. 3 is a partial sectional view (using the section 3 - 3 shown in FIG. 2) showing only the intended position of the leaflet in the closed position. The shape of this intended position is represented by the function X Closed (Z). This function can be used to arrange the shape of the leaflet in the closed position C to meet the aforementioned specification. The curve is defined using the following equation and manipulated using the constants E cJ , E cO , Z cO and the functions E cN (Z) and X T (Z). X Closed  ( Z ) = - [ E cJ · ( 1 - ( Z - Z cO E cN  ( Z ) ) 2 ) ] 0     5 + E cO - X T  ( Z ) [0095] where E cN is a function changing linearly with Z and X T (Z) is a function changing nonlinearly with Z. [0096] Thus the scallop shape and the function X Closed (Z) are used to form the prominent boundaries for the closed leaflet in the closed position C. The remaining part of the leaflet is formed using contours S(X, Y) n sweeping from the scallop to the closed leaflet belly function X Closed (Z) n where n is an infinite number of contours, two of which are shown in FIG. 4B. [0097] The length of the leaflet (or contours S(X, Y) n ) in the circumferential direction (XY) is calculated and repeated in the radial direction (Z) yielding a function L(Z) which is used later in the definition of the geometry in the partially open position P. The area contained between respective contours is also computed yielding a function K(Z) which is also used in the definition of the geometry in position P. The area contained between contours is approximated using the process of triangulation as shown in FIG. 4B. This entire process can be shortened by reducing the number of contours used to represent the surface (100<n<200). [0098] The aforementioned processes essentially define the leaflet shape and can be manipulated to optimise for durability. In order to optimise for hemodynamics, the same leaflet is molded in a position P which is intermediate in terms of valve opening. This entails molding large radius curves into the leaflet which then serve to reduce the energy required to buckle the leaflet from the closed to the open position. The large radius curves can be arranged in many different ways. Some of these are outlined herein. [0099] The leaflet may be molded on a dipping former as shown in FIG. 14. Preferably the former is tapered with an included angle θ so that the end 29 has a diameter which is greater than the end 22 . (This ensures apposition of the frame and former during manufacture.) In this case, the scallop shape, defined earlier, is redefined to lie on a tapered geometry (as opposed to the cylindrical geometry used in the definition of the closed leaflet shape). This is achieved by moving each point on the scallop radially, and in the same movement, rotation of each point about an X-Y plane coincident with the bottom of the scallop, until each point lies on the tapered geometry. [0100] The geometry of the leaflet shape can be defined as a trigonometric arrangement (or other mathematical function) preferably sinusoidal in nature in the XY plane, comprising one or more waves, and having anchoring points on the frame. Thus the valve leaflets are defined by combining at least two mathematical functions to produce composite waves, and by using these waves to enclose the leaflet surface with the aforementioned scallop. [0101] One such possible manifestation is a composite curve consisting of an underlying low frequency sinusoidal wave upon which a second higher frequency sinusoidal wave is superimposed. A third wave having a frequency different from the first and second waves could also be superimposed over the resulting composite wave. This ensures a wider angle between adjacent leaflets in the region of the commissures when the valve is fully open thus ensuring good wash-out of this region. [0102] The composite curve, and the resulting leaflet, can be either symmetric or asymmetric about a plane parallel to the blood flow direction and bisecting a line drawn between two stent tips such as, for leaflet 2 a , the section along line 3 - 3 of FIG. 2. The asymmetry can be effected either by combining a symmetric underlying curve with an asymmetric superimposed curve or vice versa. [0103] The following describes the use of a symmetric underlying function with an asymmetric superimposed function, but the use of an asymmetric underlying function will be obvious to one skilled in the art. The underlying function is defined in the XY plane and connects the leaflet attachment points to the scallop at a given height from the base of the valve. This underlying function shown in FIG. 5, can be trigonometric, elliptical, hyperbolic, parabolic, circular, or other smooth analytic function or could be a table of values. [0104] Using sine functions, one possible underlying wave is shown in FIG. 5 and is defined using the following equation. X u = X ( n , 0 ) + A u · sin    [ ( 0.5  π Y  ( n , 0 ) ) · ( Y - Y ( n , 0 ) ) ] [0105] The superimposed wave is defined in the XY plane, and connects the attachment points of the leaflet to the scallop at a given height above the base of the valve. The superimposed wave is of higher frequency than the underlying wave, and can be trigonometric, elliptic, hyperbolic, parabolic, circular, or other smooth analytic function, or a table of values. [0106] Using sine functions, one possible symmetric leaflet design is formed when the underlying wave is combined with a superimposed wave formed using the following equation. X s = - A s · B s  ( Y ) · sin  [ ( 1.5  π Y ( n , 0 ) ) · ( Y - Y ( n , 0 ) ) ] [0107] A s can be varied across the leaflet to produce varying wave amplitude across the leaflet, for example lower amplitude at the commissures than in the leaflet centre. B s can be varied to adjust the length of the wave. The superimposed wave is shown in FIG. 6. The composite wave formed by combining the underlying wave (FIG. 5) with the superimposed wave (FIG. 6) is shown in FIG. 7. [0108] Using sine functions, one possible asymmetric leaflet design is formed when the underlying wave (FIG. 5) is combined with a superimposed wave formed using the following equation. X s = - A s · B s  ( Y ) · sin  [ ( π Y ( n , 0 ) ) · ( Y - Y ( n , 0 ) ) ] 0 Y ( n , 0 ) X s = 0.5 · A s · B s  ( Y ) · sin    [ ( 2.0  π Y ( n , 0 ) ) · Y ] ( - Y ( n , 0 ) ) 0 [0109] A s can be varied across the leaflet to produce varying wave amplitude across the leaflet, for example lower amplitude at the commissures than in the leaflet centre. B s (Y) can be varied to adjust the length of the wave. The superimposed wave is shown in FIG. 8. The resulting asymmetric composite wave is shown in FIG. 9. The composite wave W(X c , Y c ) n is created by offsetting the superimposed wave normal to the surface of the underlying wave (FIGS. 7, 9). [0110] While the general shape of the leaflet in position P has been determined using the composite wave, at this stage it is not specified in any particular position. In order to specify the position of P, the shape of the partially open leaflet position can be defined as X open (Z). This is shown as reference numeral 7 in FIG. 10. [0111] One possible function determining this shape is given as follows: X open  ( Z ) = - [ E oJ · ( 1 - ( Z - Z oO E oN ) 2 ) ] 0     5 + E oO [0112] In order to manipulate the composite wave to produce the belly shape X open (Z) the respective amplitudes of the individual sine waves can be varied from the free edge to the leaflet base. For example, the degree of ‘openness’ of the leaflet in position P can be varied throughout the leaflet. [0113] The composite wave is thus defined to produce the molded “buckle” in the leaflet, and X open (Z) is used to define the geometry of the leaflet at position P. At this stage it may bear no relation to the closed leaflet shape in position C. In order to match the area distribution of both leaflet positions, (thus producing essentially the same leaflet in different positions) the composite wave length is iterated to match the length of the relevant leaflet contour in position C. Thus the amplitude and frequency of the individual waves can be varied in such a manner as to balance between: (a) producing a resultant wave the length of which is equal to the relevant value in the length function L(Z) thus approximating the required closed shape when back pressure is applied, and (b) allowing efficient orifice washout and ready leaflet opening. Also the area contained between the contours in the open leaflet is measured using the same process of triangulation as in the closed position C, and is iterated until it matches with the area contained between relevant contours in position C (denoted K(Z)) (through tilting the contours in P relative to each other). Thus the composite waves (P(X, Y) n ) pertaining to the contour n and length L(Z) can be tilted at an angle to the XY plane about attachment points X (n,0) , Y (n,0) and X (n,0) . −Y (n,0) until the correct area is contained between P(X, Y) n and P(X, Y) n−1 (See FIGS. 10 & 11). [0114] This process identifies the values of B S, A U and the contour tilt angle to be used in constructing the mold for the valve leaflet. As long as the constants such as B s and A u , and the tilt angle of the contours relative to the XY plane, are known, the surface of the leaflet in its molded position can be visualised, enclosed and machined in a conventional manner. As a result of this fitting process the composite wave retains the same basic form but changes in detail from the top of the leaflet to the bottom of the leaflet. A composite wave can be defined in the leaflet surface as the intersection of the leaflet surface with a plane normal to the Z axis. This composite wave will have the same general form as the composite wave used in the leaflet design but will differ from it in detail as a result of the tilting process described above. [0115] In summary therefore one possible method of designing the leaflet of the first embodiment of the present invention is in the following way: [0116] (1) Define a scallop shape; [0117] (2) Define a shape approximating the shape of the closed leaflet using elliptical, hyperbolic, parabolic or circular functions, smooth analytical functions or table of values; [0118] (3) Compute the functions L(Z) and K(Z), which define the length of the leaflet in the XY plane along the Z axis and the area distribution of the leaflet along the Z axis; [0119] (4) Use one or more associated sine waves to generate a geometry which is partially-open, which pertains to a leaflet position which is between the two extreme conditions of normal valve function, i.e., leaflet open and leaflet closed; [0120] (5) Vary the frequency and amplitude of the sinewaves to fit to the length function L(Z) and the angle at which the contour is tilted to the XY plane to fit to the area function K(Z); and [0121] (6) The respective amplitudes of the individual sine waves can be varied from the free edge to leaflet base, for example the degree of ‘openness’ of the leaflet can be varied throughout the leaflet. [0122] Examples 1 and 2 set forth hereafter are examples of how the invention of the first embodiment can be put into practice. Using the scallop constants in Table 1, the constants required to produce an example of a symmetric leaflet valve (example 1, FIG. 12) and an example of an asymmetric leaflet valve (example 2, FIG. 13) are given in Table 2 and Table 3 respectively. These constants are used in conjunction with the aforementioned equations to define the leaflet geometry. [0123] With one leaflet described using the aforementioned equations, the remaining two leaflets are generated by rotating the geometry about the Z axis through 120° and then through 240°. These leaflet shapes are inserted as the leaflet forming surfaces of the dipping mold (otherwise known as a dipping former), which then forms a 3-dimensional dipping mold. The composite wave described in the aforementioned equations, therefore substantially defines the former surface which produces the inner leaflet surface. [0124] As seen in FIG. 14 the dipping mold 20 is slightly tapered so that the end 29 has a diameter which is greater than the end 22 , and has a first end 22 having an outside diameter slightly smaller than the inside diameter of the frame. The former includes at least two and preferably three leaflet forming surfaces 24 which are defined by scalloped edges 26 and flats 28 . Sharp edges in the manufacturing former and on the frame are radiused to help reduce stress concentrations in the finished valve. During the dip molding process the frame is inserted over end 22 of the former so that the scallops 5 and stent posts 8 of the frame align with the scalloped edges 26 and flats 28 of the former. The leaflet forming surfaces 24 are configured to form leaflets during the molding process which have the geometry described herein. This mold can be manufactured by various methods, such as, machining, electrical discharge machining, injection molding. In order that blood flow is not disturbed, a high surface finish on the dipping mold is essential. [0125] For the frame there are preferably three posts with leaflets hung on the frame between the posts. A crown-like frame or stent, 1 , is manufactured with a scallop geometry, which matches the dipping mold scallop. The frame scallop is offset radially by 0.1 mm to allow for the entire frame to be coated with a thin layer of leaflet material to aid adhesion of the leaflets. Leaflets may be added to the frame by a dip-molding process, using a dipping former machined or molded to create the multiple sinewave form. [0126] The material of preference should be a semi-rigid fatigue- and creep-resistant frame material such as polyetheretherketone (PEEK), high modulus polyurethane, titanium, reinforced polyurethane, or polyacetal (Delrin) produced by machining or injection-molding etc. Alternatively, a relatively low modulus polymer may be used, which may be fibre-reinforced, to more closely mimic the aortic wall. The frame can be machined or injection molded, and is manufactured preferably from PEEK or polyacetal (Delrin). [0127] The frame is treated by exposure to a gas plasma or other methods to raise its surface energy above 64 mN/m (milliNewtons/meter). Then the frame is dipped in a polyurethane solution (preferably Elast-Eon™ manufactured by Aortech Biomaterials Pty, Sydney Australia) in order to apply a coating of approximately 0.1 mm thick. Having dried the frame with applied coating in an oven overnight, it is placed on the dipping former and aligned with the former scallops. The combination of frame and three dimensional dipping mold is then dipped into polyurethane solution, which forms a coating of solution on frame and mold. This coating flows slowly over the entire mold surface ensuring a smooth coating. The new coating on the frame and dipping mold solvates the initial frame coating thus ensuring a good bond between leaflet and frame. The dipping mold with polyurethane covering is dried in an oven until all the solvent has been removed. One or more dips may be used to achieve a leaflet with a mean thickness between 40 μm and 500 μm. The shape of the former, and the viscosity and solvent interactive properties of the polyurethane solution, control the leaflet thickness and the distribution of thickness over the leaflet. A dipping process does not allow precise control of leaflet thickness and its variation across a leaflet. In particular, surfaces that are convex on the dipping former result in reduced leaflet thickness when compared with surfaces that are concave. Additionally the region of the leaflet adjacent to the frame essentially provides a very small concave radius which traps further polymer solution and this results in thickening of these regions. [0128] The shape of the former is substantially defined by the composite wave. Radiusing and polishing of the former can both contribute to some variation of the shape. The shape of the inner surface of the leaflets will closely replicate the shape of the former. The shape of the outer surface of the leaflets will be similar to the shape of the inner surface but variations will result from the processing properties of the polymer solution and details of the dipping process used to produce the valve. The leaflet may be formed from polyurethanes having a Young's modulus less than 100 MPa, preferably in the range 5 to 50 MPa. [0129] The valve is next removed from the dipping mold. The stent posts, which had been deflected by the taper on the former, now recover their original position. The shape of the leaflets changes slightly as a result of the movement of the stent posts. [0130] At this stage the dipping mold and frame is covered with an excess of polyurethane due to the drain-off of the polymer onto the region of the mold known as the drain-off area 30 . Leaflet free edges may be trimmed of excess material using a sharp blade rotated around the opened leaflets or using laser-cutting technology. [0131] An alternate valve manufacturing method is injection molding. A mold is constructed with a cavity which allows the valve frame to be inserted in the mold. The cavity is also designed with the leaflet geometry, as defined above, as the inner leaflet surface. A desired thickness distribution is defined for the leaflet and the outer leaflet surface of the mold is constructed by adding the leaflet thickness normally to the inner leaflet surface. The leaflet may be of uniform thickness throughout, in the range 40 to 500 microns, preferably 50 to 200 microns, more preferably 80 to 150 microns. The leaflet may be thickened towards its attachment to the frame. Alternatively the thickness of the leaflet, along a cross-section defined by the intersection of a plane perpendicular to the blood flow axis and the leaflet, can change gradually and substantially continuously from a first end of the cross-section (i.e., first edge of the leaflet) to a second end of the cross-section (i.e., second edge of the leaflet) in such a way that the mean thickness of the first half of the leaflet is different from the mean thickness of the second half of the leaflet. This mold is inserted in a conventional injection molding machine, the frame is inserted in the mold and the machine injects molten polymer into the cavity to form the leaflets and bond them to the frame. The polymer solidifies on cooling and the mold is opened to allow the complete valve to be removed. [0132] The leaflets may also be formed using a reaction-molding process (RIM) whereby the polymer is synthesized during the leaflet forming. A mold is constructed as described above. This mold is inserted in a reaction-injection molding machine, the frame is inserted in the mold and the machine injects a reactive mixture into the cavity. The polymer is produced by the reaction in the cavity to form the leaflets and bond them to the frame. When the reaction is complete, the mold is opened to allow the complete valve to be removed. [0133] Yet a further option is to compression mold a valve initially dipped. This approach allows the leaflet thickness or thickness distribution to be adjusted from that initially produced. By varying the thickness of the leaflets the dynamics of the valve opening and closing can be modified. For example, the thickness of the leaflet along a cross-section defined by the intersection of a plane perpendicular to the blood flow axis and the leaflet can be varied so that the thickness changes gradually and substantially continuously from a first end of the cross-section (i.e., first edge of the leaflet) to a second end of the cross-section (i.e., second edge of the leaflet) in such a way that the mean thickness of the first half of the leaflet is different from the mean thickness of the second half of the leaflet. This will result in the thinner half of the leaflet opening first and creating a sail-like opening motion along the free edge of the leaflet. [0134] Leaflet shape resulting from conventional injection molding, reaction injection molding or compression molding, is substantially defined by the composite wave described above. It will differ in detail for many of the same reasons identified for dip molding. [0135] The valves of the present invention are manufactured in the neutral position or close to it and are therefore substantially free of bending stresses in this position. As a result when the leaflet is moved to its closed position the total bending energy at the leaflet center free edge and at the commissures is reduced compared to a valve made according to U.S. Pat. No. 5,376,113 (Jansen et al.). [0136] The valves of the present invention may be used in any required position within the heart to control blood flow in one direction, or to control flow within any type of cardiac assist device. [0137] The following examples 1 and 2 use the same scallop geometry described using the constants set forth in Table 1: While the examples described herein relate to one valve size, the same method can be used to produce valves from a wide range of sizes. This can be carried out by modifying the constants used in the equations, by rescaling the bounding curves such as X closed (Z) and computing and iterating in the normal fashion or by rescaling the leaflet. TABLE 1 values (mm) R 11.0 E So 21.7 E sJ 21.5 E sN 13.8 H sO 0.18 f(Z) (0.05.Z) + 1.0 EXAMPLE 1 [0138] The parameters described in the preceding sections are assigned the values set forth in Table 2 and are used to manufacture a symmetric valve. The included angle between adjacent leaflet free edges at the valve commissure for this valve is approximately 50°. TABLE 2 Parameter Value (mm) Closed position Z cO 0 Z cO 0.0 E cN (Z) E cN = 3.0.Z + 50.3 E cO 22.0 E cJ 20.0 X T(Z) 0.0 Partially-open position θ 12.7° E oJ 50.0 Z oO 4.0 E oO 51.8 E oN 27.7 A u Result from iteration procedure finds that A u varies from 1e-5 at the leaflet base to 5.1 at 4 mm from the leaflet base to 3.8 at the free edge. A s (Y) 1.0 B s Result from iteration procedure finds that B s varies from 1e-3 at the leaflet base to 1.6 at 3 mm from the leaflet base to 0.6 at the free edge. [0139] [0139]FIG. 12 shows the symmetric valve which is manufactured, using the values outlined in Table 1 and Table 2. EXAMPLE 2 [0140] The parameters described in the preceding sections are assigned the values set forth in Table 3 and are used to manufacture an asymmetric valve. The included angle between adjacent leaflet free edges at the valve commissure for this valve is approximately 48°. TABLE 3 Parameter Value (mm) Closed position Z cO 0.0 E cN (Z) E cN = 3.0.Z + 48.9 E cO 18.4 E cJ 20.0 X T(z) X T(n−1) = 0.97.(X T(n) ) where X T(free edge) = 2.1 Partially-open position θ 7.1° E oJ 50.0 Z oO 5.0 E oO 51.5 E oN 29.0 A u Result from iteration procedure finds that A u varies from 1e-5 at the leaflet base to 3.1 at 3 mm from the leaflet base to 2.2 at 9 mm from the leaflet base to 3.8 at the free edge. A s (Y) B s (Y) = (Y-c)/m where B s = 1 at leaflet base and m = 5.04 and c = −15.1 at leaflet free edge. B s Result from iteration procedure finds that B s varies from 1e-3 at the leaflet base to 1.1 at 6 mm from the leaflet base to 0.4 at the free edge. [0141] [0141]FIG. 13 shows the valve which is manufactured using the values outlined in Table 1 and Table 3. TABLE 4 Definition of parameters R Internal radius of valve Scallop (FIG. 2) X ell , H sJ , H sN , X hyp are used to define a surface which, when intersected with a cylinder, scribe a function which forms the scallop for one leaflet. This method for creating a scallop is described in Mackay et al., Biomaterials 17 1996, although an added variable f(Z) is used for added versatility. X ell Scribes an ellipse in the radial direction. X hyp Scribes a hyperbola in the circumferential direction. E sO Ellipse X-axis offset E sJ Major axis of the ellipse E sN Minor axis of the ellipse H sJ Major axis of the hyperbola H sN Minor axis of the hyperbola H sO Hyperbola x-axis offset f(Z) Creates a varying relationship between H sN and H sJ Closed Leaflet geometry C (FIGS. 3 & 4) X closed (Z) is defined as an ellipse (with a minor axis E cN (Z) which changes with Z) in the XZ axis in the plane defined in FIG. 2 by cutting plane 3-3. It is defined using the following constants and functions. Z cO Closed ellipse Z-axis offset E cN (Z) Closed ellipse minor axis which changes with Z E cO Closed ellipse X-axis offset E cJ Closed ellipse major axis X T(z) Offset function which serves to increase the amount of material in the belly Molded position P P is enclosed by a number (n) of contours P(X, Y) n which run from one side of the scallop to the other. The underlying function X u is used in defining both symmetric and asymmetric leaflets. X u is simply an ellipse (or other such function) running in a plane from one side of the scallop to the other. The points on the scallop are designated X (n,O) , Y (n,O) where n refers to the contour number (see FIGS. 5, 7, 9, 11B). Y Variable in plane from Y (n,O) to - Y (n,O) A u A u is the amplitude of the underlying wave A s (Y) A s is a function which biases the wave amplitude in a defined way, e.g. the amplitude of the wave can be increased near the commissure if so desired. B s B s is the amplitude of the superimposed wave Composite Curve (FIGS. 7 & 9) X c X coordinate for defining the composite curve. This is derived using X u and X s Y c Y coordinate for defining the composite curve. This is derived using X u and X s Open Leaflet position (FIG. 10) X open (Z) is defined as an ellipse in the XZ axis in the plane defined in FIG. 2 by cutting plane 3-3. The contours defined in Composite Curve are married to the Open Leaflet position X open (Z) to produce the molded leaflet P. It is defined using the following constants. E oJ Open ellipse major axis Z oO Open ellipse Z-axis offset E oO Open ellipse X-axis offset E oN Open ellipse minor axis θ Former taper angle [0142] 2. Second Embodiment of Heart Valve Prosthesis [0143] The following describes another particular way of designing a second embodiment of a valve of the present invention. Other different design methodology could be utilized to design a valve having the structural features of the valve disclosed herein. Five computational steps are involved in this particular method: [0144] (1) Define the scallop geometry (the scallop, 5 , is the intersection of the leaflet, 2 , with the frame, 1 ); [0145] (2) Define a contour length function L(z) and use this function to define a valve leaflet in the closed position C and optimize the stress distribution on the valve. The stress distribution can be confirmed using Finite Element Analysis (FEA). Thus the resulting stress distribution results from the length function L(Z) and FEA is used to confirm the optimal L(Z); [0146] (3) Rebuild the leaflet in a partially open position P; and [0147] (4) Match, using contour lengths, the computed leaflet area distribution in the partially open or molded position P to the defined leaflet in the closed position C. This ensures that when an increasing closing pressure is applied to the leaflets, they eventually assume a shape which is equivalent to that defined in closed position C. [0148] This approach allows the closed shape of the leaflets in position C to be optimised for durability while the leaflets shaped in the molded partially open shape P can be optimised for hemodynamics. This allows the use of stiffer leaflet materials for valves which have good hemodynamics. An XYZ co-ordinate system is defined as shown in FIG. 2, with the Z axis in the flow direction of blood flowing through the valve. [0149] The leaflets are mounted on the frame, the shape of which results from the intersection of the aforementioned leaflet shape and a 3-dimensional geometry that can be cylindrical, conical or spherical in nature. [0150] The leaflets are mounted on the frame, the shape of which results from the intersection of the aforementioned leaflet shape and a 3-dimensional geometry that can be cylindrical, conical or spherical in nature. A scallop shape is defined through cutting a cylinder of radius R (where R is the internal radius of the valve) with a plane at an inclined angle. The angle of the cutting plane is dictated by the desired height of the leaflet and the desired distance between the leaflets at the commissures. [0151] The closed leaflet geometry in closed position C is chosen to minimize stress concentrations in the leaflet particularly prone to occur at the valve commissures. The specifications for this shape include: [0152] (1) inclusion of sufficient material to allow a large open-leaflet orifice; [0153] (2) arrangement of this material to minimize redundancy (excess material in the free edge, 3 ) and twisting in the centre of the free edge, 3 ; and [0154] (3) arrangement of this material to ensure the free edge, 3 , is under low stress i.e., compelling the frame and leaflet belly to sustain the back-pressure. [0155] The closed leaflet geometry is formed using contours S(X, Y) n sweeping from attachment points on one side of the scallop to the congruent attachment point on the opposite side of the scallop, where n is an infinite number of contours, two of which are shown in FIG. 4B. The geometry of the contours S(X, Y) n can be simple circular arcs or a collection of circular arcs and tangential lines; the length of each contour is defined by L(Z). Hence the geometry is defined and modified using the length function L(Z). [0156] Thus the scallop shape and the contours S(X, Y) n are used to form the prominent boundaries for the closed leaflet in the closed position C. This process can be shortened by reducing the number of contours used to represent the surface (5<n<200). For design iteration, the ease with which the leaflet shape can be changed can be improved by reducing the number of contours to a minimum (i.e., n=5), although the smoothness of the resulting leaflet could be compromised to some extent. Upon optimising the function L(Z) for stress distribution, the number of contours defining the leaflet can be increased to improve the smoothness of the resulting leaflet (100<n<200). The function L(Z) is used later in the definition of the geometry in the partially open position P. [0157] The aforementioned processes essentially define the leaflet shape and can be manipulated to optimise for durability. In order to optimise for hemodynamics, the same leaflet is molded in a position P which is intermediate in terms of valve opening. This entails molding large radius curves into the leaflet which then serve to reduce the energy required to buckle the leaflet from the closed to the open position. The large radius curves can be arranged in many different ways. Some of these are outlined herein. [0158] As previously described with respect to the first embodiment the leaflet may be molded on a dipping former as shown in FIG. 14. However, in this embodiment to aid removal of the valve from the former and reduce manufacturing stresses in the leaflet the former is preferably not tapered. [0159] The geometry of the leaflet shape can be defined as a circular and trigonometric arrangement (or other mathematical function) preferably circular and sinusoidal in nature in the XY plane, comprising one or more waves, and having anchoring points on the frame. Thus the valve leaflets are defined by combining at least two mathematical functions to produce composite waves, and by using these waves to enclose the leaflet surface with the aforementioned scallop. [0160] One such possible manifestation is a composite curve consisting of an underlying circular arc or wave upon which a second higher frequency sinusoidal wave is superimposed. A third wave having a frequency different from the first and second waves could also be superimposed over the resulting composite wave. This ensures a wider angle between adjacent leaflets in the region of the commissures when the valve is fully open thus ensuring good wash-out of this region. [0161] The composite curve, and the resulting leaflet, can be either symmetric or asymmetric about a plane parallel to the blood flow direction and bisecting a line drawn between two stent tips such as, for leaflet 2 a , the section along line 3 - 3 of FIG. 2. The asymmetry can be effected either by combining a symmetric underlying curve with an asymmetric superimposed curve or vice versa, or by utilising a changing wave amplitude across the leaflet. [0162] The following describes the use of a symmetric underlying function with an asymmetric superimposed function, but the use of an asymmetric underlying function will be obvious to one skilled in the art. The underlying function is defined in the XY plane and connects the leaflet attachment points to the scallop at a given height from the base of the valve. This underlying function shown in FIG. 15, can be trigonometric, elliptical, hyperbolic, parabolic, circular, or other smooth analytic function or could be a table of values. [0163] The superimposed wave is defined in the XY plane, and connects the attachment points of the leaflet to the scallop at a given height above the base of the valve. The superimposed wave is of higher frequency than the underlying wave, and can be trigonometric, elliptic, hyperbolic, parabolic, circular, or other smooth analytic function, or a table of values. [0164] One possible asymmetric leaflet design is formed when the underlying wave formed using a circular arc is combined with a superimposed wave formed using the following equation. X s = - A s · B s  ( Y ) · sin    [ ( 1.5  π Y ( n , 0 ) ) · ( Y - Y ( n , 0 ) ) ] [0165] A circular arc is defined by its cord length, 2Y (n,0) , and amplitude, A u , as shown in FIG. 15. A s can be varied across the leaflet to produce varying wave amplitude across the leaflet, for example lower amplitude in one commissure than the opposite commissure. B s can be varied to adjust the length of the wave. The superimposed wave is shown in FIG. 16. The composite wave formed by combining the underlying wave (FIG. 15) with the superimposed wave (FIG. 16) is shown in FIG. 17. The composite wave W(X c , Y c ) n is created by offsetting the superimposed wave normal to the surface of the underlying wave (FIG. 17). Positive γ is defined as the direction of the normal to the underlying wave relative to the x-axis. When Y is positive, the composite curve is created by offsetting in the direction positive γ and where Y is negative the composite curve is created by offsetting in the direction negative γ (the offset direction is shown by arrows for a positive Y point and a negative Y point in FIG. 17. [0166] While the general shape of the leaflet in position P has been determined using the composite wave, at this stage it is not specified in any particular position. In order to specify the position of P, the shape of the partially open leaflet position can be defined using the ratio of the amplitude of the circular arc A u to the amplitude of the sinusoidal wave B s . [0167] A large ratio results in a leaflet which is substantially closed and vice versa. In this example the ratio changes from 10 at the base of the leaflet to 4 at the free edge of the leaflet. The result of this is a leaflet which effectively is more open at the free edge than at the base of the leaflet. In this way, the degree of ‘openness’ of the leaflet in position P can be varied throughout the leaflet. [0168] The composite wave is thus defined to produce the molded “buckle” in the leaflet, and the amplitude ratio is used to define the geometry of the leaflet at position P. At this stage it may bear no relation to the closed leaflet shape in position C. In order to match the area distribution of both leaflet positions, (thus producing essentially the same leaflet in different positions) the composite wave length is iterated to match the length of the relevant leaflet contour in position C. Thus the amplitude and frequency of the individual waves can be varied in such a manner as to balance between: (a) producing a resultant wave the length of which is equal to the relevant value in the length function L(Z) thus approximating the required closed shape when back pressure is applied, and (b) allowing efficient orifice washout and ready leaflet opening. [0169] This process identifies the values of A u and B S to be used in constructing the mold for the valve leaflet. As long as the constants such as A u and B s are known, the surface of the leaflet in its molded position can be visualised, enclosed and machined in a conventional manner. As a result of this fitting process the composite wave retains the same basic form but changes in detail from the top of the leaflet to the bottom of the leaflet. A composite wave can be defined in the leaflet surface as the intersection of the leaflet surface with a plane normal to the Z axis. [0170] In summary therefore one possible method of designing the leaflet of the second embodiment of the present invention is in the following way: [0171] (1) Define a scallop shape; [0172] (2) Define a shape representing the closed leaflet using a contour length function L(Z); [0173] (3) Use circular arcs and sine waves to generate a geometry which is partially-open, which pertains to a leaflet position which is between the two extreme conditions of normal valve function, i.e., leaflet open and leaflet closed; [0174] (5) Vary the amplitude of the arcs and the sinewaves to fit to the length function L(Z); and [0175] (6) The respective amplitudes of the circular arcs and sine waves can be varied from the free edge to leaflet base, for example the degree of ‘openness’ of the leaflet can be varied throughout the leaflet. [0176] Example 3 set forth hereafter is an example of how the invention of the second embodiment can be put into practice. Using the scallop constants in Table 5, the constants required to produce an example of an asymmetric leaflet valve are given in Table 6. These constants are used in conjunction with the aforementioned equations to define the leaflet geometry. [0177] With one leaflet described using the aforementioned equations, the remaining two leaflets are generated by rotating the geometry about the Z axis through 120° and then through 240°. These leaflet shapes are inserted as the areas of the dipping mold (otherwise known as a dipping former), which form the majority of the leaflet forming surfaces, and which then forms a 3-dimensional dipping mold. The composite wave described in the aforementioned equations, therefore substantially defines the former surface which produces the inner leaflet surface. A drain-off area 30 is also created on the former to encourage smooth run-off of polymer solution. The drain-off region 30 is defined by extruding the leaflet free edge away from the leaflet and parallel to the flow direction of the valve for a distance of approximately 10 mm. The transition from leaflet forming surface of the dipping mold 24 to the drain-off surface of the dipping mold 30 is radiused with a radius greater than 1 mm and preferably greater than 2 mm to eliminate discontinuities in the leaflet. [0178] The details of the manufacture of the valve of the second embodiment are similar to those previously described with respect to the valve of the first embodiment until the valve is removed from the dipping mold. Since the former used in making the valve of the second embodiment is not tapered the stent posts are not deflected by the former and do not move or change the leaflet shape when the valve is removed from the mold. At this stage the dipping mold and frame is covered with an excess of polyurethane due to the drain-off of the polymer onto the region of the mold known as the drain-off area 30 . To maintain the integrity of the frame coating, the leaflet is trimmed above the stent tips at a distance of between 0.025 to 5 mm preferably 0.5 mm to 1.5 mm from the stent tip. Thus part of the surface of the leaflet is formed on the drain-off region 30 which is substantially defined using the composite wave W(X c , Y c ) 0 . Leaflet free edges may be trimmed of excess material using a sharp blade rotated around the opened leaflets or using laser-cutting technology or other similar technology. [0179] The valve of the second embodiment may be used in any required position within the heart to control blood flow in one direction, or to control flow within any type of cardiac assist device. [0180] The following example 3 uses the same scallop geometry described using the constants set forth in Table 5: While the example 3 described herein relates to one valve size, the same method can be used to produce valves from a wide range of sizes. This can be carried out by modifying the constants used in the equations, and computing and iterating in the normal fashion or by resealing the leaflet. TABLE 5 values (mm) R 11.0 slope −2.517 intersection 14.195 EXAMPLE 3 [0181] The parameters described in the preceding sections are assigned the values set forth in Table 6 and are used to manufacture an asymmetric valve according to the second embodiment. The included angle between adjacent leaflet free edges at the valve commissure for this valve is approximately 30°. TABLE 6 Parameter Value (mm) Closed position L(Z) Varies from 0.025 mm at the leaflet base to 21.3 mm at the free edge Partially-open position θ 0° A u Result from iteration procedure finds that A u varies from 0.0006 at the leaflet base to 3.8 at 10.7 mm from the leaflet base to 3.35 at the free edge. A s At the free edge of the leaflet, A s (Y) varies from 1.5 mm at one side of the scallop to 1.0 mm at the opposite side of the scallop. At the base of the leaflet, A s (Y) is 1.0 mm. B s Result from iteration procedure finds that A s varies from 0.0006 at the leaflet base to 0.839 mm at the free edge. [0182] [0182]FIG. 18 shows the asymmetric valve which is manufactured, using the values outlined in Table 5 and Table 6. TABLE 7 Definition of parameters R Internal radius of valve Scallop (FIG. 2) The scallop is defined using a simple straight line, defined using a slope and intersection, to cut with a cylinder. Closed Leaflet geometry C L(Z) is used to modify the inherent geometry of the leaflet. Circular arcs and straight lines can be used to enclose the surface defined using L(Z). Molded position P P is enclosed by a number (n) of contours W(X, Y) n which run from one side of the scallop to the other. The underlying function is used in defining both symmetric and asymmetric leaflets. running in a plane from one side of the scallop to the other. The points on the scallop are designated X (n,O) , Y( n,O) where n refers to the contour number (see FIGS. 15, 16, 17, 18). Y Variable in plane from Y( n,O) to - Y( n,O) A u A u is the amplitude of the underlying wave A s (Y) A s is a function which biases the wave amplitude in a defined way, e.g. the amplitude of the wave can be varied from commissure to commissure to produce asymmetry in the leaflet. B s B s is the amplitude of the superimposed wave Composite Curve (FIGS. 17) X c X coordinate for defining the composite curve. Y c Y coordinate for defining the composite curve. Open Leaflet position (FIG. 18) The open leaflet position is defined using a ratio which determines the degree of “openness” of the leaflet. θ Former taper angle

A cardiac valve prosthesis having a frame and two or more leaflets (preferably three) attached to the frame. The leaflets are attached to the frame between posts, with a free edge which can seal the leaflets together when the valve is closed under back pressure. The leaflets are created in a mathematically defined shape allowing good wash-out of the whole leaflet orifice, including the area close to the frame posts, thereby relieving the problem of thrombus deposition under clinical implant conditions.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0001] The present invention relates generally to specific types of low pH protein-based beverages (such as soy- and/or dairy-based types) that are properly suspended to prevent undesirable sedimentation of such protein constituents during storage. Such beverages include a thickening system comprising bacterial cellulose (BC) coated with different water soluble co-agents such that the BC-based component provides a network forming structure that suspends the target proteins and prevents any appreciable sedimentation of such proteins. Additionally, this system is capable of improving the suspension of acidic protein beverages fortified with insoluble calcium. The beverages encompassed within this invention exhibit certain stability benefits under typical storage conditions and may, depending upon the pH of the overall system, include additives that coat the proteins to prevent, or at least retard, aggregation of such constituent proteins when the pH level approaches their pertinent isoelectric point. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] Soy- and dairy-based protein beverages have increased in popularity as the availability of such products increases and improvements in organoleptic properties for such beverages occur. Currently, however, there are certain limitations present for widespread acceptance to consumers, primarily in terms of flavor and other aesthetic characteristics. A consumer is generally very particular about the beverage he or she ingests. As the populace becomes more health-conscious, such protein-based types have grown in acceptance. However, with such increased utilization comes the desire to increase options in terms of taste, scent, and appearance in order to provide a more attractive product. Such an ultimate goal has proven rather difficult to attain, mainly due to shelf-life stability problems associated with the nutrient base-product proteins present within such beverages. [0003] Dairy milk has been consumed for a very long time and is a staple product after pasteurization. There is a continued desire, however, to provide different flavorings within such a product such that pH issues remain a recurring problem with the all-important proteins present therein. Soy milk has found a foothold within certain markets particularly due to the absence of lactose within such products. Such soy products, however, exhibit similar problems as with the dairy protein-based compositions in terms of long-term shelf stability. [0004] With either dairy or soy milks that possess a neutral or close to neutral pH, the proteins within such a target beverage can be easily suspended with typical thickening agents (such as carboxymethylcellulose and other cellulose ethers, pectin, starch, xanthan gum, guar gum, locust bean gum, carrageenan and the like). At such neutral pH levels, soy or milk proteins have a net negative charge, thereby reliably keeping the protein particles from aggregating, clustering, or otherwise creating large particles. These typical thickening agents are believed to impart an increase to the viscosity of the water phase of the target beverage. This aiding in the retention of the water phase of such a target beverage thus potentially limits the formation of protein precipitate to the extent that the protein remains soluble therein. Thus, these typical thickening agents provide a manner of minimizing protein sedimentation at neutral pH levels. [0005] The main problem exists when the pH level is lowered to a pH value of between about 3.6 and 4.5, in order to accommodate the addition of organoleptic enhancers, such as flavorings, colorants, and the like. Off-note, or beany flavors of soy milk may be masked, or flavor enhancements may be added to dairy milk, by changing the flavor and lowering the pH of these beverages, thus increasing the organoleptic and/or aesthetic characteristics of such a target beverage. This can cause the protein particles to exhibit a decrease in charge density (i.e., a pH at or near the isoelectric point for the particular proteins present therein). At such a specific pH level, such proteins are prone to thermal denaturation, leading to significant and highly undesirable aggregation or clustering of the protein molecules and resulting in the above-noted undesirable sedimentation from solution. Despite the efficacy that typical stabilizers, such as pectin, exhibit to minimize association of protein during acidification of low pH soy protein beverages, over time, sedimentation may still occur in the pH range of 3.6 to 4.5. Surface modifications and/or homogenization of the target proteins prior to pectin addition has been hypothesized as well in order to aid in permitting proper and sufficient coating by the pectin in solution and thus reduce the propensity of protein to protein interactions that cause the above-discussed sedimentation problems. Unfortunately, such a suggested improvement is quite expensive and difficult to practice, and thus is not likely to be readily followed in the soy beverage market. [0006] There is thus a need to overcome this sedimentation problem within low pH protein-based beverages with a suspending aid that can meet the requirements of long-term storage stability. Even with thickening agents present, it has been realized that if the degree of aggregation of such proteins is sufficiently high, a suspension including such constituent nutrients is very difficult to retain. At acidic pH levels, in particular, certain proteins, particularly those within soy and/or dairy beverages, exhibit such undesirable aggregation and thus are highly susceptible to deleterious interactions between charged portions thereof. Certain typical thickening agents may be used as coating additives for the protein constituents in order to reduce or, at best, delay, such aggregation and ultimate sedimentation. For instance, pectin may be introduced within such a beverage composition which is then adjusted to an acidic pH levels (i.e., below 4.5). The pectin will become, in essence, activated at such an acidic level, such that it may not only properly coat such proteins, but will prevent, or, more appropriately, reduce protein-protein interactions near its isoelectric point. Importantly, though, is that pectin will not prevent such aggregation and ultimate sedimentation on a long-term basis; as such beverages generally require a very long shelf life, such a system of protein sedimentation reduction does not provide, by itself, effective results for the implementation of a low pH system to increase flavor levels (as one example) within soy protein beverages. Basically, and unfortunately, such sedimentation, as alluded to above, will invariably eventually aggregate over time even with pectin present as a coating additive. And, as a result, if sufficient sedimentation of protein particles does occur over time, such resultant sediment will pack or cement strongly and will not easily become released, even upon vigorous shaking. In such a scenario, the resultant sediment will not be ingested by the consumer, and thus the desired benefit from the desired protein will be lost. [0007] Such pectin additives, however, do not provide the same type of significant, but limited, benefit when the pH is at a higher level (i.e., 5.0 to 6.0). At such a pH level, the pectin will not interact with the protein to the extent that proper coating and protection from such deleterious charged portion interactions will occur. At such a higher pH level, the proteins will not exhibit denaturation as readily as at a lower pH. The heat of processing, however, can still induce association and coagulation of proteins even though the subject formulation is present within this higher pH range (pH 5-6). With the pectin providing a certain degree of protection at lower pH levels, in essence the resultant interaction degree for the low pH pectin-only protected beverages will be quite similar to that as the higher pH level (i.e., 5.0) types, regardless of the presence of pectin. Thus, pectin alone will not provide a sufficient system of protection and thus protein sedimentation prevention within such acidic beverages, regardless of the actual pH level exhibited therein. Thus, a proper manner of not only potentially delaying such protein aggregation, but also providing a reliable long-term suspension system for such acidic protein-based beverages is of great necessity, particularly to increase the potential market for such products from an aesthetic perspective. To date, the best the market has been provided is the utilization of pectin alone as a coating additive, as noted above. An improvement in suspending systems, particularly with a solution that is low in cost and complexity and easy to incorporate within the beverage production methods, is thus highly desirable. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0008] Accordingly, this invention encompasses a liquid composition comprising at least one protein-based material and at least one bacterial cellulose-containing formulation comprising at least one bacterial cellulose material and at least one polymeric thickener selected from the group consisting of at least one charged cellulose ether, at least one precipitation agent selected from the group consisting of xanthan products, pectin, alginates, gellan gum, welan gum, diutan gum, rhamsan gum, carrageenan, guar gum, agar, gum arabic, gum ghatti, karaya gum, gum tragacanth, tamarind gum, locust bean gum, and the like, and any mixtures thereof, wherein said liquid composition exhibits a pH level of at most 5.5. [0009] Furthermore, this invention also encompasses a liquid composition comprising at least one protein-based material in an amount of between 0.1 and 20% by weight and exhibiting a pH level of at most 5.5, wherein said liquid composition exhibits a sedimentation level of protein of at most 10% after 24 hours of storage at a temperature of 22° C. Additionally, this invention further encompasses liquid composition comprising at least one protein-based material in an amount of between 0.1 and 20% by weight, and a source of insoluble calcium in an amount of between 0.05 and 5% by weight, said liquid composition exhibiting a pH level of at most 5.5; wherein said liquid composition exhibits a sedimentation level of protein of at most 10% and a sedimentation level of insoluble calcium of at most 10% after 24 hours of storage at a temperature of 22° C. [0010] The possible charged cellulose ether within the bacterial cellulose-containing formulation is a compound utilized to disperse and stabilize the reticulated network in the final end-use compositions to which such a bacterial cellulose-containing formulation is added. The charged compounds facilitate, as alluded to above, the ability to form the needed network of fibers through the repulsion of individual fibers. Such a network provides an excellent network within a target beverage that exhibits sufficient strength and stability upon long-term storage, as well as thixotropic characteristics, such that any aggregated proteins present within such a target beverage will not appreciably sediment over time. The possible precipitation agent within the bacterial cellulose-containing formulation is a compound utilized to preserve the functionality of the reticulated bacterial cellulose fiber during drying and milling. Examples of such charged cellulose ethers include such cellulose-based compounds that exhibit either an overall positive or negative and include, without limitation, any sodium carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), cationic hydroxyethylcellulose, and the like. The precipitation (drying) agent is selected from the group of natural and/or synthetic products including, without limitation, xanthan products, pectin, alginates, gellan gum, propylene glycol alginate, rhamsan gum, carrageenan, guar gum, agar, gum arabic, gum ghatti, karaya gum, gum tragacanth, tamarind gum, locust bean gum, and the like. Preferably, though not necessarily, a precipitation (drying) agent is included. [0011] As one potentially preferred embodiment, the formulation of bacterial cellulose and pectin produced thereby has the distinct advantage of facilitating activation without any labor- or energy-intensive activation required. Another distinct advantage of this overall method is the ability to collect the resultant bacterial cellulose-containing formulation through precipitation with isopropyl alcohol, whether with a charged cellulose ether or a precipitation (drying) agent present therein. Thus, since the bacterial cellulose is co-precipitated in the manner described above, the alcohol-insoluble polymeric thickener (such as xanthan or sodium CMC) appears, without intending on being bound to any specific scientific theory, to provide protection to the bacterial cellulose by providing a coating over at least a portion of the resultant formed fibers thereof. In such a way, it appears that the polymeric thickener actually helps associate and dewater the cellulosic fibers upon the addition of a nonaqueous liquid (such as preferably a lower alkyl alcohol), thus resulting in the collection of substantial amounts of the low-yield polysaccharide during such a co-precipitation stage. The avoidance of substantial amounts of water during the purification and recovery steps thus permits larger amounts of the bacterial cellulose to be collected ultimately. With this novel process, the highest amount of fermented bacterial cellulose can be collected, thus providing the high efficiency in production desired, as well as the avoidance of, as noted above, wastewater and multiple passes of dewatering and re-slurrying typically required to obtain such a resultant product. Furthermore, as noted previously, the presence of a drying agent, in particular, as one non-limiting example, a pectin product, as a coating over at least a portion of the bacterial cellulose fiber bundles, appears to provide the improvement in activation requirements when introduced within a target end use composition. Surprisingly, there is a noticeable reduction in the energy necessary to effectuate the desired Theological modification benefits accorded by this inventive bacterial cellulose-containing formulation as compared with the previously practiced products of similar types. As well, since bacterial cellulose (hereinafter referred to as “BC”) provides unique functionality and rheology as compared to a soluble polymeric thickener alone, the resultant product made via this inventive method permits a lower cost alternative to typical processes with improvements in reactivation requirements, resistance to viscosity changes during high temperature food processing, and improved suspension properties during long term shelf storage. [0012] Such target beverage are preferably dairy-based or soy-based and thus include protein substances associated directly with such materials. However, other types of beverages that include proteins that exhibit an aggregation capability may also be utilized within the scope of this invention. Such beverages include, without limitation, fruit flavored milk or soy milk drinks, nutritional beverages, and yogurt smoothie. Of particular interest are protein-including beverages that are desirous of proper suspension in order to provide nutrients in such a suspension form after long-term storage. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0013] For purposes of this invention, the term “bacterial cellulose-containing formulation” is intended to encompass a bacterial cellulose product as produced by the inventive method and thus including a polymeric thickener coating at least a portion of the resultant bacterial cellulose fiber bundles. The term “formulation” thus is intended to convey that the product made therefrom is a combination of bacterial cellulose and a polymeric thickener produced in such a manner and exhibiting such a resultant structure and configuration. The term “bacterial cellulose” is intended to encompass any type of cellulose produced via fermentation of a bacteria of the genus Acetobacter and includes materials referred popularly as microfibrillated cellulose, reticulated bacterial cellulose, and the like. [0014] Bacterial cellulose may be used as an effective Theological modifier in various compositions. Such materials, when dispersed in fluids, produce highly viscous, thixotropic mixtures possessing high yield stress. Yield stress is a measure of the force required to initiate flow in a gel-like system. It is indicative of the suspension ability of a fluid, as well as indicative of the ability of the fluid to remain in situ after application to a vertical surface. [0015] Typically, such Theological modification behavior is provided through some degree of processing of a mixture of the bacterial cellulose in a hydrophilic solvent, such as water, polyols (e.g., ethylene glycol, glycerin, polyethylene glycol, etc.), or mixtures thereof. This processing is called “activation” and comprises, generally, high pressure homogenization and/or high shear mixing. The inventive bacterial cellulose-containing formulations of the invention, however, have been found to activate at low energy mixing. Activation is a process in which the 3-dimensional structure of the cellulose is modified such that the cellulose imparts functionality to the base solvent or solvent mixture in which the activation occurs, or to a composition to which the activated cellulose is added. Functionality includes providing such properties as thickening, imparting yield stress, heat stability, suspension properties, freeze-thaw stability, flow control, foam stabilization, coating and film formation, and the like. The processing that is followed during the activation process does significantly more than to just disperse the cellulose in base solvent. Such processing “tears apart” the cellulose fibers to expand the cellulose fibers. The bacterial cellulose-containing formulation may be used in the form of a wet slurry (dispersion) or as a dried product, produced by drying the dispersion using well-known drying techniques, such as spray-drying or freeze-drying to impart the desired rheological benefits to a target fluid composition. The activation of the bacterial cellulose BC expands the cellulose portion to create a reticulated network of highly intermeshed fibers with a very high surface area. The activated reticulated bacterial cellulose possesses an extremely high surface area that is thought to be at least 200-fold higher than conventional microcrystalline cellulose (i.e., cellulose provided by plant sources). [0016] The bacterial cellulose utilized herein may be of any type associated with the fermentation product of Acetobacter genus microorganisms, and was previously available, as one example, from CPKelco U.S. under the tradename CELLULON®. Such aerobic cultured products are characterized by a highly reticulated, branching interconnected network of fibers that are insoluble in water. [0017] The preparations of such bacterial cellulose products are well known. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,079,162 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,144,021, both of which are incorporated by reference herein, disclose a method and media for producing reticulated bacterial cellulose aerobically, under agitated culture conditions, using a bacterial strain of Acetobacter aceti var. xylinum. Use of agitated culture conditions results in sustained production, over an average of 70 hours, of at least 0.1 g/liter per hour of the desired cellulose. Wet cake reticulated cellulose, containing approximately 80-85% water, can be produced using the methods and conditions disclosed in the above-mentioned patents. Dry reticulated bacterial cellulose can be produced using drying techniques, such as spray-drying or freeze-drying, that are well known. [0018] Acetobacter is characteristically a gram-negative, rod shaped bacterium 0.6-0.8 microns by 1.0-4 microns. It is a strictly aerobic organism; that is, metabolism is respiratory, not fermentative. This bacterium is further distinguished by the ability to produce multiple poly β-1,4-glucan chains, chemically identical to cellulose. The microcellulose chains, or microfibrils, of reticulated bacterial cellulose are synthesized at the bacterial surface, at sites external to the cell membrane. These microfibrils generally have cross sectional dimensions of about 1.6 nm by 5.8 nm. In contrast, under static or standing culture conditions, the microfibrils at the bacterial surface combine to form a fibril generally having cross sectional dimensions of about 3.2 nm by 133 nm. The small cross sectional size of these Acetobacter -produced fibrils, together with the concomitantly large surface and the inherent hydrophilicity of cellulose, provides a cellulose product having an unusually high capacity for absorbing aqueous solutions. Additives have often been used in combination with the reticulated bacterial cellulose to aid in the formation of stable, viscous dispersions. [0019] The aforementioned problems inherent with purifying and collecting such bacterial cellulose have led to the determination that the method employed herein provides excellent results to the desired extent. The first step in the overall process is providing any amount of the target bacterial cellulose in fermented form. The production method for this step is described above. The yield for such a product has proven to be very difficult to generate at consistently high levels, thus it is imperative that retention of the target product be accomplished in order to ultimately provide a collected product at lowest cost. [0020] Purification is well known for such materials. Lysing of the bacterial cells from the bacterial cellulose product is accomplished through the introduction of a caustic, such as sodium hydroxide, or any like high pH (above about 12.5 pH, preferably) additive in an amount to properly remove as many expired bacterial cells as possible from the cellulosic product. This may be followed in more than one step if desired. Neutralizing with an acid is then typically followed. Any suitable acid of sufficiently low pH and molarity to combat (and thus effectively neutralize or reduce the pH level of the product as close to 7.0 as possible) may be utilized. Sulfuric acid, hydrochloric, and nitric acid are all suitable examples for such a step. One of ordinary skill in the art would easily determine the proper selection and amount of such a reactant for such a purpose. Alternatively, the cells may be lysed and digested through enzymatic methods (treatment with lysozyme and protease at the appropriate pH). [0021] The lysed product is then subjected to mixing with a polymeric thickener in order to effectively coat the target fibers and bundles of the bacterial cellulose. The polymeric thickener must be insoluble in alcohol (in particular, isopropyl alcohol). Such a thickener is either an aid for dispersion of the bacterial cellulose within a target fluid composition, or an aid in drying the bacterial cellulose to remove water therefrom more easily, as well as potentially aid in dispersing or suspending the fibers within a target fluid composition. Proper dispersing aids (agents) include, without limitation, CMC (of various types), cationic HEC, etc., in essence any compound that is polymeric in nature and exhibits the necessary dispersion capabilities for the bacterial cellulose fibers when introduced within a target liquid solution. Preferably such a dispersing aid is CMC, such as CEKOL® available from CP Kelco. Proper precipitation aids (agents), as noted above, include any number of biogums, including xanthan products (such as KELTROL®, KELTROL T®, and the like from CP Kelco), gellan gum, welan gum, diutan gum, rhamsan gum, guar, locust bean gum, and the like, and other types of natural polymeric thickeners, such as pectin, as one non-limiting example. Basically, the commingling of the two products in broth, powder or rehydrated powder form, allows for the desired generation of the polymeric thickener coating on at least a portion of the fibers and/or bundles of the bacterial cellulose. In one embodiment, the broths of bacterial cellulose and xanthan are mixed subsequent to purification (lysing) of both in order to remove the residual bacterial cells. In another embodiment, the broths may be mixed together without lysing initially, but co-lysed during mixing for such purification to occur. [0022] The amounts of each component within the method may vary greatly. For example, the bacterial cellulose will typically be present in an amount from about 0.1% to about 5% by weight, preferably from about 0.5 to about 3.0%, whereas the polymeric thickener may be present in an amount form 10 to about 900% by weight of the bacterial cellulose. [0023] After mixing and coating of the bacterial cellulose by the polymeric thickener, the resultant product is then collected through co-precipitation in a water-miscible nonaqueous liquid. Preferably, for toxicity, availability, and cost reasons, such a liquid is an alcohol, such as, as most preferred, isopropyl alcohol. Other types of alcohols, such as ethanol, methanol, butanol, and the like, may be utilized as well, not to mention other water-miscible nonaqeuous liquids, such as acetone, ethyl acetate, and any mixtures thereof. Any mixtures of such nonaqueous liquids may be utilized, too, for such a co-precipitation step. Generally, the co-precipitated product is processed through a solid-liquid separation apparatus, allowing for the alcohol-soluble components to be removed, leaving the desired bacterial cellulose-containing formulation thereon. [0024] From there, a wetcake form product is collected and then transferred to a drying apparatus and subsequently milled for proper particle size production. Further co-agents may be added prior to precipitation or to the wetcake or to the dried materials in order to provide further properties and/or benefits. Such co-agents include plant, algal and bacterial polysaccharides and their derivatives along with lower molecular weight carbohydrates such as sucrose, glucose, maltodextrin, and the like. Other additives that may be present within the bacterial cellulose-containing formulation include, without limitation, a hydrocolloid, polyacrylamides (and homologues), polyacrylic acids (and homologues), polyethylene glycol, poly(ethylene oxide), polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinylpyrrolidones, starch (and like sugar-based molecules), modified starch, animal-derived gelatin, dairy proteins, soy proteins, other animal or plant-derived proteins and non-charged cellulose ethers (such as carboxymethylcellulose, hydroxyethylcellulose, and the like). [0025] The bacterial cellulose-containing formulations of this invention may then be introduced into the target inventive sufficiently low pH protein-based beverages. Such beverage compositions may include such bacterial cellulose-containing formulations in an amount from about 0.01% to about 1% by weight, and preferably about 0.03% to about 0.5% by weight of the total weight of the beverage composition and a protein-based material (preferably, though not necessarily dairy and or soy in nature) in an amount of from 0.1 to 20% by total weight of the beverage composition. Such protein-based materials include, again, without limitation, cow's milk, goat's milk, soy milk, milk solids, whey proteins, caseins, soy protein concentrate, soy protein isolate, and any mixtures thereof. Other possible additives that may be included within this low pH beverage include, particularly, flavorings, preservatives, colorants, stabilizers, sweeteners (such as sugar, saccharin, and the like), fruit pulps, dietary fibers, vitamins and minerals. Preferred Embodiments of the Invention [0026] The following non-limiting examples provide teachings of various inventive beverages that are encompassed within this invention as well as comparatives examples. [0000] Suspension Aid Production EXAMPLE 1 [0027] BC was produced in a 1200 gal fermentor with final yield of 1.93 wt %. The broth was treated with 350 ppm of hypochlorite and subsequently treated with 70 ppm of lysozyme and 194 ppm of protease. A portion of the treated BC broth was mixed with a given amount of xanthan gum broth and CMC solution (BC/XG/CMC=3/1/1, dry basis) and the resultant mixture was then precipitated with IPA (85%) to form a press cake. The press cake was then dried and milled as in Example 1. The powdered formulation was then introduced into a STW sample in an amount of about 0.36% by weight thereof, and the composition was then mixed with a Silverson mixer at 8000 rpm for 5 min. The product viscosity and yield stress were 1057 cP and 3.65 dynes/cm 2 , respectively. EXAMPLE 2 [0028] BC was produced in a 1200 gal fermentor with final yield of 1.93 wt %. The broth was treated with 350 ppm of hypochlorite and subsequently treated with 70 ppm of lysozyme and 194 ppm of protease. A portion of the treated BC broth was mixed with a given amount of pectin solution (BC/Pectin=6/1, dry basis) and the resultant mixture was then precipitated with IPA (85%) to form a press cake. The press cake was dried and milled as in Example 1. The powdered formulation was then introduced into a STW sample in an amount of about 0.36% by weight thereof, with 20% CMC added simultaneously, and the composition was then mixed with a Silverson mixer at 8000 rpm for 5 min. The product viscosity and yield stress were 377 cP and 1.06 dynes/cm 2 , respectively. EXAMPLE 3 [0029] BC was produced in a 1200 gal fermentor with final yield of 1.93 wt %. The broth was treated with 350 ppm of hypochlorite and subsequently treated with 70 ppm of lysozyme and 194 ppm of protease. A portion of the treated BC broth was mixed with a given amount of CMC solution (BC/CMC=3/1, dry basis) and the resultant mixture was then precipitated with IPA (85%) to form a press cake. The press cake was dried and milled as in Example 1. The powdered formulation was then introduced into a STW sample in an amount of about 0.36% by weight thereof, and the composition was then mixed with a Silverson mixer at 8000 rpm for 5 min. The product viscosity and yield stress were 432 cP and 1.39 dynes/cm 2 , respectively. EXAMPLE 4 [0030] BC was produced in a 1200 gal fermentor with final yield of 1.93 wt %. The broth was treated with 350 ppm of hypochlorite and subsequently treated with 70 ppm of lysozyme and 194 ppm of protease. A portion of the treated BC broth was mixed with a given amount of pectin and CMC solutions (BC/Pectin/CMC=6/1/2, dry basis) and the resultant mixture was then precipitated with IPA (85%) to form a press cake. The press cake was dried and milled as in Example 1. The powdered formulation was then introduced into a STW sample in an amount of about 0.36% by weight thereof, and the composition was then mixed with a Silverson mixer at 8000 rpm for 5 min. The product viscosity and yield stress were 552 cP and 1.74 dynes/cm 2 , respectively. EXAMPLE 5 [0031] BC was produced in a 1200 gal fermentor with final yield of 1.4 wt %. The broth was treated with 350 ppm of hypochlorite and subsequently treated with 70 ppm of lysozyme and 350 ppm of protease followed with another 350 ppm of hypochlorite. A portion of the treated BC broth was mixed with a given amount of xanthan gum broth and pre-hydrated CMC solution (BC/XG/CMC=6/3/1, dry basis), then precipitated with IPA (85%), and dried and milled as in Example 1. The powdered formulation was then introduced into a STW solution and 0.25% CaCl2 solution in an amount of about 0.2% by weight thereof, respectively, and the composition was then activated with an extensional homogenizer at 1500 psi for 2 passes. The product viscosities at 6 rpm were 343 cP and 334 cP in STW and 0.25% CaCl 2 solutions, respectively. About 20 3.2 mm diameter nylon beads (1.14 g/mL) were dropped into each of the solutions (in STW or 0.25% CaCl 2 solution) and the solutions were left at room temperature for 24 hrs. None of the beads settled down to the bottom of the beakers after the 24-hour time period. EXAMPLE 6 [0032] BC was produced in a 1200 gal fermentor with final yield of 1.6 wt %. The broth was treated with 350 ppm of hypochlorite and subsequently treated with 70 ppm of lysozyme and 350 ppm of protease followed with another 350 ppm of hypochlorite. A portion of the treated BC broth was mixed with a given amount of pre-hydrated pectin and CMC solutions (BC/Pectin/CMC=6/3/1, dry basis), then precipitated with IPA (85%), and dried and milled as in Example 1. The powdered formulation was then introduced into a STW solution and 0.25% CaCl2 solution in an amount of about 0.2% by weight thereof, respectively, and the composition was then activated with an extensional homogenizer at 1500 psi for 2 passes. The product viscosities at 6 rpm were 306 cP and 293cP in STW and 0.25% CaCl 2 solutions, respectively. About 20 3.2 mm diameter nylon beads (1.14 g/mL) were dropped into each of the solutions (in STW or 0.25% CaCl 2 solution) and the solutions were left at room temperature for 24 hours. None of the beads settled down to the bottom of the beakers after the 24-hour time period. EXAMPLE 7 [0033] BC was produced in a 1200 gal fermentor with final yield of 1.6 wt %. The broth was treated with 350 ppm of hypochlorite and subsequently treated with 70 ppm of lysozyme and 350 ppm of protease followed with another 350 ppm of hypochlorite. A portion of the treated BC broth was mixed with a given amount of pre-hydrated CMC solution (BC/CMC=3/1, dry basis), then precipitated with IPA (85%), and dried and milled as in Example 1. The powdered formulation was then introduced into a STW solution and 0.25% CaCl2 solution in an amount of about 0.2% by weight thereof, respectively, and the composition was then activated with an extensional homogenizer at 1500 psi for 2 passes. The product viscosities at 6 rpm were 206 cP and 202 cP in STW and 0.25% CaCl2 solutions, respectively. About 20 3.2 mm diameter nylon beads (1.14 g/mL) were dropped into each of the solutions (in STW or 0.25% CaCl 2 solution) and the solutions were left at room temperature for 24 hours. None of the beads settled down to the bottom of the beakers after the 24-hour time period. [0034] Each sample exhibited excellent and highly desirable viscosity modification and yield stress results. In terms of bacterial cellulose products, such results have been heretofore unattainable with bacterial cellulose materials alone and/or with the low complexity methods followed herein. [0000] Low pH Level Protein-Based Beverage Production and Analysis [0035] Some initial comparative examples of pectin-containing soy-based beverages were produced initially in order to demonstrate the stability of acid soy drinks using such high methoxyl (HM) pectin alone. These formulations are presented in Table 1, below, with the processing conditions listed thereafter. The soy protein was an isolate available from Solae under the tradename XT34N IP. TABLE 1 0.20% Pectin 0.35% Pectin 0.50% Pectin Control (Comp. Ex. 1) (Comp. Ex. 2) (Comp. Ex. 3) Percent Grams Percent Grams Percent Grams Percent Grams 1.5% HM pectin solution 0.00 0 13.33 666.7 23.33 1166.7 33.33 1666.7 Deionized water 65.39 3269.5 52.06 2602.8 42.06 2102.8 32.06 1602.8 Soy protein isolate 1.56 78 1.56 78.0 1.56 78.0 1.56 78.0 Sugar 8.00 400 8.00 400.0 8.00 400.0 8.00 400.0 Orange juice 25.00 1250 25.00 1250.0 25.00 1250.0 25.00 1250.0 Sodium Citrate 0.05 2.5 0.05 2.5 0.05 2.5 0.05 2.5 50% citric acid solution To pH 4.0 To pH 4.0 To pH 4.0 To pH 4.0 [0036] The soy protein isolate was dispersed into 25° C. deionized (DI) water within a flask using a high speed mixer (Caframo Stirrer). The resultant mixture was then heated to 70° C., held for 5 min and then cooled to ambient temperature (about 20-25° C.). In a separate flask, the HM pectin was dispersed into 50° C. DI water using the same type of high speed mixer for 5 minutes and allowed to cool to ambient temperature. The HM pectin solution was then added to the soy isolate solution and stirred by hand for about 3 minutes until the temperature was about ˜25° C. The orange juice (no pulp MINUTE MAIDS) brand from The Coca-Cola Company) was then added to the resultant solution. Separately prepared was a dry blend of sodium citrate in the amounts noted in Table 1, above, the result of which was then introduced within the protein/pectin/juice solution. The pH was then adjusted to 4.0 using a 50% (w/v) citric acid solution while stirring. An ultrahigh temperature (UHT) process was then undertaken at 140.5° C. for a 4.5 second hold time, with further homogenization at 2000 psi (1500 first stage, 500 second stage), and ultimate cooling to 30° C. The samples were then aseptically introduced into polyethylene terephthalate copolyester Nalgene bottles at 30° C. for analysis. Such samples were then stored at room temperature for seven days and evaluated for stability and sedimentation. [0037] Inventive samples were then prepared including certain bacterial-cellulose containing formulations, such as BC:Xanthan:CMC (stabilizer A from Example 1, above) and BC:Pectin:CMC (stabilizer B from Example 6, above). Table 2 shows the compositions made therefrom. The processes of preparing these are the same as outlined above. TABLE 2 0.1% 0.2% 0.1% 0.2% Stabilizer A Stabilizer A Stabilizer B Stabilizer B (Inv. Ex. 1) (Inv. Ex. 2) (Inv. Ex. 3) (Inv. Ex. 4) Percent Grams Percent Grams Percent Grams Percent Grams Deionized Water 65.29 3264.5 65.19 3259.5 65.29 3264.5 65.19 3259.5 Soy protein isolate 1.56 78 1.56 78 1.56 78 1.56 78 Sugar 8.00 400 8.00 400 8.00 400 8.00 400 Orange juice 25.00 1250 25.00 1250 25.00 1250 25.00 1250 Sodium Citrate 0.05 2.5 0.05 2.5 0.05 2.5 0.05 2.5 Stabilizer 0.10 5 0.20 10 0.10 5 0.20 10 50% citric acid solution to pH 4.0 to pH 4.0 to pH 4.0 to pH 4.0 [0038] Each of the control, comparative examples, and inventive examples from Tables 1 and 2 were stored for seven days at room temperature and evaluated. The negative control completely phase separated with a 50% clear upper layer and a thick lower layer of sediment at the bottom half of the container. Upon adding 0.20% pectin, the beverage still formed a dense sediment at the bottom, with a cloudy upper layer that constituted 90% of the beverage, indicating there was an insufficient amount of pectin coating the protein during the acidification step. The 0.35% and 0.50% pectin samples were also unstable due to the development of a visible pellet at the bottom of the container, however the mouthfeel of these beverages were different. The control and 0.20% pectin sample had an objectionable grainy texture, while 0.35% and 0.50% pectin samples were smooth, despite their instability. [0039] Beverages produced with the Inventive BC-based stabilizer 1-4 demonstrated noticeable improvements in stability over the pectin stabilized acid soy drinks. Stabilizer A showed improved stability over the control, with only 35% phase separation at 0.10% use level, compared to 50% phase separation in the control. The phase separation was further reduced to only 20% by increasing the concentration of Stabilizer A to 0.20%. Beverages stabilized with stabilizer B showed no signs of phase separation. The sensory attributes of these BC-based only beverages were grainy in texture. The results for these beverage examples are provided in the following Table 3: TABLE 3 0.2% 0.35% 0.50% 0.1% 0.2% 0.1% 0.2% Control Pectin Pectin Pectin Stabilizer A Stabilizer A Stabilizer B Stabilizer B % Phase 50 90 90 90 35 20 0 0 Separation Visual Clear upper Cloudy Cloudy Cloudy Clear upper Clear upper Stable Stable Observations layer upper layer, upper layer, upper layer, layer layer dense dense dense sediment sediment sediment Mouthfeel Grainy Grainy Smooth Smooth Grainy Grainy Grainy Grainy Texture [0040] Further formulations were then prepared including both the inventive stabilizers and HM pectin in order to both improve the stability of the pectin only formulation and overcome the adverse texture of the BC-based stabilizer only formulation. These new inventive formulations were processed as follows and in accordance with the process steps outlined above after Table 1. TABLE 4 0.05% 0.075% 0.10% Stabilizer Stabilizer Stabilizer B + 0.20% B + 0.20% B + 0.20% Pectin (Inv. Ex. 5) Pectin (Inv. Ex. 6) Pectin (Inv. Ex. 7) Percent Grams Percent Grams Percent Grams 1.5% HM pectin solution 13.3333 666.667 13.3333 666.667 13.3333 666.667 Deionized water 52.0042 2600.208 51.9779 2598.896 51.9517 2597.583 Soy protein isolate 1.5600 78.000 1.5600 78.000 1.5600 78.000 Sugar 8.0000 400.000 8.0000 400.000 8.0000 400.000 Orange juice 25.0000 1250.000 25.0000 1250.000 25.0000 1250.000 Stabilizer B 0.0500 2.500 0.0750 3.750 0.1000 5.000 Sodium Citrate 0.0500 2.500 0.0500 2.500 0.0500 2.500 50% citric acid solution to pH 4.0 to pH 4.0 to pH 4.0 [0041] TABLE 5 0.05% 0.075% 0.10% Stabilizer Stabilizer Stabilizer B + 0.35% B + 0.35% B + 0.35% Pectin (Inv. Ex. 8) Pectin (Inv. Ex. 9) Pectin (Inv. Ex. 10) Percent Grams Percent Grams Percent Grams 1.5% HM pectin solution 23.3333 1166.667 23.3333 1166.667 23.3333 1166.667 Deionized water 42.0042 2100.208 41.9779 2098.896 41.9517 2097.583 Soy protein isolate 1.5600 78.000 1.5600 78.000 1.5600 78.000 Sugar 8.0000 400.000 8.0000 400.000 8.0000 400.000 Orange juice 25.0000 1250.000 25.0000 1250.000 25.0000 1250.000 Stabilizer B 0.0500 2.500 0.0750 3.750 0.1000 5.000 Sodium Citrate 0.0500 2.500 0.0500 2.500 0.0500 2.500 50% citric acid solution to pH 4.0 to pH 4.0 to pH 4.0 [0042] Visual inspection after seven days showed that each of these inventive combinations of stabilizer B with 0.20% pectin greatly improved the stability of the 0.20% pectin beverage without BC-based stabilizer. Upon combining 0.05% stabilizer B/0.20% pectin, phase separation decreased from 90% shown in the pectin only beverage, to just 40%. This reduction was further reduced to 25% phase separation by using 0.075% stabilizer B/0.20% pectin, while only 10% instability was observed in the 0.10% stabilizer B/0.20% pectin combined system. Mouthfeel of all samples was smooth, due to the presence of pectin. [0043] Although not presented above in tabular form, combinations of 0.35% pectin with Stabilizer A also showed improvements in stability over the pectin only beverage. After seven days, the samples demonstrated 10% phase separation in both the 0.05% and 0.075% stabilizer B/0.35% pectin stabilized beverages. Complete stability was achieved with 0.10% stabilizer B/0.35% pectin. Additionally, sensory evaluation of these stable samples indicated a smooth mouthfeel that lacked graininess. These data suggest that 0.10% stabilizer B in combination with 0.35% provides the optimum stability and mouthfeel for this application. These results are presented below in Table 6. TABLE 6 Inv. Ex. 5 Inv. Ex. 6 Inv. Ex. 7 Inv. Ex. 8 Inv. Ex. 9 Inv. Ex. 10 % Phase 40 25 10 10 10 0 Separation Visual Clear upper Clear upper Clear upper Clear upper Clear upper Stable Observations layer layer layer layer layer Mouthfeel Smooth Smooth Smooth Smooth Smooth Smooth Texture [0044] Of fuirther interest with this inventive system is the ability to demonstrate the functionality of BC-based stabilizers in suspending insoluble calcium in an acidified protein-based (soy, in this example, as a non-limiting selection) beverage. Stabilizers B and C (BC:CMC) (Example 3, above) were added to suspend calcium when used in addition to 0.35% pectin. The formulations were prepared as follows and in accordance with the process set forth after Table 1, above. TABLE 7 0.10% 0.10% Stabilizer Stabilizer B + 0.35% C + 0.35% Pectin Pectin Control (Inv. Ex. 11) (Inv. Ex. 12) Percent Grams Percent Grams Percent Grams 1.5% HM 23.33 1166.5 23.33 1166.50 23.33 1166.50 pectin solution Deionized 41.74 2087.0 41.64 2082.00 41.64 2082.00 water Soy protein 1.56 78.0 1.56 78.00 1.56 78.00 isolate Sugar 8.00 400.0 8.00 400.00 8.00 400.00 Orange juice 25.00 1250.0 25.00 1250.00 25.00 1250.00 Tricalcium 0.32 16.0 0.32 16.00 0.32 16.00 Phosphate Stabilizer 0.00 0.0 0.10 5.00 0.10 5.00 Sodium Citrate 0.05 2.5 0.0500 2.500 0.0500 2.500 50% citric acid to pH 4.0 to pH 4.0 to pH 4.0 solution [0045] After seven days of room temperature, the control sample had the worst stability, due to formation of large sediment. The composition of the middle and bottom portion of the beverage was analyzed for solids and calcium content, in the stable and unstable regions, respectively. There was a higher amount of solids at the bottom compared to the center of the sample (15.16% vs. 11.80%). These unstable solids contained 2.15% unstable calcium compared to 0.68% in the stable portion of the beverage, of which the difference in calcium and solids in the sediment was composed of protein and sugars. [0046] Both types of BC based stabilizers improved calcium suspension over the control. The difference in solids between the center and bottom of the sample in stabilizers B and C was negligible, as was the difference in calcium concentration, suggesting that both BC-based stabilizers were capable of suspending protein in the acidified soy beverage. The results are tabulated below in Table 8. TABLE 8 Location % Total % Ca % Ca of Sample solids in solids in Bev. % RDA Control Center 11.80% 0.677% 0.080% 19.00% Bottom 15.16% 2.155% 0.327% 77.76% Inv. Ex. 11 Center 13.16% 1.221% 0.161% 38.24% Bottom 13.19% 1.242% 0.164% 39.00% Inv. Ex. 12 Center 13.13% 1.229% 0.161% 38.41% Bottom 13.18% 1.302% 0.172% 40.85% [0047] Thus, the inventive stabilized beveraged exhibited excellent calcium stabilization and suspension versus the control even when in solution with potentially aggregating protein solids. [0048] Further work was then undertaken to investigate the functionality of inventive BC-based stabilizers co-processed with pectin in stabilizing low acidity (pH 5) soy protein juice drinks. The formulations testing are listed below in Table 9. TABLE 9 0.075% 0.10% 0.15% Stabilizer B Stabilizer B Stabilizer B Control (Inv. Ex. 13) (Inv. Ex. 14) (Inv. Ex. 15) Percent Grams Percent Grams Percent Grams Percent Grams Water 32.60 1630.00 32.53 1626.25 32.50 1625.00 32.45 1622.50 Soy Milk 35.00 1750.0 35.00 1750.0 35.00 1750.0 35.00 1750.0 Sugar 8.00 400.0 8.00 400.0 8.00 400.0 8.00 400.0 Orange Juice 24.00 1200.0 24.00 1200.0 24.00 1200.0 24.00 1200.0 Sodium Citrate 0.20 10.0 0.20 10.0 0.20 10.0 0.20 10.0 Stabilizer 0.00 0.0 0.075 3.8 0.10 5.00 0.15 7.5 Vanilla Extract 0.20 10.0 0.20 10.0 0.20 10.0 0.20 10.0 Citric Acid Solution (50% w/v) to pH 5.0 to pH 5.0 to pH 5.0 to pH 5.0 to pH 5.0 to pH 5.0 to pH 5.0 to pH 5.0 [0049] These formulations were prepared as follows: The soy protein isolate was first dispersed into 25° C. DI-water using an high speed mixer in a flask. The solution was then heated to 70° C., held for 5 minutes at that temperature, and then cooled to ambient temperature. The juice was then added to the soy milk while stirring. Sodium citrate, sugar and the inventive stabilizer were then dry blended in the amounts as listed above and added to the already mixed soy solution. The pH was then adjusted to 5.0 using a 50% (w/v) citric acid solution while stirring. An UHT process was then undertaken at 140.5° C. for a 4.5 second hold time, with homogenization at 2000 psi (1500 first stage, 500 second stage) and subsequent cooling to 30° C. Bottles of polyethylene terephthalate copolyester Nalgene were then filled aseptically (as above) bottles at 30° C. for storage and evaluation. [0050] After 7 days room temperature storage, the control sample formed a protein sediment at the bottom of the container, and demonstrated 80% phase separation. Upon adding 0.075% stabilizer B, stability improved to just 35% phase separation. Increasing the concentration to 0.10% fuirther improved the stability to 10% phase separation. Complete stability was observed in the sample stabilized with 0.15% stabilizer B. In addition, all samples were orally evaluated and there was no graininess noted in any the samples. These data demonstrated that the BC based stabilizer is capable of suspending soy protein in the pH range near 5.0. The results are tabulated below in Table 10. TABLE 10 Control Inv. Ex. 13 Inv. Ex. 14 Inv. Ex. 15 % Phase 80 35 10 0 Separation Visual Clear upper Clear upper Clear upper Stable Observations layer layer layer Mouthfeel Smooth Smooth Smooth Smooth Texture [0051] Furthermore, experiments were then undertaken to investigate the functionality of inventive BC-based stabilizers in suspending heat-denatured milk proteins within a lightly acidified dairy based juice beverage. Two concentrations of stabilizer B (BC:Pectin:CMC) (Example 6, above) were added to the beverage and compared to the control sample. The formulations processed for this analysis were prepared as follows in accordance with Table 11 and in the outline below. TABLE 11 0.15% 0.20% Stabilizer B Stabilizer B Control (Inv. Ex. 16) (Inv. Ex. 17) Percent Percent Percent Deionized Water 37.85 37.70 37.65 2.0% Milk 30.00 30.00 30.00 Sugar 8.00 8.00 8.00 Orange Juice 24.00 24.00 24.00 Vanilla Flavor 0.15 0.15 0.15 Citric Acid to pH 5.0 to pH 5.0 to pH 5.0 Solution (50% w/v) [0052] To prepare these beverage, DI water, milk, sugar and vanilla and were mixed together using a high speed mixer. To this resultant mixture was slowly added orange juice, and the pH of the resultant composition was then adjusted to 5.0 using a 50% (w/v) citric acid solution while stirring. An UHT process at 140.5° C. for 4.5 seconds hold time was then undertaken, with homogenization at 2000 psi (1500 first stage, 500 second stage), and subsequent cooling to 30° C. As above, polyethylene terephthalate copolyester Nalgene bottles were then filled aseptically at 30° C. and stored at room temperature for evaluation. [0053] After 7 days of such storage, the control sample had completely failed, forming a dense sediment at the bottom of the container. Both samples using stabilizer B had completely uniform suspension of proteins in the drink. Oral evaluation of the sample demonstrated a noticeable grainy texture in the control sample, while 0.15% Stabilizer B and 0.20% Stabilizer B were smoother. The mouthfeel increased in thickness as the concentration of stabilizer B increased from 0. 15% to 0.20%. [0054] Thus, in all instances, the inclusion of the suspension aid with BC imparted excellent low phase separation, stable visual appearance, and excellent mouthfeel, particularly as compared with the control and the other comparative suspension aid systems. [0055] While the invention will be described and disclosed in connection with certain preferred embodiments and practices, it is in no way intended to limit the invention to those specific embodiments, rather it is intended to cover equivalent structures and all alternative embodiments and modifications as may be defined by the scope of the appended claims and equivalence thereto.

Specific types of low pH protein-based beverages (such as soy- and/or dairy-based types) that are properly suspended to prevent undesirable sedimentation of such protein constituents during storage are provided. Such beverages include a thickening system comprising bacterial cellulose (BC) coated with different water soluble co-agents such that the BC-based component provides a network forming structure that suspends the target proteins and prevents any appreciable sedimentation of such proteins. Additionally, this system is capable of improving the suspension of acidic protein beverages fortified with insoluble calcium. The beverages encompassed within this invention exhibit certain stability benefits under typical storage conditions and may, depending upon the pH of the overall system, include additives that coat the proteins to prevent, or at least retard, aggregation of such constituent proteins when the pH level approaches their pertinent isoelectric point.

RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 12/506,115, filed Jul. 20, 2009 now U.S. Pat. No. 8,041,595, which is a division of U.S. application Ser. No. 12/127,495, filed May 27, 2008 now U.S. Pat. No. 7,739,139, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 11/022,089, filed Dec. 22, 2004 now U.S. Pat. No. 7,386,464, which is a division of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/780,486, filed Feb. 17, 2004 (now U.S. Pat. No. 7,194,419), which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/348,355, filed Jul. 7, 1999 (now U.S. Pat. No. 6,714,916), which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 08/962,997, filed Nov. 2, 1997 (now U.S. Pat. No. 6,269,369). BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to multi-user computer systems, such as contact management systems, that provide services for users to locate and share personal information with other users. 2. Description of Related Art Several types of prior art for managing contact information exist, including Personal Information Management software applications, Groupware Applications, and Internet-based “White Pages” and e-mail services. Personal Information Management Software. As represented generally in FIG. 1 , in a typical prior art Personal Information Management (PIM) software application (e.g., Lotus Organizer, Microsoft Outlook, or U.S. Robotics Palm Pilot), a PIM software application 120 , 124 that stores contact information in a database resides on a workstation or handheld computer 100 having a central processing unit 102 , a display 108 , a keyboard and/or mouse 110 , a primary memory 104 (e.g., random access memory) for program execution, a secondary memory 106 (e.g., a hard disc) for program storage, and peripheral devices 112 . As is well known, programs, such as the PIM software 120 , are executed in the RAM 104 by the CPU 102 under control of the operating system software 122 , 126 . In the prior art, users themselves enter the contact information that they want to store in the PIM software. A variety of methods exist for entering this contact information. It may be entered manually using the keyboard, imported from an existing file on their computer, or imported via a peripheral device such as a business card scanner. The defining characteristic of this class of prior art is that the input of the contact information is performed by the user of the software and, when the information changes, the user must modify the information himself. What this class of prior art lacks is a means for information to be shared between multiple users and a means for a given user to post changes to his own information for the benefit of others. Groupware Applications. As generally represented in FIG. 2 , in a typical prior art Groupware application (e.g., Lotus Notes), a user workstation 160 accesses information stored on a central server computer 130 over a computer network 150 , such as a Local Area Network or Intranet. The server system consists of a central processing unit 132 , a primary memory 134 (e.g., random access memory) for program execution, a secondary storage device 136 (e.g., a hard disc) for program storage, and a modem 138 or other device for connecting to the computer network. The user workstation 160 is the same as the user workstation 100 described in reference to FIG. 1 with the addition of a modem 162 or other device for connecting to the computer network. The file server or database contains data files 148 that can be accessed only by authorized users. The user uses client software 174 , 176 running on the user workstation 160 to access the files 148 under the mediation of server software 140 , 144 running on the server 130 . Typically, in such a system a central system administrator organizes users into classes and the creator of a file 148 determines what classes of users may view the file. The rules governing which individual users or classes of users have the authorization to view a particular file 148 may be stored as part of the file itself. Alternatively, these rules are based upon the hierarchical directory structure of the file server in which the file is stored. That is, a particular user may view files in one directory but not another. FIG. 3 represents a common deployment of a contact management system based on Groupware. Each user enters information 202 about himself and specifies a set of permissions 204 that define what classes of users are able to view various pieces of the information 202 . What this deployment of the prior art lacks is the ability to authorize viewing privileges on a user-by-user basis rather than on a class-by-class basis. For instance, a user would be able to grant access to his home phone number 206 to the Human Resources department of his employer (e.g., Class A) while denying access to the same information to his co-workers (e.g., Class C). The user would not be able to give access to his home phone number selectively to a first co-worker while denying it to a second co-worker if both co-workers were part of the same class of users as organized by the central system administrator. Furthermore, such a system would lack a practical notification methodology. There would be no way for a user to specify “notify me when the first co-worker changes his information but not when the second co-worker changes his information.” Internet-Based “White Pages” and E-Mail Directory Services. In a typical prior art “white pages” or e-mail service, client computers and a server computer are connected via the World Wide Web as depicted in FIG. 4 . A user subscribes to a White Pages or E-Mail service via a client computer 270 operating a web browser 282 or other software application residing in memory 274 that allows it to display information downloaded from a server computer 230 over the World Wide Web 260 . The server computer system accesses a database 240 containing contact information entered by registered users. The service enables users to view contact information entered by other users. The authorization scheme may allow all users to limit certain classes of users from viewing certain parts of their user record as represented in FIG. 3 . However, there are no linkages between individual users and thus users cannot restrict the viewing of their information on a user-by-user basis. Furthermore, users cannot be notified when information for particular users has changed. SUMMARY A networked computer system provides various services for assisting users in locating, and establishing contact relationships with, other users. For example, in one embodiment, users can identify other users based on their affiliations with particular schools or other organizations. The system also provides a mechanism for a user to selectively establish contact relationships or connections with other users, and to grant permissions for such other users to view personal information of the user. The system may also include features for enabling users to identify contacts of their respective contacts. In addition, the system may automatically notify users of personal information updates made by their respective contacts. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and form a part of this specification, illustrate embodiments of the invention, wherein: FIG. 1 depicts a computer loaded with Personal Information Management software; FIG. 2 generally depicts the data schema of a category of prior art known as groupware applications; FIG. 3 shows a common scheme for authorizing permission to view information in the prior art; FIG. 4 depicts two computers interconnected via the Internet, one of which is a server connected to a database and the other of which represents a user's client workstation, both of which are configured according to the prior art; FIG. 5 depicts two computers interconnected via the Internet, one of which is a server connected to a database and the other of which represents a user's client workstation, both of which are configured according to the present invention; FIG. 6 represents an object model of the key tables in the relational database maintained on the server computer in the preferred embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 7 represents a pseudo graphical user interface in which a user enters information in specific data fields to create a personal data record; FIG. 8 represents a pseudo graphical user interface for listing other users with the same group affiliation as that specified by a first user; FIG. 9 represents a pseudo graphical user interface for specifying what type of data fields from a first user's personal data record to which the first user wishes to grant a specific second user access; FIG. 10 represents a pseudo graphical user interface that displays the information stored in a user's personal address book; FIG. 11 represents a pseudo graphical user interface that provides a first user with specific information that has changed about the other users to which the first user is linked; FIG. 12 represents a pseudo graphical user interface that allows a first user to enter travel information and find out which contacts have overlapping travel schedules FIG. 13 represents a pseudo graphical user interface that allows a first user to gather information about the contacts of his contacts; and FIG. 14 is a data flow diagram of an alternative embodiment of the present invention where a personal digital assistant is synchronized with a server database of user information. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Reference will now be made in detail to the preferred embodiments of the invention, examples of which are illustrated in the accompanying figures. While the invention will be described in conjunction with the preferred embodiments, it will be understood that they are not intended to limit the invention to those embodiments. On the contrary, the invention is intended to cover alternatives, modifications and equivalents, which may be included within the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims. As represented in FIG. 5 , the preferred embodiment follows a standard Internet architecture, in which client computers 370 and a server computer 330 are connected via the World Wide Web 360 and modems 338 , 378 or other communications channels. A user accesses the server 360 via a client computer 370 operating a web browser 382 or other software application residing in memory 374 that allows it to display information downloaded from a server computer 330 . The server computer system 330 runs server software 342 , including the network-computer-based personal contact manager 343 of the present invention, which interacts with the client computers 370 and a user information database 340 . In a commercial embodiment of the present invention, the personal contact manager 343 is the heart of a Web-based personal contact management service called PlanetAll. The database 340 contains contact information entered by registered users. The personal contact manager 343 in some situations will notify a set of users of updates made to the database 340 by another user to whom the notified set is related. The database 340 in is a relational database built from a set of relational tables 350 . In the conventional manner, both the server 330 and the clients 370 include respective storage devices, such as hard disks 336 and 376 and operate under the control of operating systems 344 , 384 executed in RAM 334 , 374 by the CPUs 332 , 372 . The server storage device 336 stores program files 346 and the operating system 348 . Similarly, the client storage devices 376 store the web browser software 386 and the operating systems 388 . In an alternative configuration, in which the client is a personal information manager (PIM), such as the U.S. Robotics Palm Pilot, the disc 376 can also include a local PIM database 390 and PIM software, which performs data management and synchronization functions. FIG. 6 outlines the data structure of the relational database 340 in the preferred embodiment, in which seven tables 350 are employed to enable most of the functionality of the system: (1) Customer Table 440 ; (2) Friend Table 460 ; (3) Group Table 400 ; (4) Affinity Table 420 ; (5) Address Table 480 ; (6) Phone Table 500 ; and (7) Travel Event Table 520 ; The Customer Table 440 contains one record for each unique user. The key field in this table is CustomerID 440 - 2 . All information stored in the various database tables relating to a particular member is linked together by a unique number in this field. Other important fields in this table include information used by users to login to the system (Username 440 - 6 and Password 440 - 8 ), information which helps users identify each other (First Name 440 - 10 , Last Name 440 - 12 , and E-mail 440 - 20 ), information required to provide Birthday Notification (Birthday 440 - 16 ) and information required to provide Crossing Paths notification (CityID 440 - 14 ). Each record in the Customer Table 440 is time-stamped via the RecordDate field 440 - 4 . Other fields 440 - 22 can also be included in the Customer Table 440 (and the other tables as well). The Friend Table 460 relates users to each other. Each record in the table represents a relationship between one user, identified by CustomerID 460 - 4 , and another, identified by FriendID 460 - 6 , with a certain level of permissions 460 - 10 . The user interface of the system provides a multitude of ways for users to view information about other users, and every one of these ways relies on a database query of the Friend Table 460 to determine the list of other users whose information a particular user may see. Each record is time-stamped via the RecordDate field 460 - 8 so that users may be notified when their contacts' records change. Each record is uniquely identified by a RelationID 460 - 2 . The Group Table 400 contains one record for each unique group with which users may affiliate. Each group is identified by a GroupName 400 - 4 and GroupType 400 - 6 . Examples of these groups would be GroupName 400 - 4 =“Massachusetts Institute of Technology” (GroupType=“University”) and GroupName 400 - 4 =“Sigma Chi” (GroupType=“Fraternity”). Each record has a time-stamp 400 - 8 and a unique identifier 400 - 2 . Each record of the Affinity Table 420 relates a user, identified by CustomerID 420 - 4 , to a group, identified by GroupID 420 - 6 . If a user affiliates with six groups, there would be six records in the Affinity Table 420 . This table stores information about the time period of a user's affiliation with a particular group in the FromYear and ToYear fields 420 - 8 , 420 - 10 so that the system may help users find their contemporaries. Each record is time-stamped 420 - 12 so that the system may report to users when other users join the group, has a unique identifier 420 - 2 and can include additional fields 420 - 14 . The Address Table 480 stores information for any number and kind of addresses for a particular user, identified by CustomerID 480 - 4 . For instance, if a user wants to make his home address, work address and summer home address available to his contacts, there would be three records for that user in the Address Table 480 , each being identified in part by an appropriate AddressType 480 - 8 (e.g., home, work, summer home). Each record is time-stamped 480 - 16 so that the system can notify users when their contacts have added or modified address information and has a unique identifier 480 - 2 . Address information is conventional, including street Address 480 - 8 , CityID 480 - 10 , Postal code 480 - 12 , and military Base 480 - 14 fields. The Phone Table 500 is directly analogous to the Address Table 480 , but it stores telephone and fax number information instead of address information. Each record is identified by a unique PhoneRecordID 500 - 2 and includes the CustomerID 500 - 4 of the user whose phone information is contained in the record, a phone type ID 500 - 6 indicating, e.g., whether the record is for a telephone or fax, the phone number 500 - 8 and a time-stamp 500 - 10 . The Travel Event Table 520 stores information about users' travel plans. This table is required to notify users when their travel plans intersect with the travel plans of their contacts. A record in the Travel Event Table 520 includes the CustomerID 520 - 4 of the user whose travel information is contained in the record, arrival and departure dates 520 - 6 , 520 - 8 and a CityID 520 - 10 identifying the travel destination. Each record is uniquely identified by a Travel_EventID 520 - 2 and is time-stamped with a RecordDate 520 - 14 . In the preferred embodiment, a multitude of other tables 540 are used to enable a variety of user services. The Permission Type Table 542 contains one record for each of the varieties of permission levels the system allows members to assign to their contacts in the Friend Table 460 . In the preferred embodiment, as illustrated in FIG. 9 , permission information is grouped into five categories for the purpose of user interface simplicity (crossing paths notification permission 600 - 6 , personal information 600 - 8 , work information 600 - 10 , birthday notification 600 - 12 , and friends of friends information 600 - 14 ). However, the Permission Type table 542 could just as easily be structured to allow members to grant and deny access to information on a field by field basis. The City Table 550 stores latitude and longitude information for two million cities to enable the system to notify users when their contacts travel within a defined geographical radius. The Zodiac Table 552 allows the system to associate birthdays with signs of the Zodiac and thereby notify which of their contacts have compatible astrological signs on a particular day. The AddressType, PhoneType and GroupType tables 544 , 546 , 548 define the types of address, phone and group that can be defined in the respective Address, Group and Phone tables 480 , 400 , 500 . The advantage of this normalized relational database architecture is that it permits scaling and speed far in excess of any embodiment of the prior art. FIGS. 7 through 12 display pseudo software graphical user interfaces (GUIs). In the preferred embodiment, the web server software 342 on the server computer 330 displays these GUIs via the computer communications interface 360 on the user interface 380 of the user workstation computer 370 . The database and communications operations necessary to perform the described functions are controlled by the personal contact manager 343 , which employs where necessary the services of the web server software 342 . For example, the personal contact manager 343 updates the database tables 350 when a user submits a new home address and then determines whether any of that user's contacts need to be notified of the change. If so, the personal contact manager 343 will issue the notifications via the web server software 342 . It should be assumed, unless a statement to the contrary is made, that all of the operations described herein which are aspects of the present invention are embodied by the personal contact manager 343 . Referring now to FIG. 7 , a pseudo GUI 560 is shown that allows members to enter information about themselves in order to create a personal data record. Users can enter information in this GUI in various data fields. In the preferred embodiment, these fields include: Name 560 - 2 , Home Address 560 - 4 , Home Phone 560 - 6 , Work Address 560 - 8 , Work Phone 560 - 10 , Birthday 560 - 12 , High School 560 - 14 , Year of High School Enrollment 560 - 16 , High School Graduation Year 560 - 18 , College 560 - 20 , Year of College Enrollment 560 - 22 , and College Graduation Year 560 - 24 . In certain of these data fields, the user can specify groups with which he wishes to affiliate himself, and the beginning and ending dates of the affiliation. In the preferred embodiment, the data fields High School 560 - 14 and College 560 - 20 represent categories of groups. In the data field Year of High School Enrollment 560 - 16 , the user enters the beginning date of the affiliation with the group specified in the data field High School 560 - 14 . In the data field High School Graduation Year 560 - 18 , the user enters the ending date of the affiliation with the group specified in the data field High School 560 - 14 . In the data field Year of College Enrollment 560 - 22 , the user enters the beginning date of the affiliation with the group specified in the data field College 560 - 20 . In the data field College Graduation Year 560 - 24 , the user enters the ending date of the affiliation with the group specified in the data field College 560 - 20 . In both of these cases, the beginning date and ending date establish a date range during which time the user was affiliated with the group in question. Once the user of the client computer 370 ( FIG. 5 ) enters information in each data field in the GUI 560 shown in FIG. 7 , he clicks the Submit button 560 - 26 (or performs some equivalent action) and the information entered is transferred via the computer communications network 360 ( FIG. 5 ) to the server computer 330 , where the server personal contact manager software 343 stores the information in the appropriate tables 350 of a database 340 . Referring now to FIG. 8 , a pseudo GUI 580 is shown that allows a first user to select other users they wish to add to their personal address book. The list of contacts is created based on the group affiliation information the first user enters in the data fields College 560 - 20 , Year of College Enrollment 560 - 22 , and College Year of Graduation 560 - 24 in the Pseudo Registration GUI 560 shown in FIG. 7 . A similar GUI 580 would exist for the group specified in the data field High School 560 - 14 in the pseudo 560 GUI shown in FIG. 7 . In each version of the GUI 580 shown in FIG. 8 , a text description 580 - 2 at the top of the GUI explains to the first user that other members have been found who had the same affiliation as the first user during the same period of time as the first user. The name 580 - 6 of the group in which the first and second users share an affiliation is displayed and the date range 580 - 8 of the first user's affiliation with that group is displayed. If a second user whose personal information is stored in the tables 350 of the database 340 on the server computer 330 has specified the same group affiliation as that specified by the first user in the College 560 - 20 data field, and that second user has specified a date range for that affiliation that intersects with the date range specified by the first user in the Year of College Enrollment 560 - 22 and College Graduation Year 560 - 24 data fields, the Name 580 - 10 of the second user and the ending date 580 - 12 of the second user's affiliation with that group are displayed. A second text description 580 - 4 at the top of the GUI 580 instructs the first user to select any of the second users listed whom the first user wishes to add to his personal address book. If the first user wishes to add a second user to his personal address book, the first user clicks the checkbox 580 - 14 to the left of the Name 580 - 10 (e.g., “John Doe”) for that second user. Once the first user has finished specifying the users he wants to add to his address book, he clicks the Submit button 580 - 16 , and the information entered is transferred via the computer communications network 360 to the server computer 330 where it is stored in the appropriate tables 350 of the database 340 . A pseudocode description of the actions performed by the personal contact manager software 343 to display the group member list is shown in Appendix A. This pseudocode fragment (and the others that follow) is written in a structured English that is similar to computer languages such as Pascal, FORTRAN and C. The pseudocode fragments are not described herein as they are self-explanatory. The tables and fields referred to in the pseudocode fragments correspond to the tables and fields described in reference to FIG. 6 . Referring now to FIG. 9 , a pseudo GUI 600 is shown allowing a first user to specify which types of data fields from the first user's personal data record to grant a specific second user permission to view. If a first user specifies a second user whom the first user would like to add to his personal address book, as explained in the description of FIG. 8 , the second user will receive notification (issued by the contact manager program 343 — FIG. 5 ) that the first user has “linked” to him. If the second user chooses to return the link to the first user, the system will display the pseudo GUI 600 shown in FIG. 9 with the name of the first user 600 - 5 , allowing the second user to set data field permissions for the first user. Unlike the prior art, which does not allow the first user to specify data field permissions for individual other users, the disclosed system allows the first user to specify permissions separately for each individual other user in whose personal database the first user has chosen to be included. A text description 600 - 2 at the top of the pseudo GUI in FIG. 9 instructs the first user to specify which types of data fields from the first user's personal data record to allow to appear in the personal address book of the second user, whose name 600 - 4 is shown below. Several types of data field permission are listed, each with a check box to the left enabling the first user to select or deselect the permission type. For example, to grant the second user 600 - 4 permission to view the information from the first user's personal data record indicated by the permission type denoted “Crossing Paths Notification Permission,” the first user would check the box 600 - 7 to the left of the permission type Crossing Paths Notification Permission 600 - 6 . To deny the second user 600 - 4 permission to view the information from the first user's personal data record indicated by the permission type denoted “Personal Information,” the first user would uncheck the box 600 - 9 to the left of the permission type Personal Information 600 - 8 . In the preferred embodiment of the present invention, the levels of permission are as follows: Crossing Paths Notification Permission 600 - 6 , Personal Information 600 - 8 , Work Information 600 - 10 , Birthday Notification 600 - 12 , and Friends of Friends Information 600 - 14 . However, the present invention is not limited to the levels of permission shown in the preferred embodiment. The present invention is flexible to allow permission categories to be modified as needed. Each permission type allows the second user to view information from the first user's personal data record in specific data fields, according to a specific set of rules. In the preferred embodiment of the present invention, these permission rules are as follows: If member A links to member B, member A can grant any of the permissions discussed below to member B. Even if member B does not reciprocate the link to member A, an e-mail forwarding address for member B will be included in the Virtual Address Book for member A. For example, the e-mail address “[email protected],” which maps to the actual e-mail address that member B has entered into his/her own record, will appear in member A's Virtual Address Book, but nothing else. When member A first links to member B, member B is notified on the Web site and in an e-mail. If member B elects not to grant any permissions to member A, member A will not appear in member B's Virtual Address Book. If member B grants any permissions to member A, a listing in member B's Virtual Address Book will be created for member A, and the listing will contain whatever information member A has given permission for member B to see. If member B grants Personal Information 600 - 8 permission to member A, member B's home address and phone number (if available) will appear in member A's Virtual Address Book and member A will be informed when member B changes the relevant information in his/her own listing. If member B grants Work Information 600 - 10 permission to member A, member B's work address and phone number (if available) will appear in member A's Virtual Address Book and member A will be informed when member B changes the relevant information in his/her own listing. If member B grants Crossing Paths Notification Permission 600 - 6 to member A, member A will be able to be informed when member B will be in the same city as member A. If member A and member B are both based in the same city, member A will only be informed when member A and member B are traveling to the same destination. If member B grants Birthday Notification 600 - 12 permission to member A, member B's birthday and anniversary (if available) will appear in member A's Virtual Address Book and member A will be notified when member B's birthday or anniversary are approaching. If member B grants Friends of Friends Information 600 - 14 permission to member A, if member A searches for information about the contacts of his/her contacts, such as who lives in a particular city or is associated with a particular group, information from member B's circle of contacts will be included in the search results, if applicable. Either member can modify permissions at any time. Either member can delete the other member as a contact at any time. Pseudocode descriptions of the actions performed by the personal contact manager software 343 to display address information of contacts and to perform birthday and address change notifications are shown in Appendices B, C and D, respectively. Each of these operations depends on which permissions respective users have been granted by the owner of the information. Once the first user has finished specifying the data field permissions for the second user 600 - 4 , he clicks the Submit button 600 - 16 and the information entered is transferred via the computer communications network 360 to the server computer 330 where it is stored in the appropriate tables 350 of the database 340 (see FIG. 5 ). A pseudocode description of the actions performed by the personal contact manager software 343 to enable a user to change the permissions of contacts is shown in Appendix H. Referring now to FIG. 10 , a pseudo GUI 618 that displays the information stored in a user's personal address book is shown. The information in a user's personal address book is stored in the appropriate tables 350 of the database 340 on the server computer 330 , to which the client computer 370 is connected via the world wide web 360 (see FIG. 5 ). The information in each user's personal address book is customized for that user, as described below. Each first user's personal address book contains information about each second user who has given the first user permission to view information in the second user's personal data record 636 . Which categories of each second user's information are displayed in the first user's personal address book is controlled completely by the second user, as explained in the description of FIG. 9 . In addition, each second user's information is entered and maintained completely by the second user (e.g., “Donald Tully”), as explained in the description of FIG. 7 . FIG. 10 illustrates the Address Book pseudo GUI 620 at three levels, in which each next level allows the user to view progressively more detail about the contacts in his personal address book. In level 1 620 of the pseudo address book GUI 618 , each letter of the alphabet is shown 622 . By clicking on any letter of the alphabet 622 , a first user can display a listing of the contacts whose last names begin with the letter of the alphabet selected, and about whom information is stored in the first user's personal address book. This information is displayed in the level 2 626 of the pseudo address book GUI. For example, if the first user clicks on the letter “T” 624 in level 1 620 of the pseudo address book interface, all contacts whose last names begin with the letter T and about whom information is stored in the first user's personal address book will be displayed 628 in level 2 626 of the pseudo address book GUI. In level 2 626 of the pseudo address book GUI, a listing of the second users whose last names begin with the letter of the alphabet selected in level 1 620 of the pseudo address book GUI, and about whom information is stored in the first user's personal address book, is shown. By clicking on any second user's name, the first user can display the information about that second user stored in the first user's personal address book. This information is displayed in level 3 632 of the pseudo personal address book GUI. For example, if the first user clicks on the second user name “Tully, Donald” 630 , the information pertaining to Donald Tully stored in the first user's personal address book will be displayed in level 3 632 of the pseudo address book GUI. In level 3 632 of the pseudo address book GUI, information 634 is shown about a specific second user that is stored in a first personal address book. Only the categories of information from the second user's personal data record that the second user gave the first user permission to view are displayed. The second user's information is entered and maintained completely by the second user. In the preferred embodiment of the present invention, the second user's e-mail address 634 - 2 is displayed if the second user gave the first user any type of data field permission. The second user's work address and phone number 634 - 4 are displayed only if the second user gave the first user Work Information permission. The second user's home address and phone number 634 - 6 are displayed only if the second user gave the first user Personal Information permission. The second user's birthday and birth year 634 - 8 are displayed only if the second user gave the first user Birthday Notification permission. These permission rules are simply examples from the preferred embodiment. The present invention is not limited to the permission rules used in the preferred embodiment. A pseudocode description of the actions performed by the personal contact manager software 343 to display the address book listing is shown in Appendix B. Referring now to FIG. 11 , a member update pseudo GUI 650 is shown. This pseudo GUI 650 provides a first user with specific information that has changed about the other users to which the first user is linked, plus new information about contacts to whom the first user may wish to link. The information displayed in a user's member update is stored in the appropriate tables 350 of the database 340 on the server computer 330 , to which the client computer 370 is connected via the world wide web 360 . The member update pseudo GUI 650 is automatically displayed on the user interface 380 of the user workstation 370 , at an interval preset by the user. For example, FIG. 11 displays a hypothetical member update 650 - 2 released on Dec. 7, 1998. The information displayed in the data fields below is information that has changed between Dec. 7, 1998 and the date of the previous update, the interval between which has been previously specified by the user. The information shown in each user's member update is customized for that user, as described below. In a first portion of the member update pseudo GUI 650 shown in FIG. 11 , if one or more of the second users who have linked to a first user and have provided Birthday Notification permission to the first user have upcoming birthdays, a text description 650 - 4 alerts the first user of the upcoming birthday(s). The names and birthdays 650 - 6 for those second users are listed below. In the preferred embodiment of the present invention, the first user will receive this notification 2 weeks, 1 week, 2 days, and 1 day in advance of a particular upcoming birthday, and on the actual date of the birthday. The first user does not need to collect and input the birthday dates for each second user who has linked to the first user. Each second user's birthday information is entered and maintained completely by the second user, as shown in the Birthday field 560 - 12 of FIG. 7 , the registration form pseudo GUI 560 . In another portion of the member update pseudo GUI shown in FIG. 11 , if one or more of the second users who have linked to the first user and have provided Personal Information permission or Work Information permission to the first user have changed their work or home address, a text description 650 - 8 alerts the first user. If a second user has changed his work address information and has given the first user Work Information permission, the second user's new work address information 650 - 10 , 650 - 12 is displayed. If a second user has changed his home address information and has given the first user Personal Information permission, the second user's new home address information is displayed. Each second user's address information is entered and maintained completely by the second user, as shown in the registration form pseudo GUI 560 of FIG. 7 . After changing his address information in his personal data record, the second user does not need to specify that the new address information be provided to each first user to whom he has linked and given the proper form of data field permission. The new address information is provided to each first user quickly and automatically. In addition, the architecture of the present invention is scalable to include millions of users. In another portion of the member update pseudo GUI 650 shown in FIG. 11 , if one or more members has affiliated with a group with which the first user is also affiliated, a text description 650 - 14 will alert the first user. The name of the second user, the name of the group in which the first and second users share an affiliation, and the ending date of the second user's affiliation with that group are displayed 650 - 16 . This portion of the registration form pseudo GUI 650 functions similarly to the group list form pseudo GUI shown in FIG. 8 . If a new second user who fills out a registration form such as the pseudo GUI in FIG. 7 , and therefore whose personal information is stored in the tables 350 of the database 340 on the server computer 330 has specified the same group affiliation as that specified by the first user in the College 560 - 20 data field, and that second user has specified a date range for that affiliation that intersects with the date range specified by the first user in the Year of College Enrollment 560 - 22 and College Graduation Year 560 - 24 data fields, the Name of the second user and the ending date of the second user's affiliation with that group 650 - 16 are displayed. Similarly, if the first user and the new second user were affiliated during an intersecting period of time with the group specified in the data field High School 560 - 14 in the pseudo GUI 560 shown in FIG. 7 , the Name of the second user and the ending date of the second user's affiliation with that group 650 - 16 are displayed. A pseudocode description of the actions performed by the personal contact manager software 343 to display a list of service members who have recently joined a user's groups (i.e., members who are not current contacts of the user) is shown in Appendix E. If the first user wishes to add contact information to his personal address book for any of the second users listed 650 - 16 , the first user can do so in a GUI similar to the group list form pseudo GUI 580 shown in FIG. 8 . Each second user to whom the first user has initiated a link will then be informed of the link, and can then return the link and specify data field permissions for the first user, if any, as explained in the description of FIG. 9 . A pseudocode description of the actions performed by the personal contact manager software 343 to identify people who have linked to a particular user are shown in Appendix F. In another portion of the member update pseudo GUI 650 shown in FIG. 11 , if a second user has initiated a link to a first user, the first user will be automatically notified 650 - 18 that a link has been made. For each second user that has initiated a link, the user's name 650 - 20 is shown. If the first user wishes, the first user can then return the link and specify data field permissions for the second user, if any, as explained in the description of FIG. 9 . Another section 650 - 22 of the member update pseudo GUI 650 shown in FIG. 11 is used to inform a first user when the travel plans he has entered into the system overlap with the travel plans that any of his contacts has entered into the system, as long as the contact has granted the first user Crossing Paths Notification permission. This system, termed “Crossing Paths Notification” in the preferred embodiment of the present invention, operates as follows. The home city or “base city” for each user is determined from information entered by that user in the Home Address data field 560 - 4 , as explained in the description of FIG. 7 . The “City” table 550 ( FIG. 6 ) stored on the server computer 330 includes 1.7 million names of cities around the world. Each of these cities is associated with a precise latitude and longitude. If the user's base city cannot be matched to a city in the “City” table, the user can add the new city to the “City” table by giving the name of another city that is already in the “City” table that is nearby the user's base city. The user's base city is assigned the same latitude and longitude as the existing city. This information is used to associate each user with a precise longitude and latitude, and determine all cities within a 29-mile radius of the user's base city. Whenever a user is planning to travel, he can specify the dates during which he will be away and the city he will be visiting. If a second user has granted a first user Crossing Paths Notification permission, and the first user has entered a Travel Event to a city that is within a 29-mile radius of the base city of the second user, the first user will be notified 650 - 22 ( FIG. 11 ) that he will be crossing paths with the second user 650 - 24 (e.g., “Andrew Kress”), as long as the second user has not also scheduled a travel event for the same time period. In another scenario, if a second user has granted a first user Crossing Paths Notification permission, and the first user has entered a travel event to a city that is within a 25-mile radius of a city to which the second user has scheduled a travel event during the same time period, the first user will be notified 650 - 22 that he will be crossing paths with the second user 650 - 24 . Travel events are described more fully in reference to FIG. 12 . The Crossing Paths Notification system is able to handle multiple cities in a single day. For instance, if a first user lives in Boston but is traveling to New York on March 5, then the first user will be informed if any contacts will be crossing paths on that day in either city. In addition, this system is scalable to millions of users. A pseudocode description of the actions performed by the personal contact manager software 343 to enable a user to receive crossing paths notification is shown in Appendix I. The final section 650 - 26 of the member update pseudo GUI 650 shown in FIG. 11 is used to inform a first user which of his contacts has an astrological sign compatible with that of the first user on the date of the member update. Each member is associated with one of the twelve astrological signs based on the information he entered in the Birthday data field 560 - 12 in the registration form pseudo GUI 560 shown in FIG. 7 . Each day of the year is mapped to one of these twelve signs. This information is stored in the appropriate table 350 in the database 340 on the server computer 330 . On a given day, all of a member's contacts who are associated with “sign of the day” are deemed to be compatible with the member. Only the names of contacts who have given the first user Birthday Notification permission will be shown in the member update pseudo GUI for the first user. A pseudocode description of the actions performed by the personal contact manager software 343 to enable a user to receive notification of compatible contacts is shown in Appendix J. The permission rules used in reference to FIG. 11 are simply examples from the preferred embodiment. The present invention is not limited to the permission rules used in the preferred embodiment. Referring now to FIG. 12 , a pseudo Add Travel Form GUI 660 and a pseudo Crossing Paths List GUI 670 are shown. These two screens are used in the Crossing Paths Notification System. If a first member is planning a trip, the first member can use the pseudo Add Travel Form GUI 660 to add a Travel Event, in which he specifies the location 660 - 2 , 660 - 4 , 660 - 6 , dates 660 - 8 , 660 - 10 , and contact information 660 - 20 for the intended trip. In the pseudo Crossing Paths List GUI 670 , the first member is informed which of the second members to whom he is linked and who have granted him Crossing Paths Permission will be in the vicinity of the city to which the first user is travelling, during the time period of the specified Travel Event. The first user can then use the pseudo Crossing Paths List GUI 670 to select which of the displayed second users the first user would like to inform of the first user's specified Travel Event. The pseudo Add Travel Form 660 is displayed on the user interface 380 ( FIG. 5 ) of a user's client computer 370 when the user chooses to schedule a Travel Event. The user enters information about his scheduled trip in the data fields shown. In the Traveling To City field 660 - 2 , the user enters the name of the city to which he is traveling. In the State field 660 - 4 , the user enters the name of the state in which is located the city to which he is traveling. In the Country 660 - 6 field, the user enters the name of the country in which the city to which he is traveling is located. The information entered in these three fields 660 - 2 , 660 - 4 , 660 - 6 is used to locate the city for the Travel Event in the City table 550 on the server computer 330 . The exact latitude and longitude of the Travel Event city is then determined and a list is created of all cities located within a 25-mile radius of the Travel Event city. In the Arrive in City on Date field 660 - 8 , the user enters the first date on which he will be in the Travel Event city. In the Leave City on Date field 660 - 10 , the user enters the date beginning on which he will no longer be in the Travel Event city. The information entered in these two fields 660 - 8 , 660 - 10 is used to determine the date range for the Travel Event. Finally, in the How to Get in Touch While in This City data field 660 - 20 , the user enters the method for contacting him during the Travel Event. After the user has finished entering information in the pseudo Add Travel Form GUI (12-1), the information entered is stored by the personal contact manager 343 in the Travel_Event table 520 on the server computer 330 . The pseudo Crossing Paths List 670 is displayed on the user interface 380 of the first user's client computer 370 after a first user has scheduled a Travel Event using the pseudo Add Travel Form 660 . A text message 670 - 2 issued by the personal contact manager 330 informs the first user that one or more of his contacts will be in the same city as the first user during the first user's scheduled Travel Event. Those contacts (e.g., Scott Ulem, Taylor Pierce, Betsy Klein) who live in the city of the first user's scheduled Travel Event are listed 670 - 6 , as well as those contacts (e.g., Tania Gutsche) who will be visiting the city of the first user's scheduled Travel Event 670 - 8 . The contacts listed in the field 670 - 6 are those second users who have granted the first user Crossing Paths Permission, and who have listed in the Home Address field 560 - 4 ( FIG. 7 ) of their Personal Data Record the city of the first user's scheduled Travel Event, or any city within a 25-mile radius of the first user's scheduled Travel Event. The contacts listed in the field 670 - 8 are those second users who have granted the first user Crossing Paths Permission, and who have scheduled a Travel Event to the city of the first user's scheduled Travel Event, or any city within a 25-mile radius of the first user's scheduled Travel Event, during the date range of the first user's scheduled Travel Event. For each contact name listed in both fields 670 - 6 , 670 - 8 , the first user can choose to inform that contact of the first user's scheduled Travel Event by clicking on the checkbox to the left of that contacts name. When the first user is finished selecting contacts, he then clicks the Submit button 670 - 10 , which copies the information entered to the server computer (5-45) to be stored in the tables 350 by the networked personal contact manager 343 . For each second user whom the first user selected, the second user is informed, in a screen similar to the pseudo Member Update GUI shown in FIG. 11 , of the first user's Travel Event and the means of contacting the first user 660 - 20 during the Travel Event. Referring now to FIG. 13 , a diagram illustrating the Friends of Friends system is shown. The Friends of Friends system allows a first member to search for the names of contacts of their contacts who live in the same city as the first member or are affiliated with a group with which the first member is also affiliated. When a first user performs a Friends of Friends search, the personal contact manager 343 displays, via the web server software 342 , the results of the search on the user interface 380 ( FIG. 5 ) of the first user's client computer 370 in a GUI similar to the pseudo Friends of Friends report GUI 688 . After locating a second member who is a friend of a friend, the first member can then link to that second member in order to add the second member to the first user's Personal Address Book, as explained in the descriptions of FIG. 8 and FIG. 9 above. In the preferred embodiment of the personal contact manager 343 , the Friends of Friends system operates as follows. If a Member A 680 is linked to a Member B 682 with any level of permissions 681 and the Member B 682 is linked to a Member C 684 with any level of permissions 685 , then if Member C 684 grants to Member B 682 Friends of Friends permissions 687 and Member B 682 also grants to Member A 680 Friends of Friends permissions 683 , then Member A is eligible to receive Friends of Friends notification about Member C. When a first user performs a Friends of Friends search, the results of the search will include all second users who have affiliated themselves with a group with which the first user is affiliated and all second users who live in the same city in which the first user lives, so long as the first user is eligible to receive Friends of Friends notification about those second users, as described above. For example, if Member A and Member C both belong to Group A 686 , and Member A is eligible to receive Friends of Friends notification about Member C, then the result of Member A's Friends of Friends search 688 generated by the personal contact manager 343 will include Member C 690 . A pseudocode description of the actions performed by the personal contact manager software 343 to perform a search for friends and friends of friends in a specific city is shown in Appendix G. The present invention is not limited to the search criteria or levels of separation in the preferred embodiment. The database architecture in the present invention is flexible to allow searches to be extended to more than one degree of separation. For instance, it would be possible to add a Friends of Friends of Friends search feature. The architecture is also flexible to allow new search criteria to be added. Referring to FIG. 5 , in each of the embodiments described above, the user information is stored on the server 330 and all user access to the user information is mediated by a client web browser 382 , the web server software 342 and the server personal contact manager software 343 . In an alternative embodiment, which is configured for personal information managers (PIMs), such as the U.S. Robotics Palm Pilot, a user is able to synchronize their user information and their PIM database 390 through an importation/synchronization function performed by the personal contact manager software 343 . The synchronization operation can be performed in either direction (i.e., client to server or server to client). The server personal contact manager software 343 will then use the web server software 342 to communicate with the PIM software 392 of the user's contacts, if applicable, and, in accordance with the permission scheme already described, synchronize the databases 390 in the contacts' PIMs. All database, personal contact management and linking operations already described are operable in the alternative embodiment, except the GUIs might be different, depending on the graphical capabilities of the client 370 running the PIM program 392 . Thus, the alternative embodiment allows full synchronization of PIMs and the server database 340 . A data flow diagram illustrating the operation of the alternative embodiment is shown in FIG. 14 . In the illustrated situation a user A submits an address change from their client computer 370 A. In response to the update, the personal contact manager 343 running on the server 330 updates user A's address information in the server database 340 (not shown) and issues an update notification to the client computer 370 B used by user B, who is a contact of user A. This alternative embodiment assumes that user B has a PIM (also referred to as a personal digital assistant or PDA) that they would like to synchronize with the server database 340 . In such a case PIM Software 392 running on the client 370 B performs the synchronization operation based on the user A address update information provided by the server 330 . Following the synchronization operation, the PDA database 390 has the same information for user A as the server database 340 . Alternatively, the PDA 750 can be coupled directly to the Internet (indicated by the dashed line), in which case it operates substantially as a typical client computer 370 described in reference to FIG. 5 . However, one difference is that the PDA 750 maintains its own database 390 instead of relying solely on the server database 340 . While the present invention has been described with reference to a few specific embodiments, the description is illustrative of the invention and is not to be construed as limiting the invention. Various modifications may occur to those skilled in the art without departing from the true spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims. APPENDIX A Display Group Member List Submit group name. Match group name to GroupID in Group table. Join Affinity table to Customer table and CustomerPrefs table based on CustomerID. Show contact information from Customer and CustomerPrefs tables when the Affinity table contains a record matching the CustomerID to the specified GroupID. APPENDIX B Display Address Book Listing  If MemberFriend AND a Reciprocated Link then   If have Personal or Professional Permissions then    Show person's real email address.   else    Show person's PlanetAll address.   end if   If have Personal Permission and Biography Exists then    Show Biography.   end if  If (have Personal or Professional Permissions) AND universal resource locator (URL) exists then   Show URL.  end if  If (Person is visible in group and Group Perms > 0) AND you have Common Groups then   Show the groups you have in common.  end if  If Person is in one of more of your personal email lists then   Show the lists the person belongs to.  end if  If have Personal Permissions and Phone Type is one of personal phone types then   Show phone.  end if  If have Professional Permissions and phone type is one of professional phone types then   Show phone.  end if  If have Personal Permissions and address Type is one of personal address types then   Show address.   if address is in USA then    Show map link.   end if  end if  If have Professional Permissions and address type is one of professional address types then   Show address.   if address is in USA then    Show map link.   end if  end if  If have Professional Permissions and Professional Info Exists then   Show the professional info the person has entered.  end if  If have Occasions Permissions and Birthday exists then   Show the contact's birthday.  end if  If have Occasions Permissions and Anniversary exists then   Show the contact's Anniversary.  end if  If contact has entered spouse's name then   Show spouse's name.  end if  If contact has entered self description then   Show self description.  end if else if MemberFriend AND a Non-Reciprocated Link then  Show message person has not linked back and give link so person can  email the unlinked person to tell them they have linked to them. (after  com/ASP rewrite will not show email so spammers can't make lists). end if APPENDIX C Birthday Notification Birthdays are determined by the DayOfYear field in the customers table. Create a list of all my contacts: Go to the Friend table and select all Customers where FriendID=my CustomerID. For each of my contacts, check to see if the DayOfYear is within seven days of the current DayOfYear. Select the DayOfYear from the Customers table for all of the customers in my list of contacts. If the DayOfYear is within seven days of the current DayOfYear, then select the name of the customer. Display the names of all my contacts who have birthdays in the next seven days. APPENDIX D Address Change Notification To determine which of a member's contacts' addresses have changed: Create a list of all my contacts: Go to the Friend table and select all Customers where FriendID=my CustomerID. Find out which of these contacts have changed their addresses: Link the Customers table and find records for my contacts where AddressID is greater than the lowest Address ID having a date greater than the date on which my last email update was sent. Find out which of these contacts have given me permission to see the address information that has changed: Make sure that the appropriate permission appears in the record in the friend table linking me to the contact. Display information for these contacts. APPENDIX E Show New Group Members Create a list of all my groups: Go to the affinity table and select all the records for my CustomerID Select the GroupID for each of the records. Do not include other customers' private groups to which I have been added For each of my affinity records, check to see that Group Perms are >0. Create a list of all my contacts: Go to the Friend table and select all Customers where FriendID=my CustomerID. Create a list of people who joined my groups: Go to the affinity table and select all the affinity records for my groups. Select only affinity records for customers who joined the group after I joined. Select affinity records where the date of the record is after the date for my affinity record in the same group. Select only affinity records for people who joined the groups after my last email was sent. Select affinity records where the date of the record is after my Sent date in the Email table. Do not include people that are in my list of contacts: Select only affinity records where the CustomerID is not included in the list of all my contacts. Select the CustomerID from each affinity record in the list of people who joined my groups. Go to the Customers table to find the name of each customer who joined my groups. APPENDIX F People Who Have Linked To You Linking the Friends table and the Customers table based on the CustomerID field, select the following information from the two tables: CustomerID from the Friends table. First Name from the Customers table. Last Name from the Customers table. Record Date from the Friends table. Permission level from the Friends table. Where my CustomerID is not among the CustomerIDs found in the following search: CustomerID in the Friends Table is my CustomerID AND the Record Date from the Friends table is within the last 30 days AND I haven't already linked to the person APPENDIX G Search for Friends of Friends in a Particular City Specify City. Match to CityID in City table. Create a list of all my contacts Go to the Friend table and select all Customers where FriendID=my CustomerID Make a temporary table linking the Friends table to itself called Friend 1 and establish the following relationships: CustomerIDs for the contacts of my contacts appear in the Customer field of the Friends table CustomerIDs for my contacts appear in the Friend field of the Friends table CustomerIDs for my contacts also appear in the Customer field of the Friends — 1 table (this is how the tables are joined) My Customer ID appears in the Friend field of the Friend — 1 table The Friend and Friend — 1 tables are joined on t Show information for the contacts of my contacts (i.e. the Customers from the Friends table) where the following conditions are true: The Friends of Friends permission was granted from the contacts of my contacts to my contacts. The Friends of Friends permission was granted from my contacts to me. The contact does not already appear in the list of all my contact created above. The city for the contact of my contact matches the specified city. APPENDIX H Change Permissions Join the Customer table to the Friend table based on CustomerID. Create a list of all my contacts: Go to the Friend table and select all Customers where FriendID=my CustomerID. Show First Name and Last Name for my contacts from the Customer table. Allow me to pick a name from this list as the contact whose permissions I would like to change. Display the permission level that I have given this contact. It is stored as the PermissionType field in the Friend table. Allow access to the PermissionType for this record in the Friend table. APPENDIX I Crossing Paths Notification Create a list of all my contacts: Go to the Friend table and select all Customers where FriendID=my CustomerID. Create a list of all my contacts' travel events: Go to the Queue Travel Event table and select all QueueIds where the CustomerID is in my list of contacts. Do not include trips for people who linked to me but did not give me crossing paths permission: Check the permissions field in the Friend table for each of my contacts to see if I have crossing paths permissions. Do not include trips if my contact specified that I should not be informed: For each of my contacts' trips, check the Travel Exception table to see if my CustomerID is included in the list of people who should not be informed of the trip. Create a list of my location for the next seven days: Select the arrival date, departure date, and city for all my trips in Queue Travel Event for the next seven days. For days when I am not traveling, select my city from the customers table. Select from the list of my friends' trips, all the trips to cities that are within 3000 latitude and 3000 longitude to my location for each of the next seven days. Go to the Customers table and find the names of all the people with whom I will be crossing paths. Select first name and last name from the customers table for all the CustomerIDs in the list of my contacts trips APPENDIX J Compatible Contacts Create a list of all my contacts: Go to the Friend table and select all Customers where FriendID=my CustomerID. Determine my Zodiac sign: Select my DayOfYear from the Customers table. Select the Zodiac sign from the Zodiac table where my DayOfYear is between the DayFrom and DayTo fields. Determine my compatible Zodiac sign for today: Go to the Horoscope table and select the Compatible field from the row for my Zodiac sign and today's date. Find my compatible contacts for today: Select the DayFrom and DayTo fields from the Zodiac table for my compatible zodiac sign. Select my contacts from the list of all my contacts whose DayOfYear is between the DayFrom and DayTo fields for my compatible sign.

A networked computing system provides various services for assisting users in locating, and establishing contact relationships with, other users. For example, in one embodiment, users can identify other users based on their affiliations with particular schools or other organizations. The system also provides a mechanism for a user to selectively establish contact relationships or connections with other users, and to grant permissions for sharing personal data with such users. The system may also automatically notify users of personal information updates made by their respective contacts.

BACKGROUND [0001] The present application is entitled to the benefit of, claims priority to, and is a Divisional of currently pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/976,139 filed on Dec. 22, 2010, the disclosure of which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. [0002] Hydraulic fracturing uses a large volume of water that is selected for its chemical properties. The demand for this type of well services has increased over the past decade, especially because of its successful application for difficult conditions. Horizontal wells are often standard, requiring as much as 4.2 million gallons of water per well in as many as 6 to 9 fracture stages. Because of environmental concerns and fresh water availability, salt water and the flowback and produced water are collected and used for subsequent fracture treatments. [0003] Scale formation due to seawater injection into an oilfield reservoir often causes significant impairment to production. In some cases, sulfate reduction plants are used for example using membrane technologies/reverse osmosis, which can be economically expensive. For cases where seawater is used as a base liquid during stimulation operations, installing a sulfate removal plant can be uneconomical. [0004] Various different methods can be applied to reduce water salinity and to prevent bacteria growth and reduce operational expenses related to corrosion prevention, remediation of corrosion effects, and remediation of emulsion-like produced fluids. Historically, removing sulfate is performed by using a membrane (or other filtration techniques) to filter out the sulfate molecules whereby the feed seawater are partially desalinated. Also, previous methods remove the sulfate ions through filtering technologies, rather than through precipitating out unwanted metal ions by reacting it with non metal ions. While some solutions are technically feasible, the economics and operational requirements are quite costly. A simple, cheap, and highly efficient technology to remove sulfate from a stream of saline liquid that is compatible with other fluid additives and that is easily transportable is needed. FIGURE [0005] FIG. 1 is schematic diagram of a system to reduce the salinity of water for use in the oil field services industry. SUMMARY [0006] Methods and apparatus of embodiments of the invention relate to treating water including contacting a liquid stream with a source comprising inorganic and/or divalent ions and separating the stream into an effluent and a fluid comprising less sulfate than the stream, wherein the effluent comprises more sulfate and more inorganic and/or divalent ions than the stream. Methods and apparatus relate to treating water including a reaction unit comprising an inlet for feed fluid and an inlet for inorganic and/or divalent ions and a separator unit comprising an inlet for output from the reaction unit, an outlet for effluent, and an outlet for fluid comprising less sulfate than the feed fluid. Some embodiments include introducing the fluid comprising less sulfate than the stream into a subterranean formation. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0007] At the outset, it should be noted that in the development of any such actual embodiment, numerous implementation-specific decisions must be made to achieve the developer's specific goals, such as compliance with system related and business related constraints, which will vary from one implementation to another. Moreover, it will be appreciated that such a development effort might be complex and time consuming but would nevertheless be a routine undertaking for those of ordinary skill in the art having the benefit of this disclosure. The description and examples are presented solely for the purpose of illustrating the preferred embodiments of the invention and should not be construed as a limitation to the scope and applicability of the invention. While the compositions of the present invention are described herein as comprising certain materials, it should be understood that the composition could optionally comprise two or more chemically different materials. In addition, the composition can also comprise some components other than the ones already cited. [0008] In the summary of the invention and this description, each numerical value should be read once as modified by the term “about” (unless already expressly so modified), and then read again as not so modified unless otherwise indicated in context. Also, in the summary of the invention and this detailed description, it should be understood that a concentration range listed or described as being useful, suitable, or the like, is intended that any and every concentration within the range, including the end points, is to be considered as having been stated. For example, “a range of from 1 to 10” is to be read as indicating each and every possible number along the continuum between about 1 and about 10. Thus, even if specific data points within the range, or even no data points within the range, are explicitly identified or refer to only a few specific, it is to be understood that inventors appreciate and understand that any and all data points within the range are to be considered to have been specified, and that inventors have disclosed and enabled the entire range and all points within the range. [0009] The removal of sulfate ions uses a simple and cheap technique including seeding the seawater rich in sulfate ion (or liquid rich in sulfate ions) with divalent ions to form barite crystal (or divalent ion based crystals) in a reaction vessel, then passing the output through a separation unit. Chemicals that can be used for seeding include barium chloride, calcium chloride, strontium chloride, magnesium chloride, radium chloride, beryllium chloride, barium fluoride, calcium fluoride, strontium fluoride, magnesium fluoride, radium fluoride, beryllium fluoride, barium bromide, calcium bromide, strontium bromide, magnesium bromide, radium bromide, beryllium bromide, barium iodide, calcium iodide, strontium iodide, magnesium iodide, radium iodide, beryllium iodide, and ferrous chloride. [0010] In some embodiments, throughout the whole system, an anti adhesion coating is applied so that the inorganic materials, or scales (e.g. barite or calcium sulfate, or other types of deposits crystals) formed will not stick onto the surfaces of the equipment and can be removed downstream at the separation unit. This technique is also applicable for the removal of all inorganic crystalline materials. This technology then allows the conversion of seawater or saline water into less saline fluid and is particularly useful where fresh water or access to fresh water is limited. This method is applicable in the oil industry market, water industry market, desalination market, and food industry market. [0011] The process is shown in FIG. 1 . The reactions are controlled through mixing apparatuses 101 (e.g. propellers, rods or any other mixing tools suitable) in reaction unit(s) 102 and residence time to allow optimal reactions to occur. Problems with the formed crystalline structures adhering to surfaces and impacting the separation process are mitigated by coating the inside of all the equipments with anti stick agents (e.g. chemicals, polymers, nano materials). [0012] A key parameter is to coat the entire, or part of the equipment with anti-adhesion or coating agents prior to use. The feed fluid 103 (feed 1 ), for example, seawater fluid containing sulfate ions, are fed into the reaction unit(s) (vessel) 102 through an inlet (or several inlets) 104 . Divalent ions (feed 2 ) 105 of equal or larger moles (or molar mass) than that of sulfate ions (present in feed fluid 103 ) are fed into the reaction unit(s) 102 from a different inlet 106 , and the two feed streams (feed 1 and feed 2 ) are mixed in the reaction unit(s) 102 . Feed 2 ( 105 ) can be either in liquid form or solid form, e.g. powder. When mixed in the reaction unit(s) 102 , the sulfate ion from feed 1 ( 103 ) will precipitate with the divalent ions introduced from feed 2 ( 105 ) to a liquid stream containing an inorganic precipitate and possessing a significant reduction in sulfate concentration. Liquid stream 107 contains crystalline barite or other inorganic materials. [0013] Reactions to form the inorganic precipitate following the mixing of feeds 1 and 2 in the reaction vessel usually occur instantaneously, or within a set residence time due to kinetics effect. The residence time of the mixed feed are designed as such that the maximum amount of sulfate from feed 1 have been removed from the liquid phase through precipitation of inorganic solids material. The liquid stream 107 from the reaction vessel 102 is then fed out into separator unit(s) 108 , to separate the liquids and crystalline solids formed into an output solid stream 111 and an output liquid stream 109 . A metering system, or in situ analyses, or time lapse analyses can then be carried out on the output liquid stream 109 to evaluate the concentration of sulfate present. Depending on the concentration of sulfate present, this output liquid stream 109 from the separator may be returned by line 110 into the vessel 102 should the concentration of sulfate molecules need to be reduced further. This will then allow any sulfate ions still present in the liquid stream 107 to be removed in the reaction vessel 102 through precipitation process following further mixing with Feed 2 ( 105 ). The final result would be an output liquid stream 109 with a significantly reduced sulfate ion concentration. [0014] The process may be controlled by tailoring agitation, residence time, temperature, and/or pressure of the system or components of the system. Some embodiments may benefit from compartments in the reaction vessel to facilitate surface area, agitation, and crystallization optimization. Types of reaction vessel or unit(s) that may be used by this process follow. [0015] Fiber reinforced pressure vessels [0016] Vacuum pressure vessels [0017] Mixing vessels [0018] Jacketed vessels (including thermal jacketed) [0019] Limpet coil in body flange [0020] Welded types [0021] Top open [0022] Top dish [0023] Ribbon blender and mixer [0024] Glass based vessels [0025] Cryogenic reaction vessels [0026] Teflon lined reaction vessel [0027] Polymer lined reaction vessels [0028] Stainless steel reaction vessel [0029] Alloy based reaction vessel [0030] Polymer lined vessel [0031] Internal spiral mixing system [0032] Rubber sealed glass [0033] Types of mixing apparatus 101 that may be used by this process follow. [0034] Propeller(s) [0035] Impeller(s) [0036] Anchor type agitator(s) [0037] Blade/turbine(s) [0038] Rotating rod(s) [0039] Magnetic mixer [0040] Pitch blade turbine [0041] Helical agitators [0042] Single and multiple motion mixing equipments [0043] Reaction control equipment that may be used by this process follow. [0044] Silicone [0045] Speed homogenizer [0046] Heating/or cooling equipments [0047] Electrical bar heating [0048] Steam heating [0049] Conduction [0050] Freon [0051] Conduction oil hydronic hearing [0052] Pressurization (controlled and non controlled) [0053] Computerized/manual control on both pressure and temperature [0054] Separation unit(s) may employ gravity settling, cyclone separation, mesh, filters, or other equipment. [0055] Inorganic scale typically adheres to metallic surfaces by adsorption through an ionic bond with the metal ions on the surface. The key to stop the formed inorganic scale to stick onto the surfaces of the vessel is then suggested via three main methods: 1. Use of anti-agglomerates 2. Use of a non metal surface for the reactor 3. Line the surface with an inert chemical/particle that does not allow bonding to occur [0059] The preferred anti-scaling deposition on a metal surface involves surface modification. Types of coating materials that are also effective include the following. [0060] Special surface finishing [0061] Glass [0062] Rubber [0063] Fiber glass [0064] Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), including etched, tubes, sheets, hose types PTFEs [0065] Perfluoroalkoxy [0066] Fluorinated ethylene propylene [0067] Magnesium coating [0068] Teflon [0069] Poeton [0070] Poly(dimethyl siloxane), including modified chains [0071] nanotubes coatings [0072] silicone resins [0073] plastics and modified plastics, including polycarbonate resin thermoplastics [0074] Alumina coatings [0075] This technology allows the conversion of seawater or saline water into less saline fluid. A particular benefit of this technology is the ability to produce fresh water (or low salinity water) from seawater (or saline water) economically and in large quantities when access to fresh water is limited or none existent. This technology then allows the conversion of seawater or saline water into less saline fluid and is particularly useful where fresh water or access to fresh water is limited. Embodiments of this invention are applicable in the oil industry market, water industry market, desalination market, food industry market. [0076] In the oil industry, examples include the following. 1. This application is particularly useful for the oil industry where injection of seawater in a hydrocarbon reservoir is required either for reservoir pressure maintenance, hydrocarbon sweep or other reasons. As the injected seawater mixes with formation water, particularly in areas of risks (e.g. near the producer wells, inside the producer wells, pipeline or subsea pipelines, wellhead template, topside equipment), scale (inorganic deposits) may form and cause blockage. The use of this technology will ensure that no inorganic deposits will form as a building block required to form inorganic deposits (e.g. sulfate ions) have been removed prior to seawater injection. 2. This application is particularly useful for the oil industry where seawater is used as a base fluid for stimulation operations, for example in hydraulic fracturing fluids, or acidization, or scale squeeze treatment. In essence, any well treatment that usually uses seawater as a base fluid will benefit from this technology. For example, if the treatments are carried out without removing the sulfate ions from the base fluid, there is a real risk that upon injection of the seawater into the formation and mixes with the formation water, scale (inorganic deposits) will form and cause formation damage. This technology removes the risk through removal of the sulfate ions prior to injection. 3. This application is particularly useful for the oil industry where low salinity water is used for Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR). For example, selective ions can be removed from the fluid in the inlet stream (feed 1 ) through mixing with suitable divalent or monovalent ions introduced in feed 2 to form precipitate(s). The outcome would be a fluid stream with only selected ions present in the liquid phase, sufficient for use for EOR processes where a low salinity fluid is required. [0080] For the desalination, food or water industry market, the technology can be used to remove selected ion molecules from the inlet stream (seawater, or other saline water source) until a low salinity fluid akin to fresh water or such is produced at the outlet stream. The technology allows full control of the quality of water that is produced in the outlet stream. The “reduced salinity water” from the outlet stream can then be used for example as a source of potable water, cleaning water, washing up water or for water feed for plants (agriculture), animals (farming) and in the food and beverages industry. [0081] Some of the advantages of this process are briefly listed here. 1. The sulfate molecules are removed through the formation of a stable and solid crystalline structure. 2. The equipment is coated with anti sticking agents (polymer, nano particles or any other materials that can reduce or eliminate scale from adhering onto surfaces) 3. The inlet streams mixing in the reaction vessel may be fully controlled 4. The reaction rates occurring in the reaction vessel can be controlled 5. The process of ion removal can be carried out as a batch or continuous reaction process. 6. The final lower concentration of sulfur containing materials makes the proliferation of bacteria that require sulfur less likely. That is, embodiments of this invention remove the food supply of the bacteria and thus reduce the need for biocide. Other Fluid Additives [0088] The carrier fluid, such as water, brines, or produced water, may contain other additives to tailor properties of the fluid. Rheological property modifiers such as friction reducers, viscosifiers, emulsions, stabilizers, solid particles such as proppant or fibers, or gases such as nitrogen may be included in the fluid. The fluid may include viscosity modifying agents such as guar gum, hydroxyproplyguar, hydroxyelthylcellulose, xanthan, or carboxymethylhydroxypropylguar, diutan, chitosan, or other polymers or additives used to modify viscosity for use in the oil field services industry . Water based fluids may include crosslinkers such as borate or organometallic crosslinkers. In some embodiments, the fluid may contain viscosity modifying agents that comprise viscoelastic surfactant. Viscoelastic surfactants include cationic, anionic, nonionic, mixed, zwitterionic and amphoteric surfactants, especially betaine zwitterionic viscoelastic surfactant fluid systems or amidoamine oxide viscoelastic surfactant fluid systems. Applications [0089] The fluid may be used as a fracturing fluid, drilling fluid, completions fluid, coiled tubing fluid, sand control fluids, cementing operations fluid, fracturing pit fluid, or onshore or offshore water injector fluid, or any other fluid that is introduced into a subterranean formation primarily for the recovery of hydrocarbons. The fluid is introduced to the subterranean formation by drilling equipment, fracturing equipment, coiled tubing equipment, cementing equipment, or onshore or offshore water injectors. During, before, or after the fluid is added to a subterranean formation, the formation may benefit from fracturing, drilling, controlling sand, cementing, or injecting a well. [0090] An oil field services application of these methods may include delivery of the fluid to the following mechanical equipment. The fluid may be delivered to the low pressure side of the operation, that is, into any low pressure hose, connection, manifold, or equipment; before or during treatment. Examples of the location for addition include into pond, pit, or other water containment source; into inlet hose/manifold of water tanks (upstream of water tanks); frac tanks—all together or separate; into water tanks (frac tanks) themselves; into hose/manifold of outlet side of water tanks; into batch mixing unit; into hose/manifold in between batch mixing unit and blender; into blender itself; into exit side of blender (upstream of fracturing pumps); hose/manifold; directly into low pressure side of pump manifold (missile). The fluid may be delivered to the high pressure side of an operation including into any high pressure iron, anywhere. Pumps that may be used, either solo or combined, include positive displacement pumps, centrifugal pumps, and additive pumps. The fluid may be added to the water stream in any way. (i.e. pour from a bucket, pump it into the water, etc.). [0091] The particular embodiments disclosed above are illustrative only, as the invention may be modified and practiced in different but equivalent manners apparent to those skilled in the art having the benefit of the teachings herein. Furthermore, no limitations are intended to the details herein shown, other than as described in the claims below. It is therefore evident that the particular embodiments disclosed above may be altered or modified and all such variations are considered within the scope and spirit of the invention. Accordingly, the protection sought herein is as set forth in the claims below.

Methods and apparatus of embodiments of the invention relate to treating water including contacting a liquid stream with a source comprising inorganic and/or divalent ions and separating the stream into an effluent and a fluid comprising less sulfate than the stream, wherein the effluent comprises more sulfate and more inorganic and/or divalent ions than the stream. Methods and apparatus relate to treating water including a reaction unit comprising an inlet for feed fluid and an inlet for inorganic and/or divalent ions and a separator unit comprising an inlet for output from the reaction unit, an outlet for effluent, and an outlet for fluid comprising less sulfate than the feed fluid. Some embodiments include introducing the fluid comprising less sulfate than the stream into a subterranean formation.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] This is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/791,622 filed Jul. 6, 2015, which is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/551,878 filed Jul. 18, 2012, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,101,687, which is a continuation-in-part application of U.S. application Ser. No. 12/729,046 filed Mar. 22 2010, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,586,539, which is a continuation-in-part application of U.S. application Ser. No. 10/521,628 filed Sep. 8, 2005, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,700,721 (all herein incorporated by reference), which is the U.S. National Stage of International Application No. PCT/GB2003/003016, filed Jul. 15, 2003 (published in English under PCT Article 21(2)), which in turn claims the benefit of Great Britain patent application no. 0216286.5 filed Jul. 15, 2002. FIELD [0002] This disclosure relates to novel supramolecular aggregates, polymers and networks made by beta-sheet self-assembly of rationally-designed complementary peptides, and their uses as for example as responsive industrial fluids (oil exploration), as personal care products, as tissue reconstruction devices (e.g., dental reconstructive devices), or as controlled drug delivery systems. BACKGROUND [0003] International Patent Application No WO 96/31528 (Boden et al.) describes novel rationally designed peptides which self-assemble in one dimension to form beta sheet tape-like polymers. The tapes above a critical peptide concentration (typically above 0.3% v/v peptide) become physically entangled and gel their solutions in organic solvents or in water. The monomeric or single peptide gels possess the specific property of being programmable to switch from the gel state to a fluid or stiffer gel state in response to external chemical or physical triggers. The self-assembly of peptides into beta tape aggregates follows a hierarchical system, as the concentration of peptide increases they will begin to form beta tapes, as the concentration of peptide increases further two beta tapes will interact with each other to form a ribbon, as the concentration of peptide increases yet further ribbons will interact with each other to form fibrils and finally if the concentration increases high enough fibrils can interact to form fibres. [0004] It has recently been found that the tapes having chemically distinct opposing surfaces can give rise to an hierarchy of other self-assembled, supramolecular structures as a function of increasing peptide concentration: ribbons (two stacked tapes), fibrils (many ribbons stacked together) and fibres (entwined fibrils). All these beta-sheet polymers appear twisted because of the peptide chirality. A theoretical model has been developed which rationalises this self-assembly process of beta-sheet forming peptides using a set of energetic parameters ε j . The magnitudes of ε j define the peptide concentration ranges over which each type of polymer will be stable. [0005] Complementary peptide gels are a special case of peptide gels. The main differences between single peptide gels and complementary peptide gels are that in single peptide gels, gelation can be triggered by specific environmental conditions typically specific pH and/or salinity. This property can create a problem in the case of usage of peptide gels in medical applications, i.e. the peptide fluid solution eg in pure water, hits the physiological solution and immediately transforms into a gel, which can act like a gel plug, preventing further diffusion of the peptide solution to fill a large cavity or to form an interpenetrated network inside another porous matrix for example a decellularised tissue matrix. In the case of the complementary peptide gels, it is possible to overcome this problem by administering first peptide A which is in a low viscosity fluid monomeric state, this is then followed by administering the complementary peptide B which is also in a low viscosity fluid monomeric state. In this case, the formation of the peptide gel network only takes place by the coexistence of A and B in the same volume and their interaction and self-assembly ( FIG. 1 ), rather by the presence of any other chemical or physical conditions of the solution, i.e. pH, salinity or specific counterions e.g., Ca+2. This makes complementary peptide gelation in situ a much more reliable event and much more likely to happen in the whole space that is available rather than only at the entrance point of a cavity or only on the surface of a porous material. [0006] A further difference between single peptide and complementary peptide self-assembly is that the latter typically relies on complementary intermolecular electrostatic interactions. This causes very high affinity between adjacent self-assembling peptides, much higher than it would normally by achieved by single peptide self-assembly. Since the affinity between complementary peptides is expected to be higher than for single peptides, then the critical concentration (c*tape) for tape self-assembly will be expected to be much lower for complementary peptides than for single peptide tapes. The magnitude of c*tape ( FIG. 2 ) relates to how fast or how slow a peptide gel will dissolve out of the injection site in situ. Peptide gels that are required to have as long a lifetime as possible in vivo, must have as low c*tape value as possible. Therefore complementary peptides provide a way to form an injectable gel in situ that will be expected to be much more long lived and therefore acting for much longer in vivo, than their corresponding single peptide gels. [0007] A yet further difference between single peptide tapes and complementary peptide tapes is that the complementary ones provide a lot more surface versatility than single peptide gels because they consist of alternating peptides A and B ( FIG. 3 ). Therefore they provide new opportunities to control distances between functional groups and to introduce new surface functionalities, thus extending the possible bioactive properties of this class of peptide gels. SUMMARY [0008] We have shown that by appropriate peptide design we can produce polymers comprising tapes, ribbons, fibrils or fibres by simply mixing a pair of complementary peptides irrespective of controllable environmental conditions or changes such as the pH, the ionic strength of the solution or temperature. In particular, complementary peptides can be designed which, when combined, self-assemble to form one or other of these polymers. [0009] We have recently discovered that this hierarchy of polymers can be formed by mixing complementary peptides together (alternating co-polymers). For example, we have shown that complementary peptide P 11 -13 and P 11 -14 (Table 1A and 1B) when contacted together immediately undergo gelation, in all cases of the complementary peptides of the present invention apart from P 11 -26/27, gelation took place instantly upon mixing of the separate fluid monomeric peptide solutions at all concentration equal to or higher than c*gel. The formed gel remained stable over time confirming apparent equilibrium behaviour, the complementary peptides of the present invention provide significant advantages over the prior art monomeric peptides having an overall net charge of +/−2 as there is no requirement for controlling environmental conditions such as pH, salinity or presence of specific counterions such as Ca ++ . [0010] According to the present invention there is provided alternate co-polymer beta-sheet polymeric tapes, ribbons, fibrils and fibres made by the self-assembly of more than one complementary peptides. The complementarity of the peptide originating from their charges e.g., net positive charge on one peptide and net negative charge on the other peptide to provide an overall net charge of +/−2 per pair of complementary peptides and under standard physiological conditions of pH and salt. [0011] Reference herein to complementary peptides indicates that the overall net charge of a combination of separate solutions of peptides is either +/−2, it has been found that the overall net charge of, for example the negative −2 (P 11 -13/14) or positive +2 (P 11 -28/29), makes little difference in the gelation, morphology and self-assembly behaviours of the complementary peptides. However, completely polar complementary peptides don't form gels in physiological solutions, rather they tend to phase separate from solution, possibly either due to many defects forming during the self assembly process or due to very strong hydrogen bond interactions between then multiple —CONH 2 groups on the surfaces of these tapes. [0012] Thus, provided herein is a material comprising ribbons, fibrils or fibres characterised in that each of the ribbons, fibrils or fibres have an antiparallel arrangement of peptides in a β-sheet tape-like substructure. [0013] When the material substantially comprises fibrils, the fibrils may be comprised in a network of fibrils interconnected at fibre-like junctions. [0014] Also provided is a material wherein the material comprises self assembling complementary peptides (SACPs) wherein the SACPs form a tape in an aqueous medium and is made up of 3 or more polar/neutral amino acids and a plurality of charged amino acids but wherein the overall net charge is +/−2 per pair of complementary peptides. [0015] The polar/neutral amino acids, which may be the same or different, can be selected from the group including glutamine, serine, asparagine, ornithine, threonine, tyrosine, glutamic acid, phenylalanine and tryptophan. [0016] We further provide a material wherein the complementary peptides are overall +2 positively charged per pair of peptides and form a gel when the first of the complementary monomeric peptides contacts its complementary second monomeric peptide (P 11 -28/29). Alternatively, we provide a material wherein the complementary peptides are overall −2 negatively charged per pair of peptides (P 11 -13/14; P 11 -30/31; P 11 -26/27) and form a gel when the first and second complementary peptides of the pair make contact with one another. [0017] We further provide a material wherein the amino acid chain is extended to include a bioactive peptide sequence, or wherein the amino acid chain is attached to a therapeutically active molecule. [0018] The material may comprise SACPs which forms ribbons and/or fibrils in an aqueous solution and wherein the SACPS has a primary structure in which at least 50% of the amino acids comprise an alternating structure of polar and apolar amino acids. [0019] The polar amino acids include from 4 to 6 charged amino acids per 11 amino acids. Preferably, the SACPs are selected from the group comprising: P 11 -13/14 (SEQ ID NOs: 2 and 3); P 11 -26/27 (SEQ ID NOs: 4 and 5); P 11 -28/29 (SEQ ID NOs: 6 and 7) and P 11 -30/31 (SEQ ID NOs: 8 and 9). [0020] Exemplary complementary peptides of the present disclosure are recited in Tables 1A- and 1B. [0000] TABLE 1A  Primary structures of rationally designed complementary peptides. Peptide SEQ Name Primary Structure* ID NO: P 11 -4 CH 3 CO-Q-Q-R-F-E-W-E-F-E-Q-Q-NH 2 1 P 11 -13 CH 3 CO-E-Q-E-F-E-W-E-F-E-Q-E-NH 2 2 P 11 -14 CH 3 CO-Q-Q-O-F-O-W-O-F-O-Q-Q-NH 2 3 P 11 -26 CH 3 CO-Q-Q-O-Q-O-Q-O-Q-O-Q-Q-NH 2 4 P 11 -27 CH 3 CO-E-Q-E-Q-E-Q-E-Q-E-Q-E-HN 2 5 P 11 -28 CH 3 CO-O-Q-O-F-O-W-O-F-O-Q-O-NH 2 6 P 11 -29 CH 3 CO-Q-Q-E-F-E-W-E-F-E-Q-Q-NH 2 7 P 11 -30 CH 3 CO-E-S-E-F-E-W-E-F-E-S-E-NH 2 8 P 11 -31 CH 3 CO-S-S-O-F-O-W-O-F-O-S-S-NH 2 9 *The N- and C- termini of the peptides are always blocked with CH 3 CO- and NH 2 - respectively. O symbolizes ornithine amino acid side chains. [0000] TABLE 1B Self assembling complementary peptides. Peptide One letter amino acid code Charge Affect being studied Structure P 11 -13 AcEQEFEWEFEQENH 2 −6 N/A P 11 -14 AcQQOFOWOFOQQNH 2 +4 N/A P 11 -26 AcQQOQOQOQOQQNH 2 +4 Polarity P 11 -27 AcEQEQEQEQEQENH 2 −6 Polarity P 11 -28 AcOQOFOWOFOQONH 2 +6 Charge P 11 -29 AcQQEFEWEFEQQNH 2 −4 Charge P 11 -30 AcESEFEWEFESENH 2 −6 Serine P 11 -31 AcSSOFOWOFOSSNH 2 +4 Serine [0021] The peptides provided herein are preferably 11 residues in length. [0022] Preferably, in each complementary pair the amino acids at positions 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 are the same. For example, the complementary pair P 11 -13/14 each have glutamine, phenylalanine, tryptophan phenylalanine and glutamine at positions 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 respectively as has the complementary pair P 11 -28/29. The complementary peptides of P 11 -26/27 have glutamine at all five positions and P 11 -30/31 has serine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, phenylalanine and serine at positions 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 respectively. [0023] Preferably the amino acid at position 2 is either glutamine or serine, at position 4 it is either phenylalanine or glutamine, at position 6 it is either tryptophan or glutamine, at position 8 it is either phenylalanine or glutamine and at position 10 it is either serine or glutamine. [0024] Preferably, the amino acid residues at positions 10 and 11 of one of the complementary monomeric peptides are the same and are selected from the group comprising serine (SS) or glutamine (QQ)Peptides P 11 -14/26/29 each have glutamine at positions 10 and 11 whereas P 11 -31 has serine at the terminal two positions. [0025] Preferably, the amino acid residue at position 4 is either phenylalanine or glutamine. [0026] Preferably, the amino acid residues at positions 4 and 5 are selected from the pairs of the group comprising phenylalanine and glutamic acid, phenylalanine and ornithine, glutamine and glutamic acid and glutamine and ornithine. [0027] Preferably, the terminal hydrogen bond group is either —CONH 2 or OH. The presence of —CONH 2 hydrogen bonding moieties (P 11 -13/14 and P 11 -28/29) on the surface of the tapes appear to be more efficient than —OH hydrogen bond moieties (P 11 -30/31) in creating gels with lower c*gel with much more well defined tape self-assembly and lower c*tape therefore providing a potentially longer lifetime in vivo. [0028] The material may be suitable for use in, inter alia, tissue engineering, cell culture medium, and/or dental treatment. The complementary peptides of the present invention are considered as ideal candidates for regenerative medicine as self assembly does not occur until both monomers are mixed together which makes application within the body more achievable and overcomes the problem of gel plug formation. [0029] We also provide a material wherein the material comprises self assembling complementary peptides (SACPs) wherein the SACPS forms a tape in an aqueous medium and wherein each complementary peptide is made up of 3 or more polar/neutral amino acids and a plurality of charged amino acids. [0030] In some examples, the SACPS are isolated. An “isolated” biological component (such as a protein) has been substantially separated or purified away from other biological components present in the cell of an organism, or the organism itself, in which the component may naturally occur, such as other chromosomal and extra-chromosomal DNA and RNA, proteins and cells. In addition, proteins that have been “isolated” include proteins purified by standard purification methods. The term also embraces proteins prepared by recombinant expression in a host cell as well as chemically synthesized proteins. For example, an isolated SACP is one that is substantially separated from other peptides. [0031] The polar/neutral amino acids, which may be the same or different, may be selected from the group including glutamine, serine, asparagine, ornithine, threonine, tyrosine, glutamic acid, tryptophan and phenylalanine. [0032] In one example, the SACPs have a polar amino acid selected from the group consisting of serine, threonine, tyrosine, asparagine, and glutamine. [0033] The apolar amino acids, which may be the same or different, are selected from the group including phenylalanine, leucine, isoleucine, valine and tryptophan. [0034] We further provide a material wherein the amino acid chain is extended to include a bioactive peptide sequence, or wherein the amino acid chain is attached to a therapeutically active molecule. [0035] We also provide a material wherein the SACPs are soluble and may comprise a ratio of net charged amino acids to total amino acids of from 6:11 to 4:11. [0036] The material may be suitable for use in, inter alia, tissue engineering, cell culture medium, and/or dental treatment. [0037] We further provide a material wherein the complementary peptide tapes are made up of 3 or more polar amino acids of which some are charged amino acids wherein the ratio of charged amino acids to total amino acids is 4:11 or greater. [0038] Also provided is a composition that includes ribbons, fibrils or fibres and wherein the complementary peptides are present at a concentration of at least 1 mg/ml in the composition (for example 1 mg/ml to 100 mg/ml, 1 mg/ml to 60 mg/ml, 1 mg/ml to 50 mg/ml, 1 mg/ml to 35 mg/ml, 15 mg/ml to 15 mg/ml or 20 mg/ml to 35 mg/ml and any other intergers therebetween). Each of the ribbons, fibrils or fibres has an antiparallel arrangement of peptides in a β-sheet tape-like substructure, wherein each pair of complementary peptides comprises a net −2 or a +2 charge, and wherein the peptide is selected from the group comprising P 11 -13/14 (SEQ ID NOs: 2 and 3); P 11 -26/27 (SEQ ID NOs: 4 and 5); P 11 -28/29 (SEQ ID NOs: 6 and 7) and P 11 -30/31 (SEQ ID NOs: 8 and 9), as set forth in Table 1A. [0039] The foregoing and other features of the disclosure will become more apparent from the following description of the figures. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES [0040] FIG. 1 illustrates the mixing of monomeric complementary peptides that are originally in separate, low viscosity solutions, triggers peptide self-assembly and instant gelation. [0041] FIG. 2 shows a typical self-assembly curve, indicating the onset point for self-assembly. [0042] FIG. 3 represents a complementary peptide tape. [0043] FIG. 4 shows the Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FITR) analysis for the complementary peptides P 11 -13/14 in isolation and in combination. [0044] FIGS. 5A and 5B show TEM images of the complementary peptides P 11 -13/14. [0045] FIG. 5A shows 15 mg/ml times dilution magnification of FIG. 5B 15 mg/ml at 15 times dilution magnification of 52,000 times. [0046] FIGS. 6A-6C show TEM images of the complementary peptides P 11 -30/31. FIG. 6A shows 20 mg/ml diluted 15 times, magnification 52,000 times, FIG. 6B 20 mg/ml diluted 15 times magnification of 52,000 times and FIG. 6C 20 mg/ml diluted 15 times, magnification of 39,000 times. [0047] FIGS. 7A-7C show SEM images of the complementary peptides P 11 -13/14 30 mg/ml at magnification of (A) 5,000, (B) 10,000 and (C) 35,000 times. [0048] FIGS. 8A-D show SEM images of the complementary peptides P 11 -30/31 15 mg/ml at magnification of (A) 70,000, (B) 20,000, (C) 10,000 times and (D) 5,000 times. [0049] FIG. 9 shows the Elastic modulus, Viscous modulus and Phase Angle versus Shear strain for P11-30/31 in physiological solution and temperature. [0050] FIGS. 10A-10B show luminescent count toxicity studies in BHK and 3T3 cells for isolated complementary peptides (A) and combined complementary peptides (B). SEQUENCE LISTING [0051] The protein sequences listed in the accompanying sequence listing are shown using standard letter abbreviations for proteins. SEQ ID NO: 1 is the amino acid sequence for P 11 -4. SEQ ID NO: 2 is the amino acid sequence for P 11 -13. SEQ ID NO: 3 is the amino acid sequence for P 11 -14. SEQ ID NO: 4 is the amino acid sequence for P 11 -26. SEQ ID NO: 5 is the amino acid sequence for P 11 -27. SEQ ID NO: 6 is the amino acid sequence for P 11 -28. SEQ ID NO: 7 is the amino acid sequence for P 11 -29. SEQ ID NO: 8 is the amino acid sequence for P 11 -30. SEQ ID NO: 9 is the amino acid sequence for P 11 -31. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0061] The singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” refer to one or more than one, unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. For example, the term “comprising a peptide” includes single or plural peptide and is considered equivalent to the phrase “comprising at least one peptide.” The term “or” refers to a single element of stated alternative elements or a combination of two or more elements, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. As used herein, “comprises” means “includes.” Thus, “comprising A or B,” means “including A, B, or A and B,” without excluding additional elements. [0062] Unless explained otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood to one of ordinary skill in the art to which this disclosure belongs. Although methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of the present disclosure, suitable methods and materials are described below. The materials, methods, and examples are illustrative only and not intended to be limiting. [0063] We have also shown that above a certain peptide concentration c I/N (isotropic to nematic transition concentration) the semi-rigid ribbons, fibrils and fibres can align and thus transform their initially isotropic solution into a nematic liquid crystalline solution. The transition of the solution to the nematic liquid crystalline state happens at lower concentrations for more rigid polymers. [0064] We have also shown that as the peptide concentration increases even further there is a second transition from a fluid nematic liquid crystalline solution to a self-supporting nematic gel, which is formed by the entwining of the fibrils [0065] We have discovered that the alignment of these polymers (tapes, ribbons, fibrils and fibres) can be improved significantly by shearing or application of external magnetic field to the peptide solution. Subsequent gelation locks the aligned polymers into place and preserves their alignment for a long time (typically weeks) even after the polymer solution is removed from the magnetic field or after the end of shearing. Shearing or external magnetic field (superconducting magnet with a field strength of 7 T) have been found indeed to improve the alignment of fibrils in aqueous solutions, as shown by monitoring the birefringence of the solution using cross polars. The improved polymer alignment in solution has been preserved for several weeks after the end of shearing or of the application of the magnetic field. [0066] Provided is a method of producing nematic liquid crystalline solutions and gels of alternating copeptide beta-sheet tapes, ribbons, fibrils or fibres with improved polymer alignment and thus improved optical properties (i.e., increased liquid crystallinity and birefringence), by shearing the peptide solutions or by subjecting them to other external forces such as electric and magnetic fields. [0067] These peptide liquid crystalline solutions and gels can be formed in organic solvents or in water depending on the peptide design. The design of the complementary peptide primary structure is necessary to achieve compatibility between the surface properties of the peptide polymers and the solvent. For example, self-assembling beta-sheet forming peptides with predominantly hydrophobic amino acid side-chains are required to form nematic solutions and gels in moderately polar solvents, whilst peptides which form tapes with at least one polar side are required to obtain nematic solutions and gels in water. [0068] The fibrils and fibres are alignable and can therefore form nematic gels. Therefore, the fibrils and fibres can be spun to make, for example, high tensile strength fibres, cf. Kevlar®. Also, they can be used to make highly ordered scaffolds for tissue engineering or templates for the growth of inorganic matrices, or as matrices for the alignment of biomolecules, e.g., in NMR spectroscopy. [0069] Until recently, formation of these polymers has been limited to relatively simple solutions (e.g., pure solvents or low ionic strength solutions). We have now discovered that it is possible to rationally design pairs of complementary peptides which will form soluble polymers (e.g., tape, ribbons, fibrils and fibres) once they have been mixed together or allowed to contact one another. [0070] The stages of complementary peptide design for formation of soluble beta-sheet polymers and gel scaffolds are: 1) for production of single tapes, design the peptide following the criteria in the International Patent Application No. PCT/GB96/00743. To produce stable single tapes in cell media, both sides of tapes should be covered by predominantly polar groups. 2) for production of ribbons, fibrils and fibres, one sides of the tape should be different from the other, e.g. one predominantly polar and the other predominantly apolar. The polar sides should also be able to weakly interact with each other e.g. through hydrogen-bonding sites provided for example by glutamine or asparagines side chains. 3) To ensure all these polymers are soluble, some repulsion between polymers must be created. This can be electrostatic repulsion between like charges on the polymers. Alternatively, it can be steric repulsions created by flexible solvophilic chains decorating the peptide polymers such as polyethylene glycol chains when water is the preferred solvent. These PEG segments can be attached on amino acid side-chains or on the peptide termini. [0074] By way of illustration, we include the following example: [0075] A large number (dozens) of systematically varied peptides (typically 7-30 residues long) have been studied for soluble polymer and gel formation. All of these peptides can self-assemble to form beta-sheet polymers in certain low-ionic strength media, but most were found to precipitate out of solution in cell media. Only complementary peptides with a approximate net +2 or −2 charge per peptide pair, were able to form soluble polymers in gel cell media (The amount of net charge necessary per peptide to keep its complementary polymers soluble will vary depending on the overall surface properties and solubility of the peptide tapes it forms). [0076] The fibrils entwine and form a three dimensional network and turn their solution into a homogeneous self-supporting gel at peptide concentration higher than 1 to 5 mg/ml. The gel remains stable for at least several weeks at room temperature. [0077] The gel can be broken by mechanical agitation. The time it takes to reform depends on the complementary peptide concentration, ranging from seconds for a 15 mg/ml peptide gel, to hours for a 1 mg/ml peptide gel. [0078] Thus, peptide fibrils and gels with a variety of chemical properties can be produced by complementary peptide design. For example, the type of charge (+ or −) of the polymer may be crucial for the polymer matrix-cell interactions. The nature of the neutral polar side-chains can also be varied to fine-tune and maximise the favourable polymer-cell interactions, and the polymer stability in vivo. [0079] The fibrils and gels can reform after sterilisation using an autoclave. Thus autoclaving is a viable method to sterilise these peptide gels. This is significant, since sterilisation is a prerequisite for the use of these materials with cells in vitro or in vivo. Other alternative sterilisation methods that can also be used are filtration of the initially monomeric peptide solutions or gamma irradiation. [0080] Although the peptide design procedure stated above can be used to design either tapes or higher order aggregates (i.e., ribbons, fibrils and fibres) the more robust fibrils and fibres are potentially more useful for production of complementary peptide scaffolds for tissue engineering. The reason is that the fibrils being much stronger structural units than e.g., tapes, can support cells in three dimensions without significant breakage for a long time. In addition, the highly packed nature of the fibrils, protects the peptides from enzymatic degradation, and can increase significantly the lifetime of the scaffold in vivo. [0081] The peptide gels are formed with a very low complementary peptide concentration (typically at or above 5 mg/ml), which corresponds to 0.003 volume fraction of peptide and 0.997 volume fraction of solvent in the gel, which means that the gels contain mainly solvent. Thus, encapsulated cells in these gels, have a lot of room available to grow, to communicate with each other and nutrients, oxygen, and various metabolites can diffuse almost freely in and out of the gel network. [0082] The opportunities that these new biomaterials provide for tissue engineering in vitro and in vivo are enormous. A large number of different cells can be encapsulated in these polymer scaffolds. [0083] Complementary peptides can be designed to have a self-assembling domain followed by at least one bioactive domain. Thus, polymeric gel scaffolds can be formed in cell media, decorated with specific bioactive sequences (e.g., RGD sequence) which will control the interactions of the scaffold with a particular type of cell, and also influence the growth differentiation state and function of the encapsulated cells. [0084] The complementary peptide polymers (especially so the more rigid fibrils and fibres) can be preferentially aligned by shearing or application of magnetic field. Thus, anisotropic polymer scaffolds can be obtained which when they are seeded with cells, they can be particularly important for the control of cell type, cell-cell interactions and shape of the growing tissue. [0085] The cells can be encapsulated in the polymer matrix in a variety of different ways. For example: 1) disruption of gel by mechanical agitation, mixing with the cells, and encapsulation of the cells as the gel matrix reforms around them. 2) Mix the cells with an initially fluid first monomeric peptide solution in cell media, followed by triggered gel formation on contact with its complementary peptide. Possibly the most effective way of encapsulating cells in the peptide scaffolds is using alternating copeptides. [0088] It is seen that the alternating copeptide systems offer a unique way of encapsulating cells in the peptide scaffolds without the need to change the pH, ionic strength and counter ion concentration of the cell solutions. This can be done by mixing the cells with one of the initial monomeric peptide solutions, and subsequently adding the complementary peptide solution. [0089] The heteropeptide polymers scaffolds also offer the advantage of combining different functionalities on the same polymers, and extending the chemical and periodic features of homopeptide polymers. For example one peptide component of the polymer may have a bioactive peptide bound to it, whilst its other complementary peptide compound may have a drug molecule bound on it. [0090] The ribbons, fibrils and/or fibres of the disclosure exhibit significant tensile strength, controlled, inter alia, by how many tapes make up the ribbons, fibrils or fibres, especially in the longitudinal direction of the fibril or fibre. Such strength has been estimated to be in the order of that of a conventional covalent bond. Furthermore, since the fibrils and/or fibres are biodegradable, because of their peptide content, they are especially advantageous in that they may be constructed into a biodegradable scaffold. Such scaffolds may comprise a weave, knit or plait of the fibrils or fibres of the disclosure. [0091] Scaffolds can also be constructed using a combination of the complementary peptide polymers and other commercial polymers (such as cotton and wool fibres), to obtain materials with a desirable combination of mechanical, chemical and biochemical properties, and low production cost. [0092] Alignment of the microscopic fibrils followed by subsequent lateral association of the fibrils can result in the formation of macroscopic oriented fibre mats. [0093] The peptide fibrils and/or fibres can be engineered to control the chemical and bioactive properties of synthetic polymer fibres. The methodology has the advantage of harnessing and combining existing expertise on manufacturing at low-cost well controlled fibrous structures with desirable mechanical properties, with the opportunity of designing their bioactivity, biocompatibility and other chemical properties. Such new materials can have exciting applications in biomedical fields such as in tissue engineering, wound healing and tissue adhesion. Products and Applications Industrial Applications [0094] Modification of the physical and chemical properties of a surface in a controlled way, e.g., wetting properties; for example, for anti-icing applications. [0095] Also for controlling the interaction of oil/water with clay surfaces, and the stabilising the clay itself, an important issue when, e.g., dealing with fractures in oil wells. The stability of the peptide polymers can be controlled by peptide design. Thus, by increasing the number of amino acid residues per peptide and also the number of favourable intermolecular interactions between amino acid side-chains, complementary peptide polymers with increased stability and strength can be obtained. In addition, ribbons, fibrils and fibres can be increasingly more stable polymers compared to single tapes. Thus, the right polymers can be produced by complementary peptide design to form gels stable in the high temperature of the oil wells. These gels can for example provide significant mechanical support at a specific site of the oil well. [0096] Receptor or receptor binding sites can be engineered by complementary peptide design into the ribbons, fibrils and/or fibres, providing materials for use as sensors or as biocatalysts, or as separation media in biotechnology applications. [0097] The peptide tapes, ribbons, fibrils and fibres can be used as templates for the production of nanostructured inorganic materials with chiral pores. The dimensions, pitch and chirality of the pores can be controlled by peptide design to control the properties of the polymer aggregate. The orientation of the pores can also be controlled by alignment of the polymers in nematic states. These nanostructured materials have important applications as chiral separation media. [0098] The fibres of the disclosure are advantageous because, inter alia, they possess similar properties to other known peptide fibres, for example, KEVLAR® which consists of long molecular chains produced from poly-paraphenylene terephthalamide. Thus the fibres of the disclosure exhibit the following features; high tensile strength at low weight, high modulus, high chemical resistance, high toughness, high cut resistance, low elongation to break, low thermal shrinkage, high dimensional stability, flame resistant and self extinguishing. [0099] Therefore, the fibres of the disclosure can be processed into various forms, for example, continuous filament yarns, staple, floc, cord and fabric. [0100] The processed fibres may possess the following characteristics: continuous filament yarn, high tensile strength, processable on conventional looms, twisters, cord forming, stranding and serving equipment; staple, very high cut resistance, spun on conventional cotton or worsted spinning equipment, precision cut short fibres, processable on felting and spun lace equipment; pulp-wet and dry, floc, precision cut short fibres, high surface area, miscible in blend composites, thermal resistance, excellent friction and wear resistance; cord, high tensile strength and modulus at low specific weight, retention of physical properties at high and low temperature extremes, very low heat shrinkage, very low creep, good fatigue resistance; fabric, excellent ballistic performance at low weights; and excellent resistance to cuts and protrusion combined with comfortable wear and excellent friction and wear performance against other materials. [0101] The peptide fibrils and fibres of the disclosure may have a variety of applications, for example, in adhesives and sealants, e.g. thixotropes; in ballistics and defence, e.g., anti-mine boots, gloves—cut resistance police and military, composite helmets, and vests—bullet and fragmentation; in belts and hoses, e.g. automotive heating/cooling systems, automotive and industrial hoses, and automotive and industrial synchronous and power transmission belts; in composites, e.g., aircraft structural body parts and cabin panels, boats, and sporting goods; in fibre optic and electro-mechanical cables, e.g., communication and data transmission cables, ignition wires, and submarine, aerostat and robotic tethers; in friction products and gaskets, e.g., asbestos replacement, automotive and industrial gaskets for high pressure and high temperature environments, brake pads, and clutch linings; in protective apparel, e.g. boots, chain saw chaps, cut resistant industrial gloves, helmets—fireman and consumer (bicycle), and thermal and cut protective aprons, sleeves, etc; in tires, e.g. aircraft, automobiles, off-road, race, and trucks; and in ropes and cables, e.g., antennae guy wires, fish line, industrial and marine utility ropes, lifting slings, mooring and emergency tow lines, netting and webbing, and pull tapes. Biomedical and Biomaterial Applications [0102] Biocompatible surfaces: Bioresponsive and biocompatible surfaces to promote or to prevent adhesion, spreading and growth of endothelial cells in medical implant materials. Biocompatible surface coatings for devices such as stents, valves and other structures introduced into biological systems. Biocompatible surface coatings for dental implants and intra-oral appliances e.g. dental prosthesis. [0103] Tissue Engineering: [0104] The peptide fibrils and/or fibres of the disclosure can be used in the construction of a biodegradable three-dimensional scaffold for use in attaching cells to produce various tissues in vivo and in vitro. [0105] Thus according to a further feature of the disclosure we provide a three-dimensional scaffold comprising fibres or fibrils of the disclosure in cell medium. As mentioned above such scaffolds of the peptide fibrils and/or fibres are advantageous in that they can be used to support cells in the growth and/or repair of tissue. The nature of such cells may vary depending upon the nature of the tissue of interest. For example, the cells may be ligamentum cells for growing new ligaments, tenocytes for growing new tendon. Alternatively, the cells may be chondrocytes and/or other stromal cells, such as chondrocyte or osteoblast or other progenitor cells. [0106] Therefore, according to a yet further feature of the disclosure we provide a three-dimensional scaffold comprising fibres or fibrils as hereinbefore described which scaffold is seeded with cells. [0107] The methods of the disclosure therefore result in the efficient production of new ligament, tendon, cartilage, bone, skin, etc in vivo. [0108] The cells may themselves be cultured in the matrix in vitro or in vivo. The cells may be introduced into the implant scaffold before, during or after implantation of the scaffold. The newly grown tissue can be used to hold the scaffold in place at the site of implantation and also may provide a source of cells for attachment to the scaffold in vivo. [0109] The ability of the polymers to break allowing the free ends to self assemble enables, for example, scaffolds to be formed in situ and also to respond (by breaking and reforming) to the growing tissue. Also monomeric peptides may be injected at the site of choice and then chemically triggered to create, for example, a gel in situ. [0110] Thus, according to a further feature of the disclosure we provide a method of tissue repair which comprises seeding a three-dimensional fibre matrix as hereinbefore described with appropriate cells. [0111] For a tendon or ligament to be constructed, successfully implanted, and function, the matrices must have sufficient surface area and exposure to nutrients such that cellular growth and differentiation can occur following implantation. The organisation of the tissue may be regulated by the microstructure of the matrix. Specific pore sizes and structures may be utilised to control the pattern and extent of fibrovascular tissue in growth from the host, as well as the organisation of the implanted cells. The surface geometry and chemistry of the scaffold matrix may be regulated to control the adhesion, organisation, and function of implanted cells or host cells. [0112] In an exemplary embodiment, the scaffold matrix is formed of peptides having a fibrous structure which has sufficient interstitial spacing to allow for free diffusion of nutrients and gases to cells attached to the matrix surface until vascularisation and engraftment of new tissue occurs. The interstitial spacing is typically in the range of 50 nm to 300 microns. As used herein, “fibrous” includes one or more fibres that is entwined with itself, multiple fibres in a woven or non-woven mesh, and sponge-like devices. [0113] Nerve Tissue Engineering: [0114] The fibrils and/or fibres can be used to provide paths/tracks, to control and guide the direction of growth or movement of molecules or cells. This may be useful for nerve tissue repair as well as for growth and formation of bone tissue (tissue engineering). [0115] Bone Tissue Engineering: [0116] Biomineralisation using the peptide ribbons, fibrils and/or fibres as a template for the nucleation and growth of inorganic materials is important in bone tissue engineering and dental applications etc. The self assembled peptide structures have been shown to be effective as templates for hydroxyapatite crystallisation, as shown in the later examples. [0117] Self-assembling complementary peptides may increase mineral gain via their ability to nucleate hydroxyapatite de novo and/or by decreasing mineral dissolution via stabilisation of mineral surfaces. They are therefore candidate materials for use in both caries treatment and prevention, in treatment for dentina sensitivity, in control of ectopic calcification and in treatment or prevention of bone defects and deterioration, such as that experienced in osteoporosis or in periodontitis. [0118] The use of peptides, e.g., self assembling complementary peptides (SACPs), as scaffolds in in situ tissue engineering of bone is novel per se. [0119] Thus according to a further aspect of the disclosure provided is a method of tissue engineering, e.g., tissue repair, such as of bone repair, which comprises the use of SACPs as a scaffold. [0120] Artificial Skin: [0121] Network structures formed from the peptide ribbons, fibrils or fibres can be used to generate artificial skin or to promote skin re-growth in vivo. [0122] Drug Delivery: [0123] pH and ion responsive ribbons, fibrils, fibres, gels or liquid crystals are potentially useful in drug encapsulation and release and by designing an appropriate network programmable release rates may be achieved. Personal Care Products [0124] Dental Applications: [0125] Peptide ribbons, fibrils and/or fibres are of use in the protection of teeth, as carriers for delivery of active substances to promote dental repair, as templates/scaffolds for the in situ nucleation of hydroxyapatite within tooth porosities (e.g., caries lesions, dentine), as agents for the treatment and/or prevention of caries (enamel/dentine and marginal caries around restorations), as agents for the treatment and prevention of tooth sensitivity and as carriers for the delivery of active substances into teeth. In addition, the peptide structures are of application in the treatment of dentinal/tooth staining, sensitivity and other symptoms experienced in gingival recession. The use of self assembled complementary peptide structures in caries treatment is demonstrated in the later examples. [0126] The prior art describes use of an amphiphilic peptide as a scaffold for ordered deposition of mineral imitating crystal orientation in bone collagen This amphiphilic peptide assembles to give a structure which forms fibrils which are stabilised by covalent modification. The assembly of this peptide differs from the self assembled peptides described here in that the assembly is driven by amphiphilic forces, rather than by very specific attractions between matched groups in the separate peptide chains. The amphiphilic peptide described is not suitable for treatment in vivo as the assembly must take place at low pH (pH<4) and the covalent modification takes place under conditions hostile to living tissues. The self assembled complementary peptide ribbons, fibrils and fibres described in this application differ in that they can be designed such that assembly is triggered merely by contacting each of the complementary peptides rather than by environmental conditions such as a pH with no subsequent reaction under hostile conditions is necessary. [0127] The prior art also describes use of casein phosphopeptides in dental application These species are not self assembling peptides as described in this application. As shown in the examples, the self assembled peptides described in this application show improved performance in mineralisation of caries like lesions of enamel under simulated oral conditions compared with the casein phosphopeptides. [0128] In particular, we provide a method as hereinbefore described wherein the method comprises the prevention, treatment and/or alleviation of dental caries. Thus the method may comprise the mineralisation or remineralisation of a dental cavity or the suppression of leakage around existing restorations. Alternatively, the method may comprise suppression of demineralisation. [0129] In particular, we provide a method as hereinbefore described wherein the method comprises the prevention, treatment and/or alleviation of tooth sensitivity. Thus the method may comprise the remineralisation of a dental cavity, white spot lesions or exposed dentine. Alternatively, the method may comprise suppression of demineralisation, thus preventing development of tooth sensitivity. [0130] Skin Treatments: [0131] The controlled formation of peptide ribbons, fibrils and/or fibres can be of benefit in skincare and dermatological applications for both cosmetic and medical benefit. Benefits may include skin protection, improvement in skin feel, improvement of skin strength, increased suppleness, delivery of active or beneficial substances, moisturization, improved appearance and anti-ageing effects. [0132] Hair care products: Peptide ribbons, fibrils and/or fibres can be of benefit in hair care to improve hair condition, strength, feel, suppleness, appearance and moisturisation. Peptides which form such structures in application can be beneficial ingredients in hair shampoos, conditioners, dyes, gels, mousses and other dressings. [0133] In another aspect of the disclosure responsive networks can be used to deliver perfumes, vitamins and/or other beneficial agents to the skin and/or hair. Example 1 Synthesis, Purification and Sterilisation of Peptides [0134] Complementary peptides were synthesized using standard 9-fluorenylmethoxycarbonyl (FMOC) chemistry protocols as described in Aggeli et al. ( J. Mat. Chem., 7:1135, 1997). Peptides were purified by reversed-phase HPLC using a water-acetonitrile gradient in the presence of 0.1% trifluoroacetic acid or ammonia as buffer A and 10% buffer A in acetonitrile as buffer B. Mass spectrometry showed the expected molecular weights. Peptides were sterilized in the dry state using γ-irradiation (2.5 MRad) with a Gammacell 1000 Elite irradiator. TEM and mass spectrometry were used to assess any damage to the peptide structure and fibril formation. [0135] Four pairs of systematically varied complementary peptides were designed following the design criterion of +2/−2 net charge per peptide pair that applies to single peptide gels in physiological solutions. In all cases, the individual peptides were found to be monomeric random coils and to form low viscosity solutions. Upon mixing, most of the complementary pairs led to instant gelation in physiological solution conditions, confirming that the +2/−2 net charge can be used as a design criterion not only for single peptides but also for complementary peptide gels. Example 2 Comparative Gelation Studies [0136] Samples of all complementary pairs P 11 -13/14, P 11 -26/27, P 11 -28/29 and P 11 -30/31 were prepared at concentrations of 2, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20 and 30 mg/ml. Peptides were weighed out (Mettler AE 240 balance) and diluted to produce the correct concentration, taking peptide purity into account, using DMEM solution (for dilution volumes and peptide weights of all sample produced see appendix 2). Small amounts of acid (HCl 1M, 0.5M or 0.1 M) and base (NaOH 1M, 0.1M) were added and gentle heating applied when the peptide did not fully dissolve. The monomer solutions were combined in a 1:1 molar ratio to produce a mixture of the 2 complementary peptides, once mixed the room samples were placed in an incubator (Labnet Mini Incubator, 9 litre, analogue, gravity convection) heated to 37° C. and left to reach equilibrium. Observations were carried out once a day over a one week period to determine the concentration at which gelation occurs therefore ascertaining when the system is at equilibrium. Table 2 below shows the comparative gelation studies in 2-30 mg mL-1 range of concentrations: [0000] TABLE 2 C* gel in C*gel in physiological physiological Hydrogen solution and solution and Peptide Net Hydrophobic bonding 37° C./ 20° C./ pair charge character groups mg mL−1 mg mL−1 P11-13/ −2 Amphiphilic —CONH2 7.5 ± 2.5 5.5 ± 1.5 14 P11-28/ +2 Amphiphilic —CONH2 7.5 ± 2.5 4.0 ± 1.0 29 (and 17.5 ± 2.5) P11-30/ −2 Amphiphilic —OH 12.5 ± 2.5  27.5 ± 2.5  31 P11-26/ −2 Completely —CONH2 na Na 27 polar [0137] In all cases apart from P 11 -26/27 gelation took place instantly upon mixing of the separate fluid peptide solutions at all concentration equal to or higher than c*gel. The formed gel remained stable over time during the observation time which was 1 week, confirming apparent equilibrium behaviour. Repeat experiments established full reproducibility of the reported behaviours. P11-13/14 gel also exhibited coloured birefringence when examined between cross polars, which is evidence of long range order in the material, ie the tapes partially align to form micro domains in the material with a common director for each microdomain. This may have important implications for the biological activity of the peptides, eg in the case of biomineralisation for the control of the direction of growth of hydroxypatite crystals. Birefringence was not reliably observed for the other pairs of peptides although further more detailed studies may show different results in the future. In the case of P11-28/29, two different c*gel values were observed in two different types of physiological like solutions, therefore these experiments will have to be repeated; however the overall gelation behaviour of this pair is likely to be very similar to P11-13/14 one. P11-13/14 and P11-28/29 have lower gelation concentrations compared to P11-30/31 and P11-26/27 did not form gels at all in physiological solutions, instead it tended to precipitate out of solution. Example 3 Transmission Electron Microscopy Studies [0138] The room temperature D 2 O samples of all four complementary peptide pairs of concentration 15, 20, 30 mg/ml underwent TEM analysis. The samples in TEM are required to be very thin, around 40-60 nm thick, and are supported on a thin copper mess which offers a reasonable viewing area and are conductive enabling discharge of excess electrical charge produced by the electron beam to the microscope column. The copper grids are covered in a ultra thin carbon film which serves as an electron transparent support for the sample. Two small volumes of each sample were transferred to two different sample vials and diluted with D 2 O to produce two samples one with 15 and 50 times diluted. This dilution was carried out to ensure the sample, which when applied to the copper grids, would be thin and have a decreased salt content enabling the production of good TEM images. Carbon coated copper grids (Athene hexagonal 400 mesh copper 3.05 mm) were exposed to UV light for 30 minutes to charge the surface and ensure adhesion of sample to the surface. One drop of sample was applied to the carbon coated copper grids and left for one minute then the excess was removed using filter paper. The same process was repeated using 4% uranyl acetate solution but left for only 20 seconds. Uranyl acetate is used as a negative stain; it deflects the electron beam resulting in a dark section on the final image. A biological based sample, such as the peptides used in this research, does not absorb much of the uranyl acetate due to surface tension interactions which prevent it from penetrating the peptide aggregate and results in electrons being transmitted through the sample and reaching the detector. The grid surface is covered in the uranyl acetate which blocks the transmittance of electrons and produces the contrast between sample and background. Samples were then loaded into the TEM instrument (Philips CM10 operating at 80 kV) and pictures taken at various magnifications (39 k, 52 k and 73 K). Once the image had been captured onto the film it was scanned onto a PC where it was then processed using Image J software to determine what type of aggregates were present and their widths. TEM studies revealed that P11-13/14 ( FIG. 5 ) and P11-28/29 formed well defined, distinct aggregates of tapes with widths 4±1 and 6±1 respectively. P11-30/31 ( FIG. 6 ) formed much looser associations of tapes (rather amorphous bundles), similar was also the behavior of P11-26/27 under the TEM. Example 4 Scanning Electron Microscopy Studies [0139] Samples of 15 mg/ml and 30 mg/ml in DMEM were produced for P 11 -13/14 and P 11 -30/31 using the same method previously outlined for the incubated DMEM samples. A small amount of gel was applied to the copper shim, with the excess liquid removed, and then frozen in liquid nitrogen. The samples were then freeze-dried (Peltier stage attached to a Polaron coating unit) and loaded with the stage running at approximately −65° C. and left for one hour. The stage is then warmed 10° C. every 30 minutes until room temperature is reached. Once dried the g majority of the gel is knocked off leaving a small amount in contact with the copper shim which is then mounted using carbon rods onto stubs. These were then splutter coated with approximately 3 nm of gold/palladium. The sample was then mounted into the SEM instrument and the images taken. The resulting images were processed using the Image J software to determine the width of the pores in the gel and also the width of the strands that produce the pores. SEM studies showed that P11-13/14 gel network consists of pore size of 900±750 at 15 mg mL-1 and 700±500 at 30 mg mL-1 ( FIG. 7 ). Similar results were also obtained for P11-30/31 ( FIG. 8 ). Example 5 Spectroscopic (Mainly) FTIR Analysis [0140] Samples for Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FITR) analysis at both room and physiological temperature were prepared for P 11 -13/14, P 11 -26/27, P 11 -28/29 and P 11 -30/31 at concentrations of 2, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20 and 30 mg/ml. The peptide was dissolved in D 2 O (Aldrich Deuterium oxide, 99.9 atom % D) 130 mM NaCl (Fisher Scientific) solution to produce a known concentration of monomer solution in mg/ml. Gentle heating and, if required, small amounts of dilute DCI (Aldrich 35 wt. % in D2O, 99 atom % D) and NaOD (Aldrich 40 wt. % in D 2 O, 99 atom % D) were added to aid dissolution and correct the pD to near physiological conditions The monomer solutions of each peptide were combined, using a Gilson Pipetman P200, with a volume of its complementary peptide to produce a 1:1 molar ratio at a known overall concentration. D 2 O was used instead of H 2 O as its absorption in the amide I band is weak 13 and 130 mM NaCl is required to reproduce the ionic strength of physiological conditions allowing comparison with the DMEM samples. The purity of both P 11 -13 and P 11 -14 was 70.6% and 72.6% and so although not exactly 1:1 molar ratios were produced it is within a reasonable range. The concentrations produced were 3.8, 7.3, 10.8, 14.3 and 21.4 mg/ml. FIG. 4 shows the original and band filtered spectra for single and combined complementary peptides P 11 -13/14. The FTIR studies revealed that all the mixed complementary peptide solutions had very high content of beta-sheet (65-85%) even in the lowest concentration studied (5 mg mL-1). Further NMR studies at much lower concentrations revealed that c*tape for P11-13/14 and for P11-28/29 are very similar and in the region of 10-50 uM. This is much lower that c*tape for P11-4 which is at 400 uM. P11-30/31 c*tape is higher than 50 uM but still lower than 400 uM (further studies are required to define it accurately). Thus all complementary peptide pairs studied here have lower c*tape compared to P11-4, and therefore are likely to have much longer lifetime in vivo compared to “golden standard” P 11 -4 peptide. Example 6 Mechanical Studies [0141] Mechanical studies established that the complementary peptide gels can have significant mechanical strength when considering that they are classified under soft matter. In particular P11-30/31 gels were characterised by a plateau elastic modulus of 4,000-5,000 Pa and a viscous modulus of 400-500 Pa. FIG. 9 shows the Elastic modulus, Viscous modulus and Phase Angle versus Shear strain for P11-30/31. Preliminary evidence suggests that depending on peptide design, the mechanical properties of the resulting complementary peptide gels may vary from as low as 20 Pa to as high as 80,000 Pa for the plateau elastic modulus. This wide range of mechanical properties give the opportunity to select gels of optimal mechanical strength to suit the requirements of different applications. For example in cases of applications of peptide gels as scaffolds for cell growth, different cell types require scaffolds with different mechanical strengths (stronger or softer) in order to thrive in them. Example 7 Cytotoxicity Studies [0142] Detailed cytotoxicity studies using the extract cytotoxicity method against two different cell types showed that all complementary peptides are biocompatible in their monomeric, low viscosity solution state and they don't show any statistical difference from the control sample. Self-assembling tapes of complementary peptide pairs were also tested for biocompatibility using the same method. All pairs were again found biocompatible with no statistically significant difference between any of these pairs and the control samples ( FIG. 10 ).

There is described a material comprising tapes, ribbons, fibrils or fibres characterized in that each of the ribbons, fibrils or fibres have an antiparallel arrangement of peptides in a β-sheet tape-like substructure wherein the material comprises a pair of self assembling complementary polypeptides.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS The instant application is a Continuation-in-part (CIP) application of U.S. application Ser. No. 12/752,186 filed Apr. 1, 2010, which is a US non-provisional application based on U.S. provisional application No. 61/167,741, filed Apr. 8, 2009. The disclosure of each of these applications is hereby expressly incorporated by reference in their entireties. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention This invention relates generally to syringes, e.g., hypodermic syringes, such are utilized for injection of medicament into the body tissues of human and animal patients. More specifically, this invention relates to a hypodermic syringe having a plunger, piston and needle support structure or needle unit that permits retraction of the needle support and its needle into the plunger of the syringe to prevent the possibility of inadvertent needle pricks and which incorporates a frangible plunger seal that may be broken or separated away to prevent subsequent use or re-use of the syringe. This invention also relates to single-use syringes which automatically retracts a standard interface needle into the syringe when the plunger is substantially fully depressed which is more easily and/or less costly to produce. This invention also relates to syringes which can be used only once, i.e., single-use syringes, and/or to syringes which utilize a built-in safety system which cannot be easily overridden by a user thereof. This invention also relates to syringes which utilize one or more features disclosed in U.S. Ser. No. 12/951,925 filed on Nov. 22, 2010 or in combination with one or more features disclosed herein. 2. Discussion of Background Information In hospitals, nursing home facilities and the like, injection of medicament into the body tissues of patients is done on a daily basis. Typical hypodermic syringes are provided with a barrel having a needle that is fixed or removably attached at one end thereof. A plunger typically having an elastomeric piston is movable within the barrel to load the barrel with liquid medicament by suction as the plunger and piston are moved within the barrel in a direction away from the needle. After the needle has penetrated the body tissues of the patient, as the direction of movement of the plunger and piston are reversed and the piston is forced toward the needle, medicament contained within the barrel will be injected through the needle into the body tissues. After hypodermic syringes have been used in this manner, those syringes that are disposable present a significant problem to users, e.g., hospital or nursing home staff, because the possibility of inadvertent needle pricks subject personnel to the possibility of cross-contamination by, among other things, virile or bacterial contaminants that might be present on the needle after its use. In an effort to avoid the possibility of inadvertent needle pricks special waste containers are often provided at hospital facilities into which the used disposable hypodermic syringes are placed. These containers and the syringes contained therein are then disposed of in a specifically organized manner to insure against the possibility of inadvertent infectious contamination of nursing personnel. Further, refuse handlers and other persons who might inadvertently come into contact with the used hypodermic syringes are also subject to the same hazards. Often times the needles themselves are bent over so as to minimize the possibility of inadvertent needle pricks and to preclude the possibility of subsequent use of disposable hypodermic syringes. In certain situations, medicaments are injected into patients and not quickly thereafter discarded properly. Instead, the used syringe is placed in a temporary position. After the procedure has ended, the syringe can be manually recovered for disposal. However, between the time of use and the time of disposal, there is the possibility that inadvertent needle pricks will occur. Accordingly, it is desirable to provide a suitable way protecting personnel, e.g., nursing personnel, paramedics and other persons, from the hazards of inadvertent needle pricks as they go about their daily tasks. It is therefore desirable to provide a syringe that includes a system for rendering the needle thereof to a protected, completely encapsulated condition such that it is less likely to cause, after use, an inadvertent needle prick during its handling or during its disposal. It is also desirable to provide a syringe having the capability of causing the automatic retraction of the needle to a position inside the plunger of the syringe and maintaining the needle in its retracted position so that the needle of the syringe is always enclosed after its use, thus precluding the possibility that the needle might cause an accidental needle prick as the syringe is subsequently handled. It is also desirable to provide a syringe of the disposable type that is provided with facility for rendering it completely inoperative such that it can not be subsequently used. Additionally, it is desirable to provide for a syringe which also has minimal dead-space so that it can be ideally used for injecting very expensive medicaments with minimal waste. Finally, it is desirable to provide for a syringe which also has a system for selectively locking the plunger in a substantially fully depressed position so that the syringe can have dual, multiple, and/or parallel safety systems, i.e., one system can include causing the needle unit to retract into the plunger and another system can include locking the plunger in a substantially fully depressed position. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION According to one non-limiting aspect of the invention there is provided a single-use injection device comprising a barrel, a plunger having a portion structured and arranged to move within the barrel, a needle connecting arrangement that one of: comprises a needle connecting interface adapted to mate with a needle interface and an end integrally formed with the barrel; comprises a spring biased needle connecting member having an interface adapted to mate with a needle interface and being movable from an initial position to a retracted position within the barrel; comprises a needle connecting interface adapted to mate with a needle interface and an end that can be non-removably connected with the barrel; comprises a luer-lock interface which can retract into the barrel when the plunger is substantially fully depressed; comprises a movable member which includes a standard interface and which can retract into the barrel when the plunger is substantially fully depressed; comprises a movable member which includes a standard interface and which can retract into the plunger; comprises a movable member which includes an interface to which a needle member can be removably connected and which can retract into the barrel by a spring upon a movement of the plunger; comprises a body connectable to one end of the barrel and a movable member which includes an interface to which a needle member can be connected and which can retract into the barrel by a spring upon a movement of the plunger; comprises a body installable on one end of the barrel and a movable member which includes an interface to which a needle member can be connected, a retention arrangement allowing the movable member to be retained in an initial position, and which can retract into the barrel by a spring; and comprises an assembly which includes a body connectable to the barrel, a member comprising a needle connecting interface and a retention element, and a spring biasing the member toward a retracted position. In embodiments, the plunger is a hollow plunger. In embodiments, the plunger comprises a piston arranged at a proximal area of the plunger and an actuating end arranged in front of the piston. In embodiments, the plunger further comprises at least one of: the piston being an elastomer or rubber piston; a hollow space sized and configured to receive therein an injection needle; and a locking member adapted to lock with a locking member arranged on the barrel. In embodiments, the barrel and the plunger each comprise a synthetic resin material. In embodiments, the installable needle can be of any type whether packaged individually or in bulk or otherwise maintained in a sealed or sterile condition. In embodiments, the barrel comprises at least one releasable retaining member. In embodiments, the at least one releasable retaining member comprises plural radially oriented releasable retaining members. In embodiments, the barrel comprises at least one deflectable retaining member. In embodiments, the at least one deflectable retaining member comprises plural radially oriented releasable retaining members. In embodiments, the device further comprises at least one of: a locking arrangement that is structured and arranged to lock a portion of the needle connecting arrangement to a portion of the plunger; and a locking arrangement selectively locking a portion of the plunger to the barrel upon the plunger reaching a substantially fully depressed position. In embodiments, when the plunger is moved to a full injection position, a member arranged within the needle connecting arrangement is automatically caused to retract into the plunger. In embodiments, when the plunger is moved to a full injection position, a member arranged within the needle connecting arrangement is automatically caused to retract into the barrel. In embodiments, the device may further comprising a system providing an indication to the user in regards to a depressed position of the plunger. In embodiments, the device may further comprise a system providing an indication to the user that at least one of the plunger has reached a full injection position and the further forward movement of the plunger will cause a member coupled to a needle to automatically retract into the plunger. According to another non-limiting embodiment of the invention, there is provided a single-use injection device comprising a barrel, a hollow plunger having a portion structured and arranged to move within the barrel, and a needle connecting arrangement comprising a spring and a needle member having a connecting interface, the needle member being movable automatically by the spring from an initial position to a retracted position within the barrel or the plunger. According to another non-limiting embodiment of the invention, there is provided a single-use injection device comprising a barrel, a hollow plunger having a portion structured and arranged to move within the barrel and a needle connecting arrangement comprises a spring biased needle connecting member having an interface adapted to mate with a standard needle interface and being movable from an initial position to a retracted position within the barrel or the plunger. In embodiments, the standard needle interface is a luer-lock interface. In embodiments, the standard needle interface relies substantially only upon contact between tapered surfaces. In embodiments, the standard needle interface relies substantially only upon friction fit contact. According to another non-limiting embodiment of the invention, there is provided a method of using any of the injection devices described above, wherein the method comprises installing a needle member having a needle and a connecting interface on the injection device and moving the plunger relative to the barrel so as to cause medicine to exit through the needle. The needle member is capable of retracting into the plunger. According to another non-limiting embodiment of the invention, there is provided a syringe which utilizes one or more features disclosed in U.S. Ser. No. 12/752,186 filed Apr. 1, 2010. The disclosure of this application is hereby expressly incorporated by reference hereto in its entirety. According to another non-limiting embodiment of the invention, there is provided a syringe which utilizes one or more features disclosed in U.S. Ser. No. 12/951,925 filed on Nov. 22, 2010. The disclosure of this application is hereby expressly incorporated by reference hereto in its entirety. According to another non-limiting embodiment of the invention, there is provided a syringe which utilizes one or more features disclosed in U.S. Ser. No. 12/752,186 filed Apr. 1, 2010 in combination with one or more features disclosed herein. According to another non-limiting embodiment of the invention, there is provided a syringe which utilizes one or more features disclosed in U.S. Ser. No. 12/951,925 filed on Nov. 22, 2010 in combination with one or more features disclosed herein. Other exemplary embodiments and advantages of the present invention may be ascertained by reviewing the present disclosure and the accompanying drawing. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The present invention is further described in the detailed description which follows, in reference to the noted plurality of drawings by way of non-limiting examples of exemplary embodiments of the present invention, in which like reference numerals represent similar parts throughout the several views of the drawings, and wherein: FIG. 1 shows a side cross-section view of a first non-limiting embodiment of the device according to the invention. The needle is not shown in cross-section. FIG. 1 shows the device with a safety cap installed thereon. The device is in an initial prior-use and/or packaged configuration; FIG. 2 shows the device of FIG. 1 after the safety cap is removed and in a ready-to-use position; FIG. 3 shows the device of FIG. 2 with the plunger retracted as would occur when medicine is caused to be suctioned into the syringe via the needle; FIG. 4 shows the device with the plunger fully depressed as would occur during injection. In this position, the leading end of the plunger has moved deflectable retaining members out of locking engagement with the needle hub. Moreover, a rear end of the needle hub has caused an inner seal, i.e., a frangible plunger seal, to come out of sealing engagement with the needle hub; FIG. 5 shows the device after the needle unit is caused to automatically retract into the plunger under the biasing force of a spring. The configuration shown in FIG. 5 occurs automatically when the plunger reaches the position shown in FIG. 4 ; FIG. 5 a shows a rear end view of the device of FIG. 5 ; FIG. 6 shows an enlarged partial view of the device of FIG. 4 just before the plunger reaches the fully depressed position; FIG. 7 shows an enlarged partial view of the device of FIG. 4 just as the plunger reaches the fully depressed position thereby causing deflection of the retaining members and breaking of the frangible plunger seal caused by movement of the plunger against a rear end of the needle hub; FIG. 8 shows a side cross-section view of the plunger used on the first non-limiting embodiment shown in FIG. 1 and with the plunger piston and inner seal removed; FIG. 9 shows a side view of the plunger of FIG. 8 with the plunger piston installed thereon; FIG. 10 shows a side cross-section view of the plunger piston used on the plunger shown in FIG. 9 ; FIG. 11 shows a side view of the plunger piston shown in FIG. 10 ; FIG. 12 shows a side view of the inner seal used on the plunger shown in FIG. 1 ; FIG. 13 shows a front end view of the inner seal shown in FIG. 12 ; FIG. 14 shows a side cross-section view of the inner seal shown in FIG. 12 ; FIG. 15 shows a side cross-section view of the device shown in FIG. 1 with the plunger removed; FIG. 16 shows a side cross-section view of the syringe body used in the device shown in FIG. 1 ; FIG. 17 shows a rear end view of the syringe body shown in FIG. 16 ; FIG. 18 shows a rear end view of another embodiment of the syringe body; FIG. 19 shows a rear end view of still another embodiment of the syringe body; FIG. 20 shows a side view of the needle unit used in the device shown in FIG. 1 ; FIG. 21 shows a side cross-section view of the needle unit shown in FIG. 20 ; FIG. 22 shows a rear end view of the needle unit shown in FIG. 20 ; FIG. 23 shows a side cross-section view of the spring used in the device shown in FIG. 1 ; FIG. 24 shows a rear end view of the spring shown in FIG. 23 ; FIG. 25 shows a side cross-section view of the needle sealing guide member used in the device shown in FIG. 1 ; FIG. 26 shows a side view of the needle sealing guide member shown in FIG. 25 ; FIG. 27 shows an enlarged partial view of another embodiment of a plunger which can be used on a device of the type shown in FIG. 1 . The plunger is similar to that used in FIG. 1 except that the inner seal is axially retained within the plunger via a separately formed ring; FIG. 28 shows an enlarged partial view of a modified version of the device of FIGS. 1 and 6 . In this embodiment, the device of FIGS. 1 and 6 is modified to include a puncturable sealing washer to provided sealing between the needle and the syringe body; FIG. 29 shows an enlarged partial view of another modified version of the device of FIGS. 1 and 6 . In this embodiment, the device of FIGS. 1 and 6 is modified to eliminate the needle sealing guide and to instead include a puncturable sealing washer to provided sealing between the needle and the syringe body; FIG. 30 shows a side cross-section view of the device shown in FIG. 29 with the needle unit and spring removed; FIG. 31 shows a cross-section view through the section (indicated by arrows) shown in FIG. 30 ; FIG. 32 shows an enlarged partial view of another modified version of the device of FIG. 1 . In this embodiment, the device of FIG. 1 is modified to replace the integrally formed deflectable retaining members with a separately formed ring which is axially retained in the syringe body and which has the deflectable retaining members; FIG. 33 shows an enlarged partial view of another modified version of the device of FIG. 1 . In this embodiment, the device of FIG. 1 is modified to include a locking system to prevent re-use of the device as well as an optional vent opening. The locking system locks the plunger to the syringe body when the plunger is fully or nearly fully depressed; FIGS. 34 and 35 each show an enlarged partial view of another embodiment of a plunger which can be used on a device of the type shown in FIG. 1 . The plunger is similar to that used in FIG. 1 except that the inner seal is axially retained within the plunger via a recess and frangible projection system. In FIG. 35 , the inner seal is axially retained within the plunger. In FIG. 34 , the inner seal has been moved back sufficiently to cause the inner seal to break the frangible projection of the plunger; FIG. 36 shows an enlarged partial view of another embodiment of a plunger which can be used on a device of the type shown in FIG. 1 . The plunger is similar to that used in FIG. 1 except that the inner seal is axially retained within the plunger via a recess and frangible projection system. In FIG. 36 , the frangible projection of the plunger has annular v-shaped recesses which weaken the projection so that it breaks (via shearing forces) in a predictable manner; FIG. 37 shows an enlarged partial view of another non-limiting embodiment of a device. The device is similar to that of FIG. 1 , except that it utilizes a sealing member that utilizes a sealing member which can extend into the opening of the needle which prevents medication from passing into the needle when it is inserted into the distal end of the needle. The device also utilizes plural locking members which lock to the needle unit when the plunger is moved to the fully depressed position; FIG. 38 shows a side cross section view of another embodiment of the invention. This embodiment is similar to that of FIG. 1 except that a needle assembly portion (on left side) of the injection device is separated from the barrel/plunger assembly (on right side). The injection end of the barrel is configured to receive different needle assemblies which have the same rear interface, i.e., that part which connects to the barrel/plunger assembly. In this embodiment, a user can select from a number of different needle sizes and types and install the desired needle assembly on the injection device barrel/plunger assembly prior to use. The needle assembly is frictionally engaged with the barrel when full installed and can be such that it is non removable once installed; FIG. 39 shows the device of FIG. 38 when the needle assembly is fully installed on the barrel/plunger assembly and after the protective cover is removed. This is also a ready-to-use configuration; FIG. 40 shows the device of FIG. 39 after the plunger is withdrawn which would typically occur when a fluid or medicine is being force into or cause to enter the barrel through the needle; FIG. 41 shows the device of FIG. 39 with the plunger removed; FIG. 42 shows an enlarged view of a front portion of FIG. 39 ; FIG. 43 shows a non cross-section view of FIG. 42 ; FIG. 44 shows an enlarged view of the needle assembly shown in FIG. 39 ; FIG. 45 shows an enlarged view of the barrel shown in FIG. 39 . The seal is shown in an un-installed state; FIG. 46 shows an enlarged view of a front portion of FIG. 45 ; FIG. 47 shows an enlarged view of an optional needle assembly which can be used in accordance with the invention. This embodiment is similar to that of FIG. 44 except that a rear cylindrical surface includes plural frictional sealing projections to provide additional sealing and frictional retention with the barrel; FIGS. 48 and 49 show enlarged views of another optional needle assembly which can be used in accordance with the invention. This embodiment is similar to that of FIG. 44 except that a rear cylindrical surface includes a groove and an installable seal member to provide additional sealing and frictional retention with the barrel. In FIG. 48 , the seal member is shown in the groove. In FIG. 49 , the seal member is shown removed from the groove; FIG. 50 shows an enlarged view of an optional configuration for a front portion of the barrel in accordance with the invention. This embodiment is similar to that of FIG. 46 except that partial or interrupted thread(s) are used to axially retain the needle assembly on the barrel; FIG. 51 shows an enlarged view of an optional configuration for a needle assembly in accordance with the invention. This embodiment is similar to that of FIG. 44 except that partial or interrupted projections are used (which can threadably engage with the interrupted threads of FIG. 50 ) to axially retain the needle assembly on the barrel; FIG. 52 shows an enlarged view of an optional configuration for a front portion of the injection device in accordance with the invention. This embodiment is similar to that of FIG. 42 except that deflectable locking projections are used to axially and non-removably retain the needle assembly on the barrel; FIG. 53 shows a non cross-section view of FIG. 52 ; FIG. 54 shows how the needle assembly can be slid (along axial direction of arrow) into the barrel in order to form the device of FIG. 52 ; FIG. 55 shows an enlarged view of an optional configuration for a front portion of the injection device in accordance with the invention. This embodiment is similar to that of FIG. 42 except that an outer locking sleeve having deflectable locking projections is used to axially and non-removably retain the needle assembly on the barrel. This embodiment also provides the user with a visual indication that the needle assembly is fully and properly installed on the barrel; FIG. 56 shows the needle assembly used in the device of FIG. 55 ; FIG. 57 shows a non cross-section view of FIG. 56 ; FIG. 58 shows a cross-section view of FIG. 57 ; FIG. 59 shows a side cross section view of another embodiment of the invention. This embodiment is similar to that of FIG. 38 except that the device additionally utilizes a removable retaining clip to ensure that the plunger is not fully depressed before or during installation of the needle assembly on the barrel/plunger assembly. Preferably, the user removes the retaining clip just prior to use of the injection device; FIG. 60 shows a side cross section view of another embodiment of the invention. This embodiment is similar to that of FIG. 59 except that a number of different needle assembles (i.e., assemblies with different needle lengths and diameters) are shown from which the user can select and install on the barrel/plunger assembly; FIG. 61 shows a side cross section view of a packaged needle assembly in accordance with one non-limiting embodiment of the invention. The package utilizes a needle outer cover and a rear cover. When the user wishes to install the needle assembly, she first removes the rear cover from the front cover, installs the needle assembly on the barrel/plunger assembly, and then removes the needle cover; FIGS. 62 and 63 show enlarged views of an optional configuration for a front portion of the injection device in accordance with the invention. This embodiment is similar to that of FIG. 42 except that tapered locking projections are used to axially and non-removably retain the needle assembly on the barrel. Furthermore, an additional real seal member is used to provide additional sealing between the needle assembly and the barrel. In FIG. 62 , the additional seal is shown in an installed position. In FIG. 63 , the additional seal is shown in a non-installed position; and FIG. 64 shows enlarged view of an optional configuration for a front portion of the injection device in accordance with the invention. This embodiment is similar to that of FIG. 62 except that the additional real seal member is arranged in a groove formed in the barrel and the distal generally cylindrical surface of the needle assembly utilizes a tapered section to facilitate insertion of the needle assembly in the barrel. FIG. 65 shows an enlarged view of a configuration for a front portion of the injection device in accordance with another non-limiting embodiment the invention. This embodiment is similar to that of FIG. 52 except that the needle unit is separated into two main components. A first component or assembly utilizes a needle hub portion which is axially retained in a front section of the syringe and has a standard receiving interface. A second component or assembly utilizes a needle and a standard interface hub which can be sealingly connected to the standard receiving interface of the first component; FIG. 66 shows the embodiment of FIG. 65 with the second component about to be connected to the first component; FIG. 67 shows the embodiment of FIG. 65 with the second component connected to the first component. The syringe is now in a ready to use configuration; FIG. 68 shows the embodiment of FIG. 67 after the plunger (not shown) has been fully depressed and shows how the connected first and second components can automatically retract into the syringe by the spring; FIG. 69-73 show enlarged views of a configuration for a front portion of the injection device in accordance with other non-limiting embodiments the invention. These embodiments are similar to that of FIG. 65 with the exception of how sealing is provided between the first component and a front part of the syringe body; FIG. 74 shows an enlarged view of a configuration for a front portion of the injection device in accordance with another non-limiting embodiment the invention. This embodiment is similar to that of FIG. 1 except that first and second components are utilized as in the embodiment of FIG. 65 and different sealing is provided between the first component and a front part of the syringe body; FIG. 75 shows the embodiment of FIG. 74 with the second component connected to the first component. The syringe is now in a ready to use configuration; FIG. 76 shows the embodiment of FIG. 74 as the plunger is being moved toward the fully depressed position; FIG. 77 shows an enlarged view of a configuration for a front portion of the injection device in accordance with another non-limiting embodiment the invention. This embodiment is similar to that of FIG. 74 except that a lockable separable plunger seal is utilized which can lock to the first component; FIG. 78 shows the embodiment of FIG. 77 with the plunger in the nearly fully depressed position and shows the lockable separable plunger seal locked to the first component; FIG. 79 shows an enlarged view of a configuration for a front portion of the injection device in accordance with another non-limiting embodiment the invention. This embodiment is similar to that of FIG. 74 except that the front portion of the syringe is threadably connected to a front end of the syringe main body; FIG. 80 shows the embodiment of FIG. 79 before the front portion of the syringe is threadably connected to the front end of the syringe main body; FIG. 81 shows an enlarged view of a configuration for a front portion of the injection device in accordance with another non-limiting embodiment the invention. This embodiment is similar to that of FIG. 79 except that the front portion of the syringe is differently threadably connected to a front end of the syringe main body; FIG. 82 shows the embodiment of FIG. 81 with various parts thereof being shown in a unconnected/unassembled state; FIG. 83 shows certain parts of the embodiment of FIG. 65 in an unconnected/unassembled state; FIG. 84 shows one way in which a user can mount a front portion of on a syringe. According to this embodiment, the user can then remove the safety cover and install a needle member in the manner shown in FIG. 67 ; and FIG. 85 shows one way in which a user can mount a front portion of on a syringe. According to this embodiment, the user can then remove the safety cover and use the syringe. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Referring now to the drawings and first to FIGS. 1-17 and 20-26 which shows a first embodiment of an injection device 1 . In embodiments, the device is a retractable hypodermic syringe. The syringe includes a generally elongate cylindrical barrel 10 having a transverse flange 11 arranged at a distal end of the barrel 10 . The barrel 10 includes a main generally cylindrical section 12 . A proximal end of the barrel 10 includes a reduced diameter section 13 . A safety cap 60 is removably disposed on a proximal end of the syringe body 10 . A needle support 30 has a hub portion 31 that is substantially axially retained within a proximal area of the body 10 (see FIG. 3 ) and includes a rear end surface which can contact an inner seal 25 of a plunger 20 as will be described in detail below. The needle support 30 also has a main needle portion 32 that has a rear end fixed within a needle hub 31 and a proximal end that is pointed or a puncturing end which extends out past the proximal end of the syringe body 10 . A sealing guide member 50 provides sealing between the needle 32 and the syringe body 10 , also allows the needle 32 to slide into the syringe 1 as will be described below. A spring 40 is arranged within the section 13 and the syringe body 10 , and in the configuration shown in FIG. 2 , is fully or nearly fully compresses. The spring 40 biases the needle unit 30 towards a distal end of the syringe 1 . Substantially arranged within the barrel 10 of the syringe is movably disposed a plunger 20 . The plunger 20 , like the syringe body 10 , includes an end flange 21 which is typically engaged by the thumb of the user while the transverse flange 11 is engaged by the fingers of the user in order to enable the plunger 20 to be forced into the barrel 10 for the purpose of expelling the medicament from the barrel 10 through the needle 32 . The plunger 20 additionally includes a generally cylindrical space 22 which is sized to receive therein the needle unit 30 (see FIG. 5 ). A piston 23 (see FIG. 9 ) is arranged on a proximal end of the plunger 10 . The plunger 20 also utilizes a proximal engaging end 24 which is sized and configured to engage with deflectable retaining members 15 (see FIGS. 6 and 7 ) when the plunger 20 is fully depressed. An inner seal or sealing member 25 is arranged within the plunger 20 . As is apparent from FIGS. 6 and 7 , the seal 25 has frangible circumferential projections which are sized and configured to break and/or shear off when the plunger 20 is depressed to the point where the seal 25 contacts the hub 31 . Before the projections of the seal 25 break, they provide sealing between the seal 25 and the plunger 20 . This sealing ensures that no medication passes into the plunger space 22 until the seal 25 is broken. As is apparent from FIGS. 6 and 7 , to unsure that the needle unit 30 is prevented from moving forwards when the plunger 20 is fully depressed, a plurality of stop projections or ribs 14 are arranged within the section 13 of the syringe body 10 . The operation of the device shown FIGS. 1-7 will now be described. Once the user obtains the device 1 shown in FIG. 1 , he or she can then remove the safety cap 60 . The device 1 so shown in FIG. 2 can now be used for, e.g., injection. This can occur when the user injects the needle 32 into a medication container and withdraws the plunger 20 as shown in FIG. 3 . This causes medication fluid to fill the space in the body 10 between the plunger piston 23 and seal 25 and the sealing member 50 . As this point, the user can move the plunger 20 forwards slightly to remove any air in the syringe 1 . The needle 32 can then be injected into, e.g., tissue. Then, the user will depress the plunger 20 to cause the medication to pass out of the needle 32 . Once fully or nearly fully depressed, the proximal end 24 of the plunger 20 contacts the deflectable retaining members 15 (see FIGS. 6 and 7 ) and causes them to deflect out of locking and/or retaining engagement with the hub 31 . Since engagement between the deflectable retaining members 15 and the hub 31 is the only mechanism which prevents the spring 40 from moving the needle unit 30 backwards, once this engagement is removed, the needle unit 30 will be forced backwards by the spring 40 . Also, once fully or nearly fully depressed, the seal 25 of the plunger 20 contacts the rear surface of the hub 31 (see FIGS. 6 and 7 ). Since the ribs 14 prevent any forward movement of the hub 31 , contact between the seal 25 and the hub 31 causes the frangible sealing projections of the seal 25 to shear or break. At this point, the spring 40 automatically expands axially and pushes the needle unit 30 and seal 25 into the space 22 disposed inside the plunger 20 as shown in FIG. 5 . This action withdraws the needle 32 into the syringe and renders the device 1 unusable. The device 1 of FIG. 5 can then be safely disposed of without the user having to worry about being accidently pricked by the needle 32 , which is safely disposed inside the plunger 20 . In embodiments, the engagement between the deflectable retaining members 15 and the hub 31 is removed or disengages prior to the sealing engagement between the seal 25 and the plunger 20 . In other embodiments, the engagement between the deflectable retaining members 15 and the hub 31 is removed or disengages just prior to the sealing engagement between the seal 25 and the plunger 20 . In embodiments, the engagement between the deflectable retaining members 15 and the hub 31 is not removed or disengaged until after the frangible sealing engagement between the seal 25 and the plunger 20 is broken. In embodiments, the engagement between the deflectable retaining members 15 and the hub 31 is not removed or disengaged until just after the frangible sealing engagement between the seal 25 and the plunger 20 is broken. In embodiments, the force required to unlock or remove the engagement between the deflectable retaining members 15 and the hub 31 is less than that required to break the sealing engagement between the seal 25 and the plunger 20 . In embodiments, the force required to unlock or remove the engagement between the deflectable retaining members 15 and the hub 31 is greater than that required to break the sealing engagement between the seal 25 and the plunger 20 . In embodiments, the force required to unlock or remove the engagement between the deflectable retaining members 15 and the hub 31 is substantially equal to that required to break the sealing engagement between the seal 25 and the plunger 20 . In embodiments, a noise is produced (providing an auditory signal to the user) when the engagement between the deflectable retaining members 15 and the hub 31 is removed. In embodiments, a noise is produced (providing an auditory signal to the user) when the sealing engagement between the seal 25 and the plunger 20 is broken. In embodiments, a visual indication is produced (providing a visual signal to the user) when the engagement between the deflectable retaining members 15 and the hub 31 is removed. In embodiments, a visual indication is produced (providing a visual signal to the user) when the sealing engagement between the seal 25 and the plunger 20 is broken. Such visual indicators can be facilitated by making the plunger 20 and body 10 substantially transparent and/or translucent. FIGS. 8 and 9 show views of the plunger 20 used on the first non-limiting embodiment shown in FIG. 1 . The plunger 20 , in embodiments, is a one-piece integrally formed member to which is axially secured a piston 23 and an inner seal 25 . The plunger 20 includes a distal flange 21 , a main cylindrical section 22 , a generally cylindrical proximal end 24 , one or more inner generally circumferential tapered recesses 26 , a generally cylindrical recess 27 sized and configured to receive therein and axially retain the piston 23 , and a generally cylindrical space 28 . FIGS. 8 and 9 show views of the piston 23 used on the plunger of FIGS. 8 and 9 . The piston 23 , in embodiments, is a one-piece integrally formed member to which is axially secured within the recess 27 of the plunger 20 . In embodiments, it can be substantially similar at pistons conventionally used in syringes which include plural external circumferential sealing projections. FIGS. 12-14 show views of the inner seal 25 used on the plunger of FIGS. 8 and 9 . The seal 25 , in embodiments, is a one-piece integrally formed member to which is axially secured to an inner portion of the plunger 20 . In embodiments, the seal 25 includes a distal or rear surface 25 a , one or more tapered external circumferential projections 25 b , and a proximal surface 25 c . The one or more tapered external circumferential projections 25 b each extend into one of the recesses 26 of the plunger 20 . The tapered external circumferential projections 25 b are designed to be frangible and sized and configured to shear upon experiencing a predetermined force applied to the surface 25 c . The shape, i.e., rearward orientation, of the tapered external circumferential projections 25 b is such that a force applied to the surface 25 c will cause the projections 25 b to grip recesses 26 by a greater amount and such that a force applied to the surface 25 a will cause the projections 25 b to grip recesses 26 by a lesser amount. In embodiments, a force applied to the surface 25 a will cause the projections 25 b to start to move out of engagement with the recesses 26 by a significant amount without breaking. FIGS. 15-17 show how the syringe body 10 used on the device of FIG. 1 receives therein the seal guide 50 , the needle member 30 and the spring 40 before receiving therein the plunger 20 of FIGS. 8 and 9 . The body 10 , in embodiments, is a one-piece integrally formed member. The body 10 includes a distal flange 11 , a main cylindrical section 12 , a generally cylindrical proximal end 13 , one or more inner radially oriented spaced-apart ribs 14 , plural deflectable retaining members 15 which are equally spaced-apart and which are sized and configured to engage with the circumferential recess 33 of the needle unit 30 (see FIG. 20 ), and a generally cylindrical opening 17 sized and configured to receive therein (in a sealing and/or press-fit manner) the generally cylindrical surface 50 a of the sealing guide 50 (see FIG. 26 ). In embodiments, two oppositely arranged deflectable retaining members 15 are utilized. In embodiments, three equally spaced deflectable retaining members 15 are utilized. In embodiments, between four and eight equally spaced deflectable retaining members 15 are utilized. FIG. 18 shows an optional embodiment wherein section 13 ′ utilizes four equally spaced deflectable retaining members 15 ′ and four ribs 14 ′ which have the same orientation. FIG. 19 shows an optional embodiment wherein section 13 ″ utilizes four equally spaced deflectable retaining members 15 ″ and four ribs 14 ″ which are offset with respect to one another. These systems/configurations can be utilized on any of the herein disclosed device embodiments. FIGS. 20-22 show views of the needle unit 30 used on the device 1 of FIG. 1 . The needle unit 30 , in embodiments, can be a one-piece integrally formed member. The needle unit 30 , in embodiments, utilizes a one-piece needle hub 31 and a one-piece needle 32 that has a distal end secured (e.g., press-fit) within an opening the hub 31 . The needle hub 31 , in embodiments, also utilizes a tapered section 36 and a circumferential groove or recess 33 which can receive therein the free ends of the deflectable gripping members 15 (see FIG. 6 ). In embodiments, the needle 32 has a main lumen 34 and a puncturing end 35 . In embodiments, the needle 32 can be substantially similar at pistons conventionally used in syringes which include plural external circumferential sealing projections. FIGS. 23 and 24 show views of the spring 40 used on the embodiment of FIG. 1 . FIG. 23 shows the spring 40 in an expanded or relaxed position. In the position shown in FIG. 1 , the spring 40 is fully or nearly fully compressed. Expansion of the spring 40 causes the needle unit 30 to retract fully into the plunger 20 (see FIG. 5 ). FIGS. 25 and 26 show views of the sealing guide 50 used on the embodiment of FIG. 1 . The seal 50 has a generally cylindrical section 50 a , a tapered section 50 b , and a generally cylindrical opening 50 c . The generally cylindrical section 50 a is sized and configured to sealingly and frictionally engage with opening 17 in the body 10 . The tapered section 50 b is sized and configured to sealingly and frictionally engage with a corresponding tapered surface of the body 10 . The generally cylindrical opening 50 c is sized and configured to sealingly engage with the needle 32 . The seal 50 , in embodiments, can be a one-piece integrally formed member. FIG. 27 shows an enlarged partial view of another embodiment of a plunger 20 ′ which can be used on a device of the type shown in FIG. 1 . The plunger 20 ′ is similar to that used in FIG. 1 except that the inner seal 25 ′ is axially retained within the plunger 20 ′ via a separately formed ring 29 ′. The ring 29 ′ is seated in a circumferential recess formed in the seal 25 ′. In embodiments, a distal circumferential shoulder is sized and configured to break when the plunger 20 ′ is fully depressed. In embodiments, a ring 29 ′ is a frangible ring and is sized and configured to break when the plunger 20 ′ is fully depressed. As with the previous embodiments, the plunger 20 ′ includes a proximal engaging end 24 ′ and a piston 23 ′. This system/configuration can be utilized on any of the herein disclosed device embodiments. FIG. 28 shows an enlarged partial view of a modified version of the device of FIG. 1 . In this embodiment, the device of FIG. 1 is modified to include a puncturable sealing washer 70 to provided sealing between the needle 32 ′ and the guide 50 and/or syringe body 10 ″. The needle unit 30 ′ is also modified to include a generally cylindrical section 37 ′. As with the previous embodiments, the device utilizes ribs 14 ″ and deflectable retaining members 15 ″. This system/configuration can be utilized on any of the herein disclosed device embodiments. FIGS. 29-31 show views of another modified version of the device of FIG. 1 . In this embodiment, the device of FIG. 28 is modified to remove the ribs and the guide seal and instead sealing is provided between the opening 17 IV of the syringe body 10 IV and the needle 32 ′. As with the previous embodiments, the device utilizes deflectable retaining members 15 IV . This system/configuration can be utilized on any of the herein disclosed device embodiments. FIG. 32 shows an enlarged partial view of another modified version of the device of FIG. 1 . In this embodiment, the device of FIG. 1 is modified to replace the integrally formed deflectable retaining members with a separately formed ring 16 V which is axially retained in the syringe body 10 V via a projection and recess securing arrangement. The ring 16 V is a one-piece member that has the deflectable retaining members 15 V . This system/configuration can be utilized on any of the herein disclosed device embodiments. FIG. 33 shows an enlarged partial view of another modified version of the device of FIG. 1 . In this embodiment, the device of FIG. 1 is modified to include a locking system to prevent re-use of the device as well as an optional vent opening. The locking system has the form of one or more projections LP and one or more recesses LR adapted to receive therein the locking projection LP. The locking system locks the plunger 120 to the syringe body 110 when the plunger 120 is fully or nearly fully depressed. Other configurations can also be utilized such as arranging the locking projections LP on the syringe body 110 and the locking recesses LR on the plunger 120 . The projection LP can be, in embodiments, continuous or intermittent and the recess LR can be a circumferential recess. The device can also be modified to utilize an optional vent opening VO in the plunger 120 . The locking system prevents re-use of the device. The systems shown in FIG. 33 can be utilized on any of the herein disclosed device embodiments. FIGS. 34 and 35 each show an enlarged partial view of another embodiment of a plunger which can be used on a device of the type shown in FIG. 1 . The plunger is similar to that used in FIG. 1 except that the inner seal 125 ′ is axially retained within the plunger body 122 ′ via a recess and frangible projection FP. In FIG. 35 , the inner seal 125 ′ is axially retained within the plunger. In FIG. 34 , the inner seal 125 ′ has been moved back sufficiently under the action of a force F to cause the inner seal 125 ′ to break the frangible projection FP of the plunger. The systems shown in FIGS. 34 and 35 can be utilized on any of the herein disclosed device embodiments. FIG. 36 shows an enlarged partial view of another embodiment of a plunger which can be used on a device of the type shown in FIG. 1 . The plunger is similar to that used in FIG. 1 except that the inner seal 125 ″ is axially retained within the plunger body 122 ″ via a recess and a selectively weakened frangible projection FP′. In FIG. 36 , the frangible projection FP′ of the plunger has annular v-shaped recesses which weaken the projection FP′ so that it breaks (via shearing forces) in a predictable manner. The system shown in FIG. 36 can be utilized on any of the herein disclosed device embodiments. FIG. 37 shows an enlarged partial view of another non-limiting embodiment of a device. The device is similar to that of FIG. 1 , except that it utilizes a sealing member 25 ″ that utilizes a sealing member SM which can extend into the distal opening of the needle 32 ″ so as to prevent medication from passing into the needle 32 ″ when it is inserted into the distal end of the needle 32 ″. The device also utilizes plural locking members LM which lock to a circumferential engaging projection EP of the needle unit 31 ″ when the plunger is moved to the fully depressed position (indicated by arrow). Once locked to each other, the seal 25 ″ and needle unit 30 ″ retract into the plunger as a unit. The system shown in FIG. 37 can be utilized on any of the herein disclosed device embodiments. Referring now to the drawings and to FIGS. 38-46 which shows another embodiment of an injection device 1000 . The device 1000 is made of two main components or assemblies. One component is a syringe/plunger assembly SBA which includes a syringe barrel 1010 and a plunger 1020 . Another component is a needle or needle-hub assembly NHA which includes a needle assembly body 1018 , a biasing member 1040 and a needle member 1030 . In embodiments, the device is a retractable hypodermic syringe. The syringe includes a generally elongate cylindrical barrel 1010 having a transverse flange 1011 arranged at a distal end of the barrel 1010 . The barrel 1010 includes a main generally cylindrical section 1012 . A proximal end of the barrel 1010 includes an increased diameter section 1013 . A safety cap 1060 is removably disposed on a proximal end of the device 1000 . A needle support 1030 has a hub portion 1031 that is substantially axially retained within a distal area of the body 1018 (see FIG. 44 ) and includes a rear end surface which can contact an inner seal 1025 of a plunger 1020 , in a manner similar to that used in the embodiment of FIG. 1 . The needle support 1030 also has a main needle portion 1032 that has a rear end fixed within a needle hub 1031 and a proximal end that is pointed or a puncturing end which extends out past the proximal end of the body 1018 . A sealing guide member 1050 provides sealing between the needle 1032 and the proximal end 1018 d of the body 1018 , also allows the needle 1032 to slide into the syringe 1000 as will be described below. A biasing member having the form of a spring 1040 is arranged within the body 1018 , and in the configuration shown in FIG. 44 , is fully or nearly fully compressed. The spring 1040 biases the needle unit 1030 towards a distal end of the syringe 1000 . With reference to FIGS. 39 and 40 , it can be seen that substantially arranged within the barrel 1010 of the syringe is movably disposed a plunger 1020 . The plunger 1020 , like the syringe body 1010 , includes an end flange 1021 which is typically engaged by the thumb of the user while the transverse flange 1011 is engaged by the fingers of the user in order to enable the plunger 1020 to be forced into the barrel 1010 for the purpose of expelling the medicament from the barrel 1010 through the needle 1032 . The plunger 1020 additionally includes a generally cylindrical space 1022 which is sized to receive therein the needle unit 1030 (similar to that shown in FIG. 5 ). A piston 1023 is arranged on a proximal end of the plunger 1010 . The plunger 1020 also utilizes a proximal engaging end 1024 which is sized and configured to engage with deflectable retaining members 1015 (similar to that shown in FIGS. 6 and 7 ) when the plunger 1020 is fully depressed. An inner seal or sealing member 1025 is arranged within the plunger 1020 . In a similar manner to that of FIGS. 6 and 7 , the seal 1025 has frangible circumferential projections which are sized and configured to break and/or shear off when the plunger 1020 is depressed to the point where the seal 1025 contacts the hub 1031 . Before the projections of the seal 1025 break, they provide sealing between the seal 1025 and the plunger 1020 . This sealing ensures that no medication or fluid passes into the plunger space 1022 until the seal 1025 is broken. As was the case in FIGS. 6 and 7 , to unsure that the needle unit 1030 is prevented from moving forwards when the plunger 1020 is fully depressed, a plurality of stop projections or ribs 1014 are arranged within the body 1018 (see FIG. 42 ). However, unlike the embodiment of FIG. 1 , because the instant embodiment provides for a separate and installable needle assembly, sealing is needed between the needle assembly and the barrel. Such sealing is provided by a sealing member 1080 . As can be seen in FIGS. 42-46 , the sealing member 1080 is sized and configured to slide within spacing 1019 and to seat in an annular groove 1019 b defined by the surface 1019 and an annular projection 1019 a . Sealing is ensured when the seal 1080 is caused to be compressed between flange 1018 b and the groove 1019 b . Non-limiting materials for the sealing member 1080 can include those typically used for sealing in syringes or other similar medical devices. When the needle assembly is installed on the barrel 1010 as shown in FIG. 39 , the generally cylindrical surface 1018 c is sized and configured to frictionally engage with an inner cylindrical surface of the barrel 1010 . In embodiments, both of these surfaces are slightly tapered to provide for better sealing. Also when the needle assembly is installed on the barrel 1010 as shown in FIG. 39 , the flange 1018 b arranged on main cylindrical surface 1018 a of the body 1018 is sized and configured to frictionally engage with an inner slightly tapered surface 1019 of the barrel 1010 . This ensures that the needle assembly is essentially wedged into the front end of the barrel 1010 and has the following functions: prevents leaking during injection, ensures that the needle assembly does not come out of frictional engagement with the barrel, and causes compression of the seal 1080 . The operation of the device shown FIGS. 38-46 will now be described. Once the user obtains the desired needle assembly NHA and is ready to install it on a syringe body assembly SBA as shown in FIG. 38 , he or she can grip the safety cap 1060 and install the needle assembly NHA on the syringe assembly SBA. Once assembled, the user can remove the safety cover 1060 . The device so shown in FIG. 39 can now be used for, e.g., injection. This can occur when the user injects the needle 1032 into a medication container and withdraws the plunger 1020 as shown in FIG. 40 . This causes medication fluid to fill the space in the body 1010 between the plunger piston 1023 and seal 1025 and the sealing member 1050 . As this point, the user can move the plunger 1020 forwards slightly to remove any air in the syringe. The needle 1032 can then be injected into a surface, e.g., tissue. Then, the user will depress the plunger 1020 to cause the medication to pass out of the needle 1032 . Once fully or nearly fully depressed, the proximal end 1024 of the plunger 1020 contacts the deflectable retaining members 1015 (see e.g., FIGS. 6 and 7 ) and causes them to deflect out of locking and/or retaining engagement with the hub 1031 . Since engagement between the deflectable retaining members 1015 and the hub 1031 is the only mechanism which prevents the spring 1040 from moving the needle unit 1030 backwards, once this engagement is removed, the needle unit 1030 will be forced backwards by the spring 1040 . Also, once fully or nearly fully depressed, the seal 1025 of the plunger 1020 contacts the rear surface of the hub 1031 . Since the ribs 1014 prevent any forward movement of the hub 1031 , contact between the seal 1025 and the hub 1031 causes the frangible sealing projections of the seal 1025 to shear or break. At this point, the spring 1040 automatically expands axially and pushes the needle unit 1030 and seal 1025 into the space 1022 disposed inside the plunger 1020 . This action withdraws the needle 1032 into the syringe and renders the device 1000 unusable. The once-used device 1000 can then be safely disposed of without the user having to worry about being accidently pricked by the needle 1032 , which is safely disposed inside the plunger 1020 . In embodiments, the engagement between the deflectable retaining members 1015 and the hub 1031 is removed or disengages prior to the sealing engagement between the seal 1025 and the plunger 1020 . In other embodiments, the engagement between the deflectable retaining members 1015 and the hub 1031 is removed or disengages just prior to the sealing engagement between the seal 1025 and the plunger 1020 . In embodiments, the engagement between the deflectable retaining members 1015 and the hub 1031 is not removed or disengaged until after the frangible sealing engagement between the seal 1025 and the plunger 1020 is broken. In embodiments, the engagement between the deflectable retaining members 1015 and the hub 1031 is not removed or disengaged until just after the frangible sealing engagement between the seal 1025 and the plunger 1020 is broken. In embodiments, the force required to unlock or remove the engagement between the deflectable retaining members 1015 and the hub 103 s less than that required to break the sealing engagement between the seal 1025 and the plunger 1020 . In embodiments, the force required to unlock or remove the engagement between the deflectable retaining members 1015 and the hub 1031 is greater than that required to break the sealing engagement between the seal 1025 and the plunger 1020 . In embodiments, the force required to unlock or remove the engagement between the deflectable retaining members 1015 and the hub 1031 is substantially equal to that required to break the sealing engagement between the seal 1025 and the plunger 1020 . In embodiments, a noise is produced (providing an auditory signal to the user) when the engagement between the deflectable retaining members 1015 and the hub 1031 is removed. In embodiments, a noise is produced (providing an auditory signal to the user) when the sealing engagement between the seal 1025 and the plunger 1020 is broken. In embodiments, a visual indication is produced (providing a visual signal to the user) when the engagement between the deflectable retaining members 1015 and the hub 1031 is removed. In embodiments, a visual indication is produced (providing a visual signal to the user) when the sealing engagement between the seal 1025 and the plunger 1020 is broken. Such visual indicators can be facilitated by making the plunger 1020 and body 1010 substantially transparent and/or translucent. FIG. 47 shows an enlarged view of an optional needle assembly which can be used in accordance with the invention. This embodiment is similar to that of FIG. 44 except that a rear cylindrical surface 1018 ′ c of the body 1018 ′ includes plural frictional sealing projections 1018 ′ c 1 and 1018 ′ c 2 to provide additional sealing and frictional retention with the barrel 1010 . This sealing/frictional engagement can be used with any of the embodiments shown or described with reference to FIGS. 38-63 . FIGS. 48 and 49 show enlarged views of another optional needle assembly which can be used in accordance with the invention. This embodiment is similar to that of FIG. 44 except that a rear cylindrical surface 1018 ″ c includes a groove 1018 ″ e and an installable seal member or O-ring 1018 ″ c 1 to provide additional sealing and frictional retention with the barrel. In FIG. 48 , the seal member 1018 ″ c 1 is shown in the groove 1018 ″ e . In FIG. 49 , the seal member 1018 ″ c 1 is shown removed from the groove 1018 ″ e . This sealing/frictional engagement can be used with any of the embodiments shown or described with reference to FIGS. 38-63 . FIGS. 50 and 51 show an optional configuration for a front portion of the barrel and the needle assembly in accordance with the invention. This embodiment is similar to that of FIG. 46 except that partial or interrupted thread(s) 2019 c are used to axially retain the needle assembly body 2018 on the barrel 2010 . The arrangement of FIGS. 50 and 51 functions as follows. When the user wishes to install the needle assembly shown in FIG. 51 in the open end 2013 of the barrel 2010 shown in FIG. 50 , he or she slides the needle assembly into the opening 2019 and causes the projections 2018 b to threadably engage with the partial threads 2019 c . This forces the projections 2018 b into contact with the seal member 2080 . As with previous embodiments, the seal 2080 is seated in a groove 2019 b defined by an annular projection 2019 a and the needle assembly has a body 2018 , a sealing member 2050 , a spring 2040 , an outer generally cylindrical surface 2018 a having the projections 2018 b , as well as a distal generally cylindrical surface 2018 c and a needle unit 2030 which can retract into the plunger (not shown). Moreover, because the projections 2018 b are spaced apart (and is not a continuous flange), sealing will not be ensured by the sealing member 2080 . As such, it is desirable to use sealing in at least one other location such as those shown in, e.g., FIGS. 47, 48, 62 and 64 . The arrangement of FIGS. 50 and 51 provides for a quick or easy threaded connection between the needle assembly and the syringe/plunger assembly. This provides for quick connect (and also disconnect—although not necessarily desirable) of the same merely by rotating the needle assembly relative to the barrel by a small angle of rotation. FIGS. 52-54 show an optional configuration for a front portion of the injection device in accordance with the invention. This embodiment is similar to that of FIG. 42 except that deflectable locking projections 3019 d are used to axially and non-removably retain the needle assembly body 3018 on the barrel 3010 . The arrangement of FIGS. 52-54 functions as follows. When the user wishes to install the needle assembly in the manner shown in FIG. 54 in the open end 3013 of the barrel 3010 , he or she slides the needle assembly into the opening 3019 and causes the projections 3019 d to deflect outwardly until the flange 3018 b contacts the seal 3080 . The projections 3019 d then automatically deflect back inwardly to an original or a locking position shown in FIG. 52 . The projections 3018 d then function to axially press the flange 3018 b into contact with the seal member 3080 . Each projection 3019 d moves within a space or opening 3019 e formed in the section 3013 of the barrel 3010 . As with previous embodiments, the needle assembly has a body 3018 , a sealing member 3050 , a spring 3040 , an outer generally cylindrical surface 3018 a having the flange 3018 b , as well as a distal generally cylindrical surface 3018 c and a needle unit 3030 which can retract into the plunger (not shown). Sealing will be ensured by the sealing member 3080 . However, it may also be desirable to use additional sealing in at least one other location such as those shown in, e.g., FIGS. 47, 48, 62 and 64 . The arrangement of FIGS. 52-54 provides for a quick or easy slide-on or snap connection between the needle assembly and the syringe/plunger assembly. This provides for quick non-releasable automatic connection (by preventing disconnection) of the same merely by sliding the needle assembly into the barrel by a predetermined amount—while also ensuring or enabling proper sealing at the same time. The sound, i.e., a click sound, provided by the projections 3019 d assuming the original locked position shown in FIG. 52 (after being deflected outwardly) provides an indication to the user that the needle assembly is fully and properly installed and that sealing of the same is ensured. FIGS. 55-58 show another optional configuration for a front portion of the injection device in accordance with the invention. This embodiment is similar to that of FIG. 42 except that an outer locking sleeve 4018 f is used to axially and non-removably retain the needle assembly body 4018 on the barrel 4010 . The arrangement of FIGS. 55-58 functions as follows. When the user wishes to install the needle assembly in the open end 4013 of the barrel 4010 , he or she slides the needle assembly onto the open end 4013 and causes the members 4018 j having projections 4018 i to deflect outwardly until the projections 40181 lock to the annular shoulder between section 4013 and section 4012 as shown in FIG. 55 . The members 4018 j automatically deflect back inwardly to an original or a locking position shown in FIG. 55 when the needle assembly is fully installed. The projections 4018 i thus ensure that the flange 4018 b is pressed into contact with the seal member 4080 . Each member 4018 j can deflect because of slots or openings 4018 h . An annular space 4018 g thus receives therein the end 4013 of the barrel 4010 . As with previous embodiments, the needle assembly has a body 4018 , a sealing member 4050 , a spring 4040 , a proximal hub section 4018 d , an outer generally cylindrical surface 4018 a having the flange 4018 b , as well as a distal generally cylindrical surface 4018 c and a needle unit 4030 which can retract into the plunger (not shown). The needle unit 4030 is retained in position by the deflectable members 4015 and includes a needle hub 4031 and a needle. Sealing will be ensured by the sealing member 4080 . However, it may also be desirable to use additional sealing in at least one other location such as those shown in, e.g., FIGS. 47, 48, 62 and 64 . The arrangement of FIGS. 55-58 provides for a quick or easy slide-on or snap connection between the needle assembly and the syringe/plunger assembly. This provides for quick non-releasable automatic connection (by preventing disconnection) of the same merely by sliding the needle assembly onto the barrel by a predetermined amount—while also ensuring or enabling proper sealing at the same time. The sound, i.e., a click sound, and the visual image of the fingers 4018 j assuming a generally cylindrical position as provided by the projections 4018 i assuming the original locked position shown in FIG. 55 (after being deflected outwardly) provides both a visual and audible indication to the user that the needle assembly is fully and properly installed and that sealing of the same is ensured. FIG. 59 shows another embodiment of the invention. This embodiment is similar to that of FIG. 38 except that the device additionally utilizes a removable retaining clip RC to ensure that the plunger is not fully depressed before or during installation of the needle assembly NHA on the barrel/plunger assembly SBA. Preferably, the user removes the retaining clip RC after installation of the needle assembly NHA on the barrel/plunger assembly SBA and just prior to use of the injection device. The removable retaining clip RC can also be used on any of the other herein disclosed embodiments. FIG. 60 shows an embodiment similar to that of FIG. 59 and utilizing a number of different needle assembles NHA 1 , NHA 2 and NHA 3 (i.e., assemblies with different needle lengths and diameters). The user can select one of the needle assemblies and install the selected one on the barrel/plunger assembly SBA. Each needle assembly has the same back-end configuration which allows it to be mounted on a common barrel/plunger assembly SBA. As is apparent from FIG. 60 , needle assembly NHA 1 utilizes a smaller diameter and shorter length needle than that of needle assembly NHA 3 . Needle assembly NHA 2 utilizes a smaller diameter needle than that of needle assembly NHA 3 . Preferably, each herein disclosed embodiment allows a user to select from a number of different needle assemblies for mounting on a common barrel/plunger assembly SBA. FIG. 61 shows a packaged needle assembly NHAP in accordance with one non-limiting embodiment of the invention. The package utilizes a needle outer cover 1060 A and a rear cover 1060 B. When the user wishes to install the needle assembly, he or she first removes the rear cover 1060 B from the front cover 1060 A, installs the needle assembly on the barrel/plunger assembly, and then removes the needle cover 1060 A. FIGS. 62 and 63 show another optional configuration for a front portion of the injection device in accordance with the invention. This embodiment is similar to that of FIG. 42 except that tapered locking projections LP are used to axially and non-removably retain the needle assembly on the barrel 5010 . The projections LP axially retain the flange 5018 b of the body 5018 and force it against the seal 5080 . The needle assembly, like those previously described, includes a spring 5040 , deflectable retaining members 5015 , and a needle unit 5030 . Furthermore, an additional real seal member ASM is arranged in a retaining groove RG and is used to provide additional sealing between the body 5018 and the barrel 5010 . In FIG. 62 , the additional seal ASM is shown in an installed position. In FIG. 63 , the additional seal ASM is shown in a non-installed position. This additional sealing arrangement can be used with any of the embodiments shown or described with reference to FIGS. 38-61 . FIG. 64 shows another optional configuration for a front portion of the injection device in accordance with the invention. This embodiment is similar to that of FIG. 62 except that tapered section 6018 f is used to help guide the body 6018 into the barrel 6010 during installation and especially into the secondary seal ASM′. The projections axially retain the flange of the body 6018 and force it against the seal 6080 . The needle assembly, like those previously described, includes a spring 6040 , deflectable retaining members 6015 , and a needle unit 6030 . Furthermore, the additional real seal member ASM′ is arranged in a retaining groove RG′ formed in the barrel 6010 and is used to provide additional sealing between the generally cylindrical surface 6018 c of the body 6018 and the barrel 6010 . This additional sealing arrangement can be used with any of the embodiments shown or described with reference to FIGS. 38-61 . FIGS. 65-68 and 83 show a front portion of the injection device in accordance with another embodiment of the invention. This embodiment is similar to that of FIG. 52 except that except that the needle unit is separated into two main components. A first component or assembly 7030 A utilizes a needle hub portion 7031 which is axially retained in a front section of the syringe via deflectable members 7015 and has a universal or standard receiving interface SI. The standard receiving interface SI can be of any type such as a luer lock or luer-lok. In this way, the same or different needles (or types of needles) having or sharing a common and/or the same connecting interface can be coupled to the syringe. A second component or assembly 7030 B utilizes a needle N and a standard interface hub NH which can be sealingly connected to the standard receiving interface SI of the first component 7030 A. A sealing ring 7050 (see FIG. 83 ) is utilized to seal the member 7031 to the body 7018 . A spring 7040 biases the member 7031 towards a retracted position. A needle assembly body 7018 is axially and sealingly retained on the barrel 7010 via members 7019 d and seal 7080 as in the arrangement of FIG. 52 and functions as follows. When the user wishes to install the needle assembly 7030 A/ 7018 (with or without the needle member 7030 B) in the manner similar to that shown in FIG. 54 in the open end 7019 of the barrel 7010 , he or she slides the needle assembly into the opening 7019 and causes the projections 7019 d to deflect outwardly until the flange 7018 b contacts the seal 7080 . The projections 7019 d then automatically deflect back inwardly to an original or a locking position shown in FIG. 65 . The projections 7018 d then function to axially press the flange 7018 b into contact with the seal member 7080 . Each projection 7019 d moves within a space or opening formed in the section 7013 of the barrel 7010 . As with previous embodiments, the needle assembly has a body 7018 , a sealing member 7050 , a spring 7040 , an outer generally cylindrical surface having the flange 7018 b , further includes a two-component a needle unit 7030 A and 7030 B which can retract (see FIG. 68 ) into the plunger (not shown). The arrangement of FIGS. 65-68 and 83 provides for a quick or easy slide-on or snap connection between the needle assembly and the syringe/plunger assembly and also allows different size or types of needle members 7030 B having a common interface to be connected to the syringe. This provides for quick non-releasable automatic connection (by preventing disconnection) of the body 7018 merely by sliding the needle assembly into the barrel by a predetermined amount—while also ensuring or enabling proper sealing at the same time. The sound, i.e., a click sound, provided by the projections 7019 d assuming the original locked position shown in FIG. 65 (after being deflected outwardly) provides an indication to the user that the needle assembly is fully and properly installed and that sealing of the same is ensured. FIG. 69 shows a configuration for a front portion of the injection device in accordance with another non-limiting embodiment the invention. This embodiment is similar to that of FIG. 65 with the exception of how sealing is provided between the first component 7030 A′ and the body 7018 ′. In this embodiment, a larger seal ring 7050 ′ functions to seal a forward facing axial surface of the member 7031 ′ to a rear-facing annular surface of the body 7018 ′. A spring 7040 ′ biases the member 7031 ′ towards a retracted position. The needle assembly body 7018 ′ is axially and sealingly retained on the barrel 7010 ′ via members 7019 d′. FIG. 70 shows a configuration for a front portion of the injection device in accordance with another non-limiting embodiment the invention. This embodiment is similar to that of FIG. 69 with the exception of how sealing is provided between the first component 7030 A″ and the body 7018 ″. In this embodiment, a pressure activated seal ring 7050 ″ functions to seal a forward facing axial surface of the member 7031 ″ to a rear-facing annular surface of the body 7018 ″. FIG. 71 shows a configuration for a front portion of the injection device in accordance with another non-limiting embodiment the invention. This embodiment is similar to that of FIG. 69 with the exception of how sealing is provided between the first component 7030 A′″ and the body 7018 ′. In this embodiment, a larger seal ring 7050 ″ functions to seal a forward facing axial surface of the member 7031 ′″ to a rear-facing annular surface of the body 7018 ″. Additional sealing is provided by a circumferential projection P. FIGS. 72 and 73 show a configuration for a front portion of the injection device in accordance with another non-limiting embodiment the invention. This embodiment is similar to that of FIG. 69 with the exception of how sealing is provided between the first component 7030 A IV and the body 7018 IV . In this embodiment, a seal ring 7050 IV functions to seal an outer circumferential surface of the member 7031 IV to a rear-facing annular surface of the body 7018 IV . The seal ring 7050 IV is maintained in sealing position by the spring 7040 IV . FIGS. 74-76 show a configuration for a front portion of the injection device in accordance with another non-limiting embodiment the invention. This embodiment is similar to that of FIG. 1 except that first and second components are utilized as in the embodiment of FIG. 65 . Additionally, different sealing, i.e., seal ring 8050 , is provided between the first component 8030 A and the integrally formed front part 8013 of the syringe body 8010 . The arrangement of FIG. 74 provides for a quick or easy connection between the needle assembly 8030 B and the syringe/plunger assembly and also allows different size or types of needle members 8030 B having a common interface to be connected to the first component 8030 A of the syringe so that both the components 8030 A/ 8030 B can retract into the plunger 8020 . FIGS. 77 and 78 show a front portion of the injection device in accordance with another non-limiting embodiment the invention. This embodiment is similar to that of FIG. 74 except that a lockable separable plunger seal 8025 ′ is utilized which can lock to the first component 8030 A′. The arrangement of FIGS. 77 and 78 provides for a quick or easy connection between a needle assembly (shot shown in FIGS. 77 and 78 ) and the syringe/plunger assembly and also allows different size or types of needle members having a common interface to be connected to the first component 8030 A′ of the syringe so that both the components 8030 A′ (with the needle member mated thereto) can retract into the plunger 8020 ′ when the plunger 8020 ′ is fully depressed. As can be appreciated from a review of FIGS. 77 and 78 , as the plunger 8020 ′ moves toward the fully depressed position, a forward projecting end of the seal 8025 ′ enters into an opening formed in member 8030 A′ as shown in FIG. 77 . This movement continues until the projecting end locks into the member 8030 A′. Simultaneously, a rear-facing annular projecting flange of the member 8030 A′ engages with the seal 8025 ′ and causes it to deflect radially inwardly and thereby becomes unsealed (or breaks the sealing engagement) with the plunger 8020 ′ as shown in FIG. 78 . During this movement, the forward end of the plunger 8020 ′ also causes deflection or disengagement of the members 8015 ′ retaining the member 8030 A′. As this point, nothing remains to prevent the spring 8040 ′ from causing the member 8030 A′ (with the needle member attached to a front end thereof and the seal 8025 ′ locked to a rear end thereof) to retract into the plunger 8020 ′. FIGS. 79 and 80 show a front portion of the injection device in accordance with another non-limiting embodiment the invention. This embodiment is similar to that of FIG. 74 except that the front portion 9013 of the syringe is threadably connected to a front end of the syringe main body 9010 . The member 9030 A which contains a standard interface is mounted to the front portion 9013 . As shown in FIG. 80 , external threads ET of the front portion 9013 are configured to threadably engage with internal threads IT of the body 9010 . This system or arrangement has at least two advantageous. First, it allows for easier installation of the member 9030 A. It also allows a user to attach different types of front sections 9013 onto a common syringe body 9010 . FIGS. 81 and 82 show a front portion of the injection device in accordance with another non-limiting embodiment the invention. This embodiment is similar to that of FIG. 79 except that it is differently threadably connected to a front end of the syringe main body. The front portion 9013 ′ of the syringe is threadably connected to a front end of the syringe main body 9010 ′. The member 9030 A′ which contains a standard interface is however mounted to the front end of the body 9010 ′. As shown in FIG. 82 , external threads ET′ of the front portion 9013 ′ are configured to threadably engage with internal threads IT′ of the body 9010 ′. This system or arrangement has at least one advantageous. It allows for easier installation of the member 9030 A′ during assembly of the syringe. As in the previous embodiment, this embodiment utilizes a spring 9040 ′ and a seal 9050 ′. FIG. 84 shows one way in which a user can mount a front portion, e.g., the embodiment of FIG. 65 , on a syringe. According to this embodiment, the user can remove a safety cover NHA′ and install a needle member (similar to that shown installed in FIG. 84 ) in the manner shown in FIG. 67 . The safety cover NHA′ is used to maintain the interface in a sterile condition until the front portion is installed on the syringe body. To use the syringe shown in FIG. 84 , a user removes the safety cover NHA′, installs a needle member, and depresses the plunger of the syringe during injection. Once fully depressed, the syringe is rendered un-usable and the needle member remains safely disposed in the plunger. FIG. 85 shows another way in which a user can mount a front portion of on a syringe. According to this embodiment, the syringe is packaged with a needle member already installed on the standard interface and maintained in a sterile condition by the safety cover NHA′. The user can install the front portion on the syringe body and then remove the safety cover NHA′ and use the syringe. The devices described herein can also utilize one or more features disclosed in prior art documents expressly incorporated by reference in pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/616,196 (Publication No. 2008/0154212). This application and the documents expressly incorporated therein is hereby expressly incorporated by reference in the instant application. Furthermore, one or more of the various parts of the device can preferably be made as one-piece structures by e.g., injection molding, when doing so reduces costs of manufacture. Non-limiting materials for most of the parts include synthetic resins such as those approved for syringes, blood collection devices, or other medical devices. Furthermore, the invention also contemplates that any or all disclosed features of one embodiment may be used on other disclosed embodiments, to the extent such modifications function for their intended purpose. It is noted that the foregoing examples have been provided merely for the purpose of explanation and are in no way to be construed as limiting of the present invention. While the present invention has been described with reference to an exemplary embodiment, it is understood that the words which have been used herein are words of description and illustration, rather than words of limitation. Changes may be made, within the purview of the appended claims, as presently stated and as amended, without departing from the scope and spirit of the present invention in its aspects. Although the present invention has been described herein with reference to particular means, materials and embodiments, the present invention is not intended to be limited to the particulars disclosed herein; rather, the present invention extends to all functionally equivalent structures, methods and uses, such as are within the scope of the appended claims.

An injection device including a barrel, a hollow plunger having a portion structured and arranged to move within the barrel, a needle unit, and a safety system that one of automatically causes the needle unit to retract into the plunger when the plunger reaches a substantially fully depressed position. This Abstract is not intended to define the invention disclosed in the specification, nor intended to limit the scope of the invention in any way.

This patent application is a continuation of application Ser. No. 09/268,565 filed on Mar. 15, 1999, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,130,174, which in turn is a continuation of application Ser. No. 08/699,804 filed on Aug. 19, 1996 now abandoned and incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to sheet material usable by a consumer and more particularly to laminate sheet materials having a smooth upper surface and a foam body usable as drawer liners, shelf liners, appliance underlayments and the like. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Consumers use a wide variety of sheet materials in and around the home as an underlayment and lining material. Decorative papers have been used for many years to line drawers and shelves. Some decorative papers are provided with an adhesive on one side to provide a more permanent lining. Plastic materials, such as polyvinyl chloride, have also been provided in sheet form for use by consumers as liners. Some of these plastic materials are provided as a simple sheet. Other plastic materials are provided with an adhesive on one side for a more permanent installation. For more than a year, consumers have also been provided with foam plastic materials for use as liners. These materials provide cushioning and are also less prone to slipping. One such material consists of a loosely woven fabric scrim with a foam polyvinyl chloride coating. This material is noncontinuous in that the openings between many of the adjacent scrim fibers remain open after the application of the foam. The foam has a nonslip characteristic but is not an adhesive. This material provides good cushioning and nonslip characteristics. It has been well received in the consumer marketplace and used widely as a lining material and underlayment. Such foam covered scrim sheet material is commercially available in various sizes. Companies such as Griptex Industries, Inc. of Alpharetta, Ga. and American Nonslip produce such materials commercially. All of the above described materials have negative aspects. Paper or plastic nonadhesive shelf lining can slide around on the surface to which it is applied. In drawers in particular, such linings can become bunched up and pushed to the rear of the area sought to be protected. Such shelf linings do not provide cushioning or protection for things placed on a shelf or in a drawer. Adhesive paper or plastic shelf liners do not normally become bunched up or slide when first installed. However, thereafter, portion of the adhesive may dry out allowing the lining to slide and become bunched up. In other situations, the adhesive sticks to the surface under the lining paper even when the lining paper is removed. This can mar a surface and leave an objectionable, sticky, discolored area on a shelf or in a drawer. On the other hand, foam plastic covered scrim shelf linings have their own problems. While they do not slide on a shelf or in a drawer and can be removed, they prevent objects placed on them from sliding. A homeowner cannot put a cup on a shelf and slide it along that shelf to a desired position. Rather, it must be picked up and moved. The scrim based shelf linings are also noncontinuous. They have numerous openings forming part of the product. The appearance is therefore often not as pleasing to consumers as what can be achieved on a continuous paper or plastic surface. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is the principle object of the invention to provide a shelf lining material overcoming the above referred to negative aspects which is nonslip, nonadhesive and provides a continuous top surface. It is another object of the present invention to provide a lining material having an upper surface which is pleasing in appearance, colorful and smooth. It is still another object of the present invention to provide a shelf lining product which is easily cut with scissors, will maintain its shape and position, is not adhesive, and has a continuous smooth top surface. In accordance with the present invention, there is provided a laminate product comprised of a scrim based plastic foam sheet layer and a thin continuous smooth surface layer bound thereto. Further in accordance with the invention, the scrim based foam plastic layer is of the type commercially available providing nonslip characteristics. Still further in accordance with the invention, the smooth surfaced thin continuous sheet material is bound to the foam scrim layer by means of adhesive or thermal binding. Yet further in accordance with the invention, the smooth sheet layer is bound to the scrim-foam layer by means of an adhesive. Still further in accordance with the invention, the thin sheet smooth surfaced layer is a continuous sheet of smooth plastic such as polyvinyl chloride. Yet further in accordance with the invention, the thin sheet smooth material is a plastic material having a coating of pressure sensitive adhesive thereon which is applied to the scrim foam material providing a finished product. DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The invention may take physical form in certain parts and arrangements of parts, a preferred embodiment of which will be described in detail in the specification and illustrated in the accompanying drawings which form a part hereof and wherein: FIG. 1 is a plan view of the laminate of the present invention looking at the bottom side; FIG. 2 is a cross section of the present invention; FIG. 3 is a schematic plan view of the scrim based material used in the invention; and, FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram of a method and apparatus for making the smooth foam laminate seen in FIGS. 1 and 2 . DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Referring now to the drawings wherein the showings are made for the purposes of illustrating a preferred embodiment of the invention only and not for purposes of limiting same, FIGS. 1 and 2 show a laminate 10 . The laminate 10 comprises a smooth continuous top layer 12 and a noncontinuous porous foam bottom layer 14 . The bottom layer 14 comprises a loosely woven scrim 16 (FIG. 3) having a rubber or plastic material 18 foamed onto the scrim. The threads 22 of the scrim 16 are loosely woven having large apertures 24 between adjacent threads 22 . A preferred material has at least some threads spaced at least about 0.05 inches apart. When the foam material is applied to the scrim, it does not fill in the apertures 24 between adjacent threads 22 but merely form thicker strings around the scrim threads 22 . When cured, the resulting material has a nonslip characteristic. This foam plastic covered scrim material forming the bottom layer 14 is conventional and commercially available. Portions of the foam bottom layer have a thickness of about 0.03 to 0.12 inches; preferably 0.05 to 0.1 inches. Thinner or thicker foam covered scrim layers may also be used. The top layer 12 is smooth and continuous. In a preferred embodiment, the top layer is a continuous flexible plastic sheet having a thickness of about 0.004 inches to 0.008 inches and an adhesive backing 26 . The top layer 12 is much thinner than the bottom layer 14 . Textured or smooth continuous plastic or paper films can be used. In the preferred embodiment, a vinyl plastic film is used. A method of manufacturing the laminate product 10 is shown in FIG. 4. A foamed scrim material supply reel 32 is driven to supply scrim material 34 (as seen in FIG. 3) at a selected rate. The scrim material 34 passes over and in contact with an adhesive transfer roller 36 . The adhesive transfer roller 36 is rotated so that its periphery has the same speed as the moving scrim material 34 . The adhesive transfer roller picks up adhesive 30 from an adhesive supply 38 and transfers the adhesive 30 to the underside 42 of the scrim material 34 . A sheet material supply reel 44 is driven to supply sheet material 46 at a rate identical to the supply speed of the scrim material 34 . The scrim material, covered with adhesive, and the sheet material 46 are pressed together in pinch rollers 48 . The united material passes through a drying oven 52 and is gathered on a take-up reel 54 . In this particular arrangement, the united material passes through the oven 52 with what has been previously referred to as the “top layer” on the bottom and the “bottom layer” 14 on the top. This allows the united material to be supported on support rollers without undue adhesive transfer. The adhesive 30 in the adhesive supply 38 is any of the commercially available laminating adhesives which are often water based. The adhesive in the supply 38 is coated only onto the scrim portions which contact the transfer roller 36 . As the scrim material 34 is discontinuous and has many openings, the portions of the sheet material 46 which do not come into contact with scrim material 34 in the pinch roller 48 remain free of adhesive. Adhesive is only applied where it is needed, at the place where the scrim material 34 and the sheet material 46 meet one another. Because the adhesive contained in the adhesive supply 38 is water based, the heating oven 52 is kept relatively cool. Its function is to drive off the moisture in the adhesive. Because the temperature is kept relatively low, stretching and warping of the product is avoided. A hot melt adhesive could also be used. Such an adhesive would not require a drying oven. Alternatively, the sheet material 46 can be supplied with an adhesive coating already in place. Such materials are widely available and sold to consumers as shelf lining material, labels and the like. Such materials are available based on a plastic film, a paper film, and also on composite films. Any type of adhesive coated film can be selected to provide a smooth, textured, colored or printed surface as desired. The same choices may be made in selecting a film which is not precoated with adhesive. Obviously, when a film 46 is selected having an adhesive precoating, the coating of a laminating adhesive onto the scrim material 34 is dispensed with. However, an adhesive free film can be coated as described above and a scrim layer pressed to the coated layer in pinch rollers. The invention has been described with reference to a preferred embodiment and several variations thereon. Obviously, modifications and alterations will occur to others upon the reading and understanding of this specification and it is intended to include such modifications and alterations insofar as to come within the scope of the appended claims or the equivalents thereof.

A laminate material having nonslip characteristics on one surface and a smooth surface on the other side is provided. The material is created by laminating together a smooth film and a plastic foam surrounding a scrim having nonslip characteristics.

CLAIM OF PRIORITY [0001] This application claims priority to an application entitled “Local Switching Method Using Logical Link ID in Ethernet Passive Optical Network System,” filed in the Korean Intellectual Property Office on Feb. 14, 2005 and assigned Serial No. 2005-12087, the contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] 1. Field of the Invention [0003] The present invention relates an Ethernet passive optical network (EPON) system, and more particularly to a method for providing a local switching in an EPON system. [0004] 2. Description of the Related Art [0005] A passive optical network (PON) system is defined by a distribution topology of a tree-like structure having a plurality of optical network units (ONUs) coupled to an optical line termination (OLT) using a 1×N optical distribution network (ODN). This PON system may be classified into an EPON, GPON, CDMA-PON, WDM-PON, and others. [0006] In the current EPON system, a user of an ONU cannot communicate with another user associated with the same OLT. This is because it is impossible to retransmit frames, which have been transmitted to an input port, to the same port, according to the Ethernet protocol that is the basis of the EPON. In order to solve this, a method of separating subscribers into virtual LANs (VLANs) in a Layer 3 (L3) function using an L3 switch provided at an upper end of the OLT in the EPON has been researched. [0007] FIG. 1 is a view illustrating the construction of a conventional EPON system using an L3 switch, in which OLT 12 is connected to a plurality of ONUs 13 - 1 to 13 - n, and each of the ONUs 13 - 1 to 13 - n is provided with a user port. [0008] The OLT 12 transmits/receives data to/from the ONUs 13 - 1 to 13 - n. Here, the data includes LAN traffic 102 - 1 , 102 - n, 131 - 1 , 131 - 2 , 131 - 3 , 131 - 4 and 131 - 5 for short-distance communications, and wide area network (WAN) traffic 101 - 1 , 103 - 1 , 101 - n and 103 - n for long-distance communications. [0009] As described above, the transmission of the LAN traffic 131 - 1 , 131 - 2 , 131 - 3 , 131 - 4 and 131 - 5 for communications with ONUs in the OLT 12 , among the LAN traffic 102 - 1 , 102 - n, 131 - 1 , 131 - 2 , 131 - 3 , 131 - 4 and 131 - 5 cannot be performed due to the limitations in the Ethernet communication design. [0010] Accordingly, the LAN traffic 102 - 1 , 102 - n, 131 - 1 , 31 - 2 , 131 - 3 , 131 - 4 and 131 - 5 , and the WAN traffic 101 - 1 , 103 - 1 , 101 - n and 103 - n are transmitted to an outside of the OLT 12 ( 113 and 114 ), re-inputted to the OLT 12 by being switched through an external Layer 3 (L 3 ) switch 11 for subsequent transmissions to the respective ONUs. [0011] However, the operation of the L3 switch located outside the OLT as described above is not desirable in terms of its operation and the efficient usage of an Internet protocol (IP). Accordingly, the transfer of the LAN traffic within the OLT should be performed in other improved ways. A new device must be developed, and in order for such hardware to be added to the EPON system, the hardware logic of the whole EPON system must be changed. Further, there is a need for securing a quality of service (QoS) for internal traffic in an EPON local switching environment when performing the transfer of the LAN traffic. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0012] Accordingly, the present invention has been designed to solve the above and other problems occurring in the prior art and further provides additional advantages, by providing a local switching method using a logical link ID (LLID) in an EPON system that can implement a local switching function through a software change in the EPON system, by allocating the LLID to the respective traffic in an ONU, and secure the QoS for the locally switched traffic. [0013] In one embodiment, there is provided a local switching method using a logical link ID (LLID) in an Ethernet passive optical network (EPON) system, which includes a first step of an optical network unit (ONU) receiving and separating data inputted through a user port into a wide area network (WAN) traffic and a local area network (LAN) traffic, allocating the LLID according to a service for each traffic to the separated WAN traffic and LAN traffic, and transmitting the WAN traffic and LAN traffic with the LLIDs allocated thereto; and a second step of an optical line termination (OLT) receiving the WAN traffic and LAN traffic with the LLIDs allocated thereto transferred from the ONU, extracting a destination of the corresponding traffic through the LLIDs, and transmitting the respective traffic accordingly. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0014] The above features and advantages of the present invention will be more apparent from the following detailed description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: [0015] FIG. 1 illustrates the construction of an exemplary conventional EPON system using an L3 switch; [0016] FIG. 2 is a view illustrating the construction of an EPON system to which a local switching method using an LLID is applied according to an embodiment of the present invention; [0017] FIG. 3 is a view illustrating a detailed construction of an ONU in the EPON system to which a local switching method using an LLID is applied according to an embodiment of the present invention; [0018] FIG. 4 is a flowchart illustrating a local switching method using an LLID of an ONU in an EPON system according to an embodiment of the present invention; and [0019] FIG. 5 is a flowchart illustrating a local switching method using an LLID of an OLT in an EPON system according to an embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0020] Hereinafter, embodiments of the present invention will be described in detail with reference to the accompanying drawings. For the purposes of clarity and simplicity, a detailed description of well-known functions and configurations incorporated herein will be omitted as it may obscure the subject matter of the present invention. [0021] FIG. 2 is a view illustrating the construction of an EPON system to which a local switching method using an LLID is applied according to an embodiment of the present invention. [0022] As shown, OLT 12 is connected to a plurality of ONUs 13 - 1 to 13 - n, and each of the ONUs 13 - 1 to 13 - n is provided with a user port. [0023] In operation, the OLT 12 transmits/receives data to/from the ONUs 13 - 1 to 13 - n, and the data includes LAN traffic 202 - 1 and 203 - n for short-distance communications as well as WAN traffic 201 - 1 and 204 - n for long-distance communications. [0024] Briefly, the EPON system using the LLID according to the present invention separates the LAN traffic 202 - 1 and 203 - n and the WAN traffic 201 - 1 and 204 - n inputted through a user port using a classification function of the ONU, and transmits the separated traffic to different ports. [0025] The EPON system allocates LLIDs to the WAN traffic and the LAN traffic according to the type of the traffic. That is, the WAN traffic and the LAN traffic inputted to the user ports of the ONUs 13 - 1 and 13 - n are separated into the WAN traffic and the LAN traffic according to the classification functions of the ONUs 13 - 1 and 13 - n, and transmitted to the OLT 12 through different ports. [0026] The OLT 12 has a self routing table for a traffic transmission, and performs a routing of the WAN traffic 201 - 1 and 204 - n transmitted to the OLT 12 using the routing table. Particularly, if no corresponding destination exists in the routing table in the case of the WAN traffic, the OLT 12 transfers the WAN traffic to an upper WAN interface ( 205 ), and transmits the LAN traffic to an address of another ONU that is registered in the corresponding routing table to the destination in the case of the LAN traffic 202 - 1 and 203 - n, so as to perform a local switching operation. [0027] In this case, in order to secure the QoS of the LAN traffic 202 - 1 and 203 - n, the ONUs 13 - 1 and 13 - n can prevent a packet loss with respect to a specified traffic by separating the traffic using the classification function and allocating specified queues to the respective traffic. Also, since it is possible to allocate weight values of a dynamic bandwidth allocation (DBA), which is one of band allocation methods of the EPON system, to the specified traffic during an upper transmission, this function can be used for the traffic that require the security of QoS. [0028] The reason that the ONUs allocate specified queues to the traffic and assign the weight value of DBA is that the characteristics of the traffic can be recognized by the OLT 12 by separating the respective traffic and allocating the LLIDs to the traffic separated according to the classification. [0029] In addition, in the case of transmitting down-data, it is possible to secure the QoS through the DBA weight value allocation and the specified queue allocation in the same manner as the case of transmitting up-data as described above. [0030] FIG. 3 is a view illustrating the detailed construction of an ONU in the EPON system which a local switching method using an LLID is applied according to an embodiment of the present invention. [0031] Referring to FIG. 3 , the ONU in the EPON system, to which the local switching method using the LLID according to the present invention is applied, includes an Ethernet switch 31 for receiving and separating the LAN traffic 202 - 1 and the WAN traffic 201 - 1 inputted through the user port, and a classification control unit 32 for allocating the LLIDs according to the types of the traffic inputted from the Ethernet switch 31 through the respective ports, and transferring the traffic with the LLIDs allocated thereto to the OLT 12 . [0032] In particular, the classification control unit 32 may further include a control function of allocating the DBA weight values to a specified traffic and setting specified queues to the specified traffic in order to secure the QoS. [0033] FIG. 4 is a flowchart illustrating a local switching method using an LLID of an ONU in an EPON system according to an embodiment of the present invention. [0034] Referring to FIG. 4 , in the EPON system to which the local switching method using the LLID is applied according to the present invention, the ONU receives the WAN traffic and the LAN traffic from a user port ( 41 ). Then, the ONU separates them into the WAN traffic and the LAN traffic according to the classification function ( 42 ). [0035] Then, the ONU allocates LLIDs according to services for the respective traffic to the separated WAN traffic and LAN traffic ( 43 ). [0036] Then, the ONU sets and transmits the queuing for the LLIDs for the respective services and the DBA weight values to the OLT ( 44 ). [0037] FIG. 5 is a detailed flowchart illustrating a local switching method using an LLID of an OLT in an EPON system according to an embodiment of the present invention. [0038] As illustrated in FIG. 5 , in the EPON system to which the local switching method using the LLID is applied according to the present invention, the OLT receives traffic data composed of the WAN traffic and the LAN traffic from the ONU ( 51 ). [0039] Then, the OLT confirms whether the received traffic is the LAN traffic, and if the received traffic is the LAN traffic as a result of confirmation, it extracts the destination of the corresponding traffic ( 53 ), and transmits the corresponding traffic to the extracted destination with reference to a built-in destination routing table ( 54 ). Here, the OLT applies a control function for securing the QoS such as the queuing according to the LLID from the ONU and the DBA weight value setting to the traffic to perform a down-transmission of the traffic. [0040] If the received traffic is not the LAN traffic as a result of confirmation, the OLT extracts the destination of the corresponding traffic ( 55 ), and confirms whether the extracted destination exists in the built-in destination routing table ( 56 ). If the corresponding destination exists, the OLT transmits the corresponding traffic to the corresponding destination ( 57 ). If no corresponding destination exists, the OLT transmits the corresponding traffic to an upper WAN interface ( 58 ). [0041] Through the above-described operation, the local switching operation for switching and transmitting the LAN traffic transferred from the ONU to the ONU in the same OLT is performed. The inventive operation can be performed through a softwired process without the necessity of a new construction. Accordingly, the local switching operation according to the present invention can be achieved only by upgrading the software of the EPON system. [0042] As described above, according to the present invention, the local switching function can be implemented only by changing the software in the EPON system by allocating the LLIDs to the respective traffic. In addition, the present invention can secure the QoS for the traffic according to the local switching function using internal software of the EPON system. [0043] It should be noted that the method according to the present invention as described above may be implemented by a program and stored in a recording medium (such as a CD-ROM, RAM, floppy disk, hard disk, optomagnetic disk, and others) in a computer-readable form. [0044] While the present invention has been shown and described with reference to certain preferred embodiments thereof, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes in form and details may be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention as defined by the appended claims.

A local switching method using a logical link ID (LLID) in an Ethernet passive optical network (EPON) system is disclosed. The local switching method includes a first step of an optical network unit (ONU) receiving and separating data inputted through a user port into a wide area network (WAN) traffic and a local area network (LAN) traffic, allocating the LLID according to a service for each traffic to the separated WAN traffic and LAN traffic, and transmitting the WAN traffic and LAN traffic with the LLIDs allocated thereto; and a second step of an optical line termination (OLT) receiving the WAN traffic and LAN traffic with the LLIDs allocated thereto transferred from the ONU, extracting a destination of the corresponding traffic through the LLIDs, and transmitting the respective traffic accordingly.

This is a Continuation Application of application Ser. No. 07/904,807, filed Jun. 26, 1992, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,524,268. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates generally to digital computer systems, particularly to disk drive controllers. More particularly, the invention relates to disk drive controllers which utilize a standard know as SCSI (Small Computer System Interface) and a newer standard known as SCSI-2. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The invented controller is the combination of: an intelligent interface to a SCSI bus, a multi-port buffer memory manager, a formatter, and a local processor port. With the addition of a few components for the device-level interface, the invented controller along with a buffer RAM, a local processor system, and an optional data separator completes a high performance disk, or other mass storage, controller subsystem. The invention is particularly directed to (1) the dual use of a buffer memory as data buffer storage and for storage of instructions to be executed by a SCSI-protocol processor, (2) the architecture of the interface to the SCSI bus, and (3) the instruction set of the SCSI-protocol processor. It is an object of the invention to create a flexible SCSI disk controller that can execute basic SCSI instructions within hardware while allowing more complex instructions to be created in firmware (or software). It is an object of the invention to maximize command transfer rates between the host and the SCSI-protocol controller (the invention). It is an object of the invention to relieve the local hard disk micro-controller of the tasks of performing SCSI instruction processing. It is an object of the invention to automatically support multiple hosts and drivers operating with different data rates and various SCSI protocols. A still further object is to design an SCSI-protocol processor that efficiently functions despite large arbitration latencies between the buffer memory and the SCSI/disk controller. Another object of the invention is to support Queue Tag message protocol and SCSI Transfer Parameter message negotiations in order to increase the SCSI transaction throughput. BRIEF DESCRIPTIONS OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a block level diagram of the invented controller in relationship to other elements of a disk drive controller system. FIG. 2 is a block level diagram of the SCSI-protocol processor interface. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Appendix A, filed herewith and entitled CL-SH4500 Wile E. Coyote Integrated SCSI Disk Controller Engineering Specification, is hereby incorporated by reference. As shown in FIG. 1, the invented controller 11 comprises a local processor interface 13, buffer manager 15, disk drive interface 17, Host/SCSI interface 19, SCSI-protocol processor 21, formatter 23, and error correction circuitry (ECC) 25. The buffer manager is coupled to a buffer memory 27. The local processor interface is coupled to local processor 31 and local memory 33 which stores the instructions to be executed by the local processor 31. Disk drive interface 17 is coupled to disk drive 37. Host/SCSI interface 19 is coupled to SCSI bus 39 which, although not shown in FIG. 1, is coupled to the host computer through the host's SCSI interface. Excepting for the data, address and control buses between buffer manager 15 and buffer memory 27, also not shown in FIG. 1 are the various control lines and buses between the various components. However, the details of such couplings would be design choices which would be readily determinable by persons skilled in the field of the invention based upon the descriptions contained herein. Formatter 23, ECC 25, disk drive interface 17 and disk drive 37 are shown for completeness, but such elements do not form part of the invented system and, therefore, will not be described herein. OVERVIEW DESCRIPTION OF ELEMENTS LOCAL PROCESSOR OVERVIEW Local processor 31 provides the invented controller with initial operating parameters that may include disk sector format, the type and size of buffer memory, and SCSI configuration. During SCSI-protocol negotiations and data transfer operations, the invented controller requires only minimal intervention from the local processor. The processor to controller communication path can interface to commercially available microprocessors such as the Intel 80C196 class of controllers or the Motorola MC680x0 series. The invented controller has centralized status registers with programmable interrupt mask and steering capabilities. These features allow firmware developers flexibility for writing either polled loops, interrupt handlers or control threads to provide the real-time process control critical in embedded controller drive applications. SCSI INTERFACE OVERVIEW SCSI/host interface 19 is designed for compliance with the proposed SCSI-2 specification. A single-cable sixteen-bit SCSI configuration is also supported. This includes sixteen-bit transfer in the data phase, sixteen-bit arbitration and sixteen-bit selection phases. The SCSI interface logic includes integrated high current drivers for the single-ended option as well as signals to control external logic necessary to implement a SCSI system with differential transceivers. Asynchronous, synchronous and fast synchronous SCSI transfer handshake protocols are supported in both Initiator and Target modes. The SCSI protocol overhead is controlled by the embedded SCSI-protocol processor 21. The SCSI-protocol processor program and data are stored in the buffer RAM 27. The user can define both the sequences and the automation levels that will be supported. This implementation of the SCSI interface helps simplify the local processor's SCSI protocol firmware and reduces the overall time required for SCSI transactions. BUFFER MANAGER OVERVIEW Buffer manager 15 controls the flow of data to and from the buffer memory 27. The buffer manager provides support for automated streaming (data flow control) of data between disk drive interface 17 and SCSI/host interface 19, or for treating these interfaces independently (as in queued command processing). The buffer manager schedules (using time interleaved access cycles) buffer access requests from each of the independent direct memory access (DMA) channels, including: SCSI data path, disk data path, local processor buffer access, SCSI-protocol processor instruction access, DRAM Refresh, and any other required channel. The buffer manager provides for several types of disk/SCSI streaming operations, with controlled minimum and maximum burst lengths. These streaming operations can use a variable-size circular buffer or variable-size non-consecutive segments (as is convenient for least recently used caching). The physical buffer memory 27 may be implemented with static or dynamic RAM devices. The buffer manager provides all of the necessary address and control signals for RAM devices and for 8-bit data paths or 16-bit data paths. Up to 512 kilobytes of SRAM or up to 8 megabytes of DRAM can be directly addressed by the invented controller. The local processor 31 can read or write to the scheduled access pod, which uses a Local Address Pointer for the buffer memory address. Each access can be configured to increment the Local Address Pointer. The buffer manager can also perform memory-to-memory block copy and compare operations. The block copy operation is convenient for de-fragmenting cached memory or for manipulating SCSI blocks. The block compare operation is convenient for implementing the SCSI compare record command as well as for implementing buffer memory self-tests. Local processor interface 13 supports commercially available local processor interfaces--examples include: 16 Mhz 8051, 12 Mhz 68HC11, 20 Mhz 80C196, 40 Mhz HPC460X3, 16.67 Mhz MC680x0. It provides a Protected Area in buffer memory 27 for local processor storage. It supports flexible host and disk interrupt structures for interrupt or polled firmware architectures. It supports a local processor controlled power down mode with automatic wake-up capability. Host/SCSI interface 19 supports SCSI-2, SCSI-1, and SASI (the precursor to SCSI, Shugart Associates System Interface) Target and Initiator modes. It supports both Eight and Sixteen-bit SCSI bus widths. It supports sixteen bit-bit arbitration and selection. The Buffer RAM based SCSI-protocol processor 21 allows the firmware developer to define the automated sequences as well as the automation level of these sequences. It can be programmed to optimize SCSI overhead processing, or can be programmed to work with minimal changes to existing local processor algorithms. The SCSI-protocol processor 21, has self-contained debugging circuitry including breakpoint and single step control. It is integrated with buffer manager 15 for Disk/SCSI streaming (data flow control). It supports through parity between the SCSI bus and the buffer memory 27. It supports asynchronous transfers up to 4 megabytes/second (or 8 MB/second with sixteen data bits), synchronous transfers up to 5 MB/second (10 MB/second transfer with sixteen data bits), SCSI-2 FAST synchronous transfers up to 10 MB/second (20 MB/second transfer with sixteen data bits). It supports up to 62 byte synchronous SCSI offsets (to support the FAST sixteen-bit data bus environment). Buffer manager 15 includes programmable for eight or sixteen data bus fines, end independent, automatically arbitrated DMA channels, including: host data path, disk data path, processor accesses, SCSI-protocol processor instruction accesses, DRAM Refresh. It supports direct addressing up to 512 kilobytes of SRAM or 8 MB of DRAM, and permits concurrent buffer throughput up to 30 MB/second in DRAM mode and up to 30 MB/second in SRAM mode. It supports automated host/disk streaming capability with Over/Under Run protection and minimum burst length support. It supports variable-sized circular buffer and variable-sized segment based caching support. It has a automatic address pointer reload capability for the host pointer, which allows fragmented buffers to be linked for un-interrupted transfers. It has a memory to memory block copy feature, which aids in SCSI response block building end to un-fragment cached data, and a memory to memory block compare feature, provides serf-test and SCSI record compare features. THEORY OF OPERATION LOCAL PROCESSOR INTERFACE 13 In the following description, the abbreviated terms have the following meanings: ______________________________________ALE address latch enableAD address/data busADR address busAS* address strobe (asserted low)RD* memory read (asserted low)WR* memory write (asserted low)R.sub.-- W* read not write (read operation when low, write when high)WCS writable control storeBA buffer address______________________________________ The local processor to controller communication path can be either a multiplexed address and data bus or a non-multiplexed address and data bus. The multiplexed bus is similar to that provided by the Intel 80C196 or the Motorola 68HC11, class of controllers. The non-multiplexed bus is similar to that provided by the Motorola 680x0 series of processors. LOCAL PROCESSOR TO BUFFER MANAGER INTERFACE Local processor 31 can read or write the contents of the data buffer RAM 27 by means of a scheduled buffer memory access using the invented controllers BUFFER DATA ACCESS PORT. By reading or writing this port, the local processor generates an arbitrated buffer cycle request to the buffer manager 27, which is allocated asynchronously to the local processor (regardless of whether it is a read or write memory access). The LOCAL ADDRESS POINTER is used as the pointer into the buffer memory for these accesses. The invented controller will attempt to hold the local processor (using the RDY/DTACK* signal) until the access is complete. If the local processor ignores, or is not connected to the RDY/DTACK* signal, the scheduled access will continue and the Buffer Access Byte Ready bit of the PROCESSOR ACCESS CONFIGURATION Register should be polled to determine when access has been completed. In order to write a byte to the buffer memory, the local processor loads the invented controller's BUFFER-DATA ACCESS PORT with the data to be written to the buffer memory 27. This generates a transfer request to the buffer manager which will grant a prioritized buffer memory access cycle. This request writes to the address pointed to by the Local Address Pointer. When the byte has been successfully written, the BUFFER ACCESS BYTE READY bit of the PROCESSOR ACCESS CONFIGURATION Register will be set, and the RDY/DTACK* signal will be asserted. If the local processor ignores the RDY/DTACK* signal, then the scheduled access will continue, and the RDY/DTACK* signal will switch to high-impedance after the trailing edge of the write strobe. The invented controller can be configured for automatic incrementing after each access. Reading a byte from the buffer memory 27 is initiated by having the local processor read the BUFFER DATA ACCESS PORT. This generates a transfer request to the buffer manager 15 which will grant a prioritized buffer memory access cycle. This request fetches the byte located it the address pointed to by the LOCAL ADDRESS POINTER. When the byte has been successfully read, the BUFFER ACCESS BYTE READY bit of the PROCESSOR ACCESS CONFIGURATION Register will be set, and the RDY/DTACK* signal will be asserted. If the local processor ignores the RDY/DTACK* signal, then the scheduled access will continue, and the RDY/DTACK* signal will switch to high-impedance after the trailing edge of the read strobe. The first byte returned in this case does not contain valid data and should be discarded. When the Buffer Access Byte Ready bit becomes true (the bit is set), then the byte pointed to by the Local Address Pointer has been stored in the BUFFER DATA ACCESS PORT. When this port is read again by the local processor, this read cycle returns the first byte and causes an additional automatic request for another buffer memory access. If the invented controller is configured for automatic incrementing after each access, then this request fetches the byte located at the following address. SCSI INTERFACE The invented controllers SCSI interface contains a SCSI-protocol processor 21 which manages SCSI phase changes, SCSI message protocols, and controls data transfer across SCSI bus 39. The SCSI-protocol processor's operation is either controlled by a program stored in buffer memory 27, or by the local processor (which issues immediate SCSI-protocol processor instructions). The following description of SCSI-protocol processor operation covers the overall operation of the SCSI-protocol processor 21 as well as the major components and the data path of the SCSI-protocol processor. SCSI-PROTOCOL PROCESSOR OPERATION The sequences of the SCSI bus phase transition and any process can be programmed into the invented controller's SCSI-protocol processor 21. The invented controller's SCSI interface 19 contains a built-in processor 21 that executes an instruction issued from the local processor or executes a program from the buffer memory (without intervention from the local processor). These capabilities provide faster bus handling, less local processor overhead, with lower firmware development costs. SCSI-PROTOCOL PROCESSOR INSTRUCTION EXECUTION MODES The invented controller's SCSI-protocol processor has three instruction execution modes: Immediate Execution Mode, Single Step Execution Mode, and Program Execution Mode. The processing of most SCSI connections will utilize the Program and Immediate instruction execution modes. The Single Step Execution Mode is provided to support any required debugging of SCSI-protocol processor programs. IMMEDIATE EXECUTION MODE In the Immediate Execution mode, the SCSI-protocol processor executes one instruction (loaded by the local processor). This mode can only be used when the SCSI-protocol processor is not executing instructions in the Single Step or Program Execution Modes. In order to use this mode, the local processor loads the SCSI INSTRUCTION REGISTER with a valid instruction, and then sets the Start SCSl-protocol processor Immediate Execution bit of the SCSI PROCESSOR CONTROL Register. Upon completion of the instruction, or if unexpected situations occur, the SCSI processor will reset the Start SCSI processor Immediate Execution bit. Depending on status, the SCSI processor interrupt bit of the SCSI INTERRUPT STATUS Register or appropriate status bit will be set and a local processor interrupt may be requested. The local processor 31 can stop the SCSI-protocol processors operation by setting the Stop SCSI processor bit of the SCSI PROCESSOR CONTROL Register which will also reset the Start SCSI processor Immediate Execution Bit. SINGLE STEP EXECUTION MODE In the Single Step Execution Made, the SCSI-protocol processor 21 will execute one instruction pointed to by the SCSI INSTRUCTION ADDRESS Register. This will include any necessary instruction or data fetches, and the calculation of the next address. To execute a program step, the local processor 31 loads the buffer memory 27 with the desired program, then loads the SCSI INSTRUCTION ADDRESS Register with the starting address of the program, and then sets the Start Single Step Execution bit of the SCSI PROCESSOR CONTROL Register. Upon completion of the instruction, or if unexpected situations occur, the SCSI processor will reset the Start SCSI processor single step execution bit. Depending on status, the SCSI processor interrupt bit of the SCSI INTERRUPT STATUS Register or appropriate status bit will be set and a local processor interrupt may be requested. The local processor can stop the SCSI-protocol processor's operation by setting the Stop SCSI processor bit of the SCSI PROCESSOR CONTROL Register, and this will also reset the Start SCSI processor single step execution bit. PROGRAM EXECUTION MODE In the Program Execution Mode, the SCSI-protocol processor 21 executes the instructions from the buffer memory until unexpected situations occur, the SCSI-protocol processor 21 executes the Halt instruction, or the SCSI INSTRUCTION ADDRESS Register reaches the SCSI BREAKPOINT ADDRESS (and the STOP SCSI PROCESSOR ON BREAKPOINT bit is set). To execute a program sequence, the local processor loads the buffer memory with the desired program, then loads the SCSI INSTRUCTION ADDRESS Register with the starting address of the program, and then sets the START SCSI PROCESSOR PROGRAM EXECUTION bit of the SCSI PROCESSOR CONTROL Register. Upon executing the Halt instruction, the START SCSI PROCESSOR PROGRAM EXECUTION bit of the SCSI PROCESSOR CONTROL Register will be reset. The local processor can stop the SCSI processor's operation by setting the STOP SCSI PROCESSOR bit of the SCSI PROCESSOR CONTROL Register which will also reset the START SCSI PROCESSOR PROGRAM EXECUTION bit. SCSI-PROTOCOL PROCESSOR INSTRUCTION SET The SCSI-protocol processor Instructions can be organized into ten basic categories: a Set and Clear Group; a Compare Group; a Jump and Interrupt Group; a Transfer Group; a Disconnect Group; a Miscellaneous Group; and the following four categories. These categories of instructions (BANK/BUFFER TRANSFER, SAP MANIPULATION, REGISTER BANK ACCESS, and NUMERIC FUNCTIONALITY) are intended to allow the SCSI-protocol processor to support the Queue Tag message protocol. The Queue Tag is a SCSI message that is analogous to a job batch number. The Queue Tag allows the invention to simply communicate with the host or other external devices regarding the tagged process. SCSI also requires negotiation for several transfer parameters (data-width, synchronous transfer period, and synchronous offset). These categories of instructions are intended to efficiently access lists or tables to support Queue Tag messages and SCSI transfer parameter negotiations. BANK/BUFFER TRANSFER Six eight-bit registers, R0 through R5, allow the SCSI processor to access buffer memory 27 in an efficient method which minimizes the effects of the access latency of a time multiplexed buffer. These instructions access the buffer memory starting at the address in the referenced SAP (SCSI Address Pointer) register, accessing COUNT bytes of data, where the first byte of the access always uses R0. These instructions make use of a buffer memory burst access to improve total access time. ______________________________________Format: OP Code (1 byte) + Operand (1 byte)LDRX AP, COUNTWRRX AP, COUNT AP is either SAP1 or SAP2 COUNT is an 8-bit integer from 1 to 6______________________________________ LDRX: This instruction loads sequential buffer memory data in the Rx registers based on the eight-bit integer COUNT. R0 is always the first Rx register loaded from the buffer memory location pointed by the AP register. The AP register is automatically incremented to point to the next sequential buffer memory location for the next sequential Rx register to be loaded. This action continues for the number of times specified in COUNT, so that up to six Rx registers may be loaded form the buffer memory. WRRX: This instruction sequentially writes the contents of the Rx registers into the buffer memory based on the eight-bit integer COUNT. R0 is always the first Rx register written to the buffer memory location pointed by the AP register. The AP register is automatically incremented to point to the next sequential buffer memory location for the next sequential Rx register to be written. This action continues for the number of times specified in COUNT, so that up to six Rx registers may be written into the buffer memory. SAP MANIPULATION Some of the following instructions allow the SAP pointers to be loaded from, or written to the R1-R0 register pair. Another instruction allows the SAP pointers to be copied into each other. The final instruction allows an eight-bit integer to be added to either SAP for indexed access to a given entry. ______________________________________Format: OP Code (1 byte) + Operand (1 byte)LDSAP APWRSAP APMV16 APa, APbADAP AP, DATA AP, APa, APb are either SAP1 or SAP2 DATA is an 8-bit integer______________________________________ LDSAP: The contents of register R0 will be loaded into the least significant bit of the specified SCSI address pointer. The contents of register R1 will be loaded into the most significant bit of the specified SCSI address pointer. WRSAP: The LSB of the specified SCSI address pointer will be written into register R0. The MSB of the specified SCSI address pointer will be written into register R1. MV16: This instruction copies the sixteen-bit address pointer APb into the sixteen-bit address pointer APa. ADAP: This instruction adds the eight-bit value of DATA to the sixteen-bit address pointer AP. REGISTER BANK ACCESS (8-BIT MOVES) These instructions allow the Rx registers to be transferred within the register bank for the Buffer Access fixed sequence. Another instruction allows the external encoded SCSI ID to be available in the SCSI FIRST BYTE RECEIVED register for later comparisons. ______________________________________Format: OP Code (1 byte) + Operand (1 byte)MV8 FIRST, RxMV8 Rx, FIRSTMV8 FIRST, ID.sub.-- OFFSET FIRST is the SCSI FIRST BYTE RECEIVED register ID.sub.-- OFFSET is the ID.sub.-- OFFSET register Rx is one of R0, R1, R2, R3, R4, or R5______________________________________ MV8: This instruction, in the form (MV a, b), will copy the contents of register b into register a. The legal transfers are shown above. NUMERIC (8-BIT) FUNCTIONALITY These instructions provide logical AND, logical OR, incrementing and decrementing capabilities to the SCSI FIRST BYTE RECEIVED register. ______________________________________Format: OP Code (1 byte) + Operand (1 byte)COMPR OP, RxOR DATAAND DATAINC FIRSTDEC FIRST OP specifies a numeric operation, either equal, less than or equal to, greater than or equal to, or zero Rx is one of R0, R1, R2, R3, R4, or R5 DATA is an 8-bit integer FIRST is the SCSI FIRST BYTE RECEIVED register______________________________________ COMPR: This instruction compares the SCSI FIRST BYTE RECEIVED register with register Rx as specified in the OP field. It performs the same functions as the existing COMPD instruction. OR: This instruction performs a logical OR operation between the SCSI FIRST BYTE RECEIVED register and DATA. The result of the operation is stored in the SCSI FIRST BYTE RECEIVED register. AND: This instruction performs a logical AND operation between the SCSI FIRST BYTE RECEIVED register and DATA. The result of the operation is stored in the SCSI FIRST BYTE RECEIVED register. INC: This instruction increments the SCSI FIRST BYTE RECEIVED register. DEC: This instruction decrements the SCSI FIRST BYTE RECEIVED register. HOST INTERRUPT CAPABILITY The SCSI-protocol processor 21, can generate an interrupt to the local processor on the Host interrupt (HINT) output signed when the local processes attention is required. This interrupt capability is enabled by setting the Local HINT* Enable (INTERRUPT MODE AND STATUS Register). When an interrupt is generated, the local processor can determine the source of the interrupt by reading the SCSI INTERRUPT WINDOW Register and SCSI INTERRUPT STATUS Register. Also the local processor can obtain the further information by reading the SCSI CONNECTION STATUS Register, the SCSI ERROR STATUS Register, and the SCSI VIEWPORT. The local processor can also individually steer Buffer Manager interrupt status bits to the HOST INTERRUPT circuit. SCSI-PROTOCOL PROCESSOR COMPONENTS The invented controller's SCSI-protocol processor 21 contains many components. Many of these components are not local processor accessible and their functions are internal to the SCSI processor. This section is devoted to components that are user accessible or whose functions are related to the user interface and will be described with reference to FIG. 2. These components are in addition to SCSI-protocol processor 21, SFIFO Interface and TAG WRITE LOGIC 43, SCSI FIFO 44, Arbitration Module 45, Select/Reselect Module 47, SCSI ID Module 53, Asynch Transfer State Machine 49, Synch Transfer State Machine 51, SCSI Clock Logic 53 and SCSI P Module 55. Only the important data and address buses are shown in FIG. 2. Control signals and clock signals are not shown, but the details of such signals and their generation should be readily apparent from the description provided herein. A brief description of the buses and signals shown in FIG. 2 is as follows: ______________________________________SDB 15:0!- a 16 bit databus coupling the SCSI interface to the host for output to the host.SDBI 15:0!- a 16 bit data bus coupling the SCSI interface to the host for input from the host.SFIFO- a data bus to the SCSI FIFO.spb 7:0!- an 8 bit SCSI processor bus.BD 15:0!- a 16 bit data bus for transferring data from buffer memory to SCSI-protocol processor 21.MemAddr 22:0!- a 23 bit address bus for addressing buffer memory 27.ubus 7:0!- an 8 bit bus for passing data between the components of the invented controller and the local processor.______________________________________ SCSI PHASE CHANGE CONTROL SCSI CONNECTION ENGINE A major component of the SCSI-protocol processor 21, is the SCSI Connection Engine which includes the Arbitration, Selection, and Selection/Reselection State Machines. These state machines handle the arbitration, selection, reselection and bus-initiated selection/reselection phases. They are coupled to the SCSI SYSTEM TIME LIMIT Register, FIFO, SAP1, SAP2 and SCSI TRANSFER BYTE COUNTER. Arbitration: The SCSI Arbitration process can be started by setting the Start Arbitration bit in the SCSI CONNECTION CONTROL Register. After waiting the appropriate bus-free delay, the invented controller ID bit to be driven onto the SCSI bus during the SCSI Arbitration phase is derived from the encoded value in the SCSI CONFIGURATION I Register. (Note, an eight-bit system uses only bits 2:0) If the invented controller loses the arbitration, it will wait for the next bus free phase and will repeat the SCSI arbitration process until it wins the arbitration. When the invented controller wins the arbitration, the SCSI-protocol processor will reset the Start Arbitration bit and set the Arbitration Won bit. The invented controller will perform the appropriate Selection or Reselection process specified in the Active Selection/Reselection Task bits (one of Start Select, Start Select With ATN, or Start Reselect operations). Selection/Reselection: During the selection/reselection process, the SCSI ID of an initiator (for reselection) or target (for selection) will be driven from the encoded bits 3:0 of the SCSI CONNECTION CONTROL Register. (Note, an eight-bit system only uses bits 2:0) After completion of the selection/reselection process, the SCSI-protocol processor will set the Active Select/Reselect Complete bit. If the Start SCSI processor Program Execution bit is not set, then the SCSI-protocol processor will generate a local processor interrupt. If a SCSI Selection/Reselection Time Out occurs, then the Active Selection/Reselection Timed Out bit will be set, the Start SCSI processor Program Execution bit will be reset, and the invented controller can be programmed to request a local processor interrupt. Bus-initiated Selection/Reselection: If the Enable SCSI Bus-initiated Selection/Reselection bit is set, then the SCSI Connection Engine will perform the necessary action to respond to bus-initiated selection and reselection. In the case of bus-initiated selection, the invented controller can be configured as SCSI-1 Mode or SCSI-2 Mode by appropriately setting the SCSI Type Configuration bit. In the SCSI-1 configuration mode, the invented controller will respond to the bus-initiated selection with only its own ID set in the data bus. In this case, the encoded invented controller's SCSI ID will be stored in the FIRST BYTE RECEIVED Register. This also supports the SASI and SCSI-1 single initiator mode. In the SCSI-2 configuration mode, the invented controller will not respond to the bus-initiated selection with only its own SCSI ID bit set. After the bus-initiated selection or reselection is completed, the appropriate Selected By SCSI Device Without ATN, Selected By SCSI Device With ATN, or Reselected By SCSI Device bit will be set. If the Start Arbitration bit is set, then it will be reset. If the Start SCSI processor Program Execution bit is not set, then the SCSI-protocol processor can be programmed to generate a local processor interrupt. When the bus-initiated Selection/Reselection is completed, the encoded SCSI ID of the requestor is stored in the FIRST BYTE RECEIVED Register. If the requestor's ID is not available (e.g., single initiator mode), then the invented controllers ID will be stored in the FIRST BYTE RECEIVED Register. Monitoring: The local processor can monitor the current condition of the SCSI bus by reading the SCSI INTERRUPT STATUS, SCSI INTERRUPT WINDOW, SCSI CONNECTION STATUS, SCSI ERROR STATUS and SCSI VIEWPORT Registers. INFORMATION PHASE TRANSITIONS. If the invented controller is in the Target Mode, the SCSI phase can be controlled by the SETP instruction. Also the SCSI control signals such as ACK, REQ, ATN and SRST can be controlled by the SETX instructions. The SCSI bus monitoring can be performed (or used to control SCSI-protocol processor program flow) by using the COMPP (compare the phase) or the COMPX (compare control signals). INTERRUPT ON SCSI CONNECTION CHANGE When the controller-initiated or bus-initiated selection/reselection process is completed, end the Start SCSI processor Program Execution bit is set, then the SCSI-protocol processor will not generate a local processor interrupt. Typical usage of this capability is that the local processor can program the SCSI processor to wait until the chip-initiated or bus-initiated selection/reselection is done and to perform the programmed action without requesting a local processor interrupt. SCSI SELECTION/RESELECTION TIME OUT When the invented controller is in the SCSI Selection or Reselection phases, the invented controller uses the SCSI System Timer as a Selection/Reselection Timer. During the selection phase, the SCSI System Timer will be reset and will start to count when the invented controller enters the selection phase. If the selected target doesn't assert the BSY signal within the time limit specified in the SCSI SYSTEM TIME LIMIT Register, then the Active Selection/Reselection Timed Out bit will be set and an interrupt issued (if enabled). During the reselection phases, the SCSI System Timer will be reset and will start counting when the invented controller enters the reselection phase. If the reselected initiator does not assert the BSY signal within the time limit specified in the SCSI SYSTEM TIME LIMIT Register, then the Active Selection/Reselection Timed-Out bit will be set and an interrupt issued (if enabled). SCSI DISCONNECTION ENGINE The SCSI Disconnection Engine performs the sequence that is defined by the DISCON2 instruction. That is, change the phase to MSG -- IN and wait a minimum of 400 nanoseconds or 800 ns depending on the previous phase. Then send the SAVE DATA POINTER MESSAGE followed by the DISCONNECT MESSAGE. After sending the DISCONNECT MESSAGE, if the initiator releases ACK without asserting ATN, the SCSI Disconnection Engine will release BSY and disconnect the invented controller from the SCSI bus. The Streaming Initiated Disconnect Completed bit is set and a local processor interrupt will be issued (if enabled). On the other hand, if the initiator asserts ATN before releasing the ACK, then the Streaming Initiated Disconnect Failed bit and the SCSI processor Interrupt bit will be set and an local processor interrupt can be programmed. SCSI PROCESSOR BASE ADDRESS REGISTER This register contains the most significant 7 bits of address for SCSI-protocol processor accesses to the buffer. All of the SCSI-protocol processor address resources such as the SCSI PROCESSOR INSTRUCTION ADDRESS REGISTER, SCSI ADDRESS POINTER 1, SCSI ADDRESS POINTER 2, and SCSI RETURN ADDRESS STACK are 16-bit registers. This allows the SCSI-protocol processor to access 64 KB of memory space and the full buffer address will be generated by cascading the SCSI BASE ADDRESS Register with any other SCSI processor Address Pointer. SCSI INSTRUCTION ADDRESS REGISTER This register contains the address of the next instruction to execute in the buffer memory. Upon completion of each instruction, this register will be loaded with new address (in case of JUMP, CALL, and RETURN instructions) or increased by 2 or 4 depending on the length of the instruction just executed. Before starting the Program Execution Mode of operation, this register should be set to the proper location (usually the Bus Idle Service Routine) by the local processor. INSTRUCTION PREFETCH The SCSI processor's instruction prefetch is composed of in instruction FIFO. The algorithm for the instruction Prefetch is very simple: Read ahead and hold only consecutive instruction bytes. SCSI RETURN ADDRESS STACK The SCSI RETURN ADDRESS STACK holds the return address for the RETURN instruction. Upon executing the CALL instruction, the content of the SCSI PROCESSOR INSTRUCTION ADDRESS Register is pushed into this stack. When executing the RETURN instruction, the top of the stack is popped and copied into the SCSI PROCESSOR INSTRUCTION ADDRESS Register. The SCSI RETURN ADDRESS STACK can hold up to 4 addresses, and the SCSI-protocol processor can execute up to 4 nested subroutine calls. If the SCSI-protocol processor executes the CALL instruction when the SCSI RETURN ADDRESS STACK is full or executes the RETURN instruction when the SCSI RETURN ADDRESS STACK is empty, then the illegal SCSI processor instruction bit will be set and a local processor interrupt will be generated, the SCSI-protocol processor will be halted, and the Start SCSI processor Program Execution bit will be reset. SCSI INSTRUCTION REGISTER This register holds the instruction that is currently executing and is coupled to the SCSI-protocol processor instruction decoder circuitry. During Program execution, this register is loaded from the external buffer memory locations pointed to by the SCSI INSTRUCTION ADDRESS Register (through the SCSI Instruction cache). Before starling an Immediate Execution operation, this register should be set to a valid instruction by the local processor. SCSI ADDRESS POINTER 1 AND 2 These two registers can be used as a source or destination of the SCSI Transfer when executing the XFER instruction. Prior to exacting the XFER instruction, these registers should be set to proper addresses. If one of these register is used as a source or destination of the SCSI Transfer, then the content of the register will be increased by two as one byte of information (and its TAG) is transferred. SCSI TRANSFER BYTE COUNTER This 24 bit counter contains the total number of bytes to be transferred and is used during SCSI Data In and Out phases. Prior to starting the SCSI Data Transfer phases, the total number of bytes to be transferred from or to the SCSI data bus must be written to this register. The value read from this counter indicates the number of bytes remaining to be transferred across the SCSI interface at the beginning of the local processor's read cycle. FIRST BYTE RECEIVED REGISTER This register holds the first byte received from the SCSI bus when a XFER instruction is executed. The contents of this register will be unchanged until executing another XFER instruction that receives data from the SCSI Bus. When the bus-initiated selection or reselection has been completed, this register contains the encoded SCSI bus ID of the device that selects or reselects the invented controller. When the SCSI TYPE CONFIGURATION bit is set for SCSI-1 mode and the invented controller is selected or reselected with only its own SCSI ID set, the invented controller's encoded ID will be stored in this register. When executing the COMPD or COMPM instructions, the content of this register is compared with the operand. EXTERNAL SCSI ID OFFSET REGISTER When the invented controller is selected or reselected, this four-bit register will be automatically loaded with the requestor's encoded SCSI ID by the SCSI ID module. If the invented controller is selected or reselected with only its own SCSI ID set, then the four-bit Offset Register will be loaded with the invented controller's encoded ID. When the invented controller wins arbitration and is about to actively select or reselect another device, the four-bit Offset Register will be automatically loaded with the least significant four bits of the SCSI CONNECTION CONTROL Register, The value in this register is used by the LDAPWO instruction. This instruction is typically used to update the SCSI Transfer Parameter Tables in the buffer memory and to load the SCSI TRANSFER PARAMETER (STP) registers. SCSI DATA PATH COMPONENTS The major components of the SCSI-protocol processor are a 64 byte SCSI FIFO 44 and state machines to handle SCSI Asynchronous Transfer and SCSI Synchronous Transfer. These state machines are coupled to the SCSI TRANSFER BYTE COUNTER, the SCSI SYNCHRONOUS TRANSFER RATE Register, and SCSI SYNCHRONOUS MAXIMUM OFFSET Register. 64 BYTE FIFO Internal to the invented controller and transparent to the local processor is a 64 byte, bidirectional FIFO 44 used in data reads or writes. Whether transferring eight-bit or sixteen-bit data, the FIFO is effectively 32 words deep. This FIFO acts as a buffer between the SCSI bus and external memory during the DMA process, and it also acts as a temporary storage during the PIO (processor input/output) process. The FIFO is useful for preventing overruns or underruns during the DMA process as its status is used to control the assertion low of the SCSI REQ* signal as a Target or the assertion low of the SCSI ACK* signal as an Initiator. SCSI INTERFACE CONFIGURATION The invented controller's SCSI interface offers a wide range of flexibility. The invented controller supports the proposed SCSI-2 specification as well as the SCSI-1 specification. The invented controller offers a 16-bit data transfer mode to increase the data transfer rate up to 20 MB/second with the SCSI-2 Fast Synchronous Transfer. Local processor 31 can also configure the system for a combination of up to 16 initiator and target devices by enabling the Wide Arbitration, Selection, end Reselection Mode. In order to support the SCSI-2 Fast Synchronous Transfer, the invented controller's SCSI-protocol processor 21 offers two REQ/ACK de-glitching modes. WIDE SCSI DATA, ARBITRATION, SELECTION, AND RESELECTION The sixteen-bit-wide data transfer mode is enabled by setting the Wide SCSI Enable bit of the SCSI CONFIGURATION 2 Register. If Wide Transfer mode is enabled, the SCSI-protocol processor will automatically transfer sixteen-bit-wide data during DATA In and Out phases but eight-bit-wide data during all other phases. During sixteen-bit wide transfers, the first logical data byte for each data, phase shall be transferred across the SDB 7*:0*! signals and the second logical data byte shall be transferred across the SDB 15*:8*! signals. The sixteen-bit-wide Arbitration, Selection, Reselection, and bus initiated Selection/Reselection mode is enabled by setting the Sixteen-Bit Connection Protocol Enable bit of the SCSI CONFIGURATION 2 Register. In this mode, the invented controller will use 16-bit connection protocols. That is, the invented controller can possibly connect to one of 15 initiator and target devices on the SCSI bus. When Wide Transfer mode is disabled, the invented controller can use the SDB 15*:8*! and SDBHP* as SCSI Differential Output Enable signals for SDB 7*:0*! and SDBLP* by setting the Eight-bit Differential SDOE Enable bit. If the Eight-bit Differential Sdoe Enable bit is set, then the Wide Transfer Mode bit and Sixteen-bit Connection Protocol Enable bit must be reset. STREAMING DMA TRANSFER Prior to starting the DMA transfer, the local processor must write the SCSI TRANSFER BYTE COUNTER Register with the number of bytes to be transferred. During the DMA process, the data to be sent to the SCSI bus comes from the external buffer memory through the FIFO, and the data received from the SCSI bus is stored in the external buffer memory through the FIFO. The DMA process uses the FIFO as a buffer to match the different data transfer rates between the SCSI bus and the external buffer memory. The number of bytes to be transferred is only limited by the size of the SCSI TRANSFER BYTE COUNTER. The DMA process can use Asynchronous or Synchronous Transfer Protocols. If Disk to SCSI streaming is enabled during the DMA process, then the operation of the DMA process is controlled by the DIFFERENCE COUNTER Register as well as the SCSI TRANSFER BYTE COUNTER. When the DIFFERENCE COUNTER reaches zero, there is no available data to send to the SCSI bus and the SCSI-protocol processor halts the DMA process by freezing the SCSI bus until new data is available from the buffer memory. If SCSI to Disk streaming is enabled during the DMA process, then the operation of the DMA process is controlled by the DIFFERENCE COUNTER and the MAXIMUM DIFFERENCE THRESHOLD LIMIT Registers as well as the SCSI TRANSFER BYTE COUNTER. When the DIFFERENCE COUNTER reaches the value in the MAXIMUM DIFFERENCE THRESHOLD LIMIT Register (which means the external buffer memory is full), the SCSI-protocol processor freezes the SCSI bus until the external buffer memory has the space to store the data from the SCSI bus. However, freezing the SCSI bus is not an efficient method for handling the under-run or over-run of the external buffer memory. The invented controller offers a more efficient method for handling these situations. If the Automatic Disconnection mode is enabled, the SCSI-protocol processor will be disconnected from the SCSI bus instead of freezing the SCSI bus. The local processor can resume the operation later by another Selection or Reselection. SCSI CLOCK SETUP The invented controller's SCSI interface uses three clocks: the SCSI CLOCK signal, the SCSI processor Clock, and the SCSI Logic Clock. The SCSI handshake logic is driven by the SCSI CLOCK signal. The maximum SCSI CLOCK signal frequency is 40 Mhz. The SCSI processor Clock is derived from the SCSI CLOCK signal. The maximum SCSI processor Clock frequency is 20 Mhz. The SCSI CLOCK signal can be directly passed, or divided by two in order to create the SCSI processor clock. This is set in the SCSI CONFIGURATION 1 Register. The SCSI Logic Clock is derived from the SCSI processor Clock. In the preferred embodiment, the SCSI Logic Clock frequency must be between 2.5 and 5 MHz (200-400 nanosecond period range). The local processor must set the SCSI LOGIC CLOCK PRESCALAR in this range for proper operation on the SCSI bus. The SCSI processor Clock is divided by the encoded value in the SCSI LOGIC CLOCK PRESCALAR (SCSI CONFIGURATION 1 Register) to produce the internal SCSI Logic Clock. BUFFER MANAGER INTERFACE Buffer manager 15 controls the allocation of external buffer memory 27 between the SCSI data path, the formatter data path, SCSI-protocol processor 21, and the local processor. The buffer manager is responsible for monitoring the SCSI/Disk streaming and controlling the SCSI interface 19 and the disk interface 17 to prevent data underruns and overruns. The buffer manager interface provides the external RAM addressing, timing, and control signals necessary for the invented controller to interface with buffer memory. The buffer manager interface can also provide for odd parity generation and checking. Buffer manager 15 can control either Static RAM (SRAM) or Dynamic RAM (DRAM). The invented controller is initialized to the SRAM mode. If DRAM operation is desired then the DRAM/SRAM* bit (BUFFER MANAGER CONFIGURATION 2 Register) should be set. The two modes of operation, however, are sufficiently different that most of the logic is described in two different sections depending on the configuration. PROTECTED BUFFER AREA The invented controller can protect a programmable amount of the buffer memory, called the Protected Buffer Area (PEA), from SCSI Host and Disk DMA processes. This area is specified by programming the Protected Buffer Area Floor (PBAF). The PBA includes all buffer memory locations from the value programmed in the PBAF to the end of the buffer memory. This area can be used for general purpose storage, and SCSI processor program storage information. If a SCSI Host or Disk DMA process reaches the PBAF (such that the HAP or DAP matches the PBAF), the offending process is automatically halted. This is considered to be a programming error. The process can be restarted by writing to the Clear Disk/Buffer Halt Lockout bit (DAP CONTROL Register) or the Clear Host/Buffer Halt Lockout bit (HAP CONTROL Register). DATA BUFFER RAM PARITY The invented controller supports data parity on the external data buffer RAM. The buffer manager interface can be configured to provide odd parity for each 8-bit data bus. This (these) parity check bit is (are) written along with the 8-bit (16-bit) data to a 9-bit (18-bit) wide data buffer RAM. The BUFFER MEMORY DATA PARITY signal(s) is (are) connected to the additional RAM device(s). The invented controller provides internal nine-bit data paths and FIFO's for through-parity. If the data source is the SCSI/host interface 19, then the parity generation is dependent on the value of the SCSI BUS Parity Enable bit (of the SCSI MODE CONFIGURATION Register). If this bit is set, then the value of the parity received from the SCSI data bus is passed through to the BUFFER MEMORY DATA PARITY signal. If this bit is reset, then the odd parity value of the data received from the SCSI data bus is generated inside the invented controller and is written out on the appropriate BUFFER MEMORY DATA PARITY signal. When data is being read from the buffer memory, the odd parity value can be either tested or ignored. If the buffer memory Parity Enable bit of the BUFFER CONFIGURATION Register is set, then the bit value received from the BUFFER MEMORY DATA PARITY signal is tested. If the Buffer Memory Parity Enable bit of the BUFFER MODE CONTROL Register is reset then the Buffer Parity Error bit is held reset. RAM READ/WRITE ACCESS CONTROL Buffer manager 15 accesses the buffer memory data bus to read or to write the contents of the data buffer RAM 27, or to read the static state of the data bus. The direction of the access must be specified in order to generate the correct control signals. SCSI-protocol processor 21, formatter 23, and local processor 31 all use unique methods to specify the direction of the access. In the case of SCSI transfers, the read/write control is set by the active SCSI-protocol processor command. In the case of formatter transfers, the transfer direction is controlled by the Buffer/Disk Transfer Direction bit (FORMATTER OPERATION CONTROL Register). When this bit is set, the data read from the data buffer RAM is transferred to the Formatter. In order to write to the data buffer RAM from the Formatter this bit must be reset. In the case of local processor transfers, the local processor control strobe is used in order to determine the transfer direction. A read of the invented controller's BUFFER DATA ACCESS PORT results in a read of the data buffer RAM. A write to the BUFFER DATA ACCESS PORT causes a write to the data buffer RAM. Given the same direction of data transfer, all read operations are the same regardless of the requesting source. Similarly, all write operations are the same. Both the read and write operation commence when the correct address pointer (such as the Disk Address Pointer, or the Host Address Pointer) is driven onto the buffer memory address bus. In the case of a read from data buffer RAM 27, the MEMORY OUTPUT ENABLE signal is asserted low after the address is driven onto the address bus. Data must be provided from the RAM shortly before the rising (trailing) edge of the MEMORY OUTPUT ENABLE signal. The duration of the MEMORY OUTPUT ENABLE signal is a programmable parameter. The WRITE ENABLE signal remains inactive throughout the entire RAM read access. In the case of a write to the data buffer RAM, the WRITE ENABLE signal is asserted low after the address is driven onto the address bus. The WRITE ENABLE signal should be connected to the RAM write enable or read/write control pin. Data is driven from the invented controller to the data buffer RAM shortly after the address is driven. The WRITE ENABLE signal is de-asserted high near the end of the cycle. The duration of the WRITE ENABLE signal is a programmable parameter. The MEMORY OUTPUT ENABLE signal remains inactive throughout the entire RAM write access. MEMORY-TO-MEMORY BLOCK OPERATIONS There are two memory-to-memory block operations: copy, and compare. The buffer memory block operations are executed under the control of Buffer Manager 15. Either the HOST or DISK ADDRESS and LIMIT pointers may be used for the source address. This is selected in the BLOCK OPERATION CONTROL Register. Three address pointers must be initialized before any Buffer Memory Block Operation is started: The HOST or DISK ADDRESS POINTER should be loaded with the starting address of the source data block. The HOST or DISK LIMIT POINTER should be loaded with the ending address of the source data block. The LOCAL ADDRESS POINTER (LAP) should be loaded with the starting address of the destination data block. Because the LAP registers are utilized during Buffer Memory Block Operations, local processor access to the buffer memory is not allowed until the Buffer Memory Block Operation is complete. If the source ADDRESS and LIMIT POINTERS are the DAP and DLP, then disk operations should not be allowed until the Buffer Memory block operation is complete. If the source ADDRESS and LIMIT POINTERS are the HAP and HLP, then SCSI data phase access to the buffer memory should not be allowed until the buffer memory block operation is complete. MEMORY-TO-MEMORY COPY OPERATION After initializing the address pointers, the buffer memory block copy operation is initiated by setting the Copy Operation Start bit in the BLOCK OPERATION CONTROL Register. At the end of the operation, the Operation Complete bit in the BLOCK OPERATION CONTROL Register will be set to one. These bits can be reset by the local processor by writing a zero to the Copy Operation Start bit after the operation is complete. MEMORY-TO-MEMORY COMPARE OPERATION The buffer memory block compare operation is very similar to the block copy operation. The source area is defined by the some address and limit pointers. The destination area start address is defined by the LAP (note that the length is implied from the source length). The operation is initiated by setting the Compare Operation Start bit in the BLOCK OPERATION CONTROL Register. At the end of the operation, the Operation Complete bit in the BLOCK OPERATION CONTROL Register will be set to one. These bits can be reset by the local processor by writing a zero to the Compare Operation Start bit after the operation is complete. There are three status bits in the BLOCK OPERATION CONTROL Register which indicate the result of the compare operation. These bits are only valid when both the Compare Operation Start and the Operation Complete bits are set. The comparison assumes that bit seven and the byte value at the starting address are the most significant bit and byte (respectively). The Source Greater Than Destination bit is set to one when the source block (defined by the source pointers) is greater than the destination block. The Source Less Than Destination bit is set to one when the source block (defined by the source pointers) is less than the destination block. The Source Equal To Destination bit is set to one when the source block is identical to the destination block. SCSI/DISK STREAMING OPERATIONS The invented controller provides circuitry to support two SCSI-to-disk and disk-to-SDSI data streaming methods, with two disk access methods apiece. The invented controller can use a completely programmable portion of the buffer space (up to the full buffer) in limited buffer circular streaming, or perform segment based streaming (which links non-contiguous buffer segments--which is particularly useful in caching). The Host Interface, the Disk Interface, the SCSI-protocol processor interface, and the Memory Block Access interface all operate in an adaptive or demand mode. The buffer manager transfers up to six bytes (or twelve bytes in a sixteen-bit buffer data path mode) to or from an interface. That is, if the requesting interface has only one byte in the internal FIFO or one byte available then a request is issued to the buffer manager 15. By the time that this request is granted, if additional bytes are available, then these additional bytes will also be transferred to or from the data buffer RAM (up to the burst limit of six or twelve bytes). Requests are granted in an ordered priority with fairness, such that a high priority request can not monopolize the buffer resource. SFIFO Interface and Tag Write Logic 43 appends a tag byte to each data byte received when processing SCSI-protocol. The tag byte will provide the local processor the ability to determine the corresponding SCSI phase (input/output, command status, message) and the parity status for each byte received from the SCSI bus. This module also includes the data path for data transfer between the SCSI interface and the invention, as well as the data path between the SCSI-protocol processor and the buffer memory. SCSI micro-processor Module 55 is the block that generates control signals to correctly transfer data between the modules of the SCSI protocol processor, as well as signals for transferring data between the local micro controller and the SCSI input. The SCSI up Module 55 consists of the SCSI Interrupt Status Register, the SCSI Interrupt Enable Register, the SCSI Error Status Register, three SCSI Configuration Registers, and decoder logic in order to correctly generate read, write, and control signals that are output to internal modules and the local micro-controller. While the preferred embodiment and various alternative embodiments of the present invention has been disclosed and described in detail herein, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art that various changes in form and detail may be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope thereof.

The invented controller is the combination of: an intelligent interface to a SCSI bus, a multi-port buffer memory manager, a formatter, and a local processor port. With the addition of a few components for the device-level interface, the invented controller along with a buffer RAM, a local processor system, and an optional data separator completes a high performance disk, or other mass storage, controller subsystem. The invention is particularly directed to (1) the dual use of a buffer memory as data buffer storage and for storage of instructions to be executed by a SCSI-protocol processor, (2) the architecture of the interface to the SCSI bus, and (3) the instruction set of the SCSI-protocol processor.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application 60/380,761 filed May 14, 2002; to U.S. Provisional Application 60/392,782 filed Jun. 28, 2002; and to U.S. Provisional application No. 60/422,933, filed Oct. 31, 2002, and to U.S. Provisional Application 60/428,033, filed Nov. 20, 2002, each of which are herein specifically incorporated by reference. This invention was made with Government support under contract 9910949 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The Government has certain rights in this invention. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION In 1953, it was first recognized that ingestion of gluten, a common dietary protein present in wheat, barley and rye causes a disease called Celiac Sprue in sensitive individuals. Gluten is a complex mixture of glutamine- and proline-rich glutenin and prolamine molecules and is thought to be responsible for induction of Celiac Sprue. Ingestion of such proteins by sensitive individuals produces flattening of the normally luxurious, rug-like, epithelial lining of the small intestine known to be responsible for efficient and extensive terminal digestion of peptides and other nutrients. Other clinical symptoms of Celiac Sprue include fatigue, chronic diarrhea, malabsorption of nutrients, weight loss, abdominal distension, anemia, as well as a substantially enhanced risk for the development of osteoporosis and intestinal malignancies such as lymphoma and carcinoma. The disease has an incidence of approximately 1 in 200 in European populations and is believed to be significantly under diagnosed in other populations. A related disease is dermatitis herpetiformis, which is a chronic eruption of the skin characterized by clusters of intensely pruritic vesicles, papules, and urticaria-like lesions. IgA deposits occur in almost all normal-appearing and perilesional skin. Asymptomatic gluten-sensitive enteropathy is found in 75 to 90% of patients and in some of their relatives. Onset is usually gradual. Itching and burning are severe, and scratching often obscures the primary lesions with eczematization of nearby skin, leading to an erroneous diagnosis of eczema. Strict adherence to a gluten-free diet for prolonged periods may control the disease in some patients, obviating or reducing the requirement for drug therapy. Dapsone, sulfapyridine, and colchicines are sometimes prescribed for relief of itching. Celiac Sprue (CS) is generally considered to be an autoimmune disease and the antibodies found in the serum of the patients support the theory that the disease is immunological in nature. Antibodies to tissue transglutaminase (tTGase or tTG) and gliadin appear in almost 100% of the patients with active CS, and the presence of such antibodies, particularly of the IgA class, has been used in diagnosis of the disease. The large majority of patients express the HLA-DQ2 [DQ(a1*0501, b1*02)] and/or DQ8 [DQ(a1*0301, b1*0302)] molecules. It is believed that intestinal damage is caused by interactions between specific gliadin oligopeptides and the HLA-DQ2 or DQ8 antigen, which in turn induce proliferation of T lymphocytes in the sub-epithelial layers. T helper 1 cells and cytokines apparently play a major role in a local inflammatory process leading to villous atrophy of the small intestine. At the present time, there is no good therapy for the disease, except to avoid completely all foods containing gluten. Although gluten withdrawal has transformed the prognosis for children and substantially improved it for adults, some people still die of the disease, mainly adults who had severe disease at the outset. A leading cause of death is lymphoreticular disease, especially intestinal lymphoma. It is not known whether a gluten-free diet diminishes this risk. Apparent clinical remission is often associated with histologic relapse that is detected only by review biopsies or by increased EMA titers. Gluten is so widely used, for example, in commercial soups, sauces, ice creams, hot dogs, and other foodstuffs, that patients need detailed lists of foodstuffs to avoid and expert advice from a dietitian familiar with celiac disease. Ingesting even small amounts of gluten may prevent remission or induce relapse. Supplementary vitamins, minerals, and hematinics may also be required, depending on deficiency. A few patients respond poorly or not at all to gluten withdrawal, either because the diagnosis is incorrect or because the disease is refractory. In the latter case, oral corticosteroids (e.g., prednisone 10 to 20 mg bid) may induce response. In view of the serious and widespread nature of Celiac Sprue and the difficulty of removing gluten from the diet, better methods of treatment are of great interest. In particular, there is a need for treatment methods that allow the Celiac Sprue individual to eat gluten-containing foodstuffs without ill effect or at least to tolerate such foodstuffs in small or moderate quantities without inducing relapse. The present invention meets this need for better therapies for Celiac Sprue by providing new drugs and methods and formulations of new and existing drugs to treat Celiac Sprue. International Patent Application US03/04743, herein specifically incorporated by reference, discloses aspects of gluten protease stability and immunogenicity. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In one aspect, the present invention provides methods for treating Celiac Sprue and/or dermatitis herpetiformis and the symptoms thereof by administration of a tTGase (tissue transglutaminase) inhibitor to the patient. In one embodiment, the tTGase inhibitor employed in the method is a known small molecule-tTGase inhibitor selected from the group consisting of vinylogous amides, sulfonamides, 2-[(2-oxoalkyl)thio]imidazolium compounds, diazoketones, and 3-halo-4,5-dihydroisoxazoles. In another embodiment, the tTGase inhibitor is a dipeptide mimetic, a compound that mimics in structure a dipeptide selected from the group consisting of PQ, PY, QL, and QP. In another aspect, the present invention provides novel tTGase inhibitors and methods for treating Celiac Sprue and/or dermatitis herpetiformis by administering those compounds. In one embodiment, the tTGase inhibitor is a peptide or peptidomimetic that has or contains within a longer sequence the structure of the peptide PQPQLPY [SEQ ID NO:1] or PQPELPY [SEQ ID NO:2] in which the E or the second Q is replaced by a glutamine mimetic that is an inhibitor of tTGase or in which a dipeptide selected from the group consisting of QP and LP is replaced by a constrained dipeptide mimetic compound. Such compounds are analogs of a sequence contained in gluten oligopeptides that are resistant to digestion and are believed to stimulate the autoimmune reaction that characterizes Celiac Sprue. In another aspect, the invention provides pharmaceutical formulations comprising a tTGase inhibitor and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. In one embodiment, such formulations comprise an enteric coating that allows delivery of the active agent to the intestine, and the agents are stabilized to resist digestion or acid-catalyzed modification in acidic stomach conditions. In another embodiment, the formulation also comprises one or more glutenases, as described in U.S. Provisional Application 60/392,782 filed Jun, 28, 2002; and U.S. Provisional Application 60/428,033, filed Nov. 20, 2002, both of which are incorporated herein by reference. The invention also provides methods for the administration of enteric formulations of one or more tTGase inhibitors to treat Celiac Sprue. In another aspect, the invention provides methods for screening candidate compounds to determine their suitability for use in the subject methods, by assessing the ability of a candidate agent for its ability to bind to, and/or to inhibit the activity of, tTGase. Candidate agents may also be screened for anti-allergic and anti-inflammatory activity by assessing their ability to bind to, and/or to inhibit the activity of, tTGase. In another aspect, the tTGase inhibitors and/or pharmaceutical formulations of the present invention are useful in treating disorders where TGases are a factor in the disease etiology, where such disorders may include cancer, neurological disorders, wound healing, etc. These conditions include Alzheimer's and Huntington's diseases, where the TGases appear to be a factor in the formation of inappropriate proteinaceous aggregates that may be cytotoxic. In diseases such as progressive supranuclear palsy, Huntington's, Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases, the aberrant activation of TGases may be caused by oxidative stress and inflammation. These and other aspects and embodiments of the invention and methods for making and using the invention are described in more detail in the description of the drawings and the invention, the examples, the claims, and the drawings that follow. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE EMBODIMENTS Celiac Sprue and/or dermatitis herpetiformis are treated by inhibition of tissue transglutaminase. Therapeutic benefit can be enhanced in some individuals by increasing the digestion of gluten oligopeptides, whether by pretreatment of foodstuffs to be ingested or by administration of an enzyme capable of digesting the gluten oligopeptides, together with administration of the tTGase inhibitor. Gluten oligopeptides are highly resistant to cleavage by gastric and pancreatic peptidases such as pepsin, trypsin, chymotrypsin, and the like, and their prolonged presence in the digestive tract can induce an autoimmune response mediated by tTGase. The antigenicity of gluten oligopeptides and the ill effects caused by an immune response thereto can be decreased by inhibition of tissue transglutaminase. In another embodiment of the invention, by also providing a means for digestion of gluten oligopeptides with glutenase, gluten oligopeptides are cleaved into fragments, thereby contributing to the prevention of the disease-causing toxicity. Methods and compositions are provided for the administration of one or more tTGase inhibitors to a patient suffering from Celiac Sprue and/or dermatitis herpetiformis. In some embodiments and for some individuals, the methods of the invention remove the requirement that abstention from ingestion of glutens be maintained to keep the disease in remission. The compositions of the invention include formulations of tTGase inhibitors that comprise an enteric coating that allows delivery of the agents to the intestine in an active form; the agents are stabilized to resist digestion or alternative chemical transformations in acidic stomach conditions. In another embodiment, food is pretreated or combined with glutenase, or a glutenase is co-administered (whether in time or in a formulation of the invention) with a tTGase inhibitor of the invention. The subject methods are useful for both prophylactic and therapeutic purposes. Thus, as used herein, the term “treating” is used to refer to both prevention of disease, and treatment of a pre-existing condition. The treatment of ongoing disease, to stabilize or improve the clinical symptoms of the patient, is a particularly important benefit provided by the present invention. Such treatment is desirably performed prior to loss of function in the affected tissues; consequently, the prophylactic therapeutic benefits provided by the invention are also important. Evidence of therapeutic effect may be any diminution in the severity of disease, particularly diminution of the severity of such symptoms as fatigue, chronic diarrhea, malabsorption of nutrients, weight loss, abdominal distension, and anemia. Other disease indicia include the presence of antibodies specific for glutens, antibodies specific for tissue transglutaminase, the presence of pro-inflammatory T cells and cytokines, and degradation of the villus structure of the small intestine. Application of the methods and compositions of the invention can result in the improvement of any and all of these disease indicia of Celiac Sprue. Patients that can benefit from the present invention include both adults and children. Children in particular benefit from prophylactic treatment, as prevention of early exposure to toxic gluten peptides can prevent development of the disease into its more severe forms. Children suitable for prophylaxis in accordance with the methods of the invention can be identified by genetic testing for predisposition, e.g. by HLA typing; by family history, and by other methods known in the arL. As is known in the art for other medications, and in accordance with the teachings herein, dosages of the tTGase inhibitors of the invention can be adjusted for pediatric use. Because most proteases and peptidases are unable to hydrolyze the amide bonds of proline residues, the abundence of proline residues in gliadins and related protiens from wheet, rye and barley can constitute a major digestive obstacle for the enzymes invovled. This leads to an increased concentration of relatively stable gluten derived oligopeptides in the gut. These stable gluten derived oligopeptides, called “toxic oligpeptides” herein, interact with tTGase to stimulate an immune response that results in the autoimmune disease aspects of Celiac Sprue. Such toxic oligopeptides include the peptide sequence PQPQLPY [SEQ ID NO:1] and longer peptides containing that sequence or multiple copies of that sequence. This peptide sequence is a high affinity substrate for the enzyme tissue transglutaminase (tTGase), an enzyme found on the extracellular surface in many organs including the intestine. The tTGase enzyme catalyzes the formation of isopeptide bonds between glutamine and lysine residues of different polypeptides, leading to protein-protein crosslinks in the extracellular matrix. The tTGase enzyme acts on the peptide sequence PQPQLPY [SEQ ID NO:1] to deamidate the second Q residue, forming the peptide sequence PQPELPY [SEQ ID NO:2]. The tTGase enzyme is the primary focus of the autoantibody response in Celiac Sprue. Gliadins, secalins and hordeins contain several of the PQPQLPY [SEQ ID NO:1] sequences or sequences similar thereto rich in Pro-Gln residues that are high-affinity substrates for tTGase. The tTGase catalyzed deamidation of such sequences dramatically increases their affinity for HLA-DQ2, the class II MHC allele present in >90% Celiac Sprue patients. Presentation of these deamidated sequences by DQ2 positive antigen presenting cells effectively stimulates proliferation of gliadin-specific T cells from intestinal biopsies of most Celiac Sprue patients, providing evidence for the proposed mechanism of disease progression in Celiac Sprue. There are a number of known tTGase inhibitors that can be used in the methods of the invention. While known, these compounds have never before been used to treat Celiac Sprue effectively, because the compounds have not been administered to Celiac Sprue patients in the formulations and dosages required to deliver the active inhibitor to the small intestine in efficacious amounts. Known tTGase inhibitors include certain glutamine mimetic compounds, including compounds selected from the group consisting of vinylogous amides, sulfonamides, diazoketones, 3-halo-4, 5-dihydroisoxazoles, and 1,2,4-thiadiazoles. While the present invention is not to be bound by a mechanistic theory, it is believed that these compounds provide an effective therapy for Celiac Sprue by reversibly or irreversibly inhibiting the tTGase in the small intestine, thereby preventing it from acting on the oligopeptides comprising the PQPQLPY [SEQ ID NO:1] sequence. PQPQLPY [SEQ ID NO:1] is a high affinity substrate for tTGase, because it has a structure that is highly complementary to the structure of the active site of the tTGase enzyme. In particular, the peptide bonds preceding Pro residues adopt trans configurations, thereby allowing the peptide to adopt an extended polyproline II helical structure. This polyproline II helical character is a general property of immunogenic gliadin peptides, and is an important determinant of their high affinity toward tTGase. Therefore, it has been exploited in the design of certain tTGase inhibitors of the invention. By administering compounds that bind to the active site of the tTGase enzyme and prevent either the binding of immunogenic gliadin peptides such as the 33-mer LQLQPFPQPQLPYPQPQLPYPQPQLPYPQPQPF [SEQ ID NO:3], or their conversion to regioselectively deamidated products, a therapeutic benefit can be achieved in Celiac Sprue patients. In part, the present invention arises out of the discoveries that the dipeptides QP and LP play an important role in forming the structure that binds to the active site of the tTGase enzyme and that compounds that mimic the configurations of these dipeptides in a polyproline helix (i.e. where the imide bond adopts a trans configuration) can be used to inhibit tTGase and treat Celiac Sprue. Thus, in addition to the methods for administering the glutamine mimetic compounds described above, the present invention provides methods in which a small organic molecule that is a constrained mimetic of a dipeptide selected from the group consisting of PQ, QP, PE, PY, and LP is administered to a Celiac Sprue patient to treat celiac disease. The tTGase inhibitors of the present invention that have structures that mimic the conformation of the key dipeptide moieties of the tTGase substrate can be thought of as “tTGase inhibitory motif” or “tTGase inhibitory moiety”. Human tTGase has a strong preference for peptide substrates with Type II polyproline character. This conformational preference is exploited by the selective tTGase inhibitors of the invention. Dipeptide moieties of interest have the formula XP, wherein X can be any amino acid but is preferably selected from the group consisting of Q, Y, L, E, or F. Inhibitors of the invention containing such moieties are referred to as “peptide mimetics” or “peptidomimetics”. Examples of dipeptidomimetics based on the trans-PQPQLPY [SEQ ID NO:1] peptide are shown below. trans-PQPQLPY (all X—P bonds in trans configuration) Similar dipeptidomimetics can be identified based on sequences of other high-affinity gliadin peptide substrates of tTGase. Common constrained dipeptide mimetics useful for purposes of the invention also include quinozilidinone, pyrroloazepinone, indolizidinone, alkylbranched azabicyclo[X.Y.0]alkane amino acids (Gosselin et al., J. Org. Chem. 2000, 65, 2163-71; Polyak et al., J. Org. Chem. 2001, 66, 1171-80), 6,5-fused bicyclic lactam (Mueller et al., Tetrahedron Lett. 1994, 4091-2; Dumas, Tetrahedron Lett. 1994, 1493-6, and Kim, 1997, J. Org. Chem. 62, 2847-52 ), and lactam methylene linker. The dipeptide mimetic tT Gase inhibitor compounds, like the glutamine mimetic tTGase inhibitor compounds, are believed to provide a therapeutic benefit to Celiac Sprue patients by preventing tTGase from binding the toxic oligopeptide comprising the PQPQLPY [SEQ ID NO:1] sequence and converting it to the PQPELPY [SEQ ID NO:2] sequence, thus preventing the initiation of the autoimmune response responsible for the symptoms of the disease. Alternatively, these dipeptidomimetics can be incorporated into a PQPQLPY [SEQ ID NO:1] sequence or longer peptide or peptidomimetic containing that sequence in place of the corresponding dipeptide moiety. It is well understood in the pharmaceutical arts that the more selective a drug for its intended target, and the greater affinity of a drug for its intended target, the more useful the drug for the treatment of the disease relating to that target. Thus, while the glutamine and dipeptide mimetic inhibitors of the invention can be used to treat Celiac Sprue, there will in some instances be a need for or benefit from compounds with greater specificity for and affinity to tTGase. The present invention provides such compounds. Thus, while beneficial therapeutic effect can be achieved by delivery of any tTGase inhibitor to the small intestine of a Celiac Sprue patient, in a preferred embodiment, the tTGase inhibitor is contained in a molecule that is a high affinity peptide or peptidomimetic substrate of tTGase or a peptidomimetic thereof. Thus, the inhibitors of tTGase provided by the present invention include modified high affinity peptide substrates for tTGase, where one or more glutamine residues of the peptide substrate are substituted with tTGase inhibitory moieties or one or more dipeptides in the substrate are substituted with a dipeptide mimetic or both. In either event, the peptide or peptidomimetic does not induce an autoimmune response in the Celiac Sprue patient. High affinity peptide substrates for tTGase include the following peptides, and, with respect to the larger peptides shown, fragments thereof: PQPQLPY [SEQ ID NO:1], PQPQLPYPQPQLP [SEQ ID NO:4]; LQLQPFPQPQLPYPQPQLPYPQPQLPYPQPQPF [SEQ ID NO:3]; QPQPFPPQLPYPQTQPFPPQQPYPQPQPQYPQPQ (from α1- and α6-gliadins) [SEQ ID NO:6]; QQQPFPQQPIPQQPQPYPQQPQPYPQQPFPPQQPF (from B1 hordein) [SEQ ID NO:7]; QPFPQPQQTFPQQPQLPFPQQPQQPFPQPQ (from y-gliadin) [SEQ ID NO:8]; VQWPQQQPVPQPHQPF (from y-gliadin) [SEQ ID NO:9], VQGQGIIQPQQPAQ (from y-gliadin) [SEQ ID NO:10], FLQPQQPFPQQPQQPYPQQPQQPFPQ (from y-gliadin) [SEQ ID NO:11], FSQPQQQFPQPQQPQQSFPQQQPP (from y-gliadin) [SEQ ID NO:12], and QPFPQPQQPTPIQPQQPFPQRPQQPFPQPQ [SEQ ID NO:13]. These peptides are resistant toward endo- and exo-proteolysis by gastric, pancreatic and small intestinal enzymes. Conservative amino acid substitutions, such as Y ->F, Q ->N/E, or L ->M, are also tolerated. Therefore, in accordance with the present invention, selective inhibitors of tTGase are provided by substituting either a glutamine that is deamidated by tTGase or a dipeptide contained in the peptide that binds in the active site of tTGase with a mimetic such that the resulting compound is an inhibitor of tTGase that does not stimulate the autoimmune response in a Celiac Sprue patient. The reactive glutamines in the above proteolytically stable peptides include those glutamines identified as “(Q->E)”, E being the amino acid formed by deamidation of glutamine, in the following sequences: PQP(Q->E)LPY [SEQ ID NO:15], PQP (Q->E) LPYPQPQLP [SEQ ID NO:16]; LQLQPFPQP(Q->E)LPYPQPQLPYPQP(Q->E) LPYPQPQPF [SEQ ID NO:17], FSQP(Q->E)Q(Q->E)FPQPQQPQQSFP(Q->E)Q(Q->E) PP [SEQ ID NO:18], VQGQGIIQP(Q->E)QPAQ [SEQ ID NO:19], and FLQPQQPFP(Q->E)QP(Q->E)QPYPQOPQQPFPQ [SEQ ID NO:20]. Reactive glutamine residues in other peptides can be identified by standard HPLC-MS-MS procedures, and can be replaced by glutamine mimetics. The (Q->E) residues can be replaced by glutamine mimetics and/or the OP and LP dipeptides in these sequences can be replaced by dipeptidomimetics as discussed above. The novel tTGase inhibitors of the invention are peptides or peptidomimetic compounds in which either a reactive glutamine or a dipeptide that binds in the active site of tTGase or both has been replaced by a small molecule mimetic are referred to herein as “substituted peptides”. In one embodiment, the tTGase inhibitors useful in the methods and compositions of the present invention are those for which the affinity of the inhibitory moiety for the tTG active site increases (as measured by a decrease in K l , or an increase in k inh /K l ) when presented in the context of a high affinity, proteolytically stable peptide substrate of the enzyme. This aspect of the invention is illustrated in the Examples below. Such compounds of the invention are illustrated below by compounds in which a reactive glutamine is replaced by a tTGase inhibitory moiety. Various tTGase inhibitory moieties useful in the methods of the invention and that are incorporated into the novel substituted peptide and peptidomimetic tTGase inhibitors of the invention include the following compounds, which are shown with variable (designated R) groups to indicate that the compounds can be used directly as small molecule inhibitors or incorporated into a larger dipeptide mimetic or peptide or peptidomimetic tTGase inhibitory compound of the invention. In the compounds shown above, R1, R2 and R3 are independently selected from H, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, heteroalkyl, heteroaryl, alkoxy, alkylthio, arakyl, aralkenyl, halo, haloalkyl, haloalkoxy, heterocyclyl, and heterocyclylalkyl groups. R1 and R2 can also be an amino acid, a peptide, a peptidomimetic, or a peptidic protecting groups. Illustrative functional groups include: R 1 is selected from the group consisting of Cbz, Fmoc, Boc, PQP, Ac-PQP, PQPQLPYPQP [SEQ ID NO:21], Ac-PQPQLPFPQP [SEQ ID NO:22], QLQPFPQOP [SEQ ID NO:23], LQLQPFPQPLPYPQP [SEQ ID NO:24], X 2-15 —P (where X 2-15 is a peptide consisting of any 2-15 amino acid residues followed by a N-terminal proline); and R 2 is selected from the group consisting of OMe, OtBu, Gly, Gly-NH 2 , LPY, LPF-NH 2 , LPYPQPQLPY [SEQ ID NO:25], LPFPQPQLPF-NH 2 [SEQ ID NO:26], LPYPQPQLP [SEQ ID NO:27], LPYPQPQLPYPQPQPF [SEQ ID NO:28], LP-X 2-15 (where X 2-15 is a peptide consisting of any 2-15 amino acid residues followed by a C-terminal proline). Given the high selectivity of human tTGase for the peptide Ac-PQPQLPF-NH 2 [SEQ ID NO:29], and the intrinsic resistance of this peptide toward gastrointestinal proteolysis, the following tTGase inhibitors are provided by the present invention. In each case, an inhibitor of the invention with greater specificity is provided by individual or combinatorial substitution of Q, L and F with alternative amino acids. In the case of sulfonamide inhibitors, the following analogs are also provided, where R is selected from an alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, heteroalkyl, heteroaryl, alkoxy, alkylthio, arakyl, aralkenyl, halo, haloalkyl, haloalkoxy, heterocyclyl, or heterocyclylalkyl group. Of particular interest are the sulfonyl hydrazides (R═NHR′) where R′ is H. alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, heteroalkyl, heteroaryl, alkoxy, alkylthio, arakyl, aralkenyl, halo, haloalkyl, haloalkoxy, heterocyclyl, or heterocyclylalkyl group. In one preferred embodiment, R is a functional group whose corresponding amine is a preferred nucleophilic co-substrate of human tTGase. For example, the biological amine histamine is an excellent co-substrate of tTGase (kcat=20 min −1 , KM=40 μM). Consequently, the following compound is a preferred tTGase inhibitor of this invention: The synthesis of such compounds of the invention can be carried out using methods known in the art for other purposes and the teachings herein. For example, the synthesis of vinylogous amides such as 1 (see the numbered structure shown below) containing an acrylamide function have been reported by Macedo et al. ( Bioorg. Med. Chem . (2002) 10, 355-360). Their ability to inhibit guinea pig tTG has been demonstrated (Marrano et al., Bioorg. Med. Chem . (2001)9, 3231-3241). Illustrative vinylogous amide compounds of the invention include compounds in which a glutamine mimetic with an acrylamide motif such as 2 (see the numbered structure below) is contained in a peptide or peptidomimetic having the following structures: R 1 is selected from the group consisting of PQP, Ac-PQP, PQPQLPYPQP [SEQ ID NO:21], Ac-PQPQLPFPQP [SEQ ID NO:22], QPFPQP [SEQ ID NO:30], LQLQPFPQPLPYPQP [SEQ ID NO:24], or an amino acid protecting group, including but not limited to Boc and Fmoc; and R 2 is selected from the group consisting of LPY, LPF-NH 2 , LPYPQPQLPY [SEQ ID NO:25], LPFPQPQLPF-NH 2 [SEQ ID NO:26], LPYPQPQ [SEQ ID NO:31], LPYPQPQLP [SEQ ID NO:27], LPYPQPQLPYPQPQPF [SEQ ID NO:28], or an amino acid protecting group, including but not limited to OtBu, OFm or additionally OBn or OMe. The acrylamides can be incorporated into a high affinity peptide of the invention by fragment condensation as illustrated below in a synthetic method of the invention using intermediate compounds of the invention. The tTGase inhibitory compounds of the invention from the sulfonamides, diazoketones, 1,2,4 thiadiazoles, and isoxazoles can likewise be readily prepared using methods known in the art for other purposes and the teachings herein. To illustrate the invention with respect to such classes of compounds, the following amino acid analogs are employed: 4-sufonamido-2-amino-butyric acid (Sab), 6-diazo-5-oxo-norleucine (Don), and acivicin (Aci),. These compounds are useful tTGase inhibitors without further modification, and novel tTGase inhibitors of the invention comprise the structures of these compounds as part of a larger, high affinity inhibitor of tTGase, as illustrated by the structures above. Any high affinity tTGase substrate can be used to provide the scaffold for presenting a tTGase inhibitor moiety. Moreover, compounds not known to be tTGase substrates can be identified by screening peptide libraries, for example on chips or beads or displayed on phages using reporter groups such as dansyl- or biotinyl-cadaverine, using procedures known in the art. Additionally, the tTGase inhibitors of the invention can include other moieties. As one example, in some embodiments, the tTGase inhibitor further comprise one or more proline residues C- and/or N-terminally of the glutamine mimetic-containing peptides to block exoproteolytic degradation. To illustrate various tTGase inhibitors of the invention, a variety of relatively small and large inhibitors were synthesized and tested for inhibitory activity. As examples of small molecule inhibitors, Z-Don-OMe and Z-Sab-Gly-OH were synthesized. As examples of larger inhibitors, the compounds Ac-PQP-X-LPF-NH 2 [SEQ ID NO:32], where X was Sab, a diazoketone, or acivicin, were synthesized. Thus, Z-Don-OMe was synthesized as described (Allevi & Anatasia, Tetrahedron Asymmetry (2000) 11, 3151-3160; Pettit & Nelson, Can. J. Chem . (1986) 64, 2097-2102; Bailey & Bryans, Tetrahedron Lett . (1988) 29, 2231-2234). For the synthesis of Z-Sab-Gly-OH 33, commercially available racemic homocysteine thiolactone 24 was first protected to give 25 and subsequently saponified and acetylated in situ to give the free racemic acid 26 in high yield. Its coupling with the glycine benzyl ester 30 provided the dipeptide 31. Then, the conversion to the sulfonamide 32 was achieved via chlorination of the thioacetate moiety to a sulfonamide intermediate, followed by treatment with ammonia in CHCl 3 . Finally, the benzyl ester protecting group was removed by saponification with an aqueous NaOH solution. The sulfonamide building block (Sab) 9 was incorporated into the Ac-PQP-X-LPF-NH 2 scaffold by fragment condensation as illustrated in the following scheme: The sulfonamide building block (Sab) 9 was incorporated into the Ac-PQP-X-LPF-NH2 [SEQ ID NO:32] scaffold by fragment condensation as illustrated in the following scheme: The diazo-ketone 10a motif was introduced into the same scaffold by post-synthetic modification of Ac-PQP-Glu-LPF-NH 2 [SEQ ID NO:34] 40 to yield compound 41. Incorporation of the acivicin moiety 12 into the high affinity PQPXLPY [SEQ ID NO:35] scaffold was achieved by Fmoc-protection of commercially available acivicin and Fmoc-compatible solid phase peptide chemistry as outlined below. Synthesis of peptides containing 1,2,4 thiadiazoles is described by Marrano et al., Bioorg. Med. Chem. 9, 3231-3241 (2001). Because the carboxyl group of acivicin is not needed for tTG inhibition (Killackey et al., Mol. Pharmacol . (1989) 35, 701-706), the 3-chloro-4,5-dihydro-5-amino-isoxazole (Cai) group 13 was synthesized as described (Castelhano et al., Bioorg. Chem . (1988) 16, 335-340) and coupled C-terminally to a high-affinity peptide as depicted below: The illustrative compounds of the invention described above were tested in a tTGase assay with recombinant human tissue transglutaminase, which was expressed, purified and assayed as described (Piper et al., Biochemistry (2001) 41, 386-393). Competitive inhibition with respect to the Cbz-Gln-Gly substrate was observed for all substrates; in all cases except for the Sab derivatives, irreversible inactivation of the enzyme was also observed. Importantly, all glutamine mimetics described above showed significant improved specificity within a tTG-specific peptide context. The results also demonstrated that, while the small molecule inhibitors can be used to inhibit tTGase, the larger compounds that present the glutamine mimetic tTGase inhibitor in the context of a peptide based on the PQPQLPY [SEQ ID NO:1] sequence tended to be better inhibitors. Thus, the present invention provides a variety of different classes of known and novel tTGase inhibitors. To facilitate an appreciation of the invention, the tTGase inhibitors of the invention have in part been described above with structures containing variable “R” groups that are defined by reference to the various organic moieties that can be present at the indicated position in the structure. Below, brief definitions are provided for the phrases used to define the organic moieties listed for each R group. As used herein, “alkyl” refers to a straight or branched hydrocarbon chain radical consisting solely of carbon and hydrogen atoms, containing no unsaturation, having from one to eight carbon atoms, and which is attached to the rest of the molecule by a single bond, e.g., methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, 1-methylethyl (isopropyl), n-butyl, n-pentyl, 1,1-dimethylethyl (t-butyl), and the like. Unless stated otherwise specifically in the specification, the alkyl radical may be optionally substituted by hydroxy, alkoxy, aryloxy, haloalkoxy, cyano, nitro, mercapto, alkylthio, —N(R 8 ) 2 , —C(O)OR 8 , —C(O)N(R 8 ) 2 or —N(R 8 )C(O)R 8 where each R 8 is independently hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, aralkyl or aryl. Unless stated otherwise specifically in the specification, it is understood that for radicals, as defined below, that contain a substituted alkyl group that the substitution can occur on any carbon of the alkyl group. “Alkoxy” refers to a radical of the formula —OR a where R a is an alkyl radical as defined above, e.g., methoxy, ethoxy, n-propoxy, 1-methylethoxy (isopropoxy), n-butoxy, n-pentoxy, 1,1-dimethylethoxy (t-butoxy), and the like. Unless stated otherwise specifically in the specification, it is understood that for radicals, as defined below, that contain a substituted alkoxy group that the substitution can occur on any carbon of the alkoxy group. The alkyl radical in the alkoxy radical may be optionally substituted as described above. “Alkylthio” refers to a radical of the formula —SR a where R a is an alkyl radical as defined above, e.g., methylthio, ethylthio, n-propylthio, 1-methylethylthio (iso-propylthio), n-butylthio, n-pentylthio, 1,1-dimethylethylthio (t-butylthio), and the like. Unless stated otherwise specifically in the specification, it is understood that for radicals, as defined below, that contain a substituted alkylthio group that the substitution can occur on any carbon of the alkylthio group. The alkyl radical in the alkylthio radical may be optionally substituted as described above. “Alkenyl” refers to a straight or branched hydrocarbon chain radical consisting solely of carbon and hydrogen atoms, containing at least one double bond, having from two to eight carbon atoms, and which is attached to the rest of the molecule by a single bond or a double bond, e.g., ethenyl, prop-1-enyl, but-1-enyl, pent-1-enyl, penta-1,4-dienyl, and the like. Unless stated otherwise specifically in the specification, the alkenyl radical may be optionally substituted by hydroxy, alkoxy, haloalkoxy, cyano, nitro, mercapto, alkylthio, cycloalkyl, —N(R 8 ) 2 , —C(O)OR 8 , —C(O)N(R 8 ) 2 or —N(R 8 )—C(O)—R 8 where each R 8 is independently hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, aralkyl or aryl. Unless stated otherwise specifically in the specification, it is understood that for radicals, as defined below, that contain a substituted alkenyl group that the substitution can occur on any carbon of the alkenyl group. “Aryl” refers to a phenyl or naphthyl radical. Unless stated otherwise specifically in the specification, the term “aryl” or the prefix “ar-” (such as in “aralkyl”) is meant to include aryl radicals optionally substituted by one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of hydroxy, alkoxy, aryloxy, haloalkoxy, cyano, nitro, mercapto, alkylthio, cycloalkyl, —N(R 8 ) 2 , —C(O)OR 8 , —C(O)N(R 8 ) 2 or —N(R 8 )C(O)R 8 where each R 8 is independently hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, aralkyl or aryl. “Aralkyl” refers to a radical of the formula -R a R b where R a is an alkyl radical as defined above and R b is one or more aryl radicals as defined above, e.g., benzyl, diphenylmethyl and the like. The aryl radical(s) may be optionally substituted as described above. “Aralkenyl” refers to a radical of the formula -R c R b where R c is an alkenyl radical as defined above and R b is one or more aryl radicals as defined above, e.g., 3-phenylprop-1-enyl, and the like. The aryl radical(s) and the alkenyl radical may be optionally substituted as described above. “Alkylene chain” refers to a straight or branched divalent hydrocarbon chain consisting solely of carbon and hydrogen, containing no unsaturation and having from one to eight carbon atoms, e.g., methylene, ethylene, propylene, n-butylene, and the like. The alkylene chain may be optionally substituted by one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of aryl, halo, hydroxy, alkoxy, haloalkoxy, cyano, nitro, mercapto, alkylthio, cycloalkyl, —N(R 8 ) 2 , —C(O)OR 8 , —C(O)N(R 8 ) 2 or —N(R 8 )C(O)R 8 where each R 8 is independently hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, aralkyl or aryl. The alkylene chain may be attached to the rest of the molecule through any two carbons within the chain. “Alkenylene chain” refers to a straight or branched divalent hydrocarbon chain consisting solely of carbon and hydrogen, containing at least one double bond and having from two to eight carbon atoms, e.g., ethenylene, prop-1-enylene, but-1-enylene, pent-1-enylene, hexa-1,4-dienylene, and the like. The alkenylene chain may be optionally substituted by one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of aryl, halo, hydroxy, alkoxy, haloalkoxy, cyano, nitro, mercapto, alkylthio, cycloalkyl, —N(R 8 ) 2 , —C(O)OR 8 , —C(O)N(R 8 ) 2 or —N(R 8 )C(O)R 8 where each R 8 is independently hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, aralkyl or aryl. The alkenylene chain may be attached to the rest of the molecule through any two carbons within the chain. “Cycloalkyl” refers to a stable monovalent monocyclic or bicyclic hydrocarbon radical consisting solely of carbon and hydrogen atoms, having from three to ten carbon atoms, and which is saturated and attached to the rest of the molecule by a single bond, e.g., cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, decalinyl and the like. Unless otherwise stated specifically in the specification, the term “cycloalkyl” is meant to include cycloalkyl radicals which are optionally substituted by one or more substituents independently selected from the group consisting of alkyl, aryl, aralkyl, halo, haloalkyl, hydroxy, alkoxy, haloalkoxy, cyano, nitro, mercapto, alkylthio, cycloalkyl, —N(R 8 ) 2 , —C(O)OR 8 , —C(O)N(R 8 ) 2 or —N(R 8 )C(O)R 8 where each R 8 is independently hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, aralkyl or aryl. “Cycloalkylalkyl” refers to a radical of the formula -R a R d where R a is an alkyl radical as defined above and R d is a cycloalkyl radical as defined above. The alkyl radical and the cycloalkyl radical may be optionally substituted as defined above. “Halo” refers to bromo, chloro, fluoro or iodo. “Haloalkyl” refers to an alkyl radical, as defined above, that is substituted by one or more halo radicals, as defined above, e.g., trifluoromethyl, difluoromethyl, trichloromethyl, 2,2,2-trifluoroethyl, 1-fluoromethyl-2-fluoroethyl, 3-bromo-2-fluoropropyl, 1-bromomethyl-2-bromoethyl, and the like. “Haloalkoxy” refers to a radical of the formula —OR c where R c is an haloalkyl radical as defined above, e.g., trifluoromethoxy, difluoromethoxy, trichloromethoxy, 2,2,2-trifluoroethoxy, 1-fluoromethyl-2-fluoroethoxy, 3-bromo-2-fluoropropoxy, 1-bromomethyl-2-bromoethoxy, and the like. “Heterocyclyl” refers to a stable 3- to 15-membered ring radical which consists of carbon atoms and from one to five heteroatoms selected from the group consisting of nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur. For purposes of this invention, the heterocyclyl radical may be a monocyclic, bicyclic or tricyclic ring system, which may include fused or bridged ring systems; and the nitrogen, carbon or sulfur atoms in the heterocyclyl radical may be optionally oxidized; the nitrogen atom may be optionally-quatemized; and the heterocyclyl radical may be aromatic or partially or fully saturated. The heterocyclyl radical may not be attached to the rest of the molecule at any heteroatom atom. Examples of such heterocyclyl radicals include, but are not limited to, azepinyl, acridinyl, benzimidazolyl, benzthiazolyl, benzothiadiazolyl, benzoxazolyl, benzodioxolyl, benzodioxinyl, benzopyranyl, benzopyranonyl, benzofuranyl, benzofuranonyl, benzothienyl (benzothiophenyl), benzotriazolyl, carbazolyl, cinnolinyl, decahydroisoquinolyl, dioxolanyl, furanyl, furanonyl, isothiazolyl, imidazolyl, imidazolinyl, imidazolidinyl, isothiazolidinyl, indolyl, indazolyl, isoindolyl, indolinyl, isoindolinyl, indolizinyl, isoxazolyl, isoxazolidinyl, morpholinyl, naphthyridinyl, oxadiazolyl, octahydroindolyl, octahydroisoindolyl, 2-oxopiperazinyl, 2-oxopiperidinyl, 2-oxopyrrolidinyl, 2-oxoazepinyl, oxazolyl, oxazolidinyl, oxiranyl, piperidinyl, piperazinyl, 4-piperidonyl, phenazinyl, phenothiazinyl, phenoxazinyl, phthalazinyl, pteridinyl, purinyl, pyrrolyl, pyrrolidinyl, pyrazolyl, pyrazolidinyl, pyridinyl, pyrazinyl, pyrimidinyl, pyridazinyl, quinazolinyl, quinoxalinyl, quinolinyl, quinuclidinyl, isoquinolinyl, thiazolyl, thiazolidinyl, thiadiazolyl, triazolyl, tetrazolyl, tetrahydrofuryl, triazinyl, tetrahydropyranyl, thienyl, thiamorpholinyl, thiamorpholinyl sulfoxide, and thiamorpholinyl sulfone. Unless stated otherwise specifically in the specification, the term “heterocyclyl” is meant to include heterocyclyl radicals as defined above which are optionally substituted by one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of alkyl, halo, nitro, cyano, haloalkyl, haloalkoxy, aryl, heterocyclyl, heterocyclylalkyl, —OR 8 , —R 7 —OR 8 , —C(O)OR 8 , —R 7 —C(O)OR 8 , —C(O)N(R 8 ) 2 , —N(R 8 ) 2 , —R 7 —N(R 8 ) 2 , and —N(R 8 )C(O)R 8 wherein each R 7 is a straight or branched alkylene or alkenylene chain and each R 8 is independently hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, aralkyl or aryl. “Heterocyclylalkyl” refers to a radical of the formula -R a R e where R a is an alkyl radical as defined above and R e is a heterocyclyl radical as defined above, and if the heterocyclyl is a nitrogen-containing heterocyclyl, the heterocyclyl may be attached to the alkyl radical at the nitrogen atom. The heterocyclyl radical may be optionally substituted as defined above. In the formulas provided herein, molecular variations are included, which may be based on isosteric replacement. “lsosteric replacement” refers to the concept of modifying chemicals through the replacement of single atoms or entire functional groups with alternatives that have similar size, shape and electro-magnetic properties, e.g. O is the isosteric replacement of S, N, COOH is the isosteric replacement of tetrazole, F is the isosteric replacement of H, sulfonate is the isosteric replacement of phosphate etc. As used herein, compounds which are “commercially available” may be obtained from standard commercial sources including Acros Organics (Pittsburgh Pa.), Aldrich Chemical (Milwaukee Wiss., including Sigma Chemical and Fluka), Apin Chemicals Ltd. (Milton Park UK), Avocado Research (Lancashire U.K.), BDH Inc. (Toronto, Canada), Bionet (Cornwall, U.K.), Chemservice Inc. (West Chester Pa.), Crescent Chemical Co. (Hauppauge N.Y.), Eastman Organic Chemicals, Eastman Kodak Company (Rochester N.Y.), Fisher Scientific Co. (Pittsburgh Pa.), Fisons Chemicals (Leicestershire UK), Frontier Scientific (Logan Utah), ICN Biomedicals, Inc. (Costa Mesa Calif.), Key Organics (Cornwall U.K.), Lancaster Synthesis (Windham N.H., Maybridge Chemical Co. Ltd. (Cornwall U.K.), Parish Chemical Co. (Orem Utah), Pfaltz & Bauer, Inc. (Waterbury Conn.), Polyorganix (Houston Tex.), Pierce Chemical Co. (Rockford Ill.), Riedel de Haen AG (Hannover, Germany), Spectrum Quality Product, Inc. (New Brunswick, N.J.), TCI America (Portland Oreg.), Trans World Chemicals, Inc. (Rockville Md.), Wako Chemicals USA, Inc. (Richmond Va.), Novabiochem and Argonaut Technology. As used herein, “suitable conditions” for carrying out a synthetic step are explicitly provided herein or may be discerned by reference to publications directed to methods used in synthetic organic chemistry. The reference books and treatise set forth above that detail the synthesis of reactants useful in the preparation of compounds of the present invention, will also provide suitable conditions for carrying out a synthetic step according to the present invention. As used herein, “methods known to one of ordinary skill in the art” may be identified though various reference books and databases. Suitable reference books and treatise that detail the synthesis of reactants useful in the preparation of compounds of the present invention, or provide references to articles that describe the preparation, include for example, “Synthetic Organic Chemistry”, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York; S. R. Sandier et al., “Organic Functional Group Preparations,” 2nd Ed., Academic Press, New York, 1983; H. O. House, “Modem Synthetic Reactions”, 2nd Ed., W. A. Benjamin, Inc. Menlo Park, Calif. 1972; T. L. Gilchrist, “Heterocyclic Chemistry”, 2nd Ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1992; J. March, “Advanced Organic Chemistry: Reactions, Mechanisms and Structure”, 4th Ed., Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1992. Specific and analogous reactants may also be identified through the indices of known chemicals prepared by the Chemical Abstract Service of the American Chemical Society, which are available in most public and university libraries, as well as through on-line databases (the American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C., www.acs.org may be contacted for more details). Chemicals that are known but not commercially available in catalogs may be prepared by custom chemical synthesis houses, where many of the standard chemical supply houses. (e.g., those listed above) provide custom synthesis services. “Optional” or “optionally” means that the subsequently described event of circumstances may or may not occur, and that the description includes instances where said event or circumstance occurs and instances in which it does not. For example, “optionally substituted aryl” means that the aryl radical may or may not be substituted and that the description includes both substituted aryl radicals and aryl radicals having no substitution. “Pharmaceutically acceptable base addition salt” refers to those salts which retain the biological effectiveness and properties of the free acids, which are not biologically or otherwise undesirable. These salts are prepared from addition of an inorganic base or an organic base to the free acid. Salts derived from inorganic bases include, but are not limited to, the sodium, potassium, lithium, ammonium, calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc, copper, manganese, aluminum salts and the like. Preferred inorganic salts are the ammonium, sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium salts. Salts derived from organic bases include, but are not limited to, salts of primary, secondary, and tertiary amines, substituted amines including naturally occurring substituted amines, cyclic amines and basic ion exchange resins, such as isopropylamine, trimethylamine, diethylamine, triethylamine, tripropylamine, ethanolamine, 2-dimethylaminoethanol, 2-diethylaminoethanol, dicyclohexylamine, lysine, arginine, histidine, caffeine, procaine, hydrabamine, choline, betaine, ethylenediamine, glucosamine, methylglucamine, theobromine, purines, piperazine, piperidine, N-ethylpiperidine, polyamine resins and the like. Particularly preferred organic bases are isopropylamine, diethylamine, ethanolamine, trimethylamine, dicyclohexylamine, choline and caffeine. The tTGase inhibitors, or their pharmaceutically acceptable salts may contain one or more asymmetric centers and may thus give rise to enantiomers, diastereomers, and other stereoisomeric forms that may be defined, in terms of absolute stereochemistry, as (R)— or (S)— or, as (D)- or (L)- for amino acids. The present invention is meant to include all such possible isomers, as well as, their racemic and optically pure forms. Optically active (+) and (−), (R)— and (S)—, or (D)- and (L)- isomers may be prepared using chiral synthons or chiral reagents, or resolved using conventional techniques, such as reverse phase HPLC. When the compounds described herein contain olefinic double bonds or other centers of geometric asymmetry, and unless specified otherwise, it is intended that the compounds include both E and Z geometric isomers. Likewise, all tautomeric forms are also intended to be included. The present invention provides the tTGase inhibitors in a variety of formulations for therapeutic administration. In one aspect, the agents are formulated into pharmaceutical compositions by combination with appropriate, pharmaceutically acceptable carriers or diluents, and are formulated into preparations in solid, semi-solid, liquid or gaseous forms, such as tablets, capsules, powders, granules, ointments, solutions, suppositories, injections, inhalants, gels, microspheres, and aerosols. As such, administration of the tTGase inhibitors is achieved in various ways, although oral administration is a preferred route of administration. In some formulations, the tTGase inhibitors are systemic after administration; in others, the inhibitor is localized by virtue of the formulation, such as the use of an implant that acts to retain the active dose at the site of implantation. In some pharmaceutical dosage forms, the tTGase inhibitors are administered in the form of their pharmaceutically acceptable salts. In some dosage forms, the tTGase inhibitor is used alone, while in others, the tTGase is used in combination with another pharmaceutically active compounds. In the latter embodiment, the other active compound is, in some embodiments, a glutenase that can cleave or otherwise degrade a toxic gluten oligopeptide, as described in the Examples below. The following methods and excipients are merely exemplary and are in no way limiting. For oral preparations, the agents are used alone or in combination with appropriate additives to make tablets, powders, granules or capsules, for example, with conventional additives, such as lactose, mannitol, corn starch or potato starch; with binders, such as crystalline cellulose, cellulose derivatives, acacia, corn starch or gelatins; with disintegrators, such as corn starch, potato starch or sodium carboxymethylcellulose; with lubricants, such as talc or magnesium stearate; and in some embodiments, with diluents, buffering agents, moistening agents, preservatives and flavoring agents. In one embodiment of the invention, the oral formulations comprise enteric coatings, so that the active agent is delivered to the intestinal tract. Enteric formulations are often used to protect an active ingredient from the strongly acid contents of the stomach. Such formulations are created by coating a solid dosage form with a film of a polymer that is insoluble in acid environments and soluble in basic environments. Exemplary films are cellulose acetate phthalate, polyvinyl acetate phthalate, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose phthalate and-hydroxypropyl methylcellulose acetate succinate, methacrylate copolymers and cellulose acetate phthalate. Other enteric formulations of the tTGase inhibitors of the invention comprise engineered polymer microspheres made of biologically erodable polymers, which display strong adhesive interactions with gastrointestinal mucus and cellular linings, can traverse both the mucosal absorptive epithelium and the follicle-associated epithelium covering the lymphoid tissue of Peyer's patches. The polymers maintain contact with intestinal epithelium for extended periods of time and actually penetrate it, through and between cells. See, for example, Mathiowitz et al. (1997) Nature 386 (6623): 410-414. Drug delivery systems can also utilize a core of superporous hydrogels (SPH) and SPH composite (SPHC), as described by Dorkoosh et al. (2001) J Control Release 71(3):307-18. In another embodiment, the tTGase inhibitor or formulation thereof is admixed with food, or used to pre-treat foodstuffs containing glutens. Formulations are typically provided in a unit dosage form, where the term “unit dosage form,” refers to physically discrete units suitable as unitary dosages for human subjects, each unit containing a predetermined quantity of tTGase inhibitor calculated in an amount sufficient to produce the desired effect in association with a pharmaceutically acceptable diluent, carrier or vehicle. The specifications for the unit dosage forms of the present invention depend on the particular complex employed and the effect to be achieved, and the pharmacodynamics associated with each complex in the host. The pharmaceutically acceptable excipients, such as vehicles, adjuvants, carriers or diluents, are readily available to the public. Moreover, pharmaceutically acceptable auxiliary substances, such as pH adjusting and buffering agents, tonicity adjusting agents, stabilizers, wetting agents and the like, are readily available to the public. Depending on the patient and condition being treated and on the administration route, the tTGase inhibitor is administered in dosages of 0.01 mg to 500 mg V/kg body weight per day, e.g. about 20 mg/day for an average person. Dosages are appropriately adjusted for pediatric formulation. Those of skill will readily appreciate that dose levels can vary as a function of the specific inhibitor, the diet of the patient and the gluten content of the diet, the severity of the symptoms, and the susceptibility of the subject to side effects. Some of the inhibitors of the invention are more potent than others. Preferred dosages for a given inhibitor are readily determinable by those of skill in the art by a variety of means. A preferred means is to measure the physiological potency of a given compound. The methods of the invention are useful in the treatment of individuals suffering from Celiac Sprue and/or dermatitis herpetiformis, by administering an effective dose of a tTGase inhibitor, through a pharmaceutical formulation, and the like. Diagnosis of suitable patients may utilize a variety of criteria known to those of skill in the art. A quantitative increase in antibodies-specific for gliadin, and/or tissue transglutaminase is indicative of the disease. Family histories and the presence of the HLA alleles HLA-DQ2 [DQ(a1*0501, b1*02)] and/or DQ8 [DQ(a1*0301, b1*0302)] are indicative of a susceptibility to the disease. Moreover, as tTG plays an important role in other diseases, such as Huntington's disease and skin diseases in addition to dermatitis herpetiformis, a variety of formulated versions of the compounds of the invention (e.g. topical formulations, intravenous injections) are useful for the treatment of such medical conditions. These conditions include Alzheimer's and Huntington's diseases, where the TGases appear to be a factor in the formation of inappropriate proteinaceous aggregates that may be cytotoxic. In diseases such as progressive supranuclear palsy, Huntington's, Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases, the aberrant activation of TGases may be caused by oxidative stress and inflammation. Therapeutic effect is measured in terms of clinical outcome, or by immunological or biochemical tests. Suppression of the deleterious T-cell activity can be measured by enumeration of reactive Th1 cells, by quantitating the release of cytokines at the sites of lesions, or using other assays for the presence of autoimmune T cells known in the art. Also both the physician and patient can identify a reduction in symptoms of a disease. Various methods for administration are employed in the practice of the invention. In one preferred embodiment, oral administration, for example with meals, is employed. The dosage of the therapeutic formulation can vary widely, depending upon the nature of the disease, the frequency of administration, the manner of administration, the clearance of the agent from the patient, and the like. The initial dose can be larger, followed by smaller maintenance doses. The dose can be administered as infrequently as weekly or biweekly, or more often fractionated into smaller doses and administered daily, with meals, semi-weekly, and the like, to maintain an effective dosage level. The following examples are put forth so as to provide those of ordinary skill in the art with a complete disclosure and description of how to make and use the present invention, and are not intended to limit the scope of what the inventors regard as their invention nor are they intended to represent that the experiments below are all or the only experiments performed. Efforts have been made to ensure accuracy with respect to numbers used (e.g., amounts, temperature), but some experimental errors and deviations may be present. Unless indicated otherwise, parts are parts by weight, molecular weight is weight average molecular weight, temperature is in degrees Centigrade, and pressure is at or near atmospheric. EXAMPLE 1 Synthesis of Glutamine Mimetic tTGase Inhibitors Synthesis of N-(Carbobenzyloxy)-D,L-homocysteine thiolactone (25). To a solution of DL-homocysteine thiolactone hydrochloride (1 eq.) in an aqueous solution of Na 2 CO 3 (10 eq.) and dioxane (v/v), cooled to 0° C., benzylchloroformate (1 eq) in dioxane is added. After 20 h at room temperature, the bulk of the dioxane is evaporated and the resulting aqueous solution extracted with AcOEt. The combined extracts are washed with brine, dried over sodium sulfate and evaporated. The crude product is triturated in ether and finally filtered. White solid. Yield 95%. 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ 1.98 (m, 1H), 2.87 (m, 1H), 3,24-3.34 (m, 2H), 4. 31 (m, 1H), 5.12 (s, 2H), 7.35 (m, 5H) Synthesis of S-acetyl-N-(carbobenzyloxy)-D,L-homocysteine (26). A solution of N-(Carbobenzyloxy) -D,L-homocysteine thiolactone 25 (1 eq.) in THF:H 2 O 1.5:0.5 was degassed three times. A solution of 6M aqueous degassed KOH (3 eq.), was added the thiolactone solution. After the solution was stirred at room temperature for 1.5 h, acetic anhydride (5.3 eq.) was then added dropwise with continued cooling (ice bath), maintaining a temperature of <27 ° C. After an additional 30 min. at room temperature, the reaction was acidified with 6N aqueous HCl to pH 4.3, and then concentrated in vacuo. The concentrate was acidified further with additional 6N aqueous HCl to pH 2.6. The product was extracted with EtOAc. The combined organic extracts were washed three times with saturated brine, dried (Na 2 SO 4 ), filtered, and concentrated under vacuum to afford a tacky white solid. The residue was azeotroped three times with toluene to remove residual acetic acid. The solid was collected by filtration using hexane:EtOAc 1:1 and dried to afford racemic 26, free acid form, as a white solid. Yield 85%. TLC R f 0.48 (EtOAC:AcOH 98:2). 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ 1.99 (m, 1H), 2.08 (m, 1H), 2.29 (s, 3H), 2.86-2.98 (m, 2H), 4.14 (m, 1H), 5.12 (s, 2H), 7.35 (m, 5H). Synthesis of (31). To a solution of the free racemic acid of S-acetyl-N-(carbobenzyloxy) -D,L-homocysteine 26 (1 eq.) in DCM at 0° C. was added 1-hydroxybenzotrizole hydrate (HOBt, 1.1 eq.), followed by 1-[3-(dimethylamino)propyl]-3-ethylcarbodiimide hydrochloride (EDPI, 1 eq.). The resulting suspension was stirred at 0° C. for 30 min and then a solution of glycine benzylester 30 (1 eq.) in DCM was added, followed by dropwise addition of a solution of 4-dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP, 1.2 eq.) in DCM. The resulting suspension was stirred at room temperature for 20 h. The reaction mixture was partitioned between EtOAc and 5% aqueous NaHPO 4 . The separated organic layer was then washed with 5% aqueous NaHPO 4 , satured aqueous Na 2 CO 3 , H 2 O, and brine, dried over Na 2 SO 4 , and filtered. Yhe filtrate was concentrated in vacuo, and the residu was flash chromatographed on a short silica gel column to afford the pure dipeptide 31 as a colorless oil. Yield 75%. 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ1.98 (m, 1H), 2.05-2.13 (m, 3H), 2.29 (s, 3H), 2.86 (m, 1H), 2.98 (m, 1H), 4.14 (m, 1H), 5.10-5.14 (m, 4H), 7.28-7.42 (m, 10H). Synthesis of (32). A solution of 31 (1 eq.) and NaOAc (10 eq.) in HOAc:H 2 O 5:1 was stirred below 10° C. Gaseous chlorine was bubbled into the solution. After 10 min argon was blown through the yellow mixture for 10 min to remove excess Cl 2 and the solvent was evaporated. The residue was partitioned between EtOAc and H 2 O. The EtOAc solution was washed with brine, dried, and evaporated to the yellow oily sulfonylchloride. This product was used without further purification in the next stage. A solution of the crude sulfonylchloride (1 eq.) in CHCl 3 was stirred below 10° C. Gaseous ammoniac was bubbled into the solution. After 20 min, the mixture was stirred for 30 min, allowed to warm to room temperature, and evaporated to dryness. The residue was partitioned between EtOAc and H 2 O. The EtOAc solution was washed with brine, dried, and evaporated to a colorless oil. Yield 75%. 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ2.01 (m, 1H), 2.13 (s, 2H), 2.22-2.32 (m, 1H), 3.21-3.31 (m, 2H), 4.14 (m, 1H), 5.10-5.14 (m, 4H), 7.27-7.41 (m, 10 H). Synthesis of (33). The benzyl ester 32 (1 eq.) was stirred for 2 h in a mixture of aqueous 1N NaOH:EtOH 1.2:3 (10 eq.). The reaction mixture was evaporated to dryness and the residue was dissolved in a small amount of H 2 O. The solution was filtered into a centrifuge tube and acidified to pH 3. The gelatinous precipitate was isolated by centrifugation, washed with CHCl 3 , and dried to a white solid. Yield 60%. MS m/z 372.3 [M-H − ] − . Synthesis of Fmoc-Acivicin 45. 3.1 ml of a 0.75 M solution of Fmoc-N-hydroxysuccinimide in acetone was added to 0.4 g acivicin (2.25 mmol, Biomol) dissolved in 3.1 ml of a 10% Na 2 CO 3 aqueous solution. The slurry was stirring for 4 hours and the pH of was maintained at 9.0 by addition of Na 2 CO 3 . The solvent was removed by rotary evaporation, the residual solid was dissolved in 0.6 M HCL, extracted with ethyl acetate and concentrated to a yellow oil. Recrystallization from ethyl acetate: hexane yielded 0.62 9 (1.55 mmol, 70%) of the desired product as white crystals. R f (CH 2 Cl 2 : iPrOH: AcOH=100:3:1)=0.3 1 H (d 6 -acetone, 200 MHz) cpm=7.87 ArH (2H, d, J=7.4 Hz); 7.73 ArH (2H, d, J=7 Hz); 7.28-7.48 ArH (4H, m); 7.17 NH (1H, d, J=8 Hz); 5.22 CH 2 CHO (1H, m); 4.66 (1H, q, J=4.4 Hz); 4.2-4.4 (3H); 3.6-3.4 (2H). m [M-Na] + =423.4, 425.3 g/mol. Synthesis of Pro-Gln-Pro-Aci-Leu-Pro-Tyr 46. PQPAciLPY was synthesized by standard Fmoc solid phase chemistry using Fmoc-acivicin and commercially available building blocks in a 25 μmol scale. Preparative reversed phase HPLC purification yielded 4 OD 275 (3.4 μmol, 14%). LC-MS: R t =12 min, [M+H] + =874.6. Synthesis of Ac-Pro-Gln-Pro-Don-Leu-Pro-Phe-NH 2 41.72 mg (8.3 μmol) of HPLC-purified, lyophilized Ac-Pro-Gln-Pro-Glu-Leu-Pro-Phe-NH 2 in 1 ml THF and 15 μl (135 μmol) N-methyl morpholine were mixed with 13 μl (100 μmol) at 0° C., followed by addition of up to 0.5 mol of a saturated diazomethane solution in dry ether generated from Diazald as described by the supplier. After 1 hour the solvents were evaporated, the residual solid was extracted with ethyl ester and a 5% aqueous solution of NH 4 HCO 3 , and the combined aqueous phases were concentrated by rotary evaporation. The crude product was purified by preparative reversed phase HPLC on a Beckman Ultrashpere C18 column (15×2.54 cm) using a 1% NH 4 HCO 3 as buffer A and 0.5% NH 4 HCO 3 , 80% acetonitrile as buffer B. The product eluting at 22.5% buffer B was concentrated yielding 16 mg (150 OD 275 ) of lyophyllized product. [M+Na] + =914.4. Synthesis of (S)-2-Benzyloxycarbonylamino-4-sulfamoyl-butyric acid ethyl ester (a) (Cbz-homocys) 2 1.00 g (3.65 mmol) of L-homocystine (Bachem, Calif.) was dissolved in 15 ml of 1:1 (v/v) mixture of 1,4-dioxane and water, and NaOH (0.30 g, 2.0 eq) was added. To the solution cooled down to 0° C., benzyl chloroformate (1.27 ml, 2.3 eq) was added dropwise as the pH of the solution was maintained slightly basic by simultaneous addition of 1 N NaOH. After stirring for 1 hr, the solution was washed with ether, acidified with 6 N HCl and extracted with ethyl acetate. The organic layer was washed with brine and dried over Na 2 SO 4 . After filtration, the solvent was removed by evaporation and the residue was dried under vacuum to give the title compound as a white solid (1.83 g, 92%). 1 H NMR (DMSO-d 6 , 200 MHz): δ=7.59(d, 2H, J=8.0 Hz), 7.29-7.26(m, 10H), 4.96(s, 4H), 4.03-3.97(m, 2H), 2.70-2.62(m, 4H), 2.05-1.84(m, 4H) MS (ESl): m/z=536.9 [M+H] + , 559.1 [M+Na] + (b) (Cbz-homocys-OEt) 2 1.00 g (1.86 mmol) of (Cbz-homocys) 2 was dissolved in 10 ml EtOH. To the solution cooled down to 0° C., SOCl 2 (0.33 ml, 2.4 eq) was added dropwise and the stirring was continued overnight at room temperature. The solvent was removed by evaporation and the residue was redissolved in ethyl acetate. The solution was washed with sat. NaHCO 3 solution and brine, and dried over Na 2 SO 4 . After filtration, the solvent was removed by evaporation and the residue was dried under vacuum to give the title compound as a white solid (1.10 g, quant.). 1 H NMR (CDC1 3 , 200 MHz): δ=7.30-7.27(m, 10H), 5.40(d, 2H, J=8.2 Hz), 5.04(s, 4H), 4.43-4.38(m, 2H), 4.15(q, 4H, J=7.0 Hz), 2.69-2.61(m, 4H), 2.20-1.94(m, 4H), 1.22(t, 3H, J =7.0 Hz) MS (ESl): m/z=592.9 [M+H] + , 615.2 [M+Na] + (c) (S)-2-Benzyloxycarbonylamino-4-sulfamoyl-butyric acid ethyl ester 1.00 g (1.77 mmol) of (Cbz-homocys-OEt) 2 was dissolved in 12 ml of 2:1 (v/v) mixture of CCl 4 and EtOH. Cl 2 (g) was bubbled through the solution cooled down to 0° C. for 1 hr. Stirring was continued for 20 min at room temperature with Ar bubbling. The solvents were removed by evaporation and the residue was dried under vacuum. This (S)-2-benzyloxycarbonylamino4-chlorosulfonyl-butyric acid ethyl ester was dissolved in 10 ml CH 2 Cl 2 and NH 3 (g) was bubbled through the solution at 0° C. for 30 min. The solvent was removed by evaporation and the residue was redissolved in ethyl acetate. The solution was washed with brine and dried over Na 2 SO 4 . After filtration, the solvent was removed by evaporation and the residue was purified by SiO 2 chromatography to give the title compound as a white solid (0.95 g, 82%). 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 , 200 MHz): δ=7.32-7.30(m, 5H), 5.49(d, 1H, J=8.4 Hz), 5.07(s, 2H), 4.71 (br, 2H), 4.50-4.45(m, 1H), 4.18(q, 2H, J=7.2 Hz), 3.21-3.13(m, 2H), 2.42-2.14(m, 2H), 1.24(t, 3H, J=7.2 Hz) MS (ESI): m/z=367.1 [M+Na] + Synthesis of (S)-2-Benzyloxycarbonylamino-4-hydrazinosulfonyl-butyrc acid ethyl ester (S)-2-benzyloxycarbonylamino-4-chlorosulfonyl-butyric acid ethyl ester, prepared from 0.10 g of (Cbz-homocys-OEt) 2 as above, was reacted with hydrazine monohydrate (38 μl, 2.2 eq) in 2 ml CH 2 Cl 2 for 1 hr. The solution was diluted with ethyl acetate and washed with 0.1 N HCl, sat. NaHCO 3 solution and brine. The solvents were evaporated and the residue was purified to by SiO 2 chromatography to give the title compound as clear oil (84 mg, 70%). 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 , 200 MHz): δ=7.30-7.28(m, 5H), 5.54(d, 1H, J=8.4 Hz), 5.05(s, 2H), 4.45-4.40(m, 1H), 4.16(q, 2H, J=7.0 Hz), 4.11(br, 3H), 3.24-3.08(m, 2H), 2.38-2.02(m, 2H), 1.22(t, 3H, J=7.0 Hz) MS (ESl): m/z=352.1 [M+Na] + Synthesis of (S)-2-Benzyloxycarbonylamino-4-phenylhydrazinosulfonyl-butyric acid ethyl ester. According to the procedure described for the synthesis of (S)-2-Benzyloxycarbonylamino-4-hydrazinosulfonyl-butyric acid ethyl ester, the title compound was obtained from phenylhydrazine as slightly orange oil. 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 , 200 MHz): δ=7.29-7.15(m, 9H), 6.87(d, 2H, J=7.0 Hz), 6.09(s,1H), 5.31 (d, 1H, J=7.8 Hz), 5.02(s, 2H), 4.34-4.30(m, 1H), 4.10(q, 2H, J=7.2 Hz), 3.07-2.99(m, 2H), 2.36-2.04(m, 2H), 1.18(t, 3H, J=7.2 Hz) MS (ESl): m/z=458.0 [M+Na] + Inhibition of tTG. tTG (9 μM) was inactivated in 200 mM MOPS, pH=7.1, 5 mM CaCI 2 , 1 mM ETDA at 30° C. containing 0-600 μM Pro-Gln-Pro-Aci-Leu-Pro-Tyr [SEQ ID NO:36]. Every 20 minutes a 40 μul aliquot was removed and residual tTG activity was assayed in 0.5 ml reaction containing 200 mM MOPS, pH=7.1, 5 mM CaCI 2 , 1 mM ETDA, 10 mM α-ketoglutarate, 180 U/ml glutamate dehydrogenase (Biozyme laboratories) at 30° C. for 20 minutes by measuring the decrease of absorption at 340 nm. Residual activity was corrected by the corresponding uninhibited tTG reaction (0 μM inhibitor) and fitted to an exponential decay. Kinetic parameters were obtained by double-reciprocal plotting of the apparent second-order inactivation constant or, for sulfonamides and sulfonyl hydrazides, by fitting the data for reversible inhibitors to a standard Michaelis Menten equation with a competitive inhibition constant. The results of these inhibition experiments are shown in Tables 1, and 2 and 3 below. TABLE 1 Kinetic parameters of catalysis and inhibition of tissue transglutaminase by reactive glutamine peptide analogs. The reactive glutamine (—X—) in the peptide substrate was substituted by the inhibitory residue acivicin (Aci) or 6-diazo-5-oxo-norleucine (DON). Reactive Gln Aci DON Motif: k cat K M k cat /K M k inh K I k inh /K I k inh K I k inh /K I Scaffold: [min −1 ] [M] [min −1 M −1 ] [min −1 ] [M] [min −1 M −1 ] [min −1 ] [M] [min −1 M −1 ] H—X—OH — >0.2 ≦2 0.015 0.087 0.17 0.025 0.13 0.2 Cbz-X—OMe — >0.03  90 — — — 0.12 1.35 × 10 −4 890 PQP-X-LPY 28 3 × 10 −4 8.2 × 10 −4 0.014 7.8 × 10 −4 18 — — — [SEQ ID NO:33] Ac-PQP-X-LPF-NH 2 40 4 × 10 −4 9.7 × 10 4  — — — 0.2   7 × 10 −8 2.9 × 10 6 [SEQ ID NO:32] TABLE 2 Kinetic parameters of catalysis and inhibition of tissue transglutaminase by Sab and Z-Sab-Gly. Compound Sab Z-Sab-Gly K I [mM] >200 8 k inh [min −1 ] — — k inh /K I — — [mM −1 min −1 ] TABLE 3 Tissue transglutaminase inhibition by sulfonamides and sulfonyl hydrazides tested compound inhibition constant (M) (S)-2-Benzyloxycarbonylamino-4-sulfamoyl- 4.4 × 10 −3 butyric acid ethyl ester (S)-2-Benzyloxycarbonylamino-4-hydra- 2.2 × 10 −3 zinosulfonyl-butyric acid ethyl ester (S)-2-Benzyloxycarbonylamino-4-phenyl- 1.3 × 10 −4 hydrazinosulfonyl-butyric acid ethyl ester The above results demonstrate that the compounds tested have tTGase inhibitory activity. All publications and patent applications cited in this specification are herein incorporated by reference as if each individual publication or patent application were specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. The present invention has been described in terms of particular embodiments found or proposed by the present inventor to comprise preferred modes for the practice of the invention. It will be appreciated by those of skill in the art that, in light of the present disclosure, numerous modifications and changes can be made in the particular embodiments exemplified without departing from the intended scope of the invention. Moreover, due to biological functional equivalency considerations, changes can be made in protein structure without affecting the biological action in kind or amount. All such modifications are intended to be included within the scope of the appended claims.

Administering an effective dose of a tTGase inhibitor to a Celiac or dermatitis herpetiformis patient reduces the toxic effects of toxic gluten oligopeptides, thereby attenuating or eliminating the damaging effects of gluten.

RELATED APPLICATION DATA [0001] This application claims priority from provisional application 61/363,143, filed Jul. 9, 2010. TECHNICAL FIELD [0002] Most embodiments of the present technology concern use of haptic actuators, such as in smartphone devices. INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY [0003] Haptics devices (sometimes termed “force feedback” devices) are becoming more widespread, but their popularity is limited because relatively few systems make use of the technology, and then often for only limited purposes. [0004] The prototypical example is mobile phones. Such devices routinely have haptic devices, but their use is almost exclusively as “silent ringers”—signaling incoming calls and messages. [0005] Some popular software applications—primarily games—provide support for haptic devices. Road racing games, for instance, often apply force-feedback to the joystick, steering wheel or other game controller when the user drives off the road. The force and frequency of the effects can depend on various contextual factors, such as speed and terrain. In such applications, however, the software writers must “author” the haptics special effects, so that they arise in the desired scenarios with the desired parameters (much like authoring the audio accompaniment to a game). The need to “author” haptics effects is an impediment to haptics' wider use. [0006] There are certain applications in which the need for haptics authoring is diminished, or absent. One is where a haptic actuator simply outputs a touch or force earlier sensed by a haptic sensor. A common example is haptic tele-manipulation in robot systems. A haptic sensor on the robot detects a touch or pressure, and this effect is relayed to an operator at a remote location and applied using a haptic actuator. [0007] More elaborate are vision substitution systems, e.g., to aid the blind in navigating the visual world. In such arrangements a camera typically captures a view of a user's environment, and this image information is mapped in some fashion to produce corresponding tactile output. One such system is shown in patent application 20080058894. Another is detailed in Zelek, Seeing by Touch (Haptics) for Wayfinding, International Congress Series 1282 (2005), pp. 1108-1112. [0008] Some vision substitution arrangements are purpose-built to respond to certain patterns. One, for example, recognizes a variety of traffic signs, and provides haptic output. (Lee, Tactile Visualization with Mobile AR on a Handheld Device, LNCS 4813, pp. 11-21, 2007.) Another aids the visually impaired in locating and decoding barcodes in supermarkets (Kulyukin, Eyes-Free Barcode Localization and Decoding for Visually Impaired Mobile Phone Users, ICIP Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition 2010). In the barcode system, the reader device (a mobile phone) vibrates to signal the user to move the phone device up, down, left, right, or tilt, so as to properly orient the device relative to the barcode. [0009] Recognition of known patterns is sometimes used in haptic-equipped games. An example is shown in Henrysson, AR Tennis (SIGGRAPH-ART, 2006). In this arrangement, two mobile-phone equipped players sit opposite each other, with a printed ARToolKit marker placed on a table between them. The phones respond to the marker by presenting an augmented reality view of a tennis court, from a perspective dependent on the phone's orientation to the marker. The players move their phones to hit a virtual ball across the net on the displayed court. Each time the ball is successfully hit, the phone vibrates. [0010] Other haptic arrangements based on recognition of the ARToolKit markers are detailed in Adcock, Augmented Reality Haptics—Using ARToolkit for Display of Haptic Applications, IEEE Augmented Reality Toolkit Workshop, 2003. [0011] A mobile phone application that interacts with printed maps is shown in Rohs et al, Map Navigation with Mobile Devices - Virtual Versus Physical Movement With and Without Visual Context, Proc. 9th Int. Conf. on Multimodal Interfaces, 2007. In this system, the phone analyzes map imagery captured by the phone's camera for a parking lot symbol (“P”), and vibrates to alert the user when such symbol appears in the camera's field of view. [0012] Just as there are haptic-based systems that are responsive to imagery, there are also haptic-based systems that respond to audio. One is the Tactuator, which maps phonic sounds to vibration patterns that are applied to three fingers at different rates and amplitudes. (Tan et al, Information Transmission with a Multi-Finger Tactual Display, Perception and Psychophysics, Vol. 61, No. 6, pp. 993-1008, 1999.) [0013] Haptics are closely related to tactile technologies. Except as otherwise noted (such as by terms such as “exclusively haptic”), references to haptic technology and devices should be understood to include tactile technology and devices, and vice versa. [0014] A leader in haptic technology is Immersion Corporation, of San Jose, Calif. Immersion's large portfolio of published patents and applications serves as a wide-ranging tutorial to the field. Examples include U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,691,898, 5,734,373, 2001043847, 2002033802, 2002072814, 2002109708, 20080294984, 20090085882, 20090305744, 20100013653, 20100073304, 20100141407, 20100149111, 20100160041, and references cited therein. [0015] Tactic actuators in consumer devices were originally limited to vibratory electric motors using an offset mass. Increasingly sophisticated actuators are becoming more widely available, including those based on electroactive polymers, piezoelectrics, acoustic radiation pressure, and electrostatic surface actuation. As the technology evolves, 3D haptic effects that were normally only found in sophisticated or experimental systems will increasingly be found in consumer devices, e.g., allowing the haptic simulation of textured surfaces, recoil, momentum, physical presence of objects, etc. [0016] One such example is detailed in Luk et al, A Role for Haptics in Mobile Interaction: Initial Design Using a Handheld Tactile Display Prototype, CHI '06. This system uses a multi-element piezoelectric tactile actuator (“display”) to effect lateral skin stretching. (In particular, eight piezoelectric benders are stacked together and separated by small brass rods. By inducing bending motion to the piezo actuators, local regions of compression and stretch are generated across the user's skin. The sensation can be controlled in terms of stimulus waveform, amplitude, speed and duration.) Such actuator can, e.g., simulate the feel of riffling across the teeth of a comb. The actuator can present different patterns of stimuli to the user (“haptic icons” or “tactons”), each of which can be associated, e.g., with a different item in a list menu. The actuator can be mounted on the side of a mobile phone, on a slider input device against which the user's thumb rests. By this arrangement, the user's thumb can serve both to receive haptic output, and to provide associated motion or pressure input. [0017] While much work has been done in haptics technology, much remains to be done. In accordance with its different aspects, the present technology provides features and arrangements not previously contemplated, and provides benefits not previously available. [0018] A method according to one aspect of the present technology includes using a mobile device to capture image data representing a physical object. This data is then processed (e.g., by the mobile device, and/or by a remote system) so as to obtain metadata that corresponds to the object. This metadata is transmitted to a remote system. In response, data is received indicating a haptic signature that is associated with the object. This haptic signature is presented to a user of the mobile device, e.g., through one or more onboard or linked haptic actuators. [0019] The metadata can indicate one of plural classes to which the physical object belongs. If it belongs to a first class, one haptic signature can be rendered; if it belongs to a second class, a different haptic signature can be rendered. These signatures can differ in one or more of, e.g., waveform, amplitude, frequency, and duration. The classes can be classes such as a class of persons, a class of books, a class of DVDs, a class of barcodes, a class of printed text, a class of landmarks such as buildings, a class of logos, a class of works of art, and a class of product containers. Or each class can comprise a unique physical object. [0020] An exemplary physical object is a beverage container. The container may bear a trademark (e.g., Minute Maid) owned by a trademark proprietor (e.g., the Coca Cola Company). The haptic signature that is presented in response to sensing such object may be defined by the trademark proprietor, e.g., as part of its branding efforts. Thus, just as each trademarked product may have a distinctive visible “look,” it may similarly have a distinctive haptic “feel.” [0021] In a related arrangement, a product is identified not by reference to its visual appearance (e.g., from image data), but by an identifier emitted by an RFID (aka “near field communication”) chip. The RFID identifier is sent to a remote system. In response, the phone obtains haptic signature data associated with that identifier/product. [0022] A method according to another aspect of the present technology involves a mobile device that is executing a “visual search” or “mobile discovery” application (e.g., the Google Goggles application, or the Nokia Point & Find application). The mobile device receives input, such as location data, which is used to determine—at least in part—a first class of visual stimulus (among plural different classes, such as barcodes, text, books, DVDs, landmarks, logos, works of art, product containers, etc.) to which the visual search application should respond. (E.g., if in a supermarket location, the device may respond to barcode stimulus.) Then, when imagery captured by the mobile device includes visual stimulus of that first class, a corresponding type of haptic signal is output to the user. The system is thus automatically attuned to different classes of objects, based on its location (or other input). [0023] A method according to a further aspect of the present technology includes sensing a user's first gesture made with a mobile phone device. If the first gesture complies with a first condition, first haptic feedback is provided to the user. A further gesture by the user is then sensed. If this further gesture complies with a second condition, a further response is provided to the user. (The gestures can be discerned by analyzing frames of imagery to discern motion of the mobile phone device. Alternatively, data from the phone's motion and position sensing devices, e.g., accelerometers, gyroscopes, and magnetometers, can be examined to discern gestures.) [0024] A method according to yet another aspect of the present technology involves moving a camera-equipped phone in a plane roughly parallel to a printed object (e.g., within +/−30 degrees of the plane of the printed object). While the phone is moving, it captures imagery from the object. This imagery enters the camera's field of view from a first direction (e.g., right side, top, etc.). This imagery is analyzed for one or more features. Upon detection of the feature(s), at least one of plural haptic transducers in the phone are activated, in such manner as to provide haptic feedback associated with the first direction. [0025] In one particular such implementation, the printed object is a printed map, and the feature is an indicia representing a topographic feature in the terrain represented by the map (e.g., an indicia representing a river, or a cliff). Different haptic feedback can be output depending on indicia sensed from the captured imagery. If the indicia signals a geographic feature impassable by a hiker (e.g., a river or a cliff), then a corresponding haptic feedback can be provided to the user. In some arrangements, the indicia can provide steganographic markings—such as digital watermark data. [0026] In accordance with another aspect of the present technology, a camera-equipped mobile phone captures imagery from packaging for a consumer product (e.g., a cereal box). This imagery is analyzed to discern a feature. By reference to this feature, the phone presents, on its screen, an augmented reality overlay. The user operates the phone to provide input (e.g., tilting), to thereby navigate along a path in the augmented reality overlay. During the course of the navigation, one or more of plural haptic transducers in the phone are activated to provide directional feedback relating to the navigated path. [0027] Another aspect of the present technology is a method in which a sensor-equipped mobile phone captures information (e.g., audio or visual stimulus, RFID information, or location information) at a first location. Through use of this captured information, the phone presents navigation information to a user to guide the user to a second, different, location. This navigation information can include haptic signals, e.g., with different haptic actuators activated at different times to help direct the user. [0028] In one such embodiment, the user is interested in an item of clothing worn by a manikin in a department store window. The user captures an image of the clothing. This imagery is analyzed to recognize the clothing, and a server computer provides data indicating the location where that item is available in the store. Information is then presented to the user, through the mobile phone, guiding the user to the location where the clothing is displayed—facilitating its purchase. [0029] Instead of identifying the displayed item by captured imagery, an identifier emitted by an RFID chip associated with the displayed item can be sensed. Then, as before, a server computer can indicate the location of that item within the store, and the user can be guided to it. [0030] Alternatively, instead of capturing information from the displayed product itself, the user's cell phone may sample ambient audio at the user's location in front of the display window. The ambient audio may have a low level signal (e.g., a steganographic digital watermark) that can be correlated with the user's location (see, e.g., Nielsen's patent publication US20100134278). Knowing the user's location, a system can identify the item of clothing displayed nearby and guide the user to it, as before. [0031] Likewise, instead of capturing imagery or audio, the mobile phone can simply note its location (e.g., by GPS) when the user signals interest in an item displayed nearby (such as by activating a feature on a touch screen UI, or by a gesture). The phone may additionally note the direction the user is apparently facing when interest is signaled, reasoning the screen is facing the user, and the user is facing the item. This positional information is correlated with a product displayed nearby. Again, with knowledge of the product of apparent interest, information is again presented to guide the user to the location in the store where that item is stocked. [0032] As the user walks to the product, the mobile phone may sense other information along the way—indicating the user's current position. As before, this other information may be of various types. For example, the phone may recognize product on nearby shelves (such as by imagery, audio, or RFID tags associated with products), and determine from such information the user's progress in navigating to the item. Or audio signals can be analyzed to provide information about the user's location. If appropriate, the original guidance can be revised to account for the user straying from the originally-contemplated path. [0033] In accordance with yet another aspect of the present technology, a sensor in a mobile phone senses data from a pharmaceutical or food product, or from packaging for such product. A data store is checked for information relating to adverse reactions by one or more persons (e.g., the user and family members) to pharmaceutical or food products (e.g., a peanut allergy). The phone then issues a warning signal (e.g., haptically) if the sensed data indicates that the product or packaging is associated with an adverse reaction for such person(s). [0034] In checking for adverse reactions, the method can include consulting stored medical record data for the person(s), e.g., identifying prescribed medications for that person, or identifying products that interact adversely with prescribed medications. [0035] In accordance with yet another aspect of the present technology, a portable apparatus is adapted for being conveyed by a juvenile. The apparatus includes a haptic actuator and a sensor. The sensor is responsive to an emitter worn by a parolee or a registered offender (e.g., an RFID chip in an ankle bracelet worn by sex offender). The haptic actuator issues a silent warning to the juvenile if the sensor senses such a person. [0036] A method according to still a further aspect of the present technology involves a system that accepts, from a first party, a message for delivery to a second party. However, the system is adapted to accept the message only when the first party is within a defined physical region (e.g., in a commercial establishment such as a bar or coffee shop, or within a bounded area defined by reference to geocoordinates). The system transmits the message to a second party, but again, only when the second party is within that defined physical region. The system may trigger presentation of a haptic signal to the first party to indicate transmission of the message to the second party. [0037] Among the many other aspects of the present technology are systems for practicing the foregoing methods, methods of using the foregoing systems, and computer readable storage media containing non-transitory software instructions for configuring programmable hardware processing systems to perform one or more of the acts associated with such methods. [0038] The foregoing and additional features and advantages of the present technology will be further apparent from the detailed description, which proceeds with reference to the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0039] FIG. 1A shows a front plan view of a mobile phone equipped with plural haptic actuators, according to one particular embodiment of the present technology. [0040] FIG. 1B is a top view of the mobile phone of FIG. 1A . [0041] FIGS. 1C and 1D are left and right side views of the mobile phone of FIG. 1A . [0042] FIG. 2 shows how signals controlling different actuators can be of different waveforms, amplitudes and frequencies. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0043] One aspect of the present technology concerns a mobile device, e.g., an iPhone or Nokia phone, which recognizes a physical object in its environment, and identifies and renders a particular haptic signature corresponding to that object. [0044] Recognition can be performed by known techniques, including visual search technology. Nokia's Point & Find application is illustrative. Such technology can distinguish, for example, two different books, or two different cans of soda, by reference to their visual appearance. [0045] Nokia's technology employs a concept of “Worlds,” which generally correspond to the class of objects or activities in which the user is interested. One “world” is “Shopping.” Another is “Movies.” Others include “City Guide,” and “2D Barcode,” etc. Users can define other worlds to suit their preferences. [0046] The user may be interested in books, and set the phone to a “Book” world. If a book is recognized within the phone's field of view, the phone gives a distinctive pattern of haptic feedback. This signals to the user that the camera sees the kind of object that the user is looking for. (Conversely, the absence of haptic feedback, or haptic feedback of a different pattern, signals that that camera is looking at something different.) [0047] A related arrangement serves as a currency/coinage reader for the visually impaired. A US $20 banknote can be visually distinguished from a US $5 banknote (and a dime can similarly be visually distinguished from a penny). A mobile phone operating in a mode attuned to such items can provide money-signifying feedback when such an object comes into the field of view. Moreover, the feedback can be different, depending on denomination. [0048] (The Nokia Point & Find visual search application is understood to use, e.g., technology detailed in patent documents US20070106721, US20080267504, US20080270378, US20090083237, US20090083275, and US20090094289. The Google Goggles visual search application is understood to use, e.g., technology detailed in patent documents U.S. Pat. No. 7,751,805, U.S. Pat. No. 7,565,139, US20050185060, US20080002914, US20090279794 and US20090319388. The assignee's own work in this field includes patent applications Ser. No. 12/797,503, filed Jun. 9, 2010; Ser. No. 13/174,258 filed Jun. 30, 2011; and published international patent application WO2010022185.) [0049] Techniques other than visual search can be used to identify objects. One of many other alternative identification techniques relies on RFID chips. These are generally (but not exclusively) unpowered devices, powered by an interrogation signal and responding with an RF signal conveying a multi-bit identifier. (A variety of ISO/IEC standard for RFIDs have been promulgated, including 14443, 15693 and 18000.) Increasingly, phones include so-called “near field communication” technology, which serves to interrogate such chips, and take action based on the received data. [0050] Once identification data has been obtained for a nearby object, the phone can determine what haptic signature to render. In the case of common, or commonly-encountered, objects, such signature data may be stored in the phone's memory. Often, however, the phone will need to consult a physically remote data store to obtain haptic signature data corresponding to particular identification data (or identified object). Once the data has been obtained in such manner, it can be stored in cache memory in the phone in case it soon becomes relevant again. [0051] If an application identifies a can of Coke, the phone may obtain haptic signature data for that object from the Coke web site. Company websites can have a standardized file, like robot.txt, containing haptic signatures for physical objects/products that the company markets. [0052] For example, the Coca Cola company web site www.coca-cola<dot>com can include a file, at a known address and with a known name (e.g., www.coca-cola<dot>com\haptic.dat) containing haptic signature data for each of its products (e.g., Coke, Diet Coke, Coca Cola Black Cherry, Coca Cola with Lime, Diet cherry Coke Fresca, Sprite, Dasani, Minute Maid, Odwalla, etc.). The file can be organized in XML fashion, with tags for product names, and tags for haptic signatures. In some cases, such file may not include the haptic signature data literally, but may provide a pointer to another web-accessible address from which such data can be downloaded. Each object's haptic signature may be provided in different formats, adapted to the rendering capabilities of different devices or their respective haptic actuator systems. Thus, partial contents of such a file may have the following form: [0000] <Device>iPhone3GS</Device>   <Object>Coke</Object>     <Signature>(object-device dependent data)</Signature>   <Object>Diet Coke</Object>     <Signature>(object-device dependent data)</Signature>   <Object>Sprite</Object>     <Signature>(object-device dependent data)</Signature>   ... <Device>iPhone4</Device>   <Object>Coke</Object>     <Signature>(object-device dependent data)</Signature>   <Object>Diet Coke</Object>     <Signature>(object-device dependent data)</Signature>   <Object>Sprite</Object>     <Signature>(object-device dependent data)</Signature>   ... [0053] While this example is simplified for purposes of illustration, more elaborate XML schemes are suitable for use with the present technology. See, e.g., Zhou et al, XML-Based Representation of Haptic Information, IEEE Int. Workshop on Haptic Audio Visual Environments, 2005; and El-Far, Haptic Applications Meta-Language, 10 th IEEE Int. Symp. on Distributed Simulation, 2004; and Al-Osman, Evaluating ALPHAN: A Communication Protocol for Haptic Interaction, Proc. 2008 IEEE Symp. on Haptic Interfaces for Virtual Environment and Teleoperator Systems. (The latter paper also addresses communication protocols for haptic data.) [0054] As standardized object-associated haptic signatures become more widespread, centralized registries may arise, e.g., servers that store signature data for a variety of different objects. This data may be replicated and locally cached at sites across the internet, just as DNS tables are distributed widely. [0055] In accordance with other aspects of the present technology, haptic actuators are used to provide feedback for user navigation of 3D space. [0056] An illustrative application makes use of a printed object having different regions encoded with different digital watermarks. One such arrangement is detailed in pending application Ser. No. 12/774,512, filed May 5, 2010. In order to access protected information (e.g., a list of passwords), the user may be required to manipulate a phone, relative to the object, in a prescribed sequence of motions. If the sequence is entered correctly, the sequence may serve as a cryptographic key that allows access to the protected information. [0057] The regions may be arrayed like a range of notes on a piano keyboard, and may be visibly marked. The sequence may be defined by a particular ordering of these notes. To enter the sequence, the user must position the phone, in turn, over each note, and tip or tap the phone in such position. The user then moves to the next position in the sequence and repeats. [0058] After each correctly-entered tap (or after a series of correctly-entered taps), the phone may issue haptic feedback, e.g., confirming correct entry of that portion of the sequence. [0059] A related arrangement makes use of an ordinary business card or other talisman. The mobile phone application images the card, and confirms that it matches an expected appearance. Then the user must manipulate the phone in a sequence of motions relative to the card, e.g., towards/away/left/right. Again, haptic feedback can be provided to signal progress in correct entry of the spatial combination. [0060] Although not presently a familiar operation, such spatial actions may soon become rote—at least for commonly-performed functions, as muscle memory develops for those sequences (much as the pattern of touch-tone buttons to operate to dial a familiar phone number often becomes rote—at least in the absence of stored speed dialing). [0061] (In some respects, the foregoing builds on gestural technology introduced in U.S. Pat. No. 6,947,571.) [0062] Certain embodiments of the present technology make use of mobile devices employing plural haptic actuators. FIGS. 1A-1D show an illustrative mobile phone 100 of this sort. [0063] In the depicted arrangement, there are plural vibratory actuators 102 internal to the phone, disposed at the four corners, and at mid-points of the sides. These may be oriented to provide a linear vibratory motion in a left-right direction, in an up-down direction, or in an in-out direction (i.e., away from and towards the front face of the phone). Or the actuators 102 may be of a plural-axis variety, configured so that they can move in two or more orthogonal planes, responsive to appropriate control signals. Of course, eccentric weight rotary actuators can also be used, again oriented in any of the three cited planes. [0064] External button 104 on the top of the phone is coupled to a haptic actuator 106 . External rocker button 108 on the left side of the phone is coupled to two internal haptic actuators, 110 a and 110 b . Through such arrangements, haptic stimulation can be output to a user while the user's fingers are resting on, or providing input through, such buttons. [0065] On the left side of the phone 100 is a large piezo-electric haptic actuator 112 against which the user's fingers may rest, together with a similar but smaller actuator 114 . On the right side of the phone is another such actuator 116 . These may be multi-element actuators that effect skin stretching and compression, as detailed in Hayward, Tactile Display Device Using Distributed Lateral Skin Stretch, Proc. IEEE Haptic Interfaces for Virtual Environment and Teleoperator Sys. Symp., 2000, p. 1309-1314, and in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,445,284 and 7,077,015 (and also as used in the Luk system cited earlier). [0066] Depicted phone 100 also includes four tilt actuators 118 . These actuators are controllably operable to tilt the top, bottom, left and/or right sides of the phone. In one particular embodiment, these actuators have a portion that can protrude out the back casing of the phone, or deform an elastic back portion of the phone—thereby acting against an adjacent body (e.g., the user's hand) to lift the phone from the body. (Actuators 118 are exemplary of a class of so-called “digital clay” arrangements, which controllably deform the volume of an article—here, the phone—in response to associated control signals. U.S. Pat. No. 7,047,143 provides details of another, fluid-based digital clay system.) [0067] Phone 100 also includes two actuators 120 . These devices are operable to move a mass along a lengthy linear axis—one extending from side to side across the body of the phone, and the other extending from near the top to near the bottom. The masses may be moved in various ways, such as through magnetic attraction/repulsion, screw drive, etc. [0068] It will be recognized that the provision of plural actuators allows the generation of haptic effects that would not be practical, or possible, with a single actuator. Especially when used in concert, the different actuators can simulate a great diversity of haptic effects. Actuators 120 , for example, can be operated so that the phone's center of mass moves in a circle, or ellipse, or any other shape, giving unique sensations to the user. Similarly, the plural actuators 102 can be operated in various sequences (e.g., in order of adjacency, or alternately across the device) to give a variety of effects. [0069] Given the small size of the phone body, and the frequent premium on keeping the device lightweight, the effects of certain of the haptic actuators may be amplified by use of internal suspension arrangements that are made resonant to the frequency of actuator movement—emphasizing their effects. (See, e.g., Immersion's U.S. Pat. No. 7,209,118.) [0070] It will be recognized that the depicted phone is exemplary only, and that particular implementations will almost certainly use different types of actuators in different configurations. [0071] Haptic actuators are responsive to electrical control signals—commonly governed by a programmable processor (often in conjunction with digital-to-analog converter circuitry). While software instructions to control the haptic actuators may be written from scratch, the artisan will most commonly use one of the existing toolkits designed for this purpose. One popular toolkit is the Immersion for Java SDK. This allows control of the actuators through instantiation of Java objects (e.g., JImmWebAPI objects). Immersion also offers a haptic SDK especially for mobile platforms, the TouchSense Mobile Developer SDK. Another haptic toolkit that is popular with some developers is OpenHaptics by SensAble Technologies. Other Comments [0072] In the detailed embodiments, the haptic actuator may be part of a mobile phone device, or it may be a dedicated and/or separate unit (e.g., audio earbuds equipped with haptic actuators, coupled to a mobile device—either by wire, or wireless, such as Bluetooth). [0073] The human visual and auditory systems have evolved to cope, in various fashions, with multiple simultaneous stimuli, e.g., recognizing words spoken by a friend while also being able to recognize background music, and quickly recognizing multiple objects within a field of view. Our tactile sense is not quite as developed in addressing potential tactile interference/confusion. [0074] In one respect this may be addressed by use of spaced-apart haptic actuators, to which different haptic stimuli are routed. A user's preferred haptic input may be through actuator-equipped earbuds (which also provide audible output). If stimulus is already being applied to the two earbuds (which may be operated independently), new stimulus may be applied to a secondary site, e.g., the soles of the user's feet, by an actuator device conveyed within the user's shoes. (Again, these may be operated independently.) A tertiary site may be an actuator positioned on the bridge of the user's nose, as by eye wear. Next in the priority chain may be an actuator in the user's mobile phone, to which stimulus is routed if other, more-preferred actuators are occupied. Etc. [0075] Instead of applying haptic stimulus to the highest priority actuator that is not already occupied, the stimulus itself can be prioritized, and routed accordingly. If the user's preferred actuator (e.g., earbuds) is providing a signal indicating proximity to social network friends, and a higher-priority haptic signal becomes available (e.g., signaling an incoming phone call from the user's spouse), the higher priority haptic signal may be routed to the preferred actuator, and the signal formerly provided to that actuator may be switched to the next-preferred actuator (e.g., the foot soles). [0076] Instead of spatially distributing the haptic stimuli, they may be temporally distributed. A single actuator may be time-division multiplexed to accommodate different haptic stimuli—rendering one, and then another, and then a third, etc. The interval of time allocated to the various stimulus signals can be varied in accordance with their respective priorities, with higher priority signals allocated more of the actuator's rendering bandwidth. A cycle of actuations can render each stimulus in turn (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3 . . . ), or higher priority stimuli can be rendered more frequently (e.g., 1, 2, 1, 2, 1, 3, 1, 2, 1, 2, 1, 3 . . . ). The stimuli may also be rendered at amplitudes related to their relative priorities. [0077] Although a given area of skin may not be as adept at dealing with competing stimuli as our visual and auditory senses are, plural different tactile stimuli can nonetheless be sensed simultaneously and distinguished. One example is a constant buzz overlaid with a recurring pulse. [0078] In such embodiments, the amplitudes of the stimuli may be varied in accordance with their priority. If the buzz is the more important signal, it may be strong, and the pulses may be of relatively smaller amplitude. If the pulse signal is the more important, the amplitudes may be reversed. [0079] In some instances, to facilitate distinguishing overlapping stimulus, they may be varied in amplitude in time so as to emphasize, at different instants, different of the stimuli. As an example, the amplitude of one haptic signal may be controlled by a low frequency sine wave, and the amplitude of another may be controlled by a cosine wave of the same frequency. When one is at a maximum, the other is at a minimum. (The absolute value of the sine/cosine signal controls the haptic amplitude.) In other arrangements, the waveforms with which the amplitudes are changed can be different for different haptic signals. One haptic signal may have its amplitude tied to the value of a relatively large sine wave signal; a companion signal may be tied to the value of a smaller triangular waveform that has only a 20% duty cycle (as shown in FIG. 2 ). More generally, each haptic actuator signal may have its own waveform, frequency, amplitude, and duration, and may have a desired timing relationship (e.g., phase) relative to other such signals. [0080] A user may define preference data allowing customization of the parameters by which haptic signals are rendered. This data can specify, e.g., that a phone call from home is more important than a phone call from work (or vice versa). It may specify that a phone call from home should always be signaled using an actuator in a right ear bud, and signals indicating proximity of friends should preferentially be routed to both feet soles. Likewise, this data can declare the user's preference hierarchy for different actuators. (The preference data may be stored in a user device, in a remote server, a cloud resource, etc.) [0081] Just as popular email programs (e.g., Outlook, Gmail) provide tools allowing detailed rules to be declared that define different treatment of different mail in different circumstances, similar UI constructs can be employed to allow users to declare detailed rules that define different treatment of different haptic stimuli in different circumstances. [0082] Different users may show more or less competence in dealing with tactile stimuli—just as some people are better at reading than others. E-book readers and web browsers often have a mode in which visual text scrolls down the screen at a user-settable rate. Faster readers select a faster rate. In like fashion, haptic arrangements can include a UI control by which users can set default parameters for haptic renderings. If a person is particularly acute at tactile sensation, she may instruct that haptic signals be rendered at 150% of their default speed, or at 75% of their default amplitude. Another person, with calloused fingertips, may instruct that haptic signals applied through an actuator glove be applied at twice their default amplitude. Such parameters may also be stored as preference data associated with different users. (Amplitude and speed may be dynamically adapted based on environmental context. For example, if the motion sensors in a smartphone detect that the user is in a haptically noisy environment—as may occur while driving on a rough road—the phone processor controlling the haptic system may increase the amplitude of haptic output signals to help compensate.) [0083] Haptic signatures vary in their appeal, and their effectiveness in gaining user's attention (just as different trademark logos and brand treatments vary in appeal and effectiveness). Given a fixed set of actuators—such as may be found in popular models of smartphones, there is a finite number of haptic signatures (comprising, e.g., different frequencies, amplitudes and durations—the designer's palette) that can be utilized. Certain companies may adopt haptic signatures for use with their goods/services that qualify for trademark protection—due to their distinctiveness, or for copyright protection—as works of creative authorship. But other signatures may not be subject to a claim of exclusive legal rights by one company (just as certain words are not subject to a claim of exclusive legal rights by one company). To allocate use of such haptic signatures, an auction model may be used—akin to that used by Google to trigger presentation of paid advertising when certain search terms are entered on its search page. [0084] In a particular embodiment, a service provider such as Verizon may periodically conduct an auction (using automated, computer-implemented techniques) by which companies can bid for the rights to use particular haptic signatures on certain of Verizon's phones. (The phones may be programmed with a library of stored haptic signature data, corresponding to a variety of popular/effective signatures.) One month, The Coca Cola Company may electronically submit the highest bid, and win rights to trigger a particular haptic signature on all Verizon phones in California (or on all Verizon phones registered to users between 24 and 44 years old, or on the phone of a particular consumer) in response to certain stimuli (e.g., physical proximity to a NFC chip on a carton of Coke, or visual recognition of a Coca Cola product). If, the next month, Federal Express wants rights for that particular haptic signature, it can top Coke's bid, and then use that signature to issue a signal if the phone is within 100 yards of a FedEx/Kinko's storefront (as determined, e.g., by comparing GPS location data from the phone with a data structure identifying locations of such FedEx locations). [0085] When interacting a recognized object or locale (regardless of how it was recognized—visually, by RFID chip, by GPS location, etc.) haptic feedback may be provided to indicate transitory digital information that is crowd-sourced, or made available from existing social networks. For example, when examining a map of a city-wide beer festival intended to be explored by foot, the device may vibrate when another user has reported (e.g., by a geo-referenced blog post or Tweet) a barrier that may exist for the pedestrian (e.g., an un-safe street crossing, similar to the above-mentioned map example). Additionally, the device may provide a haptic signature that indicates (e.g., by amplitude or frequency) the relative popularity of one of the establishments based the number of mobile devices currently inhabiting that location. Similarly, it may haptically indicate the presence of friends with the user's social network at such location, by a distinctive “friend(s) here” signature when that location of the map is sensed (or when the user approaches that physical location in the festival). [0086] Packaging can also involve crowd-source-related, or social network-related, haptic signatures. For example, when a user picks up a bottle of Young's Double Chocolate Stout in the beer aisle of the local grocery (sensed, e.g., visually, or by NFC/RFID chip detection), the user's smartphone may vibrate in approval, with a signature (perhaps reminiscent of clapping, in frequency and amplitude) indicating that this product is popular with one or more of the user's social network friends. (Such information may be gleaned, e.g., from Facebook, which may indicate that one or more Facebook friends clicked a button to indicate they “Like” the product.) [0087] Similarly, a user may be flipping through an issue of Lucky Magazine that highlights various fashion accessories. To peruse the popularity of different items, the user may simply skim their smartphone over the depicted products, capturing imagery. Based on historic click through rates (CTR) or hover time (e.g., logged by the publisher), a probability density function can be calculated and applied to all the accessories on a page. When the device hovers over those items with the most popularity the phone will vibrate more aggressively. Adding accuracy to this behavior can be predictive logic that considers past hover or CTR behavior of that particular user (e.g., by reference to profile data, stored in the phone or at a remote site), or the user's demographic peers or social network friends. Thus, for example, if the user has a demonstrated proclivity for jackets, then the haptic signal normally associated with a jacket depicted in the magazine (due to its public popularity) can be amplified when imaged by the user. [0088] Haptic feedback also provides a mechanism to alert the user to difficult to observe events. One example is a change in the environment, as may be sensed by sensors that post their results publically (e.g., on webpages or databases). A dramatic reduction in barometric pressure may indicate an impending storm. A sudden uptick in winds at higher elevations may be a cue to a wind-surfer that it is time to pack gear and head to the water. Both may cause the user's smartphone to issue a corresponding haptic alert. Digital events may cause this as well, such as moving into and out various wireless hotspots (known or known), the availability of Blue-tooth signals, or proximity to NFC/RFID chips or reader devices. Status information may also be communicated in this way. For example, a mobile device downloading a movie may vibrate at a cadence indicative of the effective bandwidth achieved/rate of download. [0089] Haptics can also be invoked in connection with media consumption. When listening to music, a mobile device or tablet computer may vibrate in accordance with the music's low frequency components (e.g., below 100, 50 or 20 Hz). (Small earbud headphones are unable to create the tactile sense experienced by standing in front of a subwoofer.) For television or movies, a haptic track can be authored and delivered via haptic actuators in a tablet computer in the viewer's lap (even if the user is watching a different screen). For example, in the 30 minute car-chase scene in the movie Bullitt, the tablet can render vibratory sensations emphasizing the stresses and motions the driver is undergoing during the action. In like fashion, when watching a sporting event on a big screen device, a tablet or other mobile device can render tactile stimulus corresponding to the action, e.g., the footsteps of the quarterback as he attempts to get out of the pocket, or a runner running hurdles, or a tennis player serving/returning the ball. [0090] Haptics in general, and 3D varieties in particular (e.g., digital clay), have the ability to impart motion to mobile devices. The motion of a single device can be used to signal information to a user. Consider a phone placed on a desk, which rotates in orientation to indicate the passage of time (e.g., completing a rotation in a minute, an hour, or 12 hours). In another mode, the phone may change its orientation so that its top edge points to the current location of the user's child (as signaled from a GPS sensor, such as a phone, carried by the child) Likewise, the phone may physically reposition itself to point at another nearby device. If two devices are placed near each other, they may choose to move near each other or repel each other as indicated by rules associated with the identity of the objects. In combination with accelerometers, magnetometers and other sensors (camera, microphones), the mobile device can not only impart motion, but accurately understand that it has done so. Final Notes [0091] Having described and illustrated the principles of my inventive work with reference to illustrative examples, it will be recognized that the technology is not so limited. [0092] For example, while reference has been made to smartphones, it will be recognized that this technology finds utility with all manner of devices—both mobile and fixed. Portable music players, gaming devices, electronic wallets, tablet computers, wearable computers, etc., can all make use of the principles detailed herein. [0093] Particularly contemplated smartphones include the Apple iPhone 4, and smartphones following Google's Android specification (e.g., the Verizon Droid Eris phone, manufactured by HTC Corp., and the Motorola Droid 2 phone). The term “smartphone” (or “cell phone”) should be construed to encompass all such devices, even those that are not strictly-speaking cellular, nor telephones. [0094] (Details of the iPhone, including its touch interface, are provided in Apple's published patent application 20080174570. Details of an illustrative cell phone are provided in Nokia's published patent publication 20080267504.) [0095] The design of smartphones and other devices referenced in this disclosure is familiar to the artisan. In general terms, each includes one or more processors, one or more memories (e.g. RAM), storage (e.g., a disk or flash memory), a user interface (which may include, e.g., a keypad, a TFT LCD or OLED display screen, touch or other gesture sensors, a camera or other optical sensor, a compass sensor, a 3D magnetometer, a 3-axis accelerometer, a 3-axis gyroscope, one or more microphones, etc., together with software instructions for providing a graphical user interface), interconnections between these elements (e.g., buses), and an interface for communicating with other devices (which may be wireless, such as GSM, CDMA, W-CDMA, CDMA2000, TDMA, EV-DO, HSDPA, WiFi, WiMax, or Bluetooth, and/or wired, such as through an Ethernet local area network, a T-1 internet connection, etc.). [0096] Elements and teachings within the different embodiments disclosed in the present specification are also meant to be exchanged and combined. [0097] The processes and system components detailed in this specification may be implemented as instructions for computing devices, including general purpose processor instructions for a variety of programmable processors, including microprocessors (e.g., the Atom and A4), graphics processing units (GPUs, such as the nVidia Tegra APX 2600), and digital signal processors (e.g., the Texas Instruments TMS320 series devices), etc. These instructions may be implemented as software, firmware, etc. These instructions can also be implemented in various forms of processor circuitry, including programmable logic devices, field programmable gate arrays (e.g., the Xilinx Virtex series devices), field programmable object arrays, and application specific circuits—including digital, analog and mixed analog/digital circuitry. Execution of the instructions can be distributed among processors and/or made parallel across processors within a device or across a network of devices. Processing of content signal data may also be distributed among different processor and memory devices. “Cloud” computing resources can be used as well. References to “processors,” “modules” or “components” should be understood to refer to functionality, rather than requiring a particular form of implementation. [0098] Software instructions for implementing the detailed functionality can be authored by artisans without undue experimentation from the descriptions provided herein, e.g., written in C, C++, Visual Basic, Java, Python, Tcl, Perl, Scheme, Ruby, etc. Smartphones and other devices according to certain implementations of the present technology can include software modules for performing the different functions and acts. [0099] Software and hardware configuration data/instructions are commonly stored as instructions in one or more data structures conveyed by tangible media, such as magnetic or optical discs, memory cards, ROM, etc., and may be accessed remotely from across a network. Some embodiments may be implemented as embedded systems—a special purpose computer system in which the operating system software and the application software is indistinguishable to the user (e.g., as is commonly the case in basic cell phones). The functionality detailed in this specification can be implemented in operating system software, application software and/or as embedded system software. [0100] While this disclosure has detailed particular ordering of acts and particular combinations of elements, it will be recognized that other contemplated methods may re-order acts (possibly omitting some and adding others), and other contemplated combinations may omit some elements and add others, etc. [0101] As indicated, digital watermarking can be used to identify objects, and extract identifiers from imagery. Such technology is known, e.g., from the assignee's published work in the field, including patent documents U.S. Pat. No. 6,590,996 and 20100150434. [0102] Likewise, fingerprinting can be used to extract an identifier from sensed content (e.g., audio or imagery). A database of reference fingerprints can then be consulted to identify a likely match, to thereby discern the identity of the content. Suitable fingerprinting techniques include SIFT and SURF, disclosed, e.g., in patent 6,671,407, and in Bay et al, “SURF: Speeded Up Robust Features,” Eur. Conf. on Computer Vision (1), pp. 404-417, 2006; as well as Chen et al, “Efficient Extraction of Robust Image Features on Mobile Devices,” Proc. of the 6th IEEE and ACM Int. Symp. On Mixed and Augmented Reality, 2007; and Takacs et al, “Outdoors Augmented Reality on Mobile Phone Using Loxel-Based Visual Feature Organization,” ACM Int. Conf. on Multimedia Information Retrieval, October 2008. [0103] To provide a comprehensive disclosure, while complying with the statutory requirement of conciseness, applicant incorporates-by-reference the patents, patent applications and other documents referenced herein. (Such materials are incorporated in their entireties, even if cited above in connection with specific of their teachings.) These references disclose technologies and teachings that can be incorporated into the arrangements detailed herein, and into which the technologies and teachings detailed herein can be incorporated. The reader is presumed to be familiar with such prior work.

A variety of haptic improvements useful in mobile devices are detailed. In one, a smartphone captures image data from a physical object, and discerns an object identifier from the imagery (e.g., using watermark, barcode, or fingerprint techniques). This identifier is sent to a remote data structure, which returns data defining a distinct haptic signature associated with that object. This smartphone then renders this haptic signal to the user. (Related embodiments identify the object using other means, such as location, or NFC chip.) In another arrangement, haptic feedback signals social network information about a product or place (e.g., the user's social network friends “Like” a particular brand of beverage). In yet another arrangement, the experience of watching a movie on a television screen is augmented by tactile effects issued by a tablet computer on the viewer's lap. In still another arrangement, commercial vendors bid for rights to employ different ones of a library of haptic signals on one or more users' smartphones, e.g., to alert such user(s) to their products/services. A great variety of other features and arrangements are also detailed.

TECHNICAL FIELD The invention relates to an assembly for illuminated display of a logo. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The exterior and interior of motor vehicles are usually provided with emblems which display the manufacturer's logo. For this, the logo is either depicted on a flat emblem or the emblem itself has the shape of the logo or at least has structures which represent the logo. The sense of the quality of a vehicle interior can be accentuated by illuminating a logo arranged therein. Several solutions for illuminating a logo are known from the prior art, which are based on various techniques. DE-U-200 18 732, EP-A-1 000 809, JP-A-2005 215596, U.S. Pat. No. 6,190,026, US-A-2005/0007752, US-A-2006/0023468 and WO-A-2005/016698 are named by way of example. The mounting and illuminating of a logo on an airbag cover, typically in the central region of the steering wheel, presents certain difficulties. In an illuminating assembly, it has to be understood that neither individual components are to be allowed to become detached from the assembly, nor is the entire assembly allowed to become detached from the cover, if the airbag is activated. Further requirements for the illuminating assembly are a low weight and a small overall height. In addition, it is desirable that emblems which up until the present have not been illuminated are still able to be utilized for illuminated use, so that no changes to the design and structure of the emblems are necessary. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION According to the invention, an assembly for illuminated display of a logo in a motor vehicle includes a support and at least one light source which is arranged behind or adjacent to the support. In most embodiments of the invention, the logo is represented by means of an emblem, particularly an opaque emblem. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows an exploded view of a first assembly; FIG. 2 shows the photoconductor of the first assembly; FIG. 3 shows the support of the first assembly; FIG. 4 shows the printed circuit board of the first assembly; FIG. 5 shows the base of the first assembly; FIG. 6 shows the printed circuit board, held in the base, of the first assembly; FIG. 7 shows a perspective sectional view of the first assembly; FIGS. 7 a , 7 b show detail views of FIG. 7 ; FIG. 7 c shows a detail view, in section, of the light outlet region of the first assembly; FIG. 8 shows an exploded view of a second assembly; FIG. 9 shows the second assembly in the assembled state; FIG. 10 shows a perspective sectional view of the assembled second assembly; FIG. 11 shows a diagrammatic sectional view of the second assembly; FIG. 12 shows an exploded view of a third assembly; FIG. 13 shows the third assembly in the assembled state; FIG. 14 shows a sectional view of the third assembly; FIG. 15 shows a diagrammatic sectional view of the third assembly; FIG. 16 shows the injection-molded member of the third assembly; FIG. 17 shows a diagrammatic sectional view of a fourth assembly; FIG. 18 shows a diagrammatic sectional view of a fifth assembly; and FIG. 19 shows a diagrammatic sectional view of a sixth assembly. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS An assembly according to a first embodiment of the invention is shown in FIGS. 1 to 7 . The assembly comprises an opaque emblem 10 , which shows, for example, a logo 12 of an automobile manufacturer. The assembly further comprises an opaque plastic support 14 , a photoconductor 16 , a printed circuit board 18 with electronic components and a base 20 . The emblem 10 is a three-dimensional, relief-like solid emblem and, just as in the majority of the following embodiments of the invention, it is substantially identical in structure to emblems as have been used hitherto in non-illuminated manner. The photoconductor 16 shown individually in FIG. 2 is a component matched to the shape of the emblem 10 with specially arranged deflection surfaces 22 having a reflecting polish (see also detail view of FIG. 7 b ). The photoconductor 16 may basically also be formed from a different material and may possibly have a reflecting coating. The plastic support 14 , shown individually in FIG. 3 , for the emblem 10 is produced by injection-molding around the photoconductor 16 , preferably by a two-component injection molding process, if the photoconductor 16 is a plastic part, too. SMD components (surface mounted devices) are arranged on the printed circuit board 18 (see FIG. 4 ), particularly a light-emitting diode (LED) 24 as a light source. A recess 26 is provided for the wiring of the printed circuit board 18 in the base 20 which holds and protects the printed circuit board 18 (see FIGS. 5 and 6 ). The assembly is shown in the assembled state in FIG. 7 . The printed circuit board 18 is arranged so that the LED 24 lies centrally under the emblem 10 and the photoconductor 16 . The uniform coupling of the light emitted from the LED 24 into the photoconductor 16 is assisted by a cone 27 of the photoconductor 16 acting as a diffuser, which is arranged directly over the LED 24 . As can be seen from FIG. 7 and the detail views of FIGS. 7 a and 7 b , the photoconductor 16 is constructed so that the coupled-in light is directed to the rear side of the emblem 10 . This is made possible by the deflection surfaces 22 on which the coupled-in light is reflected. The photoconductor 16 has light outlet areas 28 which lie opposite the rear edge regions of the emblem 10 but do not project over them laterally (see FIG. 7 c ). As the edge regions of the emblem 10 do not lie directly on the photoconductor 16 , the emblem 10 is therefore illuminated indirectly on the rear side. A lighting effect is produced here which is comparable with a corona. Like the emblem which was hitherto not illuminated, the assembly is fastened on the airbag cover of the steering wheel by means of the pins of the emblem 10 . To do this, after insertion into corresponding openings of the airbag cover, the pins are welded on the rear side of the cover, e.g. by ultrasonic welding. An assembly according to a second embodiment of the invention is illustrated in FIGS. 8 to 11 . The assembly comprises a three-dimensional, relief-like solid emblem 10 , an electroluminescence foil 24 ′ as the light source and a transparent plastic support 14 . The use of electroluminescence foils for illuminating emblems per se is known (see, for example, DE-U-298 20 304), for which reason the layer structure and the electrical stimulation of the foil 24 ′ is not entered into in further detail. The foil 24 ′ and the support 14 are coordinated with the emblem 10 as regards shape, fastening bores etc. The surface of the support 14 facing the emblem 10 is coated with an enamel 30 which is opaque per se. However, the enamel layer has gaps 32 so that light can pass through the support 14 at these places. The gaps 32 can be produced by means of a laser after the support 14 is coated. Basically any desired structures are able to be produced, e.g. fine honeycomb structures for a uniform illumination, or larger gaps 32 for a systematic illumination of a particular zone. A third embodiment of the invention is illustrated in FIGS. 12 to 16 . The assembly shown in an exploded view in FIG. 12 and in the assembled state in FIGS. 13 and 14 comprises an opaque printed circuit board 18 equipped, inter alia, with LEDs 24 , an opaque support 14 , an opaque emblem 10 and a transparent plastic injection-molded member 34 over the emblem 10 . This assembly is distinguished in that the light of the LEDs 24 is coupled in through suitably arranged deflection surfaces 22 laterally past the support 14 and the emblem 10 into the transparent injection-molded member 34 , as shown in FIGS. 14 and 15 . In the injection-molded member 34 , a deflection takes place at its bevels 36 (see FIG. 16 ). The light which is (at least partially) reflected on the inner surface of the injection-molded member then illuminates the emblem 10 . In the case of an emblem 10 which is not contiguous (i.e. if it has gaps), the light can (additionally) be coupled in between the emblem structures into the transparent injection-molded member 34 . In this case, corresponding gaps are provided in the support 14 . A further illumination design is shown in FIG. 17 . Here, the assembly comprises a transparent support 14 which is illuminated from one side by one or more LEDs 24 . The other side of the support 14 is structured in accordance with the overlying opaque emblem 10 . The light can therefore only emerge through the elevated structures 38 of the support surface. (It is not absolutely necessary for the structures 38 to be elevated though.) As indicated in the left half of FIG. 17 , the light can also be coupled in from the side into the transparent support 14 . The surface of the support 14 which is not visible can be coated with a reflection foil 40 or a reflecting enamel. The elevated structures 38 of the visible surface can be printed in order to achieve a particular illumination effect. The illumination design illustrated in FIG. 18 is similar to the one previously described. Here, the support and emblem are exchanged, i.e. the support 14 is arranged on the side facing the observer and the emblem 10 has elevated structures 38 . Accordingly, the emblem 10 is transparent here and the support 14 is opaque. The elevated structures 38 of the emblem 10 are PVD-coated in the manner of a Venetian mirror (one-way mirror). The light of the LEDs 24 enters into the emblem 10 from the side facing away from the observer and can emerge through the elevated structures 18 . Conversely, however, the observer can not see through the PVD coating. A final illumination design is shown in FIG. 19 . A transparent support 14 has elevated structures which correspond to the positive or negative logo 12 which is to be displayed illuminated. The support 14 is injection-molded around with a transparent plastic 34 , so that the logo structure is protected. The light of one or more LEDs 24 is coupled in from the other side into the support 14 . The support 14 is printed black on the side facing the observer, with the exception of the elevated structures 38 , so that no light can emerge there. The elevated structures 38 , on the other hand, are printed in color and are transparent, so that the logo 12 appears to be illuminated in color. The embodiments which are described by way of example show a range of measures for the illuminated display of a logo 12 , which are also able to be combined with each other.

An assembly for the illuminated display of a logo ( 12 ) in a motor vehicle includes a support ( 14 ) and at least one light source ( 24 ) which is arranged behind or adjacent to the support ( 14 ). The logo ( 12 ) can be represented by means of an emblem ( 10 ), particularly an opaque emblem.

This is a National Phase Application filed under 35 U.S.C. 371 as a national stage of PCT/EP2009/060547, filed Aug. 14, 2009, an application claiming the benefit from the European patent Application No. 08014496.7, filed Aug. 14, 2008the content of each of which is hereby incorporated by reference in its enitirety. TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates to a wind turbine blade including a shell structure made of a fibre reinforced polymer material including a polymer matrix and fibre reinforcement material embedded in the polymer matrix. The invention further relates to a method of manufacturing a shell construction part of a wind turbine blade, the shell construction part being made of a fibre reinforced polymer material including a polymer matrix and fibre reinforcement material embedded in the polymer matrix. BACKGROUND Vacuum infusion or VARTM (vacuum assisted resin transfer moulding) is one method, which is typically employed for manufacturing composite structures, such as wind turbine blades comprising a fibre reinforced matrix material. During the manufacturing process, liquid polymer, also called resin, is filled into a mould cavity, in which fibre material priorly has been inserted, and where a vacuum is generated in the mould cavity hereby drawing in the polymer. The polymer can be thermoset plastic or thermoplastics. Typically, uniformly distributed fibres are layered in a first rigid mould part, the fibres being rovings, i.e. bundles of fibre bands, bands of rovings or mats, which are either felt mats made of individual fibres or woven mats made of fibre rovings. A second mould part, which is often made of a resilient vacuum bag, is subsequently placed on top of the fibre material and sealed against the first mould part in order to generate a mould cavity. By generating a vacuum, typically 80 to 95% of the total vacuum, in the mould cavity between the first mould part and the vacuum bag, the liquid polymer can be drawn in and fill the mould cavity with the fibre material contained herein. So-called distribution layers or distribution tubes, also called inlet channels, are used between the vacuum bag and the fibre material in order to obtain as sound and efficient a distribution of polymer as possible. In most cases the polymer applied is polyester or epoxy, and the fibre reinforcement is most often based on glass fibres or carbon fibres. During the process of filling the mould, a vacuum, said vacuum in this connection being understood as an under-pressure or negative pressure, is generated via vacuum outlets in the mould cavity, whereby liquid polymer is drawn into the mould cavity via the inlet channels in order to fill said mould cavity. From the inlet channels the polymer disperses in all directions in the mould cavity due to the negative pressure as a flow front moves towards the vacuum channels. Thus, it is important to position the inlet channels and vacuum channels optimally in order to obtain a complete filling of the mould cavity. Ensuring a complete distribution of the polymer in the entire mould cavity is, however, often difficult, and accordingly this often results in so-called dry spots, i.e. areas with fibre material not being sufficiently impregnated with resin. Thus dry spots are areas where the fibre material is not impregnated, and where there can be air pockets, which are difficult or impossible to avoid by controlling the vacuum pressure and a possible overpressure at the inlet side. In vacuum infusion techniques employing a rigid mould part and a resilient mould part in the form of a vacuum bag, the dry spots can be repaired after the process of filling the mould by puncturing the bag in the respective location and by drawing out air for example by means of a syringe needle. Liquid polymer can optionally be injected in the respective location, and this can for example be done by means of a syringe needle as well. This is a time-consuming and tiresome process. In the case of large mould parts, staff have to stand on the vacuum bag. This is not desirable, especially not when the polymer has not hardened, as it can result in deformations in the inserted fibre material and thus in a local weakening of the structure, which can cause for instance buckling effects. Often the composite structures comprise a core material covered with a fibre reinforced material, such as one or more fibre reinforced polymer layers. The core material can be used as a spacer between such layers to form a sandwich structure and is typically made of a rigid, lightweight material in order to reduce the weight of the composite structure. In order to ensure an efficient distribution of the liquid resin during the impregnation process, the core material may be provided with a resin distribution network, for instance by providing channels or grooves in the surface of the core material. Resin transfer moulding (RTM) is a manufacturing method, which is similar to VARTM. In RTM the liquid resin is not drawn into the mould cavity due to a vacuum generated in the mould cavity. Instead the liquid resin is forced into the mould cavity via an overpressure at the inlet side. Prepreg moulding is a method in which reinforcement fibres are pre-impregnated with a pre-catalysed resin. The resin is typically solid or near-solid at room temperature. The prepregs are arranged by hand or machine onto a mould surface, vacuum bagged and then heated to a temperature, where the resin is allowed to reflow and eventually cured. This method has the main advantage that the resin content in the fibre material is accurately set beforehand. The prepregs are easy and clean to work with and make automation and labour saving feasible. The disadvantage with prepregs is that the material cost is higher than for non-impregnated fibres. Further, the core material need to be made of a material, which is able to withstand the process temperatures needed for bringing the resin to reflow. Prepreg moulding may be used both in connection with a RTM and a VARTM process. Further, it is possible to manufacture hollow mouldings in one piece by use of outer mould parts and a mould core. Such a method is for instance described in EP 1 310 351 and may readily be combined with RTM, VARTM and prepreg moulding. WO03/008800 describes a number of prefabricated strips arranged in sequence in the periphery. The strips consist of fibrous composite material, preferably carbon fibres. In additionally an aluminium mesh is arranged within a blade shell for lightning protection. As for instance blades for wind turbines have become bigger and bigger in the course of time and may now be more than 60 meters long, the impregnation time in connection with manufacturing such blades has increased, as more fibre material has to be impregnated with polymer. Furthermore, the infusion process has become more complicated, as the impregnation of large shell members, such as blades, requires control of the flow fronts to avoid dry spots, said control may e.g. include a time-related control of inlet channels and vacuum channels. This increases the time required for drawing in or injecting polymer. As a result the polymer has to stay liquid for a longer time, normally also resulting in an increase in the curing time. Additionally, the wind turbine industry has grown at a nearly exponential rate over the past few decades, thereby increasing the demand for throughput of manufactured wind turbine blades. This increased demand cannot be satisfied by building new factories alone, but also requires that the manufacturing methods are optimised. DISCLOSURE OF THE INVENTION It is an object of the invention to obtain a new blade and a new method of manufacturing such a blade, and which overcomes or ameliorates at least one of the disadvantages of the prior art or which provides a useful alternative. According to a first aspect of the invention, this is obtained by a blade, wherein at least 20% by volume of the fibre reinforcement material consists of metallic wires. The wind turbine blade may either comprise individual shell construction parts, which are adhered to each other, e.g. a first shell construction part defining the suction side of the wind turbine blade and a second shell construction part defining the pressure side of the wind turbine blade. The two shell parts may be glued to each other at flanges at the leading edge and the trailing edge of the blade. Alternatively, the shell structure may be formed as a single shell structure. According a second aspect of the invention, the object is obtained by a method for manufacturing a shell construction part of a wind turbine blade, the shell construction part being made of a fibre reinforced polymer material including a polymer matrix and fibre reinforcement material embedded in the polymer matrix, wherein the method comprises the steps of: a) providing a forming structure comprising a mould cavity and having a longitudinal direction, b) placing the fibre reinforcement material in mould cavity, c) providing a resin in the mould cavity simultaneously with and/or subsequently to step b), and d) curing the resin in order to form the composite structure, wherein at least 20% by volume of the fibre reinforcement material consists of metallic wires. In contrary to WO03/008800, the metallic wires are used for reinforcing the composite structure. Also, in WO03/008800, the carbon fibre contents of the strips is much higher than the aluminium contents. Thus, the ratio between volume of the aluminium mesh and volume of the carbon fibres is much less than 20%. By using a comparatively high amount of steel wires, the overall time for supplying resin and curing can be substantially decreased due to the steel wires having a diameter or other inner dimension, which is substantially larger than that of glass fibres or carbon fibres, which are conventionally used in manufacturing of wind turbine blades. Due to the larger diameter of the wires, the voids are also larger, which in turn means that the liquid resin can propagate and impregnate the fibre reinforcement material at a faster rate. Thereby, the fibre material can be impregnated faster and consequently, the resin needs to be liquid for a shorter time, thus having the potential of decreasing the curing time also. Further, by using of metallic, electrically conducting wires, the blade wall itself may function as a lightning receptor and down conductor, thus alleviating the need for a separate lightning receptor and down conductor. Furthermore, the use of larger wires makes the use of high viscosity resin systems feasible. This is typically not possible when using glass fibres or carbon fibres due to the fine threads making impregnation with such resin impossible. This is particularly limiting within the field of thermoplastics. Also, due to the strength of metallic fibres, it is possible to manufacture a thinner shell, thus making it possible to lowering the impregnation time and subsequent curing time even further. The metallic wires may for instance be multistrand wires or monofilaments, preferably monofilaments. Preferably, the metallic wires are steel wires. The metallic wires may be coated or primed with e.g. zinc or brass. Further, a size may be applied to the metallic wires in order for the wire to have an affinity for a certain resin. According to a first embodiment, the wind turbine blade has a length of at least 40 meters. Alternatively, the wind turbine blade has a length of at least 50 meters, or at least 60 meters. According to a preferred embodiment, the metallic wires have a maximum inner cross-sectional dimension in the range between 0.04 mm and 1 mm, or in range between 0.07 and 0.75, or in the range between 0.1 mm and 0.5 mm. Maximum inner cross-sectional dimension means for instance the diameter of the wires or the large axis of a wire having an elliptical cross-section. These dimensions have shown to have the best trade-off between optimising the impregnation time and the strength or stiffness of the blade during subsequent use of the blade on a wind turbine. According to a first advantageous embodiment, the wind turbine blade comprises at least a first longitudinally extending reinforcement section comprising a plurality of fibre layers including a fibre reinforcement material, and wherein at least 50% by of the fibre reinforcement material in the at least first reinforcement section consists of metallic wires. The increased stiffness of for instance steel wires compared to glass fibres or carbon fibres makes it possible to make the first longitudinal reinforcement section substantially thinner. Such a longitudinally extending reinforcement section is also called a main laminate. The wind turbine blade may comprise several reinforcement sections. Typically, a wind turbine blade comprises such a reinforcement section at both the suction side and the pressure side of the blade. However, the blade may comprise a second reinforcement section on the pressure side and suction side, especially if the blade is very long, for instance more than 60 meters. Further, a wind turbine blade typically comprises reinforcement sections at the leading edge and trailing edge of the blade also. According to another advantageous embodiment, the at least first longitudinally extending reinforcement section extends at least along 30%, or 40%, or 50%, or 60%, or 70%, or 75% of the length of the wind turbine blade, thus providing an efficient reinforcement of the blade along substantially the entire longitudinal length of the blade. In one embodiment according to the invention, at least 30%, or 40%, or 50%, or 60%, or 70%, or 75%, or 80% by volume of the fibre reinforcement material of the wind turbine blade consists of metallic wires. In another embodiment according to the invention, at least 60%, or 70%, or 75%, or 80% by volume of the fibre reinforcement material of the at least first longitudinally extending reinforcement section consists of metallic wires. According to an advantageous embodiment, the metallic wires are steel wires, optionally coated with another metal, e.g. zinc or brass coated steel wires. In one advantageous embodiment according to the invention, the at least first longitudinally extending reinforcement section comprises a number of outer fibre layers comprising second fibres having a maximum cross-sectional dimension, which is substantially smaller than that of the metallic wires. Since the fibres in the outer layer are substantially smaller than the steel wires, the voids between fibres at the outer surface of the wind turbine are smaller, and the outer surface may be smoother. Further, the more densely packed fibres increase the fibre density at the outer surface, which increases the interlaminar shear strength at the outer surface, thereby lowering the probability of longitudinally extending cracks forming in the laminate. According to advantageous embodiments, the maximum inner cross-sectional dimension is at least 2, 3, 5, 10, 25, 50, or even 100 times smaller than the maximum inner cross-sectional dimension of the metallic wires. Since the wind turbine blade is typically constructed as a hollow shell construction, the outer layers may define a part of an outer surface of the wind turbine blade and/or an inner surface of the wind turbine blade. According to an advantageous embodiment, the blade comprises a number of outer layers and/or a number of inner layers comprising fibres having a maximum inner dimension, which is substantially smaller than that of the steel wires. Thereby, the entire outer surface and/or inner surface of a cross-section of the wind turbine blade may obtain a smoother texture. In practice, this is carried out in step b) of the method according to the invention by placing a number of outer layers with such fibres in the mould cavity. According to yet another advantageous embodiment, a quantitative ratio between the metallic wires and the second fibres changes gradually from a first ratio at an inner part of the at least first reinforcement section to a second ratio at the number of outer layers. Thereby, a gradual transition in stiffness through the shell construction is obtained, thus preventing the formation of boundary surfaces with stress formations and lowering the risk of delamination of the various fibre layers. In one embodiment according to the invention, the outer fibre layers comprise chopped or woven fibres, preferably made of glass fibre or carbon fibre, and wherein the fibres are oriented in a plurality of directions, i.e. multidirectional fibre layers are used. Thus, according to this embodiment, the fibres of a second kind are preferably made of glass fibres or carbon fibres. This provides a particularly simple method of obtaining a smooth surface. In another embodiment according to the invention, the blade comprises a number of fibre layers including both metallic fibres and fibres of a second kind. Thus, such hybrid fibre mats can, for instance, be used to form the gradual change in the quantitative ratio between the two kinds of fibres, e.g. by use of hybrid mats having different amounts of steel wires woven into a glass fibre mat. In yet another embodiment according to the invention, the metallic wires are arranged substantially parallel. Advantageously, the metallic wires are arranged substantially in the longitudinal direction of the wind turbine blade. Thus, the metallic wires are arranged so that they provide an optimum stiffness in the longitudinal direction of the blade. Thus according to an advantageous embodiment, the various reinforcement sections comprise a plurality of layers with longitudinally extending steel fibres and a number of outer layers comprising chopped or woven fibres. The metallic wires provide for a given stiffness of the wind turbine blade, so that the wind turbine blade can be used for an upwind wind turbine without risking deflection to a degree, where the blades are at risk of striking the tower of the wind turbine. The outer layers forming the inner and/or the outer surface of the shell construction part may be arranged in the entire cross-section of the shell construction part so that the outer layers cover both the reinforcement sections and adjacent core material, such as foamed polymer or balsa wood. According to another advantageous embodiment, the at least first longitudinally extending reinforcement section comprises a number of fibre layers with parallel metallic wires and a number of intermediate resin distribution layers. Since the metallic wires are arranged parallel, for instance in the longitudinal direction of the blade, the metallic wires may prohibit or at least reduce the propagation rate of the liquid transverse to the direction of the metallic wires. Intermediate resin distribution layers may remedy this, thus ensuring a complete impregnation of the fibre layers during the impregnation process. The term “distribution layer” is to be understood as a layer, which allows a higher flow speed for liquid polymer or resin than the metallic wires do. The resin distribution layers may for instance be made from thin layers of a porous core material, e.g. balsa wood or foamed polymer, optionally provided with channels, which are formed like recesses in the surface, and which extend along the plane of the distribution layer, often perpendicular to the longitudinal direction of the blade. The channels may, however, also expand in other angles compared to the longitudinal direction of the blade. Alternatively, the distribution layer may be made of a net or a fibre mat with a high permeability. According to one embodiment, the blade comprises a number of fibre layers having a corrugated surface and comprising metallic wires. The metallic wires may also have a corrugated surface in order to achieve a mechanical interlock with the resin or matrix material. According to an advantageous embodiment, the metallic wires have a rough surface, for instance provided by sand blasting or glass blasting the surface of the metallic wires. Thereby, the resin bonds better to the metallic wires, thereby lowering the probability of delamination of layers comprising the metallic wires. Accordingly, it is possible to use non-twisted monowires for the reinforcement of the wind turbine blade. According to another advantageous embodiment, the metallic wires are arranged to form a twisted wire geometry. Such geometry may create an interlocking geometry, which forms a mechanic interlock with the resin or matrix material. It is also possible to use wires, where a number of filaments are arranged in a core, the wire further having a wrap wire, which is wrapped for instance helically around the core. The wrap wire may be tightened around the wires in order to share the load between the different filaments. The wrap wire may be smaller than the individual filaments of the core. The wires may be arranged in a nested or stacked geometry. Alternatively, the wires may be arranged in a single layer. Preferably, the filaments of the core have a maximum inner dimension according to the previously mentioned dimensions for the maximum inner dimension of the metallic wires. According to another advantageous embodiment, the metallic wires are arranged in woven, knitted or glue or scrim assembled layers. It is for instance possible to use a polyester knit yarn to spiral the structural wire and optionally using an additional metallic wrapping wire. The wrapping wire may be crossed back and forth between the metallic wires and tied to the wires by the spiralling polyester knit thread. The wrapping wire may be used to create a knitted structure that maintains a given wire spacing. It is also possible to use intermeshing wrapping wires. Alternatively, the wires may be glued onto a backing sheet or a scrim. The backing material may become part of the finished wind turbine blade or it may dissolve in the liquid resin. Thus, a number of different methods of forming a tape comprising the metallic wires is possible. A number of different tapes or rolls of tapes having different widths may be used. These tapes may be arranged in the mould cavity by rolling the tapes in the longitudinal direction of the mould or equivalently the longitudinal direction of the finished wind turbine blade. The metallic wires may be arranged to form a continuous or discontinuous contact line with adjacent wires. The wires may be arranged unidirectional, preferably in the longitudinal direction of the finished wind turbine blade. Alternatively, the wires may be multidirectionally oriented. It is possible to arrange the metallic wires so as to make them impermeable. However, according to a preferred embodiment the wires are arranged so as to make the layers permeable to liquid resin and so as to be able to quickly wet the layers comprising metallic wires. In one method according to the invention, a plurality of fibre layers including a fibre reinforcement material are arranged on top of each other in the mould cavity in step b) in order to provide a longitudinally extending reinforcement section, where at least 50% by volume of the fibre reinforcement material in the at least first reinforcement section consists of metallic wires. According to another advantageous method, the mould cavity in the forming structure in step a) is provided by providing a first mould part having a first forming surface with a contour that defines at least a part of an outer surface of the shell construction part, and a second mould part, and sealing the second mould part against the first mould part. Thus, the fibre reinforcement material and resin is arranged or provided in the mould cavity. The first mould part may for instance be a rigid mould part. The second mould part may for instance be a vacuum bag. Alternatively, the second mould part may be a rigid mould part having a second moulding surface with a contour that defines at least a part of an outer surface of the shell construction part. According to yet another advantageous embodiment, the mould cavity is connected to a source of uncured fluid resin via at least one resin inlet communicating with the mould cavity, and uncured resin from the source of uncured resin is supplied to the mould cavity through the at least one resin inlet during step c) so as to fill the mould cavity with resin. This embodiment relates to a resin transfer moulding manufacturing method, wherein the resin is supplied to the mould cavity via a pressure differential between the source of uncured resin and the mould cavity. Advantageously, at least one vacuum outlet communicating with the mould cavity is connected to the mould cavity, and the mould cavity is evacuated prior to step c) via the at least one vacuum outlet. Thereby, the pressure differential may be formed by creating a vacuum or underpressure in the mould cavity in order to draw the liquid resin into the mould cavity. Thus, this embodiment relates to vacuum infusion or vacuum assisted resin transfer moulding (VARTM). According to one advantageous embodiment, a number of pre-impregnated elements comprising a fibre reinforcement material are inserted in the first mould part or the mould cavity during step b). The use of so-called prepregs may be combined with both the RTM and VARTM methods. Typically, the prepregs are heated in order to liquidise the resin, allowing it to reflow and proving a uniform impregnation of all the fibre reinforcement material. The heating eventually allows the resin to cure. According to one particularly advantageous embodiment, the shell construction part of the wind turbine blade is made as one closed piece, wherein the forming structure comprises: a mould core and outer mould parts arranged to close around the mould core in order to form a mould cavity there between, the outer mould parts comprising at least: a first mould part comprising a first forming surface with a contour that defines at least a part of an outer surface of the shell construction part, and a second mould part comprising a second forming surface with a contour that defines at least a part of an outer surface of the shell construction part, and wherein the fibre reinforcement material in step b) is arranged on an outer mould part and/or the mould core. Typically, the mould core is removed from the shell construction after curing of the resin. Thereby, a single hollow shell construction is formed having a smooth surface with no glue flanges or similar. The invention is particularly suited for hollow moulding methods, since the larger voids between the metallic wires ensure that air in the mould cavity is forced forward by flow fronts of liquid resin during the impregnation or injection process. Thus, it is ensured that no air pockets are formed in the composite structure, i.e. the wind turbine blade. When a wind turbine blade is manufactured as two or more separate shell part, which are subsequently assembled, e.g. by gluing the parts together, the separate shell parts are often manufactured via a VARTM process using a first rigid mould part and a vacuum bag. Since the vacuum bag is transparent, it is possible to observe the flow fronts of liquid resin. Thus, it is also possible to observe a possible formation of an air pocket. Thereby, an operator may be able to remedy such formations, for instance by reversing the flow fronts by switching the operation of the vacuum outlet(s) and/or the resin inlet(s). This is further explained in WO067058541 by the present applicant. However, in a closed, hollow moulding process, it is not possible to observe the propagation of the liquid resin during the impregnation process. Therefore, the use of metallic wires is particularly suited for hollow moulding methods. According to one advantageous embodiment, liquid resin is supplied from a lower part of the mould cavity during step c). Thus, the resin inlets are arranged at a low point in the cross-section of the mould cavity during step c). Thereby, the flow front of liquid resin moves upwards during the impregnation process. Since air is lighter than the resin, gravity thus further reduces the possibility of formation of air pockets in the composite structure. According to an advantageous embodiment, the closed mould is rotated about a longitudinal axis prior to supplying liquid resin to the mould cavity in step c). Typically, the first forming surface and the second forming surface correspond to the pressure side and suction side of the wind turbine blade, respectively. During step b) the first mould part is arranged so that the first forming surface faces upwards. After all material has been arranged in the mould cavity, the closed mould may be turned approximately 90 degrees about the longitudinal axis in order to supply liquid from resin inlets, which in this mould position is arranged at a low point in the cross-section of the closed mould, e.g. at a trailing edge or leading edge of the wind turbine blade. Further, a vacuum outlet may be arranged at the highest point of the cross-section of the closed mould, optionally with an overflow vessel for collecting resin, which inadvertently has been sucked into the vacuum outlet. This principle can be used in other moulding aspects, namely that resin is supplied from a low point in a mould cavity and using gravity for preventing the formation of air pockets in the composite structure of the wind turbine blade. Thus, according to yet another aspect, the invention provides a method for manufacturing a shell construction part of a wind turbine blade, the shell construction part being made of a fibre reinforced polymer material including a polymer matrix and fibre reinforcement material embedded in the polymer matrix, wherein the method comprises the steps of: a) providing a forming structure comprising a mould cavity and having a longitudinal direction, b) placing the fibre reinforcement material in mould cavity, c) arranging the forming structure so that resin inlets are positioned at a low point of the forming structure, d) providing a resin in the mould cavity simultaneously with and/or subsequently to step b), and e) curing the resin in order to form the composite structure. This may be achieved in a number of ways. Typically the forming structures form moulding wind turbine shell parts are oblong. Thus, it may be possible to lift one end of the forming structure in order to obtain an inclination, and supplying resin from the other end. Alternatively, the forming surface may in itself be formed with an inclination in the longitudinal direction of the oblong forming structure. The resin may be a thermosetting resin, such as epoxy, vinylester, polyester. The resin may also be a thermoplastic, such as nylon, PVC, ABS, polypropylene or polyethylene. Yet again the resin may be a thermosetting thermoplastic, such as cyclic PBT or PET. However, according to a particularly advantageous embodiment, the resin comprises an in-situ polymerisable thermoplastic material. The in-situ polymerisable thermoplastic material may advantageously be selected from the group consisting of pre-polymers of: polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), polyamide-6 (pre-polymer is caprolactam), polyamide-12 (pre-polymer is laurolactam) alloys of polyamide-6 and polyamide-12; polyurethanes (TPU), polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polycarbonate (PC), polyetheretherketone (PEEK), polyetherketone (PEK), polyethersulfone (PES), polyphenylenesulphide (PPS), polyethylenenaphthalate (PEN) and polybutylenenaphthalate (PBN), cyclic poly(1,4-butylene terephthalate) (CBT) and/or combinations thereof. The in-situ polymerisable thermoplastic material has the advantage that it may be handied in its pre-polymer state and can be handled in as a liquid, a powder or pellets. Accordingly, the material may be used for pre-impregnating the fibre reinforcement material, i.e. in a pre-preg. Alternatively, it may be sprayed on in powder form on the fibre reinforcement material or be arranged in the mould parts as separate layers. In-situ polymerisable thermoplastic materials, such as CBT, has the advantage that they obtain a water-like viscosity when heated to a temperature of approximately 150 degrees Celsius. Thereby, it is possible to quickly impregnate the fibre reinforcement material of very large composite structures to be moulded and subsequently curing the resin in very short cycle times. CTB is available as one-part systems, where a catalyst is premixed into the resin, and where the catalyst is activated for instance by heating, and as two-part systems, where the catalyst and resin are kept separately until immediately before use. In some situations it may be advantageous—as previously explained—to draw in additional in-situ polymerisable thermoplastic material in order to impregnate the entire fibre reinforcement material. In such a situation it may be advantageous to use one-part systems for the pre-supplied resin and two-part systems for the additional resin. The term polymerisable thermoplastic material means that the material may be polymerised once at the manufacturing site. According to an advantageous embodiment, a gel coat is applied to a forming surface defining the exterior of the wind turbine blade. Additionally a waxy substance may be applied to the inner surface of the various rigid mould parts in order to prevent the composite structure to adhere to the surface. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The invention is explained in detail below with reference to the drawing(s), in which FIG. 1 shows a schematic cross section of a first embodiment of a mould part with fibre material arranged in the mould part, FIG. 2 shows a schematic cross section of a second embodiment of a mould part with fibre material arranged in the mould part, FIG. 3 shows a schematic cross section of a third embodiment of a mould part with fibre material arranged in the mould part, FIG. 4 shows a schematic cross section of a fourth embodiment of a mould part with fibre material arranged in the mould part, FIG. 5 shows a schematic cross section of the fourth embodiment during an impregnation process, FIG. 6 shows a steel wire with a rough surface, FIG. 7 shows a first embodiment of steel wires for reinforcing the shell construction of a wind turbine blade, FIG. 8 shows a second embodiment of steel wires for reinforcing the shell construction of a wind turbine blade, FIG. 9 shows a third embodiment of steel wires for reinforcing the shell construction of a wind turbine blade, FIG. 10 shows a fourth embodiment of steel wires for reinforcing the shell construction of a wind turbine blade, FIG. 11 shows a fifth embodiment of steel wires for reinforcing the shell construction of a wind turbine blade, FIG. 12 shows a hybrid mat for reinforcing the shell construction of a wind turbine blade, FIG. 13 shows a intermeshed mat for reinforcing the shell construction of a wind turbine blade, FIG. 14 shows a cross section of a reinforcement section in a wind turbine blade, and FIG. 15 shows a schematic view of a mould part for manufacturing a wind turbine shell part. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION FIG. 1 shows a cross-sectional view through a first mould part 110 for use in a VARTM process. The first mould part 110 has an upwardly facing forming surface 112 , and a vacuum bag 120 is sealed against the first mould part 110 , thus forming a mould cavity between the first mould part 110 and the vacuum bag 120 . A number of fibre layers 152 , 154 , 156 are placed in the mould cavity, these fibre layers being included in a finished wind turbine blade shell part comprising a leading edge 162 and a trailing edge 164 . The fibre layers comprise a majority of metallic wires, preferably steel wires. The fibre layers may comprise steel fibres only. Alternatively, hybrid fibre mats comprising steel fibres and for instance glass fibres or carbon fibre may be used. The inner layers are optionally coated with a gel coat, which define the exterior surface of the shell part. The arrangement for the VARTM process comprises a number of vacuum outlets for initially evacuating the mould cavity in an evacuation process and later drawing in liquid resin supplied from a number of resin inlet channels in an impregnation process. In the depicted embodiment, a resin inlet 180 is provided at a first rim of the first mould part 110 , viz. the leading edge 162 of the finished wind turbine blade shell part, and a vacuum outlet 182 is provided at a second rim of the first mould part 110 , viz. the trailing edge 164 of the finished wind turbine blade shell part. The particular arrangement of the resin inlet 180 and the vacuum outlet is meant as an example only, and many variations are possible. The first mould part 110 may comprise magnet means in form of a number of electromagnets 114 , 116 , 118 . The magnet means may be formed as a single electromagnet along the forming surface 112 or may comprise a plurality of electromagnets 114 , 116 , 118 as shown in the figure. The electromagnets can be used to retain or secure the fibre layers 152 , 154 , 156 against the forming surface 112 during the process of arranging the fibre layers 152 , 154 , 156 in the mould cavity and/or the evacuation process and/or the following resin impregnation process. Preferably the steel wires are made of monofilaments having a maximum inner cross-sectional dimension in the range between 0.04 mm and 1 mm, or in the range between 0.07 and 0.75, or in the range between 0.1 mm and 0.5 mm. Preferably, the steel wires or monofilaments have a substantially circular or elliptical cross-section. Accordingly, the maximum inner cross-sectional dimension corresponds to the diameter or major axis of the wire or monofilament. By using a majority of steel wires, the overall time for supplying resin and curing can be substantially decreased due to the steel wires having a diameter or other inner dimension, which is substantially larger than that of glass fibres or carbon fibres, which are conventionally used in manufacturing of wind turbine blades. Due to the larger diameter of the wires, the voids are also larger, which in turn means that the liquid resin can propagate and impregnate the fibre material at a faster rate. Thereby, the fibre material can be impregnated faster and consequently, the resin needs to be liquid for a shorter time, thus having the potential of decreasing the curing time also. Further, by using of metallic, electrically conducting wires, the blade wall itself may function as a lightning receptor and down conductor, thus alleviating the need for a separate lightning receptor and down conductor. Furthermore, the use of larger wires makes the use of high viscosity resin systems feasible. This is typically not possible when using glass fibres or carbon fibres due to the fine threads making impregnation with such resin impossible. This is particularly limiting within the field of thermoplastics. The outer fibre layers, i.e. the lower fibre layer 152 and the upper fibre layer 154 may be made of fibres having a diameter substantially smaller than that of the inner fibre layers 156 comprising steel wires. The outer fibre layers 152 , 154 may for instance comprise chopped or woven glass fibres or carbon fibres. Since the fibres in the outer layer are substantially smaller than the steel wires, the voids between fibres at the outer surface of the wind turbine are smaller, and the outer surface may be smoother. Further, the more densely packed fibres increase the fibre density at the outer surface and increase the interlaminar shear strength, thereby lowering the probability of cracks and delamination forming. FIG. 2 shows a cross-sectional view through a second embodiment of a first mould part 210 for use in a VARTM process. The mould part 210 comprises a mould cavity formed between a forming surface 212 and a vacuum bag 220 , and in which a number of fibre layers, core parts and reinforcement sections are placed, these parts being included in a finished wind turbine blade shell part. The blade shell part comprises one or more lower fibre layers 252 impregnated with resin and optionally coated with a gelcoat, which define the exterior surface of the shell part, and one or more upper fibre layers 254 impregnated with resin, and which define the interior surface of the shell part. The upper fibre layer(s) 254 and lower fibre layer(s) 252 are separated by a fibre insertion or main laminate 270 comprising a plurality of fibre layers impregnated with resin, a first core part 266 and a second core part 268 , as well as a first fibre reinforcement 274 at a trailing edge 264 of the shell part and a second fibre reinforcement 272 at a leading edge 262 of the shell part. As shown in FIG. 14 , the main laminate comprises a plurality of fibre layers. The fibre layers comprise a number of inner fibre layers 290 , a number of outer fibre layers 294 , and a number of intermediate fibre layers 292 . According to one advantageous embodiment, the inner fibre layers 290 comprise steel fibres only, whereas the outer layers 294 similar to the previous embodiment comprise chopped or woven fibres of a second type with a diameter substantially smaller than that of the steel wires. The outer layers may be made entirely of glass fibres or carbon fibres. The intermediate layers 292 may be made of hybrid mats comprising both steel wires and fibres of the second type. Thereby, a quantitative ratio between the steel wires and the second fibres gradually changes from a first ratio at the inner fibre layers 290 to a second ratio at the number of outer layers 292 . Thereby, a gradual transition in stiffness through the shell construction is obtained, thus preventing the formation of boundary surfaces with stress formations and lowering the risk of delamination of the various fibre layers. By using different hybrid mats having different quantitative ratios between the steel wires and the second type fibres, a particularly smooth transition can be obtained. Such a configuration can of course also be used for the other fibre reinforcements of the shell construction or wind turbine blade. The arrangement for the VARTM process comprises a number of vacuum outlets and a number of resin inlet channels. In the depicted embodiment, a resin inlet 280 is provided at a first rim of the first mould part 210 , viz. the leading edge 262 of the wind turbine blade shell part, and a vacuum outlet 282 is provided at a second rim of the first mould part 210 , viz. the trailing edge 264 of the wind turbine blade shell part. The particular arrangement of the resin inlet 280 and the vacuum outlet 282 is meant as an example only, and many variations are possible. Similar to the first embodiment, the first mould part 210 comprises magnet means in form of a number of electromagnets 214 , 216 , 218 . The magnet means may be formed as a single electromagnet along the forming surface 212 or may comprise a plurality of electromagnets 214 , 216 , 218 as shown in the figure. The electromagnets can be used to retain or secure the fibre layers 252 , 254 , 256 against the forming surface 212 during the process of arranging the fibre layers 252 , 254 , 256 in the mould cavity and/or the evacuation process and/or the following impregnation process. Particularly the process of impregnating the main laminate 270 and other fibre reinforcements is very time consuming. Therefore, the change from using reinforcement sections comprising mainly glass or carbon fibres to reinforcement sections comprising a majority, and preferably more than 80% by volume of steel wires, reduces the overall impregnation time substantially, and thereby the overall time for manufacturing blades comprising such reinforcement sections. FIG. 3 shows a cross-sectional view through a third embodiment of a first mould part 310 for use in a VARTM process, and in which like numerals refer to similar parts shown in FIG. 1 . Therefore, only the difference between the embodiments is described. In this embodiment a number of prepregs 392 and/or pre-cured elements comprising metallic wires, preferably steel wires, are arranged between a number of outer fibre layers 354 and a number of inner fibre layers 352 , optionally coated with a gelcoat, which define a part of the exterior surface of the blade shell part. The prepregs are pre-impregnated with resin, and the mould cavity is heated to a temperature, where the resin is allowed to reflow thus filling the mould cavity and the fibre material arranged therein. The heating eventually allows the resin to cure. Again, the outer fibre layers 352 may be made of fibres having a diameter substantially smaller than that of the steel wires in the prepregs 392 . The outer fibre layers 352 , 354 may for instance comprise chopped or woven glass fibres or carbon fibres. FIG. 4 shows a cross-sectional view through a fourth embodiment of a mould for use in a VARTM process, and in which like numerals refer to similar parts shown in FIG. 1 . The figure shows an embodiment in which the wind turbine blade (here depicted as a cross section of the circular root section) is manufactured as one, hollow piece instead of as two separate shell parts, which subsequently are glued together. The wind turbine blade is manufactured in a closed mould, which comprises a mould core 430 and a first mould part 410 and a second mould part 420 arranged to close around the mould core 430 , thus forming a mould cavity there between. The first mould part 410 comprises a first forming surface 412 with a first contour that defines a part of the outer surface of the wind turbine blade, and the second mould part 420 comprises a second forming surface 422 with a second contour that defines another part of the outer surface of the wind turbine blade. The mould core 430 comprises an outer, flexible core part 432 , which defines the inner surface of the wind turbine blade, and an internal, firm or workable core part 434 . A number of fibre layers 452 , 454 , 456 comprising metallic wires, preferably steel wires, is arranged in the mould cavity between the outer mould parts 410 , 420 and the mould core 430 . The first mould 410 part comprises a number of electromagnets 414 , 416 , 418 for retaining the fibre layers 452 , 454 , 456 against the first forming surface 412 , and the second mould part 420 comprises a number of electromagnets 444 , 446 , 448 for retaining the fibre layers 452 , 454 , 456 against the second forming surface 422 . Thus the fibre layers can be secured against the forming surfaces during layup of the fibre layers and during the subsequent evacuation and impregnation procedures. After all material has been arranged in the mould cavity, the closed mould may, as shown in FIG. 5 , be rotated approximately 90 degrees about the longitudinal axis in order to supply liquid from resin inlets 480 connected to a source of uncured resin and assuming a low point in the cross-section of the closed mould. Further, a vacuum outlet 482 connected to a vacuum source 496 , such as a vacuum pump, may be arranged at the highest point of the cross-section of the closed mould, optionally with an overflow vessel 498 for collecting resin, which has been sucked into the vacuum outlet 482 . By regulating the amount of resin supplied from the resin inlets 480 it is possible to control flow fronts of liquid resin 499 in order to maintain a balance between the injected resin and gravity, thus avoiding the formation of air pockets within the wind turbine blade. The resin inlet 480 and vacuum outlet 482 need not be positioned at the rim of the mould parts as shown in FIGS. 4 and 5 . However, it is important that the resin inlet assumes a low point during the impregnation process. The invention is particularly suited for this kind of moulding, since the larger voids between the steel wires ensure that air in the mould cavity is forced forward by flow fronts of liquid resin during the impregnation or injection process. Thus, it is ensured that no air pockets are formed in the composite structure, i.e. the wind turbine blade. When a wind turbine blade is manufactured as two or more separate shell parts, which are subsequently assembled, e.g. by gluing the parts together, the separate shell parts are often manufactured via a VARTM process using a first rigid mould part and a vacuum bag. Since the vacuum bag is transparent, it is possible to observe the flow fronts of liquid resin. Thus, it is also possible to observe a possible formation of an air pocket. Thereby, an operator may be able to remedy such formations, for instance by reversing the flow fronts by switching the operation of the vacuum outlet(s) and/or the resin inlet(s). However, in a closed, hollow moulding process, it is not possible to observe the propagation of the liquid resin during the impregnation process. Therefore, the use of metallic wires is particularly suited for this kind of moulding. This principle can be used in other moulding aspects, namely that resin is supplied from a low point in a mould cavity and using gravity for preventing the formation of air pockets in the composite structure of the wind turbine blade. Such an idea is illustrated in FIG. 15 . In this embodiment, fibre material (not necessarily being metallic fibres) is arranged in a mould part 710 . The mould part is oblong and has a first end 711 and a second end 713 . Resin inlets 715 , 717 is arranged on top of the fibre material. A mould cavity is formed by sealing a vacuum bag (not shown) against the mould part 710 . The mould cavity is connected to a vacuum source (not shown) in order to evacuate the mould cavity and drawing in liquid resin. The resin is then supplied from the first end 711 of the mould part 710 . Prior to this, the second end 713 of the mould part 710 is elevated in order to form an incline. Thus, the flow front of resin works against gravity, which prevents the formation of air pockets within the finished composite structure. Of course it is also possible to supply resin from the second end 713 and raising or elevating the first end 711 of the mould part 10 . Alternatively, the forming surface of the mould part 710 may be formed with an inherent inclination. FIG. 6 shows one embodiment of a steel wire for reinforcing the wind turbine blade. Advantageously, the steel wire has a rough surface. This can for instance be achieved by sand blasting or glass blasting the surface of the steel wire, or by chemically treating the steel wires. Thereby, the resin bonds better to the wire, thereby lowering the probability of delamination of layers comprising such steel wires. Accordingly, it is possible to use non-twisted monowires for the reinforcement of the wind turbine blade. FIGS. 7-13 depict various embodiments of steel wires and fibre layers comprising steel wires for reinforcement of a wind turbine blade. FIG. 7 shows a first embodiment, in which five steel wires 510 are arranged in a 5×1 array core with two wrap wires 512 , which are wrapped around the five steel wires 510 . The wrap wires 512 are tightened around the steel wires 512 in order to share the load between the different wires. The wrap wires 512 may be smaller than the individual wires of the core. Alternatively, the wrap wires 512 may have the same cross-sectional dimension as the core wires 510 . The core may comprise any number of steel wires, with or without any wrap wires. FIG. 8 shows a second embodiment, in which three steel wires 520 are stacked in a core with a wrap wire 522 , which are wrapped around the core wires 520 . The wrap wire 522 is tightened around the steel wires 512 in order to share the load between the different wires. The wrap wires 512 may be smaller than the individual wires of the core or may have the same cross-sectional dimension as the core wires 520 . Alternatively, the core wires may be individually twisted about each other in a longitudinal direction. Such a twisted wire geometry does not need a wrap wire and may create an interlocking geometry, which forms a mechanic interlock with the resin or matrix material. The core may comprise any number of stacked steel wires and wrap wires. As an example, a third embodiment comprising seven steel wires 530 in a core with two wrap wires 532 is shown in FIG. 9 . According to another advantageous embodiment, the steel wires are arranged in woven, knitted or glue or scrim assembled layers. It is for instance possible to use a polyester knit yarn to spiral the structural wire and optionally using an additional metallic wrapping wire. The wrapping wire may be crossed back and forth between the metallic wires and tied to the wires by the spiralling polyester knit thread. The wrapping wire may be used to create a knitted structure that maintains a given wire spacing. It is also possible to use intermeshing wrapping wires. Alternatively, the wires may be glued onto a backing sheet or a scrim. The backing material may become part of the finished wind turbine blade or it may dissolve in the liquid resin. Thus, a number of different methods of forming a tape comprising the metallic wires is possible. A number of different tapes or rolls of tapes having different widths may be used. These tapes may be arranged in the mould cavity by rolling the tapes in the longitudinal direction of the mould or equivalently the longitudinal direction of the finished wind turbine blade. The steel wires may be arranged to form a continuous or discontinuous contact line with adjacent wires. The wires may be arranged unidirectional, preferably in the longitudinal direction of the finished wind turbine blade. Alternatively, the wires may be multidirectionally oriented. It is possible to arrange the metallic wires so as to make them impermeable. However, according to a preferred embodiment the wires are arranged so as to make the layers permeable to liquid resin and so as to be able to quickly wet the layers comprising metallic wires. FIG. 10 shows a first example of such layers, in which a number of steel wires in form of monowires or monofilaments 540 are arranged on a backing sheet or scrim 544 . The steel wires 540 are unidirectionally arranged with a small distance in a transverse direction. Thereby, the resin may easily propagate through the different layers. The backing layer 544 may be a resin distribution layer in order to ensure an efficient resin distribution in the transverse direction. FIG. 11 shows a second example of such layers, in which a number of reinforcement wires 550 comprising three steel wires 560 is arranged in a core with a wrap wire 562 helically wrapped around the core wires 560 . The reinforcement wires 550 are arranged unidirectionally with a discontinuous contact with adjacent reinforcement wires. Due to the discontinuous contact between the reinforcement wires 550 , the resin may easily propagate through the different layers. The backing layer 564 may be a resin distribution layer in order to ensure an efficient resin distribution in the transverse direction. FIG. 12 shows a hybrid mat 570 comprising steel wires 572 and fibres 574 of another type, such as glass fibres, which are woven together. The fibres 574 of the other type may for instance be multistrand glass fibres, where the individual fibres have a diameter, which is substantially smaller than that of the steel wires 572 . The hybrid mats may for instance be used for the intermediate layers 292 of the main laminate 270 as shown in FIG. 14 . By using different hybrid mats having different quantitative ratios between the steel wires and the second type fibres, a particularly smooth transition in stiffness can be obtained. FIG. 13 shows another example of a fibre mat 580 comprising steel wires 582 , which are retained by intermeshing wrap wires 584 . The wires 582 may be arranged on a backing sheet. The invention has been described with reference to advantageous embodiments. However, the scope of the invention is not limited to the illustrated embodiment, and alterations and modifications can be carried out without deviating from the scope of the invention. LIST OF REFERENCE NUMERALS 110 , 210 , 310 , 410 first mould part 112 , 212 , 312 , 412 forming surface 114 , 214 , 314 , 414 magnet means/electromagnet 116 , 216 , 316 , 416 magnet means/electromagnet 118 , 218 , 318 , 418 magnet means/electromagnet 120 , 220 , 320 , 420 second mould part/vacuum bag 422 second forming surface 430 mould core 432 outer, flexible core part 434 inner, firm or workable core part 444 , 446 , 448 magnet means/electromagnets 150 , 250 , 350 , 450 composite structure/wind turbine blade shell part 152 , 252 , 352 , 452 fibre layer 154 , 254 , 354 , 454 fibre layer 156 , 456 fibre layer 162 , 262 , 362 , 462 leading edge 164 , 264 , 364 , 464 trailing edge 266 first core part 268 second core part 270 reinforcement section/main laminate/fibre insertion 272 first fibre reinforcement 274 second fibre reinforcement 180 , 280 , 380 , 480 resin inlet 182 , 282 , 382 , 482 vacuum outlet 290 inner fibre layers 292 intermediate fibre layers 294 outer fibre layers 392 prepregs 494 source of uncured resin 496 vacuum source 498 overflow vessel 499 flow fronts 510 , 520 , 530 , 540 , 560 steel wires 512 , 522 , 532 , 562 wrap wires 544 , 564 backing sheet/scrim 550 reinforcement wire 570 , 580 fibre mat 572 , 582 steel wires 574 multistrand glass fibres 584 intermeshing wrap wires

A method of manufacturing a shell construction part of a wind turbine blade, the shell construction part being made of a fibre reinforced polymer material including a polymer matrix and fibre reinforcement material embedded in the polymer matrix. The method comprises the steps of a) providing a forming structure comprising a mould cavity and having a longitudinal direction, b) placing the fibre reinforcement material in mould cavity, c) providing a resin in the mould cavity simultaneously with and/or subsequently to step b), and d) curing the resin in order to form the composite structure, wherein at least 20% by volume of the fibre reinforcement material consists of metallic wires.

This disclosure is based upon, and claims priority from, provisional U.S. Application Ser. No. 60/100,885, filed Sep. 23, 1998, and Japanese Application No. 10-076845, filed Mar. 25, 1998, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a three-dimensional measurement apparatus that measures the shape of an object in noncontacting fashion by irradiating the object with a reference beam such as a slit ray or a spot beam. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION A three-dimensional measurement apparatus that employs a slit ray projection method (also known as a light chopping method) is known in the prior art, as disclosed, for example, in Japanese Patent Unexamined Publication No. 9-196632. The slit ray projection method is a method for obtaining a three-dimensional image (range image) by optically scanning an object, and is a form of active measurement method that photographs an object by projecting a specific reference beam on it. The slit ray projection method uses a slit ray whose cross section is a straight line. When performing a three-dimensional measurement, the purpose of the measurement can vary in different ways. There are many situations according to the purpose; for example, one may want to make the measurement at high speed and in the shortest possible time, or may want a high resolution measurement at some sacrifice of the measuring speed, or may want to measure an object having a large depth. However, according to the prior art three-dimensional measurement apparatus, it has only been possible to make measurements for the purpose that matches the specification of the three-dimensional measurement apparatus. For example, the measuring speed, the measurable dimension in the depth direction, the resolution, etc. have been predetermined as specifications, and it has not been possible to cope with situations that require significant changes in the measuring conditions, such as when one wants to make measurements at higher speed or with a higher resolution. Accordingly, in the prior art, it has been necessary to purchase different three-dimensional measurement devices for different measurement purposes. The present invention has been devised in view of the above problem, and it is an object of the invention to provide a three-dimensional measurement apparatus which can accommodate multiple different measurement conditions to address various measurement purposes. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION A three-dimensional measurement apparatus according to the invention comprises means for irradiating a measurement target with a reference beam, means for scanning the reference beam, a photosensor for receiving light reflected from the measurement target irradiated with the reference beam, and means for repeatedly driving the photosensor during the scanning of the reference beam and thereby reading out signals output therefrom. The apparatus measures a three-dimensional shape of the measurement target based on the output signals from the photosensor. The apparatus further includes, in one embodiment, means for selecting an operation mode, and means for switching the scanning speed of the reference beam and a readout operation of the photosensor in accordance with the selected operation mode. A three-dimensional measurement apparatus according to a second embodiment of the invention is characterized by the provision of means for selecting an operation mode, and means for switching a line width for the readout of the photosensor in accordance with the selected operation mode. A three-dimensional measurement apparatus according to a third embodiment of the invention is characterized by means for selecting an operation mode, and means for switching line spacing for the readout of the photosensor in accordance with the selected operation mode. A three-dimensional measurement apparatus according to yet another embodiment of the invention is characterized by means for selecting an operation mode, means for switching the scanning speed of the reference beam in accordance with the selected operation mode, means for switching a line width for the readout of the photosensor in accordance with the selected operation mode, and means for switching line spacing for the readout of the photosensor in accordance with the selected operation mode. A three-dimensional measurement apparatus according to a further aspect of the invention is characterized by means for selecting an operation mode, means for switching the line width of an effective light receiving region of the photosensor, as well as line spacing for the readout, in accordance with the selected operation mode, and means for switching the number of lines shifted per frame for the readout of the photosensor in accordance with the selected operation mode. A three-dimensional measurement apparatus according to another aspect of the invention is characterized by the provision of means for switching the readout operation between skipping intermediate lines and adding together the readout output signals when the number of lines shifted is more than one. Factors describing the performance of the three-dimensional measurement apparatus include: measuring speed QS, measurement range QR which is the dynamic range in the depth direction (Z direction), resolution QD, sensitivity QB, and measurement area QE which is the dynamic range in the vertical direction (Y direction). Parameters determining the above performance factors include: the number of lines (the number of readout lines) GL of the effective light receiving region Ae of the photosensor, the entire line width (readout line width) GW of the effective light receiving region Ae, line spacing GT which is a value obtained by dividing the line width GW by the number of lines GL, the number of shifts GS, and slit ray width GP (the width, w, of the slit ray U). Usually, as the number of lines, GL, decreases, for example, the readout speed increases, increasing the measuring speed QS. When the line width GW is increased, the dynamic range in the depth direction (Z direction) increases, resulting in a wider measurement range QR. The resolution QD increases as the number of shifts, GS, decreases. Depending on which performance factor is given priority, the operation mode is selected from among a standard mode, high speed mode, wide-Z mode, high sensitivity mode, high resolution mode, and high-speed wide-Z mode. Each operation mode has variations of its own. Various measurement purposes can be addressed by setting the operation mode in various ways. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a diagram showing the configuration of a measurement system according to the present invention. FIGS. 2 a , 2 b are a diagram showing an external view of a three-dimensional camera. FIG. 3 is a diagram showing the functional configuration of the three-dimensional camera. FIGS. 4 a , 4 b are a schematic diagram showing the configuration of a projection lens system. FIGS. 5 a , 5 b are a diagram illustrating the principle of three-dimensional position calculations in the measurement system. FIG. 6 is a block diagram of an output processing circuit. FIG. 7 is a diagram showing a sensor readout range. FIG. 8 is a diagram showing an example of a CCD area sensor configuration employing an interline transfer structure. FIG. 9 is a diagram showing the flow of data in the three-dimensional camera. FIG. 10 is a diagram showing the flow of data in a host. FIG. 11 is a diagram showing the relationship between each point in an optical system and an object. FIG. 12 is a diagram showing kinds of operation modes. FIG. 13 is a flowchart illustrating an outline of the operation of the measurement system. FIG. 14 is a flowchart illustrating a mode setting process. FIG. 15 is a diagram showing the sensor's effective light receiving region in high speed mode 1 . FIG. 16 is a diagram showing the effective light receiving region in high speed mode 2 . FIG. 17 is a diagram showing the effective light receiving region in high speed mode 3 . FIG. 18 is a diagram showing the effective light receiving region in high speed mode 4 . FIG. 19 is a diagram showing the effective light receiving region in wide Z mode 1 . FIG. 20 is a diagram showing the effective light receiving region in wide Z mode 2 . FIG. 21 is a diagram showing the effective light receiving region in high sensitivity mode. FIG. 22 is a diagram showing the effective light receiving region in high resolution mode. FIGS. 23 a, b, c, d are a diagram illustrating an outline of a slit ray projection method. FIGS. 24 a, b, c are a diagram for explaining the principle of measurement according to the slit ray projection method. DETAILED DESCRIPTION FIG. 1 is a diagram showing the configuration of a measurement system 1 according to the present invention. The measurement system 1 comprises a three-dimensional camera (range finder) 2 which makes stereoscopic measurements using a slit ray projection method, and a host 3 which processes output data from the three-dimensional camera 2 . The three-dimensional camera 2 outputs a two dimensional image describing color information of an object Q and data necessary for calibration, together with measurement data (slit image data) identifying the three-dimensional positions of a plurality of sampling points on the object Q. The host 3 performs calculations to obtain the coordinates of the sampling points using a triangulation method. The host 3 is a computer system comprising a CPU 3 a , a display 3 b , a keyboard 3 c , a mouse 3 d , etc. The CPU 3 a incorporates software for processing the measurement data. Both an on-line data transfer and an off-line data transfer using a removable recording medium 4 are possible as a method of data transfer between the host 3 and the three-dimensional camera 2 . Examples of the recording medium 4 include magneto-optical disks (MOs), mini-disks (MDs), and memory cards. FIG. 2 is a diagram showing an external view of the three-dimensional camera 2 . A projection window 20 a and a light receiving window 20 b are provided in the front panel of a housing 20 . The projection window 20 a is located above the light receiving window 20 b . A slit ray (a strip of laser beam with a prescribed width of w) U emitted from an internal optical unit OU is passed through the projection window 20 a and directed toward an object to be measured (the subject). The radiating angle φ along the lengthwise direction M1 of the slit ray U is fixed. Part of the slit ray U reflected from the surface of the object passes through the light receiving window 20 b and enters the optical unit OU. The optical unit OU is equipped with a two-axis adjusting mechanism for optimizing the relative relationship between the projection axis and the light receiving axis. On the top panel of the housing 20 are provided zooming buttons 25 a and 25 b , manual focusing buttons 26 a and 26 b , and a shutter button 27 . As shown in FIG. 2 ( b ), a liquid crystal display 21 , cursor buttons 22 , a select button 23 , a cancel button 24 , analog output terminals 32 , a digital output terminal 33 , and an insertion slot 30 a for the recording medium 4 are provided on the rear panel of the housing 20 . The liquid crystal display (LCD) 21 is used as an electronic viewfinder as well as an operation screen display means. The camera operator can set up the shooting mode by using the buttons 22 to 24 on the rear panel. In particular, the operation mode is set up by using the select button 23 . Measurement data is output from the analog output terminal 32 , and a two dimensional image signal is output, for example, in the NTSC format from the analog output terminal 32 . The digital output terminal 33 is, for example, a SCSI terminal. FIG. 3 is a block diagram showing the functional configuration of the three-dimensional camera 2 . In the figure, solid-line arrows indicate electrical signal flows, and dotted-line arrows show light paths. The three-dimensional camera 2 includes two optical systems 40 and 50 , one for projection and the other for light reception, which together constitute the optical unit OU. In the optical system 40 , a laser beam with a wavelength of 685 nm emitted from a semiconductor laser (LD) 41 is passed through a projection lens system 42 to form a slit ray U which is deflected by a galvanometer mirror (scanning means) 43 . A driver 44 for the semiconductor laser 41 , a driving system 45 for the projection lens system 42 , and a driving system 46 for the galvanometer mirror 43 are controlled by a system controller 61 . In the optical system 50 , incident light converged by a zoom unit 51 is split by a beam splitter 52 . Light in the oscillation wavelength region of the semiconductor laser 41 is directed to a measuring sensor 53 . Light in the visible spectrum region is directed to a monitor color sensor 54 . The sensor 53 and the color sensor 54 are both CCD area sensors. The zoom unit 51 is of the internal focusing type, and a portion of the incident light is used for auto focusing (AF). The AF function is implemented using an AF sensor 57 , a lens controller 58 , and a focus driving system 59 . A zoom driving system 60 is provided for motor-driven zooming. An iris driving system 59 a is provided to control the iris aperture. Imaging information captured by the sensor 53 is transferred to an output processing circuit 62 in synchronism with a clock from a driver 55 . Measurement data associated with each pixel of the sensor 53 is generated by the output processing circuit 62 and stored in memories 63 and 64 . Thereafter, when the operator directs an output of data, the measurement data is output in the prescribed format via a SCSI controller 66 or an NTSC conversion circuit 65 , or stored on the recording medium 4 . The analog output terminal 32 or the digital output terminal 33 is used for online output of the measurement data. Imaging information captured by the color sensor 54 is transferred to a color processing circuit 67 in synchronism with a clock from a driver 56 . The imaging information subjected to color processing is output via an NTSC conversion circuit 70 and via the analog output terminal 32 , or is quantized in a digital image generator 68 and stored in a color image memory 69 . After that, the color image data is transferred from the color image memory 69 to the SCSI controller 66 , and is output via the digital output terminal 33 or stored on the recording medium 4 by being associated with the measurement data. The color image is an image with the same angle of view as the range image captured by the sensor 53 , and is used as reference information during application processing at the host 3 . Processing that utilizes the color information includes, for example, processing for generating a three-dimensional geometric model by combining multiple sets of measurement data having different camera viewpoints, processing for decimating unnecessary vertexes of the three-dimensional geometric model, etc. The system controller 61 issues instructions to a character generator 71 to display proper characters and symbols on the screen of the LCD 21 . FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram showing the construction of the projection lens system 42 . FIG. 4 ( a ) is a front view, and FIG. 4 ( b ) is a side view. The projection lens system 42 consists of three lenses, that is, a collimator lens 421 , a variator lens 422 , and an expander lens 423 . Optical processing is performed in the following sequence on the laser beam emitted from the semiconductor laser 41 to obtain the suitable slit ray U. First, the beam is collimated by the collimator lens 421 . Next, the beam diameter of the laser beam is adjusted by the variator lens 422 . Finally, the beam is expanded along the slit length direction (slit scanning direction) M1 by the expander lens 423 . The variator lens 422 is provided so that the slit ray U of width corresponding to three or more pixels is projected on the sensor 53 regardless of the shooting distance and the shooting angle of view. Under directions of the system controller 61 , the driving system 45 moves the variator lens 422 in such a manner as to maintain the width, w, of the slit ray U constant on the sensor 53 . The zoom unit 51 at the light receiving side moves in interlocking fashion with the variator lens 422 . Further, under directions of the system controller 61 , the width, w, of the slit ray U is controlled according to the operation mode described hereinafter. When the slit length is expanded prior to the deflection by the galvanometer mirror 43 , distortion of the slit ray U can be reduced more effectively than when the expansion is done after the deflection. Further, the galvanometer mirror 43 can be reduced in size by disposing the expander lens 423 in the final stage of the projection lens system 42 , that is, at a position closer to the galvanometer mirror 43 . FIG. 5 is a diagram illustrating the principle of three-dimensional position calculations in the measurement system 1 , FIG. 23 is a diagram illustrating an outline of the slit ray projection method, and FIG. 24 is a diagram for explaining the principle of measurement according to the slit ray projection method. In FIG. 5, elements corresponding to those in FIGS. 23 and 24 are designated by the same reference characters. The slit ray U, wide enough to cover a plurality of pixels on an imaging surface S2 of the sensor 53 , shines on the object Q. The width of the slit ray U is set equal to that of five pixels in standard mode, but the width is varied according to the operation mode. For example, when line spacing is set to “2” in high speed mode, wide Z mode, etc., the width w is set equal to the width of 10 pixels. The slit ray U is deflected to scan the object Q. The slit ray U is moved from the top toward the bottom of the imaging surface S2 shown in FIG. 5 . In the standard mode, the moving speed of the slit ray U is set so that the slit ray U moves on the imaging surface S2 by one pixel pitch pv in one sampling cycle, but the moving speed is varied according to the operation mode. For example, when the number of shifts GS described later is set to “2” in high speed mode, wide Z mode, etc., the slit ray U moves by two-pixel pitch (2pv) in one sampling cycle. At the end of each sampling cycle, optical-to-electrical converted information for one frame is output from the sensor 53 . When attention is paid to one particular pixel g on the imaging surface S2, effective incident light data is obtained from five samplings out of the N samplings performed during the scanning. The timing (temporal centroid Npeak: the time when the amount of incident light on the pixel g reaches a maximum) at which the optical axis of the slit ray U passes the object surface region ag opposing the pixel g of interest, is obtained by interpolating between the incident light data of the five samplings. In the example of FIG. 5 ( b ), the amount of incident light is maximum at a timing intermediate between the n-th sampling and the immediately preceding (n−1)th sampling. The position (coordinates) of the object Q is calculated based on the relationship between the direction of the slit ray radiation and the direction of the incident slit ray on the pixel of interest at the above obtained timing. This achieves a measurement with a resolution higher than the resolution defined by the pixel pitch pv on the imaging surface. The amount of incident light on the pixel g depends on the reflectance of the object Q. However, the relative ratio between the incident light amounts obtained from the five samplings is constant regardless of the absolute amount of incident light. That is, the lightness or darkness of the object color does not affect the measurement accuracy. In the measurement system 1 of the present embodiment, the three-dimensional camera 2 outputs the incident light data obtained from the five samplings to the host 3 as measurement data for each pixel g of the sensor 53 , and the host 3 calculates the coordinates of the object Q based on the measurement data. The output processing circuit 62 (see FIG. 3) in the three-dimensional camera 2 is responsible for generating the measurement data associated with each pixel g. FIG. 6 is a block diagram of the output processing circuit 62 , FIG. 7 is a diagram showing the reading region of the sensor 53 , and FIG. 8 is a diagram showing an example of a CCD area sensor configuration employing an interline transfer structure. The output processing circuit 62 comprises: an AD converter 620 for converting an optical-to-electrical converted signal of each pixel g, output from the sensor 53 , into 8-bit incident light data; four sets of frame delay memories, 621 a to 624 a and 621 b to 624 b , connected in series; selectors 621 s to 624 s ; five memory banks 625 A to 625 E for storing the effective incident light data obtained from five samplings; a memory band 625 F for storing the frame number (sampling number) FN for which the incident light data is maximum; a comparator 626 ; a generator 627 indicating the frame number FN; and a memory control means, not shown, for performing control such as addressing the memory banks 625 A to 625 F. Each of the memory banks 625 A to 625 F has a capacity capable of storing incident light data equivalent to the number of sampling points (i.e., the number of effective pixels on the sensor 53 ). The AD converter 620 outputs incident light data D 620 for 32 lines per frame serially in the order in which the pixels are arranged. The four frame delay memories, 621 a to 624 a and 621 b to 624 b , are provided to introduce data delays; by so doing, for each pixel g of interest, incident light data for five frames can be stored simultaneously in the memory banks 625 A to 625 E. The four frame delay memories, 621 a to 624 a and 621 b to 624 b , are each a FIFO having a capacity of 31 (=32−1) lines or 15 (=16−1) lines, respectively. The selectors 621 s to 624 s select the frame delay memories 621 a to 624 a or 621 b to 624 b according to the operation mode of the camera. The readout of one frame from the sensor 53 is performed not on the entire imaging surface S2, but only on the effective light receiving region (a zonal image) Ae, comprising a portion of the imaging surface S2, as shown in FIG. 7, to achieve high speed reading. The number of pixels (i.e., the number of lines GL) in the shift direction (vertical direction) of the effective light receiving region Ae is “32” in the standard mode, but it is set to “16”, “64”, etc. according to the operation mode. The effective light receiving region Ae shifts by a prescribed number of pixels per frame as the slit ray U is deflected (scanned). The number of shifts, GS, per frame is equal to one pixel in the standard mode, but it is set equal to two pixels for other operation modes. As described above, the number of lines, GL, and the number of shifts, GS, of the effective light receiving region Ae are changed according to the mode. The control for changing these parameters is accomplished by the system controller 61 outputting instruction signals to the driver 55 responsible for the measuring sensor 53 . The driver 55 drives the sensor 53 by controlling the number of lines, GL, and the number of shifts, GS, of the effective light receiving region Ae based on the instruction signals from the system controller 61 . The method of reading only a portion of the image captured by a CCD area sensor is disclosed in Japanese Patent Unexamined Publication No. 7-174536, and the same method is used in the present embodiment to read only the effective light receiving region Ae from the sensor 53 and also to read only the necessary lines in the effective light receiving region Ae. An outline of the method will be described with reference to FIG. 8 . Until the starting line of the effective light receiving region Ae of the sensor 53 is reached, the accumulated charges are dumped into overflow drains OD. In the effective light receiving region Ae, a one-shift signal is input to transfer gates, and the charges in the lowermost vertical register are read into the bottom horizontal register HRG; thereafter, by application of a horizontal shift signal, images are output one at a time. Charges accumulated after the last line of the effective light receiving region Ae are dumped into the overflow drains OD. Accordingly, in an operation mode in which every other line is read out, control is performed so that charges on every other line are dumped into the overflow drains OD during the reading of the effective light receiving region Ae. Controlling the number of shifts, GS, of the effective light receiving region Ae is accomplished by shifting the starting line of the effective light receiving region Ae accordingly. In a mode in which every pair of two adjacent lines are added together, for example, in a high sensitivity mode, the horizontal register HRG is read out after inputting two shift signals to the transfer gates TG. When reading out the sensor 53 , if the number of lines, GL, of the effective light receiving region Ae is “32”, the 31-line delay outputs from the frame delay memories 621 a to 624 a are selected, and if the number of lines, GL, is “16”, the 15-line delay outputs from the frame delay memories 621 b to 624 b are selected. Further, when a mode in which the number of lines, GL, of the effective light receiving region Ae is set to “64” is included, frame delay memories for 63-line delays are also provided, and provisions are made to select their outputs. The incident light data D 620 of the pixel g of interest, output from the AD converter 620 , is compared, after being delayed by two frames, with the maximum value of the past incident light data D 620 of the same pixel g stored in the memory bank 625 C. When the delayed incident light data D 620 (the output of the frame delay memory 622 a or 622 b ) is greater than the maximum value of the past, the output of the AD converter 620 and the outputs of the frame delay memories 621 a to 624 a or 621 b to 624 b at that instant in time are stored in the respective memory banks 625 A to 625 E, thus updating the contents of the memory banks 625 A to 625 E. At the same time, the frame number FN corresponding to the incident light data D 620 stored in the memory bank 625 C is stored in the memory bank 625 F. More specifically, when the amount of incident light on the pixel g of interest reaches a maximum in the n-th frame (n<N), then data of the (n+2)th frame is stored in the memory bank 625 A, data of the (n+1)th frame is stored in the memory bank 625 B, data of the n-th frame is stored in the memory bank 625 C, data of the (n−1)th frame is stored in the memory bank 625 D, data of the (n−2)th frame is stored in the memory bank 625 E, and n is stored in the memory bank 625 F. Next, the operation of the three-dimensional camera 2 and host 3 will be described along with the measuring procedure. The following description assumes the number of measuring sampling points to be 200×231. That is, the number of pixels along the slit length direction on the imaging surface S2 is 231, and the effective number of frames, N, is 200. By viewing the color monitor image displayed on the LCD 21 , the user (operator) determines the position and orientation of the camera to set the angle of view. At this time, zooming is performed, if needed. In the three-dimensional camera 2 , the iris adjustment for the color sensor 54 is not performed, and the color monitor image is displayed by controlling the exposure using an electronic shutter function. This is to admit as much incident light as possible into the sensor 53 by opening the iris aperture. FIG. 9 is a diagram showing the flow of data in the three-dimensional camera 2 , FIG. 10 is a diagram showing the flow of data in the host 3 , and FIG. 11 is a diagram showing the relationship between each point in the optical system and the object Q. In accordance with the angle of view selection, i.e., zooming operation, performed by the user, a variator section 514 in the zoom unit 51 is moved. Further, manual or automatic focusing is performed by moving a focusing section 512 . During the focusing process, an approximate object distance d 0 is measured. In response to such lens movements at the light receiving side, the amount of movement for the variator lens 422 at the projection side is calculated by an arithmetic circuit (not shown) and, based on the result of the calculation, the variator lens 422 is moved in a controlled manner. The system controller 61 reads the output (feed amount Ed) of a focusing encoder 59 A and the output (zoom calibration value fp) of a zooming encoder 60 A via the lens controller 58 . Within the system controller 61 , a distortion aberration table T1, a principal point position table T2, and an image distance table T3 are referenced, and imaging condition data appropriate to the feed amount Ed and zoom calibration value fp is output to the host 3 . The imaging condition data here refers to distortion aberration parameters (lens distortion correction coefficients d1 and d2), front principal point position FH, and image distance b. The front principal point position FH is expressed as the distance between the front end point F of the zoom unit 51 and the front principal point H. Since the front end point F is fixed, the front principal point H can be determined by the front principal point position FH. The system controller 61 determines the output (laser intensity) of the semiconductor laser 41 and the deflection conditions (scan start angle, scan end angle, and deflection angular velocity) of the slit ray U by computation. First, assuming that a plane object is located at an approximate object distance d 0 , the projection angle is set so that the reflected light is received at the center of the sensor 53 . The pulsed lasing for laser intensity computation hereinafter described is produced for this projection angle. Next, the laser intensity is computed. In the computation of the laser intensity, safety precautions are essential as it may affect a human body. First, pulsed lasing is produced with a minimum intensity LDmin, and the output of the sensor 53 is latched. The ratio between the latched signal [Son(LDmin)] and the optimum level Styp is calculated to set a tentative laser intensity LD1. LD1=LDmin×Styp/MAX[Son(LDmin)] where MAX[Son(LDmin)] is the maximum latched value among the sensed pixels. Next, pulsed lasing is again produced this time with the laser intensity LD 1 , and the output of the sensor 53 is latched. If the latched signal [Son(LD1)] is equal or close to the optimum level Styp, then LD1 is determined as the laser intensity LDs. Otherwise, a tentative laser intensity LD1 is set using the laser intensity LD1 and MAX[Son(LD1)], and the output of the sensor 53 is compared with the optimum level Styp. The process of tentative setting of the laser intensity and verification of its appropriateness is repeated until the output of the sensor 53 is brought within tolerance limits. Here, the output of the sensor 53 is latched with respect to the entire imaging surface S2. The reason is that if passive distance computation by means of AF is used, it is difficult to estimate the incident position of the slit ray U with high accuracy. The CCD integration time in the sensor 53 is one field time (for example, {fraction (1/60)} second), which is longer than the integration time at the time of actual measurement. Therefore, by pulsed lasing, the sensor output equivalent to that at the time of actual measurement is obtained. Next, the object distance d is determined by triangulation from the projection angle and the incident position of the slit ray U at the time when the laser intensity is determined. Finally, the deflection conditions are computed based on the thus-determined object distance d. When computing the deflection conditions, an offset, doff, in the Z direction (see FIG. 24) between the back principal point H′ of the light receiving system as the reference point for measuring the object distance d and the start point A of the projecting light, is considered. Further, an overscan by a prescribed amount (for example, an amount equivalent to 8 pixels) is performed in order to secure the same measurable distance range d′ at edge portions in the scanning direction as at the center portion. The scan start angle th1, the scan end angle th2, and the deflection angular velocity ω are expressed by the following equations. th1=tan −1 [β×pv ( np /2+8)+ L )/( d+doff )]×180 /p th2=tan −1 [−β×pv ( np/ 2+8)+ L )/( d+doff )]×180 /p ω=( th 1 −th 2)/ np where β: Image magnification (=d/effective focal distance freal) pv: Pixel pitch np: Effective pixel count along Y direction on imaging surface S2 L: Baseline length Using the thus computed conditions, actual lasing is produced to scan the object Q (slit projection), and measurement data (slit image data) D 62 for five frames per pixel, obtained by the output processing circuit 52 , is sent to the host 3 . At the same time, apparatus information D 10 regarding the deflection conditions (deflection control data), the specifications of the sensor 53 , etc. is also sent to the host 3 . As shown in FIG. 10, the host 3 performs a slit centroid calculation #31, a distortion aberration correction calculation #32, a camera line of sight equation calculation #33, a slit plane equation calculation #34, and a three-dimensional position calculation #35, thereby computing the three-dimensional position (coordinates X, Y, Z) of each of the 200×231 sampling points. Each sampling point is located where the camera's line of sight (a straight line between the sampling point and the back principal point H′) intersects the split plane (the optical axis plane of the slit ray U irradiating the sampling point). FIG. 12 is a diagram showing the kinds of operation modes. Factors describing the performance of the measurement system 1 include: measuring speed QS which is proportional to the reciprocal of the time required for the measurement (shooting); measurement range QR which is the dynamic range in the depth direction (Z direction); resolution QD; sensitivity QB, and measurement area QE which is the dynamic range in the vertical direction (Y direction). These performance factors are determined by: the number of lines (the number of readout lines), GL, of the effective light receiving region Ae; the entire line width (readout line width), GW, of the effective light receiving region Ae; line spacing GT which is a value obtained by dividing the line width GW by the number of lines GL; the number of shifts, GS; and slit ray width GP (the width, w, of the slit ray U). When the line spacing GT is set to “2”, readout may be performed every other line, or readout may be performed after adding every two lines. Reading out after adding every two lines results in the high sensitivity mode. Trade-offs can be made between these various factors, to achieve different modes of operation that are suited to different situations. For instance, as the number of lines, GL, decreases, the readout speed increases, thereby increasing the measuring speed QS. When the line width GW is increased, the dynamic range in the depth direction (Z direction) increases, resulting in a wider measurement range QR. The resolution QD increases as the number of shifts, GS, decreases. Depending on which performance factor is given priority, the operation mode is selected from among the standard mode, high speed mode, wide Z mode, high sensitivity mode, high resolution mode, and high-speed wide Z mode. Each operation mode has various variations of its own. The operation of the measurement system 1 will now be described, focusing on differences between each operation mode. FIG. 13 is a flowchart illustrating an outline of the operation of the measurement system 1 , and FIG. 14 is a flowchart illustrating a mode setting process. In FIG. 13, first an initialization step is performed (#11). When mode setting operation is carried out, via operation of the mode setting buttons 22 - 24 , the operation mode is changed (#12, 13). When a measurement start operation is carried out, the operation mode setting appropriate to the operation is performed (#14, 15). After that, the measurement is performed in the thus-set operation mode (#16). In FIG. 14, parameters corresponding to the operation mode set by the operation of the buttons 22 - 24 are read out (#21). The parameters include the reading width (the effective light receiving region Ae), the line spacing GT, the number of shifts, GS, and the selection or nonselection of the high sensitivity mode, and these parameters are output to the driver 55 (#22). The parameter indicating the selection or nonselection of the high sensitivity mode is used when the line spacing GT is set to “2” and when the setting is made so that the readout is performed after adding every two lines. Instead of outputting this parameter, a signal indicating the kind of operation mode may be output. In that case, conversion must be performed within the driver 55 so that the operation appropriate to the operation mode is performed. Based on the number of lines, GL, either the frame delay memories 621 a to 624 a or the frame memories 621 b to 624 b are selected by the selectors 621 c to 624 c (#23). The width, w, of the slit ray U and its scanning speed are set in accordance with the operation mode (#24). If the operation mode is the wide Z mode or the high-speed wide Z mode, the iris aperture is decreased (#25). That is, in the wide Z mode or the high-speed wide Z mode, the measuring distance range is wide and focusing must be achieved over the wide range. Decreasing the aperture serves to increase the depth of field, which facilitates focusing. The above processing is performed by the system controller 61 . Typical examples of each operation mode will be described below. The standard mode is the mode in which the measuring speed QS, the measurement range QR, the resolution QD, the sensitivity QB, and the measurement area QE are all set to standard conditions. In the standard mode, the number of lines, GL, is set to “32”, the line width GW to “32”, the line spacing GT to “1”, the number of shifts, GS, to “1”, and the slit ray width GP to “5”, respectively, as shown in FIG. 12 . In the standard mode, the measuring speed QS, the measurement range QR, the resolution QD, the sensitivity QB, and the measurement area QE are all set to “1”. Other operation modes are named according to which performance factor is emphasized, compared with the standard performance factors of the standard mode. The high speed mode is the mode in which the measurement is performed at high speed. Generally speaking, in the high speed mode, one or more of the foregoing parameters is varied relative to the standard mode. For instance, the number of lines, GL, can be reduced by one half compared with the standard mode. Alternatively, or in addition, the number of shifts, GS, can be doubled. Further, there are two ways of setting the line width GW: in one approach, the line width GW remains the same as that in the standard mode, and in the other, the line width GW is reduced by one half. When the number of lines, GL, is reduced, the time required to read out the incident light data for one frame becomes shorter. Accordingly, the frame shift cycle can be shortened, shortening the time required to make measurements over the entire screen. When the number of shifts, GS, is increased, the number of frames required to make measurements over the entire screen is reduced, resulting in the shortening of the time required to make measurements over the entire screen. In either case, since the effective light receiving region Ae moves at high speed, the slit ray U also must be moved at high speed. As shown in FIG. 12, there are five variations in the high speed mode, high speed mode 1 to high speed mode 5 , depending on the combination of the number of lines, GL, the number of shifts, GS, etc. It is also possible to set other high speed modes by suitably setting the parameters. FIG. 15 is a diagram showing the effective light receiving region Ae (readout region) of the sensor 53 in high speed mode 1 , FIG. 16 is a diagram showing the effective light receiving region Ae in high speed mode 2 , FIG. 17 is a diagram showing the effective light receiving region Ae in high speed mode 3 , and FIG. 18 is a diagram showing the effective light receiving region Ae in high speed mode 4 . In high speed mode 1 shown in FIG. 15, the number of pixels in the effective light receiving region Ae in the shift direction thereof is “16”. The scanning speed of the slit ray U is controlled at two times that in the standard mode. High speed mode 1 has the following features compared with the standard mode: Readout time: ½ (Measuring speed is doubled) Measurement range: ½ Resolution: Same That is, high speed mode 1 is effective when placing emphasis on the resolution QD rather than the measurement range QR. In high speed mode 2 shown in FIG. 16, the line width GW of the effective light receiving region Ae, that is, the pixel width in the shift direction, is “32”, but the line spacing GT is “2”, that is, every other pixel is skipped; therefore, the number of lines, GL, that is, the number of pixels which provide incident light data, is reduced by half to “16”. The slit ray width GP in high speed mode 2 is “10”, but since half of that is skipped, the number of pixels which provide incident light data is “5”. High speed mode 2 has the following features compared with the standard mode: [0074] Readout time: ½ Measurement range: Same Resolution: ½ That is, high speed mode 2 is effective when placing emphasis on the measurement range QR rather than the resolution QD. [0075] In high speed mode 3 shown in FIG. 17, the number of lines, GL, and the line width GW of the effective light receiving region Ae are both “32”, but the number of shifts, GS, is “2”, so that the effective light receiving region Ae is shifted by two lines at a time. This reduces the number of input frames, and the total measuring time is thus reduced. The slit ray U is also controlled to move by two lines when switching from one frame to the next. High speed mode 3 has the following features compared with the standard mode: Readout time: ½ Measurement range: Same Resolution: ½ In high speed mode 4 shown in FIG. 18, the number of lines, GL, and the line width GW of the effective light receiving region Ae are both “32”, and the number of shifts, GS, is “1”, but measurements are made, not over the entire area of the imaging surface S2 of the sensor 53 , but over only portions thereof. The measurement area QE, therefore, becomes smaller. The scanning range of the slit ray U is also set accordingly. Denoting the number of frames in the standard mode by N, the number of frames in high speed mode 4 by N′, and defining R=N′/N, then the features of high speed mode 4 compared with the standard mode are expressed using R, as follows: Readout time: R Measurement range: Same Resolution: Same Measurement area: R To implement high speed mode 4 , provisions are made in step #22 in the flowchart of FIG. 14 so that the start frame number and end frame number are output to the driver 55 , and also the scan start position and scan end position of the slit ray U are set. Other high speed modes can be obtained by combining aspects of any two or more of the foregoing modes. For example, the table of FIG. 12 illustrates high speed mode 5 , which is effectively a combination of mode 2 and mode 3 . In this mode, the line spacing GT=2 and the number of lines GL=16, as in mode 2 . In addition, the number of shifts per readout GS=2, as in mode 3 . Consequently, the measuring speed Q2 is four times that which is obtained in the standard mode. Other high speed modes can be combined in such a manner to achieve similar results. Next, the wide Z mode will be described. The wide Z mode is the operation mode that provides a wider measurement range in the depth direction. In the wide Z mode, the line width GW is doubled compared with the standard mode. FIG. 19 is a diagram showing the effective light receiving region Ae in wide Z mode 1 , and FIG. 20 is a diagram showing the effective light receiving region Ae in wide Z mode 2 . In wide Z mode 1 shown in FIG. 19, the line width GW of the effective light receiving region Ae is “64”, but since every other pixel is skipped, the number of pixels which provide incident light data is “32”. The slit ray width GP in wide Z mode 1 is “10”, but since half of that is skipped, the number of pixels which provide incident light data is “5”. Wide Z mode 1 has the following features compared with the standard mode: Readout time: Same Measurement range: Doubled Resolution: ½ That is, wide Z mode 1 is effective when it is desired to increase the measurement range QR. In wide Z mode 2 shown in FIG. 20, the number of lines, GL, and the line width GW of the effective light receiving region Ae are both “64”, which is two times as great as in the standard mode. The scanning speed of the slit ray U is one half of that in the standard mode. Wide Z mode 2 has the following features compared with the standard mode. Readout time: Doubled Measurement range: Doubled Resolution: Same Next, the high sensitivity mode will be described. The high sensitivity mode is the operation mode that increases the sensitivity of the sensor 53 . FIG. 21 is a diagram showing the effective light receiving region Ae in the high sensitivity mode. In FIG. 21, the line width GW of the effective light receiving region Ae is “32”, but since every pair of two adjacent pixels are added together, the number of lines, GL, that is, the number of pixels which provide incident light data, is “16”. The slit ray width GP in the high sensitivity mode is “10”, but since every two pixels are added together, the number of pixels which provide incident light data is “5”. The scanning speed of the slit ray U is two times that in the standard mode. The high sensitivity mode has the following features compared with the standard mode: Readout time: ½ Measurement range: Same Resolution: ½ Sensitivity: Doubled Next, the high resolution mode will be described. The high resolution mode is the operation mode that provides a higher resolution. FIG. 22 is a diagram showing the effective light receiving region Ae in the high resolution mode. In FIG. 22, the number of lines, GL, and the line width GW of the effective light receiving region Ae are both “32”, but the number of shifts, GS, is ½. That is, the scanning speed of the slit ray U is one half of that in the standard mode, and the amount of frame shift is one pixel for every two frames. Since data is read out every time the slit ray U moves by one half the pixel pitch pv, the timing at which the slit ray U passes each pixel can be detected with accuracy that is twice as high. The high resolution mode has the following features compared with the standard mode: Readout time: Doubled Measurement range: Same Resolution: Doubled To implement the high resolution mode, the setting should be made in step #22 in the flowchart of FIG. 14 so that the amount of frame shift is one pixel for readout of two frames, and in step 24 so that the slit ray U moves by half pixel pitch for every readout of one frame. In the output processing circuit 62 , the frame delay memories 621 a to 624 a are selected, which is the same as in the standard mode. Controlling the number of lines, GL, the line width GW, and the number of shifts, GS, of the effective light receiving region Ae of the sensor 53 is accomplished by the system controller 61 outputting corresponding instruction signals to the driver 55 . Controlling the scanning speed (deflection speed) of the slit ray U is accomplished by the system controller 61 , which outputs an instruction signal to the driving system 46 and thereby drives the galvanometer mirror 43 . The width, w, of the slit ray U is switched between 5-pixel width and 10-pixel width on the imaging surface S2 of the sensor 53 by changing the variator lens 422 or the collimator lens 421 , or by varying their positions. According to the above embodiment, when one desires to shorten the measuring time, or wants an increased depth of measurement or desires to increase the resolution or sensitivity, the measurement appropriate to the needs can be accomplished by switching the operation mode according to the purpose. Furthermore, in selecting the operation mode, various settings can be made by considering the measurement conditions and the tradeoffs involved, for example, an increased measuring time is allowed, a decreased depth of measurement is allowed, a decreased resolution is allowed, a decreased measurement area is allowed, and so on. In the above embodiment, the sharing of functions between the three-dimensional camera 2 and the host 3 can be changed in various ways. Further, the three-dimensional camera 2 and the host 3 may be combined into one unit, for example, by incorporating the functions of the host 3 into the three-dimensional camera 2 . The above embodiment has been described dealing with the case where the slit ray U is scanned, but the present invention is also applicable in cases where a spot beam is scanned in a two dimensional manner. In the above embodiment, the setting details of the operation mode, the details of combinations, the configuration of the output processing circuit 62 and the processing details, as well as the configuration of the entire measurement system 1 or a portion thereof, its circuitry, the processing details, the sequence of processing, processing timings, the setting details and set values, etc., can be modified or changed as necessary without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention.

A three-dimensional measurement device employs a slit ray projection technique to optically determine a three-dimensional image. The device offers a choice in operating modes between high-speed measurement, high-resolution measurement and large dynamic range in the depth direction, to accommodate various situations. The different modes of operation are achieved by selectively modifying one or more of the scanning speed of a projected reference beam, the readout speed of a photosensor, the line width or line spacing of the photosensor, and the number of lines per image frame.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION AND CLAIM OF PRIORITY The present application is related to and claims the benefit under 35 §119(a) of a Korean patent application filed in the Korean Intellectual Property Office on Apr. 22, 2014 and assigned Serial No. 10-2014-0048132, the entire disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. TECHNICAL HELD The present disclosure relates generally to a method and apparatus for controlling access to location information about a User Equipment (UE), and more particularly, to a method and apparatus for controlling access to location information about a UE capable of executing an application, such as a smart device. BACKGROUND The Internet, which is a human centered connectivity network where humans generate and consume information, is now evolving to the Internet of Things (IoT) where distributed entities, such as things, exchange and process information without human intervention. The Internet of Everything (IoE), which is a combination of the IoT technology and the Big Data processing technology through connection with a cloud server, has emerged. As technology elements, such as “sensing technology”, “wired/wireless communication and network infrastructure”, “service interface technology”, and “Security technology” have been demanded for IoT implementation, a sensor network, a Machine-to-Machine (M2M) communication, Machine Type Communication (MTC), and so forth have been recently researched. Such an IoT environment may provide intelligent Internet technology services that create anew value to human life by collecting and analyzing data generated among connected things. IoT may be applied to a variety of fields including smart home, smart building, smart city, smart car or connected cars, smart grid, health care, smart appliances and advanced medical services through convergence and combination between existing Information Technology (IT) and various industrial applications. Owing to the recent dramatic development of information and communication technology and hardware/software technology for mobile communication terminals, various types of terminals such as mobile communication terminal, Personal Computer (PC), and the like are configured to execute various functions (programs or applications) through a high-speed mobile communication network. Particularly, smart devices such as ‘smartphone’ and ‘tablet PC’ are popular. A variety of applications can be installed or deleted freely in a smart device. Applications installed in a smartphone acquire and use location information. For example, a specific application of a UE can acquire location information about the UE and transmit the location information to a server of a network and the server provides a service based on the location information about the UE. However, since the location history of the UE is stored. in the server, the location of a user may be disclosed unintentionally. Because other personal information can be derived from the location information, the location information about the user (that is, the UE) is important information requiring security rather than simple location information. However, users are not aware on the whole that various applications acquire their location information and their personal information can be disclosed from the location information. When an application is installed, a conventional smartphone notifies a user that the application acquires the user's location information or displays a query asking the user whether to allow the application to acquire the location information, on a User Interface (UI). However, since the notification or query regarding location information acquisition is one of mandatory steps for application installation, users tend not to pay proper attention to the notification or query. Moreover, with (not specific application-level control but) Operating System (OS)-level control of access to location information about a UE or control of access to location information at the moment of installing an application, various environments that may be generated during execution of the application are not coped with appropriately as well as the characteristics of applications having various requirements for location information are not reflected. The above information is presented as background information only to assist with an understanding of the present disclosure. No determination has been made, and no assertion is made, as to whether any of the above might be applicable as prior art with regard to the present disclosure. SUMMARY An aspect of the present disclosure is to address at least the above-mentioned problems and/or disadvantages and to provide at least the advantages described below. To address the above-discussed deficiencies, it is a primary object to provide a method and apparatus for controlling access to location information, which reflects characteristics of applications having various requirements or appropriately copes with an environment change of a user executing an application. Another aspect of the present disclosure is to provide a method and apparatus for, when a user does not want disclosure of his or her location information, restricting access to the location information and facilitating settings regarding the location information in various cases of using applications. Another aspect of the present disclosure is to provide a method and apparatus for controlling access to location information on an application basis. Another aspect of the present disclosure is to provide a User Interface (UI) for setting whether to allow access to location information according to an environment change of a User Equipment (UE) or a user. Another aspect of the present disclosure is to provide a UI for setting location information access, which enables immediate handling of an attempt to access to location information during execution of an application. In accordance with an aspect of the present disclosure, a User Equipment (UE) is provided for controlling access to location information about the UE. The UE includes a controller configured, upon sensing access to the location information about the UE by an application operating in an operating system (OS) of the UE, to match a rule defining access authorization of the application to the location information, and to determine whether to allow or deny access of the application to the location information based on the access authorization, and a display configured to display a screen under control of the controller. In accordance with another aspect of the present disclosure, a UE is provided for controlling access to location information about the UE. The UE includes a controller configured, upon sensing access to the location information about the UE by an application operating in an OS of the UE, to match a rule defining access authorization of the application to the location information, and to determine whether to allow or deny access of the application to the location information based on the access authorization, and a display configured to display a screen under control of the controller. In the absence of the rule, the controller controls the display to output a notification indicating an attempt of the application to access the location information. In accordance with another aspect of the present disclosure, a method is provided for controlling access to location information about a UE, performed by the UE. The method includes, upon sensing access to the location information about the UE by an application operating in an OS of the UE, matching a rule defining access authorization of the application to the location information, and determining whether to allow or deny access of the application to the location information based on the access authorization. In accordance with another aspect of the present disclosure, a method is provided for controlling access to location information about a UE, performed by the UE. The method includes, upon sensing access to the location information about the UE by an application operating in an OS of the matching a rule defining access authorization of the application to the location information, and determining whether to allow or deny access of the application to the location information based on the access authorization. In the absence of the rule, the method further includes outputting a notification indicating an attempt of the application to access the location information. Before undertaking the DETAILED DESCRIPTION below, it may be advantageous to set forth definitions of certain words and phrases used throughout this patent document: the terms “include” and “comprise,” as well as derivatives thereof, mean inclusion without limitation; the term “or,” is inclusive, meaning and/or; the phrases “associated with” and “associated therewith,” as well as derivatives thereof, may mean to include, be included within, interconnect with, contain, be contained within, connect to or with, couple to or with, be communicable with, cooperate with, interleave, juxtapose, be proximate to, be bound to or with, have, have a property of, or the like; and the term “controller” means any device, system or part thereof that controls at least one operation, such a device may be implemented in hardware, firmware or software, or some combination of at least two of the same. It should be noted that the functionality associated with any particular controller may be centralized or distributed, whether locally or remotely. Definitions for certain words and phrases are provided throughout this patent document, those of ordinary skill in the art should understand that in many, if not most instances, such definitions apply to prior, as well as future uses of such defined words and phrases. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS For a more complete understanding of the present disclosure and its advantages, reference is now made to the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which like reference numerals represent like parts: FIG. 1 illustrates a method for controlling access to location information about a User Equipment (UE) according to various embodiments of the present disclosure; FIG. 2A illustrates an exemplary screen that indicates an attempt of an application to access location information by a notification bar in a UE according to various embodiments of the present disclosure; FIG. 2B illustrates a screen that, when an application is sensed as attempting to access location information, notifies a user of the access attempt according to various embodiments of the present disclosure; FIG. 2C illustrates a screen that, when an application is sensed as attempting to access location information, notifies a user of the access attempt according to various embodiments of the present disclosure; FIG. 2D illustrates a screen for controlling access to location information using a location condition, when an application is sensed as attempting to access location information according to various embodiments of the present disclosure; FIG. 2E illustrates a screen for controlling access to location information using a time condition, when an application is sensed as attempting to access location information according to various embodiments of the present disclosure; FIG. 2F illustrates a screen for controlling access to location information using an event condition, when an application is sensed as attempting to access location information according to various embodiments of the present disclosure; FIG. 2G illustrates a screen for controlling access to location information using an application state condition, when an application is sensed as attempting to access location information according to various embodiments of the present disclosure; FIG. 2H illustrates a screen for controlling access to location information using a UE state condition, when an application is sensed as attempting to access location information according to various embodiments of the present disclosure; FIG. 3A illustrates a screen that displays a location information access history of an application on a map according to various embodiments of the present disclosure; FIG. 3B illustrates a screen for controlling access of an application to location information, for a point selected on a map according to various embodiments of the present disclosure; FIG. 3C illustrates a screen for controlling access of an application to location information, for a point selected on a map according to various embodiments of the present disclosure; FIG. 3D illustrates a screen for controlling access to location information using a location condition, for a point selected on a map according to various embodiments of the present disclosure; FIG. 3E illustrates a screen for controlling access to location information using a time condition, for a point selected on a map according to various embodiments of the present disclosure; FIG. 3F illustrates a screen for controlling access to location information using an event condition, for a point selected on a map according to various embodiments of the present disclosure; FIG. 3G illustrates a screen for controlling access to location information using an application state condition, for a point selected on a map according to various embodiments of the present disclosure; FIG. 3H illustrates a screen for controlling access to location information using a UE state condition, for a point selected on a map according to various embodiments of the present disclosure; FIG. 3I illustrates a screen that displays a location information access history of a specific application on a map according to various embodiments of the present disclosure; FIG. 3J illustrates a screen on which one or more points displayed on a map are selected to control access of an application to location information according to various embodiments of the present disclosure; FIG. 4A illustrates a menu for setting location information access on an application basis, which is displayed in a UE according to various embodiments of the present disclosure; FIG. 4B illustrates a screen for setting location information access on an application basis according to various embodiments of the present disclosure; FIG. 4C illustrates a screen for checking and changing location information access settings on an application basis according to various embodiments of the present disclosure; FIG. 4D illustrates a screen for checking location information access settings on an application basis using a map according to various embodiments of the present disclosure; and FIG. 5 illustrates a UE according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. Throughout the drawings, like reference numerals will be understood to refer to like parts, components, and structures. DETAILED DESCRIPTION FIGS. 1 through 5 , discussed below, and the various embodiments used to describe the principles of the present disclosure in this patent document are by way of illustration only and should not be construed in any way to limit the scope of the disclosure. Those skilled in the art will understand that the principles of the present disclosure may be implemented in any suitably arranged wireless communication device. The terms and words used in the following description and claims are not limited to the bibliographical meanings, but, are merely used by the inventor to enable a clear and consistent understanding of the disclosure. Accordingly, it should be apparent to those skilled in the art that the following description of exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure is provided for illustration purpose only and not for the purpose of limiting the disclosure as defined by the appended claims and their equivalents. It is to be understood that the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, reference to “a component surface” includes reference to one or more of such surfaces. By the term “substantially” it is meant that the recited characteristic, parameter, or value need not be achieved exactly, but that deviations or variations, including for example, tolerances, measurement error, measurement accuracy limitations and other factors known to those of skill in the art, may occur in amounts that do not preclude the effect the characteristic was intended to provide. A User Equipment (UE) is a device capable of executing an application. The term ‘UE’ can be replaced with ‘Mobile Station (MS),’ ‘Mobile Equipment (ME),’ ‘device,’ ‘terminal,’ or the like. For example, a UE is a portable terminal such as a smartphone or a tablet Personal Computer (PC) or a terminal such as a desktop computer or a laptop computer. The present disclosure provides a method for controlling access to location information in a UE that executes an application. An application, which is also called app, refers to a program operating in an Operating System (OS) of a UE such as a smartphone. The OS of the UE is, for example, iOS of APPLE, ANDRIOD of GOOGLE, WINDOWS PHONE of MICROSOFT, or SYMBIAN. To offer use convenience in regard to control of an application's access to location information, acquisition (and sharing) of location information about a UE can be automatically restricted according to a predetermined decision condition. Specifically, a user creates a location information access rule using the spatial range of the UE (for example, an arbitrary point from a current location or a distance to the UE or a person), a time zone, and the user's activity or event (scheduling information about the UE, such as a conference or appointment) in combination, and access to location information is allowed or denied according to the rule. However, this method causes user inconvenience in that the user should create the rule in advance and if the user wants or does not want to share the location information (without following the current rule), the user should directly enable or disable the location sharing function of an OS or an application. Moreover, access of a specific application to location information may not be controlled because there is no specified method for controlling access to location information on an application basis. For example, if access to mobility information about a UE is restricted at an OS level, even an application requiring acquisition of the mobility information, such as a navigation application is not executed normally. The present disclosure provides a method for determining whether an application executed in a UE is authorized to access location information about the UE each time the application attempts to access the location information and, when needed, providing a user with a notification so that the application may access the location information based on the user's selection. FIG. 1 illustrates a method for controlling access to location information about a UE according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. In step 105 , when the UE (an OS or a controller operating the OS in the UE) senses access of an application to location information in step 100 , the UE determines whether there is a rule that defines access authorization of the application for the location information (that is, a matching ‘location information access rule’). The UE uses application identification information in determining the presence of the location information access rule. Optionally, the UE further uses at least one of location information, time information, event information, application state information, and LIE state information in determining the presence of the location information access rule. For example, the UE determines whether there is a rule matching an identifier (ID) of the application, a current location, and a current time among stored rules. TABLE 1 App ID Location Time Allow or Deny 0001 location 1 11:00 N 0001 location 2 12:00 Y 0001 location 3 13:00 Y 0001 location 4 17:00 Y [Table 1] illustrates an exemplary data structure of a location information access rule that is stored in the UE. While the location information access rule specifies App ID, location information, time information, and ‘Allow’ or ‘Deny’ in [Table 1], all information except for App ID and ‘Allow’ or ‘Deny’ may be selectively included. In step 110 , in the presence of the matching location information access rule for the application in step 105 , the UE determines whether the location information access rule indicates ‘Allow’. In step 125 , when the location information access rule indicates ‘Allow’ in step 110 , the UE allows the application to access the location information in step 125 . In certain embodiments, the UE provides the location information directly to the application. When the location information access rule does not indicate ‘Allow’ in step 110 , the UE ignores or blocks the attempt of the application to access the location information and does not perform any further operation. In step 115 , in the absence of the matching location information access rule for the application in step 105 , the UE notifies a user of the attempt of the application to the location information. The UE outputs an icon in a notification bar or a pop-up window querying about whether to allow the access to location information. In step 125 , when the user selects to allow the access to the location information in step 115 , the UE allows the application to access the location information. In certain embodiments, the UE provides the location information directly to the application. When the user does not select to allow the access to the location information in step 120 , the UE ignores (blocks) the attempt of the application to access the location information. When the user selects to allow the application to access the location information in step 120 , the UE generates a new rule for the application, which indicates ‘Allow’ or ‘Deny’ in regard to location information access of the application. The new rule may include information about the application and information indicating ‘Allow’ or ‘Deny’ regarding access to the location information. This rule is used as a criterion based on which it is determined whether to allow later access of the application to location information. The rule further includes, as additional information, at least one of current location information about the UE, current time information, current event information, application state information, and UE state information. The UE determines whether to allow or deny access of the application to the location information based on the additional information. The flowchart illustrated in FIG. 1 includes all steps needed to describe all possible embodiments of the present disclosure. Therefore, it is to be understood that it is not necessary to perform all of the steps in implementing the present disclosure. FIGS. 2A to 2H illustrate exemplary UIs through which a UE asks a user whether to allow access of an application to location information and generates a rule, upon sensing the access of the application to the location information, according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 2A illustrates a screen on which a UE notifies a user of an attempt of an application to access location information by a notification bar according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. Referring to FIG. 2A , when the UE (an OS or a controller operating the OS in the UE) senses an attempt of an application to access location information, the UE provides a notification to a user by outputting an icon (for example, a tack-shaped icon) 201 in a notification bar 200 displayed at a part of a screen displayed on a display. The user can immediately deal with the attempt of the application to access the location information during execution of the application. When the user views the icon 201 , the user moves to a location information access control screen by drawing down the notification bar 200 . When the user does not want disclosure of his or her location information, the user restricts access to the location information and otherwise, the user allows access to the location information. FIG. 2B illustrates a screen for controlling access of an application to location information, when the application is sensed as attempting to access the location information according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. Referring to FIG. 2B , the control screen includes a plurality of elements by which to set ‘Allow’ or ‘Deny’ regarding location information access of a specific application (for example, ‘App 1 ’). The control screen includes a button 202 that toggles between ‘Allow’ and ‘Deny’ for location information access. The control screen further includes additional setting menus 204 , 206 , 208 , 210 , and 212 related to additional information that can be used as criteria based on which it is determined whether to allow location information access. Specifically, the control screen includes a ‘Location setting’ menu 204 for setting whether to allow location information access using location information as a condition, a ‘Time setting’ menu 206 for setting whether to allow location information access using time information as a condition, an ‘Event setting’ menu 208 for setting whether to allow location information access using scheduled event information of a user as a condition, an ‘App state setting’ menu 210 for setting whether to allow location information access using state information about the application as a condition, and a ‘Device state setting’ menu 212 for setting whether to allow location information access using state information about the UE as a condition. The user can set ‘Allow’ or ‘Deny’ for the location information access of the specific application (that is, ‘App 1 ’). In FIG. 2B , the toggling button 202 is set to ‘Allow,’ by way of example. In certain embodiments, the user creates or modifies a rule so that the specific application can be allowed to access the location information access. The user creates a rule that defines ‘Allow’ for location information access when specific conditions are satisfied by additionally selecting one or more of the additional setting menus 204 , 206 , 208 , 210 , and 212 . The selected one or more additional setting menus are conditions that should all be satisfied along with identification information about the application. The selected one or more additional setting menus are placed in an ‘AND’ relationship. For example, when the ‘Location setting’ menu 204 and the ‘Time setting’ menu 206 are selected, the application accesses the location information only when the LE is located at a location and time set as access allow conditions. FIG. 2C illustrates a screen for controlling access of an application to location information, when the application is sensed as attempting to access the location information according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. Referring to FIG. 2C , the control screen includes the same elements as the control screen illustrated in FIG. 2B , except that the toggling button 202 is set to ‘Deny.’ In certain embodiments, the user creates or modifies a rule so that location information access is denied for the specific application. The user creates or modifies a rule so that ‘Deny’ is defined for location information access, when specific conditions are satisfied by additionally selecting one or more of the additional setting menus 204 , 206 , 208 , 210 , and 212 . The selected one or more additional setting menus are conditions that should all be satisfied along with identification information about the application. That is, the selected one or more additional setting menus are placed in an ‘AND’ relationship. For example, if the ‘Location setting’ menu 204 and the ‘Time setting’ menu 206 are selected, the application may not be allowed to access the location information when the LIE is located at a location and time set as access deny conditions. While the following description is given on the assumption that location information access is ‘allowed’ as in FIG. 2B , the same thing applies to the case where location information access is ‘denied’ as in FIG. 2C . FIG. 2D illustrates a screen for controlling access to location information using a location condition, when an application is sensed as attempting to access location information according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. When location information is used as an access allow condition, for example, two options are available. The options are, for example, an “always at current location” option 214 and a “while staying at current location” option 216 . The “always at current location” option 214 allows access of a specific application to location information, when the UE is located at a point determined as a current location, irrespective of a date. The “while staying at current location” option 216 does not allow the application to access location information when the UE moves out of the current location and then returns to the current location. The ‘current location’ is an area within a predetermined threshold distance from a current location which has been set when the UE sets the access allow condition. For example, the UE determines an area within a radius of 100 m or 500 m from a point determined as a current location to correspond to ‘the current location.’ FIG. 2E illustrates a screen for controlling access to location information using a time condition, when an application is sensed as attempting to access location information according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. When time information is used as an access allow condition, for example, two options are available. The options are, for example, an “always at current time” option 218 and a “for 30 min from current time” option 220 . The “always at current time” option 218 allows access of a specific application to location information irrespective of a date, during a time determined as ‘the current time’ in the day. The ‘current time’ is a time period within a predetermined threshold time from a ‘current time’ which has been determined when the UE sets the access allow condition. For example, the UE determines a time period spanning 5 minutes before and after a time determined as a current time to correspond to ‘the current time.’ The above-described 30 min and 5 min are merely exemplary. Accordingly, other time values are applicable according to specific embodiments. FIG. 2F illustrates a screen for controlling access to location information using an event condition, when an application is sensed as attempting to access location information according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. When event information is used as an access allow condition, for example, two options are available. The options are, for example, an “always during conference” option 222 and an “always during travel” option 224 . The “always during conference” option 222 allows access of a specific application to location information, only when a current event is a ‘conference.’ An event such as ‘conference’ or ‘travel’ is an event set in a schedule management application or the like by the user. The location information access control screen of the present disclosure acquires event information in conjunction with the schedule management application of the UE and determines whether to allow or deny access or create or modify a rule to allow location information access, using the acquired event information. FIG. 2G illustrates a screen for controlling location information access using an application state condition, when an application is sensed as attempting to access location information according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. If application state information is used as an access allow condition, for example, two options are available. The options are, for example, a “foreground operation” option 226 and a “background operation” option 228 . The “foreground operation” option 226 allows access of a specific application to location information when the specific application operates in a displayed state (that is, a foreground state). The “background operation” option 228 allows access of a specific application to location information when the specific application operates in the background although it is not displayed on a display. FIG. 2H illustrates a screen for controlling access to location information using a UE state condition when an application is sensed as attempting to access location information according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. When UE state information is used as an access allow condition, for example, three options are available. The options are, for example, a “moving” option 230 , an “LCD ON” option 232 , and a “GPS ON” option 234 . The “moving” option 230 allows access of a specific application to location information, only during movement of the UE. The “LCD ON” option 232 allows access of a specific application to location information when a display (for example, a Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) unit) of the UE is turned on and is displaying a screen. The “GPS ON” option 234 allows access of a specific application to location information when a Global Positioning System (GPS) unit of the UE is operating. The user sets whether to allow or deny access that a specific application attempts to current location information by use of a location information access control screen provided by the UE and generates or modifies a rule using an access allow condition. FIGS. 3A to 3J are exemplary views illustrating UIs for controlling location information access of an application and managing a location information access rule, using a map according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 3A illustrates a screen that displays a location information access history of a specific application on a map according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. When the UE senses that the specific application accesses location information ( FIG. 2A ) and the user draws down a notification bar or selects the specific application on an application-based location information access control screen, the screen illustrated in FIG. 3A is output. An icon indicating the current location of the UE is displayed on the map. Referring to FIG. 3A , the UE outputs a map on which icons (for example, tack-shaped icons) are arranged at specific locations. The map indicates ‘Allow’ or ‘Deny’ for location information access of ‘App 1 ’ at time points displayed with the icons at the points indicated by the icons. For example, an icon 302 indicates that the application accessed location information at 12:00, an icon 304 indicates that the application accessed location information at 13:00, and an icon 306 indicates that the application accessed location information at 10:00. A point at which the application attempted but was not allowed to access location information is indicated by setting the shape or color of an icon corresponding to the point. The screen of FIG. 3A includes a ‘List’ button 300 . The button 300 includes a link to another screen. Upon selection of the button 300 , for example, a screen that displays a list of applications available for control of location information access or a screen that displays a list of locations at which ‘App 1 ’ has accessed location information is output. The user selects one or more icons by a touch 308 which is made on an icon indicating a point or dragged around the icon on a screen. Permission or denial of access to location information at points indicated by the selected icons be controlled as described below with reference to FIGS. 3B to 3J . FIG. 3B illustrates a screen for controlling access of an application to location information, for a point selected on a map according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. The control screen of FIG. 3B includes a plurality of elements by which to set ‘Allow’ or ‘Deny’ for location information access of a specific application (for example, ‘App 1 ’), for the points selected in FIG. 3A . The control screen includes a button 310 that toggles between ‘Allow’ and ‘Deny’ for location information access. The control screen further includes additional setting menus 312 , 314 , 316 , 318 , and 320 related to additional information that are used as rules for determining whether to allow or deny location information access. The control screen includes the ‘Location setting’ menu 312 that sets ‘Allow’ or ‘Deny’ using location information as a condition, the ‘Time setting’ menu 314 that sets ‘Allow’ or ‘Deny’ using time information as a condition, the ‘Event setting’ menu 316 that sets ‘Allow’ or ‘Deny’ using scheduled event information of a user as a condition, the ‘App state setting’ menu 318 that sets ‘Allow’ or ‘Deny’ using application state information as a condition, and the ‘Device state setting’ menu 320 that sets ‘Allow’ or ‘Deny’ using UE state information as a condition. The user set ‘Allow’ or ‘Deny’ for location information access of the specific application (‘App 1 ’). In FIG. 3B , the toggling button 310 is set to ‘Allow’, by way of example. In certain embodiments, the user generates or changes a rule to ‘Allow’ location information access of the specific application. The user creates a rule that defines ‘Allow’ for location information access, if specific conditions are satisfied by additionally selecting one or more of the additional setting menus 312 , 314 , 316 , 318 , and 320 . The selected one or more additional setting menus are conditions that should all be satisfied along with identification information about the application. The selected one or more additional setting menus are placed in an ‘AND’ relationship. For example, if the ‘Location setting’ menu 312 and the ‘Time setting’ menu 314 are selected, the application accesses the location information when the UE is located at a location and time set as access allow conditions. FIG. 3C illustrates a screen for controlling access of an application to location information, for a point selected on a map according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. Referring to FIG. 3C , the control screen includes the same elements as the control screen illustrated in FIG. 3B , except that a toggling button 322 is set to ‘Deny’. In certain embodiments, the user creates or modifies a rule so that the location information access of the specific application is denied. The user creates or modifies a rule to define ‘Deny’ for location information access, if specific conditions are satisfied by additionally selecting one or more of the additional setting menus 312 , 314 , 316 , 318 , and 320 . The selected one or more additional setting menus are conditions that should all be satisfied along with identification information about the application. The selected one or more additional setting menus are placed in an ‘AND’ relationship. For example, if the ‘Location setting’ menu 312 and the ‘Time setting’ menu 314 are selected, the application may not be allowed to access the location information when the LIE is located at a location and time set as access deny conditions. While the following description is given on the assumption that location information access is ‘allowed’ as in FIG. 3B , the same thing applies to the case where location information access is ‘denied’ as in FIG. 3C . FIG. 3D illustrates a screen for controlling access to location information using a location condition, for a point selected on a map according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. When location information is used as an access allow condition, for example, two options are available. The options re, for example, an “always at current location” option 324 and a “while staying at current location” option 326 . The “always at current location” option 324 allows access of a specific application to location information when the UE is located at a point determined as a current location, irrespective of a date. The “while staying at current location” option 326 does not allow location information access when the UE moves out of the current location and then returns to the current location. The ‘current location’ is an area within a predetermined threshold distance from a current location which has been determined when the UE sets the access allow condition. For example, the UE determines an area within a radius of 100 m or 500 m from a point determined as a current location to correspond to ‘the current location.’ FIG. 3E illustrates a screen for controlling access to location information using a time condition, for a point selected on a map according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. When time information is used as an access allow condition, for example, two options are available. The options are, for example, an “always at current time” option 328 and a “for 30 min from current time” option 330 . The “always at the current time” option 328 allows access of a specific application to location information irrespective of a date, during a time determined as ‘a current time’ in the day. The ‘current time’ is a time period within a predetermined threshold time from a current time which has been determined when the UE sets the access allow condition. For example, the UE determines a time period spanning 5 minutes before and after a time determined as a current time to correspond to ‘the current time.’ The above-described 30 min and 5 min are merely exemplary. Accordingly, other time values are applicable according to specific embodiments. FIG. 3F illustrates a screen for controlling access to location information using an event condition, for a point selected on a map according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. When event information is used as an access allow condition, for example, two options are available. The options are, for example, an “always during conference” option 332 and an “always during travel” option 334 . The “always during conference” option 332 allows access of a specific application to location information, only when a current event is a ‘conference.’ An event such as ‘conference’ or ‘travel’ is an event set in a schedule management application or the like by the user. The location information access control screen of the present disclosure acquires event information in conjunction with the schedule management application of the UE and determines whether to allow or deny access or create or modify a rule to allow access to location information, using the acquired event information. FIG. 3G illustrates a screen for controlling access to location information using an application state condition, for a point selected on a map according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. When application state information is used as an access allow condition, for example, two options are available. The options are, for example, a “foreground operation” option 336 and a “background operation” option 338 . The “foreground operation” option 336 allows access of a specific application to location information when the specific application operates in a displayed state (that is, a foreground state). The “background operation” option 338 allows access of a specific application to location information when the specific application operates in the background although it is not displayed on a display. FIG. 3H illustrates a screen for controlling access to location information using a UE state condition for a point selected on a map according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. When UE state information is used as an access allow condition, for example, three options are available. The options are, for example, a “moving” option 340 , an “LCD ON” option 342 , and a “GPS ON” option 344 . The “moving” option 340 allows access of a specific application to location information, only during movement of the UE. The “LCD ON” option 342 allows access of a specific application to location information when a display (for example, an LCD unit) of the UE is turned on and is displaying a screen. The “GPS ON” option 344 allows access of a specific application to location information when a GPS unit of the UE is operating. The user sets whether to allow or deny access that a specific application attempts to location information, for a point selected on a map, by use of a location information access control screen provided by the UE and generates or modifies a rule using an access allow condition. FIG. 3I illustrates a screen that displays a location information access history of a specific application on a map according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. In FIG. 3I , the application is allowed to deny access location information at points indicated by icons arranged on the map by differentiating the colors of the icons. For example, shaded icons 350 , 352 , and 354 indicates ‘Allow’ for location information access of the application and a white icon 356 indicates ‘Deny’ for location information access of the application. Referring to FIG. 3I , the application (‘App 1 ’) accessed location information at 12:00 at a point indicated by the icon 350 , at 13:00 at a point indicated by the icon 352 , and at 17:00 at a point indicated by the icon 354 . The application (‘App 1 ’) was not allowed to access location information at 10:00 at a point indicated by the icon 356 . FIG. 3J illustrates a screen on which one or more points displayed on a map are selected to control access of an application to location information according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. The user selects an area including one or more icons 356 and 354 displayed on the map by a drag touch 358 in order to set ‘Allow’ or ‘Deny’ for location information access of the application (‘App 1 ’). The user sets ‘Allow’ or ‘Deny’ for location information access using the control screens illustrated in FIGS. 3B to 3H with respect to the selected points. FIGS. 4A to 4D are exemplary views illustrating UIs for setting location information access on an application basis according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 4A illustrates an application-based location information access setting menu displayed on a UE according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. The UE (an OS or a controller operating the OS) provides a setting screen as illustrated in FIG. 4A to enable the user to control location information access on an application basis. For example, the user is provided with an application-based location information access setting screen by selecting an ‘App location information access setting’ menu 400 . FIG. 4B illustrates an application-based location information access setting screen according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. Referring to FIG. 4B , the application-based location information access setting screen output a list of applications so that a user selects an application to be controlled regarding location information access. The setting screen displays an ‘App 1 location information access setting’ menu 402 , an ‘App 2 location information access setting’ menu 404 , and an ‘App 3 location information access setting’ menu 406 . For example, the user checks or changes a rule set for the specific application (that is, ‘App 1 ’) by selecting the ‘App 1 location information access setting’ menu 402 . FIG. 4C illustrates a screen for checking and changing location information access settings on an application basis according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. Referring to FIG. 4C , a setting check and change screen outputs a list of rules to be checked or changed, so that rules are selected from the list. The rules are created, for example, using location information and time information. In FIG. 4C , rules of accessing location information are set for 10:00, 12:00, 13:00, and 17:00 at location 1 , location 2 , location 3 , and location 4 , by way of example. For each rule, the user controls ‘Allow’ or ‘Deny’ for location information access by use of a toggling button 410 . The setting check and change screen displays a ‘Map’ button 408 and the user views location 1 , location 2 , location 3 , and location 4 on the map by selecting the button 408 . FIG. 4D illustrates a screen for checking location information access settings on an application basis on a map according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. Referring to FIG. 4D , the locations (location 1 , location 2 , location 3 , and location 4 ) listed in FIG. 4C are displayed on the map. Location 1 , location 2 , location 3 , and location 4 are indicated respectively by icons 414 , 416 , 418 , and 420 . FIG. 5 illustrates a UE according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. The UE includes at least one of a transceiver 510 for transmitting and receiving signals to and from a communication server or another UE through a network, a display 520 for displaying a screen, an input unit 530 for receiving information, a command, and a selection from a user, and a controller 500 for controlling operations of the transceiver 510 , the display 520 , and the input unit 530 . The UE further includes a storage 540 for storing a location information access rule for an application. The display 520 is configured with a touch screen that senses a user's touch, such as a Light Emitting Diode (LED) display, an LCD, a Thin Film Transistor LCD (TFT LCD), an Organic Light Emitting Diode (OLED) display, an Active Matrix OLED (AMOLED) display, a flexibly display, or a three-dimensional display. The display 520 further performs the functionality of the input unit 530 . In certain embodiments, the input unit 530 may not be included as a separate component in the UE. The input unit 530 is the same component as the display 520 or a module such as a microphone. The controller 500 performs the above-described operations of the UE as a method for controlling location information access. The controller 500 controls at least one of sensing of location information access of an application, determination as to whether a location information access rule is present, display output for user notification, display of a user query and reception of a response, and reception of additional information to set a location information access rule. While it has been described in FIG. 5 that the UE includes a plurality of separate components, the controller 500 , the transceiver 510 , and the storage 540 are incorporated into one component (or module). The sequences of steps in the control methods, UIs, and the configuration of a UE illustrated in FIGS. 1 to 5 should not be construed as limiting the scope of the present disclosure. That is, all UI elements, UI menus, components, or steps illustrated in FIGS. 1 to 5 should not be interpreted as mandatory to implementation of the present disclosure. With a part of the components, the present disclosure is implemented without departing from the scope and spirit of the present disclosure. As is apparent from the foregoing description, a user controls non-disclosure of unintended personal location information. The user readily controls location information access of all applications on an application basis. Further, since the user checks location information to be set as a rule on a map when setting location information access, the user convenience is increased during control of location information access. The above-described operations are performed by providing a memory storing a related program code in a component of a UE in a communication system. A controller of the UE performs the above-described operations by reading the program code from the memory using a processor or a Central Processing Unit (CPU) and executing the program code. Various components and modules of the above-described UE operates using hardware such as a hardware circuit like a complementary metal oxide semiconductor-based logic circuit, firmware, a combination of software or hardware, and a combination of firmware or software inserted into a machine-readable medium. For example, various electrical structures and methods are implemented using electrical circuits like transistors, logic gates, and Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs). Although the present disclosure has been described with an exemplary embodiment, various changes and modifications may be suggested to one skilled in the art. It is intended that the present disclosure encompass such changes and modifications as fall within the scope of the appended claims.

The present disclosure relates to a sensor network, Machine Type Communication (MTC), Machine-to-Machine (M2M) communication, and technology for Internet of Things (IoT). The present disclosure may be applied to intelligent services based on the above technologies, such as smart home, smart building, smart city, smart car, connected car, health care, digital education, smart retail, security and safety services. A method and a User Equipment (UE) for controlling access to location information about the UE are provided. The UE includes a controller configured, upon sensing access to the location information about the UE by an application operating in an operating system (OS) of the UE, to match a rule defining access authorization of the application to the location information, and to determine whether to allow or deny access of the application to the location information based on the access authorization, and a display configured to display a screen under control of the controller.

This application is a continuation, of application Ser. No. 269,787, filed June 2, 1981 now abandoned. CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS Applicant claims priority under 35 USC 119 for applications U.S. Pat. Nos. 30 25 974.6; 30 37 741.4; and 30 37 710.7, filed July 8 1980, Oct. 6 1980, and Oct. 6, 1980, respectively, in the Patent Office of the Federal Republic of Germany. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The field of the invention is drive means for the displacement of slides and the present invention is particularly concerned with the displacement of x-y stages used in microscopes and similar instruments. It is known in the prior art to support microscope slides in roller bearings or the like, or also to support the microscope slides in glide bearings such as for instance in dovetailed guide means, and to render them displaceable by the use of rack-and-pinion drives. The pinion in these devices engages the rack, which is mounted at the side of the slide or attached to the fixed slide component in the direction of displacement. Ordinarily a knurled knob is mounted on the pinion shaft and is rotated manually, whereby the slide is moved through the intermediary of rack and pinion. In the so-called x-y stages, two such slides are arranged in one above the other. The first of these slides can be displaced along a first coordinate axis with respect to the instrument frame and the second slide can be displaced in a second coordinate direction in relation to the first slide. The two pinions and knurled knobs are mounted on mutually coaxial shafts. A very fine stage displacement adjustability is deliberately achieved. The purpose is to have the capibility of moving into all slide directions very accurately, for instance along the optical instrument axis. On the other hand this fine control suffers from the drawback that a large number of revolutions are required to move the stage from one end position into the other. A rapid displacement of the slide or the x-y stage across large distances is impossible. This is so even when to that end the slide is itself grabbed and displaced directly. The force required in this direction is so high that even in this manner the slide can only be displaced slowly. However, there are many applications for such slides or x-y stages where it is desired to have, in addition to the fine control of the knurled knob and the pinion, the latitude to rapidly displace the stage. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Having in mind the limitations of the prior art it is an object of the present invention to provide a drive for slides and x-y stages in microscopes and similar instruments where it is possible to have both fine control and rapid displacement of the slide means over larger distances. This object is achieved by the present invention in a drive system comprising the following characteristics: A friction wheel connection consisting of a friction wheel and a friction track is provided between the slide and the stationary slide guide. The friction wheel together with the actuation knob are solidly fixed on a common shaft, and this common shaft can be displaced against a spring force so that the friction wheel is out of contact with the friction track. Accordingly a selectively actuated friction wheel drive is involved, which can be switched off by breaking the contact between the friction wheel and the friction surface. When this is the case, the slide can be freely displaced, so that it can be rapidly moved across large adjusting distances. To that end the slide is simply grabbed and displaced. As the frictional drive lacks the gear reduction of the state of the art drives, the friction wheel can be lifted at an arbitrary location and be brought down again elsewhere without incurring the danger that the teeth may sit on top of each other and/or jam. The displacement of the common shaft may take place obliquely to the shaft axis, that is, the shaft can be tilted to lift the friction wheel. However, it is especially proposed that the displacement of the shaft take place in the axial direction and that the shape of the friction wheel and of the friction surface, and the direction of contact be designed correspondingly. In order to ensure the frictional connection between the friction wheel and the friction track, the friction is spring-compressed against the friction track, and it is against this spring force that the shaft is displaced. It is a feature of the present invention to provide a support means externally at the shaft guide so that the user can apply a finger of one hand, preferably the thumb, and use another finger to act on the actuation knob. By pressing these fingers together, the shaft is then displaced in a manner which does not transmit this force to the stage. The stage remains untouched and can be rapidly moved with the other hand. As regards the x-y stage of a microscope or of a similar instrument, which consists of two slides that can be displaced in relation to each other in two different coordinates, the drive of the invention is provided for both slides. The friction wheels are coaxial within each other. Each friction wheel again can be rotated by means of an actuation knob with which it is fixed together on a common shaft. These shafts in turn are arranged in coaxial manner and are designed as a hollow shaft and a solid shaft supported herein. In this shaft arrangement, however, it is impossible to displace the axes by a swinging motion, rather, the shafts can only be displaced axially. This axial alignment can be implemented in a simple manner in that the user grabs either of the actuation knobs and pulls or compresses it in the axial direction, depending on the design of the friction-wheel/friction-track system. The present invention makes use of tilting levers to that end and these levers are fixed with respect to the actuation knobs and in the course of pivoting press on the activation knobs. In addition to the lesser force required by the lever effect, the displacement of the friction wheels by means of the swing levers also offers the special advantage that no force of any kind is transmitted to the slide or x-y stage. The slide or the stage is not bent to the instrument frame. However, there is a drawback in that the swing lever must be held permanently against the spring bias when in its operational position. This means that one of the user's hands will be constantly kept busy to retain the swing lever in the actuated position, whereby only the other hand remains available for the rapid displacement of the slide. Therefore, the present invention in a further embodiment moreover provides an indexing position for the swing lever to keep the swing lever permanently in its operational position once it is pressed into it, and it is released from position only after a particular actuation. The indexing device consists of a spring-loaded indexing lever with an indexing beak which upon actuation of the swing lever snaps into position behind an indexing cam. Depending on the constructive design, the indexing lever is supported at the swing lever and the indexing cam is stationary, or the indexing cam is located at the swing lever and the indexing lever is supported in pivoting manner at a stationary component. However, the emphasis is particularly in the application of the indexing device to x-y stages in microscopes and similar instruments, wherein,, as is well known, two slides are displaceable relative to each other or relative to a stationary frame or the like. As described above, the shafts supporting the friction wheels in such x-y stages are arranged in the form of a hollow and a solid shaft which are coaxial with respect to one another. One swing lever is provided for each shaft, i.e., its actuation knob, where these two swing levers must be pivoted toward each other in order to achieve contact interruption between the friction wheels and their associated friction tracks. In this illustrative embodiment, therefore, the indexing device is arranged between the two swing levers. Depending on the concrete embodiment, the indexing lever and the indexing cam are mounted on one and the other swing levers respectively. The remaining detail design too always is adapted to the particular embodiment so that the indexing lever will snap into position with its indexing beak behind the indexing cam and under spring bias when the two swing levers are actuated manually, that is, when they are compressed or forced apart. Another embodiment eliminates in still another manner the drawback of having to constantly apply finger pressure to keep the spring lever(s) in the operatinal position(s). The shaft(s) no longer is (are) displaced by means of swing levers, rather in case only one common shaft must be displaced - a pin displaceable parallel to the common shaft is provided, which by one of its ends rests against a component fixed to the shaft. Furthermore, a control cam with a rising leg and a non-rising leg is provided, against which the pin rests by its other end, and provision is made for mechanical means to displace the pin. For this displacement the pin is moved from its rest position, wherein the common shaft is stationary and the friction wheel presses aganist the friction track by means of the rising cam leg into its operational position on the non-rising cam leg, where the common shaft is moved to and where the friction wheel does not make contact with the friction track. In particular a control cam is provided as a radial cam plate of which the non-rising leg is a curve sector concentric with the cam center and of a radius exceeding the radii of the rising cam leg. The control cam is mounted on a pivot means and the means for mechanical displacement consist of a crank lever acting on the pivot means. Once the drive means for adjusting two mutually displaceable slides is determined, as is the case for the prior art x-y stages in microscopes and similar instruments, the present invention provides a device characterized by the following features: two pins displaceable parallel to the hollow and solid shafts are provided, one of which rests by one end against a component fixed to the hollow shaft and the other pin by one end against a component fixed to the solid shaft. Moreover, two control cams are provided, each of the pins by its other end resting against one of these control cams, which are radial cams offset by 180° to each other on a common cam plate. To limit the pivot range of the pivot lever, the present invention provides special means which can be adjusted for the purpose of accurately defining the pivot excursion. These means may consist for instance of a ring surrounding the pivot means and provided with a clearance within which the pivot lever can be pivoted, this clearance being adjustable and lockable with respect to the cam plate. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The present invention is represented in the appended drawings in the form of an illustrative embodiment of an x-y stage for microscopes, wherein: FIG. 1 is a perspective schematic showing partly in cross-section, of the x-y stage of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a side view, partly in cross-section, of the drive system of the present invention where the shafts are displaced by pins and control cams; FIG. 3 is a partial bottom view of FIG. 2; and FIGS. 4 and 5 are detailed showings of ring 37 of FIG. 1. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS With particular reference to FIG. 1, the stationary part of the x-y stage is designated 1 and it is mounted to the structure of an instrument such as a microscope. A first slide 3 is displaceably supported in rectilinear guides 2 in a first coordinate direction indicated by arrow A. A second slide 5 is supported by this first slide 3 for displacement in a second coordinate direction indicated by arrow C in rectilinear guides 4 which are essentially perpendicular to first rectilinear guides 2, 2a and second rectilinear guides 4, 4a. Guide rail 5a is one of two guide rails of second slide 5. That part of first slide 3 to the left of the end of lead line 2 is indicated by 3b. The opening in element 1 is indicated by 1a. The drive system for displacement of the first slide 3 consists of a friction track screwed tight to the stationary part 1, and of a friction wheel 7 which sits tight on a hollow shaft 8 as shown in FIG. 2. The same hollow shaft 8 seats an actuation knob 9 the rotation of which also entails the rotation of the friction wheel 7. The drive system for displacement of the second slide 5 consists of a friction track 10 mounted to the second slide 5 and of a friction wheel 11 firmly seated on the solid shaft 12. The hollow shaft 8 and the solid shaft 12 are coaxially arranged with respect to each other. A hollow spindle 14 is located between the two shafts and is fixed to the first slide 3 at 3a. This hollow spindle 14 represents the guide means both for the solid shaft 12 supported on the inside and for the hollow shaft 8 supported on the outside of spindle 14. Hollow spindle 14 carries sleeve 13a rigidly. Each of the friction wheels 7 and 11 is subject to the action of a spring 15 and 16 respectively. Spring 15 rests on the one hand against the first slide 3 and, on the other hand, against friction wheel 11, and, therefore, in turn, via shaft 12, against knob 13. Spring 16 rests on the one hand against a small collar 14a of the hollow spindle 14, as shown in FIG. 2, and on the other hand, against the friction wheel 7 and, hence, in turn, via hollow shaft 8, against knob 9. The springs 15 and 16 therefore keep the friction wheels 7 and 11 positively pressed against their associated friction tracks. The fine control of the x-y stage positions is carried out by rotating the actuation knobs 9 and 13. When the actuation knob 9 is rotated, the friction wheel 7 rolls on the stationary friction track 6, whereby both slides 3.5 are moved in the first coordinate direction. The actuation knobs facilitate this linear displacement. When the actuation knob 13 is rotated, the friction wheel 11 displaces the friction track 10 together with the second slide 5 in the second coordinate direction. The actuation knobs do not participate in this linear displacement, rather they remain fixed in space. The rapid displacement of the x-y stage is implemented in that first one of the friction wheels, or also both together, is or are lifted from the associated friction track(s) and then is or are grabbed at the stage and the slide(s) is or are rapidly displaced in the rectilinear guides. The lifting of the friction wheels from the friction tracks takes place against the opposing force of springs 15 and 16 respectively. The corresponding actuation knob can be manually acted on for the purpose of lifting, and be pulled in the axial direction. The arrangement of FIGS. 1 through 3 is such that the friction wheels 7,11 disengage the friction tracks 6, 10 when the shafts 8,12 are displaced in opposite directions. The actuation knobs 9 and 13, which are solidly joined to the shafts, also are inherentely displaced, namely away from each other. In order to generate the motion of the actu. Pin 30a fastens support ring 30 on spindle 14 and below and above ring 30 spacer rings 13a and 13b are arranged. These spacer rings may or may not be fastened on spindle 14. A radial cam plate 32 is supported between the pins 35,36 in the cam housing 31 and comprises on opposite sides a rising cam leg 32a and a level cam leg 32b concentric to the cam center, each being associated with one of the pins 35,36 (FIG. 3). The cam plate comprises at its center an outwardly pointing pivot means 33 to which is mounted a lever 34 a perpendicular, externally projecting lever 34. This is the actuation lever of the device. Moreover as shown in FIGS. 1, 3, 4, and 5 a slitted ring 37 is supported on a collar of the cam housing 31 and concentrically with the pivot means 33 and tightened by screw 38. The width D of the slit 39 in the ring determines the pivoting range of the lever 34. As the tightening screw 38 however can be loosened and as the ring 37 can be rotated in relation to the cam housing 31, the range of pivoting of lever 34 can be shifted as needed. The above described components operate as follows: first, all the components assume the rest positions shown in the drawing. In these rest positions, the friction wheels 7,11 rest against their associated friction tracks. If this contact is to be eliminated so that the x-y stage is freely displaceable in all directions, then the lever 34 is pivoted by finger pressure in the direction of arrow B (FIG. 5). The range of pivoting is determined by the slit-width of ring 37. In this pivoting the cam 37 is subjected to rotation and by its rising cam branches 32a forces the pins 35,36 apart, which in turn force the actuation knobs 9,13 apart and thereby lift the friction-wheels 7,11 from their friction tracks. At the end of the pivoting excursion of the lever 34, the pins 35,36 always are seated on the level cam leg 32b. They remain in this position even when the finger is lifted off the lever 34 because no force component is generated at all by the concentric course of the cam legs 32b whereby the cam 32 might be forced back into its rest position. Rather, the operator has free use of both hands also now in the lifted off condition of the friction wheels 7,11 so that he can displace the stage for purposes of focusing and the like. However, a slight finger pressure will surfice in the direction opposite the arrow B and exerted on the lever 34 to pivot it back into rest position, the pins 35,36 while being under the pressure from the actuation knobs, i.e., of the springs acting on them through the shafts sliding back on the cam legs 32a. Thereby the actuation knobs and the friction-wheels 7,11 also slide back into their rest positions and again rest against their friction tracks. The slitted ring 37 pivots on a collar of the cam housing 31 and can be locked to same, that is, it is adjustable so that the transition of the pins 35,36 from non-extended to extended positions can be accurately set. Then a swing of a few degrees of lever 34 suffices to switch over from the contact-making friction wheel position to the lifted-off one, and vice versa.

A drive system for slides and x-y stages in microscopes and similar instruments having the possibilities of both fine control and rapid displacement of the slides over larger distances. The drive system comprises a friction wheel and a friction track provided between the slide and the stationary slide guide. A friction wheel together with an actuation knob are solidly fixed on a common shaft and this common shaft is displaceable against a spring force so that the friction wheel is out of contact with the friction track.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of Ser. No. 08/037,493, filed Mar. 24, 1993, now abandoned, which is a continuation of Ser. No. 07/816,112, filed Jan. 2, 1992, now abandoned. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to the field of computers and particularly to computers having central processing units (CPU's) that operate in accordance with the IBM ESA/390 architecture and particularly to computers that have software control of hardware interruptions. In existing computer systems there are two layers of architectures, the outer and the inner layers. The outer layer is the architectural layer which is defined, for example, in a specification such as the Principles of Operation (POO) for the IBM ESA/390. At this layer, an interruption is an unexpected transfer of control. The inner layer mainly implements the interruptions. Many interruptions for a CPU may exist concurrently. Therefore, the inner layer maintains a list of those interruptions that are pending in a register, so they may be processed in the order defined by the outer architecture. The inner layer must be able to set bits in the interruption register as they arise, and also be able to clear the bits as the interruptions are serviced. Various interruptions can be generated by different modules/functions in a computer system. Different classes of interruptions have been defined at the outer layer in the existing computer systems such as External, I/O, Machine Check, Program, Supervisor Call, and Restart interruptions. An interruption signal/level is used to set an appropriate bit in the interrupt register, related to a specific interruption. Next there is an interrupt mask which only permits the allowed interruptions to be seen by the priority encoder. The priority encoder examines the pending interruptions in order to specify which one has the highest priority and needs to be serviced next. After the interruption is serviced, the appropriate bit in the interrupt register is cleared. Once a bit associated with an interruption is set, Control Software can not reset it. However, the bit can be reset as a part of a CPU Reset or an IPL (Initial Program Loading) operations, or by hardware after the interruption is serviced. ESA/390 architecture computers are controlled in part by a Program Status Word (PSW). The program-status word (PSW) includes the instruction address, condition code, and other information used to control instruction sequencing and to determine the state of the computer. The active or controlling PSW is called the current PSW. It governs the program currently being executed. The CPU has an interruption capability, which permits the CPU to switch rapidly to another program in response to exception conditions and external stimuli. When an interruption occurs, the CPU places the current PSW in an assigned storage location, called the old-PSW location, for the particular class of interruption. The CPU fetches a new PSW from a second assigned storage location. This new PSW determines the next program to be executed. When it has finished processing the interruption, the interrupting program may reload the old PSW, making it again the current PSW, so that the interrupted program can continue. The status of the CPU can be changed by loading a new PSW or part of a PSW. Control is switched during an interruption of the CPU by storing the current PSW, so as to preserve the status of the CPU, and then loading a new PSW. A new or modified PSW becomes active (that is, the information introduced into the current PSW assumes control over the CPU) when the interruption or the execution of an instruction that changes the PSW is completed. A storage key is associated with each 4K-byte block of storage that is available in the configuration. The storage key has the following format. ##STR1## The bit positions in the storage key are allocated as follows: Access-Control Bits (ACC): If a reference is subject to key-controlled protection, the four access-control bits, bits 0-3, are matched with the four-bit access key when information is stored, or when information is fetched from a location that is protected against fetching. Fetch-Protection Bit (F) If a reference is subject to key-controlled protection, the fetched protection bit, bit 4, controls whether key-controlled protection applies to fetch-type references are monitored and that fetching with any access key is permitted; a one indicates that key-controlled protection applied to both fetching and storing. No distinction is made between the fetching of instructions and of operands. Reference Bit (R) The reference bit, bit 5 normally is set to one each time a location in the corresponding storage block is referred to either for storing or for fetching of information. Change bit (C) The change bit, bit 6, is set to one each time information is stored at a location in the corresponding storage block. Protection Protection facilities are provided to protect the contents of main storage from destruction or misuse by programs that contain errors or are unauthorized. Key-controlled protection, access-list-controlled protection, page protection, and low-address protection are forms of protection available in ESA/390. Key-Controlled Protection When key-controlled protection applies to a storage access, a store is permitted only when the storage key matches the access key associated with the request for storage access; a fetch is permitted when the keys match or when the fetch-protection bit of the storage key is zero. The keys are said to match when the four access-control bits of the storage key are equal to the access key, or when the access key is zero. Fetch-Protection-Override Control Bit 6 of control register 0 is the fetch-protection-override control. When the bit is one, fetch protection is ignored for locations at effective addresses 0-2047. An effective address is the address which exists before any transformation by dynamic address translation or prefixing. However, fetch protection is not ignored if the effective address is subject to dynamic address translation and the private-space control, bit 23, is one in the segment-table designation used in the translation. Fetch protection override has no effect on accesses which are not subject to key-controlled protected. Access-List-Controlled Protection In the access-register mode, bit 6 of the access-list entry, the fetch-only bit, controls which types of operand references are permitted to the address space specified by the access-list entry. When the entry is used in the access-register-translation part of a reference and bit 6 is zero, both fetch-type and store-type references are permitted, and an attempt to store causes a protection exception to be recognized and the execution of the instruction to be suppressed. Page Protection The page-protection facility controls access to virtual storage by using the page-protection bit in each page-table entry. It provides protection against improper storing. One of the instructions that is able to modify part of a PSW is the Set PSW Key From Address (SPKA) instruction. The ESA/390 architecture requires the SPKA instruction to load the architecturally defined PSW "access key" from four bits extracted from the effective address of the SPKA instruction. The access key is used to limit the access of future instructions to certain storage areas to aid in providing protection and privacy of information. In the problem state, the execution of the SPKA instruction is subject to control by the PSW-key mask in control register 3. When the bit in the PSW-key mask corresponding to the PSW-key value is set is one, the SPKA instruction is executed successfully. When the selected bit in the PSW-key mask is zero, a privileged-operation exception is recognized. In the supervisor state, any value for the PSW key is valid. During execution of the SPKA instruction, the Condition Code remains unchanged. The format of the SPKA instruction permits the program to set the PSW key either from the general register designated by the B 2 field or from the D 2 field in the instruction itself. When one program requests another program to access a location designated by the requesting program, the SPKA instruction can be used by the called program to verify that the requesting program is authorized to make this access, provided the storage location of the called program is not protected against fetching. The called program can perform the verification by replacing the PSW key with the requesting-program PSW key before making the access and subsequently restoring the called-program PSW key to its original value. Caution must be exercised, however, in handling any resulting protection exceptions since such exceptions may cause the operation to be terminated. One well-known computer operating with the IBM ESA/390 architecture is the Amdahl 5995-A computer. In that computer, the I-Unit pipeline is a six stage pipeline consisting of stages D, A, T, B, X, and W that process instructions. One of the functions of the D stage is to collate the necessary information to reference storage in the A, T, and B stages. This D-stage function includes the generation of the effective address and selection of the access key to be used by the reference. The A, T, and B stages fetch operands/data using the current valid key that is defined by the architecture, PSW KEY A . One of the functions of the W (write) stage is to write results of operations to architecturally defined registers or storage. The W stage in the pipeline comes after the fetch-operands/data stages (A, T, and B) and the arithmetic functions stage (X). The access key used is the key, PSW KEY A , from the architecturally defined PSW register. After the access key in the PSW has been updated in the W stage, the new key, PSW N is available for future operations/instructions and the new key becomes the architecturally defined key, PSW KEY A . The ESA/390 architecture requires that the new key be effective starting from the instruction immediately following the SPKA instruction. The new PSW key can be used in a subsequent D segment while being updated in the W segment. The fetching of any instruction following a SPKA instruction is subject to key fetch protections and hence must wait until the SPKA instruction has updated the key in the PSW register. If a storage-reference instruction (an instruction that references storage) immediately follows a SPKA instruction, the fetching of data by that storage-reference instruction must wait until after the SPKA instruction has updated the access key in the PSW register, that is, must wait until the architecturally defined key, PSW KEY A , has been updated with the new value, PSW N . from the SPKA instruction. In computer systems, a system control program (SCP) is responsible for resource management and often uses architectural registers. Computer systems under control of the control program operate in User State and in Control State. In User State, user programs and vendor-provided operating systems execute. IBM system control programs (CP's) run in User State. Certain instructions and facilities of User State may be emulated by Control State software. Control State is for controlling system resources and they may be shared by multiple domains and provide emulation when necessary. Emulation may be used for enhancing the IBM ESA/390 architecture or may be used so that User State programs that run on one manufacturer's machines having one set of hardware may run on another manufacturer's machines with different hardware. Control State operation is based on the IBM ESA/390 architecture. Entry to Control State from User State is vectored, invoked by Control Interceptions that require assistance by Control State software. Transitions from User State to Control State occur under a number of conditions. For example, a transition may occur when an instruction occurs that is defined as an emulated instruction when an instruction occurs for which a specific interception control is set, when an interruption occurs for which a specific interception control is set, when an interruption occurs that is defined as a mandatory Control Interception. The SCP in some environments operates the machine hardware and multiplexes the physical resources of the computing system into multiple logical entities called virtual machines, each of which is a simulation of a computer dedicated to the servicing of a single user or (in the case of a server) a single application. Virtual machines are software entities that can be easily configured to running a particular program rather than to a user. A virtual machine configured in this manner is referred to as a virtual machine server. By virtualizing, operating systems can link guest systems together without the need for guest-specific actual hardware. Also, operating systems allow multiple guest systems to share devices and other resources to simplify configuration and maintenance. Resource management (SCP) and user management (CMS) are separate. When a CMS user logs on to the system, the SCP (system control program) creates a virtual machine for that user that includes, among other things, storage address space. An address space is a sequence of addresses that starts at one address and extends up to a value that varies according to size. Storage management is an important task of the supervisor or host which must create, share, and otherwise manage address spaces, gain and relinquish access to an address spaces, and map data on external devices. Virtual machines running in the ESA/390 architecture have at least one address space, the primary address space, given to the user by the SCP when the user logs on to the system. The size of this address space is determined from the entry describing that user in the user directory, or from a subsequent DEFINE STORAGE command. After logging on, if authorized in the user directory, a user may create other address spaces and share them with other logged-on users. Before a program can actually read or write data in a nonprimary address space, it must invoke an SCP service to add an entry designating that address space to its access list. Each virtual configuration has its own access list having entries that determine which address spaces the virtual CPUs in that configuration can reference at any one time. The number of entries in the access list is controlled by information in the user's directory entry. When a program adds an address space to its access list, SCP selects an unused entry in the access list, fills it in as requested by the program, and returns a four-byte access-list-entry token (ALET) to the program. A program uses this ALET to make direct references to the address space. The access-list entry thus allocated remains allocated until the program explicitly removes the entry, or until the virtual machine goes through a virtual-machine-reset operation. Interpretive-Execution The IBM Interpretive Execution Facility (IEF) allows a computer system running under a host System Control Program (SCP) to interpret a virtual machine called the guest. The term "host" refers to the real machine together with the SCP running on the real machine. The host manages real-machine resources and provide services to the guest programs which execute in an interpreted machine. The interpreted and host machines execute guest and host programs, respectively. For a transfer of control from a guest virtual machine back to its host System Control Program (SCP), an "interception" occurs. In the existing computer architecture, when a guest issues a START INTERPRETIVE EXECUTION (SIE) instruction, the instruction is intercepted and emulated by the host program at a significant performance cost. Through emulation, the host provides the functions of a selected architecture which may be available on some other real machine or which may be available only in the virtual-machine environment. Privileged and problem-program instruction execution, address translation, interruption handling, timing and other functions are interpreted so that those functions are executed in the context of the virtual machine. With the addition of special-purpose hardware, interpreted execution can approach speeds that are comparable to native-mode execution, that is, execution by a non-interpretive version of the architecture. In the virtual-machine environment, the guest program has access to all the functions defined for the designated architecture either through an interpretive-execution facility or by the host system control program. For VM/ESA, the control program CP provides functions through simulation. Simulation generally executes guest functions transparently so that the guest program is unaware as to whether a function is performed by the machine or the host except that simulation usually requires more time. When an SIE instruction is executed, the operand of the SIE instruction containing the State Description is fetched to obtain information about the current state of the guest. When execution of SIE ends, information representing the state of the guest, including the guest program status word (PSW), is saved in the state description before control is returned to the host. The information in the state description, as used and modified by the host during simulation, allows the guest to start and stop execution with valid information. The state description also determines the mode and other environmental conditions in which the guest is to execute. While in interpretive-execution mode the host, in order to be protected from interference by guests or interference among guests, allocates portions of the real-machine resources to the virtual machine. Guest storage is confined to a portion of host real storage or to host virtual address spaces controlled by the host system. Host enabled and disabled states generally are undisturbed by execution of the guest. A complete and logically separate set of control registers is maintained by the machine for use by the host and another set for each guest is maintained for use by the guest. Other registers are shared between the host and guests. In some cases, the host intercepts operations normally performed by the machine. The state description includes control bits settable by the host to cause intercept operations under specific conditions. When the specific condition are met, the machine returns control to host simulation. Intervention controls capture the introduction of an enabled state into the PSW, so that the host can present an interruption which it holds pending for the guest. Intervention controls may be set asynchronously by the host on another real processor while interpretation proceeds. The machine periodically refetches the controls from storage, so that updated values will be recognized. Guest interruptions can thereby be made pending without prematurely disturbing interpretation. Guest Storage Preferred-storage mode and pageable-storage mode are provided for in the interpretive-execution architecture. In preferred-storage mode, a contiguous block of host absolute storage is assigned to the guest and in pageable-storage mode, dynamic address translation (DAT) at the host level is used to map guest main storage. In preferred-storage mode, the lower addresses of the machine storage are dedicated to the guest and only one guest can obtain production mode performance. In the pageable-storage mode, the host has the ability to scatter the real storage of pageable-storage-mode guests to usable frames anywhere in host real storage by using the host DAT, and to page guest data out to auxiliary storage. This method provides flexibility when allocating real-machine resources while preserving the expected appearance of a contiguous range of absolute storage for the guest. A virtual-machine environment may require DAT twice, once at guest level, to translate a guest virtual address into a guest real address, and then, for a pageable guest, at the host level, to translate the corresponding host virtual address to a host real address. Multiple High-performance Guests The Multiple Domain Facility™ (MDF™) available on Amdahl computers provided concurrent execution of two or more operating systems with high performance on a single shared central computing complex. Such operation permits the reassignment of resources dynamically with minimal performance penalty for a variety of different architectures or systems. In the existing systems, the software and hardware generated interruptions do not go through a consolidated mechanism before they are examined and serviced. Furthermore, there is no integrated set of priorities for the order in which the hardware and software interruptions are serviced. Accordingly, there is a need for an improved computer system having improvements interruption handling. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention is a computer system that has means for processing interrupt requests that are generated both by hardware interrupt request generators and by control software. The computer system has a plurality of architecturally defined registers including general registers used to store user information and including control registers used for control functions. A common register array is provided having locations for the general registers and the control registers and having specifically interrupt register locations for storing interrupt requests. The hardware generators store the interrupt requests into the interrupt register locations. Similarly, the control software reads and writes to the interrupt register locations whereby interrupt requests can be generated and terminated under software and hardware control. In general the computer system of the present invention has two layers of architectures, the outer and the inner layers. The outer layer is the architectural definition defining interruptions as unexpected transfers of control. The inner layer implements the interruptions. Since many interruptions may exist concurrently, the inner layer maintains a list of those interruptions that are pending in a register, so they may be processed in the order defined by the outer layer architecture. The inner layer sets interrupt requests in the interrupt register as they arise and clears the interrupt requests as the interruptions are processed. Various interruptions can be generated by different modules and functions in a computer system. Different classes of interruptions are defined at the outer layer such as External, I/O, Machine Check, Program, Supervisor Call, and Restart interruptions. An interrupt mask only permits the unmasked interrupt requests to be processed by a priority encoder. The priority encoder examines the pending interrupt requests to determine their priority and the order by which they will be processed. After the interrupt request is processed, the interrupt request in the interrupt register is cleared. In the present invention, the Control Software is logically between the inner and outer layers. The Control Software, which is like the outer layer, is given direct access to the interrupt register that is used by the hardware interrupt mechanism. The Control Software can read the status of the interrupt register and can also set interrupt requests in the register to make the hardware interrupt processor cause interruptions. Thus a unified process is utilized for generation of interruptions by hardware and software. Both can set appropriate bits in the interruption register to signify a pending interruption. Furthermore, a unified set of priorities for interruptions are defined that include both the hardware and software generated interrupt requests. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 depicts an overall block diagram of a computer system incorporating the present invention. FIGS. 2, 3 and 4 depict detailed block diagrams of the FIG. 1 system. FIGS. 5A and 5B depict a block diagram of the I-Fetch data and control circuitry that forms part of the FIG. 1 system. FIG. 6 depicts a detailed block diagram of the register array complex. FIG. 7 depicts a block diagram of a multiple CPU system using multiple CPU's of the FIG. 1 type. FIG. 8 provides a block diagram of the software controlled interrupt unit. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Overall Computer System--FIG. 1 In FIG. 1, a computer system compatible with the Amdahl 5995-A computer operating in accordance with the ESA/390 architecture is shown. The computer system of FIG. 1 includes an instruction unit (I-unit) 5, a storage unit (S-Unit) 4, an execution unit (E-Unit) 13, system control units 7, I/O units 9, main store 8, and a service processor 6. The instruction unit 5 includes an operand address unit 11, an instruction data register 65, an I-fetch unit 14, a register array 17, and an I-unit control 3. The storage unit 4 includes an SU Op Pipe 12 and an SU I-Fetch Pipe 15. The FIG. 1 system features two machine states, User State and Control State. In User State, supersets of the IBM ESA/390 architecture are supported. Some User State operations may be emulated by Control State software. The architecture provides support for Control State Software to implement the "Multiple Domain Facility" (MDF). MDF provides for multiple computing systems to exist in User State on one processor complex. This operation is accomplished by providing each virtual computing system (domain) with its own private main storage, channels, operator console, and optionally expanded storage, while multiplexing all domains on the CPU resources available to the processor complex. A "Domain" is a set of resources such as CPU's, main storage and channels available to a User State control program(CP). A domain program is a User State program. A domain consists of both domain-native and guest resources. The terms "User", "User State", and "LP (Logical Processor)" also refer to both domain-native and guest resources, although LP usually is used to refer to a domain CPU. A "Guest" is a resource that requires the presence of a supporting `host` domain control program. A guest program is one that runs in an environment consisting of a specific set of guest resources. When a CPU operates in guest mode (User State or Control State), domain resources accessed by a program are guest resources (for example, guest PSW) by default. In Control State, access to other resources is under program control which is sometimes called interpretive-execution mode. Domain Mode Control <A> indicates whether a CPU operates in guest mode or not. "Domain-native" is a resource that does not require the presence of a domain control program. A domain-native program is one that runs in an environment consisting of domain-native resources. A CPU is in domain-native mode if it is not in guest mode; in this mode, domain resources accessed by a program are domain-native resources (for example, domain-native PSW) by default. In Control State, access to other resources is under program control. A "Host" is a domain program that supports guest resources. The term "host" is meaningful when discussed in the context of a guest. Host resources may behave differently when the CPU is in guest mode. The term "host mode" may sometimes be used interchangeably with "domain-native" mode. User programs and vendor-provided operating systems run in User State. IBM SCPs run in User State. User State may be in either System/370 or ESA/390 mode. Certain instructions and facilities of User State may be emulated by Control State software. Control State is for controlling system resources and they may be shared by multiple domains and may provide emulation. Emulation is often used for enhancing the IBM ESA/390 architecture or for enabling User State programs that run on one manufacturer's machines to run on another manufacturer's machines. Control State operation is based on the IBM ESA/390 architecture. Entry to Control State from User State is vectored, invoked by Control Interceptions that require assistance by Control State software. Transitions between User State and Control State occur under a number of conditions. For example, transitions occur when an instruction occurs that is defined as an emulated instruction, when an instruction occurs for which a specific interception control is set, when an interruption occurs for which a specific interception control is set, and when an interruption occurs that is defined as a mandatory Control Interception. In the FIG. 1 system, there are two types of units of operation, the domain unit of operation (DUO) and the machine unit of operation (MUO). In the FIG. 1 system, the System Communication Interface (SYSCOM) provides a means of communication among Control State software and various processing units within a system. These processing units include I/O Processors (IOPs), service processors (SVPs), and CPUs. The means of communication is through passing data in control blocks in the HSA, and informing the recipient via a signaling mechanism. In FIG. 1, the service processor (SVP) 6 is provided to assist in configuration of the system, machine check handling, operator facilities, and other model-dependent functions. The FIG. 1 system includes a facility to permit asynchronous communication between TCMPs using messages. The message processing facility and the instructions to support them are collectively known as the TCMP unification facility (TUF). TUF is distinguished from a local area network. The TUF assembles large single system images by linking TCMPs. The resulting complexes are used for transaction processing in large enterprises. In the FIG. 1 system, the architectural register sets are defined as follows: access registers (AR), floating point registers (FR), general registers (GR), Control State and domain ARMAP registers (MR), register array (RA), and vector registers (VR). Other individual registers, such as the program status word (PSW), are also defined. Using the GR as an example, the following notation is used to identify subsets of a register set. To specify register x of the set of GRs, the notation GRx is used if x is a number; the notation GR(x) is used if x is a variable (for example, GR(R1) means the general register designated by the R1 operand). To specify the consecutive bit positions beginning with w and ending with z, the notation <w:z> is used. A string of bits is specified by listing the bits, separated by commas as in <x, w:z, . . . >. To specify bit string y of register x of the set of GRs, the notation GRx<y> or GR(x)<y> is used. Bit string y may consist of only 1 bit. To specify bit string y within field F of register x of the set of GRs, the notation GRx. F<y> or GR(x).F<y> is used. Bit string y may consist of only 1 bit. Bit positions given for y are with respect to the field F (for example, DAC.DABR -- ct1<0 >&). In the FIG. 1 system, the various ones of the architectural registers are implemented in a register array. The registers in the register array are set forth in the following TABLE 1. TABLE 1______________________________________CPU Register ArrayRA NOs.______________________________________0X Control State General Registers1X Control State Parameters2X DAC/CI Parameters/Control State VBPA3X Control State AR MAP Registers4X Domain-Native General Registers5X Domain Counters/Domain Parameters6X Domain Parameters/Domain VBPA7X Domain AR MAP Registers8X Domain-Native Control Registers9X Domain ParametersAX Access RegistersBX Access RegistersCX Guest Control RegistersDX Guest ParametersEX Guest ParametersFX Reserved for Control State Software______________________________________ In FIG. 1, the main Store 8 contains a system storage area where Control State software and the Hardware System Area (HSA) reside, and domain storage area(s), one for each domain. Each storage area is a separate address space, or address dimension, that is, for example, up to 2 GB in size. Mapping of these address spaces to physical main storage is via blocks of storage that are 2 MB or larger. "Expanded Storage". Control State software and domains may each optionally have its own expanded storage. Mapping of Control State or domain expanded storage areas to physical expanded storage is similar to main storage mapping. "Shared Global Storage". The architecture can support a large single system image that is composed of multiple tightly coupled (i.e., shared main memory) multiprocessors (TCMP). Shared global storage (SGS) permits data to be shared between TCMPs by functionally connecting the SGS to the main storage of each of the TCMPs. A domain in a TCMP can share all or a portion of SGS with a domain in another TCMP. Mapping of domain SGS to physical SGS is similar to the expanded storage and main storage mapping. In the FIG. 1 system, the register array (RA) Complex 17 includes 256 word registers that are under control of Control State instructions. A specific RA register is identified by an 8-bit operand field in these instructions. Defined RA registers have two identifications: the functional name (for example GR0) and their register offset in the register array (for example RA(C0)). In addition to using one of the RA-manipulation instructions, some RA registers can be accessed directly by unique instructions that manipulate the functional registers (for example domain CRs can be loaded using the LCTL instruction). For such registers, there may be a preference in the means of access. For example, loading the RA copy of the system prefix has no effect on prefixing; the SPX instruction should be used. Note that the RA registers are not necessarily changed by an instruction addressing the register; some (for example the User State Old PSWs) can be changed due to an interruption or CI. The RA contains most architecturally-defined registers and controls, including Control State prefix, domain-native prefix, guest prefix, DAC, feature control bits, general and control registers. The architectural registers that are not in the same physical register array are listed as follows: The Control State PSW is not in the RA. The host PSW to be saved in the interpretive-execution mode is also not maintained in the RA; it is saved in the LPSD. (Note that although the domain-native and guest PSWs are provided in the RA for CSSW to inspect and modify, the instruction-address field (bits 33:63) is invalid). The host GRs 14 and 15 defined to be saved in the interpretive-execution mode are not maintained in the RA; they are saved in the LPSD. (Note that the User State and Control State GRs are in the RA). There is one set of FRs provided in User State, and they are not contained in the register array. In FIG. 1, main storage 8 contains (1) a system storage area (SSA) where Control State Software (CSS) [both instructions and data] resides and where the Hardware System Area (HSA) resides, and (2) domain storage areas (DSA), one for each domain. Mapping of these address spaces to physical main storage is via blocks of storage that are, for example, 2 MB or larger. A domain's storage area is accessed using domain addresses. In User State, addresses are domain addresses of the current domain. In Control State, CPU generated addresses are generally system addresses. However, under the control of the Domain Access Controls register, some operand effective addresses are treated as domain addresses. In Control State, CSSW can select either User PSW<AS> and PSW<T> to determine the mode of accessing main storage, or it may choose to use another set of three bits to determine the mode of accessing main storage, which can be different from the current one, as specified by the user PSW. Detailed System--FIGS. 2, 3, 4 In FIGS. 2, 3 and 4, further details of the computer system of FIG. 1 are shown with an orientation as depicted in the lower right-hand corner of FIG. 1. The computer system operates in a pipelining fashion where operation is divided into a number of segments including P, A, T, B, R segments and D, A, T, B, X, and W segments. The units of FIGS. 2, 3, and 4 operate generally over the D, A, T, B, X, and W segments after a current instruction is loaded into the IDR register 65. To load an instruction, the P segment performs priority resolution, the A segment performs instruction address presentation, the T segment performs TLB lookup and cache tag matching, and the B segment loads the current instruction into the IDR register 65. In FIG. 2, the I-Unit 5 fetches instructions into the instruction data register (IDR) 65 which are to be processed in a pipeline fashion. Up to six instructions, for example instruction I 1 , I 2 , I 3 , I 4 , I 5 , and I 6 can be processing in the FIGS. 2, 3, and 4 units in the D, A, T, B, X, and W segments. In FIG. 2, the I-fetch unit 14 fetches instructions and stores them into the IDR 65 and delivers them to the storage unit Op Pipe 12 and the storage unit I-fetch pipe 15 to maintain a flow of instructions to be executed. The units of FIG. 2 cooperate with the register array 17 for controlling the flow of instructions and operands in the pipeline execution of the computer system. The I-fetch unit 14 pre-fetches each instruction into the instruction data register IDR 65 so that when the D segment commences, the I-fetch unit 14 has finished for the current instruction, for example instruction I 1 , and is pre-fetching subsequent instructions for example instructions I 2 , I 3 , I 4 , I 5 , I 6 and I 7 . The I-fetch unit 14 during prefetching interacts with the storage unit 4 during the P, A, T, B, R segments that all precede the D, A, T, B, X, and W segments. In FIG. 2, the IDR 65 provides information to the operand address unit 11. The operand address unit 11 determines addresses information to be processed by instructions. The addresses of operands are passed to the storage unit of operand pipe 12 which fetches the operands which are to be operated upon and delivers them to the execution unit 13. The execution unit 13 performs arithmetic and logical functions on the operands such as add, multiply, divide, move, or, and shift. After prefetching, the D segment is the decode cycle for instruction decoding of the instruction in IDR register 65. The A segment is address presentation for the S-unit 4. The T segment is a translation TLB lookup and cache tag match cycle. The TLB is a translation look-aside buffer. The B segment is the buffer cycle when, if a correct translation occurred in the TLB and if the line of data addressed is in the cache, the data is accessed and latched into the operand word register OWR (46, 49, 52). The X segment is for execution in the E-Unit 13 which takes data from the OWR, executes on the data and places the result in the result register (48, 51, 54). The W segment is for writing the results to the location specified by the instruction, for example, to an internal register in register array 17 or back to main storage 8. Referring to FIGS. 2, 3, and 4 the instruction buffer register 65 is loaded by the I-fetch unit 14. The instruction buffer register 10 in turn loads the IDR register 65 in four fields, D1, D2, D3 and D4. The contents of the register 65 are selected to read the system or user general purpose registers 66 (GPR's). The contents of the general purpose registers are selected into the three-input adder 89. After the SPKA instruction is latched into the IDR 65, the data address in the DAR register 68, valid in the D segment, is staged through the address registers in the A, T, B, X and W segments using the registers DAR 68, AAR 75, TAR 81, BAR 43, XAR 44, and WAR 45, respectively. In one alternate embodiment, the registers AAR 75, TAR 81, BAR 43 are eliminated and the equivalent information is obtained from other registers. Conceptually, however, these registers still exist even in the alternate embodiment. Following the ESA/390 architecture, an operand storage address consists of three components, a base, an index and a displacement. The base, index and displacement values from GPR's 66 are added in adder 89 to form the effective address which is latched into the ARSLT and/or AEAR registers 73 and 71. The adder 89 forms the effective address and it is placed into the AEAR effective address register 71 and into the ARSLT result register 73. The contents of the effective address register 71 are present in the A segment and are used, among other things, as part of the access to the storage unit Op pipe 12 to obtain an operand from the storage unit. The contents are also stored into the T operand address registers 1 and 2, TOAR1 79 and TOAR2 80 in the T segment. The contents of one of the registers 79 or 80 are passed to the B segment operand address registers, BOAR 87. The storage unit Op pipe 12 includes a register 90 which is loaded with the PSW Key which is to be used for key protection checking when the storage unit is accessed. The key from the register 90 is compared in comparator 91 with a key from the 0P TLB unit 84 to determine if a key match exits. The other portions of the TLB including the OP tags 85 and OP buffer 86 are also compared in comparator 92 to generate a TLB MATCH signal. If the key match from comparator 91 is not asserted, meaning that the key from register 91 does not match the key from the TLB unit, then the TLB match signal is not asserted meaning that a protection key violation has occurred. If the keys do match and all the other required matches are also present, the TLB match signal is asserted indicating that, among other things, no key protection violation has occurred. If the instruction being processed is a SPKA instruction, for example, then the processing during the X segment will cause a new PSW including a new PSW Key N to be stored through the RR result registers 48, 51 and 54 to the register array complex 17. The PSW will be loaded directly into the register array 56 and also will be stored into the PSW Key shadow register 95. The PSW register 95 holds a duplicate copy of PSW Key stored in the register array 56. Once the D-cycle of a SPKA instruction is complete, the effective address latched in the AEAR register 71 will be moved down the pipeline to provide a new PSW N in the W segment provided nothing prevents the new PSW N from being written. Instruction Fetch Platform--FIG. 5 In FIG. 5, further details of the I-Fetch Unit 14 of FIG. 1 are shown. In FIG. 5, the IDR Register 65 of FIG. 2 is expanded and is shown together with the circuitry for loading the IDR 65 with a sequence of instructions such as shown in TABLE A above. In FIG. 5, the IDR 65 is loaded from the storage unit cache 200 or the FDR's 201. Selection of instructions into the FDR's 201 is under control of the selector 202 which in turn is controlled by the FDR control 221. Selection of instructions from the cache 200 or the FDR's 201 is under control of the selection gates 204 and 205 which in turn are controlled by the IFCDB control 222. Selection of instructions from the FDR's 201 is under control of the selection gate 203 which in turn is controlled by the FDR control 221. Selection gate 206 controls selection of the selected output of selector 205 into the IB1 buffer register 210. Selector 206 is under the control of the IB1 control 223. The selection from the buffer register IB1 or from the selector 205 is under control of the selector 207 which in turn is controlled by the IB0 control 224. The selected instruction selected by selector 207 is latched in the buffer register IB0 211. Selection of the contents of the IB0 register 211 by selector 208 is under control of the HW select control 227 and selector 208 in turn feeds the selector 213 which is under control of the IFDB control 228. The output from selector 213 or from the cache through selector 204 is under control of selector 214 which in turn is controlled by the IDR select control 229. The selected instruction from selector 214 is input to the IDR 65 which is staged through the IDR 65 stages IDR, AIDR, TIDR, BIDR, XIDR, WIDR, and ZIDR labeled 65-1, 65-2, 65-3, 65-4, 65-5, 65-6 and 65-7, respectively. The output form the ZIDR stage of the IDR 65 is selected by the selectors 237 and 238 is the DBUS of the Op Address Unit of FIG. 2. In FIG. 5, a decoder 270 decodes the instruction length count, ILC, from the instruction in the D-segment instruction data register (IDR). The ILC is latched into the AILC register 271 and staged to the TILCR register 272 for the T-segment. The T-segment ILC, TILC, is added in adder 273 to the contents of the BNSIAR register 275 to form the next sequential instruction address (NSIA) which is stored back into the BNSIAR register 275. When a branch or other condition (BR) indicates that the next instruction in the sequence determined by adding the ILC to the current instruction is not the next instruction, the BNSIAR is loaded directly from the BOAR 87 of FIG. 2 under control of selector 274. The B-segment next sequential instruction address, BNSIA, is determined one instruction flow ahead of the current instruction in the pipeline. The BNSIA in the BNSIAR is a predicted value based on instruction length count. In FIG. 5, control of the selection of which instructions to feed into the IDR register 65 is under the selection controls 221 through 229 in control unit 242. These controls receive status information from status unit 245 which is loaded by the S-unit Fetch Status 244. Status unit 245 also provides status to the IFETCH state machine 243. The S-unit Fetch Status 244 loads the FDR status 231, IB1 status 232, IB0 status 233, IDR status 234, EXDR status 235 and the BUBBLE UP STATUS 236 in the status unit 245. The different status and control conditions and related circuits for a main frame computer are extensive, and many of the details related thereto are not relevant to the present invention, but such details can be found, for example, in the Amdahl 5995-A computers. The particular control and status conditions which are relevant for selecting instructions in connection with the present invention will be described in detail hereinafter. Register Array Complex--FIG. 6 In FIG. 6, further details of the register array complex 17 of FIG. 1 are shown. In FIG. 6, the ram complex 281 is like that shown in the above-identified cross-referenced application entitled MEMORY HAVING CONCURRENT READ AND WRITING FROM DIFFERENT ADDRESSES. The PSW register uses the same data in lines DI -- H and DI -- L which are the RRH and RRL lines, RRout, from the result register. Similarly, the read address lines RA -- 1 and RA -- 2, the write address lines WRA, the even and odd write strobes WR -- EVE and WR -- ODD, and the control lines CTRL are as shown in the cross-referenced application. The selectors 282 and 283 are like the selectors 24 and 25 in FIG. 3 of the cross-referenced application with the addition of the PSW inputs. The RAM complex 17 can concurrently read and write to different addresses. As described in detail in the cross-referenced application, the RAM complex includes two RAMs, each having an address selector. The RAM complex includes a data out multiplexer for selecting outputs from one of the RAM's. The RAM complex includes a tag array storing an array of tag bits, one for each address in the RAM's. The tag bits are used to control the address selectors and multiplexer. A single bit tag is provided in the tag array for each entry in the RAM's. The tag marks which one of the two RAM's has the valid data for the corresponding specific address tag. During a RAM read cycle, the tag routes the read address through the address selector for the correct one of the RAM's. The correct RAM is read using the read address and a staged copy of the tag controls the data out selector to select data from the correct RAM for the data out bus. During a concurrent read and write cycle, the tag selects the read addresses for one RAM and selects the write address for the other RAM. A write enable signal, is provided for the write RAM. The tag for the write address is then updated in the tag array to point to the write RAM. With the ability to read and write concurrently to different addresses, enhanced performance results by using only a single operation to concurrently read and write to the same address in the RAM complex. Multiple CPU System--FIG. 7 In FIG. 7, a multiple CPU embodiment of the FIG. 1 system is shown. The FIG. 7 system includes a service processor 6, I/O Unit 9, a main store 8, system control unit 7 and a plurality of CPU's including CPU(0), . . . , CPU(n-1). Each of the CPU's includes a register array including the register arrays RA(0), . . . , RA(n-1). The register arrays in each of the CPU's of FIG. 7 are like the register array complex 17 of FIG. 1 and of FIG. 6. Each register array RA(0), . . . , RA(n-1) in the CPU's of FIG. 7 includes 256 word registers that are under control of Control State instructions. A specific RAregister is identified by an 8-bit operand field in these instructions. Defined RA registers have two identifications: the functional name (for example GR0) and their register offset in the register array (for example RA(C0)). In addition to using one of the RA-manipulation instructions, some RA registers can be accessed directly by unique instructions that manipulate the functional registers (for example domain CRs can be loaded using the LCTL instruction). For such registers, there may be a preference in the means of access. For example, loading the RA copy of the system prefix has no effect on prefixing; the SPX instruction should be used. Note that the RA registers are not necessarily changed by an instruction addressing the register; some (for example the User State Old PSWs) can be changed due to an interruption or Control Interception (CI). Each RA contains architecturally-defined registers and controls, including Control State prefix, domain-native prefix, guest prefix, DAC, feature control bits, general and control registers. The Control State PSW is store in the PSW register in the RA complex as described in connection with FIG. 6. The host PSW to be saved in the interpretive-execution mode is saved in the storage data block (SDB) of main store 8. The host GRs 14 and 15 defined to be saved in the interpretive-execution mode are also saved in the SDB. The User State and Control State GRs are in the RA's. In main storage 8, the system storage area (SSA) stores the Control State Software (CSS) [both instructions and data] and the Hardware System Area (HSA), and (2) domain storage areas (DSA), one for each domain. Mapping of these address spaces to physical main storage is via blocks of storage and a domain's storage area is accessed using domain addresses. In User State, addresses are domain addresses of the current domain. In Control State, CPU generated addresses are generally system addresses. However, under the control of the Domain Access Controls register, some operand effective addresses are treated as domain addresses. In Control State, CSSW can select either User PSW<AS> and PSW<T> to determine the mode of accessing main storage, or it may choose to use another set of three bits to determine the mode of accessing main storage, which can be different from the current one, as specified by the user PSW. Interrupt Unit--FIG. 8 In FIG. 8, the interrupts are generated in the machine of FIG. 1 with different classes 1, 2, . . . , n as represented by interrupt generators 260, . . . , 265. The interrupt generators 260, . . . , 265 are the conventional hardware interrupt generators of the FIG. 1 system. The interrupts are stored into the interrupt registers 261 and are output through the interrupt mask 261 to the interrupt priority encoder 263 which enables the interrupt processor 266. The interrupt processor 266 is the conventional hardware in the FIG. 1 system for processing interrupts. In FIG. 8, the control software 264 is able to write directly into the interrupt register 261 thus enabling both the hardware interrupt requests from generators 260, . . . , 265 and software generated interrupts from control software 264 to be handled in a common, unified manner. Examples of the operation of the FIG. 8 unit and the FIG. 1 system are given in the following TABLE 2. TABLE 2______________________________________Control State User State______________________________________ ##STR2## ##STR3## ##STR4## ##STR5## ##STR6## ##STR7##______________________________________ In TABLE 2, various operations are performed by control state software using the register array complex 17 of FIG. 1 which is directly accessable by control state software 264. One particular register in array complex 17 used in the Control State by control state software is, by way of example, the Domain Pending Interruption Register (DPIR) which is register 58 in the TABLE 1 register complex array. The Domain Pending Interruption Register (DPIR) enables control state software (CSSW) to manipulate and monitor User State PER, Address Compare, and certain external and repressible machine check interruption conditions. The DPIR register stored by an RA instruction indicates whether any of the associated domain interruptions is pending. An RA instruction that loads a DPIR bit with 0 effectively clears the associated pending interruption. An RA-instruction that loads a DPIR bit with one effectively creates the associated pending interruption. In User State, certain CPU-specific interruption conditions (External, I/O, and Repressible Machine Check DPIR Controls) are defined to be pending for the logical processor (LP) when the bit in the DPIR associated with the condition is 1. When the LP becomes enabled for such interruptions, as defined in the IBM ESA/390 architecture, the interruption occurs and the associated DPIR bit is set to 0. These DPIR bits are set either by the CPU upon detection of the associated event, or by CSSW in Control State. The following DPIR bits are set only by CSSW: MA, IK, TS, TF, ED, TD, SV, VF. The IT bit may be set by CSSW and is always set by the CPU in System/370 User State when an interval timer interruption condition is recognized. In User State, if the LP is enabled for the associated event, an interruption will occur and the DPIR bit is set to 0. The DPIR PI bit is provided as a read-only summary of any MP synchronization conditions or any pending store PER, external, I/O, repressible machine check or stop interruption conditions that exist for the LP. It may be read by CSSW and will accurately reflect whether (PI=1) or not (PI=0) there are any MP synchronization conditions or any pending store PER, external, I/O or Repressible Machine check or stop interruptions for the LP. This includes both Control State and User State pending interruptions. Control State interruptions that are indicated by the PI bit have been conditioned by the appropriate USSIM bit. Setting the bit with an RA instruction has no effect on LP operations. The DPIR<PI> bit is used to monitor interruptions that become pending during the emulation of an interruptible instruction. The PI bit reflects the interruption status at the time that it is stored. A conceptually prior interruption condition, caused by a preceding instruction, such as setting the CPU Timer with a negative value, may or may not be indicated by the PI bit. While the invention has been particularly shown and described with reference to preferred embodiments thereof it will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes in form and details may be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention.

In a computer system including an interrupt processor for interrupting a program being processed by the computer system, a sub-system for processing interrupt requests to the interrupt processor. The sub-system comprises hardware circuit for generating hardware interrupt requests and control circuit for implementing control software where the control software causing software interrupt requests to be generated by said control circuit. An interrupt register stores and identifies both the hardware and software interrupt requests. A selection circuit selects and sends one of said stored interrupt request stored in the interrupt register to the interrupt processor for processing. The control circuit, under control of the control software, generates an end software interrupt requests for removing software interrupt request stored in the interrupt register such that software interrupt in the computer system can be generated and terminated under the control of the control software.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] This application is a continuation application of and claims priority to U.S. application Ser. No. 11/104,272, filed on Apr. 12, 2005, which application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/561,493, filed on Apr. 12, 2004. Both applications are hereby incorporated by reference. TECHNICAL FIELD [0002] This invention relates to the treatment of cardiac arrest in pediatric populations with automatic external defibrillators (AEDs). BACKGROUND [0003] Automatic External Defibrillators (AEDs) are used by non-medical personnel to defibrillate victims of cardiac arrest the prevalence of which is approximately 600,000 people per year, worldwide. In the past, these AEDs had only been available for the adult population, and the pediatric arrest victims were forced to wait valuable minutes for the professional rescuers such as paramedics, doctors or nurses to arrive. AEDs are now available that are designed specifically to be compatible for use on children. Because defibrillation energies are lower with children, various methods have been developed to accommodate this fact and provide a means of switching defibrillation energies if a pediatric arrest victim is present. One method, described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,101,413, determines a pediatric arrest victim is present if the AED detects that electrodes specifically designed for use with children are attached to the device, in which case the energy levels and voice prompts associated with energy delivery are adjusted to conform with those most appropriate for children. U.S. Patent Application 2003/0195567A1 describes a method that determines a victim is a child based on user input form the AED operator. The energy levels are set based on such indirect means as a measurement of the patient, e.g., the length of an anatomical feature of the victim may be correlated within the AED to a specific energy level. [0004] Resuscitation treatments for patients suffering from cardiac arrest generally include clearing and opening the patient's airway, providing rescue breathing for the patient, and applying chest compressions to provide blood flow to the victim's heart, brain and other vital organs. If the patient has a shockable heart rhythm, resuscitation also may include defibrillation therapy. The term basic life support (BLS) involves all the following elements: initial assessment; airway maintenance; expired air ventilation (rescue breathing); and chest compression. When all three [airway breathing, and circulation, including chest compressions] are combined, the term cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is used. In the case of pediatric arrest, CPR takes on a heightened prominence based on the fact that cardiac arrest is rare in children, and many more children are affected by respiratory arrest due to choking, drowning, poisoning and asthma. [0005] There are many different kinds of abnormal heart rhythms, some of which can be treated by defibrillation therapy (“shockable rhythms”) and some which cannot (non-shockable rhythms”). For example, most ECG rhythms that produce significant cardiac output are considered non-shockable (examples include normal sinus rhythms, certain bradycardias, and sinus tachycardias). There are also several abnormal ECG rhythms that do not result in significant cardiac output but are still considered non-shockable, since defibrillation treatment is usually ineffective under these conditions. Examples of these non-shockable rhythms include asystole, electromechanical disassociation and other pulseless electrical activity. Although a patient cannot remain alive with these non-viable, non-shockable rhythms, applying shocks will not help convert the rhythm. The primary examples of shockable rhythms, for which the caregiver should perform defibrillation, include ventricular fibrillation, ventricular tachycardia, and ventricular flutter. [0006] The current protocols recommended by the American Heart Association (AHA) are as follows: after using a defibrillator to apply one or more shocks to a patient who has a shockable ECG rhythm, the patient may nevertheless remain unconscious, in a shockable or non-shockable, perfusing or non-perfusing rhythm. If a non-perfusing rhythm is present, the caregiver may then resort to performing CPR for a period of time in order to provide continuing blood flow and oxygen to the patient's heart, brain and other vital organs. If a shockable rhythm continues to exist or develops during the delivery of CPR, further defibrillation attempts may be undertaken following this period of cardiopulmonary resuscitation. As long as the patient remains unconscious and without effective circulation, the caregiver can alternate between use of the defibrillator (for analyzing the electrical rhythm and possibly applying a shock) and performing cardio-pulmonary resuscitation (CPR). CPR generally involves a repeating pattern of five or fifteen chest compressions followed by a pause during which two rescue breaths are given. [0007] Defibrillation can be performed using an AED. The American Heart Association, European Resuscitation Council, and other similar agencies provide protocols for the treatment of victims of cardiac arrest that include the use of AEDs. These protocols define a sequence of steps to be followed in accessing the victim's condition and determining the appropriate treatments to be delivered during resuscitation. Caregivers who may be required to use an AED are trained to follow these protocols. [0008] Most automatic external defibrillators are actually semi-automatic external defibrillators (SAEDs), which require the caregiver to press a start or analyze button, after which the defibrillator analyzes the patient's ECG rhythm and advises the caregiver to provide a shock to the patient if the electrical rhythm is shockable. The caregiver is then responsible for pressing a control button to deliver the shock. Following shock delivery, the SAED may reanalyze the patient's ECG rhythm, automatically or manually, and advise additional shocks or instruct the caregiver to check the patient for signs of circulation (indicating that the defibrillation treatment was successful or that the rhythm is non-shockable) and to begin CPR if circulation has not been restored by the defibrillation attempts. Fully automatic external defibrillators, on the other hand, do not wait for user intervention before applying defibrillation shocks. As used below, automatic external defibrillators (AEDs) include semi-automatic external defibrillators (SAEDs). [0009] Automated External Defibrillators include signal processing software that analyzes ECG signals acquired from the victim to determine when a cardiac arrhythmia such as Ventricular Fibrillation (VF) or shockable ventricular tachycardia (VT) exists. Usually, these algorithms are designed to perform ECG analyses at specific times during the rescue event. The first ECG analysis is usually initiated within a few seconds following attachment of the defibrillation electrodes to the patient. Subsequent ECG analyses may or may not be initiated based upon the results of the first analysis. Typically if the first analysis detects a shockable rhythm, the rescuer is advised to deliver a defibrillation shock. Following the shock delivery a second analysis is automatically initiated to determine whether the defibrillation treatment was successful or not (i.e. the shockable ECG rhythm has been converted to a normal or other non-shockable rhythm). If this second analysis detects the continuing presence of a shockable arrhythmia, the AED advises the user to deliver a second defibrillation treatment. A third ECG analysis may then be initiated to determine whether the second shock was or was not effective. If a shockable rhythm persists, the rescuer is then advised to deliver a third defibrillation treatment. [0010] The typical algorithms process the ECG for measured features which will differentiate the rhythm as shockable (ventricular fibrillation (VF) and ventricular tachycardia (VT)) or non-shockable rhythms (normal sinus rhythms (NSR), abnormal rhythms (ABN), non-shockable VT's and asystole). Some of these features include R to R interval averaging, R to R interval variance, average and maximum signal amplitude, measures of baseline isoelectric time, QRS width, ECG first difference distributions, and parameters from frequency domain analysis 1 Analyses of annotated ECG databases establish the distribution of values for a given feature for shockable and non-shockable rhythms. Appropriate decision logic techniques can be used to combine this knowledge and produce the shock or non-shock decision. [0011] Although AEDs have been designed for use on adults and the ECG arrhythmia logic has been developed for the adult population, there is a clear need to extend the use of AEDs to children with cardiac arrest. Recent literature have reported the accuracies of adult based AED arrhythmia algorithms on ECG databases collected from children and have concluded they are safe and effective. However, there are significant differences between adult and pediatric ECG rhythms. For example, the pediatric ECG exhibits faster normal heart rates, narrower QRS widths, and shorter PR and QT intervals as compared to adults. Shockable ventricular tachycardia occurs at much higher rates (>200 BPM) in pediatric subjects than adults (>150 BPM). [0012] Following the third defibrillator shock or when any of the analyses described above detects a non-shockable rhythm, treatment protocols recommended by the American Heart Association and European Resuscitation Council require the rescuer to check the patient's pulse or to evaluate the patient for signs of circulation. If no pulse or signs of circulation are present, the rescuer is trained to perform CPR on the victim for a period of one or more minutes. Following this period of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (that includes rescue breathing and chest compressions) the AED reinitiates a series of up to three additional ECG analyses interspersed with appropriate defibrillation treatments as described above. The sequence of 3 ECG analyses/defibrillation shocks followed by 1-3 minutes of CPR, continues in a repetitive fashion for as long as the AED's power is turned on and the patient is connected to the AED device. Typically, the AED provides audio prompts to inform the rescuer when analyses are about to begin, what the analysis results were and when to start and stop the delivery of CPR. [0013] The AED can be used on adult and pediatric patients. However, the American Heart Association recommends a different protocol in the rescue of pediatric victims compared to the adult rescue protocol particularly with regards to the application of CPR. Because of the heightened prominence of airway and breathing with pediatric arrest victims, the AHA recommends that prior even to calling and activating emergency medical services (EMS) system, the child's airway is first checked for obstructions, the airway is cleared, and mouth to mouth breathing is performed in order to provide what is usually the primary treatment of respiration to the child. The AHA recommends a ratio 15 chest compressions to two ventilations in the case of an adult victim and a ratio of five chest compressions to one ventilation in the case of pediatric victims. The recommended rate of compressions in both adult and pediatric victims is 100 compressions per minute. The rationale for this difference in compression to ventilation ratios is that: 1) the most common cause in pediatric (<8 years of age) arrest is respiratory; and 2) respiratory rates in pediatric (<8 years of age) population are faster than respiratory rates in adults. In addition, the recommended depth of chest compression for pediatric victims (<8 years of age) is 1 to 1.5 inches while the recommended chest compression depth for adult and pediatric (>8 years of age) is 1.5 to 2 inches. [0014] Existing AEDs are unable to provide appropriate rescue protocol and ECG analysis for a pediatric (<8 years of age) victim that is different from an adult rescue protocol and ECG analysis. Also, a lay rescuer who is trained on pediatric resuscitation and is not aware of the AHA guidelines recommendations will not be able to provide an effective resuscitation for a pediatric victim when using these existing AEDs. SUMMARY [0015] In a first aspect, the invention features a device for assisting a rescuer in delivering therapy to an adult or pediatric patient, the device comprising a user interface comprising a display and/or audio speakers, the user interface being configured to deliver prompts to a rescuer to assist the rescuer in delivering therapy to a patient, a processor configured to provide prompts to the user interface and to perform an ECG analysis algorithm on ECG information detected from the patient, at least one detection element configured to determine without rescuer input via the user interface that a pediatric patient is being treated, wherein if a pediatric patient is detected, the processor modifies the ECG analysis algorithm to use an ECG analysis algorithm configured for a pediatric patient rather than for an adult patient. [0016] In a second aspect, the invention features a device for assisting a rescuer in delivering therapy to an adult or pediatric patient, the device comprising a user interface comprising a display and/or audio speakers, the user interface being configured to deliver prompts to a rescuer to assist the rescuer in delivering therapy to a patient, a processor configured to provide prompts to the user interface and to perform an ECG analysis algorithm on ECG information detected from the patient, at least one detection element configured to determine without rescuer input via the user interface that a pediatric patient is being treated, wherein if a pediatric patient is detected, the processor modifies the prompts provided to the user interface to use prompts adapted for a pediatric patient rather than for an adult patient. [0017] In a third aspect, the invention features a device for assisting a rescuer in delivering therapy to an adult or pediatric patient, the device comprising a user interface comprising a display and/or audio speakers, the user interface being configured to deliver prompts to a rescuer to assist the rescuer in delivering therapy to a patient, a processor configured to provide prompts to the user interface and to perform an ECG analysis algorithm on ECG information detected from the patient, at least one detection element configured to determine without rescuer input via the user interface that a pediatric patient is being treated, wherein if a pediatric patient is detected, the processor modifies the CPR protocol that governs CPR prompts provided to the user interface to use CPR prompts adapted for a pediatric patient rather than for an adult patient. [0018] In preferred implementations, one or more of the following features may be incorporated. The invention may further comprise an automatic external defibrillator for delivering defibrillation shocks to the patient using defibrillation electrodes applied to the patient. The prompts provided via the user interface may comprise prompts as to CPR chest compression, and the CPR chest compression prompts may be changed from an adult set of prompts to a pediatric set of prompts if a pediatric patient is detected. The pediatric set of prompts may address depth and rate of CPR chest compressions. The invention may further comprise one or more sensors for measuring the rate and depth of CPR related chest compressions. The detection element may comprise circuitry for detecting whether a pediatric or an adult defibrillation electrode is in use. The detection element may comprise a force or pressure sensor located on a shoulder support element for sensing force or pressure from the weight of the patient. The energy of defibrillation shocks may be determined based in part on information as to the patient's weight obtained from the force or pressure sensor on the shoulder support. The shoulder support element may comprise a removable cover of the device. The detection element may comprise one or more sensors for determining from the separation of defibrillation electrodes placed on the patient whether the patient is a pediatric or adult patient. [0019] In a fourth aspect, the invention features an external defibrillation device for assisting a rescuer in delivering defibrillation therapy to an adult or pediatric patient, the device comprising a user interface comprising a display or audio speakers, the user interface being configured to deliver prompts to a rescuer to assist the rescuer in delivering therapy to a patient, a processor configured to provide prompts to the user interface and to perform an ECG analysis algorithm on ECG information detected from the patient, a force or pressure sensor for detecting information pertaining to the weight of the patient, wherein the processor modifies the defibrillation energy delivered to the patient based on the information pertaining to the weight of the patient. [0020] In preferred implementations, one or more of the following features may be incorporated. The processor may modify the ECG analysis algorithm based on the information pertaining to the weight of the patient. The force or pressure sensor may be incorporated into a shoulder support that is placed under the shoulders of the patient. The shoulder support may be a cover for the defibrillator. The cover may have an upper surface that is inclined at an angle that makes it suitable to be used to properly position the patient's airway by lifting the patient's shoulders to cause the patient's head to tilt back at an angle. The cover may be configured to be positioned under a patient's neck and shoulders to support the patient's shoulders and neck in a way that helps to maintain the patient's airway in an open position. The information from sensors in the shoulder support element may be communicated to the defibrillator by one or more of the following techniques: by a wire extending from the support to the defibrillator, or by a wireless communication connection between the support and the defibrillator. [0021] In a fifth aspect, the invention features an external defibrillation device for assisting a rescuer in delivering defibrillation therapy to an adult or pediatric patient, the device comprising a user interface comprising a display or audio speakers, the user interface being configured to deliver prompts to a rescuer to assist the rescuer in delivering therapy to a patient, a processor configured to provide prompts to the user interface and to perform an ECG analysis algorithm on ECG information detected from the patient, a shoulder support element for placement under the shoulders of the patient to assist in keeping the airway open, sensors in the shoulder support element for determining if the patient's shoulders have been properly positioned on the element. [0022] In preferred implementations, one or more of the following features may be incorporated. The shoulder support element may comprise a cover for the device. [0023] In a sixth aspect, the invention features an external defibrillation device for assisting a rescuer in delivering defibrillation therapy to an adult or pediatric patient, the device comprising a user interface comprising a display or audio speakers, the user interface being configured to deliver prompts to a rescuer to assist the rescuer in delivering therapy to a patient, a processor configured to provide prompts to the user interface and to perform an ECG analysis algorithm on ECG information detected from the patient, defibrillation electrodes for placement on the chest of the patient, one or more sensors located in one or both of the defibrillation electrodes, the sensors being configured to determine a distance between the electrodes after they are placed on the patient's chest, wherein the processor can determine information pertaining to the size of the patient from the distance determined from the one or more sensors, and wherein the processor can vary the prompts, or the ECG analysis algorithm, or the energy delivered to the patient based on the information pertaining to the size of the patient. [0024] In preferred implementations, one or more of the following features may be incorporated. The processor may estimate the circumferential girth of the patient from the information obtained from the sensors. The processor may estimate the age of the patient from the information obtained from the sensors. Modifications to the ECG analysis algorithm may include one or more of the following: heart rate criteria, QRS width criteria, VF frequency content criteria, or ECG amplitude criteria. Modifications to the prompts may include changing a sequence of prompts, a number of prompts, or a type of prompts. The prompts may include prompts on CPR compression and CPR ventilation, and the compression-ventilation ratio may be about 5:1 for pediatric patients and about 15:2 for adult patients. The prompts may include prompts on CPR compression depth, and the desired compression depth for pediatric patients may be in the range of about 1.0 to 1.5 inches, and the desired compression depth for adult patients may be in the range of about 1.0 to 2.0 inches. The prompts may include a prompt informing the rescuer as to whether the device is operating in an adult or pediatric mode. The prompts may include prompting of the CPR interval T1 based on one or more of patient rhythm, age, or weight. The invention may further comprise one or more sensors and prompts for detecting and prompting the user to achieve a complete chest release during CPR. The prompts may include pediatric specific prompts for the compression rate R1. The prompts may include adult specific prompts for the compression rate R1. [0025] The invention may feature a system that will alter the AED arrhythmia processing for adults or children based the automatic sensing or manual assignment of the patient type. Altering the AED arrhythmia processing for pediatric subjects based on the pediatric specific logic may achieve higher sensitivity and specificity of the shock decision that will significantly improve the safety and effective of the device. [0026] The invention may provide an improved method for providing an appropriate rescue protocol and ECG analysis based on patient age, thoracic circumferential girth and weight in an automated fashion without the need for any user intervention. Utilizing a means of detecting a patient's age, weight or thoracic circumferential girth, the AED can automatically switch to providing the appropriate rescue protocol and optimizing performance of the ECG analysis algorithm for a specific victim age and weight. If an untrained rescuer activates the proposed AED, the protocol is tailored to instruct the user to provide one minute of CPR to the pediatric (<8 years of age) victim before activating the EMS system. The protocol is tailored to instruct the user to activate the EMS system before providing any treatment or CPR to an adult victim. Also, since the AED is capable of detecting the depth of chest compression when used with a set of defibrillation electrodes embedding a chest compression detector, it can guide the rescuer to administer appropriate chest compression-ventilation ratio and depth of compressions based on specific victim age and weight. Furthermore, the proposed AED can select a preconfigured CPR period length based on the type of rhythm when the CPR interval is entered. For example, the pre-programmed CPR period when an asystole, PEA, or normal rhythm is detected can be longer than after a ventricular fibrillation or tachycardia is detected. [0027] The invention may provide a more comprehensive and effective system for delivering treatment to pediatric arrest victims, providing an appropriate rescue protocol and ECG analysis based on patient age, thoracic circumferential girth and weight in an automated fashion without the need for any user intervention. [0028] The invention may feature a device for assisting a rescuer in delivering therapy to an adult or pediatric patient, the device comprising a user interface comprising a display or audio speakers, the user interface being configured to deliver prompts to a rescuer to assist the rescuer in delivering therapy to a patient; a processor configured to provide prompts to the user interface and to perform an ECG analysis algorithm on ECG information detected from the patient; at least one detection element configured to determine without rescuer input via the user interface that a pediatric patient is being treated; wherein, if a pediatric patient is detected, the processor modifies the ECG analysis algorithm or the prompts provided to the user interface to use an ECG analysis algorithm or prompts better suited to a pediatric patient than to an adult patient. [0029] The device may incorporate an automatic external defibrillator for delivering defibrillation shocks to the patient using defibrillation electrodes applied to the patient. The prompts provided via the user interface may comprise prompts as to CPR chest compression, and the CPR chest compression prompts are changed from an adult set of prompts to a pediatric set of prompts if a pediatric patient is detected. The pediatric set of prompts may address depth and rate of CPR chest compressions. One or more sensors for measuring the rate and depth of CPR related chest compressions may be provided. The detection element may comprise circuitry for detecting whether a pediatric or an adult defibrillation electrode is in use. The detection element may comprise a force or pressure sensor located on a shoulder support element for sensing force or pressure from the weight of the patient. The energy of defibrillation shocks may be determined based in part on information as to the patient's weight obtained from the force or pressure sensor on the shoulder support. The shoulder support element may comprise a removable cover of the device. The detection element may comprise one or more sensors for determining from the separation of defibrillation electrodes placed on the patient whether the patient is a pediatric or adult patient. [0030] The AED may include the capability of measuring the rate and depth of CPR related chest compressions and automatically switch when specific defibrillation electrode types are detected to provide appropriate rescue protocol, ECG analysis, and CPR interval length and guidance based on the victim's determined age. Based on the determined patient age, appropriate ventilation to compression ratio and compression interval length are determined, and guidance is provided to the rescuer to provide appropriate chest compressions/ventilation ratio and rate and compression depth via voice and text prompts throughout the entire rescue process. [0031] The invention may feature an external defibrillation device for assisting a rescuer in delivering defibrillation therapy to an adult or pediatric patient. The device may comprise a user interface comprising a display or audio speakers, the user interface being configured to deliver prompts to a rescuer to assist the rescuer in delivering therapy to a patient; a processor configured to provide prompts to the user interface and to perform an ECG analysis algorithm on ECG information detected from the patient; a force or pressure sensor for detecting information pertaining to the weight of the patient; wherein the processor modifies the defibrillation energy delivered to the patient based on the information pertaining to the weight of the patient. [0032] The processor may modify the ECG analysis algorithm based on the information pertaining to the weight of the patient. The force or pressure sensor may be incorporated into a shoulder support that is placed under the shoulders of the patient. The shoulder support may be a cover for the defibrillator. The cover may have an upper surface that is inclined at an angle that makes it suitable to be used to properly position the patient's airway by lifting the patient's shoulders to cause the patient's head to tilt back at an angle. The cover may be configured to be positioned under a patient's neck and shoulders to support the patient's shoulders and neck in a way that helps to maintain the patient's airway in an open position. The information from sensors in the shoulder support element may be communicated to the defibrillator by one or more of the following techniques: by a wire extending from the support to the defibrillator, or by a wireless communication connection between the support and the defibrillator. [0033] Some implementations may provide an automated means for determining the age of the victim with greater specificity. Victim weight is a commonly used clinical measure for determining defibrillation energies for children. An integrated force sensor may be provided within the AED for measuring the patient's weight and the AED will then adjust the defibrillation energy and ECG analysis parameters based on the measured weight. [0034] The force sensor may be incorporated into the cover of the AED. The cover has an upper surface that is inclined at an angle that makes it suitable to be used to properly position the patient's airway, by, for instance, lifting the patient's shoulders thereby causing the patient's head to tilt back at the proper angle. The cover is constructed to be positioned under a patient's neck and shoulders to support the patient's shoulders and neck in a way that helps to maintain his airway in an open position, i.e., maintaining the patient in the head tuck-chin lift position. When a caregiver encounters a person who appears to be suffering from cardiac arrest, the caregiver should follow recommended resuscitation procedures, such as are specified by the AHA Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care. If there is no evidence of head or neck trauma, the caregiver should clear any debris from the patient's airway. After this has been done, the caregiver should roll the patient onto his side, place cover under the patient's shoulders, and roll the patient back onto his back. The cover should be positioned so as to support the patient in the head tilt-chin lift position. The caregiver can then proceed with CPR and/or use of the defibrillator. The positions (a patient in the head lift-chin tilt position and a patient with a closed airway) are also shown in the AHA Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care, Aug. 22, 2000, p. 1-32, FIGS. 7 and 8 . The cover is provided with a detection means for determining if the patient's shoulders have been properly positioned on the cover. Communication of the detection means located in the cover to the processor in the device housing can be accomplished by making the cover an integral element of the device housing, for instance via a hinge element or by providing an interconnection element such as a flat flexible cable. Communication may also be accomplished wirelessly via such technologies as Bluetooth or inductive methods. When the patient's shoulders are placed on the cover, the measured force is communicated to the AED. [0035] The invention may feature an external defibrillation device for assisting a rescuer in delivering defibrillation therapy to an adult or pediatric patient, the device comprising a user interface comprising a display or audio speakers, the user interface being configured to deliver prompts to a rescuer to assist the rescuer in delivering therapy to a patient; a processor configured to provide prompts to the user interface and to perform an ECG analysis algorithm on ECG information detected from the patient; a shoulder support element for placement under the shoulders of the patient to assist in keeping the airway open; sensors in the shoulder support element for determining if the patient's shoulders have been properly positioned on the element. [0036] The invention may feature an external defibrillation device for assisting a rescuer in delivering defibrillation therapy to an adult or pediatric patient, the device comprising a user interface comprising a display or audio speakers, the user interface being configured to deliver prompts to a rescuer to assist the rescuer in delivering therapy to a patient; a processor configured to provide prompts to the user interface and to perform an ECG analysis algorithm on ECG information detected from the patient; defibrillation electrodes for placement on the chest of the patient; one or more sensors located in one or both of the defibrillation electrodes, the sensors being configured to determine a distance between the electrodes after they are placed on the patient's chest; wherein the processor can determine information pertaining to the size of the patient from the distance determined from the one or more sensors, and wherein the processor can vary the prompts, or the ECG analysis algorithm, or the energy delivered to the patient based on the information pertaining to the size of the patient. [0037] The processor may estimate the circumferential girth of the patient from the information obtained from the sensors. The processor may estimate the age of the patient from the information obtained from the sensors. [0038] The sensor elements may be fabricated into the two defibrillation electrodes placed on the victim's chest. The electrodes may be constructed such that the relative distance between the electrodes can be determined by the AED. Based on that relative distance, the circumferential girth can be calculated by the AED and used as a means of estimating patient age as well as delivering the appropriate energy level. [0039] Other features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the description and drawings, and from the claims. DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS [0040] FIG. 1 is a perspective view of an AED with its cover on. [0041] FIG. 2 is a perspective view of the AED of FIG. 1 with the cover removed. [0042] FIG. 3 is a block diagram of the AED. [0043] FIG. 4 is a plan view of the graphical interface decal used on the cover of the AED of FIG. 1 . [0044] FIG. 5 is a plan view of the graphical interface decal used on the device housing of the AED of FIG. 1 , as shown in FIG. 2 . [0045] FIG. 6 a is a flow diagram for the pediatric AED resuscitation protocol. [0046] FIG. 6 b is a flow diagram for the adult AED resuscitation protocol. [0047] FIG. 7 shows an exploded perspective view of the cover and housing. [0048] FIG. 8 shows a side plan view of the cover indicating angle ‘A’. [0049] FIGS. 9 a and 9 b show the effect on the patient's airway of placing the cover beneath a patient's shoulders. [0050] FIG. 10 shows the graphical instructions on the cover for placing the cover under a patient's shoulders. [0051] FIG. 11 shows an integrated electrode pad. [0052] FIG. 12 is a flow diagram of the arrhythmia processing in the AED. [0053] FIG. 13 is a flow diagram of mode specific processing for enhancing QRS detection. [0054] FIG. 14 is a flow diagram of mode specific processing for enhancing rhythm classification logic and shock determination. [0055] FIG. 15 is an example AED arrhythmia logic table for an adult. [0056] FIG. 16 is an example AED arrhythmia logic table for a child. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0057] There are a great many possible implementations of the invention, too many to describe herein. Some possible implementations that are presently preferred are described below. It cannot be emphasized too strongly, however, that these are descriptions of implementations of the invention, and not descriptions of the invention, which is not limited to the detailed implementations described in this section but is described in broader terms in the claims. [0058] The terms “caregiver”, “rescuer” and “user” are used interchangeably in the description of the invention and refer to the operator of the device providing care to the patient. “Victim” is also used interchangeably with “patient”. [0059] Referring to FIGS. 1 and 2 , an automated external defibrillator 10 includes a removable cover 12 and a device housing 14 . The defibrillator 10 is shown with cover 12 removed in FIG. 2 . An electrode assembly 16 (or a pair of separate electrodes) is connected to the device housing 14 by a cable 18 . Electrode assembly 16 is stored under cover 12 when the defibrillator is not in use. [0060] Referring to FIG. 3 , the invention includes a processor means 20 , a user interface 21 including such elements as a graphical 22 or text display 23 or an audio output such as a speaker 24 , and a detection means 25 for determining whether at least one of a series of steps in a protocol has been completed successfully. In the preferred embodiment, the detection means 25 also includes the ability to determine both whether a particular step has been initiated by a user and additionally whether that particular step has been successfully completed by a user. Based on usability studies in either simulated or actual use, common user errors are determined and specific detection means are provided for determining if the most prevalent errors have occurred. [0061] Device housing 14 includes a power button 15 and a status indicator 17 . Status indicator 17 indicates to the caregiver whether the defibrillator is ready to use. [0062] The cover 12 includes a cover decal 30 ( FIGS. 1 and 4 ) including a logo 31 and a series of graphics 32 , 34 and 36 . Logo 31 may provide information concerning the manufacturer of the device and that the device is a defibrillator (e.g., “ZOLL AED”, as shown in FIG. 1 , indicating that the device is a Semi-automatic External Defibrillator available from ZOLL Medical). Graphics 32 , 34 and 36 lead the caregiver through the initial stages of a cardiac resuscitation sequence as outlined in the AHA's AED treatment algorithm for Emergency Cardiac Care pending arrival of emergency medical personnel. (See “Guidelines 2000 for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care. Supplement to Circulation,” Volume 102, Number 8, Aug. 22, 2000, pp. 1-67.) Thus, graphic 32 , showing the caregiver and patient, indicates that the caregiver should first check the patient for responsiveness, e.g., by shaking the patient gently and asking if the patient is okay. Next, graphic 34 , showing a telephone and an emergency vehicle, indicates that the caregiver should call for emergency assistance prior to administering resuscitation. Finally, graphic 36 indicates that after these steps have been performed the caregiver should remove the cover 12 of the defibrillator, remove the electrode assembly 16 stored under the lid, and turn the power on by depressing button 15 . The graphics are arranged in clockwise order, with the first step in the upper left, since this is the order most caregivers would intuitively follow. However, in this case the order in which the caregiver performs the steps is not critical, and thus for simplicity no other indication of the order of steps is provided. [0063] The cover 12 is constructed to be positioned under a patient's neck and shoulders, as shown in FIGS. 9 a and 9 b to support the patient's shoulders and neck in a way that helps to maintain his airway in an open position, i.e., maintaining the patient in the head tuck-chin lift position. The cover is preferably formed of a relatively rigid plastic with sufficient wall thickness to provide firm support during resuscitation. Suitable plastics include, for example, ABS, polypropylene, and ABS/polypropylene blends. [0064] Prior to administering treatment for cardiac arrest, the caregiver should make sure that the patient's airway is clear and unobstructed, to assure passage of air into the lungs. To prevent obstruction of the airway by the patient's tongue and epiglottis (e.g., as shown in FIG. 9 a ), it is desirable that the patient be put in a position in which the neck is supported in an elevated position with the head tilted back and down. Positioning the patient in this manner is referred to in the American Heart Association Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care as the “head tilt-chin lift maneuver.” The head tilt-chin lift position provides a relatively straight, open airway to the lungs through the mouth and trachea. However, it may be difficult to maintain the patient in this position during emergency treatment. [0065] The cover 12 has an upper surface 24 that is inclined at an angle A ( FIG. 8 ) of from about 10 to 25 degrees, e.g., 15 to 20 degrees, so as to lift the patient's shoulders and thereby cause the patient's head to tilt back. The upper surface 24 is smoothly curved to facilitate positioning of the patient. A curved surface, e.g., having a radius of curvature of from about 20 to 30 inches, generally provides better positioning than a flat surface. At its highest point, the cover 12 has a height H ( FIG. 8 ) of from about 7.5 to 10 cm. To accommodate the width of most patients' shoulders, the cover 12 preferably has a width W ( FIG. 8 ) of at least 6 inches, e.g., from about 6 to 10 inches. If the cover 12 is not wide enough, the patient's neck and shoulders may move around during chest compressions, reducing the effectiveness of the device. The positions shown in FIGS. 9 a and 9 b (a patient in the head lift-chin tilt position and a patient with a closed airway) are also shown in the AHA Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care, Aug. 22, 2000, p. I-32, FIGS. 7 and 8 . [0066] In a preferred implementation, if on power-up, the AED detects that the pediatric defibrillation pads are attached then the AED will automatically start a pediatric rescue protocol. FIG. 6 a shows the details of one instance of the pediatric protocol. The device will output voice/text prompts indicating to the rescuer to check the victim's responsiveness (i.e., “Check Responsiveness”) and allow a preprogrammed time interval (e.g., 4 seconds) to allow for checking the responsiveness before moving to the next state. The device will next output voice/text prompts instructing the rescuer to check breathing (example “Check Breathing”) and then allow a preprogrammed time interval (e.g., 7 seconds) to check the victim's breathing. The AED will next output voice/text prompts instructing the rescuer to check the victim's pulse (example “Check Pulse”) and then allow a preprogrammed time interval (e.g., 10 sec) for checking the victim's pulse. The AED will then enter a CPR state where it outputs voice/text prompts instructing the rescuer to start chest compressions (e.g., “If No Pulse, Start Chest Compressions”). While in this CPR state, the chest compression signal is received by ‘Detect & Increment Chest Compressions Counter’ function that detects chest compressions and counts them. While the number of chest compressions is less than 5, the depth of each detected compression is evaluated. If the depth of the detected compression is not higher than 1″, the rescuer is instructed to push harder on the victims chest by outputting “Push Harder” voice/text prompts and return to ‘Detect & Increment Chest Compression count’ state. Else, if the depth of the detected chest compression exceeds 1″, this depth is evaluated again. If the depth of the detected compression is less than 1.5″, a check is made for complete hand release to allow the victim's chest to recoil. If the rescuer hand is released off the victim chest after every compression, then the AED checks if the compression rate is higher than a preprogrammed R1 rate. If the compression rate is higher than R1, the AED output voice/text prompts indicating effective compressions “Good Compressions”. Else, the compression rate is less than R1, the AED output voice/text prompts instructing the rescuer to press faster and return to ‘Detect & Increment Chest Compression count’ state. [0067] If the rescuer is not releasing the hands off the chest after each compression, the AED instructs the user to release the hands off the victim's chest after each compression by outputting voice/text prompts “Release Hands Off Chest After Pushing”, then returns to ‘Detect & Increment Chest Compressions Count’ state. If the depth of the detected chest compression is greater than 1.5″, the AED instructs the rescuer to push on the victim chest with less force by outputting the prompt “Push With Less Force”, then returns to ‘Detect & Increment Chest Compressions Count’ state. If the number of chest compressions exceeds 5, the device instructs the rescuer to stop compressions and give the victim one breath by outputting voice/text prompts “Stop Compressions, Give One Breath”, then checks if the CPR state time interval exceeds a timer T1. If CPR state time interval is less than T1, the chest compression counter is reset and the AED returns to ‘Detect & Increment Chest Compressions Count’ state. If the CPR state time interval exceeds T1, the AED instructs the rescuer to activate the EMS system by calling 911 and then the AED transitions to ‘Execute 3 Shock Sequence, Set T1’ state. In this state, the “Pediatric ECG Analysis Algorithm” is executed. If the first analysis detects a non-shockable rhythm, the AED transitions to the CPR state for another cycle of CPR. Else, if the first analysis detects a shockable rhythm, the rescuer is advised to deliver a defibrillation shock. Following the shock delivery a second analysis is automatically initiated to determine whether the defibrillation treatment was successful or not (i.e. the shockable ECG rhythm has been converted to a normal or other non-shockable rhythm). If this second analysis detects the continuing presence of a shockable arrhythmia, the AED advises the user to deliver a second defibrillation treatment. [0068] A third ECG analysis is automatically initiated to determine whether the second shock was or was not effective. If a shockable rhythm persists, the rescuer is then advised to deliver a third defibrillation treatment. Following the third defibrillator shock or when any of the analyses described above detects a non-shockable rhythm, the AED transitions to the CPR state for another cycle of chest compressions and ventilation. Also In the ‘Execute 3 Shock Sequence, Set T1’ state, T1 is set to a preprogrammed value based on the type of the detected rhythm: normal, asystole, non-conductive, ventricular tachycardia or ventricular fibrillation. For instance, the asystole and non-conductive rhythms may require longer CPR periods than 1 minute in such case the ‘Execute 3 Shock Sequence, Set T1’ task will set the T1 to a preprogrammed value appropriate for pediatric asystole or non-conductive rhythms that may be longer than one minute. In the case of an arrhythmia, the required CPR time may be only 1 minute in such case the ‘Execute 3 Shock Sequence, Set T1’ task will set the T1 to a preprogrammed value appropriate for pediatric arrhythmia rhythms that may be one minute. In the case of normal rhythm, the required CPR time may be only 1 minute in such case the ‘Execute 3 Shock Sequence, Set T1’ task will set the T1 to a preprogrammed value appropriate for pediatric pediatric rhythms that may be one minute or longer. [0069] If on the other hand, the AED detects adult defibrillation pads on power-up, the AED will automatically start an adult rescue protocol. FIG. 6 b shows the details of one instance of the adult rescue protocol. The AED will output voice/text prompts indicating to the rescuer to check the victim's responsiveness (i.e., “Check Responsiveness”) and allow a preprogrammed time interval (i.e., 4 seconds) to expire to allow for checking the responsiveness before moving to the next state. Next, the AED instructs the rescuer to activate the EMS system by calling 911 and allow a preprogrammed time interval (e.g., 4 seconds) to expire to allow someone call for help before moving to the next state. The AED will next output voice/text prompts instructing the rescuer to check breathing (e.g., “Check Breathing”) and then allow a preprogrammed time interval (example: 7 seconds) to check breathing. The device will next output voice/text prompts instructing the rescuer to check the victim's pulse (e.g., “Check Pulse”) and then allow a preprogrammed time interval (e.g., 10 seconds) for the pulse check. The AED will then transitions to ‘Execute 3 Shock Sequence, Set T1’ state. In this state, the “Adult ECG Analysis Algorithm” is executed. If the first analysis detects a non-shockable rhythm, the AED will transition to the CPR state. Else, if the first analysis detects a shockable rhythm, the rescuer is advised to deliver a defibrillation shock. [0070] Following the shock delivery a second analysis is automatically initiated to determine whether the defibrillation treatment was successful or not (i.e. the shockable ECG rhythm has been converted to a normal or other non-shockable rhythm). If this second analysis detects the continuing presence of a shockable arrhythmia, the AED advises the user to deliver a second defibrillation treatment. A third ECG analysis is automatically initiated to determine whether the second shock was or was not effective. If a shockable rhythm persists, the rescuer is then advised to deliver a third defibrillation treatment. Following the third defibrillator shock or when any of the analyses described above detects a non-shockable rhythm, the device transition to the CPR state for another cycle of CPR. Also In the ‘Execute 3 Shock Sequence, Set T1 state, T1 is set to a preprogrammed value based on the type of the detected rhythm: normal, asystole, non-conductive, ventricular tachycardia or ventricular fibrillation. For instance, the asystole and non-conductive rhythms may require longer CPR periods than 1 minute in such case the ‘Execute 3 Shock Sequence, Set T1’ task will set the T1 to a preprogrammed value appropriate for adult asystole or non-conductive rhythms that may be longer than one minute. In the case of an arrhythmia, the required CPR time may be only 1 minute in such case the ‘Execute 3 Shock Sequence, Set T1 task will set the T1 to a preprogrammed value appropriate for adult arrhythmia rhythms that may be one minute. In the case of normal rhythm, the required CPR time may be only 1 minute in such case the ‘Execute 3 Shock Sequence, Set T1 task will set the T1 to a preprogrammed value appropriate for adult rhythms that may be one minute or longer. Upon entering the CPR state, the AED outputs voice/text prompts instructing the rescuer to start chest compressions (example “If No Pulse, Start Chest Compressions”). While in this CPR state the chest compression signal is received by ‘Detect & Increment Chest Compressions Counter’ function that detects chest compressions and counts them. While the number of chest compressions is less than 15, the depth of each detected compression is evaluated. If the depth of the detected compression is not higher than 1.5″, the rescuer is instructed to push harder on the victims chest by outputting “Push Harder” voice/text prompts and return to ‘Detect & Increment Chest Compression count’ state. Else, if the depth of the detected chest compression exceeds 1.5″, this depth is evaluated again. If the depth of the detected compression is less than 2″, a check is made for complete hand release. If the rescuer hand is released off the victim chest after every compression to allow for complete chest recoil, then the AED checks if the compression rate is higher than a preprogrammed R1 rate. If the compression rate is higher than R1, the AED output voice/text prompts indicating effective compressions “Good Compressions”. Else, the compression rate is less than R1, the AED output voice/text prompts instructing the rescuer to press faster and return to ‘Detect & Increment Chest Compression count’ state. [0071] If the rescuer is not releasing the hands off the chest after each compression, the device instructs the user to release the hands off the victim's chest after each compression to provide more effective CPR by outputting voice/text prompts “Release Hands Off Chest After Pushing”, then returns to ‘Detect & Increment Chest Compressions Count’ state. If the depth of the detected chest compression is greater than 3″, the device instructs the rescuer to push on the victim chest with less force by outputting the prompt “Push With Less Force”, then checks if compression rate is higher than a preprogrammed R1 rate. If the compression rate is higher than R1, the AED output voice/text prompts indicating effective compressions. Else, the compression rate is less than R1, the AED output voice/text prompts instructing the rescuer to press faster. If the number of chest compressions exceeds 15, the device instructs the rescuer to stop compressions and give the victim two breaths by outputting voice/text prompts “Stop Compressions, Give Two Breaths”, then checks if the CPR state time interval exceeds a selected timer T1. [0072] If CPR state time interval is less than T1, the chest compression counter is reset and the device returns to ‘Detect & Increment Chest Compressions Count’ state. If the CPR state time interval exceeds T1, the AED will transition to ‘Execute 3 Shock Sequence, Set T1 state. [0073] FIG. 12 shows an example of a AED Arrhythmia processing flow diagram. Since the pediatric QRS is narrower and the heart faster than adult, the QRS detection system can be tailored to be more sensitive to the ECG signal. The flow diagram also shows that the arrhythmia classification logic and shock decision logic can be altered to improve the specificity and sensitivity. [0074] In the Signal Conditioning block, the ECG signal is band passed and notch filtered to remove baseline offsets, high frequency noise, and line noise frequency noise. The noise Detection block performs baseline, motion, high frequency, muscle, and saturation noise detections and flags the ECG Signal status data accordingly. [0075] In the QRS detection block, the processing produces a QRS detection signal by performing a QRS based matched filter on the filtered ECG data. The type of processing performed is dependant on the Processing Mode Setting (reference FIG. 13 ). [0076] Once the location of the QRS is detected in the signal stream, the QRS Detection Block will process the signal around the QRS detection to determine specific measurements such as R-R interval, QRS width, QRS area, and other features which will support classification of the QRS complex and its underlying rhythm. The Rhythm Measurement block will perform analysis on the QRS measures and ECG signal to produce rhythm based measures required for rhythm classification. The Rhythm Determination and Shock Determination Decision Logic block will process the QRS detection and rhythm data to classify the ECG rhythm and make a shock versus no shock decision. Many beat and rhythm classification techniques are know in the art and include heuristic logic, morphological analysis, expert system analysis, and statistical clustering techniques. The outputs from the Rhythm Determination and Shock Determination Decision Logic block are used by the AED to shock the victim (fully automatic AED) or notify the user to deliver a shock (semi-automatic AED) or begin other interventions such as CPR. [0077] FIG. 13 shows an example of the use of mode specific processing to enhance QRS detection. In the PEDI Mode selection block, the matched filter characteristics are chosen based on the Processing Mode setting (Adult or Pediatric) to produce an optimal detection signal for that class of patients. A threshold detection scheme is used to determine the location of the QRS complexes in the detection signal. A threshold system is utilized which has been optimized for use with the respective QRS matched filter. The QRS Detection Selection block determines whether to perform QRS Measurements (QRS Detected) or perform an Asystole Check (QRS Not Detected). The Asystole check will process a detection timeout, adjust detection thresholds, and notify the target system if an asystole state is present. [0078] FIG. 14 shows an example of the use of mode specific processing to enhance the rhythm classification logic and shock decision determination. The PEDI Mode Selection block chooses which Patient Mode Rhythm Logic to process. Rhythm classification logic can be implemented in a number of ways, heuristic (if-then-else) rules, feature cluster analysis, fuzzy system analysis, neural networks, Bayesian probabilistic system analysis, etc. The Shockable Rhythm Selection block selects the appropriate process flow based on the Shock decision. The No Shock Decision block notifies the defibrillator system to take the appropriate actions such as display and audibly announce the non-shockable rhythm analysis result. A shockable decision will produce a charging of the defibrillator and a delivery of therapy (automatic defibrillator) or a prompt to the user for delivery of energy (semi-automatic defibrillator). [0079] FIG. 15 and FIG. 16 are simple examples adult and pediatric AED arrhythmia logic tables. The rhythm classifications in column 1 are satisfied when all of the rules stated in columns 2 - 6 are met and the respective shock decision is listed in the last column. The examples show that the shockable versus non-shockable decision can come from specific adult or pediatric rhythm classification logic. The various limits, rules, or other population specific logic systems are tuned (or trained) from adult and pediatric ECG signal databases, respectively. [0080] Referring to FIG. 7 , the cover 12 is provided with a detection means for determining if the patient's shoulders have been properly positioned on the cover 12 . Two photoelectric sensors 156 , 157 are used to determine if the cover has been placed underneath the patient's back. The sensors 156 , 157 are located along the acute edge of the cover 12 , with one facing inward and one facing outward with the cable 155 providing both power to the sensors 156 , 157 as well as detection of the sensor output. If the cover 12 is upside down, the inner sensor 156 will measure a higher light level than the outer sensor 157 ; if the cover has been placed with the acute edge facing toward the top of the patient's head, then the outer sensor 157 will measure higher than the inner sensor 156 and will also exceed a pre-specified level. In the case of a properly positioned cover, both inner 156 and outer sensor 157 outputs will be below a pre-specified level. In another embodiment, the detections means is provided by a pressure sensor 158 located underneath the cover decal. The pressure sensor 158 can be used to measure the thoracic weight of the victim. Based on the measured weight, a table lookup can be generated, determining the victim's approximate age as well as the optimal defibrillation energies to provide. [0081] Thus, when a person collapses and a caregiver suspects that the person is in cardiac arrest, the caregiver first gets the defibrillator and turns the power on 102 . If the unit passes its internal self tests, and is ready for use, this will be indicated by indicator 17 . Next, the defibrillator prompts the caregiver with an introductory audio message, e.g., “Stay calm. Listen carefully.” [0082] Shortly thereafter, the defibrillator will prompt the caregiver with an audio message indicating that the caregiver should check the patient for responsiveness. Simultaneously, the LED 56 adjacent graphic 42 will light up, directing the caregiver to look at this graphic. Graphic 42 will indicate to the caregiver that she should shout “are you OK?” and shake the person in order to determine whether the patient is unconscious or not. [0083] After a suitable period of time has elapsed (e.g., 2 seconds), if the caregiver has not turned the defibrillator power off (as would occur if the patient were responsive), the defibrillator will give an audio prompt indicating that the caregiver should call for help. Simultaneously, the LED adjacent graphic 42 will turn off and the LED adjacent graphic 43 will light up, directing the caregiver's attention to graphic 43 . Graphic 43 will remind the caregiver to call emergency personnel, if the caregiver has not already done so. [0084] After a suitable interval has been allowed for the caregiver to perform the prior step (e.g., 2 seconds) the defibrillator will give an audio prompt indicating that the caregiver should open the patient's airway and check whether the patient is breathing. The LED adjacent graphic 43 will turn off, and the LED adjacent graphic 44 will light up, directing the caregiver's attention to graphic 44 , which shows the proper procedure for opening a patient's airway. This will lead the caregiver to lift the patient's chin and tilt the patient's head back. The caregiver may also position an airway support device under the patient's neck and shoulders, if desired, as discussed below with reference to FIGS. 9 a , 9 b . The caregiver will then check to determine whether the patient is breathing. [0085] After a suitable interval (e.g., 15 seconds), the defibrillator will give an audio prompt indicating that the caregiver should check for signs of circulation, the LED adjacent graphic 44 will turn off, and the LED adjacent graphic 45 will light up. Graphic 45 will indicate to the caregiver that the patient should be checked for a pulse or other signs of circulation as recommended by the AHA for lay rescuers. [0086] After a suitable interval (e.g., 5 to 7 seconds), the defibrillator will give an audio prompt indicating that the caregiver should attach electrode assembly 16 to the patient, the LED adjacent graphic 45 will turn off, and the LED adjacent graphic 46 will light up. Graphic 46 will indicate to the caregiver how the electrode assembly 16 should be positioned on the patient's chest. [0087] At this point, the LED adjacent graphic 47 will light up, and the defibrillator will give an audio prompt indicating that the patient's heart rhythm is being analyzed by the defibrillator and the caregiver should stand clear. While this LED is lit, the defibrillator will acquire ECG data from the electrode assembly, and analyze the data to determine whether the patient's heart rhythm is shockable. This analysis is conventionally performed by AEDs. [0088] If the defibrillator determines that the patient's heart rhythm is not shockable, the defibrillator will give an audio prompt such as “No shock advised”. The LEDs next to graphics 48 and 49 will then light up, and the defibrillator will give an audio prompt indicating that the caregiver should again open the patient's airway, check for breathing and a pulse, and, if no pulse is detected by the caregiver, then commence giving CPR. Graphics 48 and 49 will remind the caregiver of the appropriate steps to perform when giving CPR. [0089] Alternatively, if the defibrillator determines that the patient's heart rhythm is shockable, the defibrillator will give an audio prompt such as “Shock advised. Stand clear of patient. Press treatment button.” At the same time, the heart 54 and/or hand 52 will light up, indicating to the caregiver the location of the treatment button. At this point, the caregiver will stand clear (and warn others, if present, to stand clear) and will press the heart 54 , depressing the treatment button and administering a defibrillating shock (or a series of shocks, as determined by the defibrillator electronics) to the patient. [0090] Referring to FIG. 11 , in some implementations, a means is provided of detecting the relative lateral positions of the apex electrode 255 and the sternum electrode 254 . In one implementation, magnetic Hall Effect sensors 251 are located such that when activated by the magnet 253 located within the apex electrode 255 the signal generated by the Hall effect sensor 251 indicates the relative lateral location of the electrodes. Using known anthropometrics, the thoracic girth can be estimated as well as patient age and defibrillation energy levels. The relative lateral positions of the electrodes can be determined using a linear encoder commonly used in digital calipers thus providing an accurate measurement of girth. The encoder may be an optical encoder or a magnetic based encoder. [0091] The cover 12 of the AED may include a decal on its underside, e.g., decal 200 shown in FIG. 10 . Decal 200 illustrates the use of the cover as a passive airway support device, to keep the patient's airway open during resuscitation. Graphic 202 prompts the caregiver to roll the patient over and place cover 12 under the patient's shoulders, and graphic 204 illustrates the proper positioning of the cover 12 under the patient to ensure an open airway. [0092] While such a graphic is not included in the decal shown in FIG. 5 , the decal 40 may include a graphic that would prompt the user to check to see if the patient is breathing. Such a graphic may include, e.g., a picture of the caregiver with his ear next to the patient's mouth. The graphic may also include lines indicating flow of air from the patient's mouth. [0093] Many other implementations of the invention other than those described above are within the invention, which is defined by the following claims.

A device for assisting a rescuer in delivering therapy to an adult or pediatric patient, the device including a user interface comprising a display and/or audio speakers, the user interface being configured to deliver prompts to a rescuer to assist the rescuer in delivering therapy to a patient; a processor configured to provide prompts to the user interface and to perform an ECG analysis algorithm on ECG information detected from the patient; at least one detection element configured to determine without rescuer input via the user interface that a pediatric patient is being treated; wherein, if a pediatric patient is detected, the processor modifies the ECG analysis algorithm or the prompts provided to the user interface to use an ECG analysis algorithm or prompts adapted for a pediatric patient rather than for an adult patient.

CROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] The present application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/849,228 (Attorney Docket No. 28863-715.301), filed on Sep. 9, 2014 and now issued as U.S. Pat. No.______ on______, 2017, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/772,718 (Attorney Docket No. 28863-715.501), filed on Jul. 2, 2007 and now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 9,179,897 on Nov. 10, 2015, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/302,951 (Attorney Docket No. 28863-715.201), filed on Dec. 13, 2005 and now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 7,691,127 on Apr. 6, 2010, the full disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] 1. Field of the Invention [0003] The present invention relates generally to devices and methods for percutaneous sealing of puncture sites in body lumens or tissue tracts. More specifically, the present invention relates to drug eluting vascular closure devices and methods for hemostasis of vascular puncture sites. [0004] Percutaneous access of blood vessels in the human body is routinely performed for diagnostics or interventional procedures such as coronary and peripheral angiography, angioplasty, atherectomies, placement of vascular stents, coronary retroperfusion and retroinfusion, cerebral angiograms, treatment of strokes, cerebral aneurysms, and the like. Patients undergoing these procedures are often treated with anti-coagulants such as heparin, thrombolytics, and the like, which make the closure and hemostasis process of the puncture site in the vessel wall at the completion of such interventional procedures more difficult to achieve. [0005] Various devices have been introduced to provide hemostasis, however none have been entirely successful. Some devices utilize collagen or other biological plugs to seal the puncture site. Alternatively, sutures and/or staples have also been applied to close the puncture site. External foreign objects such as plugs, sutures, or staples however may cause tissue reaction, inflammation, and/or infection as they all “leave something behind” to achieve hemostasis. [0006] There is also another class of devices that use the body's own natural mechanism to achieve hemostasis wherein no foreign objects are left behind. Such devices typically provide hemostasis by sealing the puncture site from the inside of the vessel wall wherein the device is left in place in the vessel lumen until hemostasis is reached and thereafter removed. Although such safe and simple devices have achieved relative levels of success, they often can be slow in achieving complete hemostasis, particularly in highly anti-coagulated patients. Of particular interest to the present invention, examples of such devices are described in co-pending, commonly owned application Ser. No. 10/795,019 (Attorney Docket No. 021872-001810US) filed on Mar. 3, 2004; Ser. No. 10/821,633 (Attorney Docket No. 0217872-001900US), filed on Apr. 9, 2004; Ser. No. 10/857,177 (Attorney Docket No. 021872-002000US), filed on May 27, 2004; and Ser. No. 10/974,008 (Attorney Docket No. 021872-002010US), filed on Oct. 25, 2004, the full disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference. [0007] There is yet another class of devices where highly thrombogenic substances are mixed and injected to the puncture site for the purpose of accelerating the hemostatic process. These mixtures contain one or more clot promoting substances, such as thrombin and/or fibrinogen, along with other substances, such as collagen. These devices generally work by first occluding the puncture site from the inside of the vessel, usually by use of a balloon, and then injecting the mixture into the tissue tract. The balloon is then removed. Such devices suffer from several drawbacks which may cause severe complications. For example, the occluding member may not be adequate to prevent these highly thrombogenic substances from entering the blood vessel. Further, the injection of the mixture is often not well controlled and highly technique dependant, which again may allow these substances to enter the blood stream. [0008] In light of the above, it would be desirable to provide alternative devices and methods for providing complete hemostasis of a puncture site in a body lumen, particularly blood vessels of the human body. It would be particularly desirable if such devices and methods utilize the body's own natural healing mechanism to achieve hemostasis. It would be further desirable if the natural hemostatic process can be safely accelerated by the controlled use of chemical and/or biological agents. It would be further desirable if such devices and systems utilize a simple construction and user interface allowing for convenient application without numerous intermediary steps. Further, such devices should be safe and reliable without the need for much user intervention. At least some of these objective will be met by the devices and methods of the present invention described hereinafter. [0009] 2. Description of the Background Art [0010] Hemostasis devices for use in blood vessels and tracts in the body are described in pending U.S. patent application Ser. Nos. 10/974,008; 10/857,177; 10/821,633; 10/795,019; and 10/718,504 and U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,656,207; 6,464,712; 6,056,770; 6,056,769; 6,045,570; 6,022,361; 5,951,589; 5,922,009; and 5,782, 860, assigned to the assignee of the present application. The following U.S. Patents and Publications may be relevant to the present invention: U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,744,364; 4,852,568; 4,890,612; 5,108,421; 5,171,259; 5,258,000; 5,383,896; 5,419,765; 5,454,833; 5,626,601; 5,630,833; 5,634,936; 5,728,134; 5,836,913; 5,861,003; 5,868,778; 5,951,583; 5,957,952; 6,017,359; 6,048,358; and 6,296,657; U.S. Publication Nos. 2002/0133123; 2003/0055454; 2003/0045835; and 2004/0243052. The full disclosures of each of the above mentioned references are incorporated herein by reference. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0011] The present invention provides closure devices and methods for percutaneous access and closure of puncture sites in a body lumen, particularly femoral arteries and other blood vessels of the human body. It will be appreciated however that application of the present invention is not limited to the blood vasculature, and as such may be applied to any of the vessels, even severely tortuous vessels, ducts, and cavities found in the body as well as tissue tracts. Such closure devices and methods utilize the body's own natural healing mechanism to achieve hemostasis. [0012] In particular, the present invention provides methods and devices for closing and sealing luminal punctures by providing physical occlusion of the puncture site together with chemical or biological promotion of hemostasis activity proximal of the occlusion. Methods for closing a blood vessel or other luminal puncture site located at a distal end of a tissue tract comprise introducing a closure device through the tissue tract. An expansible member is then deployed from the device within the blood vessel or other body lumen in order to occlude the puncture site. Blood within the vessel wall puncture and the tissue tract proximal to the puncture is exposed to a chemical and/or biological agent carried by the device. The chemical and/or biological agent is selected to promote hemostasis within the tissue tract. After sufficient hemostasis and closure has been achieved, the expansible member will be collapsed and the device removed from the tissue tract, thus eliminating or significantly reducing the need to apply external pressure to maintain hemostasis and promote healing. [0013] In one exemplary embodiment, the chemical and/or biological agent is immobilized on the device, typically in a region immediately proximal to the expansible member, and is exposed by displacing a sealing member which initially covers the chemical and/or biological agent. Typically, the sealing member is a tubular sheath or other member which covers the chemical and/or biological agent as the device is introduced through the tissue tract and which may be axially retracted after the expansible member has been deployed within the blood vessel or other body lumen. It will be appreciated, however, that the sealing member could comprise a wide variety of other configurations, including a rotatable component, a tear-away component, a biodegradable component which dissolves upon exposure to blood or other body fluids, or the like. [0014] The immobilized chemical and/or biological agent may be either soluble or insoluble. Soluble chemical and/or biological agents will be selected so that at least a portion thereof will dissolve and be released into the blood after the agent has been exposed to the tissue tract. Exemplary soluble chemical and/or biological agents are selected from the group consisting of thrombin (a pro-coagulant), epinephrine (a vasoconstrictor), watersoluble chitosan (a platelet aggregator), and the like. [0015] Insoluble immobilized chemical and/or biological agents will typically have a catalytic or physical activity which promotes hemostasis. For example, the insoluble chemical and/or biological agents may have a negative electrical charge which promotes coagulation. Exemplary chemical and/or biological agents having such a negative charge include kaolin and silica. Alternatively, the insoluble chemical and/or biological agents may have a positive electrical charge which attracts platelets to promote clotting. Exemplary insoluble chemical and/or biological agents having a positive charge include chitosan. Still further, the insoluble chemical and/or biological agents may inhibit the activity of heparin in inhibitors include protamine sulfate. [0016] Instead exposing an immobilized chemical and/or biological agent, the methods of the present invention may comprise injecting or otherwise delivering the chemical and/or biological agent into the tissue tract in the region proximal to the deployed expansible member. Such injection will typically be through an injection lumen provided within the device but could also be through a separate lumen or device. Exemplary injectible chemical and/or biological agents include thrombin, epinephrine, protamine sulfate, suspensions of insoluble kaolin, silica, or chitosan, and the like. [0017] Devices according to the present invention will comprise a shaft having a proximal end, a distal end, and an expansible member located near the distal end on the shaft. The shaft will be configured to be advanced through the tissue tract in order to locate the expansible member through the blood vessel or other luminal puncture site so that the expansible member may be expanded within the lumen. A sealing member is retractably disposed over at least a portion of the shaft proximal to the expansible member, and a chemical and/or biological agent selected to promote hemostasis is disposed beneath the sealing member so that at least a portion of the agent may be exposed by retracing or otherwise moving the sealing member. The chemical and/or biological agents are typically immobilized on the shaft, and exemplary immobilized agents have been described above in connection with the methods of the present invention. [0018] In a first embodiment, a device for closing a blood vessel puncture site disposed at a distal end of a tissue tract comprises a shaft having a proximal end and a distal end, an expansible member, a chemical and/or biological sealing member, and a chemical and/or biological region or release region. The shaft is configured to advance through the tissue tract while the expansible member disposed on the distal end of the shaft is deployable within the blood vessel. The chemical and/or biological sealing member is slidably disposed over the shaft and proximal the expansible member. The chemical and/or biological region or release region is disposed under the sealing member. Advantageously, displacement of the chemical and/or biological sealing member in a proximal direction exposes the region so as to allow for safe and controlled release of chemical and/or biological agents into the tissue tract for enhanced and complete hemostasis of the puncture site. [0019] The chemical and/or biological sealing member prevents severe complications as a result of chemical and/or biological agents from coming in contact with the blood stream by only allowing for the controlled exposure of such agents in the tissue tract. The sealing member has a length in a range from about 0.1 cm to about 100 cm, typically from about 5 cm to about 20 cm and a diameter in a range from about 0.5 mm to about 5 mm, typically from about 1 mm to about 3 mm. The sealing member may be a tubular member formed from a variety of medical grade materials, including coiled stainless steel tubing or polymer materials such as nylon, polyurethane, polyimide, PEEK®, PEBAX®, and the like. [0020] In a preferred embodiment of the device, a tensioning element, such as a spring or coil, is further provided. The tensioning element is slidably disposed over the shaft and under the sealing member proximal the expansible member. Generally, during application of the device, the tensioning element is preferably positionable in the tissue tract, but in other instances may be outside the tissue tract. The tensioning element gauges how much tension is being applied to the expansible member as it is seated against the puncture site so as to prevent a user from applying excessive force on the device causing undesirable movement (e.g., device is pulled out of patient body). The tensioning element also provides device compliance in cases of patient movement while the device is in place. The expansible member allows for sealing of the puncture site while the tensioning element along with an external clip apply and maintain tension to the expansible occluder so that it is seated against the puncture site at a vascular surface (e.g., blood vessel wall). [0021] The tensioning member typically comprises a spring or coil of wire formed from a variety of medical grade materials including stainless steel, shape memory alloy, superelastic metal, and the like. The wire may have a diameter in a range from about 0.02 mm to about 1 mm and form any number of loops, typically from 1 to 30 loops. The spring or coil diameter will be in a range from about 1 mm to about 10 mm in a 10 relaxed state. As discussed in more detail below, the relaxed spring diameter is sufficiently large to allow it to be slidably received over the catheter body and greater than an inner diameter of an introducer sheath. A tubular member may additionally be slidably disposed over the catheter body and coupleable to a proximal end of the tensioning member. Such a tubular member may aid in loading and removal of the tensioning element as well as provide a mechanism for applying a predetermined amount or additional tension upon the expansible member. [0022] Positioning the expansible member against the vessel wall positions the chemical and/or biological region or release region outside the vessel lumen at a predetermined distance from the vessel wall and proximal the expansible member. Therefore, the expansible member provides not only occlusion at the vessel puncture site but also functions as a locator so as to position the chemical and/or biological region or release region outside the vessel lumen. This in turn ensures safe release of chemical and/or biological agents in the tissue tract and outside the blood stream. The predetermined distance is in a range from about 0 to about 20 mm, typically in a range from about 2 mm to about 10 mm. [0023] The chemical and/or biological region or release region has a length in a range from about 1 mm to about 100 mm, typically in a range from about 5 mm to about 70 mm. It will be appreciated that the length and/or volume of the region may be varied in order to integrate and release and/or expose the desired amount of chemical and/or biological agent. In one embodiment, the chemical and/or biological region includes at least one chemical and/or biological agent disposed on the distal end of the shaft proximal the expansible member and distal the tensioning element. In another embodiment, the region includes at least one chemical and/or biological agent disposed on the tensioning element. The agents may be coated, sprayed, molded, dipped, vapor deposited, plasma deposited, or painted thereon. Such a chemical and/or biological region on the occlusion device itself further minimizes variations due to user techniques, which may be particularly problematic with injection protocols where such agents are injected into the tract by the user. In yet another embodiment, the device may further incorporate an expansible feature disposed on the distal end of the shaft proximal the expansible member, wherein the region includes at least one chemical and/or biological agent associated with the expansible feature. [0024] In alternative embodiments of the present invention, the device may further incorporate at least one chemical and/or biological delivery conduit disposed over the shaft and under the tensioning element and a chemical and/or biological injection port in fluid communication with the delivery conduit. The injection port may be connected to a syringe by use of a compression fitting or with an integrated luer lock. The chemical and/or biological agents are injected into the device via the syringe once the device is properly positioned. It will be appreciated that the size of the injection port and the delivery conduit may be selected to control the delivery rate of such agents. In one example, the release region includes at least one opening, aperture, or orifice in fluid communication with a distal end of the conduit proximal the expansible member. It will be appreciated that any number, size, and/or shape of opening(s) may be utilized in order to obtain the desired release rate of chemical and/or biological agent. The release region may incorporate about 1 opening to about 100 openings, typically about 1 opening to about 10 openings. In another example, the release region includes at least one porous member in fluid communication with a distal end of the conduit proximal the expansible member so as to allow for the desired release of the chemical and/or biological agent. [0025] A controlled delivery rate allows the chemical and/or biological agents to “ooze” out of the release region. This may eliminate the potential of high pressure release, which in turn minimizes the possibility of these agents from entering the blood stream. In addition, the sealing member serves to cover the chemical and/or biological release region so as to prevent any blood from flowing back through the release region, through the delivery conduit, and out through the injection port. The sealing member is only slidably displaced, revealing the chemical and/or biological release region, when it is desirable to deliver the chemical and/or biological agents. [0026] The device of the present invention may further incorporate a spacer element disposed between the sealing member and the tensioning element so that the sealing member may easily slide over the tensioning element. The spacer element may be a tubular member formed from a variety of materials, including tubular polymer materials such as nylon, polyurethane, polyimide, PEEK®, PEBAX®, and the like. The device further includes a handle on a proximal end of the shaft. A safety tab may be disposed between the handle and the sealing member. The safety tab prevents any undesirable displacement of the sealing member so as to inhibit inadvertent release of chemical and/or biological agents. [0027] The present invention integrates the expansible member, chemical and/or biological sealing member, chemical and/or biological region or release region, and tensioning element in a single unitary catheter construction. This simple construction and user interface allows for safe, easy and convenient application of the device without numerous intermediary steps. The sealing member in combination with the locating expansible member ensures that the chemical and/or biological region or release region is only exposed in the tissue tract. This results in a more reliable, safe, and effective device which provides immediate and complete hemostasis, which in turn reduces the risk of bleeding, hematoma formation, thrombosis, embolization, and/or infection. [0028] In another aspect of the present invention, methods for hemostasis of a puncture site in a blood vessel at a distal end of a tissue tract are provided. One method comprises introducing any one of the closure devices as described herein through the tissue tract. The expansible member is deployed at a distal end of the device within the blood vessel. The chemical and/or biological sealing member disposed proximal the expansible member is then displaced once properly positioned so as to expose a chemical and/or biological region or release region of the device. At least one chemical and/or biological agent is then released from and/or exposed on the device and into the tissue tract. [0029] The sealing member is displaced in a proximal direction so as to expose at least a portion of the region. This displacement distance is in a range from about 0.1 cm to about 10 cm, typically from about 0.5 cm to about 7 cm. The method further comprises deploying the tensioning element disposed proximal the expansible member within the tissue tract so that the expansible member is seated against a puncture site. Typically, deploying the tensioning element and displacing the sealing member is carried out simultaneously so as to provide for easy and convenient application of the device without numerous intermediary steps. However, it will be appreciated that deployment of the tensioning element may be carried out independently, typically prior to displacement of the sealing member, so as to provide for proper positioning of the region or release region within the tissue tract and closure of the puncture site. [0030] The amount of tension applied to the expansible member by the tensioning coil or spring is in the range from about 0.5 ounce to 30 ounces, typically in a range from about 2 ounces to 10 ounces. As described above, the expansible member locates and closes the puncture site in the blood vessel wall. Coil elongation is sufficient to provide adequate amount of tension on the expansible member to temporary seal the puncture and to adequately displace the sealing member to reveal the chemical and/or biological region or release region. In some embodiments, coil elongation may be limited by a coupling member. Generally the amount of elongation of the tensioning coil may be the same as for displacement of the sealing member. The tension provided by the tensioning coil and the exposure of the chemical and/or biological agents may be maintained by application of an external clip on the tensioning coil, generally over the sealing member, wherein the clip rests over the skin at the puncture site. [0031] Chemical and/or biological agent release generally comprises positioning the region at a predetermined distance proximal to the expansible member and outside the blood vessel wall. In particular, increasing the tension in the coil positions the expansible member against the puncture site and locates the chemical and/or biological region or release region in the tissue tract at the predetermined distance. Further increase in tension will cause the sealing member to disengage from an attachment point at the proximal end of the expansible member and the tensioning coil to elongate. Elongation of the tensioning coil will result in the sealing member to slide proximally so as to expose the region to the surrounding tissue for release of the chemical and/or biological agent. [0032] The chemical and/or biological agents may accelerate the coagulation process and promote the formation of coagulum at the puncture site so to achieve complete hemostasis. The chemical and/or biological agent may comprise a variety of agents including clot promoting agents (e.g., thrombin, fibrinogen, etc.) or vaso-constricting agents (e.g., epinephrine, etc.). The chemical and/or biological agent is released and/or exposed at least about 0.1 minute, typically from about 0.5 minute to about 4 hours, usually for the entire time that the occlusion device remains deployed. As described above, the occlusion device may be modified in several ways (e.g., region length, region volume, release region openings, conduit dimensions, number of conduits, or port dimensions) to achieve the desired chemical and/or biological agent release or exposure characteristics (e.g., rate, amount, time, etc.). The methods of the present invention may involve re-hydrating the chemical and/or biological agent with fluid in the tissue tract so as to generate coagulum. These agents may use the blood components to form a coagulum even at the presence of anti-coagulants. [0033] As described above, the chemical and/or biological agent may be coated, sprayed, molded, painted, dipped, or deposited at the region. Alternatively, chemical and/or biological agents may be injected in a delivery conduit in fluid communication with at least one opening disposed at the release region. The sealing member in such an embodiment further prevents any blood from flowing back through the openings of the release or exposure region prior to placing the expansible member against the vessel wall when the release region is in the vessel lumen. Injection of chemical and/or biological agents in the presence of blood in the chemical and/or biological delivery pathway may cause undesirable coagulum to form in the pathway which could prevent the chemical and/or biological agents from reaching the target site. [0034] A further understanding of the nature and advantages of the present invention will become apparent by reference to the remaining portions of the specification and drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0035] The following drawings should be read with reference to the detailed description. Like numbers in different drawings refer to like elements. The drawings, which are not necessarily to scale, illustratively depict embodiments of the present invention and are not intended to limit the scope of the invention. [0036] FIGS. 1A and 1B illustrate a first embodiment of a drug eluting, self-tensioning vascular closure device for hemostasis of vascular puncture sites constructed in accordance with the principles of the present invention. [0037] FIGS. 2A and 2B illustrate an exploded view of the chemical and/or biological region on the distal end of the device of FIGS. 1A and 1B . [0038] FIGS. 3A and 3B illustrate the device of FIGS. 1A and 1B in an expanded configuration with the occluding member deployed. [0039] FIGS. 4A and 4B illustrate the device of FIGS. 1A and 1B in an expanded configuration with the occluding member under tension after removal of the safety seal and with the chemical and/or biological sealing member displaced proximally so as to expose the contents of the chemical and/or biological region. [0040] FIGS. 5A through 5F illustrate a method for hemostasis of a puncture site in a body lumen employing the device of FIGS. 1A and 1B . [0041] FIG. 6 illustrates a second embodiment of a drug eluting, self-tensioning vascular closure device for hemostasis of vascular puncture sites constructed in accordance with the principles of the present invention. [0042] FIG. 7 illustrates an exploded view of the chemical and/or biological injection port and delivery conduit of the device of FIG. 6 . [0043] FIG. 8 illustrates an exploded view of the chemical and/or biological release region on the distal end of the device of FIG. 6 . [0044] FIG. 9 illustrates the device of FIG. 6 in an expanded configuration with the occluding member deployed. [0045] FIG. 10 illustrates the device of FIG. 6 in an expanded configuration with the occluding member under tension and with the chemical and/or biological sealing member displaced proximally so as to expose the chemical and/or biological release region so that attachment of a syringe to the chemical and/or biological injection port provides delivery of chemical and/or biological agents. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0046] Referring now to FIGS. 1A and 1B , a first embodiment of a drug eluting, self-tensioning vascular occlusion device 70 for hemostasis of vascular puncture sites is illustrated, wherein at least one chemical and/or biological agent 152 is integrated with the device, typically being immobilized in or over a region, chamber, or absorptive reservoir 151 (referred to collectively as a chemical and/or biological region). Device 70 generally comprises a first flexible elongated tubular member 71 formed from coiled stainless steel tubing or polymer materials such as nylon, polyurethane, polyimide, PEEK®, PEBAX®, and the like. Tubular member 71 may have a length in a range from about 5 cm to about 50 cm, typically in the range from about 10 cm to about 30 cm and a diameter in the range from about 0.25 mm to about 5 mm, typically in the range from about 0.5 mm to about 2 mm. An expansible occlusion member 74 is disposed on the distal end of tubular member 71 . A chemical and/or biological sealing member 153 is slidably disposed over the tubular member 71 and proximal the expansible member 74 . The chemical and/or biological region 151 containing the chemical and/or biological agent 152 is typically disposed on the tubular member 71 (and/or optionally over a tension coil as illustrated in device 90 in FIG. 1B ) under the sealing member 153 . Device 70 ( FIG. 1A ) and device 90 ( FIG. 1B ) differ only in the location of the chemical and/or biological agent. It will be appreciated that the above depictions are for illustrative purposes only and do not necessarily reflect the actual shape, size, or dimensions of the device 70 . This applies to all depictions hereinafter. [0047] The expansible member 74 may be formed from a variety of medical grade materials, including stainless steel, superelastic material such as NITINOL®, or polymer materials such as nylon, polyurethane, polyimide, PEEK®, PEBAX®, and the like. Preferably the expansible member 74 is made of superelastic NITINOL® material. The expansible member 74 in a retracted or collapsed state has a diameter of less than about 3 mm, preferably less than about 1.5 mm, as shown in FIGS. 1A and 1B , and FIGS. 2A and 2B . When deployed, the expansible member 74 in an expanded state has a diameter in a range from about 3 mm to about 20 mm, preferably from about 3.5 mm to about 8 mm, as shown in FIGS. 3A /B and 4 A/B. Exemplary expansible structures 74 are described in detail in co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/718,504. Still further embodiments of a braided mesh member 74 are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,836,913. [0048] The expansible member 74 may at least partially or preferably be fully covered with an elastomeric membrane material 96 . Membrane 96 may be formed from a variety of medical grade materials, such as thermoplastic elastomers (e.g., CHRONOPRENE® or POLYBLEND®) having durometers in a range from 15 A to about 40 A. Membrane 96 may be connected at a distal connection point 77 and a proximal connection point 75 . Adhesives such as LOCTITE® 4014 may be used to attach membrane 96 to the expansible member 74 and catheter shaft 71 . Alternatively, membrane 96 may take a form of a sock having its distal end sealed through a heat stake process or the like. In this case membrane 96 may not have to be attached distally. Membrane 96 preferably has a diameter that is sufficient to cover the expansible member 74 . In some embodiments, membrane 96 may be designed and attached to facilitate expansible member deployment as well as to reduce the amount of required elongation when the expansible member 74 is deployed. This may be achieved by molding the membrane 96 so that its midpoint diameter, where deployed expansible member 74 has its greatest diameter, is larger than its proximal and distal end diameters (e.g., a spherical shape). Membrane 96 may also be formed like a tube with a larger diameter than needed (e.g., diameter of retracted expansible member 74 ), and then stretched over expansible member 74 and attached. The stretch should be enough to reduce the diameter of the membrane 96 to that of the expansible member 74 . In such a case, when member 74 is deployed, there is less elongation and stress experienced by membrane 96 . The membrane 96 may additionally form a membrane tip at a distal end of catheter 70 so as to provide a soft and blunt point for safer percutaneous access. [0049] Referring now to FIGS. 2A /B, the chemical and/or biological agents 152 may be composed of clot promoting agents such as thrombin and fibrinogen and/or vaso-constrictors such as epinephrine. These agents 152 may take on a form of a powder, paste that can be applied to the chemical and/or biological chamber or region 151 . Alternatively, such agents 152 may be molded in a form of a cylindrical tube with a longitudinal central hole that can be slidably disposed over member 71 and positioned between fixed attachment members 75 and 150 in the assembly process. The chemical and/or biological chamber/region 151 is located between the proximal end of member 75 and distal end of attachment member 150 . Alternatively, or additionally, the chemical and/or biological agents may be immobilized on the tension coil 86 described below. The length of region 151 determines the amount of chemical and/or biological agents 152 that can be integrated with the device, as well as the extent of the exposure of such agents to the tissue. It should also be noted that by increasing the outside diameters of members 75 and 150 , the volume of chamber 151 can be increased and hence the volume of the chemical and/or biological agents 152 incorporated with the device. However, it may be desirable to allow for a predetermined volume of blood to enter the gap between the chemical and/or biological agent layer and the sealing member 153 . This allows exposure of the chemical and/or biological agents to the bodily fluids without exposing these agents to the body. The trapped blood can then be given sufficient amount of time to interact with the agents to become preconditioned prior to exposure to tissue tract. The volume of this trapped blood may be controlled by adjusting the gap between the chemical and/or biological layer and the inside diameter of the sealing member. The degree of preconditioning may be controlled by selecting the amount of time between the insertion of the device in the sheath and exposure of the agent(s) to blood and when the tension is applied and the sealing member is proximally displaced. The gap fills quickly due to capillary pull and the arterial blood pressure once the distal end of the sealing member 153 comes in contact with blood. [0050] The chemical and/or biological sealing member 153 generally comprises a flexible elongated tubular member. In the device 70 of FIG. 1A , the tubular member 153 may have a length that extends from attachment member 75 , and overlapping member 75 , to grip member 85 , partially or fully overlapping member 85 . The inside diameter of member 153 , at least at the distal end, is similar to the outside diameter of member 75 . Member 153 is slidably positioned, at least partially, over member 75 . The interaction of members 153 and 75 provide for a barrier so that blood will not come in contact with the chemical and/or biological agent prior to the intended time. [0051] In the preferred embodiment of the present invention, a tensioning element 86 is slidably disposed over the tubular member 71 and proximal the expansible member 74 . The tensioning coil 86 is attached to the tubular member 71 with attachment member 150 . Member 150 may be in a tubular form and made from stainless steel tubing or polymer materials such as nylon, polyurethane, polyimide, PEEK®, PEBAX®, and the like. Coil 86 , attachment member 150 and tubular member 71 are connected together by use of epoxy. The attachment point may be from 1 mm to 100 mm proximal to the member 75 , preferably in the range of 5 mm to 50 mm. The tensioning element 86 is described in more detail in co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/974,008. [0052] The function of chemical and/or biological seal 153 is to provide a barrier between the chemical and/or biological agents 152 and bodily fluids such as blood, and only allow the exposure of such agents to the tissue when the device is in correct position and the operator chooses to do so. Exposure of the chemical and/or biological region 151 to the surrounding tissue happens when the tensioning coil 86 is grabbed at grip member 85 and is pulled proximally with respect to member 75 to apply tension to the deployed expansible member 74 at the puncture site. The proximal pull of grip member 85 causes the tensioning coil 86 to elongate. The seal member 153 is attached to the coil 86 and grip member 85 . Since member 153 is not stretchable, the elongation of coil 86 results in disengagement of the distal end of member 153 from member 75 . Seal 153 slides proximally over the chemical and/or biological chamber/region 151 and exposes the chemical and/or biological agents 152 to the surrounding tissue. A spacer 154 provides adequate space between coil 86 and sealing member 153 , so that member 153 can easily slide over coil 86 . It should be noted that coil 86 elongation happens as the result of interference of the occluding expansible member 74 with the vessel wall at the puncture site. This in turn slides the sealing member 153 proximally, exposing the chemical and/or biological agents 152 in the tissue tract where it is needed. [0053] It will be appreciated that chemical and/or biological seal 153 may be constructed to function independently from the tensioning coil 86 . Also, in some embodiments, such as those of FIGS. 1B, 2B, 3B and 4B , a length of coil 86 , or the entire length of coil 86 may be coated with the chemical and/or biological agent 152 . In such case, when coil spring 86 is elongated to provide tension to the expansible member 74 , the deformation of the elongating coil spring 86 may result in breaking off of the agents 152 from the coil. This may result in faster re-hydration of the chemical and/or biological agents 152 and consequently acceleration of the coagulation process in the tract. Coating of the coil 86 is not limited to such brittle agents, however, and the agents may be sufficiently “flexible” so that they remain immobilized despite stretching of the coil. Still further, the chemical and/or biological chamber 151 of device 70 may include an expansible feature over which the chemical and/or biological agent 152 is dispensed (e.g., coated). When desirable, this expansible member which may take the form of a balloon or a braided mesh, can be expanded, resulting in the agents 152 breaking off in the surrounding tissue, and hence accelerating the chemical and/or biological reaction. [0054] The device 70 of the present invention may further incorporate a safety seal 155 to prevent inadvertent release of chemical and/or biological agents 152 by preventing coil 86 from sliding over member 71 . Safety seal 155 may be made of different materials and be implemented in different fashions. One such implementation may take the form of heat shrinkable tubing. The tubing may be shrunk over member 71 to the proximal end of the coil 86 or preferably overlapping grip member 85 . To remove the safety seal with ease, seal 155 may have a tab 156 that may be easily grabbed and pulled, tearing the safety seal 155 along the length of member 71 . Removal of the safety seal 155 would allow coil 86 to freely slide over tubular member 71 , exposing the chemical and/or biological agents 152 to the surrounding tissue. [0055] The chemical and/or biological agent 152 is sealed from coming in contact with the circulating blood and generally is released and/or exposed in the tissue tract in the fascia at the puncture site. During device application, the expansible member 74 will be positioned and anchored against the puncture site in the vessel lumen. In particular, the expansible member 74 allows for sealing of the puncture site and locating the chemical and/or biological agents 152 appropriately in the tissue tract. The tensioning element 86 applies and maintains tension to the expansible occluder 74 while the sealing member 153 simultaneously reveals the chemical and/or biological agents 152 to bring such agents in contact with the surrounding tissue to accelerate the process of hemostasis. [0056] Referring now to FIGS. 3A and 4A , a proximal end of the device 70 comprises deployment means 78 . Deployment of the expansible member 74 typically comprises pushing or pulling the two part handle assembly 78 coupled to the expansible member 74 . A proximal end of handle assembly 78 comprises an actuating assembly 101 which is coupled to a push/pull member 76 . Proximal movement of assembly 101 relative to a grip handle 102 deploys the expansible member 74 . The grip handle 102 comprises a tubular member 103 formed from suitable metal tubing (e.g., stainless steel) or polymer materials (e.g., polyurethane, polyimide, PEEK®, PEBAX®, and the like). Member 103 is coupled to the catheter shaft 71 by means of an expander element 104 so as to account for the difference in an outside diameter of catheter 71 and an inside diameter of member 103 . Elements 71 , 103 , and 104 may be attached by the use of adhesives. Member 103 further includes a feature 105 , such as an indentation from a crimping process when element 103 is formed from a stainless steel or other metallic hypotube. Indentation 105 provides interference to element 106 of the actuating assembly 101 . [0057] Actuating assembly 101 further includes a tubular member 107 that is attached to the push/pull member 76 by a crimp process and/or adhesive. Member 107 provides added stiffness to the actuating mechanism 101 as well as provides for a larger surface area that consequently allows for enhanced adhesion of elements 106 , 108 , and 109 to member 107 . These elements may comprise individual, separate parts, preferably formed from polymer materials such as polyurethane, polyimide, PEEK®, PEBAX®, and the like. These elements may be optionally incorporated into element 107 through an over molding process. Once the device 70 is deployed, interference of detent element 106 with indentation 105 securely maintains the expansible member 74 in its deployed position as shown in FIGS. 3A /B and 4 A/B. A proximal end of detent 106 may have a shallow angle in relation to the catheter shaft 71 so as to provide simplified deployment of the expansible member 74 . A distal end of detent 106 may be more perpendicular to the catheter shaft 71 so as to provide more interference to feature 105 , thereby requiring greater force to undeploy the expansible member 74 . The increased undeployment force is desirable to avoid inadvertent device collapse. Optionally, indentation 105 may be designed so that a distal side of the feature has a much shallower angle in relation to the catheter shaft 71 than a proximal side. [0058] Elements 108 and 109 primarily provide support and alignment of the actuating assembly 101 . Element 109 may be formed from a bright distinct color to indicate when the expansible member 74 is deployed. Element 110 comprises a tubular member, preferably having the same outer diameter as member 103 . A distal end of tubular member 110 abuts a proximal end of member 103 so as to provide a positive stop to the movement of the actuating assembly 101 during the undeployment of the expansible member 74 . Cap 111 at the most proximal end of the device 70 provides a soft tip for easier undeployment of expansible member 74 . Cap 111 may be formed from rubber or similar materials. [0059] In operation, handle assembly 78 is held by grabbing onto element 103 with one hand and element 110 with the other hand. Element 110 is then pulled in a proximal direction while holding element 103 stationary. As element 110 is pulled back, detent 106 slides over indentation 105 until it is completely moved to the proximal side of feature 105 . FIGS. 3A /B and 4 A/B illustrate the expansible member 74 that is in the form of a tubular braided mesh in the deployed and expanded state. The interference between elements 105 and 106 keeps the expansible member 74 in the deployed configuration. Undeployment of the device 70 may be effected with a single hand. In particular, member 103 may be grabbed by the palm of the hand while the thumb presses on cap 111 . This causes the actuating mechanism 101 to move forward and the detent member 106 to slide distally over feature 105 resulting in the retraction of the expansible member 74 . [0060] Referring now to FIGS. 5A through 5F , a method for hemostasis of a puncture site in a body lumen employing the device 70 of FIGS. 1A /B is illustrated. FIG. 5A depicts an existing introducer sheath 40 advanced through an opening in a skin surface 46 , tissue tract in fascia 45 and vessel wall 43 and seated in a vessel lumen 41 at the completion of a catheterization procedure. Device 70 is then inserted through the hub of the sheath 40 and is advanced until the expansible member 74 is outside the sheath 40 and in the vessel lumen 41 , as shown in FIG. 5B . This positioning may be indicated by a mark or feature on the catheter 71 or the handle assembly 78 . [0061] As shown in FIG. 5C , the expansible member 74 is then deployed by operation of the handle assembly 78 . The sheath 40 is then slowly pulled out of the body, placing the expansible member 74 against the inner wall of the vessel 43 at the puncture site 42 . As the sheath 40 is removed, the grip member 85 which is slidably disposed over the catheter shaft 71 and the handle assembly 78 are revealed. Sheath 40 is then discarded, leaving deployed expansible member 74 seated at the puncture site 42 and the chemical and/or biological chamber/region 151 in the tissue tract 47 as shown in FIG. 5D . If the device is equipped with the safety seal 155 as in device 70 , then the safety seal 155 is removed by pulling the tab 156 proximally along the catheter shaft. [0062] Referring now to FIG. 5E , once safety seal 155 is removed, the grip element 85 is grabbed and pulled in a proximal direction. Grip 85 is moved proximally to provide adequate amount of tension to the deployed expansible member 74 to achieve hemostasis. Typically, the amount of tension applied to the expansible member 74 is in the range of 0.5 ounces to 30 ounces. In particular, proximal movement of grip 85 causes simultaneous elongation of the tensioning coil 86 , causing the expansible member to locate and close the puncture site 42 , and displacement of the chemical and/or biological seal 153 , exposing the chemical and/or biological agent 152 to the surrounding tissue at a predetermined distance from the puncture site. The elongated position of coil 86 is maintained by application of a small external clip 50 to the catheter and seated against the surface of the skin 46 , as shown in FIG. 5E . Device 70 is left in this position for a period of time to achieve the desired promotion of hemostasis, for example to allow the chemical and/or biological agent 152 to reconstitute with the fluids in the tissue tract 47 , generating coagulum, or to allow contact activation, electrostatic interaction, or the like. Clip 50 is then removed and the expansible member 74 is collapsed by manipulation of the handle assembly 78 . Device 70 is then removed, leaving the active chemical and/or biological agents 152 and the coagulum in the tract 47 and adjacent the vessel puncture site 42 , as shown in FIG. 5F . Additional finger pressure at the puncture site may be required to allow the coagulum to seal the small hole left in the vessel wall after removal of the device. [0063] Referring now to FIG. 6 , another embodiment of an exemplary drug eluting, self-tensioning vascular occlusion device 80 for hemostasis of vascular puncture sites is illustrated, wherein the bio-active agents 152 may be stored separately and safely injected into the target site through a chemical and/or biological release region 163 once the device is properly positioned. The chemical and/or biological delivery system of device 80 is composed of an elongated tubular member 160 . Member 160 may be coaxially located over member 71 as shown in FIG. 6 . 160 has an inside diameter that is larger than the outside diameter of member 71 . Member 160 is formed from coiled stainless steel tubing or polymer materials such as nylon, polyurethane, polyimide, PEEK®, PEBAX®, and the like. The gap made between the inside of member 160 and the outside of member 71 defines the chemical and/or biological delivery conduit 161 . [0064] Referring now to FIG. 8 , the distal end of member 160 has a plurality of openings 162 defining the chemical and/or biological release region 163 . Openings 162 vary in number and may be from 1 opening to 100 opening, preferably from 1 opening to 10 openings. The size, shape, and/or number of openings 162 determines the rate of the release of the chemical and/or biological agents into the surrounding tissues. Alternatively, the chemical and/or biological release region 163 may not be part of member 160 , and may be a separate member, made of porous material which is in fluid communication with member 160 . In either embodiment, release region 163 is located at a predetermined distance proximal to the expansible member 74 . [0065] Referring now to FIG. 7 , a chemical and/or biological injection port 164 is illustrated. Port 164 comprises a flexible elongated tubular member that transitions to member 160 at its distal end by means of a coupling member 165 . At a proximal end, the port 164 provides a coupling to a syringe 167 for the injection of chemical and/or biological agents 152 . Members 164 and 165 may be constructed from stainless steel tubing or polymer materials such as nylon, polyurethane, polyimide, PEEK®, PEBAX®, and the like. Member 165 may or may not be a flexible member. Member 165 preferably has an outside diameter that is not larger than the outside diameter of the handle assembly 78 . This ensures that device 80 can go through the existing sheath 40 without interference, as was described for device 70 in FIGS. 5A through 5F . Coupling member 165 is connected to member 160 via member 166 . Members 164 , 165 and 160 are attached by means of epoxy to provide a fluid tight seal at attachment points 166 . [0066] It will be appreciated that the drug delivery conduit 160 may comprise a single or multiple elongated tubular member(s) of varying length(s) that run(s) along the length of member 71 . At a proximal end, these conduits couple into delivery port 164 via coupling member 165 . At a distal end, these tubular members may terminate at different points proximal to the expansible member 74 , dispersed over release region 163 . Distally, these conduits may have at least one opening for the release of the chemical and/or biological agents into the region. [0067] The chemical and/or biological sealing member 153 of device 80 functions in a similar fashion as in device 70 . In addition, the sealing member 153 of device 80 prevents blood from flowing back through the chemical and/or biological deliver path 163 , 162 , 161 , 164 . However, it will be appreciated that the back flow of blood through the chemical and/or biological delivery pathway may be used as an indicator that the chemical and/or biological release region 163 is in the vessel lumen. When the back flow stops, that may be an indication that the release region 163 is in the tissue tract, where there is no appreciable blood pressure. In addition to the expansible member 74 , this feature may add more certainty to the positioning of the chemical and/or biological release region 163 and hence improve safety. In such case, prior to injection of the chemical and/or biological agents 152 , the pathway may be flushed with solutions such as saline. [0068] The tensioning coil 86 , spacer element 154 , and grip member 85 of device 80 function in a similar fashion as in device 70 . In device 80 , however, the elongation of tensioning coil 86 is limited by the distal end of coupling member 165 at attachment point 166 . The distance between the proximal end of the coil spring 86 and the distal end of coupling member 165 at point 166 is long enough to provide the adequate amount of tension. This distance is also sufficient to allow the chemical and/or biological seal 153 to move proximally to expose the entire chemical and/or biological release region 163 . FIG. 9 illustrates device 80 with a deployed expansible member 74 . FIG. 10 illustrates device 80 when the coil 86 is elongated to apply adequate amount of tension to expansible member 74 and to expose the chemical and/or biological release region 163 . The attachment of syringe 167 to delivery port 164 for delivery of chemical and/or biological agents 152 to the target site is also illustrated. [0069] In operation, device 80 is inserted through the sheath 40 and advanced until the expansible member 74 is out of the sheath 40 and in the blood vessel 41 . The expansible member 74 is deployed by manipulation of the handle assembly 78 , the sheath 40 is removed and discarded, and the deployed expansible member 74 is placed against the inside wall of the vessel at the puncture site 42 . Tension is then applied by proximally sliding grip member 85 of coil 86 . The applied tension at the deployed expansible member 74 will provide hemostasis, and locates chemical and/or biological release region 163 . Elongation of the coil 86 reveals the chemical and/or biological release region 163 to the surrounding tissue tract 47 . The tension and coil elongation are maintained by application of an external clip 50 . Syringe 167 containing the chemical and/or biological agents 152 is then connected to the chemical and/or biological injection port 164 . An adequate amount of the agent(s) is injected into the site at tissue tract 47 . The chemical and/or biological agents 152 promote and accelerate the hemostatic process. After injection of the chemical and/or biological agents 152 , enough time is given for the agents to react with the blood tissue to form coagulum. External clip 50 is then removed, expansible member 74 is collapsed, and device 80 is removed. Removal of the device 80 may be followed by a few minutes of manual compression at the site to close the small hole left in the vessel wall. [0070] Although certain exemplary embodiments and methods have been described in some detail, for clarity of understanding and by way of example, it will be apparent from the foregoing disclosure to those skilled in the art that variations, modifications, changes, and adaptations of such embodiments and methods may be made without departing from the true spirit and scope of the invention. Therefore, the above description should not be taken as limiting the scope of the invention which is defined by the appended claims.

Vascular closure devices and methods for closing a blood vessel puncture site disposed at a distal end of a tissue tract are described. A combination of the body's own natural mechanism with chemical and/or biological agents is relied upon to accelerate the hemostatic process. Included are steps of introducing a closure device through the tissue tract and deploying an expansible member at a distal end of the device within the blood vessel to occlude the puncture site. A sealing member disposed proximal the expansible member is then displaced by retracting and tensioning a coil spring so as to expose a chemical and/or biological region or release region of the device. The retraction and tensioning of the coil spring is limited by a coupling member. Exposure of blood and tissue to the chemical and/or biological sealing member promotes the clotting processing to accelerate the occlusion process in the tract.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] This application claims the benefit of, and is related to, the following Applicant's provisional patent application: U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/112,465 titled “Trash Receptacle Garbage Bag Dispenser” filed Feb. 5, 2015, which is incorporated herein in its entirety. FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0002] The present invention relates, in general, to a trash receptacle structurally and functionally designed to ease the installation and removal of garbage bags. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0003] Typical trash cans/receptacles allow for the installation of bags within and require removal that exposes the trash. Bag replacement could also take time as one would have to first remove the first bag (which would be full of trash) and then obtain and place a new bag in the trash can/receptacle. Removal is also hampered or made difficult as a result of having to lift the bag out of the trash can/receptacle. [0004] People use trash bags at home and work but often find creative portable ways to bring them along. People tie them on door knobs at parties, tie them to the truck bed or side mirrors during a tail gate party. People also tie them to fences, railings, trees, tables, barbeques, chairs, etc. In doing so, they use regular shaped trash bags that may not, for the most part, be suitable or effective for their application. As such, people try to find ways to make the bags they use work for their use by hanging, clipping, tying or wrapping them around portable rims, stands, etc. However, they fail to find better ways to enable the efficient dispensing and installation of their trash bags. [0005] Some typical grocery bag racks are also not able to hide the contents of the bags since the racks are not enclosed. These grocery bag racks cannot contain smells of their contents since they do not have lids. If spills occur from a ripped bag, the racks have difficulty containing the spill in an enclosed area since most grocery store bag racks have flat bases without fluid catching capability. Some bag racks that are in the grocery store checkout area are designed to allow the opening of grocery bags over a small area of space and thus are not able to accommodate a larger bag that would be able to hold a substantial amount of trash. [0006] Trash cabinets, bins, and all types of receptacles are enclosed and can hide the bag and the bag contents easily. Trash receptacles usually have a top or lid available to contain the smell of the trash. They usually have an enclosed bottom in case of a spill. However, they do not have an easy way to organize bags or allow for rapid bag changing. Most trash receptacles cannot accommodate bags with holes in them since they do not have rods in place to receive such bags. [0007] Many businesses and homes have custom cabinetry or basic cabinet structures. Many companies have offered slide out flat base drawers to make room for a trash can to be set inside of that drawer. While this option can hide a trash can it does not offer the fast, clean, and organized method that an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention could offer by the simple conversion of adding two straight parallel bag holding bars or rods. [0008] Most of the rods/bars that are found inside receptacles in prior art are used for different functions and are designed as such. Some prior art rods are used to hold the type of bags that are on a roll. In contrast, aspects of embodiments of the present invention contemplate the use of bags that may be in a stack and may remain inside a firm package while hanging and dispensing by holes that are in the bags (meant for dispensing the bags and also their installation). Most prior art rods are short in length, not able to allow one leading bag to be pulled away from the stack in the rear area of the receptacle and ride along into the center area of the receptacle, where it is in the fully open, ready to use position, where it needs continued firm support. The prior art is designed with obvious notches, or protruding clips on the bars for the user to open one bag at a time and position it by hand by clipping or hanging it into position. Most of the prior art, two bar or rod type of mechanisms, are shaped for the hanging of a grocery bag by the handle, so it can be used a second time as a trash bag. The prior art bars, because of their short length or shape do not allow a large quantity of bags to load nor do they offer the ability for one bag to open and move into the ready to use position. Many prior art receptacles have parallel bars in them; the bars are generally described as being part of the structure to keep the receptacle frame up and supported. Some of the prior art bars move and become like a blender or shredder inside a receptacle to disintegrate the trash. Some of the prior art parallel bars are used as tracks or rails for a plate or wall to move on so it can become a compactor. [0009] Some prior art bars/rods are used to connect the lid to the pedal so they can function together to allow the lid to lift once the pedal is depressed. Almost all of the prior art parallel bars are connected at two opposite sides of the receptacle where they touch the opposite walls, therefore, not allowing someone access to one side in order to load on bags in a stack nor allow a full bag to be slid off of one free hanging side to exit the receptacle. Some prior art rods are “b” shaped or have significant curves at the free hanging end of the bar or rod where the bags are loaded and also large curves at the end which connects to the rear support wall. The problem with these curves is that they do not allow a tall, firm, thick package of bags (as needed for trash bag purposes), to be loaded onto the strongly curved end of the bar/rod easily and sometimes at all. Strong curves at the loading area of the bar or rod also require wasted time to manipulate the package onto the curves. The problem at the rear area of the prior art bar with the strong curves is that they do not allow the package to sit correctly or balance evenly. The strong “b” curve at the rear end that connects to the back wall area prevents the bags from easily deploying one by one. With these structural and design limitations, bags get snagged, torn, and stuck from the rear curve and cause major time delay in having to clean up or find ways to remove the bags efficiently. In contrast, for optimal utility an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention contemplates use of bars that may be straight from the free hanging loading area all the way to the connection area of the rear part of the bar. [0010] Previous bag dispensing apparatuses are designed to be stationary and are not easily transported. They are also not marketed nor designed to be portable or designed to be attached to other surfaces for other purposes. These types of racks are specific to t-shirt handle style bags. [0011] In light of the foregoing problems, there exists a need for a much more efficiently designed trash can/receptacle which enables speedier bag replacement, and maintains odor control among other things. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0012] The trash receptacle rack/bar or rod system as contemplated by the present invention, enable various utility options which may include, inter alia: 1. Adding lids to racks similar to the prior art of plastic bag grocery store racks to allow that function to now be “enclosed” and also used for trash purposes. 2. Creating an enclosure for straight parallel bar or rod bag hanging systems by adding walls around them or using them inside cabinetry to allow the bag and its contents to be out of plain view, and 3. Creating a new portable, adjustable, bag hanging bar or rod device for outdoors, indoors, that could be used anywhere people need a portable, two straight parallel bag hanging bar or rod device to load bags on with an optional lid. These options offer the same utility function while solving many unmet areas in life that are trash related. They all are designed for bags that hang from holes in them and need bars to allow them to load onto the bars, allow storing of a set of bags at the rear area of the bars, and allow the bags to be able to move along the bars to open for use and exit the bar or rod to be disposed of once they are full of trash. All of the functions and purposes as disclosed in this disclosure may be used with plastic bags that are for trash and bags that are for any purpose. The demands of the rods/bars for the purposes of this disclosure are structured and designed in order to function effectively and efficiently for the needs of a typical trash bag scenario. [0013] One object of the present invention is to promote quick, smooth loading of a large set of generally tall bags. An aspect of an embodiment of the present invention provides a well fit bag to stay close to the rods so the bag does not sag at any point along the rods. A further aspect of an embodiment of the present invention allows the motion of removing the full bag to prompt the next bag, which is usually connected to the first bag, so it will smoothly deploy without any interference and without a person having to stop and manually place the next bag into position. [0014] Aspects of embodiments of the present invention contemplate enabling the use of different bags including those that may be very flexible and thin which may be easily loaded onto bars/rods as the bags are not loaded while inside of a package and because the shape of the bag and hole alignment is easy to manipulate by hand in order to load them onto the bars. The free hanging rods/bars contemplated in the present invention also allow for the bags to be easily loaded onto the rods/bars and to dispensing the bags for use. In an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, the bars/rods may be generally straight with a minor curve to facilitate loading the bags or keep the bag from easily falling or sliding off the bars/rods. [0015] An aspect of an embodiment of the present invention contemplates a trash receptacle that eases the installation and removal of garbage bags while also maintaining odor control, among other distinct advantages. An aspect of an embodiment of the present invention contemplates a trash receptacle which may include a compartment enclosed by walls of the trash receptacle, where the compartment may be an enclosure configured to receive trash, two planar horizontal bars or rods which may be parallel with each other within the compartment, where the bars or rods may be structurally configured to receive and dispense garbage bags, and a lid over the compartment, the lid providing access into the compartment. The lid, or top surface of the receptacle can be solid, or with an opening such as a top drop style. The door can allow easy trash deposit by being a swing or flip style door, if desired. Any type of opening can be used to deposit trash. In one aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, the bars may be affixed within the compartment. [0016] An aspect of an embodiment of the present invention contemplates a trash receptacle apparatus that could be used in cabinets, stands, racks, etc. having an enclosed set(s) of parallel bars that are used to hang and move bags on. Another aspect contemplates a portable device that may be enclosed if desired. It should be noted that the term “enclosed” can, inter alia, refer to adding a lid to close off the top of a bag that is hanging on the bars of any type of bag rack; a user can “enclose” a bag by using a lid without walls if desired. The term “enclosed” can also refer to enclosing the bag that hangs on bars by adding walls of any material and an optional door at any location along with the lid if desired. [0017] An aspect of an embodiment of the present invention contemplates a trash receptacle apparatus having straight parallel rods/bars in order to enable fast easy loading of thick, firm, and tall packages of very large bags, and easy pull deployment without any interference of curves in the rear or front end of the rod/bars. One aspect of an embodiment of the present invention contemplates having minor curves for style that do not slow down loading, dispensing, and removing the bags. [0018] An aspect of an embodiment of the present invention contemplates multiple sets of rods/bars that may be used inside one receptacle/cabinet so that many bags can be used at one time. The bags can be used for recycling, compost, trash, etc. all at one location. The rods/bars with bags can be all in one compartment or have dividers to create separate compartments. [0019] In an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, one end of each bar or rod may be secured to an inside wall of the compartment. In an aspect, each other end of each bar or rod be free hanging and unsupported/non-affixed. As such, garbage bags may be installed onto the bars or rods by way of the free hanging, unsupported ends of the bars. [0020] In an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, access to the receptacle compartment for installing garbage bags may be made possible by way of any one of a front door, side door or the lid. [0021] In an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, the bars or rods may be structurally configured to hold garbage bags in a stack. [0022] In an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, the bars or rods may be structurally configured to receive and dispense garbage bags with punch holes. In operation, a user may draw a garbage bag which, in turn may be connected to another garbage bag. The drawn garbage bag, because of the user's pull, is drawn open. The punch holes enable detachment from other bags when the bag is drawn by the user. [0023] In an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, the trash receptacle may further include a drip tray/pan located at the base of the compartment. [0024] In an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, the bars or rods may be secured to any one of the following: any wall of the compartment, lid of the receptacle, floor/base of the receptacle, frame of the receptacle, door of the receptacle, ceiling of the receptacle. [0025] In an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, the bars or rods may be can be on a track/rail system where the track/rail system enables the bars or rods for motion in any one of the following directions within, and in relation to, the compartment: up, down, side to side or front to back. [0026] In an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, the bars or rods may be affixed to a panel within the compartment. This panel, according to another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, may include multiple sets of attachment positions to enable bar or rod attachment settings at different heights. [0027] In an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, the panel may include a track to which the bars may be secured to or affixed and where the track is able to vertically slide up or down the panel to enable different bar or rod setting heights. [0028] In an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, the bars or rods may have a bag position holding mechanism that keeps the bag from moving backwards/collapsing or from moving forward/falling off the bars. [0029] In an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, the receptacle may include a clip mechanism at each free non-affixed end of each bar, where each clip mechanism is configured to receive the edge of an installed bag and functions to help detach the bag. The clip mechanism also prevents the installed bag from sliding off the bars. In an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, the clip/clasp mechanism could be any size, material; it could be molded onto the bars, attached as a separate piece, it could be any shape, etc. The clip mechanism is for the purpose of keeping the bag in a set position so it cannot close inward or fall off. In another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, the clip/clasp mechanism may be located on the bars/rods-top side, left of right sides, the bottom side or be on the outside front edge/tip of the bar/rod. [0030] In an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, the edge of a bag near the free hanging part of the parallel bars may be kept in position firmly, by being held in/by any one of a recessed area, slot, indentation, cutout, narrowing in the bars/rods themselves or in an material that covers the bar. This configuration prevents the bag from falling off the bars or collapsing inward. The recessed area, slot, indentation, cutout, narrowing in the bars/rods that catches the edge of the bag can be made on the top, left or right sides, or bottom of bars/rods and also the front edge of the bar. [0031] In an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, the edge of the bag near the free hanging part of the parallel bars may be kept in position while being held by one or more protruding pieces on the bars themselves so the bag will not fall off the bars or collapse inward. The protruding pieces may have any shape or size and may be located on the top side, left or right sides, the bottom side, or the front edge of the bars. The protruding pieces may be attachable or molded into the bars and they may depress for easy loading of the bags if desired. [0032] In an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, the bars may be affixed to a cross bar or rod which is attached to sides of the compartment. [0033] In an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, the trash receptacle may further include an adjustable base located within the compartment where the adjustable base may be adjusted for different heights within the compartment. The adjustable base may be lowered to enable trash to sink down for easy bag removal off the bars. The movement of the trash downward also allows easy closure of the bag, less spilling of trash, etc. In another aspect, the adjustable base may be structurally configured to lower itself with the weight of the contents within the bag. [0034] In an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, the bars of the trash receptacle are detachable. [0035] In an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, the bars of the trash receptacle may have a slight concave curve between the affixed end of each bar or rod and the free end of each bar. This configuration enables an installed bag to hang easily between each ends of the bars, and prevents the installed bag from slipping off the bars [0036] Another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention contemplates a trash receptacle which may include a compartment enclosed by walls of the trash receptacle, where the compartment may be configured to receive trash, an independent frame assembly which may be releasably secured within the compartment, where the independent frame assembly may be structurally configured to releasably receive two parallel and planar horizontal bars. In one aspect, these bars or rods may be structurally configured to receive and dispense garbage bags. The receptacle may also include a lid over the compartment, the lid providing access into the compartment. [0037] Another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention contemplates a trash receptacle which may include a compartment enclosed by walls of the trash receptacle, where the compartment may be configured to receive trash, an independent frame assembly which may be releasably secured within the compartment, two parallel and planar horizontal bars, which may be affixed to the independent frame assembly, where the bars or rods are structurally configured to receive and dispense garbage bags and a lid over the compartment, the lid providing access into the compartment. [0038] In another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, the bars of the trash receptacle may be releasably affixed to the independent frame assembly. [0039] In another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, the independent frame assembly may include a base having any one of: a track, sliding mechanism or wheels for sliding the independent frame assembly out of the compartment. [0040] In another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, the bars of the trash receptacle may include a clip mechanism at each free non-affixed end of each bar, where each clip mechanism is configured to receive the edge of an installed bag and functions to help detach the bag and where the clip mechanism prevents the installed bag from sliding off the bars. [0041] In another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, the independent frame assembly may be placed within a general home/office cabinet to create a receptacle. [0042] In another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, the bars of the trash receptacle may be slightly curved between an affixed end of each bar or rod and a free end of each bar. [0043] In another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, one end of each bar or rod may be secured to the independent frame assembly and each other end of each bar or rod may be free hanging—which, in one aspect, enables installation of garbage bags by way of the free hanging ends of the bars. [0044] In another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, the independent frame assembly may be a vertical piece that may be releasably secured to the base of the compartment. [0045] In another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, access to the compartment for installing garbage bags may be made possible by way of any one of a front door, side door or the lid. [0046] In another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, the bars or rods may be on a track/rail system of the independent frame assembly where the track/rail system enables the bars or rods for motion in any one of the following directions within, and in relation to, the compartment: up, down, side to side or front to back. [0047] A further aspect of an embodiment of the present invention contemplates a trash receptacle having a floor/base that can be elevated and stable while in use and when the bag is full it can be lowered by any means (pedal pushing, using your foot to depress it, etc) then as the full bag is lowered the trash will sink down into the extra bag material that usually unfolds from the bottom of the bag at that time so there is more room to tie the top. This way the trash will not overflow while being removed from the bars and the bag material at the top will now be long enough to be tied. [0048] A further aspect of an embodiment of the present invention contemplates a bag dispensing apparatus, which may include a horizontal cross bar, pair(s) of co-planar bars perpendicularly affixed to the horizontal cross bar, where each pair(s) of co-planar bars may be configured to receive and dispense bag(s), and an attachment structure, coupled to the horizontal cross bar or rod where the attachment structure may be configured to attach the apparatus to a desired location. [0049] In a further aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, the bag dispensing apparatus may also include a lid, configured to be positioned over a bag hung by the pair(s) of co-planar bars. [0050] In a further aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, the bag dispensing apparatus may also include a clip mechanism at each free non-affixed end of each bar or rod of each pair(s) of co-planar bars. In one aspect, each clip mechanism may be configured to receive the edge of the bag. The clip mechanism also functions to help detach the bag and prevents the installed bag from sliding off the bars. [0051] In a further aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, the attachment mechanism/structure may be any one of: magnets, bolts, clip on, tie downs, welding, adhesives, hook and loop, screws, glue, twist on apparatus, threading, molding, hooks, suction device, snap on configuration, pinning, snap ring, nailing, hanging, pop in device. [0052] In a further aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, the horizontal cross bar or rod may be collapsible. This enables the apparatus to be portable. [0053] In a further aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, the apparatus may also include a drip pan, which may be positioned at the base of the bag. [0054] In a further aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, the bag dispensing device may be placed within a general home/office cabinet to create a receptacle. [0055] Additional aspects, objectives, features and advantages of the present invention will become apparent from the following description of the preferred embodiments with reference to the attached drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0056] FIG. 1 illustrates a view showing the receptacle with its lid and front door closed according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. [0057] FIG. 2 illustrates a view showing the receptacle with a lifted lid, and bars or rods that hold the trash bags, according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. [0058] FIG. 3 illustrates a view showing the receptacle with a closed lid, and a front door open to reveal the hidden bars or rods according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. [0059] FIG. 4 illustrates a view showing the receptacle with a lifted lid and showing how the receptacle would look without its sides and front door according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. [0060] FIG. 5 illustrates a view showing the receptacle with a lifted lid and showing how the receptacle would look with the trash bags stacked in place without the receptacle's walls and front door according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. [0061] FIG. 6 illustrates a view showing a trash receptacle having a first bag in the fully open position ready to receive trash and showing the receptacle with its lid lifted up and how the receptacle would look without the receptacle sides and front door according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. [0062] FIG. 7A illustrates a trash receptacle having rods of the receptacle being attached to a cross bar that connects on the side walls with no contact to the rear wall, according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. [0063] FIG. 7B illustrates a trash receptacle having rods of the receptacle being independently connected directly to only the side walls of the receptacle according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. [0064] FIG. 8A illustrates a trash receptacle having rods of the receptacle being attached to a vertical bar that connects to the floor/base inside the receptacle according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. [0065] FIG. 8B illustrates a trash receptacle having rods of the receptacle on an independent trash rack/stand that can be placed inside a receptacle to provide an enclosure for it according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. [0066] FIG. 9 illustrates a side view of a trash receptacle having two straight parallel rods attached at the ceiling or lid of the receptacle according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. [0067] FIG. 10 illustrates a trash receptacle having rods attached to the receptacle door which can open with a hinge or slide out mechanism according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. [0068] FIG. 11 illustrates an independent frame assembly/rack/stand having an adjustable two straight parallel bar stand with a track that can move up and down and side to side, the bars can move in any direction, stand can have extra holes to move the bar if desired according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. [0069] FIG. 12 illustrates a trash receptacle having independent rack/stand within the receptacle to create an enclosed two straight rod bag holding system according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. [0070] FIG. 13 illustrates a trash receptacle having two bar bag hanging rod rack/system/stand with a lid/top to create the enclosure of the bag according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. [0071] FIG. 14A illustrates a trash receptacle having multiple sets of two or more rods within a receptacle or cabinet allowing multiple bags to each hang on a two rod system for various purposes such as recycling, trash, and compost all in one location according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. [0072] FIG. 14B illustrates a trash receptacle with optional lid(s) and having multiple sets of two or more rods within a receptacle or cabinet allowing multiple bags to each hang on a two rod system for various purposes such as recycling, trash, and compost all in one location according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. [0073] FIG. 15 illustrates a trash receptacle having a parallel bar hanger device/system according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. [0074] FIG. 16 illustrates a receptacle with a height adjustable base/floor according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. [0075] FIG. 17 illustrates a receptacle with an adjustable base that is in the depressed or lowered position according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. [0076] FIG. 18 illustrate a home, office, or work cabinet configured to become the receptacle according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. [0077] FIG. 19A illustrates a trash receptacle having two straight parallel bag holding bar device on a tree with a strap band to secure it around the tree according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. [0078] FIG. 19B illustrates a trash receptacle having two straight parallel bag holding bar device on a table secured with a clamp according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. [0079] FIG. 19C illustrates a trash receptacle having two straight parallel bag holding bar device on a large vehicle secured with a magnet according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. [0080] FIG. 19D illustrates a trash receptacle having two straight parallel bag holding bar device being used with multiple bar and bag option secured to a fence according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. [0081] FIG. 20A illustrates a clip mechanism used on the receptacle's bars or rods according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. [0082] FIG. 20B illustrates a clip mechanism used on the receptacle's bars or rods and in operation with a trash bag according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0083] In a certain aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, the trash receptacle or trash can (terms “can”, “trash can”, “receptacle”, “trash receptacle” being used interchangeably throughout this disclosure) be particularly made for trash bags that have holes punched in them that they hang by. The bags hang, move and function simply by hanging on two preferably straight parallel bars/poles/sticks that can be made from any material. In one aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, the bars or rods may have minor curves. These parallel bars or rods may connect to one side of the wall in the trash receptacle and do not need to connect to anything for support at the sides or the end where the bag slides off. They basically connect for support to one wall and free hang straight out. The bars or rods are enclosed within the trash can/receptacle and may run from the back area of the receptacle horizontally towards the front area of the receptacle. [0084] In one aspect, the bars, while usually being parallel, could be offset bars or rods and can be of any length, thickness or made out of any material. Additional aspects of embodiments of the present invention contemplate the bars or rods having a variety of textures and/or features that will enable trash bags to be smoothly installed/removed and/or prevent the bags from falling off the front of the bars or rods while the bags are in a “ready to use” position. For instance, the ends of the bars or rods may have a rubber texture which may grip the bag and prevent it from slipping off. [0085] The trash receptacle, as contemplated in one aspect, is made to be enclosed with access being provided in a number of ways via including a front door, side door or any way desired to provide access to the trash bags for their loading and unloading. The can/receptacle may also be made of any material and be of any size, color and/or shape having a lid. The can/receptacle may be adapted for use in numerous settings including household, industrial, commercial fast food, within cabinets etc. [0086] Aspects of embodiments of the present invention are distinguished from other trash cans/receptacles or stands which use bags which are clipped into position, or are “wrapped” around a rim of any shape whether circular or square etc. or made to use with grocery store “handled bags” aka t-shirt bags will not work in the trash can/receptacle contemplated in the present invention. In contrast, the contemplated invention enables loading of the bags onto the bars or rods by way of holes/openings in them. The bags do not wrap around or over the bars or rods but rather slide onto the bars or rods and hang on them. The bags may be able to move into a ready-to-use, open position by moving the bag along the bars or rods from the rear area of the trash can/receptacle towards the front middle area of the can/receptacle while they unfold or expand so they are ready to receive waste/trash. When the bags are full, they may be pulled off the bar or rod by sliding them towards the front of the receptacle until they fall off the bars. The next bag usually will be pulled towards the front from the rear area as it begins to open for use. [0087] One aspect of an embodiment of the present invention contemplates an enclosed trash can/receptacle that can have a lid. It can have different style doors but will have some sort of opening to access the bag and allow it to be pulled horizontally off the bars or rods to allow the next bag on. This configuration is distinct from the prior art as any type of stand cannot function the same way because prior art cans/receptacles expose the bag of trash out in the open and do not keep the trash enclosed for sanitary or esthetic reasons. [0088] The bars or rods can be installed/secured to the can/receptacle in a number of ways, including, but not limited to, any wall of the receptacle, the roof of the receptacle, the lid of the receptacle, the floor/base of the receptacle, the frame of the receptacle, door of the receptacle. In one aspect, the bars or rods may be attached or secured to a separate piece which in turn may be attached to the receptacle by being mounted or bracketed to the receptacle. Such a piece may be vertical in structure/alignment and may have the bars or rods secured to it at a right angle. In another aspect, the bars or rods may be installed on a track/rail system that would enable motion in an up, down or sideway direction. Methods of securing/attaching the bars or rods may include, but not be limited to, welding, using: adhesives, hook and loop, screws, bolts, glue, magnets, clips, twist on apparatus(es), threading, molding, hooks, suction device(s), snap on configuration(s), pinning, snap ring mounting, nailing, pop in configuration(s), hanging, etc. [0089] In configurations where the receptacle has a side access door, the bars or rods may be installed to run horizontally from one side towards the other side of the receptacle as opposed to the back to front direction as previously discussed. [0090] In sum, an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention contemplates an enclosed trash can for privacy/hiding of a trash bag with two internal parallel free floating (attached at one end) horizontal bars or rods that are made for trash bags that have holes in them so they can free hang on those parallel bars or rods for use and removal. [0091] Advantages of the present invention include: Having trash bags readily available for use following removal of a previous bag. Increased trash bag changing speed Enabling use of bags that have holes in them to hang them by Increased privacy More efficient/effective odor control Elimination of the time it takes to hang bags on clips or fold/secure onto rims Being specially designed to handle the specially designed bags that hang on bars or rods despite having an outward normal trash can/receptacle appearance. Enabling the loading of a large quantity of trash bags that may be in a stack/package and are enabled to be dispensed one after another. Enabling the removal of a full bag horizontally off the bars or rods which eliminates the need to vertically lift a full bag out of the can/receptacle. [0101] Optional aspects of embodiments of the present invention contemplate having the can and rods sold separately or together. Other aspects contemplate the trash can/receptacle presented as one piece where the bars or rods are already molded into place. Additional aspects contemplate retrofit configurations—i.e. where existing cans/receptacles may be retrofitted to include the aforementioned bars. [0102] Further aspects contemplate including a drip tray/pan at the base of the can/receptacle to catch any fluid that may leak from the bags. For additional support, when and where needed, additional rods or bars or rods may also be included. [0103] Referring now to FIG. 1 a trash receptacle 1 is shown according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. Trash receptacle 1 may have a lid 2 for covering the bag within the receptacle. In one aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, receptacle 1 may also include a door 3 for providing access into receptacle 1 in order to install or remove full trash bags. [0104] Referring now to FIG. 2 receptacle 1 is shown with its lid 2 being lifted up to reveal interior hidden bars or rods 5 that hold the trash bags within compartment 4 of receptacle 1 , according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. Receptacle 1 may have two “straight” parallel bars or rods 5 inside an enclosed receptacle/cabinet 1 that can be used by connecting them various ways in addition to the rear wall of receptacle 1 . [0105] Referring now to FIG. 3 receptacle 1 is shown with its lid 2 closed and its front door 3 open to reveal hidden bars or rods 5 according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. [0106] Referring now to FIG. 4 receptacle 1 is shown with lid 2 , bars or rods 5 and compartment 4 according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. [0107] Referring now to FIG. 5 receptacle 1 is shown with lid 2 lifted up and with a folded stack of trash bags 6 in place without the receptacle's walls (for emphasis) and front door according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. [0108] Referring now to FIG. 6 receptacle 1 is shown with a first bag 7 in the fully open position ready to receive trash and showing receptacle 1 with lid 2 lifted up according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. [0109] Aspects of embodiments of the present invention contemplate straight parallel bars or rods 5 that can free hang on one side, are long enough to allow a large quantity of bags 6 to load and remain supported while expanding across receptacle 1 . Certain aspects of embodiments or the present invention also contemplate bars or rods 5 that are smooth enough for a bag 7 with holes to slide from the loaded position into the ready to use position and then off the free hang portion to exit the bar or rod 5 when full. Bars or rods 5 do not require a user to load on one bag at a time by wrapping it around the top like a ring or rim. They also do not require a user to clip each side into position, or hang the bag by its handles if applicable. Bars or rods 5 are located towards the top area of receptacle 1 to facilitate the bag to hang by its holes and extend down into receptacle 1 's compartment 4 where it fills up with trash or items. In an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention bars or rods 5 , may have simple minor curves to ease loading and help keep bag 7 or bags 6 on, but do not have any curves that interfere with the utility function of easy loading and snag free deployment. [0110] Certain aspects of embodiments of the present invention, when used in the commercial setting and even household kitchens, may require bags that are much larger and thicker than grocery store bags. Bags with a thick enough gauge to hold in fluid and shaper items are difficult to fold and keep in a tight position. These bags must be able to stay close to the bar or rod which means a smaller diameter hole in them to hang on the bar or rod with. The bags must be able to expand long enough to accommodate a large amount of trash and also have room at the top to tie closed. A firm package must be used to keep small holes in alignment to load onto bars. Firm boxes and packages do not allow much flexibility and do not work with strong curves or “b” shaped pins/rods. Packaging must be long enough to hold a large bag but short enough to not allow the new bags to be soiled by touching the bottom area of the current used bag which can leak. In order to keep large trash bags folded and tight a package is needed versus just a stack of individual bags at the rear area of a rack. It is not practical to use loose bags without firm large packages; the bags are not orderly and unfold inconveniently. Aspects of embodiments of the present invention address the specifics of using rods inside a receptacle that can handle the type of movement and packaging needed to use very large bags in order to create a useful product. Bars or rods 5 have the ability to offer various features, rubber or other gripping material on the bars or rods to keep bag from sliding, a low profile clip mechanism to maintain bag position once it is deployed so it cannot accidently close while in use etc. Such features allow the speed of the bag to be controlled and can allow the bag to hold its position very well while in use. [0111] In aspects of embodiments of the present invention, the bars or rods 5 may be straight at their connection point with receptacle 1 and at the free hang ends. Bars or rods 5 allow loading of a firm tall package or even box that can hold very large bags that are preferably folded up from the bottom and bags that also have small holes for their installation) so they stay close to the bar or rod to avoid sagging. [0112] Sagging allows a gap between the bar or rod and the sides of the bag which allows items to land outside of the bag. Other aspects contemplate bars or rods or rods that are slightly curved between their connection point and their free ends. This configuration enables securing a bag in place by preventing it from slipping of the pair of bars or rods or rods. [0113] With small holes that fit well to the poles there is a problem with “b” shaped pins, as disclosed in some prior art, since one cannot maneuver a large, tall, thick, firm pack or box of bags onto the loading end of a “b” shaped pin, there isn't enough clearance from the back wall of the receptacle to maneuver the package past the large curve that leads the package upward to get it onto the straight part of the bar. The second problem with the “b” shape pin is that the area the package sits along the rear wall can get stuck in that curve. It is also difficult for the next bag to get over that curve in order to have a smooth deployment. These details are important especially since the type of bag the present invention will use will make the bag depend on the first used bag to successfully pull the second bag smoothly into the ready to use position, without the user having to touch the second bag. These types of bags preferably are connected to each other and that is how they can pull each other into place. [0114] Referring now to FIG. 7A trash receptacle 1 is shown having bars or rods 5 of receptacle 1 being attached to a cross bar that connects with receptacle 1 's the side walls according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. In this aspect, bars or rods 5 do not connect with receptacle 1 's rear wall. [0115] Aspects of embodiments of the present invention contemplate bars or rods 5 being attached to different parts of receptacle 1 including lid 2 , walls of receptacle 1 , base/floor of receptacle 1 , and door 3 which can slide out or be on a hinge. Bars or rods 5 may be on a track that can be installed on the back wall of receptacle 1 or as used on an independent item such as a hanging mechanism. In another aspect, the user can have a bag stand that will fit into the receptacle to create an “enclosed” system by combining the two products. Some of these aspects may be seen in FIG. 7B through FIG. 10 . In one aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, the stand may be collapsible or foldable for easy storage or transport if desired. [0116] FIG. 7B illustrates another aspect of an embodiment of trash receptacle 1 having bars or rods 5 being independently connected directly to only the side walls of receptacle 1 . [0117] Referring now to FIG. 8A trash receptacle 1 is shown with bars or rods 5 being attached to a vertical frame that connects to the floor/base inside receptacle 1 according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. [0118] Referring now to FIG. 8B bars or rods 5 of receptacle 1 are shown as part of an independent trash rack/stand that can be placed inside a receptacle according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. [0119] Referring now to FIG. 9 , a side view of trash receptacle 1 is shown with two straight parallel rods 5 attached at ceiling or lid 2 of receptacle 1 according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. [0120] Another placement configuration for bars or rods 5 may be seen in FIG. 10 where bars or rods 5 are attached to receptacle door 3 which can open with a hinge or slide out mechanism according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. [0121] Referring now to FIG. 11 trash receptacle 1 may be seen having an adjustable two straight parallel bar stand 9 that has a track 10 that can move up and down and side to side by any means, according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. Bars or rods 5 , being connected or affixed to slots within track 10 , can move in any direction, the width between the bars or rods may be widened by placing each respective bar in a different slot or extra holes of track 10 and the height may also be adjusted by either lowering or elevating track 10 . [0122] FIGS. 12 and 13 illustrate trash receptacle 1 having independent rack/stand 8 within receptacle 1 to create an enclosed bag holding system according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. In one aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, a lid 2 may also be hingedly coupled or connected with frame 8 to cover any trash bags that may be installed. Bars or rods 5 may be directly connected or affixed to frame 8 which may also have a base with a sliding mechanism or wheels to enable frame 8 to slide or be wheeled out of receptacle 1 . [0123] Aspects of embodiments of the present invention contemplate pairs of bars or rods 5 being used within one compartment as shown in FIGS. 14A and 14B . These applications enable multiple bags 7 to each hang on each pair of bars or rods 5 for various purposes such as recycling, trash, and compost all in one location according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. [0124] Another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention contemplates bars or rods 5 being part of a parallel bar hanger device/system according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention and as shown in FIG. 15 . Here, the parallel bar hanger device/system may be detachable and may be used in conjunction with existing receptacles. [0125] Another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention contemplates a height adjustable base/floor 15 within receptacle 1 as shown in FIGS. 16 and 17 . Base/floor 15 may be elevated while in use. When the bag is full it can be lowered by a number of ways including pedal pushing, using your foot to depress it, etc. As base/floor 15 is lowered, the trash will then be able to sink down into the extra bag material that usually unfolds from the bottom of the bag at that time so there is more room to tie the top. This way the trash will not overflow while being removed from the bars and the bag material at the top will now be long enough to be tied. [0126] Referring now to FIG. 18 home, office, or work cabinet 12 configured to become receptacle 1 is shown according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. Cabinet(s) may be modified or made for the home or office environment in order to create an enclosed two bar or rod bag hanging system inside cabinet 12 . Many kitchens for example have cabinetry made to hold a trash can that can slide open on a sliding door or drawer system. By attaching the rods 5 to the inside of the cabinet door 3 or inside that cabinet to any wall the user can load two bar or rod system style bags. Under many kitchen sinks people have a small bag rack or ring attacked to the inside of the door to hang bags around a rim in a circular style or hang them on special handles made for the grocery style bags to hang on. Unfortunately, they are not two parallel bars or rods long enough to use in this fashion. Bars or rods 5 can also be placed inside any type of home, office, etc. cabinet by any means including creating a special rack, frame, poles, track, etc that can be purchased by the user and set in or attached inside of the cabinet. Any two bar or rod style system used inside of cabinets for the purposes of the present invention is included. Bars or rods 5 are not just for collection within garbage containers/receptacles as mentioned in the prior art. Rather, aspects of the present invention are configured and may work for the creative purpose of being placed inside general cabinetry to provide a two bar or rod bag system for people to use in custom home, office, or work locations as the users preferred convenient way of handling trash. [0127] Further aspects of embodiments of the present invention are shown in FIGS. 19A through 19D showing installations of two straight parallel bag holding bar device 17 in different applications. This aspect offers consumers the option to have a two straight parallel bag hanging bar or rod device 17 with an optional lid 2 that is easily transported and installed. This device will be able to use two straight parallel bars or rods that may have minor curves and may have features that allow the bag to move smoothly and stay in various positions as described. The simple device can be made and assembled for use in various ways. It can have the bars or rods fold or collapse toward the center for compact storage. It can have pieces connect together by any means or be made as one complete piece. The two straight bars or rods can be created in many ways including creating them by bending longer bars or rods into an “L” shape or 90 degree angle to use one part to attach somewhere and the other portion to use to hang the bags on. The rear area that usually makes contact with the surface it attaches to may have features that allow it to hold on to or keep the bag stack in place neatly. The device may also be able to attach, for example, to the outside of food trucks by any means or any other surface by magnets, bolts, clip on, tie downs, welding, adhesives, hook and loop, screws, glue, twist on apparatus (es), threading, molding, hooks, suction device(s), snap on configuration, pinning, snap ring, nailing, hanging, pop in, it may be used with hinges and fold up almost flat while still attached to the surface and then unfold into the ready to use position when needed etc. For example the owner can create an instant trash bag holder with lid if desired by simply attaching the device onto the outside of the truck exterior. The device can be used at a park by attaching it with a tie, clamp, or any other means to a tree. The device can also be attached to a door, end of a table with a clamp, onto an R.V. or object at a campsite, a railing or fence etc. by clipping it to the same. Device 17 can also be used at a construction site to collect trash by attaching it to wood beams, vehicles, outhouses, etc. Device 17 may be used in a garage on a wall to collect recyclables. Device 17 may be used at fairs, beaches, attached to a ground stake or other means to keep it stable. Device 17 may be attached to a diaper changing table or even by magnet to the side of a fridge in small homes. Device 17 is portable, small, and easy to install by any means and be readily available to meet the needs of any size crowd or event. The device can have an extension for example long hanging bars or rods that hang over the top of the door and lower the two parallel bag hanging bars or rods to the height the user prefers them at. The device may also include a lid and also a drip catch tray or pad if needed to ensure it can be enclosed to keep pests out and also not drip waste onto the ground. The device can be made of any material, size, color, and sell as a set of items listed here or individually as attachments or accommodating parts. Parallel bars or rods 5 can be made as one unit staying connected or be two rods in a set that are installed individually. Device 17 may have a long horizontal bar or rod or connecting piece with a few sets of bars or rods that extend out from it in order to allow multiple bags to hang from one device. Device 17 may be installed on any surface by a number of installation methods or ways. [0128] Referring now to FIGS. 20A and 20B , a clip mechanism 18 is shown on bars or rods 5 according to an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. Each clip mechanism 18 may be located towards the free hanging end of bar or rod 5 . As shown in FIG. 20B , clip mechanism captures the front end of a deployed trash bag 7 and holds it in place thereby prevent bag 7 from slipping off bars or rods 5 . Once bag 7 is full, a user may then pull trash bag 7 over clip mechanism 18 and as each bag is connected with each other, a new bag is installed in place and captured by clip mechanism 18 . [0129] The invention has been described in detail with particular reference to certain preferred embodiments thereof, but it will be understood that variations and modifications can be effected within the spirit and scope of the invention.

A trash receptacle capable of receiving and dispensing garbage bags. The receptacle may include a compartment enclosed by walls of the trash receptacle, the compartment being the enclosure for receiving trash, two parallel and planar horizontal bars or rods within the compartment, with the bars or rods being structurally configured to receive and dispense garbage bags. The receptacle may also have a lid over the compartment, the lid providing access into the compartment.

PRIORITY CLAIM This patent application contains subject matter claiming benefit of the priority date of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/972,608 filed on Sep. 14, 2007, accordingly, the entire contents of this provisional patent application is hereby expressly incorporated by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention pertains generally to wallets or billfolds with improved security features. More specifically, the present invention pertains to systems and methods for securing wallets while employing electronic features. The present invention is particularly, but not exclusively, useful as a smart wallet system and method with advanced features including biometric authentication and an ability to transmit and receive electronic signals. 2. Description of the Prior Art In an age where electronic devices and transactions are prevalent, safe-guarding data has become an important issue, thus giving rise to a myriad of security systems. Two of the common security systems used are password and personal identification (PIN) systems. Password systems require a user to provide the authentication system with a username and a password (both of which are unique to the user). PIN systems on the other hand usually require a user to provide a code, usually referred to as the PIN code, for authentication purposes. Both the password and the PIN system can prove to be a nuisance to users in the event they forget their password or PIN code. Moreover, a user A can easily impersonate another user B if user A happens to get a hold of the password or PIN code (given either voluntarily or exploited through other means) of user B. One way to avoid such breaches of security is to implement a user-based physiological or behavioral characteristic as a means for authentication. This is the general idea behind biometrics. Biometrics is the study of measurable biological characteristics. In computer security, biometrics refers to authentication techniques that rely on measurable physiological (e.g. face, fingerprint, hand, iris, or DNA) or behavioral (e.g. keystrokes, signature, or voice) characteristics that can be automatically checked. In the above description, authentication is usually accomplished via a biometric device. A general description of the functionality of a biometric device now follows. First, the biometric device captures a profile of the characteristic and next, a comparison of the acquired profile is made with a stored profile or template. Lastly, upon successful matching of the captured and stored profile, the user is interfaced with the application system requesting authentication. Authentication based on fingerprint: One of the most common biometric techniques is the fingerprint, wherein users scan in a copy of their fingerprint and a comparison is performed by the authentication device as to whether or not the input fingerprint matches that of a stored fingerprint corresponding to the same person. Some fingerprint authentication devices further provide a step of checking for a pulse to combat problems posed by false-authentication via fingerprints that are not real. Authentication based on hand geometry: An authentication querying system captures the physical characteristics of a user's hand and fingers via a scanner and is matched with a stored template of the same user. Upon successful authentication, an action (like opening a secure door) is performed by the querying system. Authentication based on retinal scanning: A scanner scans at close range a user's retina (the image forming innermost coat of the black part of the eye ball) using a low intensity light, creating an eye signature. The image is further matched to a stored retinal template, and a specific action is performed upon successful authentication. It should however be noted that failure of a user to focus correctly may provide an inaccurate result. Authentication based on iris scanning: An iris scanner scans unique random patterns of the iris (the colored part of the eye) and authenticates users based on comparing the consistency of the acquired pattern with that of stored patterns. Unlike retinal scanning, close range interaction is not required. Authentication based on facial recognition: A facial recognition system scans (the features of a users face) and captures an image of the user's face and compares it to a stored static facial image of the same user. Upon successful authentication, a specific action is performed by the facial recognition system. Authentication based on signature verification: This authentication technique utilizes a pressure sensitive pen and a tablet to record a user's signature. The system then compares it against stored samples of signatures corresponding to the same user, and upon authentication, performs a specific action. Authentication based on voice recognition: Authentication in this technique is based on recognizing voice and speech characteristics (associated with a user) that are imperceptible and hence not replicable. Voice recognition systems typically require more memory for storing voice templates of users. Therefore, biometrics are beginning to play a critical role in authentication and security. Biometrics authenticate the user not based on what he can remember (like passwords, PIN's, etc.), but rather use the user's characteristics (or who the user is) to perform authentication. Wallets heretofore, have also been known. Some examples include U.S. Pat. No. 5,653,276, entitled COMBINATION WALLET AND BILLFOLD, to Niernberger; and U.S. Pat. App. Pub. No. 2006/0273129, entitled WALLET SECURITY, to Horn. Also recently, improvements in electronic tracking and inventory systems have been proposed that take advantage of the latest short range, low power technologies such as Bluetooth and ZigBee. However, no similar proposals have been made that specifically address a person's wallet providing biometric authentication and electronic tracking. In light of the above, it is an object of the present invention to provide a Smart Wallet, or an iWallet, that proposes a biometric based authentication module to prevent a non-owner from accessing the device. It is further an object of the present invention to provide a secure wallet that is tamper resistant and water resistant. It is still further an object of the present invention to provide a smart wallet with electronic transmission and receiving capability to provide, for example indication when a secure wallet and a corresponding fob key are taken out of a preselected range. It is yet still further an object of the present invention to provide either a fob key device configured to fit onto or into a cellular telephone device, or alternatively configured to a key chain. It is an additional object of the present invention to provide a secure wallet with a USB port so that data can be retrieved, stored and programmed to the device via a personal or laptop computer. It is still another object of the present invention to provide a Smart Wallet system and method that is simple to use, yet easy to implement and comparatively cost effective. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention specifically addresses and alleviates the above mentioned deficiencies, more specifically, the present invention is directed to a smart wallet comprising: an open position; a secure position; and a biometric reader wherein the biometric reader provides biometric authentication allowing the wallet to transition from the secure position to the open position. The smart wallet, in a first aspect, is further characterized as having a left-hand side; and a right-hand side, the left and right-hand sides connected by hinges. A preferred embodiment also has an LED indicating a relative battery strength. Additionally, the smart wallet comprises a plastic support clip on an interior of the wallet, the plastic support clip configured to receive personal business cards. The smart wallet is also a part of a smart wallet tracking system. For this, the smart wallet comprises a first RF unit; and the tracking system further includes a fob comprising a separate a second RF unit, the first and second RF units configured to send and receive electronic transmissions from each of said units, the fob providing audible indication when the fob and smart wallet are separated by a predetermined range. Yet another physical feature of the smart wallet is that an interior portion of the wallet includes a base relief to facilitate extraction of bills and credit cards. Also, the interior portion includes a card holder for storage of business cards or credit cards and the card holder includes an angular offset to facilitate extraction of said cards. It is further contemplated that the smart wallet comprises polycarbonate-ABS blend; and styrene-acrylonitrile material. In a second aspect, the present invention is a method of securing a wallet, the method comprising: providing a wallet having electronic transmitting and receiving capability; providing a fob key transmitting and receiving electronic signals from the wallet; determining whether the wallet is within a predetermined distance from the fob key using the transmitting and receiving electronic signals; and indicating audibly if the fob key and the wallet are detected as being beyond the predetermined distance. The method herein additionally comprises latching the wallet in a closed position; controlling the latching electronically via control signals; and authenticating the controlling the latching biometrically. In a third aspect, the present invention is a system for securing a wallet comprising: a fob key maintained separately from the wallet, wherein the wallet and fob key are able to transmit and receive electronic signals with one another and wherein an approximate distance can be determined between the wallet and the fob key; and audible indication to alert a user when the approximate distance exceeds a predetermined distance. The system of the present invention additionally characterized in that the wallet further comprises an open position; a secure position; and a biometric reader wherein the biometric reader provides biometric authentication allowing the wallet to transition from the secure position to the open position. The fob key of the present invention comprises a battery compartment, the battery compartment including a screw type lid. Additionally, self-adhesive is provided for affixing the fob to a cellular phone. As an alternative, all hardware components of a fob key of the present invention are incorporated into a cellular phone design. In yet another alternative, the fob further comprises a loop for attaching to a key chain. While the apparatus and method has or will be described for the sake of grammatical fluidity with functional explanations, it is to be expressly understood that the claims, unless expressly formulated under 35 USC 112, or similar applicable law, are not to be construed as necessarily limited in any way by the construction of “means” or “steps” limitations, but are to be accorded the full scope of the meaning and equivalents of the definition provided by the claims under the judicial doctrine of equivalents, and in the case where the claims are expressly formulated under 35 USC 112 are to be accorded full statutory equivalents under 35 USC 112, or similar applicable law. The invention can be better visualized by turning now to the following drawings wherein like elements are referenced by like numerals. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The novel features of this invention, as well as the invention itself, both as to its structure and its operation, will be best understood from the accompanying drawings, taken in conjunction with the accompanying description, in which similar reference characters refer to similar parts, and in which: FIG. 1 is a schematical illustration of a system for securing a wallet of the present invention; FIG. 2A illustrates a block diagram for hardware components for a smart wallet of the present invention; FIG. 2B illustrates a block diagram for hardware components for a fob key of the present invention; FIG. 2C illustrates a block diagram for software components for a smart wallet of the present invention; FIG. 2D illustrates a block diagram for software components for a smart wallet of the present invention; FIG. 3A is a perspective illustration of a first smart wallet embodiment, also known as an iWallet, of the present invention; FIG. 3B is a perspective illustration of the first smart wallet embodiment in an open position; FIG. 3C is a perspective illustration of the first smart wallet embodiment having an interior leather compartment in an unfolded position; FIG. 3D is a top plan view of the first smart wallet embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 4A is a perspective illustration of a second smart wallet embodiment in a closed (secure) position; FIG. 4B is a perspective view of the second smart wallet embodiment in an open position; FIG. 5A is a perspective illustration of a third smart wallet embodiment of the present invention in a closed position; FIG. 5B is a perspective illustration of the third smart wallet embodiment of the present invention in an open position; FIG. 5C is a cross-sectional illustration of the third smart wallet embodiment along sectional line 5 C- 5 C in FIG. 5A ; FIG. 6A is a perspective illustration of a first fob key embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 6B is a side view of the first fob key embodiment affixed to a cellular phone according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 7A is a perspective illustration of a second fob key embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 7B is a side view of the second fob key embodiment affixed to a cellular phone according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 7C is a perspective view of the second fob key embodiment from underneath the device illustrating the self-adhesive of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Referring initially to FIG. 1 , a smart wallet tracking system 100 is illustrated. First, a smart wallet 111 is provided having relatively low power, relatively short range, wireless transmission 115 capability. Second, an electronic fob 112 is provided also having wireless transmission capability configured to transmit and receive signals from the smart wallet 111 . As an example, the fob key can be mated to a key chain 114 via loop 113 , or alternatively, the fob key 112 could also be configured into or onto a cell phone 690 as illustrated in FIGS. 6A through 7C , for example. System 100 is still further configured so that when wallet 111 and fob 112 are separated by a predetermined distance, for example ten (10) feet, the system 100 will provide audio and/or vibrational indication to both the wallet 111 and the fob 112 . The audio indication could be provided, for example, by a sound generator 201 , 211 , such as a buzzer or a speaker. Further, the vibrational indication could be provided by, for example, a miniature motor configured with a weight imbalance to cause vibration. The audio indication principle purpose is to alert an owner when the wallet 111 has been stolen, and further, the direction the wallet relative to the owner in the moments after a suspected theft. As another alternative, fob 112 is configured with wireless transmission ability while the wallet itself includes only passive RFID; and therefore only the fob key 112 would alert a user when the wallet 111 goes out of range. In a preferred embodiment, the wallet 111 and fob key 112 range determination is achieved approximately by a relative signal strength detected by a receiver from either or both of the fob key 112 and the wallet 111 . Referring to FIG. 2A , a block diagram 200 of exemplary hardware components is shown. In a preferred embodiment, a biometric reader is realized as fingerprint module 203 . Microprocessor 204 controls the actions of the range detection, for example with sound generator 201 and vibrator 202 , and also with authentication of the user via the fingerprint module 203 . A Security Parameter Index (SPI) is associated with a wallet owner's biometric signature. Microprocessor 204 communicates to wireless module 205 via a General Purpose Input/Output (GPIO), for example, and includes antenna 206 . It is preferred that both processor 204 and wireless module 205 are low power consuming and concurrent with the latest advancements in such electronics. Further, wireless module 205 is configured, according to for example, short range low power protocols as defined by either Bluetooth, ZigBee (IEEE 802.15.4), Radio Frequency Identification (RFID), or Ultra-Wideband (UWB). FIG. 2B illustrates a fob key hardware block diagram 210 wherein a microprocessor 215 is integrated with a wireless module. Similarly, the integrated processor and wireless module 215 control sound generator 211 and vibrator 212 , and is electronically connected to antenna 216 . FIG. 2C shows software block diagram 230 for the smart wallet 111 of the present invention. It 230 comprises applications including registration, login, authentication, range detection 231 , wireless stack 233 , security library 232 , biometric middleware 234 , operating system 235 , and device drivers 236 . The operating system 235 includes all the services such as interprocess communications, memory management, clock, and file system. Device drivers 236 include wireless, flash, I/O ports, timers, fingerprint reader, and others. Sitting on top of the OS 235 are the wireless communication stack 233 , biometric library (middleware) 234 , and security library 232 . The application layer 231 includes applications such as sync, user registration, user authentication, and range detection, for example. FIG. 2D illustrates software block diagram 240 for the fob key 112 of the present invention. It 240 comprises applications including pairing and range detection 241 , communications stack 242 , system services and device drivers 243 . Software on the electronic fob key 112 is simpler than software on the smart wallet 111 . According, no full featured operating system is provided but instead a simple round-robin loop, where each software module 241 242 , 243 is given a time slice of a CPU. Another embodiment 300 of a smart wallet is illustrated in FIG. 3A in a closed or secure position. As shown, biometric reader 310 is configured to scan a fingerprint of a person attempting to access the wallet 300 . LED 320 is designed to emit green when processor 204 recognizes the fingerprint as the owner of smart wallet 300 . Also, a chime is emitted from sound generator 201 when a successful authentication is received. Additionally, LED 320 is designed to emit red light, and sound generator 201 will emit a warning buzzer, when the biometric reader 310 scans a fingerprint other than what the processor 204 recognizes as the owner. Still further, LED 32 is designed to emit amber light when battery power for the wallet 300 is below a threshold level and also sound generator 201 will emit an intermittent beeping sound. In a preferred embodiment, recharging of wallet battery power can be achieved via mini USB port 330 to a charger that plugs into an AC power supply. Alternatively, a separate port for an AC adapter can be provided as a design choice. Wallet 300 may be described as similar a cigarette case that is tamper resistant and opens up only biometrically, for example by fingerprint. Wallet 300 can only be opened by the owner himself; and therefore, children, a spouse, roommates, etc. are denied access to contents thereof while the owner of the wallet is for instance sleeping, or in the bathroom. FIG. 3A also shows antenna 340 and mini USB port 330 . FIGS. 3B through 3D further illustrate wallet 300 in various views. Wallet 300 in an open position is shown in FIG. 3B . An interior of the smart wallet 300 presents on its left side a plastic support clip 360 where one can put for instance, personal business cards 361 . On an opposing right side, a leather compartment is provided with inner 351 and outer sections 353 . Inner section 351 is designed to receive paper money 352 as shown in FIG. 3C . Outer section 353 is designed to receive credit cards, or similar items as shown in FIGS. 3B and 3D . Also illustrated is a latch 370 used to secure wallet 300 . In a preferred embodiment, latch 370 is controlled by a motor actuator; however other type actuators may be employed. Whatever choice of actuator, it is designed to de-energize shut, therefore, smart wallet 300 locking mechanism defaults into locked state when power is lost or in standby mode. In a preferred embodiment, battery power is minimized because latch control power is only applied to unlatch. FIGS. 4A and 4B further illustrate a smart wallet embodiment 111 as originally shown in FIG. 1 . Here, an alternative latch 470 embodiment has been illustrated. Also, this embodiment 111 differs from the smart wallet 300 shown in FIG. 3A in that two LEDs 415 , 420 are provided. A first LED 420 can be dedicated to battery power indication and a second LED 415 provides indication of biometric access. Other physical features to note are antenna 440 and USB port 430 . Also to note, card holder 469 for receiving cards 461 and plastic clip 460 for retaining paper money 452 . Importantly, this embodiment 111 includes base relief 455 to assist in extraction of bills 452 ; as well as base relief 456 to assist in the extraction of cards at an interior portion of wallet 111 . Further, the interior of the wallet 111 is exposed about hinges 480 . Yet further, another embodiment 500 of a smart wallet according to the present invention is shown in FIGS. 5A through 5C . Similarly, it 500 comprises LED 520 , USB port 530 and antenna 540 joining biometric reader 510 . Also similarly, an interior portion of wallet 500 includes clip 560 for securing paper money 552 having base relief 555 to facilitate extraction thereof. The interior portions are formed about hinges 580 . However, this embodiment 500 is unique in that card holder 569 retains cards 561 at a slight tilt as illustrated in FIGS. 5B and 5C . FIGS. 6A and 6B illustrate yet another embodiment 600 for a fob key of the present invention, however, this solution pairs the fob 600 to a cellular telephone 690 via a suitable adhesive 787 ( FIG. 7C ). Fob 600 , has a speaker 616 , an LED 620 and also contains a battery compartment 686 and battery compartment cover 685 . As stated herein, system 100 provides that when fob 600 and a smart wallet 111 , 300 , 500 of the present invention are outside approximately a predetermined range, fob 600 will provide audible indication via speaker 616 , as well as visual indication 620 . Still further, another fob key embodiment 700 is realized in FIGS. 7A through 7C . As shown, fob 700 comprises sound generator 716 , LED 720 , as well as battery compartment 786 with cover 785 . FIG. 7B illustrates fob 700 affixed to a cellular phone 790 according to the present invention. FIG. 7C shows a perspective view of fob 700 from a vantage point that is underneath the fob 700 . Also according to a preferred embodiment, a first side of self-adhesive 787 that mates with fob 700 comprises a relatively high strength bonding material; and a second side of self-adhesive 787 comprises a relatively low strength bonding material. It is yet still further contemplated that the fob key applicable hardware components could be incorporated into existing cellular phones wherein only required software is needed to instruct the fob key to work as such according to the present invention. As stated, smart wallet 111 , 300 , 500 is an electronic personal vault that can communicate wirelessly 115 to another small key chain fob device 112 or cellular phone fob 600 , 700 to monitor their co-location and alert a user when the two are separated. In a preferred embodiment, electronic fob key 600 , 700 has a small sleek design where it can be attached to a cellular handset 690 , 790 . Further in a preferred embodiment, smart wallet 111 , 300 , 500 is water-resistant and could be further improved to be a water-tight device. Still further in a preferred embodiment, sensors associated with the biometric input can determine if wallet 111 , 300 , 500 is forced to an open position without biometric authentication. Therefore, if the wallet is pried open with a screwdriver an alarm will sound via sound generator 201 . Construction materials contemplated by the present invention include titanium for the wallet 111 , 300 , 500 . Further, covers 585 , 685 , 785 for battery compartments 686 , 786 may be comprised of polycarbonate-ABS blend. Also in a preferred embodiment, LEDs 320 , 420 , 520 , 620 , 720 are contain of translucent plastic (SAN) styrene-acrylonitrile material for covers thereof. Additional aspects of the present invention considered herein include a bypass function comprising a pin, for example, to allow access to the wallet 111 , 300 , 500 if battery power is no longer available. Also, USB port 330 and 430 can be used to set up, program and monitor the system 100 of the invention when coupled to a computer device; and also in this way the system can provide a log of biometric attempts to access the wallet 111 , 300 , 500 . Many alterations and modifications may be made by those having ordinary skill in the art without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. Therefore, it must be understood that the illustrated embodiments have been set forth only for the purposes of example and that it should not be taken as limiting the invention as defined by the following claims. For example, notwithstanding the fact that the elements of a claim are set forth below in a certain combination, it must be expressly understood that the invention includes other combinations of fewer, more or different elements, which are disclosed above even when not initially claimed in such combinations. While the particular Smart Wallet as herein shown and disclosed in detail is fully capable of obtaining the objects and providing the advantages herein before stated, it is to be understood that it is merely illustrative of the presently preferred embodiments of the invention and that no limitations are intended to the details of construction or design herein shown other than as described in the appended claims. Insubstantial changes from the claimed subject matter as viewed by a person with ordinary skill in the art, now known or later devised, are expressly contemplated as being equivalently within the scope of the claims. Therefore, obvious substitutions now or later known to one with ordinary skill in the art are defined to be within the scope of the defined elements.

A smart wallet that can only be exclusively opened by an authorized individual through biometric authentication is disclosed. The smart wallet also has a security system associated therewith to prevent the smart wallet from being lost or stolen. The system comprises a fob key configured to send periodic wireless transmissions to the smart wallet device having the ability for approximate range detection. Various embodiments include audible, visual and vibrational indications for authentication, battery power and range detection.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed to a ribbon conductor or cable having a plurality of light waveguides which are arranged side-by-side in a row in a common outside sheath and are relatively movable to the sheath and to a method for manufacturing the conductor. U.S. Pat. No. 4,147,407, which was the basis for German OS No. 26 55 996 discloses a ribbon conductor having optical waveguides provided with a coating or sheath which waveguides are arranged lying side-by-side in a row in one plane. In order to form the ribbon conductor, the cladding or sheaths of each of the waveguides are brought into contact with adjacent waveguides of the row and are treated with a solvent so that the material of the sheaths will adhere to one another in the region of their contact to form the ribbon-like structure. This type of arrangement has several disadvantages because the mechanical stresses that occur in further process, for example, during stranding or laying of the conductor, will act directly on the sensitive light waveguide fibers because the overall structure allows no dislocation or movement of the individual light waveguides relative to each other or to the ribbon. In German AS No. 25 08 825, a stranding element for optical cables having a two-part, roughly box-shaped profile member is provided. The box-shaped member has longitudinally extending chambers which are formed in the interior and which receive respective light waveguide leads. The mobility of the light waveguides relative to one another is, in fact, guaranteed by such arrangement as is a good protection of the overall arrangement against externally acting shear forces. However, a disadvantages of this arrangement is that the two-part, box-shaped profile member is required to serve as a housing for the overall arrangement. This box requires a relatively involved manufacturing process and also yields a structure that is relatively stiff overall and whose further processing can lead to difficulties, particularly in conjunction with stranding processes. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The object of the present invention is to create a ribbon conductor which comprises the smallest possible dimensions and whose fibers are mobile relative to each other to the greatest degree and whose fibers are protected against mechanical influences. In accordance with the present invention, this object is achieved in a ribbon conductor having a plurality of light waveguides arranged in a mobile fashion side-by-side in a row in a common outside sheath. The improvements are that each of the light waveguides has a cladding, a glide layer surrounding the cladding, and a loosely positioned protective sheath surrounding the glide layer, the plurality of light waveguides are arranged side-by-side in a row and have a common protective outside sheath directly contacting the outer sheaths of each of the fibers so that the common sheath surrounds the outer two light waveguides of the row with a semi-cylindrical engagement and contacts the inner disposed waveguides only at two regions lying opposite one another. Since the light waveguide leads, which comprise a protective sheath loosely seated on a gliding layer, are employed in the invention, these leads exhibit a certain inherent mobility and are capable of executing yielding operations to a certain degree given mechanical stresses. The mobility and, above all else, the easy twistability of the ribbon conductor, which is required for certain stranding processes, are additional improved in that the individual light waveguide leads also directly abut one another and are not surrounded on all sides by the common outside sheath and therefore are not retained by this common outside sheath. It is particularly expedient when the individual light waveguides are arranged mobile relative to one another to the greatest possible degree. It can thereby be advantageous to apply the a common outside sheath so that it surrounds the two outer waveguides of the row of waveguides with a roughly semi-cylindrical engagement and contacts the inner light waveguides, only roughly tangentially on two opposite regions thereof. In this way, the mobility of the light waveguide leads relative to one another and to the outside common sheath surrounding them is guaranteed to a particularly far-reaching degree despite the compact format and the compact overall arrangement. Another feature of the invention is an addition to these above-mentioned favorable properties is the conductor ribbon of the invention can be manufactured in a particularly simple way. The invention is also directed to the method for the manufacture of the ribbon conductor which is characterized in that the individual light waveguide leads are taken from supply reels and brought together and arranged in a row next to one another, the light waveguides are moved through a guide device at whose output a stretched cone of material from an extruder is formed and stretched down onto the light waveguides which extend side-by-side so that the light waveguides are surrounded by the extruded outer common sheath to form the ribbon conductor. Other advantages and features will be readily apparent from the following description, drawings and claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a side view with the portions broken away of an apparatus for the manufacture of a ribbon conductor constructed in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 2 is a cross section through the structure of a light waveguide which is utilized within the framework of the present invention; and FIG. 3 is a cross sectional view of a structure of a finished ribbon conductor in accordance with the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The principals of the present invention are particularly useful when incorporated in a ribbon conductor or cable generally indicated at FB in FIG. 3. To form the ribbon conductor FB, supply reels SP1-SPn are provided to provide light waveguides LA1-LAn. The light waveguides have a structure, which is shown in FIG. 2 and includes an optical fiber or light waveguide LW which has a coating CT applied thereto. This structure comprises an outside diameter roughly on the order of magnitude and arranged between 100 and 250 m. Subsequently, a relatively thin gliding or lubricating layer GS is applied and has a thickness in the magnitude of 50 m. This gliding layer GS provides a certain mobility within an externally applied protective sheath SH for the light waveguide LA. The hard protective sheath SH, that is loosely applied, is preferably composed of a polyamide or polyimide. The outside diameter of the light waveguide LA is in a range of about 400 through 600 μm. Details regarding the structure of such a light waveguide are disclosed, for example, in German OS No. 34 00 605, which corresponds to U.S. Ser. No. 684,290. In the apparatus illustrated in FIG. 1, the individual light waveguides LA1-LAn proceed through guide element FE which guide element see to it that they proceed lying in order side-by-side in roughly one plane. The guide element FE can be constructed in a simple way, and, for example, in the fashion of a comb. Subsequently, the light waveguide leads LA1-LAn proceed to a guide device which sees to it that they retain this mutual allocation and their position within a plane remains unaltered in a further manufacturing process. In detail, this additional guiding device is composed of guide tubes FR1-FRn which are provided with a conical entry funnel on the input side and comprise an adequately large inside diameter which is larger than the outside diameter of the light waveguide leads and is roughly on the order of magnitude of 600 μm, given a light waveguide diameter of 500 μm. As a result of the thin guide tubes FR1-FRn which react like injection needles, the light waveguides LW1-LWn are brought close together and emerge at the end of the guide tubes FR1-FRn in such a distribution that their protective sheaths SH already nearly abut or engage or respectively are at least in tight proximity to one another. The guide tube FR1-FRn extend through a passage EO in the extruder head of an extruder EX and end roughly in the region in which a stretched cone AHK is pulled from the extruder EX. This stretched cone AHK is placed under tension by a haul-off means, which is positioned on the right hand part of the Fig. and is not illustrated. The cone increasingly diminishes in diameter to such a degree that until the outside sheath AH formed by the cone completely surrounds the light waveguide leads which continue to proceed side-by-side in a row. A structure as shown in FIG. 3 for the four light waveguide leads LA1-LA4 will then occur. The sheathing or outer common sheath AH embraces the two outer waveguides LA1 and LA4 of the row by roughly 180° so that it has a roughly semi-cylindrical contact area therewith. The inner light waveguides LA2 and LA3 exhibit roughly tangential regions of contact with the outer sheath AH only at opposite sides or regions. A certain mobility of the light waveguide leads LA1-LA4 relate to one another as well as within the outside sheath AH is thus guaranteed. An additional mobility and, thus, a gentle treatment of the sensitive optical fibers is established in that each of the light waveguides additionally includes the gliding layer GS in accordance the structure shown in FIG. 2. This gliding layer GS likewise represents a protection for the sensitive fiber of the waveguide LW. Together with the gliding layer GS, the protective sheath SH also has the additional task of prevention an inadmissible thermal stressing of the light waveguide fibers LW when the outside sheath AH is shrunken onto the light waveguide structure as illustrated in FIG. 3. In the region of its passage EO, the extruder EX comprises a nipple NP and an externally extending flange FL. A suction nozzle ST is attached to this flange FL and provides a vacuum or under-pressure. In this way, the shape of the cone AHK can be ideally matched to the dimensions of the waveguides passing therethrough. Apart from the round edges, the ribbon conductor FB in accordance with FIG. 3 represents a roughly rectangular structure which is inherently highly flexible, enables an optimum preservation of the individual light waveguides and their fibers and simultaneously assures that the structure constructed in this way can be used with versatility. Even if the outside sheath AH were to shrink somewhat into the gores or gaps between the light waveguide LA1-LA4, the waveguides still remain arranged abutting one another and the possibility for compensating motions relative to one another still exist. The light waveguides LA1-LAn advantageously comprise outside diameters on the order of magnitude of 500 μm. The outside sheath AH of the ribbon conductor is preferably composed of a polyester elastomer having a wall thickness between 100 and 200 μm. Insofar as the longitudinally water-tight embodiments of the ribbon conductor is desired, a filling compound, for example, can also be supplied via guide tubes FR1-FRn. Thus, the common outside sheath AH will then surround not only the light waveguides LA1-LAn, but also the filling compound which will be in the gores or spaces between the light waveguides and form a water-tight arrangement. The gliding layer GS should exhibit a pasty, but not drippy, consistency. Thixotropic oils, preferably enriched with a thickening agent, can preferably be provided for this purpose. Such oils are disclosed in European Pat. No. 00 29 198, which is corresponding to U.S. Pat. No. 4,370,023. Although various minor modifications may be suggested by those versed in the art, it should be understood that I wish to embody within the scope of the patent granted hereon all such modifications as reasonably and properly come within the scope of my contribution to the art.

A ribbon conductor has a plurality of light waveguides arranged in side-by-side row and surrounded by a common protective sheath, each of the light waveguides includes an optical fiber having a coating of hard material, a gliding layer on the coating, and a loose protective sheath. The outer common sheath of the ribbon conductor surrounds the row of side-by-side waveguides and contacts the outer two waveguides of the row with a substantially semi-cylindrical contact area while it contacts the inner waveguides of the row in two tangentially arranged contact regions.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION The present application is a continuation-in-part of application Ser. No. 11/410,147, filed Apr. 25, 2006. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates generally to a bactericidal/fungicidal composition. More specifically, the present invention relates to a bactericidal/fungicidal composition that is based upon a non-leachable copper-citrate complex that is stabilized by a double dispersing system and that reduces the dose of copper used per hectare. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Fungi are a large group of nongreen plants dependent upon the organic food made by photosynthesizing green plants. They represent a constant and ever present threat to many agricultural crops ranging from tropical and semi-tropical vegetation to temperate climate crops. Thus the control of phytopathogenic fungi is of great economic importance since fungal growth on plants or on parts of plants inhibits production of foliage, fruit or seed, and the overall quality of a cultivated crop. In addition, certain groups of fungi produce mycotoxins in infected crops, directly posing a health hazard to humans and animals. Fungicides are known in the art as either chemical or biological agents used to mitigate, inhibit or destroy fungi. To be economical, the cost of controlling plant diseases must be offset by increased crop yield and quality. The use of Cu 2+ ions for protecting crops against phytopathogenic fungi has been known for a long time. As early as 1882, a Bordeaux mixture was used to control the downy mildew on grapes. The Bordeaux mixture consisted of a light blue gelatinous precipitate suspended in water and formed by reacting 4 pounds of copper sulfate with 4 pounds of hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide) in 50 gallons of water. Variations of the Bordeaux mixture have been made by changing the ratio of the components. Presently, copper based fungicides/bactericides are used extensively in agriculture. It has been observed that various types of copper compounds can be used to effectively treat various plant pathogens, and are available in different types of formulations including wettable powders, emulsifiable concentrates, water-based flowables and dry flowables (also known as water dispersible granules). Dry flowable products are generally dustless, free-flowing, granular products. They are popular among users because the products can be formulated with a higher percentage of active ingredient, are easy to use and have improved shelf life compared to the aqueous fungicides/bactericides. Dry bactericides/fungicides can be stored for a long period of time, over wide extremes of temperature, without destroying the stability of the formulation. Dry bactericides/fungicides formulations also result in lower shipping cost. While copper compounds have been known for their ability to control fungi/bacteria, the copper materials applied must be relatively non-toxic to the plants. Generally, inorganic copper compounds have been used because they have been observed to be non-phytotoxic, while most of the organic copper compounds have been found phytotoxic, especially in foliar applications. With respect to the inorganic copper compounds, water soluble copper compounds are known to be extremely phytotoxic. As a result, water insoluble copper compounds are used as fungicides/bactericides. However, the low water solubility of the copper compounds presents a different kind of problem. Biological activity of the copper-based fungicides/bactericides is measured by the free Cu 2+ ions available for consumption by the fungi or bacteria. The biological activity of a fungicide/bactericide increases with an increase in the amount of free Cu 2+ ions released. Therefore, the fungicides/bactericides formulated based on water insoluble copper compounds are normally applied in relatively large amounts to effectively control the phytopathogenic fungi. As a result, the relatively high level of copper detracts from cost effectiveness, contributes to soil residue contamination and raises the potential for phytotoxicity. As an alternative to high level copper compound usage, the water insoluble copper compounds can be milled to fine particle size to increase the surface area of the compounds. The finer the copper compound, the more surface area it can cover with relatively small amounts of copper compounds. However, the methods employed to reduce the particle size of the copper compounds are not always cost effective. In addition, as a practical matter, it is difficult to disperse the finely milled copper compounds because of the tendency of fine particles to agglomerate. Aside from process and formulation modifications, it is known that a copper complex or copper chelate can be used as a source of free Cu 2+ instead of water insoluble copper compounds. It has been demonstrated that certain types of copper complexes or chelates are substantially nonphytotoxic and effective fungicides/bactericides for agriculture use. U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,462,738 and 5,298,253 describe a granular dry flowable bactericide/fungicide containing about 40%-80% of copper hydroxide. U.S. Pat. No. 6,139,879 describes an aqueous bactericide/fungicide containing a complex of copper and ethylenediamine-N,N′-bis(2-hydroxyphenylacetic acid) (EDDHA). U.S. Pat. No. 6,471,976 describes an aqueous bactericide/fungicide containing a complex of copper and a partially neutralized polycarboxylic acid. While the bactericides/fungicides reduce the usage of copper compounds, the bioavailable copper from the complexes based on copper hydroxide ranges only from 217 ppm to 3530 ppm. U.S. Pat. No. 6,562,757 describes a plant-protection composition comprising a copper source in non-chelated form and a sparingly soluble calcium, zinc or manganese chelate. Upon application of the composition, copper chelates are formed in situ and gradually released to extend the application interval. U.S. Pat. No. 6,562,757 also describes a process of making the claimed composition by mixing and milling all the dry and powdery ingredients. While the gradual release of Cu 2+ ions may be advantageous, it is desirable for a fungicide/bactericide to have an effective initial Cu 2+ ion concentration to provide immediate antifungal/antibacterial effect. It is also desirable to have a process of making a fungicide/bactericide substantially dust-free. Additionally, the use of chelating agents and dispersants in large amounts substantially increases the cost and renders the formulation economically infeasible. Global health and environmental regulations are becoming more and more stringent with respect to unmanaged or unnecessary fungicide/bactericide residues. Farmers around the world are facing a paradox. On one hand, the need to control destructive pathogens requires more fungicide/bactericide use. On the other hand, increasing pressures from regulatory agencies demand less chemical residue on crops and in the soil. Therefore, a need exists for a copper-based fungicide/bactericide having high biological activity compared with existing copper-based products, while requiring significantly less copper in the formulation. A need exists for a copper-based fungicide/bactericide having both an immediate and extended antifungal/antibacterial effect. A need also exists for a process to make and use such fungicide/bactericides in a cost effective and environmentally friendly manner. A way to meet these needs has now been found using the present invention. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed to an improved copper-based fungicide/bactericide composition. The improved composition offers higher biological activity and greater cost-effectiveness compared with existing copper-based products, while requiring significantly less copper in the composition. The improved copper-based fungicide/bactericide composition of present invention comprises: a. between about 5.0% to about 39.0% by weight (based on the total weight of all dry ingredients) of copper hydroxide; b. between about 0.2% and about 10.0% by weight of a water soluble copper chelator, which is a carboxylic acid derivative; c. between about 2.0% and about 15.0% by weight of a first dispersant, wherein said first dispersant is a block copolymer non-ionic surfactant having an average molecular weight of between about 1,000 and 15,000 or a polycarboxylic acid derivative having a pH of between about 5 and about 10 and an average molecular weight of between about 1,000 and about 37,000, or combinations thereof; d. up to about 10.0% by weight of a second dispersant, which is lignin sulfonate, naphthalenesulfonate or combinations thereof; e. between about 0.5% and about 60.0% by weight of a filler; and f. optionally between about 0.01% and about 1.50% by weight of an antifoaming agent, and/or a stabilizer, and/or a wetting agent, and/or combinations thereof. The present invention is also directed to a method of making the improved copper-based fungicide/bactericide composition. The method comprises: a. combining between about 5.0% to about 39.0% by weight (based on the total weight of all dry ingredients) of a copper hydroxide wet cake having about 40 to about 60% solid content with, i. between about 0.2% and about 10.0% by weight of a water soluble copper chelator which is a carboxylic acid derivative, ii. between about 2.0% and about 15.0% by weight of a first dispersant, which is a block copolymer non-ionic surfactant having an average molecular weight of between about 1,000 and about 15,000, or a polycarboxylic acid derivative having a pH of between about 5 and about 10 and an average molecular weight of between about 1,000 and about 37,000, or combinations thereof, iii. up to about 10.0% by weight of a second dispersant, which is a lignin sulfonate, naphthalenesulfonate, or combinations thereof, iv. between about 0.5% and about 60.0% by weight of a filler, and v. optionally an antifoaming agent, and/or a stabilizer, and/or a wetting agent, and/or a combination thereof, b. mixing to obtain a homogenous slurry; and c. drying said slurry to a moisture content of less than about 4.0%. The present invention is further directed to a method of using the improved copper-based fungicide/bactericide composition. The method comprises applying to the plants an effective amount of fungicide/bactericide composition of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The improved composition of the present invention releases and disperses free Cu 2+ ions up to 10 times more than that of typical copper-based formulations. For example, the present invention releases about 25,000 ppm (parts per million) of Cu 2+ ions from a copper hydroxide based fungicide/bactericide, compared to about 2,500 ppm of Cu 2+ ions from typical copper hydroxide based fungicides/bactericides. A fungicide/bactericide formulation may be produced in accordance with the present invention by mixing between 5.0% to 39.0% by weight (based on the total weight of all dry ingredients) of a copper hydroxide wet cake with, i. between 0.2% and 10.0% by weight of a water soluble copper chelator which is a carboxylic acid derivative, ii. between about 2.0% and about 15.0% by weight of a first dispersant, which is a block copolymer non-ionic surfactant having an average molecular weight of between about 1,000 and about 15,000, or a polycarboxylic acid derivative having a pH of between about 5 and about 10 and an average molecular weight of between about 1,000 and about 37,000, or combinations thereof, iii. up to about 10.0% by weight of a second dispersant, which is lignin sulfonate, naphthalenesulfonate or combinations thereof, iv. between 0.5% and 60.0% by weight of a filler, and v. optionally, an antifoaming agent, and/or stabilizer, and/or wetting agent and/or the combinations thereof to form a homogeneous aqueous slurry. The slurry is then spray dried in conventional spray drying equipment to obtain dry flowable granules with an average particle size of less than about 8 microns. The copper hydroxide wet cake may be produced by mixing copper oxychloride with caustic soda to form copper hydroxide and passing the reaction mixture through a rotary filter to dewater and obtain the copper hydroxide wet cake having about 40-60% solid content, more preferably having about 45-55% solid content, most preferably having about 50% solid content. The concentration of copper hydroxide (based on the total weight of all the dry ingredients) used in the present invention is in the range of about 5% to about 39% by weight, preferably about 10% to about 39%, more preferably about 10% to about 30%, most preferably about 10% to about 25%. The carboxylic acid derivatives useful as copper chelators in the present invention include water soluble organic compounds containing two or more carboxylate functionalities, and their salts. The preferred carboxylic acid derivatives are citric acid, tartaric acid, oxalic acid, malic acid, fumaric acid, succinic acid, glutaric acid, adipic acid, their metal and ammonium salts. The most preferred carboxylic acid derivatives are citric acid and sodium citrate. The concentration of carboxylic acid derivatives (based on the total weight of all the dry ingredients) used in the present invention is in the range of about 0.2% to about 10%, preferably about 1% to about 6%, more preferably about 4% to about 6%. The block copolymer non-ionic surfactants useful in the present invention include non-ionic surfactants used in emulsifiable and suspension concentrates. Suitable block copolymers are polyalkylene oxide block copolymers having a molecular weight of between about 1,000 to about 15,000. The preferred block copolymer non-ionic surfactant is Toximul® 8323 available from Stephan Company, Illinois, U.S.A. The polycarboxylic acid derivatives useful in the present invention include polyacrylic acid derivatives. The polyacrylic acid derivatives can be prepared by neutralizing polyacrylic acids having a molecular weight of between about 1,000 and 37,000, preferably between about 5,000 and about 37,000. The polyacrylic acid is neutralized to a pH of between about 5 and about 10 by adding to the polyacrylic acid a neutralizing agent. Suitable neutralizing agents include sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, NaHCO 3 , Na 2 CO 3 and the like. The preferred polyacrylic acid derivative is Orotan® 850, available from Rohm and Haas Company, Pennsylvania, U.S.A. Orotan® 850 is a sodium salt of polyacrylic acid. Other polycarboxylic acid derivatives can also be used in the present invention. Suitable polycarboxylic acids useful in the present invention include polymethacrylic acids; copolymers of acrylic acid and acrylamide, methacrylamide, acrylate esters (e.g., methyl, ethyl and butyl), methacrylic acid, methacrylate esters (e.g., methyl and ethyl) and maleic anhydride; carboxymethylcellulose; and maleic acid polymers and copolymers with butadiene and maleic anhydride. The foregoing block copolymer non-ionic surfactants and polycarboxylic acid derivatives may be used alone or in combination to achieve the optimal results. When used in combination, a suitable ratio of the block copolymer non-ionic surfactant to the polycarboxylic acid derivatives may be between 10:1 to 1:10, preferably between 5:1 to 1:5, more preferably between 2:1 to 1:2. Fillers for granules, wettable powders and dry flowables of copper-based fungicide/bactericide are known in the art. Suitable fillers include diatomaceous earth, calcium carbonate, calcium bentonite clay and sodium bentonite clay. The preferred diatomaceous earth is available under the trade name Celite 350, having a particle size distribution of d 10 =3.0-3.5 microns, d 50 =10-13 microns and d 90 =20-25 microns. It is available from Celite World Minerals Inc. in California, U.S.A. The preferred calcium carbonate has a particle size distribution of d 10 =0.5-0.6 microns, d 50 =1.5-1.7 microns and d 90 =8-10 microns. It is available from Qualymin of Monterrey, Mexico. Lignin sulfonates and naphthalenesulfonates useful as dispersants are known in the art. The preferred lignin sulfonate is available under the trade name Wanin® DP 734 FI, a sodium salt of lignin polymer. It is available from Borregaard Lignotech, Finland. The preferred naphthalenesulfonate is available under the trade name Morwet® D-425, a sodium salt of naphthalene sulfonate condensate. It is available from Akzo Nobel Surface Chemistry LLC, Texas, U.S.A. Lignin sulfonates and naphthalenesulfonates may be used alone or in combination to achieve the optimal results. The copper based fungicide/bactericide compositions can optionally include other formulation additives, such as wetting agents, antifoam agents and stabilizers. The wetting agents, antifoaming agents and stabilizers are known in the art. The preferred wetting agent is Genapol® X060, a fatty alcohol polyglycol ether non-ionic surfactant, available from Clariant Corporation of Charlotte, N.C., U.S.A. The preferred antifoam agent is AF® 365 Antifoam, a polydimethylsiloxane antifoam emulsion, available from General Electric of Greenwich, Conn., U.S.A. The preferred stabilizer is glycerol. The wetting agents, antifoam agents and stabilizers can each be incorporated into the compositions in amounts between about 0.01% and about 1.50% by weight (based on the total weight of all dry ingredients). They may be used alone or in combination to achieve the optimal results. The slurry can be air dried, oven dried or spray dried. Preferably, the slurry is spray dried to form a dry flowable granular product by using a spray dryer equipped with an atomizer. The spray drying chamber has an inlet temperature of about 300° C., and an outlet temperature of about 90° C. The resulting granular product has moisture content of less than about 4.0%, preferably less than about 2.0%. The resulting granular product has an average particle size of less than about 8 microns, preferably less than about 6 microns, more preferably less than about 4 microns. Using techniques known in the art, the fungicide/bactericide compositions of the present invention can be prepared in other forms, such as flakes, powders, tablets, pellets and solutions. The fungicide/bactericide compositions are tested for biocopper. The term “biocopper” means free Cu 2+ ions available for consumption by the fungi or bacteria. The “biocopper” value can be measured by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometric methods as exemplified below: a. Preparation of Standard Copper Solutions Standard solutions of 5, 10, 15, 20, 30 and 35 ppm are prepared by dilution from commercially available copper standard solution of 1000 ppm. A working solution is prepared from the standard stock solution by taking 10.0 mL of standard solution (1000 ppm), transferring it to 100 mL volumetric flask and diluting it to 100 mL with de-ionized water to obtain a standard solution containing 100 μg/mL of copper. Standard solutions are prepared by taking 5, 10, 15, 20, 30 and 35 mL portions of this solution and transferring it to 100 mL volumetric flasks; in each case diluting to 100 mL with de-ionized water to obtain standard solutions containing 5, 10, 15, 20, 30 and 35 μg/mL of copper. b. Preparation of the Calibration Curve The absorbance of the standard solutions is measured by atomic absorption spectrophotometry in an air-acetylene flame at 324.7 nm. The burner must be in perpendicular position with respect to the light beam. A calibration curve of absorption against amount of copper is plotted. c. Determination of Biocopper The fungicide/bactericide of the present invention (about 0.1 g) of the composition is weighed (to the nearest 0.0001 g) and transferred to a 250 mL conical flask, 100 mL of de-ionized water is added and stirred for 15 minutes at 20-25° C. About 40 mL of the supernatant is filtered through a 45 microns Millipore filter and read in the Atomic Absorption equipment using the burner positioned perpendicular to the light beam. Calculation Biocopper(ppm)=[ C* 100)]/ W Where C is the concentration (μg/mL) read from the equipment and W is the sample weight in grams. The factor 100 refers to the volume of water employed for the analysis. The fungicide/bactericide compositions of the present invention may be applied directly to the leaves of a plant at a rate of preferably between about 0.5 and about 12.0 pounds per acre depending on the specific plants to be protected or treated. The fungicide/bactericide compositions of the present invention may also be mixed with water and then sprayed onto the plants using conventional agricultural sprayers and spraying techniques known in the art. The mixing ratio of granulates and water is between about 2:10,000 (w/w) and 5:1,000, more preferably between about 3:10,000 and about 2:1,000, and most preferably 5:10,000. The rate of spray application is preferably between about 10 and 165 gallons per acre depending on the specific plants to be protected or treated. The fungicide/bactericide compositions of the present invention are useful for treating bacterial and fungal diseases on various plants including citrus, such as grapefruit, lemon, lime, orange, tangelo and tangerine; field crops, such as alfalfa, oats, peanuts, potatoes, sugar beets, wheat, and barley; small fruits, such as blackberry, blueberry, cranberry, currant, gooseberry, raspberry and strawberry; tree crops, such as almond, apple, apricot, avocado, banana, cacao, cherry, coffee, filberts, litchi, mango, nectarine, olive, peach, pear, pecan, plum, pistachio, prune, sugar apple and walnut; vegetables, such as bean, broccoli, Brussels sprout, cabbage, cantaloupe, carrot, cauliflower, celery, collards, cucumber, eggplant, honeydew, lettuce, muskmelon, onion, pea, pepper, pumpkin, squash, spinach, tomato, watercress and watermelon; vines, such as grape, hops and kiwi; miscellaneous, such as ginseng, live oak and sycamore and ornamentals, such as aralia , azalea, begonia, bulbs (Easter lily, tulip, gladiolus), carnation, chrysanthemum, cotoneaster , Douglass fir, euonymus, India hawthorn, ivy, pachysandra, periwinkle, philodendron, pyracantha, quince, rose, turfgrass and yucca (Adams-Needle). The fungicide/bactericide composition of the present invention is useful for treating plants with fungal or bacterial diseases, such as melanose, scab, pink pitting, greasy spot, brown rot, phytophthora , citrus canker, xanthomonas and cerospora leaf spots, black leaf spot ( alternaria ), alternaria blight, blossom blight, botrytis blight, powdery mildew, xanthomonas leaf spot, leaf and cane spot, anthracnose, pseudomonas leaf spot, septoria leaf spot, entomosporium leaf spot, volutella leaf blight, phomopsis stem blight, bacterial leaf spot, fire blight, black spot, leaf curl, coryneum blight (shot hole), blossom blight, pseudomonas blight (blossom blast), shuck and kernel rot ( Phytophthora cactorum ), zonate leafspot ( Cristulariella pyramidalis ), walnut blight, bacterial blight (halo and common), brown spot, black rot (xanthomonas), downy mildew, cercospora early blight, septoria late blight, angular leaf spot, phomopsis , purple blotch, bacterial speck, gray leaf mold, septoria leaf spot, dead bud ( Pseudomonas syringae ), Erwinia herbicola, Pseudomonas fluorescens , stem blight, ball moss, leptosphaerulina leaf spots, helminthosporium spot blotch, cercospora leaf spot, leaf spot, iron spot, cane spot, fruit rot, blossom brown rot, bacterial blast (pseudomonas), European canker, crown or collar rot, sigatoka, black pitting, black pod, coffee berry disease ( Collectotrichum coffeanum ), leaf rust ( Hemileia vastatrix ), iron spot ( Cercospora coffeicola ), pink disease ( Corticium salmonicolor ) eastern filbert blight, and peacock spot. The following examples are illustrative of the present invention and are not intended to limit the scope of the invention as set forth in the appended claims. EXAMPLE 1 Pump a calculated amount of copper hydroxide wet cake (30% solid content) into a formulation tank and add other ingredients in Table 1 below. Mix all the ingredients to form a substantially homogeneous slurry. Allow a five-minute waiting period between each addition to ensure good dissolution and dispersion of added ingredients. The resulting slurry is then pumped to a spray dryer feed tank to be spray dried to dry flowable granular products. The spray dryer is equipped with an atomizer, and has an inlet chamber temperature of about 300° C. and an outlet temperature of about 90° C. The dry granular products are collected and packaged, having moisture content of less than about 2.0%. TABLE 1 Copper Hydroxide 25% Ingredients Pounds* Copper hydroxide wet cake 2120.6 (30% solid content) Citric Acid 248 Toximul 8323 220.4 Orotan 850 330.6 Diatomaceous earth 2422.4 GenapolX060 55.11 AF 365 Antifoam 5.51 Glycerol 55.11 *Weight is based on the total weight of all dry ingredients. EXAMPLE 2 The granules are made as in Example 1 and are measured for biocopper: TABLE 2 Ingredients FORMULATION Wt %* A (Wt %*) B (Wt %*) C (Wt %*) D (Wt %*) Copper 23.04 23.04 38.46 38.46 hydroxide Citric — 4.50 — 4.50 Acid Toximul 8323 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 Orotan 850 — 6.00 — 6.00 Diatomaceous 10.00 10.00 50.34 8.00 earth Calcium 55.88 50.38 — 36.84 carbonate Naphthalen- 5.00 — 5.00 — sulfonate Genapol X060 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 AF 365 0.08 0.08 0.20 0.20 Antifoam Glycerol 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 Biocopper 6,000 ppm 30,600 ppm 5,500 ppm 30,000 ppm *Wt % is based on the total weight of all dry ingredients. As can be seen from Table 2, the fungicide/bactericide compositions containing water soluble carboxylic acid derivatives, such as citric acid have a significantly higher biocopper content (comparing formulation A to B, or comparing formulation C to D). EXAMPLE 3 The granules A1, B1, C1, D1, E1, F1, G1, H1, I1 and J1 are made as in Example 1 and are measured for biocopper: TABLE 3 Formulations Ingredients A1 B1 C1 D1 E1 F1 G1 H1 I1 J1 Copper Hydroxide 33.84% 33.84% 33.84% 33.84% 33.84% 33.84% 33.84% 33.84% 33.84% 33.84% Carboxylic acid derivatives 6.00% 2.50% 2.50% 2.50% 2.50% 2.50% 4.50% 4.50% 5.00% 5.00% Glycerol 1.00% 1.00% 1.00% 1.00% 1.00% 1.00% 1.00% 1.00% 1.00% 1.00% Wetting agent 0.25% 0.25% 0.25% 0.25% 0.25% 0.25% 1.00% 1.00% 0.25% 0.25% Antifoaming agent 0.02% 0.02% 0.02% 0.02% 0.02% 0.02% 0.50% 0.50% 0.50% 0.50% Diatomaceous earth 49.89% 56.39% 60.39% 57.39% 57.39% 57.39% 0.80% 4.50% 4.50% 4.50% Block copolymer non-ionic 3.00% — — — — — 4.00% 4.00% 2.50% 3.00% surfactant Naphthalenesulfonate 6.00% — — — — — — — 5.00% 5.00% Calcium carbonate — — — — — — 48.36% 40.04% 44.41% 43.91% Polyacrylic acid derivatives — — — — 5.00% — — — — — (molecular weight 1,000 Mw) Polyacrylic acid derivatives — — — 5.00% — — — — — — (molecular weight 5,000 Mw) Polyacrylic acid derivatives — — — — — — — — — — (molecular weight 5,000 Mw) Polyacrylic acid derivatives — — 2.00% — — — — — — — (molecular weight 1,0000 Mw) Polyacrylic acid derivates — 6.00% — — — — — — — — (molecular weight 11,000 Mw) Polyacrylic acid derivates — — — — — — 6.00% 6.00% — — (molecular weight 30,000 Mw) Polyacrylic acid derivates — — — — — 5.00% — — — — (molecular weight 18,000 Mw) Calcium bentonite clay — — — — — — — — — Sodium bentonite clay — — — — — — — — — Lignosulfonates — — — — — — — 3.00% 3.00% Biocopper (ppm) 29,200 11,800 11,200 11,500 10,000 11,500 25,900 25,000 28,000 27,900 EXAMPLE 4 The granules K1, L1, M1, N1, {hacek over (N)}1, O, P, Q, R and S are made as in Example 1 and are measured for biocopper: TABLE 4 Formulations Ingredients K1 L1 M1 N1 {hacek over (N)}1 O P Q R S Copper Hydroxide 33.84% 33.84% 38.46% 38.46% 38.46% 38.46% 38.46% 38.46% 33.84% 38.46% Carboxylic acid derivates 5.00% 5.00% 4.50% 4.50% 6.00% 6.00% 6.00% 6.00% 4.50% 4.50% Glycerol 1.00% 1.00% 1.00% 1.00% 1.00% 1.00% 1.00% 1.00% 1.00% 1.00% Wetting agent 0.25% 0.25% 0.25% 0.25% 0.25% 0.25% 0.25% 0.25% 0.25% 0.25% Antifoaming agent 0.50% 0.50% 0.50% 0.50% 0.50% 0.50% 0.50% 0.50% 0.50% 0.50% Diatomaceous earth 4.50% 48.41% 4.50% 4.50% 48.79% 48.79% — — — — Block copolymer non-ionic 3.00% 3.00% 4.00% 4.00% 2.00% 2.00% 4.00% 4.00% 4.00% 4.00% surfactant Naphthalenesulfonate 5.00% 5.00% 5.00% 5.00% — — — — — — Calcium carbonate 42.91% — 41.79% 38.79% — — 46.79% 46.79% — — Polyacrylic acid derivates — — — — 3.00% — 3.00% — — — (molecular weight 5,000 Mw) Polyacrylic acid derivates — — — — — 3.00% — 3.00% — — (molecular weight 5,500 Mw) Polyacrylic acid derivates — — — — — — — — 6.00% 6.00% (molecular weight 3,0000 Mw) Calcium bentonite clay — — — — — — — — 40.92% 36.88% Sodium bentonite clay — — — — — — — — 8.99% 8.41% Lignosulfonates 4.00% 3.00% — 3.00% — — — — — — Biocopper (ppm) 27,000 26,900 24,500 23,000 29,000 30,000 28,700 27,200 26,000 27,500 EXAMPLE 5 The granules are made as in Example 1 and measured for biocopper. TABLE 5 Formulations Metallic Metallic Metallic Cu Metallic Cu Cu Cu Ingredients 10% 15% 20% 25% Copper Hydroxide 15.36% 23.04% 30.72% 38.40% Citric Acid 4.50% 4.50% 6.00% 6.00% Glycerol 1.00% 1.00% 1.00% 1.00% Fatty alcohol 1.00% 1.00% 1.00% 0.25% polyglycol ether Polydimethylsiloxane 0.10% 0.10% 0.10% 0.50% Diatomaceous earth 10.00% 10.00% 8.00% 8.00% Toximul 8323/33 4.00% 4.00% 4.00% 4.00% Calcium carbonate 58.04% 50.36% 43.18% 35.85% Polyacrylate acid 6.00% 6.00% 6.00% 6.00% derivates (molecular weight 30 000 Mw) BIOCOPPER 32,100 30,600 28,800 25,100 EXAMPLE 6 TABLE 6 COH 20% HB Comparative Examples Copper Active Copper Hydroxide* Bordeaux Mixture* hydroxide ingredient Wettable powder Wettable powder Dry flowable Metallic 40% 15.5% 20% Copper Chelating Insoluble citrates Insoluble citrates (Ca, Citric acid agent (Ca, Zn, Mn) 18.7% Zn, Mn) 6.8-28.8% 6% Dispersant 1.7% lignosulfonate + 1.7% lignosulfonate + PAA 6% + block 4% naphthalenesulfonate 4% naphthalenesulfonate copolymer 4%-6% Filler Kaolin Kaolin CaCO 3 + diatomaceous earth Suspensibility 78%* 79%* 84% Soluble 11,200 ppm* 10,700 ppm (6.8%)* 30,000 ppm copper 24,500 ppm (28.8%)* (6%) *The comparative examples are prepared according to U.S. Pat. No. 6,562,757 EXAMPLE 7 The granules T, U and V are made as in Example 1 and measured for initial suspensibility and extended stability at 7 days and 14 days. Initial suspensibility of each formulation is determined according to CIPAC method MT 184 and then a sample of every formulation is submitted to accelerated stability test at 54° C. according to CIPAC method MT 46. TABLE 7 FORMULATIONS Ingredients T U V Copper Hydroxide 30.72 30.72 30.72 Citric Acid 4.5 4.5 4.5 Glycerol 1.0 1.0 1.0 Fatty alcohol polyglycol ether 1.0 1.0 1.0 Polydimethylsiloxane 0.1 0.1 0.1 Diatomaceous earth 11.47 11.47 11.47 Calcium carbonate 45.21 45.21 39.21 Toximul 8323/33 0.0 6.0 6.0 OROTAN 850 6.0 0.0 6.0 Initial suspensibility 89.27% 53.41% 90.8% 7 days stability 59.23% 15.09% 76.9% 14 days stability 55.67% 11.76% 70.98%  As can be seen from Table 7, the formulation V containing both Toximul 8323/33 and OROTAN 850 exhibits increased stability compared to formulations T or U that contain either Toximul 8323/33 or OROTAN 850. The fungicide/bactericides of the present invention, are tested on vine, tomato and apple plants using a variety of fungal targets. Crop Vine Vine Tomato Apple Apple Vitis Vitis Lycopersicon Malus Pyrus Vinifera Vinifera esculentum sylvestris communis Variety Montepulciano Chardonnay Olinda Red Chief Santa María Target Downey Mildew Downey mildew Late blight Venturia Erwinia inaequalis amylovora The results of the tests are summarized in the following tables. In addition to % disease incidence, the results are also expressed in terms of grams of metallic copper used per hectare (Cu/ha) and relative metallic copper among several formulations and commercially available Kocide® 2000 and copper oxychloride (COC). Metallic copper per hectare is calculated according to the following expression: Cu/ha=(Dose*concentration)/100 Relative metallic copper is calculated by dividing metallic copper per hectare by 183.75. The value 183.75 is used as a reference value (Kocide® 2000 metallic copper/ha value) in order to compare the activity of the fungicide/bactericide of the present invention to commercially available Kocide® 2000 (183.75 g/ha). EXAMPLE 8 TABLE 8 Vine Montepulciano - Leaves damage Metallic % Disease % Disease % copper per Relative incidence incidence Efficacy hectare metallic after 4 after 7 Abbott's Product Dose (Cu/ha) copper weeks weeks method Untreated — — — 19 90 — COH 400 g/ha  80 g/ha 0.43 8 44 51 20% HB COH 20% 500 g/ha 100 g/ha 0.54 5 31 65 HB COH 20% 600 g/ha 120 g/ha 0.65 3 24 73 HB Kocide ® 525 g/ha 183.75 g/ha   1.0  2 23 74 2000 (COH 35%) Commercial 1500 g/ha  750 g/ha 4.08 2 13 85 COC 50% COH: Copper Hydroxide COC: Copper Oxychloride EXAMPLE 9 TABLE 9 Vine Montepulciano - Diseased bunch Metallic % Disease % Disease copper per Relative incidence incidence % Efficacy hectare metallic after 4 after 7 Abbott's Product Dose (Cu/ha) copper weeks weeks method Untreated — — — 5 25 — COH 400 g/ha  80 g/ha 0.43 2 11 56.6 20% HB COH 20% 500 g/ha 100 g/ha 0.54 1 5.3 78.8 HB COH 20% 600 g/ha 120 g/ha 0.65 1 3 87.9 HB Kocide ® 525 g/ha 183.75 g/ha   1.0  1 3.3 86.9 2000 (COH 35%) Commercial 1500 g/ha  750 g/ha 4.08 1 4.8 80.8 COC 50% Phytotoxicity is not observed with the fungicide/bactericide of the present invention, COH 20% HB. At 600 g of copper hydroxide per hectare, COH 20% HB has an efficacy statistically comparable with that of Kocide® 2000. EXAMPLE 10 TABLE 10 Vine Chardonnay - Leaves damage Metallic copper % Disease % Disease per Relative incidence incidence % Efficacy hectare metallic after 4 after 8 Abbott's Product Dose (Cu/ha) copper weeks weeks method Untreated — — — 32.8 54.8 — COH 20% HB 400 g/ha  80 g/ha 0.43 8 13.3 75.8 COH 20% HB 500 g/ha 100 g/ha 0.54 7.3 12 78.1 COH 20% HB 600 g/ha 120 g/ha 0.65 5.3 9 83.6 Kocide ® 2000 525 g/ha 183.75 g/ha   1.0  4.3 13.5 75.3 (COH 35%) Commercial 1500 g/ha  750 g/ha 4.08 3.8 6.3 88.6 COC 50% EXAMPLE 11 TABLE 11 Vine Chardonnay - Diseased bunch Metallic copper % Disease % Disease per Relative incidence incidence % Efficacy hectare metallic after 4 after 8 Abbott's Product Dose (Cu/ha) copper weeks weeks method Untreated — — — 0 1.5 — COH 400 g/ha  80 g/ha 0.43 0 0 100 20% HB COH 20% 500 g/ha 100 g/ha 0.54 0 0 100 HB COH 20% 600 g/ha 120 g/ha 0.65 0 0 100 HB Kocide ® 525 g/ha 183.75 g/ha   1.0  0 0 100 2000 (COH 35%) Commercial 1500 g/ha  750 g/ha 4.08 0 0 100 COC 50% Phytotoxicity is not observed with the fungicide/bactericide of the present invention, COH 20% HB. At 500 g of copper hydroxide per hectare, COH 20% HB has an efficacy statistically comparable with that of Kocide® 2000. EXAMPLE 12 TABLE 12 Tomatoes - Leaves damage % % Metallic Disease Disease % copper per Relative incidence incidence Efficacy hectare metallic after 4 after 8 Abbott's Product Dose (Cu/ha) copper weeks weeks method Untreated — — — 0 91.9 — COH 20% HB 400 g/ha  80 g/ha 0.43 0 6.9 92.5 COH 20% HB 500 g/ha 100 g/ha 0.54 0 0.9 99 COH 20% HB 600 g/ha 120 g/ha 0.65 0 0.9 99 Kocide ® 2000 525 g/ha 183.75 g/ha   1.0  0 0.3 99.7 (COH 35%) Commercial 1500 g/ha  750 g/ha 4.08 0 0.9 99 COC 50% Phytotoxicity is not observed with the fungicide/bactericide of the present invention, COH 20% HB. At 500 g of copper hydroxide per hectare, COH 20% HB has an efficacy statistically comparable with that of Kocide® 2000. EXAMPLE 13 TABLE 13 Apples - Leaves damage Metallic % Disease % Disease copper per Relative incidence incidence % Efficacy hectare metallic after 4 after 7 Abbott's Product Dose (Cu/ha) copper weeks weeks method Untreated — — — 0 18.3 — COH 400 g/ha 80 g/ha 0.43 0 0 100 20% HB COH 20% 500 g/ha 100 g/ha 0.54 0 0 100 HB COH 20% 600 g/ha 120 g/ha 0.65 0 0 100 HB Kocide ® 525 g/ha 183.75 g/ha   1.0  0 0 100 2000 (COH 35%) Commercial 1500 g/ha  750 g/ha 4.08 0 0 100 COC 50% Phytotoxicity is not observed with the fungicide/bactericide of the present invention, COH 20% HB. At 400 g of copper hydroxide per hectare, COH 20% HB has an efficacy statistically comparable with that of Kocide® 2000. EXAMPLE 14 TABLE 14 Vine Chardonnay - Leaves damage Metallic copper Relative % Efficacy per hectare metallic Abbott's Product Dose (Cu/ha) copper/ha method COH 20% HB 400 g/ha 80 g/ha 0.43 75.8 COH 20% HB 500 g/ha 100 g/ha 0.54 78.1 COH 20% HB 600 g/ha 120 g/ha 0.65 83.6 Kocide ® 525 g/ha 183.75 g/ha 1.0 75.3 2000 (COH 35%) Commercial 1500 g/ha  750 g/ha 4.08 88.6 COC 50% According to results presented in Tables 8-14, the fungicide/bactericide of the present invention exhibits comparable or higher efficacy on various plant species, while applied at a much lower amount of metallic copper per hectare as compared to reference commercial products. For example, in Table 8, COH 20% HB of the present invention, exhibits efficacy and % disease incidence similar to Kocide® 2000, while using only 65% (120 g/ha vs. 183.75 g/ha metallic copper) of the dose of metallic copper as compared to Kocide® 2000. A similar result is observed in Table 9. COH 20% HB of the present invention exhibits even higher efficacy than commercial copper oxychloride (COC 50%), while using only 16% (120 g/ha vs. 750 g/ha metallic copper) of the dose of metallic copper as compared to commercial COC 50%.

The present invention discloses an improved copper-based fungicide/bactericide composition. The improved composition offers higher biological activity over typical copper-based products, while requiring significantly less copper in the composition. The present invention also discloses methods of making the improved copper-based fungicide/bactericide composition. The present invention further discloses methods of using the improved copper-based fungicide/bactericide composition.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/350,469, which claims priority from PCT/US2013/034748, filed on Mar. 31, 2013, which claims priority of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/686,222 filed on Apr. 2, 2012. TECHNICAL FIELD The invention generally relates to gas turbine engine power systems, including supplementing the generating capacity of such gas turbine engines for use in providing additional electrical power during periods of peak electrical power demand. More specifically, methods of operation to the supplemental generating system are identified. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Currently, marginal energy, or peak energy, is produced mainly by gas turbines, operating either in simple cycle or combined cycle configurations. As a result of load demand profile, the gas turbine base systems are cycled up during periods of high demand and cycled down, or turned off, during periods of low demand. This cycling is typically driven by the electrical grid operator under a program called “active grid control”, or AGC. Unfortunately, because industrial gas turbines, which represent the majority of the installed power generation base, were designed primarily for base load operation, a severe penalty is associated with the maintenance cost of that particular unit when they are cycled. For example, a gas turbine that is running base load might go through a normal maintenance cycle once every three years, or 24,000 hours of operation, at a cost of between two million dollars and three million dollars ($2,000,000 to $3,000,000). That same cost could be incurred in one year for a gas turbine that is forced to start up and shut down every day due to the severe penalty associated with the maintenance cost of cycling that particular gas turbine. Also, even aero-derivative engines, which are designed for quick starting capability, may still take ten (10) minutes or longer to deliver the required power when called on. This need to cycle the gas turbine fleet is a major issue, and is becoming more problematic with the increased use of intermittent renewable energy sources on the grid. Currently the gas turbine engines used at power plants can turn down to approximately 50% of their rated capacity. They do this by closing the inlet guide vanes of the compressor, which reduces the air flow to the gas turbine and in turn reduces fuel flow, as a constant fuel air ratio is desired in the combustion process at all engine operating conditions. The goal of maintaining safe compressor operation and gas turbine exhaust emissions typically limit the level of turn down that can be practically achieved. One way to safely lower the operating limit of the compressor in current gas turbines is by introducing warm air to the inlet of the gas turbine, typically extracted from a mid-stage bleed port on the compressor. Sometimes, this warm air is introduced into the inlet to prevent icing as well. In either case, when this is done, the work that is done to the air by the compressor is sacrificed in the process for the benefit of being able to operate the compressor safely at a lower air flow, yielding the increased turn down capability. Unfortunately, bleeding air from the compressor has a further negative impact on the efficiency of the overall gas turbine system as the work performed on the air that is bled off is lost. In general, for every 1% of air that is bled off the compressor for this turn down improvement, approximately 2% of the total power output of the gas turbine is lost. Additionally, the combustion system also presents a limit to the system. The combustion system usually limits the amount that the system can be turned down because as less fuel is added, the flame temperature reduces, increasing the amount of carbon monoxide (“CO”) emissions produced. The relationship between flame temperature and CO emissions is exponential with reducing temperature, consequently, as the gas turbine system gets near the turn-down limit, the CO emissions spike up, so it is important to a maintain a healthy margin from this limit. This characteristic limits all gas turbine systems to approximately 50% turn down capability, or, for a 100 MW gas turbine, the minimum power turn-down that can be achieved is about 50%, or 50 MW. As the gas turbine mass flow is turned down, the compressor and turbine efficiency falls off as well, causing an increase in heat rate of the machine. Some operators are faced with this situation every day and as a result, as the load demand falls, gas turbine plants hit its lower operating limit and the gas turbines have to be turned off, which causes the power plant to incur a tremendous maintenance cost penalty. Another characteristic of a typical gas turbine is that as the ambient temperature increases, the power output goes down proportionately due to the linear effect of the reduced density as the temperature of air increases. Power output can be down by more than 10% from nameplate power rating during hot days, which is typically when peaking gas turbines are called on most frequently to deliver power. Another characteristic of typical gas turbines is that air that is compressed and heated in the compressor section of the gas turbine is ducted to different portions of the gas turbine's turbine section where it is used to cool various components. This air is typically called turbine cooling and leakage air (hereinafter “TCLA”) a term that is well known in the art with respect to gas turbines. Although heated from the compression process, TCLA air is still significantly cooler than the turbine temperatures, and thus is effective in cooling those components in the turbine downstream of the compressor. Typically 10% to 15% of the air that enters the inlet of the compressor bypasses the combustor and is used for this process. Thus, TCLA is a significant penalty to the performance of the gas turbine system. Other power augmentation systems, like inlet chilling for example, provide cooler inlet conditions, resulting in increased air flow through the gas turbine compressor, and the gas turbine output increases proportionately. For example, if inlet chilling reduces the inlet conditions on a hot day such that the gas turbine compressor has 5% more air flow, the output of the gas turbine will also increase by 5%. As ambient temperatures drops, inlet chilling becomes less effective, since the air is already cold. Therefore, inlet chilling power increase is maximized on hot days, and tapers off to zero at approximately 45° F. ambient temperature days. In power augmentation systems such as the one discussed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,305,158 to Nakhamkin (the “'158 patent”), there are three basic modes of operation defined, a normal mode, charging mode, and an air injection mode, but it is limited by the need for an electrical generator that has the capacity to deliver power “exceeding the full rated power” that the gas turbine system can deliver. The fact that this patent has been issued for more than ten (10) years and yet there are no known applications of it at a time of rapidly rising energy costs is proof that it does not address the market requirements. First of all, it is very expensive to replace and upgrade the electrical generator so it can deliver power “exceeding the full rated power” that the gas turbine system can currently deliver. Also, although the injection option as disclosed in the '158 patent provides power augmentation, it takes a significant amount of time to start and get on line to the electrical grid. This makes application of the '158 patent impractical in certain markets like spinning reserve, where the power increase must occur in a matter of seconds, and due to do the need for the large auxiliary compressor in these types of systems, that takes too long to start. Another drawback is that the system cannot be implemented on a combined cycle plant without significant negative impact on fuel consumption and therefore efficiency. Most of the implementations outlined in the '158 patent use a recuperator to heat the air in simple cycle operation, which mitigates the fuel consumption increase issue, however, it adds significant cost and complexity. The proposed invention outlined below addresses both the cost and performance shortfalls of the invention disclosed in the '158 patent. Also, as outlined in a related U.S. Pat. No. 5,934,063 to Nakhamkin (the “'063 patent”), there is a valve structure that “selectively permits one of the following modes of operation: there is a gas turbine normal operation mode, a mode where air is delivered from the storage system and mixed with air in the gas turbine, and then a charging mode”. The '063 patent has also been issued for more than ten (10) years and there are also no known applications of it anywhere in the world. The reason for this is again cost and performance shortfalls, similar to those related to the '158 patent. Although this system can be applied without an efficiency penalty on a simple cycle gas turbine, simple cycle gas turbines do not run very often so they typically do not pay off the capital investment in a timeframe that makes the technology attractive to power plant operators. Likewise, if this system is applied to a combined cycle gas turbine, there is a significant heat rate penalty, and again the technology does not address the market needs. The proposed invention outlined below addresses both the cost and performance issues of the '063 patent. Gas Turbine (GT) power plants provide a significant amount of power to the grid and are used for both base load capacity and regulation on the grid. Because of fluctuating electrical load demand and fluctuations in renewable energy supply, the GT power plants are required to change load frequently. Typically, the grid operator, who is monitoring the demand, supply and frequency of the grid, sends a signal to the gas turbine fleet on a plant-by-plant basis, to supply more or less power to make the supply meet the demand and hold frequency at 50 or 60 hz. This signal is called an Active Grid Control (AGC) signal. Electric grids are constantly balancing the power generation dispatched to the grid to match the load demand as close as possible. If the load exceeds the generation, then the grid frequency drops. If the generation exceeds the load, then the frequency increases. The grid operator is constantly trying to match the generation to the load and the faster the response of the generation, the less generation is required to maintain frequency. Today grid operators maintain about 2% of the total load as spinning reserve to have generation on line that can be used in the event the load increases. A reasonable size grid in the United States, such as the Electric Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT) can have a load of 60,000 MW, so a 2% spinning reserve is about 1,200 MW. This extra power capacity is referred to as regulation. Many grids use gas turbines to provide this regulation, so there would be 1,200 MW of reserve gas turbine power available. However, this reserve incurs a typical heat rate of 7,000 BTU/kWh, or 8,400 MMBTU/hr of fuel or $33,600/hr ($295 M/year) of fuel cost at $4/MMBTU fuel, not to mention additional emissions to the atmosphere. The TurboPHASE system (TPM), disclosed in co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/350,469, is the only power augmentation system that is specifically designed to add this incremental power to a new or existing gas turbine power plant in seconds, such that the incremental power can provide this spinning reserve. Conventional injection systems like steam injection, typically ramp up over 30 to 60 minutes and off over 30 minutes and are useful for incremental power needs but not spinning reserve for regulation. The TPM system can provide upwards of 10% additional capacity which can completely eliminate the need for, the in-efficiencies of, and the cost of the 2% spinning reserve for grid operators. The method of how this power augmentation system operates is critical to generating this additional capacity in a reliable manner. Most gas turbine power plants have multiple gas turbines at the power plant and one advantage of the present invention is the compressed air being generated is typically piped to all the gas turbines at the plant for flexibility, therefore, how the air is distributed is also an important feature of the power augmentation system. As one skilled in the art understands, as the ramp rate of the generating asset is improved, less regulation in total is required. To support this ability to support load fluctuations, some of the grid operators pay a higher rate for the same capacity if it is able to respond faster to changing demand. SUMMARY The current invention, which may be referred to herein as TurboPHASET™, provides several options, depending on specific plant needs, to improve the efficiency and power output of a plant at low loads, and to reduce the lower limit of power output capability of a gas turbine while at the same time increasing the upper limit of the power output of the gas turbine, thus increasing the capacity and regulation capability of a new or existing gas turbine system. One aspect of the present invention relates to methods and systems that allow running gas turbine systems to provide additional power quickly during periods of peak demand. Another aspect of the present invention relates to an energy storage and retrieval system for obtaining useful work from an existing source of a gas turbine power plant. Yet another aspect of the present invention relates to methods and systems that allow gas turbine systems to be more efficiently turned down during periods of lowered demand. One embodiment of the invention relates to a system comprising at least one existing gas turbine that comprises one first compressor, at least one electrical generator, at least one turbine connected to the generator and the compressor, a combustor, and a combustion case (which is the discharge manifold for the compressor) and further comprising a supplemental compressor which is not the same as the first compressor. An advantage of other preferred embodiments of the present invention is the ability to increase the turn down capability of the gas turbine system during periods of lower demand and improve the efficiency and output of the gas turbine system during periods of high demand. Another advantage of embodiments of the present invention is the ability to increase the turn down capability of the gas turbine system during periods of low demand by using a supplemental compressor driven by a fueled engine, operation of which is which is independent of the electric grid. Another advantage of embodiments of the present invention is the ability to increase the turn down capability of the gas turbine system during periods of low demand by using a supplemental compressor driven by a fueled engine which produces heat that can be added to compressed air flowing to the combustion case, from either the supplemental compressor, an air storage system, or both, or such heat can be added to the steam cycle in a combined cycle power plant. Another advantage of some embodiments of the present invention is the ability to increase output of the gas turbine system during periods of high demand by using a supplemental compressor which is not driven by power produced by the gas turbine system. Another advantage of some embodiments of the present invention is the ability to increase output of the gas turbine system during periods of high demand by using a supplemental compressor which is driven by steam produced by the heat recovery steam generator of a combined cycle power plant. Another advantage of the present invention is the ability to incorporate selective portions of the embodiments on existing gas turbines to achieve specific plant objectives. Another advantage of an embodiment of the present invention is the ability to inject compressed air into a turbine cooling circuit without heating up the air prior to such injection, and because cool cooling air can achieve the same desired metal temperatures with use of less compressed air (as compared to heated compressed air), efficiency is improved. Another advantage of another embodiment of the present invention is that because the incremental amount of compressed air can be added at a relatively constant rate over a wide range of ambient temperatures, the power increase achieved by the gas turbine is also relatively constant over a wide range of ambient temperatures. Additionally, since the supplemental compressed air is delivered without any significant power increase from the gas turbine's compressor, (because the compressed air is from either a separately fueled compressor or an a compressed air storage system), for every 1% of air injected (by mass flow), a 2% power increase results. This is significant because other technologies, such as inlet chillers, for supplementing power yield closer to a 1% power increase for each 1% increase of injected air, therefore, twice as much power boost is achieved with the same incremental air flow through the turbine and combustor, resulting in a physically smaller, and lower cost, power supplementing system. One preferred embodiment of the present invention includes an intercooled compression circuit using a supplemental compressor to produce compressed air that is stored in one or more high pressure air storage tanks, wherein the intercooling process heat absorbed from the compressed air during compression is transferred to the steam cycle of a combined cycle power plant. Optionally, when integrated with a combined cycle gas turbine plant with a steam cycle, steam from the steam cycle can be used to drive a secondary steam turbine which in turn drives a supplemental compressor. The use of high pressure air storage tanks in conjunction with firing this air directly in the gas turbine gives the gas turbine the ability to deliver much more power than could be otherwise produced, because the maximum mass flow of air that is currently delivered by the gas turbine system's compressor to the turbine is supplemented with the air from the air tanks. On existing gas turbines, this can increase the output of a gas turbine system up to the current generator limit on a hot day, which could be as much as an additional 20% power output, while at the same time increasing the turn down capability by 25-30% more than current state of the art. On new gas turbines, the generator and turbine can be oversized to deliver this additional power at any time, thus increasing the name plate power rating of the system by 20% at a total system cost increase that is much lower than 20%, with 25-30% more turn down capability than the current state of the art. Other advantages, features and characteristics of the present invention, as well as the methods of operation and the functions of the related elements of the structure and the combination of parts will become more apparent upon consideration of the following detailed description and appended claims with reference to the accompanying drawings, all of which form a part of this specification. The current invention describes several modes of how the TurboPHASE system (TPM) is controlled including preheating the system, starting air injection, stopping air injection and shutting down the system. One aspect of the present invention relates to methods and systems that control the heat up of the TPM. By preheating the air injection piping of the TPM, thermal shock (rapid injection of hot air through cold pipes) is prevented. Another aspect of the present invention relates to a method for controlling the start-up of the TPM as well as to prepare the TPM to inject compressed air into the gas turbine (GT) engine. This process is important and unique as there is often more than one TPM at the gas turbine power plant supplying compressed air to a common manifold feeding the GT engine. Another aspect of the present invention relates to methods and systems which control the shutdown of the TPM. This process is also important and unique because there is typically more than one TPM at the gas turbine power plant supplying compressed air to a common manifold feeding the GT engine. One embodiment of the invention relates to a system comprising multiple TPMs injecting compressed air into multiple GTs with a valve system and control methodology that allows hot air to flow from the GTs to the TPMs when the TPMs are not operating and/or from the TPMs to the GTs when one or more TPMs are operating. This valve structure and method of controlling the valve structure allows for an efficient pre-heating of the piping portion of the air injection system. Another advantage of the present invention provides a method for operating multiple TPMs which inject compressed air into multiple GTs with a valve system and control methodology that allows individual TPMs to be started and accelerated to a condition where they are ready to inject compressed hot air into the GT engine. Another advantage of the present invention is a system and method of operating where multiple TPMs inject compressed air into multiple GTs with a valve system and control methodology that allows hot air to be smoothly ramped from a “no flow” condition to a “full flow” condition. Another advantage of the present invention is a control methodology for a system comprising multiple TPM's injecting compressed air into multiple GTs having a valve system where the methodology allows one or more of the TPMs to be shut down while the remainder of the TPMs are still operating and injecting air. Another advantage of the present invention is a methodology for a system comprising multiple TPM's injecting compressed air into multiple GTs having a valve system where the methodology allows all TPMs to be shut down after the air injection from the TPMs is complete. Additional advantages and features of the present invention will be set forth in part in a description which follows, and in part will become apparent to those skilled in the art upon examination of the following, or may be learned from practice of the invention. The instant invention will now be described with particular reference to the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS The present invention is described in detail below with reference to the attached drawing figures, wherein: FIG. 1 is a schematic drawing of an embodiment of the present invention having a supplemental energy system with a recuperated engine driving the supplemental compressor. FIG. 2 is a schematic drawing of an embodiment of the present invention having a supplemental energy system with a recuperated engine driving the supplemental compressor and energy storage. FIG. 3 is a schematic drawing of an embodiment of the present invention incorporating a continuous power augmentation system. FIG. 4 is a schematic drawing of an embodiment of the present invention in which an auxiliary steam turbine is drives the supplemental compressor. FIG. 5 is a schematic drawing of an embodiment of the present invention in which includes an auxiliary steam turbine driving the supplemental compressor and energy storage. FIG. 6 is a schematic drawing of an embodiment of the present invention installed in conjunction with two gas turbines and a steam turbine. FIG. 7 is a schematic drawing of an embodiment of the present invention installed in conjunction with one gas turbine and a steam turbine. FIG. 8 is a schematic drawing of an embodiment of the present invention installed in conjunction with one gas turbine. FIG. 9 is a schematic drawing of an embodiment of the present invention installed in conjunction with a single gas turbine engine. FIG. 10 is a flow diagram depicting a method of operating an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 11 is a flow diagram depicting a method of preheating an air injection system in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 12 is a flow diagram depicting an alternate method of preheating an air injection system in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 13 is a flow diagram depicting a method of operating an air injection system in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 14 is a schematic drawing of an embodiment of the present invention installed in conjunction with multiple gas turbine engines. FIG. 15 is a flow diagram depicting a method of operation for the embodiment of the present invention in FIG. 14 . DETAILED DESCRIPTION The components of one embodiment of the present invention are shown in FIG. 1 as they are used with an existing gas turbine system 1 . The existing gas turbine system 1 , which compresses ambient air 2 , includes a compressor 10 , combustor 12 , combustion case 14 , turbine 16 and generator 18 . A fueled engine 20 is used to drive a multistage intercooled supplemental compressor 22 which compresses ambient air 24 and discharges compressed air 26 . As used herein, the term “fueled engine” means a reciprocating internal combustion engine, a gas turbine (in addition to the gas turbine in the existing gas turbine system 1 , or a similar machine that converts fuel into energy through an exothermic reaction such as combustion (e.g., gasoline, diesel, natural gas, or biofuel and similar fuel). The fueled engine draws in ambient air 42 and as a result of the combustion process, produces hot exhaust gas 32 . As those skilled in the art will readily appreciate, as air in the supplemental compressor 22 passes from one compressor stage to the next, the air is intercooled by use of an intercooler heat exchanger 28 , such as a cooling tower, to reduce the work required to compress the air at the subsequent compressor stage. As used herein, the term “intercooler heat exchanger” means a heat exchanger that receives compressed air from an upstream stage of a compressor, and cools that air before delivering it to another compression stage downstream of the upstream compressor stage. Use of the intercooler heat exchanger 28 increases the efficiency of the supplemental compressor 22 , which makes it more efficient than the compressor 10 of the existing gas turbine system 1 . As those skilled in the art will readily appreciate, although referred to herein as an “intercooler”, the intercooler heat exchanger 28 actually includes an intercooler and an after-cooler as described in greater detail below. This embodiment further includes a recuperator 30 , which is a heat exchanger that receives the exhaust gas 32 from the fueled engine 20 and the compressed air 26 from the supplemental compressor 22 . Flow of compressed air from the supplemental compressor 22 to the recuperator 30 is controlled by the recuperator flow control valve 44 . Within the recuperator 30 , the hot exhaust gas 32 heats the compressed air 26 and then exits the recuperator 30 as substantially cooler exhaust gas 34 . At the same time in the recuperator 30 , the compressed air 26 absorbs heat from the exhaust gas 32 and then exits the recuperator 30 as substantially hotter compressed air 36 than when it entered the recuperator 30 . The substantially hotter compressed air 36 is then discharged from the recuperator 30 into the combustion case 14 of the gas turbine system 1 where it becomes an addition to the mass flow through the turbine 16 . The cooler exhaust gas 34 is then discharged to atmosphere. A selective catalytic reduction (“SCR”) device (not shown) of the type known in the art, can be inserted before, in the middle of, or after the recuperator 30 to achieve the most desirable condition for the SCR function. Alternately, after the SCR device, the cooler exhaust gas 34 can be injected into the exhaust gas 38 of the turbine 16 as shown in FIG. 1 , and then the mixed flow exhaust 38 will either be discharged to the atmosphere (in the case for the simple cycle gas turbine) or directed to the heat recovery steam generator (“HRSG”) of a steam turbine of the type known in the art (not shown) in combined cycle power plants. If the mixed flow exhaust 38 is to be discharged into the HRSG, the means used must ensure that the exhaust gas 38 flow from the turbine 16 into the HRSG and the SCR device is not disrupted. On “F-Class” engines, such as the General Electric Frame 9FA industrial gas turbine, there are large compressor bleed lines that, for starting purposes, bypass air around the turbine section and dump air into the exhaust plenum of the turbine 16 . These bleed lines are not in use when the gas turbine system 1 is loaded, and therefore are a good place to discharge the cooler exhaust gas 34 after it exits the recuperator 30 , since these compressor bleed lines are already designed to minimize the impact on the HRSG and SCR device. By injecting the exhaust 32 from the fueled engine 20 into to exhaust 38 of the gas turbine system 1 , the SCR of the gas turbine system 1 may be used to clean the exhaust 32 , thus eliminating an expensive system on the fueled engine 20 . It turns out that gasoline, diesel, natural gas, or biofuel and similar reciprocating engines are not sensitive to back pressure, so putting the recuperator 30 , on the fueled engine 20 does not cause a measurable effect on the performance of the fueled engine 20 . This is significant because other heat recovery systems, such as the HRSGs used in the exhaust of a typical gas turbine power plants, create a significant power loss all of the time, independent of whether a power augmentation system is in use or not. The power from the fueled engine 20 is used to drive the intercooled compressor 22 . If the installation does include a HS G and a steam turbine, the auxiliary heat from the engine jacket, oil cooler and turbocharger on the fueled engine 20 can be transferred into the steam cycle of the steam turbine via the HSRG (typically the low pressure and temperature condensate line). Likewise, heat removed by the intercooler heat exchanger 28 from the air as it is compressed in the multistage supplemental compressor 22 can be transferred into the steam cycle in a similar manner, prior to the compressed air being cooled by the cooling tower, to lower the temperature of the compressed air to the desired temperature prior to entering the subsequent compression stage of the supplemental compressor 22 . If an auxiliary gas turbine is used as the fueled engine 20 instead of a reciprocating engine, lower emission rates will be achievable, which will allow emission permitting even in the strictest environmental areas. Also, if the auxiliary gas turbine is used as the fueled engine 20 , the exhaust gas from the auxiliary gas turbine can be piped directly to the exhaust bleed pipes of the existing gas turbine system 1 described above, thus avoiding the cost and maintenance of an additional SCR device. When peaking with this system, the gas turbine system 1 will most likely be down in power output and flow (assuming that the peaking is needed in the summer when higher ambient air temperatures reduce total mass flow through the gas turbine system 1 which in turn reduces power output of the gas turbine system 1 as a whole, and the supplemental compressor 22 will just bring the air mass flow through the gas turbine system 1 back up to where the flow would have been on a cooler day (i.e. a day on which the full rated power of the gas turbine system 1 could be achieved). FIG. 2 shows the embodiment of FIG. 1 with the addition of compressed air storage. The compressed air storage system includes an air storage tank 50 , a hydraulic fluid tank 52 , and a pump 54 for transferring hydraulic fluid, such as water, between the hydraulic fluid tank 52 and the air storage tank 50 . According to preferred embodiments, during periods when increased power delivery is needed, the air exit valve 46 opens, the air bypass valve 48 opens, the air inlet valve 56 closes, and the supplemental compressor 22 is operated, driven by the fueled engine 20 . As one skilled in the art will readily appreciate, if compressed air is to be stored for later use, it will likely need to be stored at a higher pressure, thus, the supplemental compressor 22 would preferably have additional stages of compression, as compared to the supplemental compressor 22 of the embodiment shown in FIG. 1 . These additional stages may be driven by the fueled engine 20 all the time, or may be capable of being driven intermittently by installing a clutch type mechanism that only engages the additional stages when the fueled engine 20 is operated to store compressed air in the air storage tank 50 (where the desired storage pressure is substantially higher to minimize the required volume of the air storage tank 50 ). Alternatively, the additional stages may be decoupled from the fueled engine 20 and driven by a separately fueled engine (not shown) or other means, such as an electric motor. The compressed air 26 flowing from the supplemental compressor 22 is forced to flow to the mixer 58 as opposed to towards the intercooler heat exchanger 28 because the air inlet valve 56 , which controls air flow exiting the intercooler heat exchanger 28 , is closed. The compressed air 26 flowing from the outlet of the supplemental compressor 22 is mixed in the mixer 58 with the compressed air exiting the air storage tank 50 and introduced to the recuperator 30 where it absorbs heat from the exhaust gas of the fueled engine 20 before being introduced into the combustion case 14 using the process described below. As those skilled in the art will readily appreciate, for thermal efficiency purposes, the recuperator 30 would ideally be a counter-flow heat exchanger, since that would allow the maximum amount of heat from the exhaust 32 to be transferred to the compressed air exiting the air storage tank 50 . Alternately, if the recuperator 30 is made up of one or more cross-flow heat exchangers, it can have a first stage, which is a first cross-flow heat exchanger, followed by a second stage, which is a second cross-flow heat exchanger. In this configuration, where the exhaust 32 first enters the first stage of the recuperator, is partially cooled, then flows to the second stage of the recuperator. At the same time, the compressed air exiting the air storage tank 50 first enters the second stage of the recuperator 30 , where additional heat is extracted from the partially cooled exhaust 32 , thereby “pre-heating” the compressed air. The compressed air then flows to the first stage of the recuperator 30 where it is heated by exhaust 32 that has not yet been partially cooled, prior to flowing to the mixer 58 to join the air flowing from the supplemental compressor 22 . In this case, the “two stage” recuperator acts more like a counter-flow heat exchanger, yielding higher thermal efficiency in the heating of the compressed air. As those skilled in the art will readily appreciate, since the air being compressed in the supplemental compressor 22 is bypassing the intercooler heat exchanger 28 due to the bypass valve 48 being open, the compressed air exiting the supplemental compressor 22 retains some of the heat of compression, and when mixed with the compressed air flowing from the air storage tank 50 , will increase the temperature of the mixed air so that when the mixed air enters the recuperator 30 , it is hotter than it would be if only compressed air from the air storage tank 50 was being fed into the recuperator 30 . Likewise, if the air exiting the air storage tank 50 is first preheated in a “second stage” of the recuperator as described above prior to entering the mixer 58 , an even hotter mixture of compressed air will result, which may be desirable under some conditions. As the combustion turbine system 1 continues to be operated in this manner, the pressure of the compressed air in the air storage tank 50 decreases. If the pressure of the compressed air in the air storage tank 50 reaches the pressure of the air in the combustion case 14 , compressed air will stop flowing from the air storage tank 50 into the gas turbine system 1 . To prevent this from happening, as the pressure of the compressed air in the air storage tank 50 approaches the pressure of the air in the combustion case 14 , the fluid control valve 60 remains closed, and the hydraulic pump 54 begins pumping a fluid, such as water, from the hydraulic fluid tank 52 into the air storage tank 50 at a pressure high enough to drive the compressed air therein out of the air storage tank 50 , thus allowing essentially all of the compressed air in the air storage tank to be delivered to the combustion case 14 . As those skilled in the art will readily appreciate, if additional compressor stages, or high pressure compressor stages, are added separate from the supplemental compressor 22 driven by the fueled engine 20 , then, if desired, air from the gas turbine combustion case 14 can be bled and allowed to flow in reverse of the substantially hotter compressed air 36 as bleed air from the gas turbine combustion case 14 and take the place of air from the separately fueled engine 20 driven supplemental compressor 22 . In this case, the bleed air could be cooled in the intercooler heat exchanger 28 , or a cooling tower, and then delivered to the inlet of the high pressure stages of the supplemental compressor 22 . This may be especially desirable if low turn down capability is desired, as the bleed air results in additional gas turbine power loss, and the drive system for the high pressure stages of the supplemental compressor 22 can driven by an electric motor, consuming electrical power generated by the gas turbine system 1 , which also results in additional gas turbine power loss. As those skilled in the art will readily appreciate, this is not an operating mode that would be desirable during periods when supplemental power production from the gas turbine system is desired. According to preferred embodiments, independent of whether or not the hydraulic system is used, when the air stops flowing from the air storage tank 50 , the supplemental compressor 22 can continue to run and deliver power augmentation to the gas turbine system 1 . According to other preferred embodiments, such as the one shown in FIG. 1 , the supplemental compressor 22 is started and run without use of an air storage tank 50 . Preferably, an intercooler heat exchanger 28 is used to cool air from a low pressure stage to a high pressure stage in the supplemental compressor 22 that compresses ambient air 24 through a multistage compressor 22 . The air inlet valve 56 , the air outlet valve 46 , the bypass valve 48 , and the supplemental flow control valve 44 , are operated to obtain the desired operating conditions of the gas turbine system 1 . For example, if it is desired to charge the air storage tank 50 with compressed air, the air outlet valve 46 , the bypass valve 48 and the supplemental flow control valve 44 are closed, the air inlet valve 56 is opened and the fueled engine 20 is used to drive the supplemental compressor 22 . As air is compressed in the supplemental compressor 22 , it is cooled by the intercooler heat exchanger 28 because the bypass valve 48 is closed, forcing the compressed air to flow through the intercooler heat exchanger 28 . Air exiting the supplemental compressor 22 then flows through the air inlet valve 56 and into the air storage tank 50 . Likewise, if it is desired to discharge compressed air from the air storage tank 50 and into the combustion case 14 the air outlet valve 46 , the bypass valve 48 and the supplemental flow control valve 44 are opened, and the air inlet valve 56 can be closed, and the fueled engine 20 can be used to drive the supplemental compressor 22 . As air is compressed in the supplemental compressor 22 , it heats up due to the heat of compression, and it is not cooled in the intercooler heat exchanger because bypass valve 48 is open, thereby bypassing the intercooler heat exchanger. Compressed air from the air storage tank 50 then flows through the mixer 58 where it is mixed with hot air from the supplemental compressor 22 and then flows to the recuperator 30 where it absorbs heat transferred to the recuperator 30 from the exhaust gas 32 of the fueled engine 20 and then flows on to the combustion case 14 . In the event that all of the airflow from the supplemental compressor 22 is not needed by the gas turbine system 1 , this embodiment can be operated in a hybrid mode where the some of the air flowing from the supplemental compressor 22 flows to the mixer 58 and some of the air flow from the supplemental compressor 22 flows through the intercooler heat exchanger 28 and then through the air inlet valve 56 and into the air storage tank 50 . As those skilled in the art will readily appreciate, the preheated air mixture could be introduced into the combustion turbine at other locations, depending on the desired goal. For example, the preheated air mixture could be introduced into the turbine 16 to cool components therein, thereby reducing or eliminating the need to extract bleed air from the compressor to cool these components. Of course, if this were the intended use of the preheated air mixture, the mixture's desired temperature would be lower, and the mixture ratio in the mixer 58 would need to be changed accordingly, with consideration as to how much heat, if any, is to be added to the preheated air mixture by the recuperator 30 prior to introducing the compressed air mixture into the cooling circuit(s) of the turbine 16 . Note that for this intended use, the preheated air mixture could be introduced into the turbine 16 at the same temperature at which the cooling air from the compressor 10 is typically introduced into the TCLA system of the turbine 16 , or at a cooler temperature to enhance overall combustion turbine efficiency (since less TCLA cooling air would be required to cool the turbine components). It is to be understood that when the air storage tank 50 has hydraulic fluid in it prior to the beginning of a charging cycle to add compressed air to the air storage tank 50 , the fluid control valve 60 is opened so that as compressed air flows into the air storage tank 50 it drives the hydraulic fluid therein out of the air storage tank 50 , through the fluid control valve 60 , and back into the hydraulic fluid tank 52 . By controlling the pressure and temperature of the air entering the turbine system 1 , the gas turbine system's turbine 16 can be operated at increased power because the mass flow of the gas turbine system 1 is effectively increased, which among other things, allows for increased fuel flow into the gas turbine's combustor 12 . This increase in fuel flow is similar to the increase in fuel flow associated with cold day operation of the gas turbine system 1 where an increased mass flow through the entire gas turbine system 1 occurs because the ambient air density is greater than it is on a warmer (normal) day. During periods of higher energy demand, the air flowing from the air storage tank 50 and supplemental compressor 22 may be introduced to the gas turbine system 1 in a manner that offsets the need to bleed cooling air from the compressor 10 , thereby allowing more of the air compressed in the compressor 10 to flow through the combustor 12 and on to the turbine 16 , thereby increasing the net available power of the gas turbine system 1 . The output of the gas turbine 16 is very proportional to the mass flow rate through the gas turbine system 1 , and the system described above, as compared to the prior art patents, delivers higher flow rate augmentation to the gas turbine 16 with the same air storage volume and the same supplemental compressor size, when the two are used simultaneously to provide compressed air, resulting in a hybrid system that costs much less than the price of prior art systems, while providing comparable levels of power augmentation. The supplemental compressor 22 increases the pressure of the ambient air 24 through at least one stage of compression, which is then cooled in the intercooler heat exchanger 28 , further compressed in a subsequent stage of the supplemental compressor 22 , and then after-cooled in the intercooler heat exchanger 28 (where the compressed air exiting the last stage of the supplemental compressor 22 is then after-cooled in the same intercooler heat exchanger 28 ), and then the cooled, compressed, high pressure air is delivered to the air storage tank 50 via the open air inlet valve 56 and the inlet manifold 62 , and is stored in the air storage tank 50 . As the pressurized air flowing through the intercooler heat exchanger 28 is cooled, the heat transferred therefrom can be used to heat water in the H SG to improve the efficiency of the steam turbine. An alternate method to cool the compressed air in the intercooler heat exchanger 28 is to use relatively cool water from the steam cycle (not shown) on a combined cycle plant. In this configuration, the water would flow into the intercooler heat exchanger 28 and pick up the heat that is extracted from the compressed air from the supplemental compressor 22 , and the then warmer water would exit the intercooler heat exchanger 28 and flow back to the steam cycle. With this configuration, heat is captured during both the storage cycle described in this paragraph, and the power augmentation cycle described below. According to preferred embodiments, the air storage tank 50 is above-ground, preferably on a barge, skid, trailer or other mobile platform and is adapted or configured to be easily installed and transported. The additional components, excluding the gas turbine system 1 , should add less than 20,000 square feet, preferably less than 15,000 square feet, and most preferably less than 10,000 square feet to the overall footprint of the power plant. A continuous augmentation system of the present invention takes up 1% of the footprint of a combined cycle plant and delivers from three to five times the power per square foot as compared to the rest of the plant, thus it is very space efficient, while a continuous augmentation system of the present invention with storage system takes up 5% of the footprint of the combined cycle plant and delivers from one to two times the power per square foot of the power plant. FIG. 3 shows another embodiment of the present invention in which an auxiliary gas turbine 64 is used to provide supplemental air flow at times when additional power output from the gas turbine system 1 is needed. The auxiliary gas turbine 64 includes a supplemental compressor section 66 and a supplemental turbine section 68 . In this embodiment, the auxiliary gas turbine is designed so that substantially all of the power produced by the supplemental turbine section 68 is used to drive the supplemental compressor section 66 . As used herein the term “substantially all” means that more than 90% of the power produced by the supplemental turbine section 68 is used to drive the supplemental compressor 66 , because major accessories, such as the electric generator used with the gas turbine system 1 , are not drawing power from the auxiliary gas turbine section 68 . Manufacturers of small gas turbines, such as Solar Turbines Inc., have the capability to mix and match compressors and combustors/turbines because they build their systems with multiple bearings to support the supplemental compressor section 66 and the supplemental turbine section 68 . A specialized turbine, with an oversized gas turbine compressor 66 and with a regular sized turbine/combustion system 68 is used to provide additional supplemental airflow to the gas turbine system 1 , and the excess compressed air 70 output from the oversized compressor 66 , which is in excess of what is needed to run the turbine/combustion system 68 , flows through the combustion case flow control valve 74 , when it is in the open position, and is discharged into the combustion case 14 of the gas turbine system 1 to increase the total mass flow through the turbine 16 of the gas turbine system 1 , and therefore increases the total power output by the gas turbine system 1 . For example, a 50 lb/sec combustor/turbine section 68 that would normally be rated for 4 MW, may actually be generating 8 MW, but the compressor is drawing 4 MW, so the net output from the generator is 4 MW. If such a turbine were coupled with a 100 lb/sec compressor on it, but only 50 lbs/sec were fed to the combustor/turbine section 68 , the other 50 lb/sec could be fed to the combustion case of the gas turbine system 1 . The exhaust 72 of the 50 lb/sec combustor/turbine section 68 could be injected into the exhaust 38 of the main turbine 16 similar to the manner described in the embodiment shown in FIG. 1 , and jointly sent to the SCR. Optionally, the exhaust can be separately treated, if required. Obviously, the pressure from the 100 lb/sec compressor 66 has to be sufficient to drive the compressed air output therefrom into the combustion case 14 . Fortunately, many of the smaller gas turbine engines are based on derivatives of aircraft engines and have much higher pressure ratios than the large industrial gas turbines used at most power plants. As shown in FIG. 3 , this embodiment of the present invention does not include the recuperator 30 , the intercooled compressor 22 , or the intercooler heat exchanger 28 shown in FIGS. 1 and 2 . Of course, the embodiment shown in FIG. 3 does not provide the efficiency improvement of the intercooled embodiments shown in FIGS. 1 and 2 , however the initial cost of the embodiment shown in FIG. 3 is substantially less, which may make it an attractive option to operators of power plants that typically provide power in times of peak demand, and that therefore are not run much and are less sensitive to fuel efficiency. When the auxiliary gas turbine 64 is not running, the combustion case flow control valve 74 is closed. The embodiment shown in FIG. 4 shows another way to incorporate a supplemental compressor 22 into the gas turbine system 1 . In some situations, the gas turbine augmentation of the present invention with (i) the additional mass flow to the HRSG, and/or (ii) the additional heat from the intercooler heat exchanger 28 and fueled engine 20 (as compared to a gas turbine system 1 that does not incorporate the present invention), may be too much for the steam turbine and/or the steam turbine generator to handle if all of the additional heat flows to the steam turbine generator (especially if the power plant has duct burners to replace the missing exhaust energy on hot days). In this case, the additional steam generated as a result of adding the heat of compression generated by the supplemental compressor 22 can be extracted from the steam cycle HRSG. As it happens, when compressed air augmentation is added to the gas turbine system 1 , the heat energy extracted from the intercooler heat exchanger 28 generates about the same amount of energy that it takes to drive the supplemental compressor 22 . In other words, if you had a steam turbine that generated 100 MW normally and 108 MW when the supplemental compressor 22 was injecting compressed air into the gas turbine system 1 , the extra 8 MW is approximately equal to the power requirement to drive the intercooled supplemental compressor 22 . Therefore, if some of the steam is extracted from the steam cycle of the power plant, and the steam turbine is kept at 100 MW, a small auxiliary steam turbine 76 can be used to drive the intercooled supplemental compressor 22 , and there would be no additional source of emissions at the power plant. In FIG. 4 , an auxiliary steam turbine 76 drives the intercooled supplemental compressor 22 and the steam 78 that is used to drive the steam engine 76 , which comes from the HRSG (not shown) of the power plant, is the extra steam produced from the heat, being added to the HRSG, which was extracted by the intercooler heat exchanger 22 during compression of air in the supplemental compressor 22 . The exhaust 80 of the steam engine 76 is returned to the HRSG where it is used to produce more steam. This embodiment of the present invention results in a significant efficiency improvement because the compression process of the supplemental compressor 22 is much more efficient than the compressor 10 of the gas turbine system 1 . In this situation, the power augmentation level will, of course, be reduced as the steam turbine will not be putting out additional MW, however there will be no other source of emissions/fuel burn. FIG. 5 shows the embodiment of FIG. 4 with the addition of compressed air storage. This implementation of compressed air energy storage is similar to that described with respect to FIG. 2 , as is the operation thereof. As those skilled in the art will readily appreciate, the power augmentation level of the embodiment shown in FIG. 5 is less than the embodiment shown in FIG. 2 , since the steam turbine will not be putting out additional MW, however there will be no other source of emissions/fuel burn. FIGS. 6-8 show various implementations of the embodiment shown in FIG. 1 , referred to as the “TurboPHASE system”. TurboPHASE, which is a supplemental power system for gas turbine systems, is a modular, packaged “turbocharger” that can be added to most, if not all, gas turbines, and can add up to 20% more output to existing simple cycle and combined cycle plants, while improving efficiency (i.e. “heat rate”) by up to 7%. The TurboPHASE system is compatible with all types of inlet chilling or fogging systems, and when properly implemented, will leave emissions rates (e.g. ppm of NOx, CO, etc.) unchanged, while the specific emissions rates should improve as the result of improvement in heat rate. Since only clean air, at the appropriate temperature, is injected into the turbine, the TurboPHASE system has no negative effect on gas turbine maintenance requirements. Due to the factory-assembled & tested modules that make up the TurboPHASE system, installation at an existing power plant is quick, requiring only a few days of the gas turbine system being down for outage to complete connections and to perform commissioning. FIG. 6 shows an implementation of the embodiment of the present invention shown in FIG. 1 in conjunction with two 135 MW General Electric Frame 9E industrial gas turbines 82 , 84 in a combined cycle configuration with a 135 MW steam turbine 86 (“ST”). The results of this implementation are shown below in Table 1. TABLE 1 (7.0% additional Flow added to 2x1 9E combined cycle on a 59 F. day (71 lbs/sec GT)) Existing plant With TurboPHASE ™ Compressor Pressure ratio 12.7 13.6 Compressor discharge temperature 673 F. 760 F. Compressor discharge pressure 185 psi 197 psi Turbine firing temperature 2035 F. 2035 F. Turbine exhaust temperature 1000 F. 981 F. (−19 F.) 9E GT Output (MW each) 135 MW (base load each) +23 MW (+17% output) Increased Flow N/A +20.7 Increase PR turbine output (delta) N/A  +5.6 Increase PR compressor load (delta) N/A  −3.3 ST Output (MW) 135 MW (base load) +16 MW (+12%) Increased Flow N/A  +9.4 Cooler Exhaust Temperature N/A  −2.9 Jacket Heat and IC Heat put into ST N/A  +9.9 9E Plant Output SC (MW) 135 MW (base load) 158 MW (+23 MW or +17%) 9E Plant Output CC (MW) 405 MW (base load) 467 MW (+62 MW or +15%) Base Load Fuel Burn per GT 1397 MMBTU/hr 1514 MMBTU/hr Fuelburn of aux engine delivering 71 lb/sec N/A 96 MMBTU/hr (740 Gal/hr ~15,000 hp) Total additional fuelburn of GT N/A 11 MMBTU/hr (+1%) Increase Fuel Flow N/A 98 MMBTU/hr (+7%) Increased PR/higher N/A −77 MMBTU/hr CDT/mixed temp Total Plant Fuelburn CC 2974 MMBTU/hr 3028 MMBTU/hr Heatrate SC 10350 BTU/kWh 9582 BTU/kWh (−767 BTU/kWh or −7%) Heatrate CC 6900 BTU/kWh 6483 BTU/kWh (−416 BTU/kWh or −6%) As is clear from Table 1, the implementation increased power output from each of the gas turbines by 23 MW, and increased power output from the steam turbine by 6 MW, for a total of 52 MW (2×23 MW+6 MW=52 MW). The TurboPHASE system increases air flow to the gas turbines by 7%, is operable at any ambient temperature, and yields a 4% heat rate improvement. In doing so, the pressure ratio (“PR”) at the gas turbine outlet of each gas turbine increased by 5.6, while the PR of the compressor load exhibited a 3.3 decrease. The total fuel consumption rate for the combined cycle (“CC”) plant increased by 54 MMBTU/hr while the heat rate for the CC plant decreased by 416 BTU kWh. For informational purposes, Table 1 also shows that if the implementation had been on a simple cycle (“SC”) plant, the increased power output from each of the gas turbines by would have totaled 46 MW, while the heat rate would have decreased by 767 BTU/kWh. As an option, the intercooler heat exchanger can be eliminated and the supplemental compressor heat and engine heat added to the steam turbine cycle, which increases ST output from +6 MW to +16 MW (62 MW total) and improves heat rate by 6%. FIG. 7 shows an implementation of the embodiment shown in FIG. 1 on a CC plant comprising one General Electric Frame 9FA industrial gas turbine 82 and one 138 MW steam turbine. In this implementation, power output by the 9FA industrial gas turbine 82 is increased by 42 MW from 260 MW, and power output by the steam turbine 88 is increased by 8 MW, for a total power output increase of 50 MW, along with a heat rate improvement of 0.25%. As an option, the intercooler heat exchanger 28 can be eliminated and the heat of compression of the supplemental compressor 22 and the heat from the exhaust 32 of the fueled engine can be added to the H SG in the steam cycle, which increases ST output from +8 MW to +14 MW (56 MW total) and improves heat rate to 1.8%. FIG. 8 shows an implementation of the embodiment shown in FIG. 1 on a SC plant comprising one General Electric Frame 9B (or 9E) industrial gas turbine 90 . In this implementation, power output by the 9B is increased by 23 MW from 135 MW, along with a heat rate improvement of 7%. Implementation of the embodiments of the present invention preferably provide the following benefits: (i) Installation is quick and simple, with no major electric tie-in required; (ii) No change in gas turbine firing temperature, so gas turbine maintenance costs are unchanged; (iii) It uses existing ports on gas turbine system's combustion case to inject air; (iv) High efficiency, recuperated and internal combustion engine-driven inter-cooled supplemental compressor improves both SC and CC heat rates; (v) It is compatible with water injection, fogging, inlet chilling, steam injection, and duct burners; (vi) Air is injected into gas turbine combustion case at compatible temperatures and pressures; (vii) The internal combustion, reciprocating, fueled engine can burn natural gas, low BTU biofuel or diesel (also available with small steam turbine driver and small gas turbine driver for the fueled engine.); and (viii) Energy storage option also available: approximately 2 times the price and 2 times the efficiency improvement. Referring to FIG. 9 , a typical gas turbine (GT) engine 1 comprises an axial compressor 10 , which takes ambient air 20 and compresses the air 20 and discharges the air to a compressor discharge case (CDC) 14 at a compressor discharge pressure (CDP). Depending on the GT technology, the CDP is typically between 150 and 250 psi. The discharged air also has a compressor discharge temperature (CDT), typically between 600 F and 800 F depending on the GT technology. Fuel 24 , such as natural gas, is added to the compressed air and continuously burned in one or more combustors 12 yielding elevated temperature gas, typically between 1800 F and 2600 F depending on the GT technology. This elevated gas is directed through a turbine 16 which generates about twice as much power as the compressor 10 consumes which results in a net power out to the generator 18 . The gases exiting the turbine 22 are typically in the range of 800-1100 F. As one skilled in the art can appreciate, the data supplied above apply to large frame GTs. However, there are other engine types, including aero-derivative engines, that have significantly different values, yet the present invention applies to all GT's and the references made herein are for example only. Many GTs also have what commonly known as an inlet bleed heat (IBH) system. The IBH system is used for two purposes; 1) for heating the air inlet to improve stability of the combustion process at low loads and/or cold ambient conditions and 2) to relieve the back pressure on the GT if the GT's compressor stall margin limit is reached. The IBH system typically consists of a manifold 188 that extracts air from the CDC 14 through the IBH control valve 192 . Valve 193 is the IBH isolation valve and is used to isolate the IBH system so that the IBH system may be serviced while the GT 1 is running, if necessary. The pressure P 6 and temperature T 6 in the manifold 188 are approximately equal to the CDP and CDT of the CDC 14 . Typically the IBH system also has a drain for any condensate that collects in the system. This drain consists of a valve 194 positioned between the IBH isolation valve 193 and the IBH control valve 192 that drains any liquids that collect into the GT exhaust 22 through a pipe 195 . The pressure P 7 and temperature T 7 in this IBH drain pipe 195 are approximately the same as the gas turbine exhaust pressure, which is close to the ambient pressure so that if the IBH drain valve 194 is opened, the liquids are forced out of the system and into the GT exhaust. The present invention also comprises a TPM 100 which comprises the components inside the dashed line of FIG. 9 . In an embodiment of the present invention, the TPM 100 ties into a GT's existing IBH system through an air delivery pipe 185 and a GT isolation valve (GTIV) 186 . These components allow the TPM 100 to be fluidly connected to the GT 1 . The TPM 100 utilizes a fueled engine 151 that takes in air 150 and fuel 124 and provides power to drive an intercooled compressor 116 which has an intercooler 205 . The intercooled compressor 116 takes in air 180 through an inlet guide vane valve (IGVV) 181 , which effectively controls the amount of air that the intercooled compressor 116 is compressing, which directly translates into power demand from the fueled engine 151 . The air 117 that is compressed by the compressor 116 has an exit temperature T 1 of about 250 F and a pressure P 1 that ranges from zero to up to 350 psi, which is much more pressure than required to force the air to the GT 1 . This air 117 flows through the compressor discharge pipe 118 and goes through a check valve 169 that prevents flow from entering the compressor from discharge pipe 118 . The compressed air 117 air then can go in two directions. The compressed air 117 can be discharged through the blow off valve (BOV) 182 into pipe 162 which discharges the air to atmosphere through a silencer 161 . Alternatively, the compressed air 117 can flow through a recuperator 171 via pipe 183 where it is heated by the engine exhaust 152 from the fueled engine 151 . The engine exhaust 152 and compressed air 117 exchange heat in the recuperator 171 resulting in a temperature increase to the compressed air 117 to a temperature T 3 and a pressure P 3 , which is about the same as P 1 , and a cooler exhaust 153 . The exhaust 153 then exits the recuperator 171 . The amount of exhaust 152 that actually goes through the recuperator 171 can be modulated or bypassed around the recuperator 171 to optimize the resulting temperature of the compressed air T 3 depending on the use of the compressed air and the use of the exhaust gas 153 in the GT or overall combined cycle plant system. The air exits the recuperator 171 through a pipe 189 with its temperature T 3 being greater than T 1 . The vent valve (VV) 163 provides another path for the hot pressurized air to be discharged to atmosphere through pipe 162 into a silencer 161 . When the TPM 100 is delivering the hot pressurized air to the GT 1 through pipe 185 at a pressure P 4 and temperature T 4 , the injection control valve (ICV) 184 is fully open so that there is a minimal pressure drop and P 3 is about the same pressure as P 4 . The piping and valve structure described above allows the TPM 100 to preheat and warm up the air pipes involved with injecting the compressed air, start the TPM 100 and develop full pressure and temperature in the TPM 100 , smoothly ramp the air flow into the GT 1 , smoothly ramp the air flow out of the GT 1 and turn off the GT 1 , all independent of the GT 1 operation. Referring now to FIG. 10 , an embodiment of the present invention depicts a method 1000 of operating an air injection system for providing power augmentation to a gas turbine engine. The method 1000 includes a step 1002 of preheating the air injection system (TPM), as will be discussed further herein. Once the air injection system is preheated, then in a step 1004 , a fueled engine, intercooled compressor and intercooler of the air injection system are operated to generate a supply of compressed air. Exhaust from the fueled engine is directed through a recuperator where it interacts thermally with the compressed air from the intercooled compressor, thereby generating a supply of heated compressed air. In a step 1006 , the heated compressed air is injected into the gas turbine engine for a predetermined period of time in order to increase the work output of the gas turbine engine, as discussed above. Then, in a step 1008 , the injection of heated compressed air to the engine is terminated and in a step 1010 , operation of the air injection system is also terminated. As one skilled in the art understands, operation of a gas turbine engine and power plant is a complex process requiring numerous procedures to occur and monitoring numerous conditions, inputs, and outputs from a number of sources, such as temperatures, pressures, fuel flow rates, load demand, engine speed, output, generator output, etc. Accordingly, modern day gas turbine engines are typically controlled with a computer or other control-type device having numerous control algorithms. One such controller common to industrial gas turbines is the Mk V or VI controller offered by General Electric Company. Therefore, such a control system is also envisioned for application by the present invention. For example, the air injection system may be controlled by a programmable logic controller that operates separately from the controller that operates the gas turbine engine. Alternatively, operation of the air injection system may be controlled by a programmable logic controller that is in communication with, and therefore works in conjunction with, a main control system of the gas turbine engine. The present invention pertains to a series of methods for operating an air injection system for providing power augmentation to one or more gas turbine engines at a power plant. As one skilled in the art will appreciate, embodiments of the present invention may be embodied as, among other things, a method, a system, or a computer-program product. Accordingly, the embodiments may take the form of a hardware embodiment, a software embodiment, or an embodiment combining software and hardware. Furthermore, embodiments of the present invention take the form of a computer-program product that includes computer-useable instructions embodied on one or more computer-readable media. Computer-readable media include both volatile and nonvolatile media, removable and nonremovable media, and contemplates media readable by a database, a switch, and various other network devices. Network switches, routers, and related components are conventional in nature, as are means of communicating with the same. By way of example, and not limitation, computer-readable media comprise computer-storage media and communications media. Computer-storage media, or machine-readable media, include media implemented in any method or technology for storing information. Examples of stored information include computer-useable instructions, data structures, program modules, and other data representations. Computer-storage media include, but are not limited to RAM, ROM, EEPROM, flash memory or other memory technology, CD-ROM, digital versatile discs (DVDs), holographic media or other optical disc storage, magnetic cassettes, magnetic tape, magnetic disk storage, and other magnetic storage devices. These memory components can store data momentarily, temporarily, or permanently. Communications media typically store computer-useable instructions—including data structures and program modules—in a modulated data signal. The term “modulated data signal” refers to a propagated signal that has one or more of its characteristics set or changed to encode information in the signal. An exemplary modulated data signal includes a carrier wave or other transport mechanism. Communications media include any information-delivery media. By way of example but not limitation, communications media include wired media, such as a wired network or direct-wired connection, and wireless media such as acoustic, infrared, radio, microwave, spread-spectrum, and other wireless media technologies. Combinations of the above are included within the scope of computer-readable media. One aspect of the present invention is directed to one or more computer-readable media that, when invoked by computer-executable instructions, perform a method for controlling an air injection system for power augmentation of a gas turbine engine. The method comprises the steps of preheating the air injection system, as discussed herein, and operating a fueled engine, intercooled compressor and intercooler of the air injection system to generate compressed air. The cool compressed air is directed through a recuperator where it interacts thermally with exhaust from the fueled engine to heat the compressed air. The computer-executable instructions also control injecting the heated compressed air into the gas turbine engine for a predetermined time period. Thereafter, the computer-executable instructions terminate injection of the heated compressed air into the gas turbine engine, and subsequently terminate operation of the air injection system. As discussed above for other embodiments of the present invention, the computer-executable instructions may be performed independent of a control system for the gas turbine engine. Alternatively, the computer-executable instructions may be performed in conjunction with the control system for the gas turbine engine. The present invention also provides apparatus and methods for warming, or preheating, a piping portion of the air injection system. Warming the piping portion of the air injection system is a critical feature of the air injection system in order to move quickly from a “zero flow” condition to a “full flow” condition because of thermal shock on the piping and GT system, as well as the desire to deliver hot compressed air to the GT the moment air injection starts. Most prior art injection systems utilize steam injection which can take about 30 minutes before steam injection capability is available. The present invention will provide air injection in 5 to 10 minutes and can be readied ahead of actually injecting air into the GT. This warming or preheating can occur by directing heated compressed air from a compressor discharge of the gas turbine engine through the piping of the air injection system. Alternatively, the air injection system can be preheated by closing all of the valves permitting fluid communication with the compressor discharge region of the gas turbine engine and operating the air injection system such that all air flow is directed through the piping of the air injection system and through, for example, an inlet bleed heat drain valve 194 and into an exhaust region 22 of the GT 1 . The present invention provides for two different warm-up modes for the air injection system, one where the air flows from the GT 1 to the TPM 100 and one where the air flows from the TPM 100 to the GT 1 . When the GT 1 is operating and the TPM 100 is not operational, typically IBH control valves 192 , IBH isolation valve 193 , GT isolation valve 186 and IBH drain valve 194 are closed so there is no flow in the IBH system or the air injection piping of the TPM 100 . To heat up the pipes using air from the GT CDC 14 , the GTIC 186 , ICV 184 , and VV 163 and/or BOV 182 are opened to allow some air flow from the GT 1 , which is at CDC pressure and temperature P 6 and T 6 , to flow through the air injection system and discharge to the atmosphere through the silencer 161 . This allows the air pipes to be preheated with the TPM off. More specifically and with reference to FIG. 11 , a method 1100 of preheating an air injection system for a gas turbine engine is disclosed. In the method 1100 , the gas turbine engine is operating at a step 1102 . Then, in a step 1104 , the valves within the air injection system are opened to at least a partially opened position. The valves can be opened to any position desired to provide the required amount of heated compressed air from the gas turbine engine to the air injection system. In a step 1106 , a flow of compressed air from the compressor discharge region of the gas turbine engine is directed to flow through a piping portion and valves of the air injection system. Then, in a step 1108 , the flow of compressed air which heated the piping portion and valves is discharged to the atmosphere through a silencer. In a step 1110 , a determination is made as to whether the piping portion of the air injection system has reached a predetermined desired operating temperature. If the piping portion has not achieved the desired operating temperature, the process continues to operate by way of continuing to inject compressor discharge air into the air injection system and discharge the air through the silencer, as discussed in steps 1106 and 1108 . However, once a determination has been made that the piping portion of the air injection system has achieved the desired operating temperature, the flow of compressed air from the compressor discharge of the gas turbine engine is terminated in a step 1112 . The air injection system piping is now at proper temperature to inject heated compressed air into the GT without creating the thermal shock discussed above. The method of preheating an air injection system as discussed above, may be implemented in a variety of manners. Such a method can be implemented manually or through an automated means such as through a computing device using one or more processors using computer-executable instructions. The second way of warming up the air injection system can occur with the GT 1 on or off and by starting the TPM 100 and delivering hot air through the ICV 184 towards the GT 1 and opening an access valve, such as the IBH drain valve 194 . As discussed herein, accessing the GT engine through the CDC 14 and the inlet bleed heat system is but one manner envisioned for preheating the piping portions of the air injection system. As such, the present invention is not limited to this structure. Independent of whether the GT 1 operational, there will be no pressure or flow in the air injection pipe 185 from the GT 1 because the valves 186 , 192 , and 193 are closed. Therefore, when the IBH drain valve 194 is open, air flows from the TPM 100 through all the air injection piping and discharges in the exhaust of the GT 1 . This allows the operator the flexibility to prepare to inject air from the air injection system into the GT 1 , regardless of the GT operational status, and independent of the TPM 100 status, eliminating what is typically a slow preheat injection warm up cycle. Referring now to FIG. 12 , an alternate method of preheating a piping portion of an air injection system for a gas turbine engine is disclosed. In the method 1200 of preheating the piping portion, the air injection system operates to generate a source of heated compressed air in a step 1202 . In a step 1204 , the heated compressed air is directed through an injection control valve. Depending on the orientation by which the piping portion of the air injection system is being preheated, if the piping portion is preheated via an inlet bleed heat system, the method 1200 may also include the step of opening a drain valve of the inlet bleed heat system. Thereafter, in a step 1206 , the heated compressed air is directed through the piping portion of the air injection system. Then, in a step 1208 , the heated compressed air is discharged into the exhaust of the gas turbine engine. As the piping portion is preheated by the air injection system, a determination is made in a step 1210 whether the piping portion has reached a desired operating temperature. If the piping portion has not reached its desired operating temperature, then the process of steps 1206 and 1208 continue such that heated compressed air is passed through the piping portion to continue warming the piping portion. If, in step 1210 , the piping portion has reached its desired operating temperature, then in a step 1212 , the flow of compressed air from the air injection system through the piping portion is terminated. In order to start the TPM 100 , the compressor IGV's 181 are closed so that as the compressor 116 and fueled engine 151 comes up to the correct speed, such that the minimum flow, and therefore, power is developed. Additionally, during this time, the BOV 182 is open and the VV 163 and ICV 184 are closed. This allows what small flow is generated during start up to bypass the recuperator 171 , allowing the recuperator 171 to start-up quickly. For extended start up or part load operation with the ICV 184 closed, and no air injection to the gas turbine, the BOV 182 can be partially or fully closed and the VV 163 can be adjusted to develop any pressure desired, up to the capability of the auxiliary compressor 116 , which also allows to simulate full flow temperature and pressure (T 3 and P 3 ) prior to injecting any air into the GT 1 because the ICV 184 is closed. This not only allows for an accelerated heating of the TPM 100 , but also allows the air injection system to demonstrate full pressure and temperature prior to each injection which increases the reliability of the system. Another advantage of this valve structure is that in the preheating cycle disclosed in FIG. 12 generates hotter compressed air than can be delivered to the air injection piping 185 via other processes. A much hotter air temperature T 3 can be developed with the VV 163 closed and the BOV 182 open and the TPM 100 at full or partial flow, where the majority of air being generated by the auxiliary compressor 116 is going through the BOV 182 and only a small amount of the air is going through the recuperator 171 . However, the exhaust 152 of the fueled engine 151 is at full or partial operating temperature. By having only a small amount of air flow through the recuperator 171 and full exhaust flow, the resulting air temperature is much higher than when the air circuit in the recuperator 171 sees full injection flow and is approaching the exhaust temperature. By increasing this temperature, the air injection piping can be heated at a quicker rate and to a higher temperature, greater than what it will see during normal flow levels, thus speeding up the air injection process. Referring now to FIG. 13 , a method 1300 of operating an air injection system for augmenting power to a gas turbine engine is disclosed. The method 1300 comprises a step 1302 of starting the air injection system and bringing the air injection system to an acceptable operating condition, such as a predetermined pressure and/or temperature. Then, in a step 1304 , the air injection system is preheated. In a step 1306 , a compressor discharge pressure for the gas turbine engine is determined. Once the compressor discharge pressure of the gas turbine engine is determined, a desired pressure for the air injection system is set in a step 1308 , where the pressure of the air injection system is a function of the compressor discharge pressure. In a step 1310 , a determination is made as to whether the air injection system has reached the set pressure in step 1308 . If the air injection system has not reached the desired predetermined pressure, the process of steps 1304 , 1306 , and 1308 continue until the predetermined pressure is achieved. Once a determination is made in step 1310 that the air injection system has reached the predetermined operating pressure, then the process continues to a step 1312 where the heated air from the air injection system is supplied to the compressor discharge in order to augment the power output of the gas turbine engine. In an alternate embodiment of the present invention, the injection of the heated compressed air occurs by opening an isolation valve in communication with the gas turbine engine, opening an injection control valve of the air injection system, and closing a vent valve in the air injection system. As a result, the heated compressed air is forced through to the gas turbine engine. Yet another alternate embodiment of the present invention is disclosed in FIGS. 14 and 15 . First referring to FIG. 14 , and as one skilled in the art can appreciate, when more than one TPM 100 is supplying heated compressed air to a manifold 201 , where the manifold 201 supplies one or more GTs 1 , it is necessary to be able to preheat each TPM 100 to a specific pressure and temperature independent of each other, as not all TPM's may be required at all times. Additionally, as injection increases to the GT 1 , the GT's CDC pressure P 6 increases, such that the set point for the second compressor to start injecting into the manifold 201 will be higher than when the first TPM 100 was started. After the TPM 100 is at full speed and preheated to operating conditions, which can take 30 seconds or longer, and the air injection lines are preheated as described above, the BOV 182 is closed, and the compressed air in the air injection pipe 189 is at a pressure approximately equal to the gas turbine CDC pressure (P 3 about equal to P 6 ), and the temperature of the air about to be injected is at a sufficient temperature T 3 as determined by the application and injection location, then the air injection can be ramped up to the GT. As one skilled in the art understands, it is not necessary to have all these conditions satisfied if a conventional injection process was implemented, however, all of these steps increase the speed that the air and therefore, incremental power can be added to the power plant. To ramp the injection of hot compressed air into the GT, the air pressure P 3 in pipe 189 is verified to be approximately equal to P 6 and then the GTIV 186 can be partially or fully opened, the ICV 184 can be partially or fully opened, and then the VV 163 is closed, forcing all of the air through the air injection pipe 189 . It is critical to have the pressure P 3 in the air injection pipe 189 approximately equal to the GT CDC pressure P 6 , otherwise the air injection piping 202 acts as a large air storage tank and either suddenly draws down if the pipe pressure is lower, or over-injects air if the air pressure is higher in the pipe 185 when the GTIV is opened the first time. In the case where the air injection pipe 202 is injecting into multiple gas turbines as shown in FIG. 14 , and the CDC pressure P 6 in each GT is at different pressures because of engine to engine variation or part load operation, then the pressure P 8 in the air delivery pipe 202 is set to the highest pressure P 6 of any of the gas turbines manifolded together with pipes 203 and 204 . Additionally, the GTIV 186 on the GTs that have lower P 6 pressures will be adjusted closed accordingly to develop the appropriate pressure drop across the valve so that the flow to the gas turbines are the same. Other settings are possible for the GTIV 186 that will increase or decrease the flow to individual GT based on the desired output. Referring now to FIG. 15 , a method 1500 of operating one or more air injection systems for augmenting power to a plurality of gas turbine engines is disclosed. The method 1500 provides a step 1502 where one or more air injection systems are started and bringing the air injection systems to an acceptable operating condition. In a step 1504 , the air injection systems are preheated. Then, in a step 1506 , a compressor discharge pressure for each of the gas turbines is determined. Once each of the compressor discharge pressures are determined, a pressure for the air injection system is set in a step 1508 as a function of the gas turbine having the highest compressor discharge pressure. Then, in a step 1510 , a determination is made as to whether the air injection system has reached the set pressure of step 1508 . If the determination is made that the air injection system is not at the desired operating pressure, then the process continues so as to keep heating the air injection system through steps 1504 , 1506 , and 1508 . Upon determination of the air injection system reaching the predetermined operating pressure, the heated compressed air is then injected into the compressor discharge of each of the gas turbine engines in a step 1512 . The method 1500 can further comprise the step of adjusting an isolation valve on the gas turbine engine having a lower compressor discharge pressure in order to develop an appropriate pressure drop across the isolation valve so as to result in generally uniform flow of heated compressed air to the plurality of gas turbine engines. As with the other embodiments discussed herein, the method 1500 can be accomplished using a controller having one or more processors using computer-executable instructions. While the invention has been described in what is known as presently the preferred embodiment, it is to be understood that the invention is not to be limited to the disclosed embodiment but, on the contrary, is intended to cover various modifications and equivalent arrangements within the scope of the following claims. The present invention has been described in relation to particular embodiments, which are intended in all respects to be illustrative rather than restrictive. From the foregoing, it will be seen that this invention is one well adapted to attain all the ends and objects set forth above, together with other advantages which are obvious and inherent to the system and method. It will be understood that certain features and sub-combinations are of utility and may be employed without reference to other features and sub-combinations. This is contemplated by and within the scope of the claims.

The present invention discloses a novel apparatus and methods for controlling an air injection system for augmenting the power of a gas turbine engine, improving gas turbine engine operation, and reducing the response time necessary to meet changing demands of a power plant. Improvements in control of the air injection system include ways directed towards preheating the air injection system, including using an gas turbine components, such as an inlet bleed heat system to aid in the preheating process.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0001] The present invention concerns an antiviral preparation obtained from a plant extract. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] Viruses are important pathogens of both humans and animals. Outbreak of a virus infection often results from introduction of a new virus (such as HIV, West Nile Virus, SARS), or from introduction of a new strain of a well known virus to an immunologically naïve population, e.g. influenza. [0003] Despite the importance of the recent outbreaks of West Nile Virus and SARS, influenza is still one of the most prevalent and significant viral infections. Although the availability of formalin-inactivated trivalent vaccines has reduced the impact of influenza epidemics, this virus is still associated with significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. It infects 10-20% of the total population during seasonal epidemics, resulting in between three to five million cases of severe illness and at least 250,000 to 500,000 deaths each year worldwide (World Health Organization, W.H.O., Global Influenza Program, September 2003 and W.H.O. Fact Sheet, March 2003). In the U.S.A. alone, more than 100 million cases are reported each year, causing 20,000 deaths and a consequent strong economic impact, estimated at around 22.9 billion dollars for 1995 (American Lung Association, 2002). W.H.O. has estimated the total burden at around 71-167 billion dollars per year (W.H.O. Fact Sheet, March 2003). [0004] Until recently, amantadine and rimantadine were used for the treatment of influenza infection, but these are now believed to be associated with severe adverse effects (including delirium and seizures which occur mostly in elderly persons on higher doses). When used for prophylaxis of pandemic influenza at lower doses, such adverse events are less apparent. In addition, the virus tends to develop resistance to these drugs (Steinhaur et al., 1991). [0005] A new class of antivirals, the neuraminidase inhibitors, has recently been developed. Such drugs as zanamivir and oseltamivir, which have fewer adverse side effects (although zanamivir may exacerbate asthma or other chronic lung diseases) are nevertheless expensive and currently not available for use in many countries (W.H.O. Fact Sheet, March 2003). Influenza may develop resistance to neuroaminidase inhibitors too (McKimm-Berschkin, 2000; Gubavera, et al. 2002). [0006] Many herbs and spices, among them also cinnamon, have been shown to feature antimicrobial and chemoprotective activities, (Lay and Roy, 2004). Extracts from cinnamon obtained by organic solvents (for example as in Velluti et al, 2004), typically contain the following ingredients: Eugenol (82%), Caryophylene (4.6%), Eugenyl acetate (2.1%), Linalool (1.8%), Cinnamaldehyde (1%), Cinnamyl alchohol acetate (1%), 2-Propyl benzodioxol (1%), and Cubebene (<1%). These extracts, which are in fact essential oils, have shown to exhibit antifungal activity. (Velluti et al., 2003 and Velluti et al, 2004). [0007] Other cinnamon bark essentials oils had antibacterial activity against Bacillus cereus , (Valero and Salmeron, 2003); as well as antibacterial and antifungal activities, (Kalemba and Kunicka, 2003 and Mau et al., 2001). [0008] Cinnamon hydrophobic fractions extracted in organic solvents had antibacterial activity against Helicobacter pylori , (Tabak, M. et al., 1999); antifungal activity for fungi causing respiratory tract mycoses, (Singh, H. B. et al., 1995), and anti HIV-1 activity caused by inhibiting the reverse transcription, (Yamasaki et al., 1998). [0009] Compounds obtained from cinnamon are also used for other indications such as the use of cinnamon powder for reducing serum glucose triglycerides, LDL cholesterol and total cholesterol, (Khan et al, 2003); water extracts of cinnamon were used as antioxidants (Murcia et al, 2004); were shown to prevent insulin resistance, (Qin et al., 2004); and were also shown to inhibit Na + /K + ATPase and Cu 2+ ATPase, (Usta et al., 2003). Essential oil extract obtained from cinnamon were further shown to improve digestion (Hernandez et al., 2004). SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0010] The present invention is based on the surprising finding that a natural aqueous extract from a cinnamon bark ( Cinnamon sp.) has antiviral activity against enveloped viruses including influenza A, Parainfluenza (Sendai) virus and HSV-1 viruses, as well as in vivo activity in inhibition of Influenza A and Parainfluenza viruses in mice. [0011] By a preferred embodiment of the invention, isolated active fraction of cinnamon bark (hereon referred to as CE) having antiviral activity, has in addition one or more of the following chemical properties: 1. It is precipitated by various chloride salts such as KCl, NaCl, MgCl 2 , SrCl 2 , CuCl 2 , or ZnCl 2 . 2. It exhibits absorbance at 280 nm of 15 O.D/mg. cm. 3. It maintains most of its activity after incubation in 0.1M NaOH, or 0.1M HCl, or 0.1M H 2 SO 4 . 4. It can be extracted into an aqueous solution without need for organic solvents in a relatively inexpensive and simple manner. 5. It can be maintained for a long period of time (at least two years) as a stable powder or in solution in a refrigerator or at room temperature; 6. It is heat-stable and can thus be sterilized at temperature up to at least 134° C. [0018] The term “CE ppt” as used hereon refers to the extract isolated fraction obtained by salting out with KCl 0.15M. [0019] As regards the biological activity, the CE of the invention is capable of inhibiting viruses at room temperature, within a few minutes of administration, and at relatively low levels. Thus in addition to the pharmaceutical use, this immediate inhibition, at room temperature and at low levels enables also surface disinfections of suspected contaminated areas or purifying circulating air. [0020] The CE of the present invention are effective against both influenza and Parainfluenza viruses as well as against HSV-1 viruses and may protect infected human erythrocytes and other erythrocyte cells from the activity of viruses pre-absorbed on the erythrocytes. Thus, the CE of the present invention may be considered as effective treatment of cells already pre-absorbed with the virus. Furthermore, pre-absorption of the CE of the invention onto cells has a prophylactic effect in protecting the cells from subsequent viral infection. [0021] By one aspect the present invention concerns a novel aqueous extract of cinnamon bark ( Cinnamon sp) which has an absorbance at 280 nm at between about 15 to 20 O.D. per mg. cm, as shown in FIG. 12 ( d ), and which additionally has the above mentioned chemical properties. In one embodiment, the extract has an absorbance at 280 nm at about 15 OD. [0022] The present invention further concerns a CE obtainable by the following process: (i) grounding cinnamon bark into powder and stirring it into an aqueous buffer to obtain a solution; (ii) centrifuging the solution and separating a supernatant (iii) introducing a salt to obtain a precipitate. [0026] The process may further comprise of the following steps: (iv) dissolving the precipitate obtained in step (iii) above in water or buffer at an essentially neutral pH; (v) separating the solution on a sepharose or Sephadex column; and (vi) eluting the solution with suitable buffer and varying concentrations of saccharide, preferably galactose to obtain the antiviral fractions of cinnamon sp. [0030] By a preferred embodiment, the present invention concerns a CE obtained by the above process, wherein said salt used to obtain a precipitate is a chloride salt. [0031] By another preferred embodiment, the present invention concerns an extract from cinnamon bark, ( Cinnamon sp.) obtained by the following method: (i) grounding the bark into powder; (ii) stirring the bark in aqueous phosphate buffer 0.01M or 0.02M, pH 7.0; (iii) separating the supernatant by centrifugation to be used as the crude neutralizing extract; (iv) precipitate the active ingredient in the crude extract by 0.15M KCl or 0.08M MgCl 2 ; (v) dissolving the precipitate in water or 0.01M phosphate buffer at pH 7.0; (vi) loading the solution onto a column of sepharose 4B followed by a stepwise elution with phosphate buffer and various concentrations of galactose; and (vii) eluting the active antiviral material from the column by 0.15M galactose ( FIGS. 12 a, b, c ; fraction b or II). [0039] The present invention also concerns compositions, which may be nutraceutical or pharmaceutical compositions, comprising the CE of the invention together with a pharmaceutically or nutraceutically acceptable carrier. The composition may be in a liquid, solid or semi solid state. [0040] Furthermore, the present invention concerns a pharmaceutical composition or a nutraceutical composition for the treatment of an infection comprising as an active ingredient an effective amount of the CE together with a carrier suitable for pharmaceutical or nutraceutical compositions. [0041] The term “treatment” in the context of the invention refers generally to one of the following: treatment of an established infection to cure it or decrease the viral load, decrease of at least one of the undesirable side effects of a viral disease, shorting the acute phase of the infection, and prevention of an infection before it occurs. [0042] The term “influenza” or “Parainfluenza virus” or “HSV-1 virus” in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the invention refers to all known and newly evolving strains of these viruses, including animal viruses such as avian influenza. [0043] The present invention further concerns a method for the treatment of a subject suffering from viral infection comprising administering to the subject in need of such treatment an effective amount of the extract as described above. [0044] The viral infection is preferably an enveloped virus infection; more preferably a virus of the family Orthomyxoviruses, Paramyxoviruses, Herpesviruses, Retroviruses, Coronaviruses, Hepadnaviruses, Poxviruses, Togaviruses, Flaviviruses, Filoviruses, Rhabdoviruses, or Bunyaviruses. [0045] Most preferably the virus infection is caused by a virus selected from: the avian influenza virus, Influenza virus, Parainfluenza virus (also referred to herein as “the Sendai virus”), NDV virus, HIV viruses or HSV-1 virus. [0046] The subject in need may be a subject already suffering from an established viral infection, thus treatment is provided in order to cure the infection, decrease at least one undesired side effect of the infection or decrease in the duration of the infection, or a subject which is treated in a prophylactic manner in order to avoid subsequent infection by the virus. [0047] The “subject” in accordance with the invention may be a human or an animal subject, and may be mammal or poultry especially farm and pet animals. The subject may also be fish in various aquacultures, bees and other insects of interest in agriculture. [0048] Administration may be by any manner known in the art such as orally, parenterally, rectally, topically, nasally, by application to the eye, ear, nose or mucosal tissue, and the like. Preferably the administration is subcutaneously, intramuscularly, orally or intranasal. [0049] The present invention further concerns a method for disinfecting an area suspected of being contaminated with viruses, comprising applying, for example by spraying, by brush or sponge application, etc., onto a suspected area an affective amount of the extract of the present invention. The surface may be any area in the house or in a medical facility that should be disinfected. [0050] The disinfectant composition may be used to clean and disinfect surfaces such as ceramic tiles, PVC, porcelain, stainless steel, marble, silver and chrome to remove grease, wax, oil, dry paint and mildew and the like. The disinfectant composition may also be used as a laundry additive and may take the form of an aerosol spray, in which case, the composition is mixed with an appropriate propellant such as mist activators and sealed in an aerosol container under pressure. [0051] In one specific embodiment, the composition is absorbed in a towel or a cloth, thus providing a disinfectant towel that may be used as means of applying the composition to the various surfaces or may be used to disinfect the hands and skin of an individual. [0052] By another option the disinfectant composition may be applied onto plants for preventing or treatment plants viral infection. The plants may be, for example, fruit groves, vines, cotton fields, forests, prairies, private or public gardens, grass fields, vegetable fields and the like. The extract may also be used in a pre- or post-harvesting method of treating fruits and vegetables which may have been infected by viruses. [0053] The disinfectant composition of the present invention may generally also include surfactants which are preferably selected from nonionic and cationic surfactants. The nonionic surfactant may, for example, be one or more selected from polyglycol ethers, polyalkylene glycol dialkyl ethers, and the addition products of alcohols with ethylene oxides and propylene oxides. [0054] The cationic surfactant may be selected from various quaternary ammonium salts such as, but not limiting to octyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride, octyl decyl dimethyl ammonium chloride, dioctyl dimethyl ammonium chloride, didecyl dimethyl ammonium chloride and dimethyl ethyl benzyl ammonium chloride, or mixtures thereof such as, but not limiting to, alkyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chlorides and dialkyl dimethyl ammonium chlorides. In one embodiment, the composition may further comprise dyestuffs, perfuimes, builders, chelating agents and corrosion inhibitors. [0055] The composition comprising the extract of the present invention may also be used for the treatment of water reservoirs such as, but not limiting to, water systems, cooling systems, swimming pools, natural and artificial water reservoirs, fisheries, water tanks, aquariums, and any other volume of water. [0056] In one embodiment, the composition is added in a dry form to the water reservoir in an amount sufficient to control the growth of viruses. In another embodiment, the dry composition is added to a water reservoir after being dissolved in an appropriate vehicle. [0057] In another aspect of the present invention there is provided a method for purifying circulating air in airplanes, hospitals, kindergartens, offices, homes etc. by passing the air through appropriate filters containing or absorbed with the extracts of the invention. Within the scope of the present invention, also provided is a filter containing or absorbed with the CE of the invention. Such filter may be manufactured from any material suitable for the specific utility as known to a person skilled in the art. The filter may be a single unit filter or a multi-filter system and may be manufactured as to be adaptable to any existing purification unit, filtering or air-conditioning systems such as those found in clean-rooms, industry, hospitals, homes, offices and other facilities. [0058] The extract of the present invention may be absorbed onto the filter during production of the filter or immediately prior to its use by methods known in the art such as: spraying of the extract onto of the filter at a predetermined flow and concentration, thereafter allowing the carrier to dry; dropping the filter into a solution of the extract for a period of time suitable for the extract to be absorbed onto the surface of the filter, thereafter allowing the solvent to dry; and the like. [0059] All compositions of the present invention may be in a liquid or solid form depending on the specific utility. [0060] By another aspect, the present invention concerns a method for producing a neutralized virus comprising contacting native viruses with an effective amount of the extract of the invention. The neutralized native viruses may be used for subsequent immunization against the viral infection instead of inactivated virus particles used today. Especially the use is for inactivated influenza, Parainfluenza viruses or HSV-1, that can be neutralized to produce a vaccine instead of the formalin inactivated viruses currently used. Thus, there is provided a method of immunization against a viral infection comprising administering to a subject the neutralized virus of the present invention. [0061] The vaccine may be administered by various routes such as oral, intranasal, subcutaneous, intramuscular and others known to a person skilled in the art. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0062] In order to understand the invention and to see how it may be carried out in practice, some preferred embodiments will now be described, by way of non-limiting examples only, with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which: [0063] FIG. 1 ( a ) shows the in vitro effect of varying concentrations of crude extract of the invention on the hemolytic activity of Influenza A; [0064] FIG. 1 ( b ) shows the in vitro effect of varying concentrations of crude extract of the invention on the hemolytic activity of Parainfluenza (Sendai); [0065] FIG. 2 shows the antiviral effect of extracts treated by autoclaving or after 4 years maintenance; [0066] FIG. 3 shows the inhibition of Influenza A PR8 by varying concentrations and different fractions of the crude extract of the invention; [0067] FIG. 4 ( a ) shows the antiviral effect of a fraction of the extract treated with HCl and H 2 SO 4 ; [0068] FIG. 4 ( b ) shows the antiviral effect of a fraction of the extract treated with NaOH; [0069] FIG. 5 shows the antiviral effect of a fraction extracted treated with dialysis against water; [0070] FIG. 6 ( a ) shows the antiviral effect of the extract on Influenza A-PR8 after varying incubation periods; [0071] FIG. 6 ( b ) shows the antiviral effect of the extract on Parainfluenza (Sendai) after varying incubation periods; [0072] FIG. 7 shows inhibition of Influenza A PR8 pre-absorbed onto erythrocytes by varying concentrations of the extract of the invention; [0073] FIG. 8 shows protection against Influenza A PR8 after pre-absorption of CE fractions onto erthrocytes. [0074] FIG. 9 shows in vivo results showing the effect of the extract of the invention on weight of mice infected with Influenza A virus; [0075] FIG. 10 shows in vivo results showing the effect of the extract of the invention on weight of mice infected with Parainfluenza Sendai virus; [0076] FIG. 11 ( a ) and FIG. 11 ( b ) show a histogram showing death and relative weight of mice infected with Influenza A PR8 virus incubated with the CE inhibitor; [0077] FIG. 12 ( a ) shows galactose elution of fraction from sepharose 4B—fraction (II) having antiviral activity; [0078] FIG. 12 ( b ) shows galactose elution of fraction from sepharose 4B—Fraction (II) having antiviral activity; [0079] FIG. 12 ( c ) shows galactose elution of fraction from sepharose 4B—Fraction (b) having antiviral activity; [0080] FIG. 12 ( d ) shows the optical density curve of the cinnamon extract. [0081] FIG. 13 ( a ) shows the effect of the crude extract of the invention on HSV-1 infected Vero cells; [0082] FIG. 13 ( b ) shows the effect of varying concentrations of HSV-1 (on Vero cells) in response to a fixed amount of the extract of the invention; [0083] FIG. 13 ( c ) shows the effect of increasing amounts of the compound of the invention on fixed amounts of HSV-1 Vero infected cells; [0084] FIG. 14 ( a ) depicts changes in weight after i.n. administration of the inhibitor after viral infection in mice; [0085] FIG. 14 ( b ) depicts changes in weight after treatment with the inhibitor immediately or an hour after injection with the virus; [0086] FIG. 14 ( c ) depicts changes in weight of mice immunized i.n. by Sendai virus and the inhibitor before infecting the mice with naïve Sendai virus; [0087] FIG. 14 ( d ) depicts changes in weight of mice immunized orally or s.c. with Sendai virus and the inhibitor before infecting the mice with naïve Sendai virus; [0088] FIG. 15 ( a - b ) depicts the inhibition of HIV-1 activity tested on MT2 cells in two different experiments; [0089] FIG. 16 depicts the inhibition of avian influenza H9N2 by VNF (CE ppt); [0090] FIG. 17 depicts the inhibition of preabsorbed avian influenza H9N2 by VNF (CE ppt); [0091] FIG. 18 depicts the inhibition of the hemagglutinating activity of NDV by VNF; [0092] FIG. 19 ( a - b ) depicts in vivo neutralization and inhibition of influenza H9N2 by VNF (CE ppt); [0093] FIG. 20 ( a - b ) depicts in vivo inhibition and neutralization of Newcastle Disease Virus (VNF) by VNF (CEppt); and [0094] FIG. 21 shows the development of filters for decreasing influenza activity. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0000] a. Preparation of Active Extract [0095] The active material was isolated by three steps as follows: a) the bark was purchased in the market and was ground into powder before it was stirred in aqueous phosphate buffer 0.01M-0.02M, pH 7.0, overnight. The supernatant was separated by centrifugation and was used as the crude neutralizing extract; b) The active material in the crude extract was precipitated by KCl 0.15M or 0.08M MgCl2, and the precipitate was dissolved in water or 0.01M phosphate buffer, pH 7.0 (CE ppt.); c) This solution was submitted onto column of sepharose 4B followed by a stepwise elution with phosphate buffer and various concentrations of galactose. The active antiviral material was eluted from the column by 0.15M galactose ( FIGS. 12 a,b,c , fraction b or II). [0000] B. Determination of Hemagglutinating Unit (HAU) and Hemolytic Activity [0096] Hemagglutinating unit (HAU) was determined by using 0.4% washed human red blood cells. Viral hemolytic activity was tested in vitro in two successive steps: 1) attachment of the free virus onto 1 ml of 4% washed human erythrocytes for 15 minutes at room temperature; 2) incubation of the infected cells in 37° C. for 3 hours followed by centrifugation. The hemolytic activity of the viruses was determined by measuring the absorbance of the supernatant at 540 nm. [0000] C. Elution of Active Fractions [0097] 60 ml of crude extract were precipitated by MgCl 2 0.08M or KCl 0.15M. The precipitate was dissolved in water or in 0.01M phosphate buffer and was submitted on 10 ml column of sepharose 4B pre-washed with phosphate buffer 0.01M, pH 7.0. After submission, the column was washed with the buffer followed by stepwise elution of galactose 0.15M, 0.3M, and various concentrations of acetonitrile, as shown in FIGS. 12 a,b,c . The antiviral material was found in fraction b eluted from the column by 0.15M galactose ( FIG. 12 ( c )) or fraction II in FIG. 12 a, b. EXAMPLE 1 In Vitro Inhibition of Hemolytic Activity by Influenza A by Crude Extract of the Invention [0098] Various amounts of crude extract were incubated with 256 HAU samples of Influenza A PR8 virus to test the inhibitory effect on the hemolytic activity of the virus, as described in the experimental procedure. Virus alone or the crude extract alone was used as controls. The results are shown in FIG. 1 ( a ). The hemolytic activity of the virus was totally inhibited by 250 μg of the crude extract. EXAMPLE 2 In Vitro Inhibition of Hemolytic Activity of Sendai Virus by the Extract of the Invention [0099] Various amounts of crude extract were incubated with 256 HAU samples of Sendai virus to test the inhibitory effect on the hemolytic activity of the virus, as described in the experimental procedure. Virus alone or the crude extract alone was used as controls. The results are shown in FIG. 1 ( b ). The hemolytic activity of the virus was totally inhibited by 250 μg of the crude extract. EXAMPLE 3 Maintenance of Antiviral Activity after Time Period, Refrigeration and Autoclave [0100] The cinnamon extracts (CE) or autoclaved CE was kept at room temperature or in the refrigerator for 4 years before testing their ability to inhibit the hemolytic activity of Sendai Virus (S.V.). 200 μg of CE were mixed with 256 HAU of the virus and hemolysis was tested as described in the experimental procedures. The results are shown in FIG. 2 . As can be seen, the antiviral activity of CE was maintained after all treatments although it lost some activity after autoclaving at 134° C. EXAMPLE 4 Inhibition of Influenza A PR8 by Various Fractions of the Extract of the Invention, Treated with Various Reagents [0101] Autoclaved CE fractions were incubated with 256 HAU of Influenza A PR8 virus at room temperature for 15 minutes. After application on human erythrocytes, the mixture was transferred to 37° C. for 3 hours. The results are shown in FIG. 3 . 50-100 μg of each CE fractions was sufficient to inhibit the viral hemolytic activity. CE ppt (isolated fraction obtained by salting out with KCl 0.15M) expressed the strongest antiviral activity. [0102] CE ppt was incubated with 0.01M or 0.1M HCl and H 2 SO 4 at room temperature for 3 hours followed by neutralization to pH 7 before examining its ability to neutralize the virus, as described in FIG. 3 . The results after this treatment are shown in FIG. 4 ( a ). [0103] CE ppt was incubated with 0.01M or 0.1M NaOH at room temperature for 3 hours, followed by neutralization to pH 7, before examining its ability to inhibit the hemolytic activity of the virus, as described in FIG. 3 . The results are shown in FIG. 4 ( b ). The treated material remained partially active. CE ppt is the precipitated fraction obtained by salting out with KCl 0.15M. [0104] CE fractions were dialyzed against water before examining the antiviral activity as described in FIG. 3 . The results are shown in FIG. 5 . The active material in the CE fractions has a molecular weight greater than 10 KDa (the dialysis bag cut-off). EXAMPLE 5 Inhibition of Influenza A PR8 by the Extract of the Invention after Incubation for Various Time Periods [0105] 50-200 μg samples of the CE ppt fraction were incubated with the virus for 1-30 minutes at room temperature, before adding the erythrocytes. Hemolytic activity of the virus was determined as described in FIG. 3 . The results are shown in FIG. 6 ( a ). Short incubation (one minute) was sufficient to neutralize the virus. [0106] 50-200 μg samples of the CE ppt fraction were incubated with the virus for 1 min. or 20 minutes at room temperature before adding the erythrocytes. Hemolytic activity of the virus was determined as described in FIG. 3 . The results are shown in FIG. 6 ( b ). Short incubation (one minute) was sufficient to neutralize the virus. EXAMPLE 6 Inhibition of Influenza A PR8 Pre-absorbed onto Erythrocytes [0107] 256 HAU of Influenza A PR8 virus were absorbed to human erythrocytes at room temperature before application of various CE fractions, and incubation at 37° C. as described in methods. The results are shown in FIG. 7 . Each of the CE fractions inhibited the hemolytic activity of the virus, although this required at least two-fold amount of each fraction compared to the direct interaction between the free virus and the CE fractions. [0108] Two CE fractions were absorbed onto human erythrocytes, and the excess was washed twice with PBS before application of 256 HAU of Influenza A PR8 virus at room temperature and incubation at 37° C. as described in methods. The results are shown in FIG. 8 . Both the refrigerated crude extract and the isolated fraction CE ppt protected the erythrocytes from the hemolytic activity of the virus, but CE ppt was more effective. The amount needed for the protections was 4-10 times higher than the amount that inhibited the virus by direct interaction. EXAMPLE 7 In Vivo Effect of Treatment of the Extract of the Invention on Influenza A Infected Mice [0109] 3.5 week old mice were injected i.v. (caudal vein) with 250 μl of PBS containing 128 HAU of Influenza A virus alone or Influenza A mixed with 250 μg of the crude extract or the crude extract alone. The mice were weighed at 2-3 day intervals. The results are shown in FIG. 9 . While the mice infected with the virus alone lost weight and most of them died within 7-10 days, the mice injected with a mixture of the virus and the crude extract continued to gain weight almost on a level with those injected with the crude extract alone. Each group included 10 mice. EXAMPLE 8 In Vivo Effect of the Extract of the Invention on Sendai Virus [0110] 3.5 week old mice were allowed to inhale 50 μl of water containing 64 HAU of Sendai virus alone, or virus mixed with 125 μg of the crude extract, or the crude extract alone. The mice were weighed at 2-3 day intervals. The results are shown in FIG. 10 . While the mice infected with the virus alone lost weight and most of them died within 7-10 days, the mice treated internasally with a mixture of the virus and the crude extract recovered and gained weight. Each group included 10 mice. EXAMPLE 9 In Vivo Effect of the Extract of the Invention on Influenza A PR8 Infection [0111] 3.5 weeks old mice were injected into the caudal vein with 128 HAU of Influenza A PR8 pre-incubated with 250 μg of the CE inhibitor for 30 minutes at room temperature. The mice were weighed every 2-3 days for 3 weeks. The results are shown in FIGS. 11 ( a ) and 11 ( b ). Weight loss of over 2 gr. was marked as a weight loss event. No deaths occurred among the mice infected with the virus pre-incubated with the inhibitor. Each group included 10 mice. EXAMPLE 10 Effect of the Extract of the Invention of HSV-1 Infected Vero Cells [0112] 100 PFU aliquots of HSV1 were mixed with 50 μg (B) of autoclaved CE ppt in 100 μl medium M-199 and immediately submitted on Vero cells in 24 wells plate. After 2 hours incubation at 37° C., 5% CO 2 , each well was overlaid with additional one ml medium and the incubation continued 3 days. The cells were washed twice with PBS before fixation with methanol and staining with Giemsa. [0113] The results are shown in FIG. 13 ( a ). As can be seen in lane (A), cells with HSV alone were detached and washed from plate. Against this, cells with HSV mixed with 50 μg CE ppt were not affected, indicating that the extracts of the invention protected the Vero cells from HSV-1 infection. [0114] 50 μg fixed aliquots of CE ppt were incubated with samples containing 10 2 -10 6 PFU of HSV1 for 1 hour in 100 μl of medium M-199. Each sample was applied on confluent Vero cell monolayer growth in 24 wells plate and the plate was incubated at 37° C., 5% CO 2 for 2 hours. One ml medium was added to each well and incubation continued 3 days. The cells were washed twice with PBS before fixation with methanol and staining with Giemsa. [0115] Results are shown in FIG. 13 ( b ). The lanes were as follows: A—10 2 PFU, B—10 3 PFU, C—10 4 PFU (A-C—virus was totally inhibited); D—10 5 PFU—Virus was partially inhibited; E—10 6 PFU—Virus was hardly inhibited; F—10 2 PFU of virus without inhibitor, cells were detached and washed from wells. [0116] Aliquots containing 10 6 PFU of HSV1 were mixed with 50 μg-400 μg of CE ppt in 100 μl medium M-199. Each mixture immediately submitted on confluent Vero cell monolayers in 24 cells plate. After 1 hour incubation at 37° C., 5% CO 2 , the cells from each well were overlaid with one ml M-199 and the incubation continued 3 days. The cells were washed twice with PBS before fixation with methanol and staining with Giemsa. [0117] The results are shown in FIG. 13 ( c ). The lanes were as follows: A—10 6 PFU of virus without inhibitor, cells were detached and washed from wells; B—F: 10 6 PFU of virus with various amounts of CE ppt as follows: B—50 μg, C—100 μg, D—200 μg, E—300 μg, F—400 μg. There is direct correlation between inhibition and increasing amounts of the CE ppt. [0118] As can be seen from all these results the extract of the invention was able to protect Vero cells from the damaging effects caused by HSV-1 infection. EXAMPLE 11 Effects of the Extract of the Invention on the Weight Loss of Mice Infected with Virus [0119] Three and a half week old mice were infected with 32HAU of Sendai virus which was pre-incubated for 20 minutes with 125 μg of the CE ppt inhibitor or treated with the CE ppt immediately after infection with the virus. The mice were then weighed every 2-3 days during a 3-week period. As FIG. 14 a shows, the two groups of mice which had been treated with the inhibitor started to gain weight 8 days post infection (P=0.017). The control group which had not been treated with the inhibitor continued losing weight. [0120] In a different experiment, 3.5-week old mice were infected internasally with 32 HAU of Sendai virus and immediately thereafter treated with 125 μg of the CE ppt inhibitor. A second group of mice was treated with the CE ppt inhibitor one hour post infection. The mice were weighed every 2-3 days for a period of 2.5 weeks. As FIG. 14 b shows, Mice which had been treated with the CE ppt inhibitor continued to gain weight whereas mice in the control group lost weight significantly (P=<0.001). EXAMPLE 12 Effect of the Extract of the Invention on the Weight Loss of Immunized Mice [0121] In another set of experiments, immunization with the CE ppt inhibitor was tested. 3.5 week old mice were immunized intranasally (i.n). with 32 HAU of Sendai virus mixed with 125 μg of the CE ppt. The controlled group received only water. Three weeks post immunization both groups of mice were infected with 64 HAU of the naïve virus alone. The mice were weighed every 2-3 days over a period of 40 days. As FIG. 14 c shows, the immunized mice were not affected by the subsequent virus infection and kept gaining weight (P=0.013). [0122] Similarly, two groups of mice were immunized 3 times by the Sendai virus mixed with the CE ppt inhibitor via two different routes of administration: oral and subcutaneously (s.c) as shown in FIG. 14 d . Two weeks after the third administration of the virus plus the CE ppt, the mice of both groups were infected with 80 HAU of the naïve virus, as were the mice of the control group. The immunized mice were not affected by the subsequent virus infection and continued gaining weight. Basically, no difference was observed between the mice to which the virus plus the CE ppt were administered orally or the mice which were administered s.c (P=<0.001). EXAMPLE 13 Inhibition of HIV-1 [0123] HIV-1 activity was tested on MT2 cells (CD4+ T-cells) using the model of syncytia formation in cell culture. 20-120 μl aliquots of the VNF (CEppt) fraction, 0.5 mg/ml, were incubated with 50 μl virus for 5 minutes in a final volume of 200 μl RPMI medium at room temperature. 90 μl of each mixture were added onto the cells in duplicates. After 3 days of incubation at 37° C. in a 5% CO 2 humidified incubator, the infectivity was determined by monitoring syncytia formation. [0124] Syncytia were observed in 95-100% of the control wells without CEppt and served as the 100% infectivity to which other wells were compared. As shown in FIGS. 15A and B, 8-10 μg of CEppt in 8-10 μl was sufficient to neutralize the virus completely. EXAMPLE 14 Inhibition of Avian Influenza H9N2 by VNF (CE ppt) [0125] The inhibition of avian influenza H9N2 by VNF was tested by the in vitro Hemolysis Assay as done previously (Borkow and Ovadia, 1994, 1999). The hemolytic activity of the influenza virus (release of hemoglobin from red blood cells) was examined on human erythrocytes as follows: Human blood was obtained from the Blood Bank and was used fresh. Prior to use, erythrocytes were washed 5 times with Phosphate Buffered Saline (PBS), pH 7 and diluted to a concentration of 4%, with the same buffer. The washed diluted erythrocytes were mixed with the virus alone or with a virus preincubated with the Viral Neutralizing Fraction (VNF) for 20 minutes at room temperature. After the attachment, excess virus was removed by washing with PBS before adding 200 μl of 0.1 M sodium citrate buffer at pH 4.6 for three min., in order to achieve fusion of the virus with the erythrocytes. The mixture was then washed in PBS, centrifuged and incubated in 0.8 ml PBS at 37° C. for 3 hours. Intact erythrocytes were removed by centriftigation and 300 μl aliquot was withdrawn from the supernatant of each sample into wells of an ELISA plate for measurement of the absorbance in an ELISA plate reader at 540 nm. Release of hemoglobin into the measured supernatant indicates viral hemolytic activity. [0126] As FIG. 16 shows, the hemolytic activity of the virus was neutralized by the VNF (CEppt) in a dose dependent manner. EXAMPLE 15 Inhibition of Preabsorbed Avian Influenza H9N2 by VNF (CEppt) [0127] Influenza H9N2 virus was absorbed onto human erythrocytes at room temperature before application of VNF (CEppt) on the infected cells. The cells were then incubated at 37° C. and the hemolytic activity was determined as described in a previous figure. As FIG. 17 shows, CEppt inhibited the hemolytic activity of the avian influenza virus after it was attached on the infected cells as it did to the free virus. EXAMPLE 16 Inhibition of NDV Hemagglutinating Activity by VNF [0128] Hemagglutinating activity of the Newcastle Disease virus (NDV) was tested by mixing a drop of chicken blood with a drop of the virus suspended in PBS on a microscope slide (left side of the picture). As shown in FIG. 18 , right hand-side picture, preincubation of the virus (10 8 EID 50 ) with 10 mg of VNF (CEppt) resulted in Hemagglutination Inhibition. No such HI was observed in the absence of the NVF (left hand-side picture). EXAMPLE 17 In-vivo (In-ova) Neutralization of Avian Influenza H9N2 by VNF [0129] One ml containing 4.5 mg of VNF (CEppt) and 10 7 EID 50 of influenza H9N2 were incubated for 20 minutes at room temperature before preparing 10 fold dilutions from this mixture. 0.1 ml of each dilution was injected into each allantoic cavity of 10 embryonated chicken SPF eggs, 11 days old. Same dilutions of the virus alone or VNF alone were used as controls (10 eggs in each group). The eggs were observed during the following week for vitality and viral hemagglutinating activity. As FIGS. 19A and B demonstrate, VNF decreased the viral infectivity by 5 logs ( FIG. 15B ) and increased the survival of the embryos at the similar rate ( FIG. 19A ). EXAMPLE 18 In-vivo Neutralization of Newcastle Disease Virus by VNF [0130] This experiment is similar to the previous one carried out with the avian influenza H9N2. One ml containing 5 mg of VNF (CEppt) and 10 8 EID 50 of Newcastle Disease Virus were incubated for 20 minutes at room temperature before preparing 10 fold dilutions from this mixture. 0.1 ml of each dilution was injected into each allantoic cavity of 10 chicken SPF eggs (11 days old). Same dilutions of the virus alone or VNF alone were used as controls (10 eggs in each group). The eggs were observed during the following week for vitality and viral hemagglutinating activity. As FIGS. 20A and B demonstrate, VNF decreased the viral infectivity by 5 logs and increased the survival of the embryos at the similar rate. EXAMPLE 19 Development of Filters for Decreasing Influenza Activity [0131] 0.5 ml containing 2.5 mg of VNF (CEppt) were absorbed onto 250 mg of each three filtering materials (names on the graph) and dried overnight at room temperature. 1 ml of human influenza H1N1 virus containing 1280 HAU was filtered through each one, and the passing fluid was tested for hemolytic activity on washed human erythrocytes as described above. As FIG. 21 demonstrates, the lab filter paper absorbed with the CEppt was most efficient in absorbing the VNF and reduced the hemolytic activity of the filtered virus significantly. EXAMPLE 20 Serum Titer of Chicks Following Vaccination with NDV+CEppt [0132] Two different approaches of vaccination were used: Vaccination in-ovo was compared with the customary intraocular vaccination of 1-2 day old chicks. In-ovo vaccination of the first group was carried out by injecting 0.1 ml of PBS containing 10 5.3 EID 50 of NDV preincubated with 1 mg of VNF into SPF chicken eggs at day 18 of the embryonic development. Second group was vaccinated 1-2 days after hatching by dripping the same dose into the eyes of the chicks (the customaryintraocular vaccination). Non-vaccinated chicks were used as controls. Blood samples were withdrawn from each chick at days 7, 14, 24 post-vaccination and the serum titer was determined by hemagglutination inhibition assay of serial dilutions of each serum. [0133] The serum titer after in-ovo vaccination was as good as the tedious customary intraocular vaccination of 1-2 day old chicks. In-ovo vaccination was much more comfortable and safe. TABLE Serum titer of chicks following vaccination with NDV + CEppt Average Serum Titer (Hemagglutination Inhibition) Group Day 7 Day 17 Day 24 in-ovo (D18) 7.6 ± 0.5 9.2 ± 0.8 9.0 ± 0.1 NDV + CEppt intraocular 4.0 ± 1.0 8.1 ± 1.0 8.7 ± 0.7 (D2) NDV only non-vaccinated 2.0 ± 0.1 1.9 ± 0.2 3.1 ± 0.2± List of References: [0134] American Lung Association, Jan. 8, 2002. Flu and Cold: Statistics. [0135] Hernandez et al., (2004). Influence of two plant extracts on broilers performance, digestibility, and digestive organ size, Poult. Sci ., 83(2):169-74. [0136] Kalemba and Kunicka, (2003). Antibacterial and antifungal properties of essential oils, Curr. Med. Chem ., 10(10):813-29. [0137] Khan et al, (2003). Cinnamon improves glucose and lipids of people with type 2 diabetes, Diabetes Care , 26:3215-3218. [0138] Lay nd Roy, (2004). Antimicrobial and chemo-preventive properties of herbs and spices, Curr. Med. Chem ., 11(11):1451-60. [0139] Mau, J. L., et al., (2001). Antimicrobial effect of extracts from Chineese Chive, Cinnamon, and Corni fructus. J. Agric. Food Chem . 49:183-188. [0140] Murcia et al, (2004). Antioxidant evaluation in dessert spices compared with common food additives, influence of irradiation procedure, J. Agric. Food Chem ., 52:1872-1881. [0141] Qin et al., (2004),. Cinnamon extract prevents the insulin resistance induced by a high fructose diet, Horm. Metab. Res ., 35:119-125. [0142] Singh, H. B. et al., (1995), cinnamon bark oil, a potent fungitoxicant against fungi causing respiratory tract mycoses. Allergy, 50(12): 995-999. [0143] Steinhaur, D. A., Wharton, S. A., Skehel, J. J., Wiley, D. C. and Hay, A. J. (1991). Amantadine selection of a mutant influenza virus containing an acid stable hemagglutinin glycoprotein: evidence for virus specific regulation of the pH of glycoprotein transport vesicles. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 88: 11525-11529. [0144] Tabak, M. et al., (1999). Cinnamon extracts' inhibitory effect on Helicobacter pylori, J. Ethnopharmacol . 67:269-277. [0145] Usta et al., (2003). Comparative study on the effect of cinnamon and clove extracts and their main components on different types of ATPases, Hum. Exp. Toxicol ., 22(7):355-62. [0146] Valero and Salmeron, (2003). Antibacterial activity of 11 essential oils against Bacillus cereus , in tyndallized carrot broth. Intl. J. of Food Microbiology , 85: 73-81. [0147] Velluti et al., (2004). Impact of essential oils on growth rate, zearalenone and deoxynivalenol production by Fusarium graminearum under different temperature and water activity conditions in maize grain, J. of Applied Microbiology , 96: 716-724.) [0148] Velluti et al., (2003). Inhibitory effect of cinnamon, clove, lemongrass, oregano and palmarose essential oils on growth and fumonisin B1 production by Fusarium proliferatum in maize grain. Intl. J. of Food Microbiology , 89:145-154. [0149] W.H.O. Influenza, Fact Sheet No. 211, March 2003. [0150] W.H.O. Global Influenza Programme, Note for the Press No. 22, September 2003. [0151] W.H.O. Avian influenza, January 2004. [0152] W.H.O. H5N1 avian influenza: a chronology of key events, February 2004. [0153] W.H.O. Avian influenza A (H7) human infections in Canada, April 2004. [0154] W.H.O. Working Group Three: Antivirals—their use and availability, April 2004. [0155] W.H.O. Assessment of risk to human health associated with outbreaks of highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza in poultry, May 2004. [0156] Yamasaki et al., (1998), anti-HIV-1 activity of herbs in Labiatae. Biol. Pharm. Bull ., 21:829-8339. [0157] Borkow et al., (1994), Echinibin-1—an inhibitor of Sendai virus isolated from the venom of the snake Echis coloratus. Antiviral Research 23:161-76. [0158] Borkow et al., (1999), Selective lysis of virus infected cells by cobra snake cytotoxins. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communication, 264:63-8.

The present application provides a natural aqueous extract obtainable from a cinnamon bark ( Cinnamon sp.) which has antiviral activity against enveloped viruses including influenza A, Parainfluenza (Sendai) virus and HSV-1 viruses, as well as in vivo activity in inhibition of Influenza A and Parainfluenza viruses. The present application also concerns a method for the extraction of said cinnamon extract and applications thereof.

APPLICATION PRIORITY [0001] This patent application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/456,085, filed Jun. 6, 2003, entitled “Systems and Methods Providing Hands Free Water Faucet Control”, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/461,922, filed Apr. 10, 2003, entitled “Systems and Methods Providing Hands Free Water Faucet Control”, and the specifications and claims thereof are hereby incorporated by reference. TECHNICAL FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0002] The field of the present invention generally relates to systems and methods for controlling and regulating water flow and temperature mix using “hands free” devices in conjunction with conventional water faucets. The present invention more particularly relates to the integration of an adjustable foot operated device with conventional hand operated water faucets. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0003] Traditional sinks and basins typically are equipped with “hand operated” faucets to provide a means of controlling flow rate and temperature mix of water used in a vast number of situations and applications. Flow rate and temperature mix adjustments require the use of the user's hands to manipulate faucet valves, or other mechanisms such as levers, or joysticks to control any desired output settings. In the use of conventional hand operated faucets, the single user must free, at minimum, one hand in order to manipulate the faucet control mechanism. This conventional use restricts the single user, in certain situations, full use of both hands to perform secondary operations while simultaneously controlling the faucet output. [0004] In applications that require full use of both hands, the single user is subject to an initial presetting of the faucet output controls to the desired setting. Meanwhile, during the adjustment phase, water is flowing continuously and for a period while the user prepares and engages in the secondary operation. For example, in initial conditions where both hands are contaminated and is undesirable to spread the contamination to the faucet controls, the single user must rely on secondary measures to manipulate conventional faucet valves and mechanisms to initiate the desired output. Similarly, in post conditions where both hands have been thoroughly scrubbed and free of contamination and is undesirable to contract any contamination by direct hand contact with the faucet controls, the single user must rely on secondary measures to shut off the faucet output. [0005] For the examples cited above, along with a vast number of similar applications, there is an increased interest in a “hands free” faucet control system. Currently, a number of “hands free” devices exist that are capable of being configured in-line or in series with existing supply lines to conventional faucets. Typically, “hands free” devices feature remote mechanical or electrical linkage control of activating the supply lines to conventional faucets. Some known methods of activation of “hands free” devices include direct foot pressure; body leaning against a plate or bar; use of proximity electronic sensor; voice activation system; and timer devices. [0006] The common control feature of known activation methods, however, is their dependence on a fixed preset condition of the conventional faucet for the delivery of the desired flow rate and temperature mix. As a result, the user must initially configure a conventional faucet to a predetermined flow rate and temperature mix setting, then assert the “hands free” activation device to deliver the output. Any adjustments to the flow rate and temperature mix, before or during operation, are manual and require use of hands to manipulate the conventional faucet controls, as before. [0007] The inconvenience of setting flow rates and temperature mixes prior, during, and possibly after an operation increase when requirements of an operation demand sequentially setting of different rates and mixes. Further complications arise when two or more users have access to the same delivery system and an individual assumes the status of the systems' presets to be in accordance to their particular setting. An incorrect assumption, on the part of an individual on the present state of that system, may result in personnel or product safety issues. Furthermore, waste of clean water during the normal set-up of the initial conditions, plus the energy expended in the heating and possible conditioning of the water should also be a concern. Furthermore, the waste of clean water and energy resources only increases in a multi-user scenario. [0008] What is needed are effective means or methods to resolve the problem explained above so that a single user of a conventional faucet can readily configure a system to deliver a desired variable water rate and temperature mix via normal conventional “hand operated” controls and/or via a remote “hands free” control device. In conjunction with the selection of either mode of operation, the present state of the system output controls are always visible and accessible by the user throughout system operation. The present inventor has recognized that it would be advantageous to remedy the foregoing and other deficiencies in the prior art, and to facilitate the operation and production of a “hands free” control device by introducing and conforming to standard known methods and features used in existing water valves systems. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0009] The following summary of the invention is provided to facilitate an understanding of some of the innovative features unique to the present invention, and is not intended to be a full description. In accordance with one aspect of the invention, the recess or cavity for the installation of the mixing ball valve is in a fixed chamber component of the remote device and attached to the enclosure of the “hands free” device. The heart of the adjustment feature of the “hands free” control mechanism is the relationship and operation of the mixing ball valve with respect to a fixed chamber body. The mixing ball valve rotates in relation to the fixed body of the chamber and pivots about a keyed slot on the mixing ball valve and limited in rotation by a corresponding fixed orientation pin within the cavity of the chamber. [0010] Flow rate and temperature mixture is a function of the orientation of delivery and exit ports of the mixing ball valve relative to the chamber ports. Preferably, the “hands free” device employs a mixing ball valve of the open type, offering lateral delivery ports. That component in which the orientation for the mixing ball valve is predetermined features a peripheral area into which the delivery ports of the mixing ball valve and the exit ports of the chamber body communicate directly with an internal passage of the output channel. [0011] In accordance with a feature of the present, the flow of water in the operational mode is via standard plumbing interconnections. Using standard interconnections, cold and hot water supplies enter the mixing ball valve via the internal passages and ports within the chamber body and enter the ball valve via entrance ports on the ball valve, directly. To facilitate control and regulation of the rotating mixing ball valve, an extension to a fixed lever attached to the ball valve extends to the user in the form of a foot pedal. Delivery of the output mixture exits the mixing ball valve via an output port and through a corresponding internal passage within the chamber body. The chamber output channel features standard plumbing connections that interface to existing plumbing fixtures connecting the conventional faucet that presents the output mixture. [0012] In accordance with yet another feature of the present invention, the “hands free” device features a “BYPASS” state, which places the mixing ball valve's orientation in the maximum flow rate of hot water, only. Since the output channel of the chamber body assembly and mixing ball valve is in an in-line supply or series arrangement with the conventional faucet's corresponding “hot water” control valve, assertion of the “hands free” device in the “BYPASS” state provides a single source of supply of hot water to the conventional faucet. The cold water is in a constant supply or parallel arrangement to both the “cold water” input channel of the chamber body and to the conventional faucet's corresponding “cold water” control valve. The purpose of the “BYPASS” state, is to allow the user full “hand operated” control of the output via the conventional faucet control valves. [0013] In accordance with yet another feature of the present invention, to engage the “hands free” device, while in the “BYPASS” state, the user must manually adjust the conventional faucet's “hot water” valve to the desired maximum flow rate. Upon the manually setting of the desired flow rate, the user engages the “hands free” device by switching from the “BYPASS” state to any of the four states, “OFF”, “ON”, “HOT”, or “COLD”, by use of the foot pedal. The definition of the “OFF” state is the “hands free” device is in an operational mode and water output is shut-off. Similarly, in the “ON”, “HOT”, and “COLD” variable states, the “hands free” device is an operational mode and by use of the foot pedal, the user may vary the flow rate and temperature mix, accordingly. [0014] Also in accordance with addressing the limitations of the prior art, presented are new and improved methods of asserting and controlling the “hands free” device to regulate the flow rate and temperature mix. The present invention features a systematic and a straightforward approach to presetting the “hands free” device that are both ergonomic and economic. In addition to the benefits of the convenience of the “hands free” feature of the device, the ease of operation and cost of ownership are prime factors in the solution of reducing the waste of clean water and associated energy resources. [0015] In a preferred embodiment, a hands free system provides user control and regulation of water flow and temperature mix using “foot actuated” devices. The hands free system is preferably adaptable to pre-existing water faucets and conventional plumbing, enabling full integration of an adjustable foot operated device with conventional hand operated water faucets. The hand free water system can include a control state module for providing a user with BYPASS, ON, OFF, HOT and COLD modes of operation. Hardware can include a sealed chamber body adapted for containing a mixing ball valve and having chamber ports further serving as internal passages to channels adapted to said sealed chamber body for connection to water line tubing. The mixing ball can include delivery and exit ports through which water can enter and exit and is adapted for rotation in relation to the fixed chamber body for selective alignment with said chamber ports. A foot controllable actuator in operational connection with said mixing ball valve, wherein rotation of said mixing ball valve with said foot controllable actuator offer user over control water flow rate and temperature. Other aspects and features of the present invention will be appreciated by those skilled in the art after full review of the detailed descriptions, associated drawings, and the appended claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0016] The accompanying figures, in which like reference numerals refer to identical or functionally similar elements throughout the separate views and incorporation within and from part of the specification, further illustrate the present invention and, together with the detailed description of the invention, serve to explain the principles of the present invention. [0017] FIG. 1A illustrates an exemplary external view of a form of embodiment of a “two valve” conventional faucet configured with service shut-off valves, in accordance with prior art; [0018] FIG. 1B illustrates a schematic representation of an interconnection of a “two valve” conventional faucet with service shut-off valves, in accordance with prior art; [0019] FIG. 1C illustrates an exemplary external view of a form of embodiment of a “single lever” conventional faucet configured with service shut-off valves, in accordance with prior art; [0020] FIG. 1D illustrates a schematic representation of an interconnection of a “single lever” conventional faucet with service shut-off valves, in accordance with prior art; [0021] FIG. 2 illustrates an exemplary sectional view of a “single lever” conventional faucet, in accordance with prior art; [0022] FIG. 3 illustrates an exemplary exploded view of a “single lever” conventional faucet, in accordance with prior art; [0023] FIG. 4A illustrates an exemplary external view of a form of embodiment of a typical cabinet top installation of a “single lever” conventional faucet configured with service shut-off valves and a typical counter base installation of a “hands free” device, in accordance with prior art; [0024] FIG. 4B illustrates a schematic representation of an interconnection of a “single lever” conventional faucet with service shut-off valves and a “hands free” device, in accordance with prior art; [0025] FIG. 5A illustrates an exemplary external view of a form of embodiment of a typical cabinet top installation of a “single lever” conventional faucet configured with service shut-off valves and a typical cabinet base mount of the “hands free” device, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; [0026] FIG. 5B illustrates a schematic representation of an interconnection of a “single lever” conventional faucet with service shut-off valves and the “hands free” device, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; [0027] FIG. 6A illustrates an exemplary external view of a form of embodiment of a typical atop cabinet base mount of the “hands free” device, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; [0028] FIG. 6B illustrates an exemplary external view of a form of embodiment of a typical under cabinet base mount of the “hands free” device, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; [0029] FIG. 7A illustrates a front view of a faceplate of the “hands free” device illustrating a profile of the foot pedal in the “BYPASS” state position, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; [0030] FIG. 7B illustrates a schematic representation of an interconnection of a “single lever” conventional faucet with service shut-off valves and the “hands free” device and further illustrating the presence and logical flow of water in the “BYPASS” state, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; [0031] FIG. 8A illustrates a front view of a faceplate of the “hands free” device illustrating a profile of the foot pedal in the “OFF” state position, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; [0032] FIG. 8B illustrates a schematic representation of an interconnection of a “single lever” conventional faucet with service shut-off valves and the “hands free” device and further illustrating the presence and logical flow of water in the “OFF” state, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; [0033] FIG. 9A illustrates a front view of a faceplate of the “hands free” device illustrating a profile of the foot pedal in the “HOT” state position, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; [0034] FIG. 9B illustrates a schematic representation of an interconnection of a “single lever” conventional faucet with service shut-off valves and the “hands free” device and further illustrating the presence and logical flow of water in the “HOT” state, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; [0035] FIG. 10A illustrates a front view of a faceplate of the “hands free” device illustrating a profile of the foot pedal in the “COLD” state position, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; [0036] FIG. 10B illustrates a schematic representation of an interconnection of a “single lever” conventional faucet with service shut-off valves and the “hands free” device and further illustrating the presence and logical flow of water in the “COLD” state, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; [0037] FIG. 11A illustrates a front view of a faceplate of the “hands free” device illustrating a profile of the foot pedal in the “ON” state position, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; [0038] FIG. 11B illustrates a schematic representation of an interconnection of a “single lever” conventional faucet with service shut-off valves and the “hands free” device and further illustrating the presence and logical flow of water in the “ON” state, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; [0039] FIG. 12A is an exemplary sectional side view of a “hands free” device in the “OFF” state position and further illustrating a bottom spring loading of a mechanical reset feature, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; [0040] FIG. 12B is an exemplary sectional side view of a mixing ball valve in the “COLD” state position and further illustrating deflection limits of a bottom spring mechanical reset feature, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; [0041] FIG. 12C is an exemplary sectional side view of a mixing ball valve in the “HOT” state position and further illustrating deflection limits of a bottom spring mechanical reset feature, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; [0042] FIG. 13 illustrates an exemplary exploded view of a “hands free” device further illustrating feature capability of adapting foot pedal styles, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; [0043] FIG. 14A is an exemplary sectional side view of a “hands free” device in the “OFF” state position and further illustrating a top spring loading of a mechanical reset feature, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; [0044] FIG. 14B is an exemplary sectional side view of a mixing ball valve in the “COLD” state position and further illustrating deflection limits of a top spring mechanical reset feature, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; [0045] FIG. 14C is an exemplary sectional front view of a mixing ball valve in the “COLD” state position and further illustrating deflection limits of a top spring mechanical reset feature, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; [0046] FIG. 14D is an exemplary sectional front view of a mixing ball valve in the “OFF” state position and further illustrating deflection limits of a top spring mechanical reset feature, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; [0047] FIG. 14E illustrates a front view of a faceplate of the “hands free” device illustrating a profile of the foot pedal in the “OFF” state position as reset by a top spring, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; [0048] FIG. 15A is an exemplary sectional side view of a “hands free” device in the “OFF” state position and further illustrating a top spring loading of a mechanical reset feature and a foot pedal mechanism, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; [0049] FIG. 15B is an exemplary sectional side view of a “hands free” device in the “ON” state position and further illustrating deflection of a top spring loading of a mechanical reset feature and a foot pedal mechanism, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; [0050] FIG. 16A illustrates a front view of a faceplate of the “hands free” device illustrating and of the foot pedal in the “OFF” state position as reset by a top spring, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; [0051] FIG. 16B illustrates a front view of a faceplate of the “hands free” device illustrating and of the foot pedal in the “ON” state position, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; and [0052] FIG. 17 illustrates a block diagram of a system that can be used to carry out the methods of configuring the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0053] The novel features of the present invention will become apparent to those of skill in the art upon examination of the following detailed description of the invention or can be learned by practice of the present invention. One must understand, however, that the detailed description of the invention and the specific examples presented, while indicating certain embodiments of the present invention, are provided for illustration purposes, only. Due to various changes and modifications within the scope of the invention, the intent of the invention will become apparent to those of skill in the art from the detailed description of the invention and claims that follow. [0054] Use of “hands free” devices in conjunction with conventional faucets of all types has proven to be very useful and effective in a vast number of applications, but existing devices do not offer a readily configurable system that can deliver a desired variable water rate and temperature mix via a remote “hands free” control device. Another issue in the implementation of existing “hands free” devices resides in the difficulty of the user to determine the present state of the system control settings without inconveniencing the user and exposing the user to possible hazardous conditions. The present invention alleviates these deficiencies in the manner of introducing new and improved methods of asserting and controlling the “hands free” device to regulate the flow rate and temperature mix. Coupled with conforming to standard known methods and features used in existing water valve systems plus the introduction of a systematic and a straightforward approach to presetting the “hands free” device, the benefits of the present invention pose a positive ergonomic effect. In addition to the benefits of convenience and the ease of use of the present invention, the economic benefits in the savings of reducing the waste of clean water and associated energy resources are positive and practical considerations in the use of this device. [0055] FIGS. 1A through 4B (all identified as prior art) provide a general background and as benchmarks in the evolutionary improvements of flow rate control and regulation methods and mechanisms leading to the innovation of the present invention. Each graphical illustration in this series depicts an exemplary external view of a form of embodiment of conventional systems and each subsequent Figure represents the functional details, schematically. [0056] Referring to FIG. 1A , a graphical illustration depicts a basic “two valve” conventional faucet 100 configured with service shut-off valves 114 and 115 . A basic “two valve” conventional faucet 100 has a fixed base 101 on which is mounted a mixing chamber 102 which forms a delivery spout 103 and output port 104 . Mixing chamber 102 can be in the form of a rotating or a fixed component in relation to the fixed base 101 . A manual control “hot water” knob 106 and “cold water” knob 107 correspond with internal valves (not shown) and passages (not shown) integral to the fixed base 101 . Control knobs 106 and 107 provide the user “hand operated” or manual control of the flow rate of hot and cold water to the mixing chamber 102 . Rotation in either direction 105 about the axis of each of the control knobs 106 and 107 provides a basic form of regulation of the variable flow rate and the mixing ratio between hot and cold water. Predetermined stop limits for a CLOSED state and an OPEN state are integral functions of these internal valves (not shown). Also, integral to the internal valves, are a fixed “hot water” line 108 and “cold water” line 109 that serve as input ports to their respective valves (not shown). Fixed water lines 108 and 109 interconnect with sources of HOT and COLD water. In the basic configuration shown in FIG. 1A , fixed “hot water” line 108 interconnects with the HOT water supply via standard plumbing components consisting of couplers 110 , water line 112 , and “hot water” service shut-off valve 114 . Similarly, fixed “cold water” line 109 interconnects with the COLD water supply via plumbing components consisting of couplers 111 , water line 113 , and “cold water” service shut-off valve 115 . In normal operational configurations, service shut-off valves 114 and 115 are set to an OPEN state by adjustment of control knobs 116 and 117 . [0057] Referring to FIG. 1B , a graphical illustration depicts a schematic representation 120 of the basic “two valve” conventional faucet 100 and service shut-off valves 114 and 115 configuration, as graphically illustrated in FIG. 1A . In this basic configuration, the logical path of hot water flow begins with the presentation of hot water from the HOT water source to the input port of the “hot water” shut-off valve 114 . The output port of the “hot water” shut-off valve 114 , in turn, connects with the input port of the “hot water” valve 126 of the “two valve” conventional faucet 100 and presents the hot water to the OUT port 123 . In a similar series arrangement, the logical path of cold-water flow begins at the COLD water source; through the “cold water” shut-off valve 115 ; through the “cold water” valve 127 ; and outputs at the OUT port 123 . The schematic representation 120 illustrates the independent regulation control of each of the valves 126 and 127 , and the mixing component as convergence of outputs at OUT 123 . A deficiency of this independent control scheme becomes evident with an operation that requires simultaneous adjustment of both valves 126 and 127 . For these situations, the single user must use both hands to manipulate the two valves 126 and 127 . To alleviate the deficiency of the independent control of the “two valve” conventional faucet 100 , use of a design of a “single lever” conventional valve 150 , as illustrated in FIG. 1C , is considered. [0058] Referring to FIG. 1C , a graphical illustration depicts a basic “single lever” conventional faucet 150 configured with service shut-off valves 114 and 115 . In principle, the functions of a basic “two valve” conventional faucet 100 and a “single lever” conventional faucet 150 are similar. Common to both faucets 100 and 150 are that a “single lever” conventional faucet 150 has a fixed base 151 on which is mounted a chamber body 152 which forms a delivery spout 153 and output port 154 . Likewise, the chamber body 152 can be in the form of a rotating or a fixed component in relation to the fixed base 151 . However, a manual control lever 155 corresponds with a single internal valve (not shown) and passages (not shown) integral to the fixed base 151 . Control lever 155 provides the user manual or “hand operated” and simultaneous control of the flow rate of hot and cold water to the chamber body 152 . Rotation in either direction 157 about the axis of the chamber body 152 provides the regulation of the mixing ratio between hot and cold water and the vertical deflection 158 adjusts the variable flow rate. Predetermined stop limits for a CLOSED state and an OPEN state are integral functions of internal valve elements (not shown). Also, integral to the internal valves, are a fixed “hot water” line 108 and “cold water” line 109 that serve as input ports to their respective valve elements (not shown). Configuration and interconnection of the “single lever” conventional faucet 150 to HOT and COLD water sources is identical to that of the “two valve” conventional faucet 100 . [0059] Referring to FIG. 1D , a graphical illustration depicts a schematic representation 170 of the basic “single lever” conventional faucet 150 and service shut-off valves 114 and 115 configuration. In this basic configuration, the logical paths of hot and cold water flow are identical to the serial arrangement of components of the “two valve” conventional faucet 100 , shown in FIG. 1B Main difference between the two configurations 120 and 170 is the function of the linkage 179 between the “hot water” valve element 176 regulating the flow rate and temperature mix OUT 173 versus the “cold water” valve element 177 within the “single lever” conventional faucet 150 . Although, the schematic representation 170 , as shown in FIG. 1D , symbolically illustrates linkage between two independent valve elements 176 and 177 , the physical realization is a single mixing ball valve 220 , as shown in FIG. 2 . [0060] Referring to FIG. 2 , a graphical illustration depicts an exemplary sectional view of a “single lever” conventional faucet 150 housed in fixed base 151 . The “single lever” conventional faucet 150 employs a mixing ball valve 220 of the open type, offering lateral “hot water” inlet 221 and a “cold water” 222 that communicate directly with internal passages 230 and 232 , respectively. The delivery outlet 223 of mixing ball valve 220 communicates directly with an output passage 208 of the delivery spout 153 and outputs via the port 154 . Chamber body 152 covers and retains cam assembly 215 that guides ball valve stem 210 and maintains a water seal about mixing ball valve 220 . Alignment of mixing ball stem is in relation to slot 225 that pivots about a fixed pin (not shown) within the chamber body 152 and allows restricted rotation of the mixing ball valve 220 . Orientation of faucet control handle 155 is in relation to the alignment of internal drive components of the mixing ball valve 220 and chamber body 152 . External input port for “hot water” 108 and “cold water” 109 interconnect directly with internal passages 230 and 232 . Within the internal passages 230 and 232 , are recessed “hot water” seal assembly 237 and “cold water” seal assembly 238 that form a water seal about the mixing ball valve 220 . [0061] Referring to FIG. 3 , a graphical illustration depicts an exemplary exploded view of the critical components of a “single lever” conventional faucet 150 . The escutcheon 151 a , portion of the fixed base 151 described in FIG. 2 , forms the platform for securing the chamber body cover 152 a unto the main chamber body 152 b . The main chamber body has a chamber cavity 333 intended to receive the hot and cold water seal assemblies 237 and 238 , respectively. Seat 237 a and spring 237 b form the “hot water” seal assembly 237 and seat 238 a and spring 238 b form the “cold water” seal assembly and are installed within the two recessed ports (not shown) within chamber cavity 333 . Chamber cavity 333 also receives and aligns mixing ball valve 220 via slot 225 and fixed pin (not shown) within chamber cavity 333 . The alignment sets orientation of mixing ball stem 210 with control handle 155 . Cam assembly 215 consisting of an o-ring seal 215 a , a cam 215 b , and a cam bushing 215 c provide a guide for the mixing ball valve stem 210 in combination with forming a water seal for the mixing ball valve 220 . Hot and cold water deliveries to the main chamber body 152 b are through external ports 108 and 109 . Output passage 208 delivers resultant water flow and temperature mix to faucet spout 153 and outputs via the port 154 . [0062] Referring to FIG. 4A , a graphical illustration depicts a basic installation of a “single lever” conventional faucet 150 configured with “hands free” faucet control system 420 and service shut-off valves 114 and 115 . The top horizontal plane 402 represents a cabinet countertop support plane of a “single lever” conventional faucet 150 . The bottom horizontal plane 403 represents a cabinet base support plane of a “hands free” faucet control system 420 . Vertical plane 401 represents a back support plane for the cabinet and plane 404 represents a front surface plane of a baseboard. Interconnection of a “single lever” conventional faucet 150 to the “hands free” faucet control system 420 is in a logical series configuration with the HOT and COLD water supplies. A basic “hands free” faucet control system 420 has a fixed base 423 on which is mounted a valve actuator 421 . Vertical deflection 427 of the combination foot pedal 429 and linkage assembly 425 provides a basic form of foot control for engaging and disengaging the valve actuator 421 . Downward deflection of the foot pedal 429 activates separate hot and cold water valves (not shown), internal to valve actuator 421 , from normally CLOSED state to an OPEN state. Fixed water lines 108 and 109 interconnect via couplers 460 and 461 with “hands free” faucet control's output lines 462 and 463 , respectively. In the configuration shown in FIG. 4A , “hot water” input of “hands free” faucet control interconnects with the HOT water supply via water line 112 , and “hot water” service shut-off valve 114 . Similarly, “cold water” input of “hands free faucet control interconnects with the COLD water supply via water line 113 , and “cold water” service shut-off valve 115 . [0063] Referring to FIG. 4B , a graphical illustration depicts a schematic representation 470 of the “hands free” faucet control 420 configured with a basic “single lever” conventional faucet 150 and service shut-off valves 114 and 115 . The variable linkage 179 between the “hot water” valve element 176 and the “cold water” valve element 177 regulate the flow rate and temperature mix of the water OUT 173 . The “hands free” faucet control 420 is depicted with fixed linkage 489 between two independent valves 486 and 487 that are activated simultaneously, as described above, and at the same flow rate. [0064] Referring to FIG. 5A , a graphical illustration depicts a basic installation of a “single lever” conventional faucet 150 configured with “hands free” faucet control system 520 and service shut-off valves 114 and 115 in accordance with features of the present invention. The top horizontal plane 502 represents a cabinet countertop support plane of a “single lever” conventional faucet 150 . The bottom horizontal plane 503 represents a cabinet base support plane of a “hands free” faucet control system 520 . Vertical plane 501 represents a back support plane for the cabinet and plane 504 represents a front surface plane of a typical baseboard. Interconnection of a “single lever” conventional faucet 150 to the “hands free” faucet control system 520 is in a logical parallel and series configuration with the HOT and COLD water supplies. A basic “hands free” faucet control system 520 has a fixed base 523 on which is mounted a valve actuator 521 . Vertical deflection 527 z and horizontal deflection 527 x of foot pedal assembly 529 provides a basic form of foot control for engaging and disengaging the valve actuator 521 . Deflections of the foot pedal 529 controls the variable flow rate and temperature mix of both HOT and COLD water via a single internal valve (not shown). Fixed “hot water” line 108 interconnects via coupler 560 with “hands free” faucet control's output line 562 . HOT water input connection 112 interconnects with the “hot water” input of “hands free” faucet control 520 . Fixed “cold water” line 109 interconnects via coupler 561 to pipe segment. COLD water input line 113 is divided via “tee connector” 591 in a parallel arrangement via external connections 563 a and 563 b to conventional faucet 150 and hands free faucet control 520 , respectively. [0065] In operation, reference being made to FIG. 5B , a graphical illustration depicts a schematic representation 570 of the “hands free” faucet control 520 configured with a basic “single lever” conventional faucet 150 and service shut-off valves 114 and 115 . Logical path of HOT water flow is the series arrangement of “shut-off” valve 114 ; “hot water” valve element 586 of hands free faucet control 520 ; and “hot water” valve element 176 of the conventional “single lever” faucet 150 . Logical path of COLD water flow is the combination series and parallel arrangement of the “shut-off” valve 115 ; “tee” fitting 591 ; “cold water” valve element 587 of hands free faucet control 520 ; and “cold water” valve element 177 of the conventional “single lever” faucet 150 . The variable linkage 179 between the “hot water” valve element 176 and the “cold water” valve element 177 regulate the flow rate and temperature mix of the water OUT 173 . The “hands free” faucet control 520 is depicted with variable linkage 589 between two independent valve elements 586 and 587 that are capable of being activated simultaneously and regulate flow rates and temperature mix as described with the “hands free” faucet concept. [0066] Referring to FIG. 6A , a graphical illustration depicts a basic installation of a “hands free” faucet 520 with base 523 secured to the top side of surface 603 of platform 604 . A plurality of accessories and foot pedals can be provided to interchange with the foot pedal 529 and adjust the foot pedal position in accordance to platform height H 640 and allows deflection of foot pedal 529 in the horizontal and vertical directions 527 x and 527 z . Adjustment and position of foot pedal 529 is critical to operational freedom of movement within valve actuator 521 operating limits in all modes of operation and within the limitation of aperture 639 . Operational mode indicators BYPASS 631 , OFF 632 , HOT 633 , COLD 634 , and ON 635 indicate the relative position of foot pedal 529 and correlates with the present operational state of the “hands free” faucet 520 . [0067] In one embodiment, FIG. 6B , an installation of a “hands free” faucet 520 with base 523 secured to the bottom surface 603 of platform 604 allowing “hands free” faucet 520 to suspend from the bottom surface 603 . A version of foot pedal 529 may be adjusted to conform to platform height H 640 and allow movement of foot pedal 529 in the horizontal and vertical directions 527 x and 527 z , as described above. [0068] In operation, reference being made to FIG. 7A , a graphical illustration depicts the front view of faceplate 700 of a “hands free” faucet 520 , FIG. 5A , with aperture 739 . Operational mode labels BYPASS 731 , OFF 732 , HOT 733 , COLD 734 , and ON 735 indicate the relative position of corresponding operational states of the “hands free” faucet 520 , FIG. 5A . FIG. 7A further illustrates the placement of the foot pedal 729 within the operational zone 731 a of the BYPASS state 731 . In the BYPASS state 731 , the “hands free” faucet 520 , FIG. 5A , is not activated and provides the user normal use of the conventional faucet 150 , FIG. 5A . [0069] In operation, reference being made to FIG. 7B , a graphical illustration depicts a schematic representation 770 of the “hands free” faucet 520 set in the BYPASS state 731 , FIG. 7A , allowing normal control of “single lever” conventional faucet 150 . Water valve elements 586 and 587 of “hands free” faucet 520 are positioned or “parked” in a fixed position by linkage 589 . Supply of HOT water is transferred via shut-off valve 114 and allowed to flow via a fixed OPEN “hot water” valve 586 and delivered via line connection 562 to “hot water” valve element 176 . Supply of COLD water is transferred via shut-off valve 115 via tee connector 591 that diverts the COLD water supply to line connections 563 a and 563 b . Line connection 563 a provides direct supply of COLD water to “cold water” valve element 177 . In the BYPASS state 731 , line connection 563 b provides direct supply of COLD water to CLOSED “cold water” valve 587 , and terminates at this junction. Desired flow rate and temperature mix is controlled by adjustment of valve elements 176 and 177 by linkage 179 and output via OUT port 173 . [0070] In operation, reference being made to FIG. 8A , a graphical illustration depicts the front view of faceplate 700 of a “hands free” faucet 520 , FIG. 5A , with aperture 739 and placement of the foot pedal 729 within the operational zone 732 a of the OFF state 732 . In the OFF state 732 , the “hands free” faucet 520 , FIG. 5A , is activated and provides the user normal use of the “hands free” faucet 520 . Initial condition of the conventional faucet 150 , FIG. 5A , must be set manually to desired flow rate of “hot water” prior to activating the “hands free” faucet 520 . [0071] In operation, reference being made to FIG. 8B , a graphical illustration depicts a schematic representation 870 of the “hands free” faucet 520 set in the OFF state 732 , FIG. 8A , engaging control of “hands free” faucet 520 . Water valve elements 586 and 587 are positioned in CLOSED states by linkage 589 . Supply of HOT water is transferred via shut-off valve 114 and presented to the CLOSED “hot water” valve 586 . Initial state of “hot water” valve element 176 is preset to the desired flow rate and outputs via OUT port 173 . Supply of COLD water is transferred via shut-off valve 115 via tee connector 591 that diverts the COLD water supply to line connections 563 a and 563 b . Line connection 563 a provides direct supply of COLD water to “cold water” valve element 177 and terminates at this junction, yet user is allowed to manually control COLD water by means of linkage 179 and cold water valve element 177 . Line connection 563 b provides direct supply of COLD water and presented to CLOSED “cold water” valve 587 . [0072] In operation, reference being made to FIG. 9A , a graphical illustration depicts the front view of faceplate 700 of a “hands free” faucet 520 , FIG. 5A , with aperture 739 and placement of the foot pedal 729 within the operational zone 733 a of the HOT state 733 . [0073] In operation, reference being made to FIG. 9B , a graphical illustration depicts a schematic representation 970 of the “hands free” faucet 520 set in the HOT state 733 , FIG. 9A , allowing normal control of the “hands free” faucet 520 with preset conditions of water valve elements 176 and 177 of “single lever” conventional faucet 150 . Desired flow rate is preset by adjustment of valve elements 176 to the OPEN state and 177 to the CLOSED state by linkage 179 . Water valve elements 586 and 587 of “hands free” faucet 520 are variably controlled by linkage 589 . Supply of HOT water is transferred via shut-off valve 114 and allowed to flow via a fixed OPEN “hot water” valve 586 and transferred via line connection 562 presented to “hot water” valve element 176 and delivered to OUT port 173 . Supply of COLD water is transferred via shut-off valve 115 via tee connector 591 that diverts the COLD water supply to line connections 563 a and 563 b . Line connection 563 a provides direct supply of COLD water to “cold water” valve element 177 . In the HOT state 731 , line connection 563 b provides direct supply of COLD water to CLOSED “cold water” valve 587 and terminates at this junction. [0074] In operation, reference being made to FIG. 10A , a graphical illustration depicts the front view of faceplate 700 of a “hands free” faucet 520 , FIG. 5A , with aperture 739 and placement of the foot pedal 729 within the operational zone 734 a of the COLD state 734 . [0075] In operation, reference being made to FIG. 10B , a graphical illustration depicts a schematic representation 1070 of the “hands free” faucet 520 set in the COLD state 734 , FIG. 10A , allowing normal control of the “hands free” faucet 520 with preset conditions of water valve elements 176 and 177 of “single lever” conventional faucet 150 . Desired flow rate is preset by adjustment of valve elements 176 to the OPEN state and 177 to the CLOSED state by linkage 179 and output via OUT port 173 . Water valve elements 586 and 587 are variably controlled by linkage 589 . Supply of HOT water is transferred via shut-off valve 114 and supplied to a fixed CLOSED “hot water” valve 586 . Supply of COLD water is transferred via shut-off valve 115 via tee connector 591 that diverts the COLD water supply to line connections 563 a and 563 b . Line connection 563 a provides direct supply of COLD water to “cold water” valve element 177 . In the COLD state 734 , FIG. 10A , line connection 563 b allows the supply of COLD water to flow through an OPEN “cold water” valve 587 and delivered to valve element 176 via line connection 562 . [0076] In operation, reference being made to FIG. 11A , a graphical illustration depicts the front view of faceplate 700 of a “hands free” faucet 520 , FIG. 5A , with aperture 739 and placement of the foot pedal 729 within the operational zone 735 a of the ON state 735 . [0077] In operation, reference being made to FIG. 11B , a graphical illustration depicts a schematic representation 1170 of the “hands free” faucet 520 set in the ON state 735 , FIG. 11A , allowing normal control of “hands free” faucet 520 . Water valve elements 586 and 587 are positioned in variable OPEN states by linkage 589 . Supply of HOT water is transferred via shut-off valve 114 and presented to the OPEN “hot water” valve 586 and is delivered to the “hot water” valve element 176 via line connection 562 . Initial state of “hot water” valve element 176 is preset to the desired flow rate and outputs via OUT port 173 . Supply of COLD water is transferred via shut-off valve 115 via tee connector 591 that diverts the COLD water supply to line connections 563 a and 563 b . Line connection 563 a provides direct supply of COLD water to “cold water” valve element 177 and terminates at this junction, yet user is allowed to manually control COLD water by means of linkage 179 and cold water valve element 177 . Line connection 563 b provides direct supply of COLD water and presented to variably OPEN “cold water” valve 587 and combined and mixed with HOT water supplied by valve element 586 . [0078] Referring to FIG. 12A , a graphical illustration depicts an exemplary sectional view of a “hands free” control faucet 1200 housed in fixed base 1251 . The “hands free” control faucet 1200 employs a mixing ball valve 1220 of the open type, offering lateral “hot water” inlet 1221 and a “cold water” 1222 that communicate directly with internal passages 1230 and 1232 , respectively. The delivery outlet 1223 of mixing ball valve 1220 communicates directly with an output passage 1208 and outputs via the port 1236 . Chamber body 1252 covers and retains cam assembly 1215 that guides ball valve stem 1210 and maintains a water seal about mixing ball valve 1220 . Alignment of mixing ball valve stem 1210 is in relation to slot 1225 that pivots about a fixed pin 1212 within the chamber body 1252 and allows restricted rotation of the mixing ball valve 1220 . Orientation of foot control pedal 1229 is in relation to the alignment of internal drive components of the mixing ball valve 1220 and chamber body 1252 . External input port for “hot water” 1234 and “cold water” 1235 interconnect directly with internal passages 1230 and 1232 , respectively. Within the internal passages 1230 and 1232 , are recessed “hot water” seal assembly 1237 and “cold water” seal assembly 1238 that form a water seal about the mixing ball valve 1220 . Integral to the front side of the chamber body 1252 is a cylindrical slot 1262 that support a mechanical coil spring 1261 and buffer pad 1260 that in combination under compression apply a positive force to the normal of the ball valve stem 1210 . The mechanical coil spring 1251 serves to reset the “hands free” control faucet 1200 to the OFF state 732 , FIG. 7A , during normal operation. [0079] In operation, reference being made to FIG. 12B , a graphical illustration depicts a superposition view 1270 of the mixing ball valve 1220 in the HOT position 732 , FIG. 7A . Mixing ball valve 1220 is deflected by a force FH, resisted by the compression force of mechanical spring 1261 , and displaces the ball valve stem 1210 from the OFF state centerline 1275 to the HOT state centerline 1276 . Mixing ball valve 1220 rotates and pivoting about slot 1225 and fixed pin 1212 aligns “hot water” inlet 1221 and water outlet 1223 to allow HOT water to flow through valve 1220 and delivered to OUT port. Cold water inlet 1222 is positioned in an offset set position closing the path of the COLD water supply. [0080] Referring to FIG. 12C , depicts a superposition view 1280 of the mixing ball valve 1220 in the COLD position 734 , FIG. 10A . Mixing ball valve 1220 is deflected by a force FC, resisted by the compression force of mechanical spring 1261 , and displaces the ball valve stem 1210 from the OFF state centerline 1275 to the COLD state centerline 1277 . Mixing ball valve 1220 rotates and pivoting about slot 1225 and fixed pin 1212 aligns “cold water” inlet 1222 and water outlet 1223 to allow COLD water to flow through ball valve 1220 and delivered to OUT port. Hot water inlet 1221 is positioned in an offset set position closing the path of the HOT water supply. [0081] Referring to FIG. 13 , a graphical illustration depicts an exemplary exploded view of the critical components of a “hands free” control faucet 1200 . The chamber body cover 1252 a , the main chamber body 1252 b , and coil spring cover 1252 c form the housing of components that make-up the function of the “hands free” control faucet 1200 . Combination seat 1237 a and spring 1237 b form the “hot water” seal assembly 1237 . Combination seat 1238 a and spring 1238 b form the “cold water” seal assembly. Both water seal assemblies 1237 and 1238 are installed within the two recessed ports (not shown) within chamber cavity 1333 . Chamber cavity 1333 also receives and aligns mixing ball valve 1220 via slot 1225 and fixed pin (not shown) within chamber cavity 1333 . The alignment sets orientation of mixing ball stem 1210 with a single control foot pedal 1229 a or 1229 b . It is understood that on other forms of embodiment, the foot pedal control mechanism and shape of the foot pedal assembly can take on many forms and used with “hands free” control faucet 1200 . Cam assembly 1215 consisting of an o-ring seal 1215 a , a cam 1215 b , and a cam bushing 1215 c provide a guide for the mixing ball valve stem 1210 in combination with forming a water seal for the mixing ball valve 1220 . Hot and cold water deliveries to the main chamber body 1252 b are through external ports 1234 and 1235 , respectively. Output passage 1236 delivers resultant water flow and temperature mix to outputs via the OUT port. Integral to the chamber body cover 1252 b is a cylindrical slot 1262 that supports a mechanical coil spring 1261 and buffer pad 1260 , retained by coil spring cover 1252 c that in combination and under compression apply a positive force to the normal of the ball valve stem 1210 . [0082] Referring to FIG. 14A , a graphical illustration depicts an exemplary sectional view of a “hands free” control faucet 1400 housed in fixed base 1451 . The “hands free” control faucet 1400 employs a mixing ball valve 1420 of the open type. Alignment of mixing ball stem 1410 is in relation to slot 1425 that pivots about a fixed pin 1412 within the chamber body 1452 and allows restricted rotation of the mixing ball valve 1420 . Orientation of foot control pedal 1429 is in relation to the alignment of internal drive components of the mixing ball valve 1420 and chamber body 1452 . Integral to the front top side of the chamber body 1452 is a cylindrical slot 1462 that supports a mechanical coil spring 1461 that under expansion applies a negative force to the normal of the ball valve stem 1410 . Each end of coil spring 1461 attaches to through holes 1465 located on chamber body 1452 and ball valve stem 1410 , linking both components. The coil spring 1461 serves to reset the “hands free” control faucet 1400 to the OFF state 732 , FIG. 7A , during normal operation. [0083] Referring to FIG. 14B , a graphical illustration depicts a superposition side view of the mixing ball valve 1420 in the COLD position 734 , FIG. 10A . Mixing ball valve 1420 is deflected by a force FC, resisted by the expansion force of mechanical spring 1461 , and displaces the ball valve stem 1410 from the OFF state centerline 1475 to the COLD state centerline 1477 . Mixing ball valve 1420 rotates and pivoting about slot 1425 and fixed pin 1412 aligns “cold water” inlet 1422 and water outlet 1423 to allow cold water to flow through ball valve 1420 and delivered to OUT port. [0084] Referring to FIG. 14C , a graphical illustration depicts a superposition front view of the mixing ball valve 1420 in the COLD position 734 , FIG. 10A . Mixing ball valve 1420 is deflected and resisted by the expansion force of mechanical spring 1461 , and displaces the ball valve stem 1410 from the OFF state centerline 1475 to the COLD state centerline 1477 . Mixing ball valve 1420 rotates and pivoting about slot 1425 and fixed pin 1412 aligns “cold water” inlet (not shown) and water outlet 1423 to allow cold water to flow through ball valve 1420 and delivered to OUT port. [0085] Referring to FIG. 14D , a graphical illustration depicts a superposition front view of the mixing ball valve 1420 in the OFF position 732 , FIG. 7A . Mixing ball valve 1420 is reset by the expansion force of mechanical spring 1461 , and displaces the ball valve stem 1410 from the COLD state centerline 1477 to the OFF state limit line 1479 . Mixing ball valve 1420 rotates and pivoting about slot 1425 and fixed pin 1412 offsets “cold water” inlet (not shown) and water outlet 1423 to block water flow to OUT port. [0086] In operation, reference being made to FIG. 14E , a graphical illustration depicts the front view of faceplate 1480 of a “hands free” faucet 520 , FIG. 5A , with aperture 739 and position of the foot pedal 1429 in the OFF state 732 , FIG. 7A , within the reset zone 732 c centered with respect to the OFF state vertical centerline 1481 . Foot pedal 1429 is forced to the centralized reset zone 1432 by compression force or expansion force exerted by mechanical springs 1261 , FIG. 12A , or mechanical spring 1461 , FIG. 14A , and upon removal of external force FC, FIGS. 12B and 14B . [0087] Referring to FIG. 15A , a graphical illustration depicts an exemplary sectional view of a “hands free” control faucet 1400 configured with a foot control pedal 1580 in the OFF state position 732 , FIG. 7A Orientation of foot control pedal upper link 1583 is in relation to the alignment of the ball valve stem 1410 and in-line with OFF state horizontal centerline 1575 . A mechanical coil spring 1461 that under expansion applies a negative force to the normal of the ball valve stem 1410 is in a relaxed position. Foot control pedal 1580 is attached to ball valve stem 1410 by a coupler 1581 that links upper arm 1583 via swivel pin 1582 . Upper arm 1583 is capable of sliding into lower arm tubing 1585 for the purpose of adjusting the length of the overall linkage Coupler 1584 serves to secure and fasten in place upper arm 1583 and lower arm 1585 . Bottom end of lower arm 1585 forms a spherical ball joint 1586 that fits circumferentially within a ball socket 1586 a centrally located on the rear edge of the foot pedal 1587 . Centrally located along the front side of foot pedal 1587 a spherical ball joint 1588 is positioned between the foot pedal 1587 and base 1589 that rests on surface 1599 . [0088] In operation, reference being made to FIG. 15B , a graphical illustration depicts an exemplary sectional view of a “hands free” control faucet 1400 configured with a foot control pedal 1580 in the COLD state 734 , FIG. 10A . External force FC applied to control pedal 1580 deflects attached ball valve stem 1410 and activates “hands free” control faucet 1400 . Transfer of external force FC applied to foot pedal control 1580 translates to the lateral and vertical pivoting of the foot pedal 1587 about spherical ball joint 1588 that links the foot pedal 1587 and base 1589 resting on surface 1599 . Upper and lower arms 1583 and 1585 along with associated coupler 1584 pivot about a spherical ball joint 1586 , centrally located on the rear edge of the foot pedal 1587 . Mechanical coil spring 1461 is under expansion by external force FC and applies a negative force to the normal of the ball valve stem 1410 . In the COLD state, upper arm 1583 swivels about swivel pin 1582 and coupler 1581 resulting in the deflection of valve stem 1410 . Orientation of the ball valve stem 1410 is offset from an OFF state centerline position 1575 and is positioned with alignment coinciding with ON state centerline position 1577 . [0089] In operation, reference being made to FIG. 16A , a graphical illustration depicts a front view of faceplate 1600 of a “hands free” faucet 520 , FIG. 5A , and a foot pedal control 1580 in an OFF state 732 , FIG. 7A . Faceplate 1600 with aperture 739 and position of the foot pedal 1587 is centered with respect to the OFF state vertical centerline 1481 and within the reset zone 732 c of the OFF state 732 . Orientation of upper coupler 1581 , upper arm 1583 , lower arm 1585 , and arm coupler 1584 are aligned in relation to the ball valve stem (not shown) and in-line with OFF state centerline 1481 . Bottom end of lower arm 1585 forms a spherical ball joint 1586 centrally located on the rear edge 1587 b of the foot pedal 1587 and shown raised relative to front side 1587 a . Recessed and centrally located along the pedal front side 1587 a , a spherical ball joint 1588 is positioned between the foot pedal 1587 and base 1589 that rests on surface 1599 . [0090] In operation, reference being made to FIG. 16B , a graphical illustration depicts an exemplary front view faceplate 1650 of a “hands free” faucet 520 , FIG. 5A , and a foot pedal control 1580 in a COLD state 734 . The combination of external horizontal force FH and vertical force FV applied to foot pedal control 1580 deflects attached ball valve stem (not shown) and activates “hands free” control faucet 1400 , FIG. 15B . Transfer of external forces FH and FV applied to foot pedal control 1580 translates to the lateral and vertical pivoting of the foot pedal 1587 about spherical ball joint 1588 that links the foot pedal 1587 and base 1589 that rests on surface 1599 . Position of spherical ball joint 1588 is central to OFF state vertical centerline 1481 . Upper and lower arms 1583 and 1585 along with associated coupler 1584 pivot about a spherical ball joint 1586 , centrally located on the rear edge of the foot pedal 1587 . In the COLD state, upper arm 1583 swivels about swivel pin (not shown) and coupler 1581 resulting in the deflection of valve stem (not shown). Orientation of the ball valve stem (not shown) and coupler 1581 are offset from an OFF state 732 and outside zone 732 c to the present ON state position 734 and within ON state zone 734 c. [0091] Referring to FIG. 17 , illustrates a block diagram 1700 of a system that can be used to carry out the methods of configuring a “hands free” faucet 520 , FIG. 5A , as described above. A “hands free” faucet system 520 , FIG. 5A , comprises of the following two modes: “System in Conventional Mode” 1702 and “System in Hands Free Mode” 1708 . Procedure for the configuration of a “hands free” faucet control system 520 , FIG. 5A , consists of a closed loop system sequence that allows ease of switching between modes 1702 and 1708 . For purposes of illustration, block diagram 1700 assumes the initial system configuration to be at the block “System in Conventional Mode” 1702 and starts at this point. [0092] As specified in the system block “System in Hands Free Mode” 1708 , stipulates the initial conditions of control elements and components of a “hands free” faucet control system 520 , FIG. 5A : 1. Set Hot and Cold Water Service Shut-Off Valves to an OPEN State 2. Set Conventional Faucet Hot and Cold Water Valves to a CLOSED State 3. Set the Hands Free Faucet Control to BYPASS State Subsequent to the initiation of conditions outlined in system block “System in Conventional Mode” 1702 is the system operational condition that disengages the “hands free” faucet control 520 , FIG. 5A . As specified in the system block 1704 , the user is allowed to control the flow rate and temperature mix of the output by manual control of the conventional faucet valves. [0096] As indicated thereafter at decision block 1706 , the user makes the determination to either continue with the “System in Conventional Mode” 1702 or proceed with “System in Hands Free Mode” 1708 . As specified in the system block “System in Hands Free Mode” 1708 , stipulates the initial conditions of control elements and components of a “hands free” faucet system 520 , FIG. 5A : 1. Set Hot and Cold Water Service Shut-Off Valves to an OPEN State 2. Set Conventional Faucet Cold Water Valve to a CLOSED State 3. Set Conventional Faucet Hot Water Valve to an OPEN State and Adjust to Desired Maximum Flow Rate 4. Set Hands Free Faucet Control to OFF State Subsequent to the initiation of conditions outlined in system block “System in Hands Free Mode” 1708 is the system operational condition that engages the “hands free” faucet control 520 , FIG. 5A . As specified in the system block 1710 , the user is allowed to control the flow rate and temperature mix of the output by control of the “hands free” faucet control 520 , FIG. 5A . As a system feature, the capability of asserting the cold water valve of a conventional faucet, as indicated in system block 1712 , is an option in either mode of operation 1702 and 1708 . [0101] The embodiment and examples set forth herein are presented to best explain the present invention and its practical application and to thereby enable those skilled in the art to make and utilize the invention. Those skilled in the art, however, will recognize that the foregoing description and examples have been presented for the purpose of illustration and example only. Other variations and modifications of the present invention will be apparent to those of skill in the art, and it is the intent of the appended claims that such variations and modifications be covered. The description as set forth is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the scope of the invention. Many modifications and variations are possible in light of the above teaching without departing from the spirit and scope of the following claims. It is contemplated that the use of the present invention can involve components having different characteristics. It is intended that the scope of the present invention be defined by the claims appended hereto, giving full cognizance to equivalents in all respects.

Hands free system providing user control and regulation of water flow and temperature mix using “foot actuated” devices. Hands free system is adaptable to pre-existing water faucets and conventional plumbing, enabling full integration of an adjustable foot operated device with conventional hand operated water faucets. The hand free water system includes a control state module for providing a user with BYPASS, ON, OFF, HOT and COLD modes of operation. Hardware can include a sealed chamber body adapted for containing a mixing ball valve and having chamber ports further serving as internal passages to channels adapted to said sealed chamber body for connection to water line tubing. The mixing ball can include delivery and exit ports through which water can enter and exit and is adapted for rotation in relation to the fixed chamber body for selective alignment with said chamber ports. A foot controllable actuator in operational connection with said mixing ball valve, wherein rotation of said mixing ball valve with said foot controllable actuator offer user over control water flow rate and temperature.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION (a) The Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a process and a device for interlacing multifilament yarns. (b) The Prior Art A process is known for imparting a certain degree of coherency to yarns constituted by a plurality of substantially parallel filaments--whereby it is meant that the yarn is without twist or has a very low twist--so that they may be employed in weaving and typically for making warps. The known process consists essentially in directing an air jet onto the yarn which travels in a straight line while limiting the freedom of motion of the yarn and containing and deflecting the air stream after contact with the yarn, to an extent and in a manner which are different from case to case. Typically such processes are carried out by means of devices which comprise a nozzle and a yarn guide and control organ. It is customary in the art improperly to call both those organs together "nozzle", while they should be considered as two distinct elements even when they are formed in a single body. The nozzle proper is of course essentially an air outlet orifice fed with air under pressure through an air feed passage or channel. The yarn guide and control organ, on the other hand, embodies either yarn guide devices or surfaces which limit the yarn motion in the direction of the air jet axis and/or in a direction perpendicular thereto, and often also comprises curved surfaces which are stricken by and deflect the air jet. In some devices, the nozzle and the guide and control organ are clearly distinguished and this latter sometimes merely consists of a surface, e.g. cylindrical, which limits the motion of the yarn in the direction of the air jet axis and lateraly deflects the flow lines of the air jet (see e.g. Italian Pat. No. 700.695). Other devices, e.g. that of U.S. Pat. No. 2,985,995, and others described in a series of patents which are developments and modifications of this latter, comprise a guide and control organ the functional portion of which is a cylindrical channel through which the yarn passes, while the nozzle is nothing but a bore having an axis perpendicular to the axis of the channel, and from which the air jet enters into the channel and therein acquires swirling motions. In nozzles of this type, it is usual that both the yarn passage channel and the air feed channel be formed in a single body, which justifies the fact that the whole device is called "nozzle". The known processes and devices make it possible to interlace essentially parallel multifilament yarns at high speeds and with good efficiencies. The degree of coherency is measured, e.g., as described in the cited U.S. Pat. No. 2,985,995, by passing a hook carrying a standard weight between the filaments of the yarn and registering the number of times it is stopped while traversing a given length, or in other words by measuring the number of knots or more exactly "pseudo-knots" which the yarn has acquired. It is obvious that in such measurements the morphology of the yarn is at least temporarily modified by the measuring instrument, and the quantitative results they furnish have a comparison value but do not define or express the intimate structure of the interlaced yarn. However, such known processes and devices involve a rather substantial consumption of compressed air which increases the cost of the final product. They have other drawbacks as well, different from case to case, e.g. a limitation of the range of yarns which may be processed, difficulties of starting the yarn in the device, sensitivity to tension variations, difficulty of regulation, complexity of construction and control, and so forth. Attempts to eliminate these drawbacks have not been wholly successful. The present invention completely eliminates such disadvantages, and substantially improves the efficiency and the economy of the yarn interlacing operation, thanks to a process and a device which are based on a new principle, while remaining in the class of pneumatic yarn treatments and devices. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The process which is the object of the invention is characterized in that the yarn is forwarded through an interlacing zone, to which a jet of an interlacing gas, normally air, is also conveyed, in a non-rectilinear trajectory which is essentially planar and symmetric with respect to the jet axis, and under tension, the resultant of the tensional forces having a line of application which ideally coincides with the jet axis and a direction opposite to that of the jet. The jet is so directed as to contact the yarn in a zone about the point of application of the resultant force, and the freedom of motion of the yarn is limited both in the direction of the jet axis and in the direction perpendicular to such axis and to the plane in which the yarn trajectory lies. The expression "ideally coincides" is to be understood as follows. The non-rectilinear trajectory of the yarn in the interlacing zone is determined by the contact of the yarn with surfaces located in such zone and in the vicinity of the gas jet. If the friction of the yarn on the surfaces is not taken into account, the yarn tension measured at any point of the yarn axis is constant. Under such conditions, i.e. if there were no friction, the line of application of the resultant of the tensional forces would substantially coincide with the jet axis. The friction, however, causes tension downstream of the surfaces, with respect to the direction of the yarn motion, to be greater than tension upstream thereof, and this difference causes a dissymmetry whereby the aforesaid resultant force is deviated by a small angle with respect to the jet axis, the deviation being towards the downstream direction. In any case, the resultant force is equal as to absolute value and opposite as to direction to the deviating force which may be considered as applied to the yarn to deviate it from the rectilinear trajectory which otherwise it would follow. In other words, the yarn is caused to travel between two fixed points, one situated upstream and the other downstream, of the interlacing zone, and in such zone a deviating force is applied to the yarn in the vicinity of the point in which it is contacted by the gas jet, which force displaces the yarn beyond the straight line defined by the two fixed points, the displacement being approximately in the direction of the jet. Preferably, the invention is additionally characterized in that the jet is deviated by curved surfaces constituting a part of a cylindrical surface having its axis on the plane of the yarn trajectory and perpendicular to the gas jet axis and having a concavity directed towards the jet, swirling motions being imparted to the gas by such curved surfaces, which additionally serve to limit the freedom of motion of the yarn and to guide such motion in the interlacing zone. The words "cylindrical surface" are to be understood in their broadest geometric meaning, i.e. as defining a surface generated by a straight line moving along a generatrix while remaining parallel to itself and that such cylindrical surface may have a circular or partially circular cross-section, but also, in general, any curvilinear, e.g. elliptical or generally oval, cross-section. The device according to the invention comprises a nozzle for feeding and projecting a jet of a gas, practically air, into the interlacing zone, which nozzle comprises an orifice located substantially at the vertex of a convex surface, the convexity thereof being directed towards the trajectory of the yarn. Means guide the yarn in an essentially planar trajectory tangent to such convex surface at least in the vicinity of the nozzle orifice. An element limits the freedom of motion of the yarn both in the direction of the air jet axis and in directions perpendicular thereto and to the plane whereon the yarn trajectory lies. Preferably such element may comprise a grooved body having a plane of symmetry which coincides with the yarn trajectory plane and which has a cross-section, in a plane perpendicular to said last mentioned plane, which comprises a concave surface having its concavity directed towards the nozzle and serving both as a surface for containing and guiding the air jet and for limiting the freedom of motion of the yarn and guiding such motion. Still preferably, the nozzle has two walls at its top and at the two sides of the orifice of the convex surface which embrace the trajectory of the yarn in the interlacing zone and still more preferably have a configuration, in a plane perpendicular to the air jet axis, which is slightly convex and directed towards the nozzle orifice, on the one and on the other side thereof, and is also preferably convergent towards the orifice. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The invention will be better understood from the following description of a number of non-limitative embodiments thereof, with reference to the attached drawings wherein: FIG. 1 is a schematic lateral view of a device according to a first embodiment of the invention; FIG. 2 is a cross-section of FIG. 1 taken as indicated by the broken line II--II--II--II of FIG. 1, but on an enlarged scale; FIG. 3 is a cross-section of FIG. 2 taken along line III--III of FIG. 2; FIG. 4 is a lateral view, similar to FIG. 1, of a second embodiment of the invention; FIG. 5 is an axial cross-section of the terminal portion of the nozzle taken on the plane of the yarn trajectory; FIG. 6 is a lateral view of the nozzle portion of FIG. 5, a right angle to the plane of FIG. 4; FIG. 7 is an end view of the nozzle; FIG. 8 is an axial cross-section of the guide and control organ in the second embodiment of FIGS. 4 to 7; FIGS. 9 and 10 are two cross-sections of the organ, both taken along line IX--IX of FIG. 8 but illustrating two constructional variants; FIG. 11 is a cross-section of the organ taken along line XI--XI of FIG. 8 and illustrating both the variants of FIGS. 9 and 10; and FIGS. 12 and 13 are respectively a lateral view with a part in cross-section and an axial cross-section of a comparison device or "nozzle" built according to the known art. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION With reference to FIGS. 1 to 3, in a first embodiment of the invention, the nozzle proper, generally indicated at 10, is constituted by a body having a cylindrical portion 11 which has a channel 12, terminating in an orifice 13, for the passage of compressed air, and which preferably tapers in its upper part 11' wherein it has a groove 14 whereby the nozzle body is reduced to two fins 15. Fins 15 are preferably limited towards the nozzle orifice 13 by surfaces 16 which are convex towards the nozzle. Yarn 20 is guided by suitable devices, e.g. yarn guides 21, 21', in such way that its trajectory comprises (FIG. 3) a curvilinear portion or arc 22 tangent to at least the central portion of a convex surface 17, and portions 23, 23' directed along the tangents to the ends of arc 22. In other words, it might be said that the thread guides or other guide organs 21, 21' tend to impart to the yarn a rectilinear trajectory therebetween and that the nozzle 10 is located in such a position as to deviate the yarn from such trajectory displacing the yarn beyond it in the direction of the air jet. It is obvious that, as a consequence of this arrangement, since the yarn travels with a certain tension, as more fully discussed hereinafter, and given the essential symmetry of the yarn trajectory, the resultant of the tension in the segment 23-22-23', is a force T, the line of application of which ideally coincides (and would actually coincide if there were no friction of the yarn on the nozzle) with the axis of channel 12 and therefore with the compressed air jet axis and is directed oppositely to the air jet, as shown in FIG. 3. The fins 15 limit the freedom of motion of the yarn in directions which are perpendicular on the one hand to the air jet axis and on the other to the yarn trajectory plane, as is clearly seen in FIGS. 2 and 3. Such fins also limit to a certain extent the flow of the air jet which exits from the nozzle orifice 13. The movement of the yarn in a direction parallel to that of the air jet is limited by suitable stop members, e.g. by thread guides 24, 24'. A preferred embodiment of the device is illustrated in FIGS. 4 to 11. As is seen, nozzle 40 is similar to nozzle 10, and is provided with a body 41, a channel 42, and an orifice 43, respectively similar to body 11, channel 12, and orifice 13 of FIGS. 1 to 3, and with a convex surface 47, correponding to surface 17 of FIG. 3, on which the yarn slides and at the center of which the orifice 43 is located, but the fins 45 which correspond to fins 15 are much shorter and are adapted to engage the yarn only in the immediate vicinity of the nozzle orifice. Preferably, body 41 is made of two parts, e.g. it may be of metal in its initial portion and have a top or plug 41' (FIGS. 4 to 6) of a ceramic material, wherein all the surfaces which contact the yarn are embodied. In this case too, surfaces 46 of fins 45 have a convexity towards the nozzle, as seen in FIG. 7. Channel 42 preferably comprises a first cylindrical portion 50, a frusto-conical portion 51 and a narrower cylindrical orifice portion. Surfaces 46, of which FIG. 6 shows the widest profile 46' and the narrowest profile 46" as they are seen when looking along the yarn trajectory, are slanted inwardly from top to bottom to form a "V" shape and a "U" shape, respectively. The angle α of the two sides of profile 46" has a certain importance. The yarn control and guide organ, which contains and guides the air jet as well, is constituted by an open sleeve 60, located with its axis lying on the plane of the yarn trajectory and parallel to the average direction of the yarn, which may be identified with the tangent to the trajectory at the point at which the yarn rides over the orifice 43. As is seen in FIGS. 9 to 11, in the interlacing zone, i.e. in a plane perpendicular to the axis 68 of sleeve 60 and passing through the axis of nozzle channel 42 (FIGS. 5, 9 and 10), the sleeve has an outer surface 61 which may be of any shape, though for constructive reasons it is preferably circular cylindrical, and defines in its inner cavity an open concave channel, the cross-section of which may be circular (62', FIG. 10) or oval (62, FIG. 9) and e.g. approximately elliptical with the major axis directed in the direction of the air jet. The inner surface 63 or 63' of such channel spans an angle greater than 180° about the channel axis 68 passing through the center of such surface, which center has a precise geometrical meaning if the surface has a circular or elliptical cross-section as in the drawings, and anyway may be determined at least approximately from symmetry considerations if the surface has any other configuration. Preferably, where the surface ends, the cavity of sleeve 60 is limited by two connecting segments 64 (FIG. 9) or 64' (FIG. 10). In a plane perpendicular to its axis, distant from the interlacing zone, such as the plane of FIG. 11, the cross-section of sleeve 60 is similar, however it extends at the two sides of the nozzle with fins 65 having rectilinear inner surfaces 66. In FIG. 11, two possible profiles of the inner channel cavity are shown corresponding to those of FIGS. 9 and 10, the one 63 being elliptical and the other 63' being circular (the latter in broken lines). Control and guide organ 60 is preferably arranged with respect to the nozzle as is shown in FIG. 4, in such a way that the yarn will face the opening of channel 62 (FIG. 9) when it is displaced by the air jet. The device of FIGS. 4 to 11 is also provided with yarn guides 67, 67' or other yarn guide organs which perform the same function as the guide yarns 21, 21' of FIGS. 1 to 3. The operation of the device hereinbefore described and the process which it carries out are, as has been said, different as to conception from those of the prior art. Indeed the nozzle, and more precisely the portion thereof which constitutes the air orifice and the zone adjacent thereto, has the additional function of deviating the yarn from its theoretical rectilinear trajectory and of imparting thereto a tension having the resultant in the desired direction. As a result, were no air to be fed to the nozzle, the yarn would slide on the nozzle orifice. The air jet displaces the yarn from the orifice and the resultant of the tension urges the yarn constantly back against the orifice. Therefore, the nozzle proper concurrently performs besides its normal air feed function, additional functions which in the prior art devices were performed by different portions of the interlacing device. The nozzle proper according to the invention, besides causing the displacement of the yarn from its rest trajectory by the impact of the air jet also has, as has been said, the function of initially containing such displacement, a further containment being effected by the control and guide organ which, in its simplest form, may be constituted merely by restraining bodies (21--21') as in the embodiment of FIGS. 1 to 3, and in its preferred form comprises a channel wherein not only is the yarn contained and guided, but also the air jet is deflected. Since the yarn has a constant, significant tendency to return towards the nozzle orifice, under the tension to which it is subjected, it does so by sliding on the surface of the guide and control organ cavity, and in all likelihood it rolls on such surface, so that instantaneous twists occur not only by effect of the air vortices but also and mainly by the effect of a planetary motion on the cavity surface, which intensify the interlacement of the yarn and confer to it a marked coherency although its average twist is obviously zero as in the prior art devices. The preferred dimensional geometrical data of the device according to the invention, are the following: the radius of curvature in the axial plane (of FIGS. 3 and 5) of the yarn guide surfaces in the nozzle (17 or 47 in the embodiments illustrated) varies from 2 mm to 18 mm (greater radiuses causing contact problems). The diameter of orifice 13 or 43 varies from 0.4 mm to 2 mm. Angle α , above defined, varies from 25° to 120°. The average diameter of the channel of the guide and control organ varies from 1.5 mm to 6 mm. The distance of the axis 68 (FIGS. 9 to 11) of the guide and control organ channel from the nozzle orifice varies from 0.75 mm to 4.5 mm. In carrying out the process, the yarn is maintained preferably at a tension between 3 and 300 g. and more preferably between 5 and 150 g., depending on the count. Angle β, (FIG. 4) defined between the two branches of the yarn, upstream and downstream of the nozzle orifice, varies from 140° to 175°. The pressure at which the compressed air is fed to the nozzle varies from 1 to 8 ATE (relative atmospheres). The nozzle itself or at least its terminal portion in which the orifice and the surfaces which have been described are formed, is preferably made of a ceramic material, and so is the control and guide organ. Some embodiments of the process according to the invention will now be described. EXAMPLE 1 ______________________________________count 210/36processing speed = 391 m/1'(sec.)radius of curvature (47) = 10 mmdiameter of the nozzle orifice (43) = 0.8 mmaverage diameter of theguide channel (62) = 3 mmdistance of axis (68) ofthe channel from nozzle orifice (43) = 2.7 mmangle β = 165°yarn tension = 20-25 g.______________________________________ The average number of pseudo-knots per meter of yarn which are obtained at various pressures are tubulated in the following TABLE 1______________________________________PRESSURE (ATE) NUMBER OF KNOTS______________________________________2.5 22.43 27.83.5 31.64 31.84.5 32______________________________________ EXAMPLE 2 ______________________________________count 940/136processing speed = 391 m/1'radius of curvature (47) = 10 mmdiameter of the orifice (43) = 1.2 mmangle α = 40°average diameter of theguide channel (62) = 4 mmdistance of axis (68) of thechannel from orifice (43) = 3.2 mmangle β = 165°yarn tension = 50-60 g.______________________________________ The average number of pseudo-knots per meter of yarn which are obtained at various pressures are tabulated in the following TABLE 2______________________________________PRESSURE (ATE) NUMBER OF KNOTS______________________________________2.5 20.43 26.43.5 28.54 29.84.5 29.8______________________________________ The following Examples 3 and 4 are comparison examples carried out with the device according to the prior art illustrated in FIGS. 12 and 13, wherein 70 is the nozzle proper with a channel 71 and orifice 72, 73 is the control and guide organ in the form of a channel, and 74 is the yarn which follows a rectilinear trajectory. EXAMPLE 3 ______________________________________count 210/36processing speed = 391 m/1'diameter of the nozzleorifice (72) = 1.5 mmdiameter of the guide channelof control and guide organ (73) = 3 mmyarn tension = 20-25 g.______________________________________ The average number of pseudo-knots per meter of yarn thus obtained are tabulated in the following TABLE 3______________________________________PRESSURE (ATE) NUMBER OF KNOTS______________________________________2.5 11.53 153.5 194 234.5 26______________________________________ EXAMPLE 4 ______________________________________count 940/136processing speed = 391 m/l'diameter of the nozzle orifice (72) = 1.5 mmdiameter of the guide channel of control and guide organ (73) = 4 mmdistance of the axis (74) of the channel from the nozzle orifice (72) = 2.5 mmyarn tension = 50-60 g.______________________________________ The average number of pseudo-knots per meter of yarn obtained are tabulated in the following TABLE 4______________________________________PRESSURE (ATE) NUMBER OF KNOTS______________________________________2.5 103 123.5 134 194.5 24______________________________________ A number of non-limitative embodiments of the invention have been described, but the invention may be carried into practice by persons skilled in the art with numerous variations and adaptations.

A process and a device for interlacing multifilament yarns includes forwang the yarn through an interlacing zone, to which an interlacing air jet is also conveyed through a nozzle, in a non-rectilinear trajectory which is essentially planar and symmetrical with respect to the jet axis, and under tension. The resultant of the tension forces have a line of application which ideally coincides with the jet axis and a direction opposite to that of the jet. The jet is so directed as to contact the yarn in a zone about the point of application of the resultant force. The nozzle includes an orifice located at the vertex of a convex surface directed towards the yarn trajectory, and means for guiding the yarn near the nozzle and for limiting the freedom of motion of the yarn.

This is a continuation-in-part of application Ser. No. 09/114,087 filed Jul. 10, 1998, now abandoned. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to a machine for dispensing media, for example, a self service terminal (SST), which may be an automated teller machine (ATM). ATMs are known and possess function controls to dispense cash, accept cash, accept cheques, issue receipts and issue bank statements as well as accept bills for payment. Other SSTs fulfill similar functions but do not deal with cash; an SST may dispense tickets or maps or prepaid cards such as telephone cards. Throughout this specification, the term media is used to include hard copies of printed information resulting from fulfillment of the functions stated for an ATM and an SST as well as cash in the form of bank notes. SSTs and ATMs may be operated by means of a card carrying data, for example magnetic data on the card or data on a semiconductor chip-bearing “Smart Card”, for identifying the user and authorizing his use. Alternatively, such machines may employ some other user identification and authorization means, such as a biometric means. Generally speaking, in addition to necessary electronic circuitry and computer processor controls, an ATM comprises a user interface, a cash delivery slot and a presenter module, which includes a transport mechanism or media transporter for presenting media. The user interface may comprise a card input slot or other user identification means, a display screen and a keyboard pad. In operation, the transport mechanism transfers media from a processor within the ATM to an exit or presentation slot for a customer to remove. For security purposes, external access to the exit slot is usually prevented by at least one shutter which is normally closed and is only opened when media is transported to the exit slot for removal by a customer. SSTs (including ATMs) are commonly situated behind a wall, the wall having an appropriate hole through which media is transported and dispensed (so-called “through the wall” installations). Walls for such purpose may be external or internal and may be of a thickness varying from a few millimetres to half a metre or more. SSTs are also often free standing for presenting media directly to the customer (so-called “interior/lobby” installations) without the need to transport the media through a wall. Thus, different installations may result in different distances between the position at which media is dispensed from the processor within the SST (“the media dispensing point”) and the position at which media is presented to the customer (“the media presentation point”). Until now, different transport mechanisms which are suitable for different installations have had to be developed and tested. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is an object to produce a machine for dispensing media, such as an ATM or an SST, having a media transporter which can be used in different types of installation. According to the present invention there is provided a machine for dispensing media comprising a user interface means and a media transporter for transporting media from a media dispensing point along a media path to a media presentation point, characterized in that the media transporter comprises a variable length belt feed means which is adjustable between a first retracted position in which the media presentation point is adjacent the media dispensing point and a second protracted position in which the media presentation point is displaced from the media dispensing point. By providing a variable length belt feed means, the media transporter can be adjusted to suit interior/lobby installations, where the media presentation point may be adjacent the media dispensing point, as well as through the wall installations, where the media is required to be transported through different wall thickness. Preferably, the belt feed means comprises at least one endless feed belt supported on a carriage so as to define the media path, whereby movement of the carriage away from the media dispensing point causes an increase in the length of media path while the overall length of path of the feed belt remains constant. By use of an endless feed belt supported in this manner, tension in the feed belt is automatically maintained upon adjustment without the need for a separate belt tensioning mechanism. According to one form of the invention, the media is transported along the media path between two endless feed belts, which form a pinch region therebetween for gripping and transporting media from the media dispensing point to the media presentation point. One of the feed belts may be resiliently moveable away from the other feed belt against the force of a biasing means to enable the media transporter to transport both a single sheet of media and a stack of media along the media path. According to one embodiment of the invention, the variable length belt feed means moves from its retracted position to its protracted position when the media transporter is required to transport media. Preferably, there is provided a media presentation slot through which the belt feed means extends when in its protracted position. By moving the belt feed means to its protracted position only when required to transport media, the belt feed means is kept safely away from the media presentation slot at all times when not in use, so reducing the opportunity for unwarranted fraudulent or vandalistic access to the belt feed means. Furthermore, when operating currently available ATMs, media protrudes from the presentation slot a maximum presentation length of 18 mm and, whereas persons without handling disabilities are able to grasp such a protrusion, persons with handling disabilities, such as arthritis, may not be able to do so. Consequently, in certain countries, notably Australia and USA, manufacturers of ATMs and other machines for dispensing media, are required to conform to strict design guidelines and legislation necessitating media to protrude from the exit slot a distance of the order of 30 mm. By extending the belt feed means through the media presentation slot in accordance with this embodiment, the presenter module may present media a greater distance from the presentation slot than is possible with currently available machines. In this way, customers suffering from handling disabilities are more easily able to remove media from a machine. A machine in accordance with this embodiment is preferably fitted with a shutter for opening and closing the media presentation slot and means for opening the shutter upon movement of belt feed means from its retracted position to its protracted position. In this way, the shutter, which normally closes the media dispensing slot for security purposes, is opened at a time determined by the necessity to dispense media. Conveniently, the belt feed means is mounted for angular movement about the media dispensing point to enable the media presentation point to be positioned at a variable angular displacement from the media dispensing point. By mounting the belt feed means for angular movement about the media dispensing point, the presenter module may be adjusted to transport media to a media presentation point which may be higher or lower than the media dispensing point, to suit the particular installation. Furthermore, such an arrangement would allow the possibility of producing an SST having a media presentation point or even a complete fascia which is adjustable in height, or which is pivotable, to allow operation of the machine at a comfortable height or angle for all users, tall and short alike. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Transport mechanisms designed for use with an ATM in accordance with the present invention will now be described by way of example, with reference to the accompanying drawings in which: FIG. 1 is a perspective of an ATM having a card reader and a cash dispensing slot; FIG. 2 shows a control system for an ATM; FIG. 3 is a part longitudinal section of a previously proposed transport mechanism for an ATM in a through the wall installation; FIG. 4 is a part longitudinal section of the transport mechanism and cash delivery slot of an ATM according to the invention in a through the wall installation; FIG. 5 is a part longitudinal section similar to FIG. 4 in an interior/lobby installation; FIG. 6 is a part longitudinal section of a second embodiment of a transport mechanism and cash delivery slot of an ATM according to the invention in a through the wall installation; FIG. 7 is a part longitudinal section of a previously proposed transport mechanism for an ATM included for comparative purposes; FIG. 8 is a part longitudinal section of a third embodiment of the transport mechanism showing a retractable carriage in a retracted position; FIG. 9 is a part longitudinal section similar to FIG. 8 with the retractable carriage in a media present position; FIG. 10 is a perspective from above, considered with respect to FIGS. 8 and 9, of the retractable carriage removed from the transport mechanism; FIG. 11 is a perspective from below, considered with respect to FIGS. 8 and 9, of the retractable carriage removed from the transport mechanism; FIG. 12 is a perspective of a top guide of the retractable carriage of FIGS. 8 and 9; FIG. 13 is a perspective from above of a solenoid operated shutter and linkage of the retractable carriage of FIGS. 8 and 9; FIG. 14 is a perspective from above of the transport mechanism of FIGS. 8 and 9 with the retractable carriage removed, and FIG. 15 is a part exploded perspective similar to FIG. 14 with one side frame panel of the transport mechanism removed and showing upper and lower fixed guides which guide movement of the retractable carriage between the positions depicted in FIGS. 8 and 9 . DETAILED DESCRIPTION Throughout the following description, the same reference numbers will be used for the same corresponding parts in the several Figures. FIG. 1 shows an ATM 10 having a magnetic card input slot 12 , a display screen 14 , a keypad 16 , and a media presentation or dispensing slot 20 such as a cash delivery slot. A control system for the ATM 10 is shown in FIG. 2, in which a processor 22 is connected to receive input from the key pad 16 , to control the display 14 and to control a cash counting and delivery system 24 connected to the cash dispensing slot 20 . The processor 22 is connected by a connection 26 to a central authorization system of the financial institution operating ATM 10 . A card reader 30 is also connected to the processor 22 , the card reader 30 having a standard data head 32 , a standard mechanical drive 34 to drive a card into and out of the reader 30 , and a card damage detector 36 . FIG. 3 shows part of the presenter module and cash delivery slot of a conventional ATM 10 in a through the wall installation. The cash delivery slot 20 is formed at a suitable position in a fascia wall 21 which is mounted flush with the exterior side of an external wall 23 to form a closure to a hole 25 therein. The cash delivery slot 20 is opened and closed by two shutters, namely, a fascia shutter 20 A and an inner shutter 20 B. The shutters 20 A and 20 B are mounted in known manner for covering and uncovering the media dispensing slot 20 in accordance with instructions received from the processor 22 and in response to a signal received from a sensor, not shown. The wall 23 is of standard construction and has a thickness of the order of 33 cm. The transport mechanism comprises two endless feed belts 38 and 40 supported on upper and lower pulleys 42 and 44 respectively, the feed belts forming a pinch region between themselves for gripping and transporting cash from a position at which cash is processed and dispensed within the ATM (not shown), through the hole 25 to the cash delivery slot 20 . The transport mechanism of FIG. 3 is designed specifically for a through the wall installation, where the wall 23 is of the specified thickness and the cash delivery slot 20 is at a suitable height. It would be wholly unsuitable for installations where the wall thickness is greater or less since this would result in the transport mechanism either stopping short of the cash delivery slot 20 or extending through the fascia wall 21 . For this reason, installations having different wall thicknesses require different transport mechanisms. In order to overcome the expense of designing, manufacturing, testing and installing a whole range of different transport mechanisms for different installations, the present inventors have invented an adjustable transport mechanism which may be used in many different installations having different wall thicknesses. One embodiment may be used in installations having different exit slot heights, and even presents the possibility of providing SSTs having fully adjustable fascia heights or angles. A machine according to the invention is shown in FIGS. 4 and 5. FIG. 4 shows the transport mechanism T and cash delivery slot 20 of an ATM according to the invention in a through the wall installation. As in FIG. 3, the cash delivery slot 20 is formed at a suitable position in the fascia wall 21 which forms a closure to hole 25 in wall 23 . No shutters are shown in FIG. 4, though clearly shutters could be fitted. The wall 23 is of standard construction and has a thickness of the order of 33 cm. The transport mechanism T comprises upper and lower endless feed belts 38 and 40 each supported on two respective series of pulleys 31 , 35 , 43 and 33 , 37 , 45 . The pulleys comprise two pairs 31 / 33 and 43 / 45 , a pinch region being formed between the feed belts supported on the pulleys of each pair, and two belt take-up pulleys 35 and 37 . A media path P is defined by the pinch region between the feed belts supported between the two pairs of pulleys 31 / 33 and 43 / 45 . The first pair of the pulleys 31 and 33 are fixed at a position 29 , at which cash is dispensed after processing within the ATM. The second pair of pulleys 43 and 45 are mounted on a carriage (not shown) which is reciprocally moveable backwards or forwards (left or right as viewed in FIGS. 4 and 5) between a first retracted position in which the pulleys 43 and 45 are adjacent the fixed pulleys 31 and 33 and a second protracted position in which the pulleys 43 and 45 are displaced from the fixed pulleys by a predetermined distance depending on the maximum wall thickness that an ATM is envisaged to be installed behind. As shown in FIG. 4, pulleys 43 and 45 are displaced from the fixed pulleys 31 and 33 and are located into position behind the cash delivery slot 20 in fascia wall 21 , such that the media path P substantially spans the thickness of the wall 23 . The belt take up pulleys 35 and 37 are mounted on the same carriage as pulleys 43 and 45 at a position suitable to take up any slack in the feed belts 38 and 40 . As the belt take up pulleys 35 and 37 are mounted on the same carriage, no matter what position the carriage is in, the length of path of the feed belts always remains the same, and hence tension in the feed belts remains constant. A further feed mechanism 39 dispenses cash to the position 29 after it has been processed by the ATM. When required to deliver cash, the ATM processes the required amount and dispenses the cash to position 29 by means of feed mechanism 39 . At position 29 the cash is fed to the pinch region between the feed belts supported between pulleys 31 and 33 of the transport mechanism. The transport mechanism is then actuated by means of a sensor (not shown) and the feed belts 38 and 40 are driven around the pulleys in a direction to transport the cash along the media path P from position 29 , through the hole 25 in wall 23 to a position at which the cash 27 is presented to the user through the cash delivery slot 20 as shown, at which point the transport mechanism is stopped by means of another sensor (not shown). FIG. 5 shows the same transport mechanism of an ATM according to the invention but this time in an interior/lobby installation, where there is no wall 23 and the cash delivery slot 20 is close to the position 29 at which cash is dispensed by the feed mechanism 39 after processing within the ATM. In this case, the carriage on which pulleys 43 and 45 are mounted is in a retracted position in which pulleys 43 and 45 are located adjacent the fixed pulleys 31 and 33 and behind the cash delivery slot 20 in fascia wall 21 . As the belt take up pulleys 35 and 37 are mounted on the same carriage, they are also in a retracted position, and the tension in the feed belts remains constant. It will be appreciated that the transport mechanism described with reference to FIGS. 4 and 5 may be used for interior/lobby installations (as in FIG. 5) or through the wall installations (as in FIG. 4) where the wall is of anything up to the predetermined thickness described above. Furthermore, as an alternative construction, instead of being mounted on the same carriage as pulleys 43 and 45 , the belt take up pulleys 35 and 37 may be mounted on a linkage connected to the carriage, to enable the take up pulleys to be moveable in a different direction to the carriage, depending on the space available in a particular installation, while still performing the function of maintaining constant tension in the feed belts. FIG. 6 shows a transport mechanism of an ATM similar to that shown in FIGS. 4 and 5, but with the further modification of the carriage, on which pulleys 35 , 37 , 43 and 45 are mounted, being tiltable about a pivot point located at position 29 . Thus, not only may the pulleys 43 and 45 be displaced away from the fixed pulleys 31 and 33 and located into position behind the cash delivery slot 20 in fascia wall 21 as described above and as depicted by the dotted lines in FIG. 6, but by angular movement of the carriage about its pivot point, the pulleys 43 and 45 may also be moved up or down so as to locate behind a cash delivery slot 20 which is higher or lower (as is the case depicted by solid lines in FIG. 6 ). It will be clear to persons skilled in the art that the transport mechanism described with reference to FIG. 6 also presents the possibility of providing an ATM having a fascia which is adjustable in height or angle within the limits of movement governed by the carriage. FIG. 7 shows the business and delivery end of another previously proposed transport mechanism installed in an ATM 10 . As described above with reference to FIG. 3, the dispensing slot 20 is formed in a safe wall 21 and is opened and closed by a fascia shutter 20 A and an inner shutter 20 B. The shutters 20 A and 20 B are mounted in known manner for covering and uncovering the media dispensing slot 20 in accordance with instructions received from the processor 22 and in response to a signal received from a sensor, not shown. The sensor has a center line AB positioned to sense a leading edge of the media to be dispensed between a pinch point of upper 38 and lower 40 transporter belts supported on upper 42 and lower 44 pulleys. Generally speaking small banknotes dispensed long-edge leading by the ATM 10 of FIG. 7 have a minimum width of 54 mm. The wall thickness of the safe conventionally provided in an ATM is about 12.7 mm, and the cash delivery slot is protected by shutters 20 A and 20 B, so that having regard to the dimensions given in FIG. 7, the media will protrude a maximum distance of 54−36=18 mm, from the fascia shutter 20 A. In the introductory part of this specification reference was made to certain countries, notably Australia and USA, establishing guidelines necessitating an increase in the minimum presentational projection of media to assist disabled persons to operate ATMs. FIG. 7 also indicates the safe wall having a thickness 10.7 mm and the distance from the internal face of the safe wall to the outer face of the fascia shutter 20 A to be 23.4 mm. To meet the requirements of those guidelines, a transport mechanism according to the invention including a retractable carriage which is displaceable may present media a distance of the order of 30 mm or more from the fascia shutter 20 A. Such a transport mechanism including a retractable carriage is shown in FIGS. 8 to 15 . Referring to FIG. 8 a transport mechanism T has a retractable carriage R shown in a retracted non-media presentation position with an angularly displaceable shutter 20 B in a closed position. The retractable carriage R has two identical chassis side plates 46 (see also FIGS. 9, 10 and 11 ) disposed with running clearance outboard of each longitudinal edge of upper and lower continuous belts 38 and 40 respectively. The chassis side plates 46 are maintained in spaced parallel relationship by upper 48 and lower 50 belt guides (see also FIGS. 10 and 11) as well as roller shafts 52 and 54 on which rollers 56 , 56 ′ are mounted and over which the belts 38 and 40 are passed as shown in FIGS. 8 and 9. The upper belt guide 48 is fixed between the chassis side plates 46 whereas the lower belt guide 50 is angularly displaceable about axle 50 ′, see FIGS. 8, 9 , 10 and 11 . In order to maintain a nip between upper and lower belts 38 and 40 passing over rollers 58 and 60 during dispensation of media, a torsion spring 50 TS, see FIGS. 10 and 11, supported on axle 50 ′ biases the lower belt guide 50 clockwise as viewed in FIGS. 8, 9 and 11 . Angular displacement of the lower belt guide 50 permits media having a minimum thickness of 0.1 mm and a stack of media up to a maximum thickness of 10.0 mm to be dispensed. The positions of the lower guide belt 50 for dispensing minimum and maximum amounts of media are shown at Z 1 and Z 2 respectively in FIGS. 8 and 9. As shown in FIGS. 8, 9 , 14 and 15 , the upper 38 and lower 40 belts (omitted for clarity in FIGS. 14, 15 ), are additionally supported on upper 62 and lower 64 rollers which, in turn are supported on axles 66 and 68 respectively. The axles 66 / 68 respectively act as spacers for two side panels 70 of the transport mechanism T. The retractable carriage R is reciprocally movable between the retracted position of FIG. 8 and the media present position of FIG. 9 by means of a stepper motor, not shown, which drives two trains of three gears 72 , 74 and 76 —see FIGS. 8, 9 , 14 and 15 . Each gear train is supported as shown in the side panels 70 (see particularly FIGS. 14 and 15) and the two gears 72 which are driving gears, are mounted on a common driving shaft 78 . Three rollers 78 A are also mounted on the driving shaft 78 and these rollers support the travel path of the upper belt 38 as shown in FIGS. 8 and 9. During reciprocal movements, the retractable carriage R slides between pairs of upper 80 and lower 82 guides carried by the side plates 70 of the transport mechanism T. The upper 80 and lower 82 guides each have two U-shaped cut-outs 84 (shown dotted in FIGS. 8 and 9 and in full lines in FIG. 15) for receiving a roller 85 —see FIGS. 14 and 15 —of a shutter linkage mechanism to be described later. The amount of reciprocal movement of the retractable carriage R is governed by: I. a pin 86 (see FIGS. 8, 9 and 15 ) fixed to each gear 76 of the two gear trains 72 , 74 , 76 and movable within slots 88 formed in each chassis plate 46 of the retractable carriage R—see also FIGS. 10 and 11; II. a pin 90 (see FIGS. 8, 9 and 15 ) fixed to each side plate 70 of the transport mechanism T acts as a guide within a slot 92 (see also FIGS. 10 and 11) cut in each chassis side plate 46 , the longitudinal sides of the slots 92 serve to guide reciprocal movements of the retractable carriage R and the ends of the slots 92 determine the extent of reciprocal movement of the carriage R, and III. a pin 94 (see FIGS. 8, 9 and 15 ) fixed to each side plate 70 of the transport mechanism T acts as a guide within an open-ended slot 96 formed in each chassis plate 46 . The open ended slots 96 are shown in dotted lines in FIGS. 8 and 9 and in full lines in FIGS. 10 and 11. During forward movement of the retractable carriage R from the position shown in FIG. 8 to that shown in FIG. 9 to present media to a user through the dispensing slot 20 , the upper and lower belts 38 / 40 effectively unwrap from appropriate series of pulleys ( 58 , 56 ′, 62 ) and ( 60 , 56 , 64 ) thus maintaining constant tension in and preventing additional stretching of the upper and lower belts 38 / 40 . During movement of the retractable carriage R from the position shown in FIG. 8 to that shown in FIG. 9, the shutter 20 B is angularly displaced to permit presentation of media through the media dispensing slot 20 . Angular displacement of the shutter 20 B is effected via two multi-link linkages driven by a ram solenoid 5 and will now be described. FIG. 13 shows the shutter 20 B and the multi-link linkages in perspective and, for balanced operation of the shutter 20 B, each end position of the shutter is attached to corresponding links of each linkage. Corresponding links in each linkage are designated by the same reference number. Each linkage has three links 900 , 901 and 902 with links 900 attached to the shutter 20 B and pivotally connected at 903 to links 901 . The link 902 is, as shown, of U-shape with legs 902 A pivotally connected at 904 to the links 901 . A driving link 905 having a tongue 905 A is also pivotally connected to the first 904 as well as to a solenoid plunger SP. Each link 900 has a hole 900 A for receiving a pin 94 ′ (see FIG. 15) which acts as a fulcrum for the shutter during movement of the retractable carriage R. Each arm 902 A of the link 902 has a hole 902 B for mounting on a roller 85 which, as a previously described, is located in a U-shaped cut-out 84 in the upper guide 80 . Each link 901 is formed with detents 901 A (shown dotted in FIGS. 8 and 9 and in full lines in FIGS. 13, 14 and 15 ) and, as seen in FIGS. 8 and 15, engages with the pin 90 which acts both as a fulcrum and a stop for the links 901 in the closed position of the shutter 20 B. Operation of each linkage 900 , 901 and 902 and, consequently, the shutter 20 B is controlled by energization of the solenoid 5 and the position of each linkage is sensed by the sensor SR 1 according to whether the tongue 905 A is in the position shown in FIG. 8 (shutter closed) or FIG. 9 (shutter open). Energization of the solenoids is synchronized with the operation of the stepper motor, not shown, which drives the gear trains 72 , 74 , 76 and, consequently, the retractable carriage from the position shown in FIG. 8 to that of FIG. 9 and vice versa. In addition to the sensor SR 1 which detects, as indicated above, the position of the linkage 900 , 901 , 902 and the shutter 20 B, a second sensor SR 2 (see FIG. 12) serves to detect when media has been removed from the ATM 10 . The sensor SR 2 is carried by the upper guide plate 48 and has a sensor arm 800 which is pivotally mounted on axle 801 —see FIG. 12 . The sensor arm has a tongue 800 A which, on pivotal movement of the sensor arm 800 , is positioned either “in” or “out-of” a sensor yoke 800 B. FIGS. 8 and 9 show the “in” and “out-of” positions of the sensor tongue 800 A in dotted lines as well as the multi-cranked shape of the sensing arm 800 , a part- 800 C of which (see FIGS. 8, 9 ) senses when media has been removed from the exit slot 20 of the ATM 10 . From the foregoing description of the present invention, it will be appreciated that the carriage R is moved from the position of FIG. 8 to that of FIG. 9 by the stepper motor, not shown, which drives the carriage R through gear trains 72 , 74 , 76 and pin/slot 86 / 88 when the shutter 20 B is open. The carriage R includes upper and lower media guides 48 / 50 fitted with pulleys 58 and 60 respectively and two idler shafts 52 / 54 which are also fitted with pulleys 56 ′ and 56 respectively. The carriage R contains loops of the transport belts 38 and 40 which are wrapped around a series of pulleys as shown in FIGS. 8 and 9. The pulleys 58 and 60 carried by the media guides 48 / 50 are capable of entering the safe opening 20 while containing a minimum of 0.1 mm thick media document and a maximum stack of 10 mm thick media. When the carriage moves forward from the position of FIG. 8 to that of FIG. 9 the belts 38 / 40 in effect unwrap from the pulleys 56 ′ and 56 thus maintaining constant tension and reducing additional stretch in the belts 38 / 40 during carriage movement. The carriage R also contains a sensing device SR 2 for detecting when media has been removed, whereafter the carriage R is retracted and the shutter 20 B is closed for security. The invention has been described with reference to an ATM arranged to dispense small banknotes long-edge leading. It may also be applied to an ATM arranged so as to dispense small-size receipts or to an SST arranged to dispense small-size tickets or the like, tickets may be as small as a conventional credit card; or the SST may dispense e.g. prepaid telephone cards or the like, of similar size to a credit card.

An image forming apparatus uses a plurality of image forming units that are arranged rotatable in a vertical plane such that the image forming units that shifted sequentially to an image forming position. Each image forming unit has a translucent toner detection window on its outer periphery for detecting the remaining amount of toner in a toner hopper. The image forming units will have a replacing position in which it will face an opening for allowing replacement of the image forming unit. The translucent detection window will face the opening when the image forming unit is in the replacing position.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] The present application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/659,975 filed Mar. 8, 2005, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0002] The invention relates to compositions and methods useful for monitoring and manipulating cellular transmembrane voltages. In particular, nanoparticles and their use in monitoring and manipulating transmembrane voltages is disclosed. DESCRIPTION OF RELATED ART [0003] All cells have phospholipid membranes that serve as bimolecular barriers and to separate cell contents from the extracellular environment. The purpose of the plasma membrane is to maintain the necessary difference in composition between two compartments by restricting or permitting the passage of materials through the membrane as a function of intracellular signaling. [0004] Each cell has a resting membrane potential originating from the so-called “separation of charge” across the normally impermeable phospholipid bilayer. Because of unequal distribution of positively and negatively charged ions in the extracellular and intracellular compartments, all living cells have a negative resting membrane potential, ranging from −5 mV to −100 mV. The ion permeability of the plasma membrane is determined by the presence of ion channels, transmembrane proteins specialized in passive ion transport. Membrane potential can be changed by changing membrane permeability to a certain ion in response to an activating stimulus, thus allowing a flux of ions down their electrochemical gradient. Transport of ions across the membrane through ion channels will lead to disturbance of the existing equilibrium of ion concentrations on both sides of membrane and, thus, to changes of electrical properties of the cell. [0005] Cells communicate with each other through changes in membrane potential. Therefore, monitoring the cellular membrane potential and its changes allows monitoring of cell viability and function. [0006] Ion channels are transmembrane proteins present in both excitable and non-excitable cells. Ion channels permit and regulate movement and conduction of ions down their electrochemical gradients across a normally ion-impermeant lipid bilayer. They produce electrical signals leading to action potential generation that controls a number of key processes, including neuronal signaling, heart beat, brain function, sensory transduction and muscle contraction. In addition to setting the resting membrane potential and controlling cellular excitability, these transmembrane proteins play important roles affecting the physiological state of cells by being involved in cell proliferation, hormone secretion and homeostasis of water and electrolytes. [0007] Activation of ion channels by any mechanism results in redistribution (changes in concentrations) of intracellular/extracellular ions and consequent change in cellular membrane potential. Thus, recording changes in membrane potential allows direct monitoring of ion channel activity. [0008] A typical organism has hundreds to thousands of different types of ion channels, while an individual cell can have ten to twenty different types. Each ion channel exhibits high selectivity for one or a few ion species. [0009] Different ion channel families are classified based on their activation stimuli, selectivity to different ions, inactivation mechanisms and pharmacological profiles. There are voltage-activated and ligand-activated ion channels. Superfamilies of voltage-gated sodium, potassium, calcium, and chloride ion channels have been defined using electrophysiological, pharmacological and molecular techniques; they are named according to their selective permeability for a particular cation with reference to their voltage dependence, kinetic behavior or molecular identity. Superfamilies of ligand-gated channels are much less structurally related and named after their activation ligand, i.e. cyclic nucleotide-gated channels or GABA channels. [0010] Functionally, the opening or closing of ion channels can be controlled or “gated” by the binding of signaling molecules (ligand-gated channels), by a change in the membrane potential (voltage-gated channels), or by mechanical stimulation (mechanosensitive channels) that results in conformational changes within ion channel structures leading to opening of a pore and allowing a flux of ions inside or outside the cell. [0011] For example, a voltage-gated sodium channel is closed at a resting membrane potential below −60 mV, and opens upon depolarization of the membrane (i.e., a shift in the membrane potential to a less negative value). [0012] The structures of voltage-gated sodium, calcium and potassium channels have common functional elements. All ion channels are transmembrane proteins comprised of several homologous repeats arranged around a common ion-selective aqueous pore that opens in response to an activating stimulus that allows ions to enter or exit the cell. Each repeat consists of six transmembrane domains (S1-S6) with the S4 domain playing the specialized role of voltage sensor. Channel opening and closing (‘gating’) is controlled by this voltage sensitive domain of the protein containing charged amino acids that respond to changes in the electric field. Translocation of a voltage sensitive domain leads to conformational changes in the structure of the channel resulting in conducting (open/activated) or non-conducting (closed/inactivated) states. [0013] Although ligand-gated channels differ significantly from one another, there are two structural elements present in every channel: a ligand-binding domain and a pore domain. Binding of a specific ligand triggers conformational changes leading to opening of the pore domain and allowing the ion flux into/out of the cell, which is reflected in a change in transmembrane potential. [0014] The various states of ion channel activation provide unique opportunities for more efficient drug discovery, enabling state-dependent molecules to be developed that, for example, only bind to non-conducting (inactivated) channels. A desirable goal is to target drugs to tissues exhibiting abnormal electrical activity, while leaving normal channels in active tissues unaffected. Also, identifying new ion channels, testing their functions, and validating them as drug targets are current efforts of many biotech companies and academic researchers. [0015] Ion Channels in Drug Discovery [0016] Ion channels are of particular importance in the pharmaceutical industry in two areas: ion channels as drug targets and ion channel safety pharmacology. Ion channels are significant targets in the drug discovery process, generating several billion dollars in sales per annum. Abnormal ion channel function or ion channel expressions have been linked to a number of therapeutic areas (i.e. cardiac arrhythmia, hypertension, epilepsy, pain). Ion channel modulator drugs for these have yet to be developed. Many pharmaceutical companies have active ion channel drug development projects or programs. Additionally, a number of biotech or biopharmaceutical companies focus exclusively on ion channel drug development (ChanTest, Cleveland, Ohio; BioFocus, Cambridge, UK; Icagen, Durham, N.C.). [0017] Ion channels are involved in many vital functions, and any dysfunction of ion channels caused by changes in biochemical regulation, expression levels, or structural mutations can impact the well-being of living organisms. In humans, inherited or induced changes in ion channel function could result in serious complications to health. Several disease states are related to dysfunctional ion channels. Ion channel defects produce a clinically diverse set of disorders that vary from cystic fibrosis and some forms of migraine to renal tubular defects and episodic ataxias. [0018] In particular, ion channels have been implicated in cardiac arrhythmias, familial periodic paralyses, cystic fibrosis, epilepsy, diabetes, asthma, angina pectoris, malignant hyperthermia, pain, hypertension, epilepsy, etc. Ion channels represent key molecular targets for drug discovery. Pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies have successfully targeted ion channels in their bid to make new more effective drugs. Now various ion channel blockers or openers are being used and evaluated as therapeutic drugs for a variety of diseases. [0019] Voltage-gated calcium ion channels are involved in numerous cellular functions, and their role in generating a defined disease phenotype is complex. Certain types of calcium-channels may play a role in nociception and migraine pathophysiology. In human medicine, calcium-channel blockers are being evaluated for, among other things, treating glaucoma, deep vein thrombosis, and pulmonary hypertension, in renal transplantation, and for prevention of perfusion injury. [0020] Several voltage-dependent calcium channels blockers have been shown to be effective in inhibiting pain. Furthermore, blockage of so-called non-L-type calcium channels was found to exert therapeutic effects in the treatment of severe pain and ischemic stroke. [0021] Dysfunction of potassium channels has been associated with the pathophysiology of a number of neurological, as well as peripheral, disorders (e.g., episodic ataxia, epilepsy, neuromyotonia, Parkinson's disease, congenital deafness, long QT syndrome). [0022] Activation of potassium ion channels generally reduces cellular excitability, making potassium-channel openers potential drug candidates for the treatment of diseases related to hyperexcitability such as epilepsy, neuropathic pain, and neurodegeneration. [0023] Most notably, mutations of the HERG potassium ion channels expressed in cardiac tissues or pharmacological blockage of HERG channels cause heart disease (long Q-T syndrome), which leads to increased risk of ventricular tachycardia and sudden death. Several drugs affect these channels and can lead to life threatening cardiac arrhythmias. In this perspective, drug discovery companies usually find it necessary to evaluate each of their drug candidates for interference with these channels. Thus, many companies conduct HERG testing before any further investigation is carried out. [0024] The dynamic nature of sodium ion channel expression makes them important targets for pharmacological manipulation in the search for new therapies for pain. For example, mutations in the gene encoding the alpha subunit of sodium-channels have been linked to paroxysmal disorders such as epilepsy, long QT syndrome, hyperkalemic periodic paralysis in humans and to motor endplate disease and cerebellar ataxia in mice. Voltage-gated sodium ion channel have been shown to be key mediators of the pathophysiology of pain. One of the most frequently used anesthetic drugs used is Lidocain, which inhibits sodium ion channels. Changes in brain sodium-channels may be a cause of central pain, and further, abnormal expression of sodium-channel genes and its contributions to hyperexcitability of primary sensory neurons have been discussed. Recently, sensory-neuron-specific (SNS) TTX-resistant sodium-channels have been examined for their role in nociception and pain. This study suggests that blockage of SNS expression or function may produce analgesia. [0025] Experimental Approaches for Ion Channel Research [0026] The preferred method for studying ion channels is the patch clamp method (Neher, E. and Sakmann, B., Nature 260(5554): 799-802 (1976); Hamill, O. P., et al., Pflugers Arch. 391(2): 85-100 (1981)). [0027] This technique consists of contacting a cell with the tip of a very clean glass micropipette (diameter of about 1 μm), and obtaining a high resistance seal (leakage resistance >1 GOhm, GigaSeal) between the glass and the cell surface by applying gentle suction. Next, by applying greater suction or a large voltage, it is possible to break the intra-pipette portion of membrane and thereby make direct electrical contact between the cell interior and the pipette electrode (whole-cell configuration of patch clamp method). Different voltages can then be applied to the pipette electrode, and the currents measured represent the current through the cell membrane, which includes the integral current through the ion channels present. [0028] To date, the patch-clamp method has been considered the industry gold standard for monitoring ion channel activity. The patch-clamp directly records ion channel activity, has sub-millisecond temporal resolution, very high information content and is extremely sensitive—including the ability to study “single” ion channels. Due to its high information content, patch-clamp-based screening has very low rate of “false negatives” and “false positives”. [0029] Although this technique allows detailed biophysical characterization of ion channel activation, inactivation, gating, ion selectivity, and drug interactions, throughput is quite low and ease-of-use of patch-clamp instrumentation is generally unsatisfactory for effective mass screening. The demands of ion channel high throughput screening (“HTS”) include robust instrumentation and high signal-background ratio combined with satisfactory ease-of-use. Historically, ion channel HTS is equated with low information content, emphasizing the need for novel rapid and easy methods in which more useful information can be gathered about membrane potential changes in various cell types. [0030] Ion Channel HTS Approaches [0031] Traditionally, HTS technologies employed for ion channel primary screening rely on binding assays, ion-flux assays and fluorometric approaches. Until now the most significant task for these methods has been to generate enough HTS data with acceptable information content and reliability. [0032] The search for molecules that modulate ion channel function has been hindered by the lack of direct electrical measurements in HTS formats. Membrane excitability in cell-based assays is a dynamic phenomenon that requires fast, precise and accurate measurements to gather high information content data. Real-time measurements of transmembrane potential kinetics that accurately reflect ion channel activity are fundamental to cell physiology, but are difficult to measure in existing HTS format methods. [0033] Reliable and robust high HTS assays for ion channels are important in ion-channel based drug discovery. Ion channels are dynamic proteins, and therefore require assays that “sense” their various functional states. Competition-binding assays, although successfully used for other target classes, often fail to identify ligands that modulate specific ion channel states. Cell-based functional assays, therefore, are preferred for HTS of ion channel targets. [0034] Currently Available Assays [0035] Modern technologies employed for ion channel screening include: binding assays, ion flux assays, fluorometric imaging and electrophysiology. [0036] Binding assays for cell surface receptors are used in screen development and primary screening. This type of assay is frequently carried out using scintillation proximity assay (SPA) or fluorescence detection techniques, which have replaced the older radiolabelled ligands and filtration assays. The SPA technique relies upon excitation of a scintillant microbead upon binding of a radiolabelled ligand to a receptor immobilized on the surface of the bead. [0037] Fluorescence spectrometry is used to measure the binding equilibrium between a fluorophore-labeled ligand and receptor. Unfortunately binding assays only detect binding of compounds to ion channels and do not reveal changes in target function, such as modulation of ion channel kinetics. [0038] Optical readouts of ion channel function are favorable for HTS because they are versatile, amenable to miniaturization and automation and potentially sensitive. [0039] Fluorescence readouts are used widely both to monitor intracellular ion concentrations and to measure membrane potentials. For example, large transient increases in intracellular calcium concentration through activation of ion channels can be monitored using fluorescent probes such as Fluo-3 and Calcium Green. In addition to ion-selective fluorescent indicators, there are several fluorescent dyes that are sensitive to changes in membrane potential, including styryl, bisoxonol, and fluorescence resonance energy transfer-based voltage-sensitive dyes. [0040] For example, the fluorescent dye bis-(1,3-dibutylbarbituric acid) trimethine oxonol, or DiBAC4(3), has been the reagent of choice for measuring membrane potential in HTS formats. Redistribution of the dye in the cellular membrane as a result of depolarizing or hyperpolarizing stimuli in cells causes changes in fluorescence. However, utilization of DiBAC4(3) has several limitations, including slow kinetics (in the seconds to minutes range) and fluctuations in response to changes in temperature and concentration of the dye. In addition, screening experiments using bisoxonol dyes require multi-step procedures and take 30-60 min for dye loading, potentially compromising the fidelity and reducing throughput of DiBAC4(3)-based screening assays. [0041] HTS Patch-Clamp [0042] The patch clamp technique is widely used to study currents through ion channels. The whole-cell patch-clamp is used today in tertiary screening of selected lead molecules in late stages of the drug discovery process. Whole-cell patch-clamp, however, is not suitable for initial high throughput screening. [0043] Although very powerful, this technique is labor-intensive and, therefore, limited to few data point measurements per day. This low throughput has encouraged the use of other less specific and less sensitive technologies for high-throughput screening of ion channel targets. [0044] Optimal HTS Ion Channel Assay Requirements [0045] In high-throughput screening campaigns (200,000+ samples), binding assays remain the first choice in terms of throughput and cost. This reflects the technical ease of performing these types of assays and, hence, their ability to be automated. However, in modern ion channel drug discovery screening, there is a trend toward use of cellular-based functional assays as primary screening tools. [0046] Cellular functional assays are used as primary or secondary assays to determine functionality of compounds from a binding screen and also to assess toxicity. These types of assays are information rich and therefore potentially of significant value in drug discovery. [0047] Identifying targets and putative drug candidates by obtaining as much knowledge as possible per experiment about the effects of each compound is the ultimate goal for initial ion channel screening. [0048] Voltage Sensitive Probes [0049] Currently used fluorescent voltage sensor dyes, which respond to potential-dependent accumulation and redistribution across the cellular membrane, are limited to steady-state assays of membrane potential. This is because the fluorescence response of these dyes occurs minutes after the change in membrane potential. Since voltage sensor dyes are charged they also interfere with the membrane potential caused by the ionic current; to reduce this signal-to-noise effect the dye concentration has to be kept below a certain level. Thus, redistribution-based voltage sensor dyes are prone to false-negatives. In addition, compound-voltage dye interactions can show high false-positive rates. [0050] Voltage-sensing Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) acceptors, for example coumarin-tagged phospholipids integrated into the cell membrane ameliorate many of the problems associated with standard voltage sensors, allowing sub-second kinetic determination. Using high throughput screening FRET-based voltage sensors a throughput of several 96-well plates per hour can be performed with the Voltage Ion Probe Reader (VIPR™), a product developed by Aurora BioSciences (now Vertex Pharmaceuticals, Inc.; Cambridge, Mass.). [0051] Compared with results obtained with traditional patch-clamp method, VIPR assays are less sensitive. The temporal resolution in fluorescence-based ion-channel assays using voltage-sensor dyes reduces the accessible kinetic range relative to patch-clamp-based ion channel assays. [0052] Ion-specific fluorescent probes for intracellular ions have been shown to be useful for ion channel screening. Depending on the application, a number of different dyes are available with different ranges of affinities, of which fluorescent calcium indicators are the most commonly used. A significant disadvantage of calcium dye-based ion-channel assays is their slow kinetic resolution of changes of intracellular calcium concentration, due to uncontrolled or unpredictable cellular processes. This can interfere with assay results. To achieve high throughput and low noise, FLIPR-type fluorescent readers are commonly used in conjunction with calcium-specific dyes. So far only assays involving measurements of calcium channel activity or other non-selective cation channels have proven to be robust enough for effective HTS efforts. [0053] In summary, an optimal HTS ion channel screening method would have high temporal resolution, high sensitivity and high information content, resulting in low rates of “false negatives” and “false positives”. Despite the materials and methods available to study ion channels, there exists a need for new materials and methods that are easy, robust, and useful. [0054] Nanoparticles or Nanocrystals [0055] Numerous studies have been published describing nanoparticles and methods for their use. Semiconductor nanocrystals are sometimes referred to as “Quantum Dots” or “QDots”, although these are registered trademarks of Quantum Dot Corporation (a wholly owned subsidiary of Invitrogen Corp.; Carlsbad, Calif.). Nanoparticles are typically spherical or nearly so, having a central core, a surrounding shell, and optional capping groups, linkers, and other surface-conjugated materials. [0056] Semiconductor nanoparticles are nanometer-scale crystals composed of hundreds to thousands of atoms of an inorganic semiconductor material in which electron-hole pairs can be created and confined. [0057] Specific optical properties of nanoparticles are based on the mechanism of quantum confinement. Quantum confinement is the trapping of electrons or electron “holes” (charge carriers) in a space small enough that their quantum (wave-like) behavior dominates their classical (particle-like) behavior. [0058] In nanoparticles, where motions of electrons/holes are highly limited in three dimensional space, quantum confinement results in a strong increase of optical excitation energies compared to the bulk semiconductor material. For quantum confinement to occur, the dimension of the confining device or particle must be comparable to the electron-hole Bohr radius of the material it is made from. After electron-hole pairs in the core of a nanocrystal are formed upon excitation with light, they can recombine and re-emit light having a narrow and symmetric emission spectrum that depends directly on the size of the crystal. The smaller the nanoparticle core, the bigger the bandgap between the valence and conduction bands, the bluer the emitted photon; and vice versa (redder emission) for larger nanoparticles. [0059] Commercially available semiconductor nanocrystals are comprised of several layers, including a core, an inorganic lattice-matching crystalline shell (to improve the nanocrystal's optical properties and possibly serving to minimize cytotoxicity), and a coating or coatings (to allow water compatibility and for effective interaction with modifiers such as biomacromolecules). [0060] Nanocrystals are used in information technology (the quantum computer), light emitting diodes, lasers, and telecommunication devices, bar coding, photodetectors, optical switching, and thermoelectric devices. Recently, nanocrystals have been used for cell labeling, cell tracking, in vivo imaging, DNA detection, protein labeling, and in other detection modes. [0061] Nanocrystals have excellent optical properties as biological optical sensors, including size-tunable emission, narrow spectral width, broad excitation spectrum, high quantum yields, high two-photon cross-section, and low photobleaching rates. [0062] However, until now biological and biotechnological applications of nanocrystals have been mostly limited to their use as biomarkers rather than as detectors of biological processes. [0063] Applications of nanocrystals in industry include, for example, nanocrystal-based electro-luminescent devices capable of emitting light of various wavelengths in response to external stimuli, where variations in applied voltage could result in change of color of the light emitted by the device. [0064] Many patents and patent publications report nanocrystal compositions, methods for their preparation, and methods for their use. The following collection is a sampling of the research done to date. [0065] U.S. Pat. No. 5,505,928 (issued Apr. 9, 1996) describes methods of preparing III-V semiconductor nanocrystal materials. Examples of such materials include GaAs, GaP, GaAs—P, GaSb, InAs, InP, InSb, AlAs, AlP, and AlSb. The produced materials can be 1-6 nm in size, and are relatively monodisperse. [0066] U.S. Pat. No. 5,990,479 (issued Nov. 23, 1999) describes nanocrystals linked to affinity molecules. Listed affinity molecules include monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies, nucleic acids, proteins, polysaccharides, and small molecules such as sugars, peptides, drugs, and ligands. [0067] U.S. Pat. No. 6,114,038 (issued Sep. 5, 2000) describes water soluble, functionalized nanocrystals having a capping compound of the formula HS(CH 2 ) n X, wherein X is a carboxylate. The nanocrystals also have a diaminocarboxylic acid which is operably linked to the capping compound. [0068] U.S. Pat. No. 6,207,229 (issued Mar. 27, 2001) describes a coated nanocrystal capable of light emission includes a substantially monodisperse nanoparticle selected from the group consisting of CdX, where X=S, Se, or Te; and an overcoating of ZnY, where Y=S, or Se. Methods of preparing the nanocrystals using a first semiconductor core and a precursor capable of thermal conversion into a second semiconductor material that forms a coating layer over the core. [0069] U.S. Pat. No. 6,207,392 (issued Mar. 27, 2001) describes semiconductor nanocrystals having one or more attached linking agents. The nanocrystals can include nanocrystals of Group II-VI semiconductors such as MgS, MgSe, MgTe, CaS, CaSe, CaTe, SrS, SrSe, SrTe, BaS, BaSe, BaTe, ZnS, ZnSe, ZnTe, CdS, CdSe, CdTe, HgS, HgSe, and HgTe as well as mixed compositions thereof; as well as nanocrystals of Group III-V semiconductors such as GaAs, InGaAs, InP, and InAs. [0070] U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,251,303 (issued Jun. 26, 2001), 6,319,426 (issued Nov. 20, 2001) and 6,444,143 (issued Sep. 3, 2002) describe a water-soluble semiconductor nanocrystal. The outer layer of the nanocrystal contains a molecule having at least one linking group for attachment of the molecule to the overcoating shell layer, and at least one hydrophilic group optionally spaced apart from the linking group by a hydrophobic region sufficient to prevent electron charge transfer across the hydrophobic region. [0071] U.S. Pat. No. 6,274,323 (issued Aug. 14, 2001) describes a method of detecting a polynucleotide in a sample, using a semiconductor nanocrystal in an immunosorbent assay. [0072] U.S. Pat. No. 6,306,610 (issued Oct. 23, 2001) describes semiconductor nanocrystals having attached multidentate ligands. The nanocrystals can be associated with various biological molecules such as proteins and nucleic acids. [0073] U.S. Pat. No. 6,322,901 (issued Nov. 27, 2001) describes monodisperse coated nanocrystals that emit light in a spectral range of no greater than about 60 nm full width at half max (FWHM). The spectral range of the nanocrystals is about 470 nm to about 620 nm, and the particle size of the nanocrystal core is about 20 angstroms to about 125 angstroms. [0074] U.S. Pat. No. 6,326,144 (issued Dec. 4, 2001) describes semiconductor nanocrystals linked to various compounds using a linker of structure H z X((CH 2 ) n CO 2 H) y and salts thereof, where X is S, N, P or O═P; n is greater than or equal to 6; and z and y are selected to satisfy the valence requirements of X. [0075] U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,423,551 (issued Jul. 23, 2002) and 6,699,723 (issued Mar. 2, 2004) describe a water soluble semiconductor nanocrystal having a linking agent capable of linking to an affinity molecule. A list of affinity molecules includes monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies, nucleic acids (both monomeric and oligomeric), proteins, polysaccharides, and small molecules such as sugars, peptides, drugs, and ligands. Examples of linking agents include N-(3-aminopropyl)3-mercapto-benzamide, 3-aminopropyl-trimethoxysilane, 3-mercaptopropyl-trimethoxysilane, 3-maleimidopropyl-trimethoxysilane, and 3-hydrazidopropyl-trimethoxysilane. [0076] U.S. Pat. No. 6,426,513 (issued Jul. 30, 2002) describes a water-soluble semiconductor nanocrystal comprising a quantum dot having a selected band gap energy; an overcoating layer comprising a material having a band gap energy greater than the band gap energy of the quantum dot; and an outer layer comprising a compound having a formula, SH(CH 2 ) n X, where X is carboxylate or sulfonate, and n is greater than or equal to 8. [0077] U.S. Pat. No. 6,500,622 (issued Dec. 31, 2002) describes semiconductor nanocrystals having attached polynucleotide sequences. The nanocrystals can be used to determine the presence or absence of a target sequence in a sample. The nanocrystal can be identified using a spectral code. [0078] U.S. Pat. No. 6,548,168 (issued Apr. 15, 2003) describes a method of stabilizing particles with an insulating, semiconducting and/or metallic coating. A particle-coating admixture containing a bifunctional ligand is used to bind a particle to the coating. Examples of bifunctional ligands include 3-mercaptopropyl trimethoxysilane (“MPS”), 1,3-propanedithiol, 3-aminopropanethiol (“APT”), and 3-amino propyl trimethoxysilane (“APS”). [0079] U.S. Pat. No. 6,576,291 (issued Jun. 10, 2003) describes a method of manufacturing a nanocrystallite, the method comprising contacting a metal, M, or an M-containing salt, and a reducing agent to form an M-containing precursor, M being Cd, Zn, Mg, Hg, Al, Ga, In, or Tl; contacting the M-containing precursor with an X donor, X being O, S, Se, Te, N, P, As, or Sb to form a mixture; and heating the mixture in the presence of an amine to form the nanocrystallite. The nanocrystallites can be used in a variety of applications including optoelectronic devices including electroluminescent devices such as light emitting diodes (LEDs) or alternating current thin film electroluminescent devices (ACTFELDs). [0080] U.S. Pat. No. 6,649,138 (issued Nov. 18, 2003) describes a water-dispersible nanoparticle comprising: an inner core comprised of a semiconductive or metallic material; a water-insoluble organic coating surrounding the inner core; and, surrounding the water-insoluble organic coating, an outer layer comprised of a multiply amphipathic dispersant molecule, wherein the dispersant molecule comprises at least two hydrophobic regions and at least two hydrophilic regions. The nanoparticles can be conjugated to various affinity molecules, allowing use in applications such as fluorescence immunocytochemistry, fluorescence microscopy, DNA sequence analysis, fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET), flow cytometry (Fluorescence Activated Cell Sorter; FACS) and diagnostic assays for biological systems. [0081] U.S. Pat. No. 6,815,064 (issued Nov. 9, 2004) describes a nanoparticle containing a Group 2 element, a Group 12 element, a Group 13 element, a Group 14 element, a Group 15 element, a Group 16 element, Fe, Nb, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, or Ni in an inorganic shell around the semiconductor core. The compositions and methods of preparation are proposed to facilitate the overgrowth of a high-quality, thick shell on a semiconductive core by compensating for the mismatching of lattice structures between the core and shell materials. [0082] Despite the materials and methods available to study ion channels, there exists a need for new materials and methods that are easy, robust, and useful. Additionally, there is a need for methods of controlling the membrane potential of cells to facilitate studying the effects of administered materials. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0083] The use of nanostructures to measure or modulate changes in cellular or subcellular membrane potentials is disclosed. Nanostructures associated with cells respond to changes in membrane potential, and can be easily monitored. The methods can be used to monitor the effects of added external agents on cellular membrane potential. DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES [0084] The following figures form part of the present specification and are included to further demonstrate certain aspects of the present invention. The invention may be better understood by reference to one or more of these figures in combination with the detailed description of specific embodiments presented herein. [0085] FIG. 1 shows the effect of electrophysiological stimulation on cells containing intracellular nanoparticles. The upper trace shows the change in fluorescence intensity of semiconductor nanocrystals inside the cell in response to change in transmembrane potential using the patch-clamp method. The x-axis is time in seconds; the y-axis is Arbitrary Units. Semiconductor nanocrystals were loaded inside cell through patch pipette. The lower trace represents the corresponding voltage stimulation protocol along the same time scale. [0086] FIG. 2 shows the effect of electrophysiological stimulation on cells containing intracellular lipid-modified nanoparticles. The upper traces show the change in fluorescence intensity of phospholipid-functionalized semiconductor nanocrystals in response to change in transmembrane potential using the patch-clamp method from three areas of interest (2 cells and background). Cell # 1 was exposed to voltage stimulation, while cell # 2 was not exposed to voltage stimulation. Semiconductor nanocrystals were applied to the extracellular side of the cellular membrane. The lower trace represents the corresponding voltage stimulation protocol along the same time scale. [0087] FIG. 3 shows the results of monitoring transient changes in cells caused by addition of a high concentration of potassium chloride (100 mM). The circle, diamond, triangle, and square symbols represent different regions of interest (ROI). DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0088] While compositions and methods are described in terms of “comprising” various components or steps (interpreted as meaning “including, but not limited to”), the compositions and methods can also “consist essentially of” or “consist of” the various components and steps, such terminology should be interpreted as defining essentially closed-member groups. [0089] Methods of Assaying Changes in Transmembrane Potential [0090] One embodiment of the invention is directed towards methods for assaying a change in transmembrane potential. The methods can comprise providing at least one target, wherein the target is a cell, cellular fraction, or artificial membrane structure; contacting the target with at least one nanostructure to form a treated target; stimulating the treated target; assaying emission from the nanostructure; and correlating the emission with the change in transmembrane potential. An optional additional step can comprise assaying emission from the nanostructure after the contacting step but before the stimulating step. This additional step can act as a “control” or “blank” measurement. [0091] The target can be one or more intact cells, can be one or more cellular fractions, or one or more artificial membrane structures. Examples of cellular fractions include any luminal organelles such as nucleus, ribosomes, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, vacuoles, synaptic vesicles and lysosomes. Examples of the artificial membrane structures include phospholipid micelles, micro- and nanocapsules and semi-liquid films on supportive structures. The contacting step can comprise introducing the nanostructure into the target. Alternatively, the contacting step can comprise introducing the nanostructure into a cellular membrane of the target. The nanostructure can alternatively be introduced onto or near a cellular membrane of the target. Nanostructures “near” the target are sufficiently close in proximity so as to be able to detect changes in transmembrane potential. As an example, nanostructures closer than about 100 microns are sufficiently near a target so as to have this property. [0092] The target can be stimulated by a wide variety of methods. Examples of such stimulation methods include electrical stimulation, magnetic stimulation, chemical stimulation, biological stimulation, or combinations thereof. Examples of electrical stimulation include the use of a patch clamp, and application of an external electric field. Examples of chemical stimulation include contacting the target with a potassium salt or a sodium salt, or with different types of intramembrane pore-forming molecules. Examples of biological stimulation include activating the target with a light-sensitive ion channel, or contacting the target with the chemical entities, acting as modifiers of ion channel activity. Examples of magnetic stimulation include activating the target with alternating electromagnetic field of the appropriate frequency and amplitude. [0093] Targets can be electrically stimulated by a variety of methods. One stimulation protocol (voltage amplitudes and duration of stimulation) is often chosen based on activation kinetics of the ion channel of interest. For example, targets can be maintained at a first membrane potential voltage, subjected to a depolarizing pulse at a second membrane potential voltage, and returned to the first membrane potential voltage. The second membrane potential voltage is typically more positive than the first membrane potential voltage, but it is possible that the first membrane potential voltage is more positive than the second membrane potential voltage. For example, the first membrane potential voltage can be negative, while the second membrane potential voltage can be positive. An example is −70 mV for the first membrane potential voltage, and +40 mV for the second membrane potential voltage. Alternatively, the first or second membrane potential voltage can be 0 mV. Examples include −200 mV for the first membrane potential voltage, and 0 mV for the second membrane potential voltage. An additional example is 0 mV for the first membrane potential voltage, and 200 mV for the second membrane potential voltage. Specific examples of first membrane potential voltages and second membrane potential voltages can be independently selected from about −200 mV, about −180 mV, about −160 mV, about −140 mV, about −120 mV, about −100 mV, about −80 mV, about −60 mV, about −40 mV, about −20 mV, about 0 mV, about 20 mV, about 40 mV, about 60 mV, about 80 mV, about 100 mV, about 120 mV, about 140 mV, about 160 mV, about 180 mV, about 200 mV, and ranges between any two of these values. [0094] Alternatively, more complicated voltage patterns can be used in the methods. The methods can further comprise exposing the targets to at least one step voltage prior to subjecting them to the depolarizing pulse at a second membrane potential voltage. The step voltage is an intermediate voltage between the first membrane potential voltage and the second membrane potential voltage. The step voltage can be used to measure leak subtraction. For example, a first membrane potential voltage of −80 mV, a step voltage of −50 mV, and a second membrane potential voltage of 20 mV can be used. [0095] The depolarizing pulse can generally be applied for any length of time. For example, the depolarizing pulse can be applied for up to about 5000 seconds. Examples of the length of time include about 10 microseconds, about 1 milliseconds, about 10 milliseconds, about 100 milliseconds, about 1 second, about 2 seconds, about 3 seconds, about 4 seconds, about 5 seconds, about 10 seconds, about 20 seconds, about 30 seconds, about 40 seconds, about 50 seconds, about 60 seconds, about 70 seconds, about 80 seconds, about 90 seconds, about 100 seconds, about 500 seconds, about 1000 seconds, about 2000 seconds, about 3000 seconds, about 4000 seconds, about 5000 seconds, and ranges between any two of these values. [0096] The one or more cells can generally be any type of cells which have a membrane and membrane potential. For example, the cells can be bacterial (Gram-positive or Gram-negative), eucaryotic, procaryotic, fungal, insect, avian, reptilian, oocyte, fly, zebrafish, nematode, fish, amphibian, or mammalian cells. The methods can also be used on non-cell materials such as artificial membranes, liposomes, and phospholipid bilayers. Examples of primary mammalian cells include human, mouse, rat, dog, cat, bear, moose, cow, horse, pig, or Chinese hamster ovary (“CHO”) cells. Other examples of types of cells include immune system cells (e.g., B-cells, T-cells), oocytes, red blood cells, white blood cells, neurons, epithelial, glia, fibroblast, cancer cells, and immortalized cells. [0097] The nanostructures can be introduced into the target by a number of methods. Examples of such methods include use of a patch pipette, passive or active uptake via endocytosis or other uptake mechanisms, electroporation, liposome-mediated delivery, pluronic block copolymer-mediated delivery, cell-penetrating peptide-mediated uptake, protein-mediated uptake, microinjection, transfection, viral delivery, optoporation, pore-forming substrates, membrane intercalators, or combinations thereof. [0098] Methods of nanostructures loading into the cellular membrane (or other kinds of membranes mentioned above) include the immobilization of the nanostructures onto the supportive structures (for example, onto the bottom of a well in the microtiter plate) and subsequent addition of solution containing cells to an experimental chamber (such as a microtiter plate well). [0099] The nanostructures can generally be any nanostructures. Examples of nanostructures include a nanocrystal, a film, a nanowire, a patterned substrate, and a mesh. Nanoparticles can generally be any nanoparticles. Semiconductor nanoparticles or nanocrystals typically have a semiconductor core, a shell, and optionally, one or more surface treatments. Semiconductor nanoparticles are commercially available from companies such as Quantum Dot Corp. (a wholly owned subsidiary of Invitrogen Corp.; Carlsbad, Calif.) and Evident Technologies (Troy, N.Y.). There also exist many published descriptions of the preparation of nanoparticles. [0100] The semiconductor core and shell can independently be made of a material of an element from Group 2 or 12 of the Periodic Table of the Elements, and an element selected from Group 16 of the Periodic Table of the Elements. Examples of such materials include ZnS, ZnSe, ZnTe, CDs, CdSe, CdTe, HgS, HgSe, HgTe, MgS, MgSe, MgTe, CaS, CaSe, CaTe, SrS, SrSe, SrTe, BaS, BaSe, and BaTe. Alternatively, the semiconductor core and shell can independently be made of a material made of an element from Group 13 of the Periodic Table of the Elements, and an element from Group 15 of the Periodic Table of the Elements. Examples of such materials include GaN, GaP, GaAs, GaSb, InN, InP, InAs, and InSb. Alternatively, the semiconductor core and shell can independently be made of a material made of an element from Group 14 of the Periodic Table of the Elements. Examples of such a material include Ge, and Si. Alternatively, the semiconductor core and shell can independently be made of lead materials such as PbS or PbSe. The semiconductor core and shell can be made of alloys or mixtures of any of the above listed materials as well. [0101] The semiconductor nanocrystal can generally be of any size (average diameter), but typically are about 0.1 nm to 1000 nm in size. More narrow ranges of sizes include about 0.1 nm to about 1 nm, about 1 nm to about 50 nm, and about 1 nm to about 20 nm. Specific size examples include about 0.1 nm, about 0.5 nm, about 1 nm, about 2 nm, about 3 nm, about 4 nm, about 5 nm, about 6 nm, about 7 nm, about 8 nm, about 9 nm, about 10 nm, about 11 nm, about 12 nm, about 13 nm, about 14 nm, about 15 nm, about 16 nm, about 17 nm, about 18 nm, about 19 nm, about 20 nm, about 25 nm, about 30 nm, about 35 nm, about 40 nm, about 45 nm, about 50 nm, and ranges between any two of these values. [0102] A typical single-color preparation of nanoparticles has crystals that are preferably of substantially identical size and shape. Nanocrystals are typically thought of as being spherical or nearly spherical in shape, but can actually be any shape. Alternatively, the nanocrystals can be non-spherical in shape. For example, the nanocrystal's shape can change towards oblate spheroids for redder colors. It is preferred that at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, and ideally about 100% of the particles are of the same size. Size deviation can be measured as root mean square of the diameter, with less than about 10% root mean square being preferred. Size deviation can be less than about 10% rms, less than about 9% rms, less than about 8% rms, less than about 7% rms, less than about 6% rms, less than about 5% rms, or ranges between any two of these values. Such a collection of particles is sometimes referred to as being “monodisperse”. [0103] It is well known that the color (emitted light) of the semiconductor nanocrystal can be “tuned” by varying the size and composition of the nanocrystal. Nanocrystals preferably absorb a wide spectrum of wavelengths, and emit a narrow wavelength of light. The excitation and emission wavelengths are typically different, and non-overlapping. The width of emission is preferably less than about 50 nm, and more preferably less than about 20 nm at full width at half maximum of the emission band (FWHM). Examples of emission widths (FWHM) include about 50 nm, about 40 nm, about 30 nm, about 20 nm, and about 10 nm. The emitted light preferably has a symmetrical emission of wavelengths. The emission maxima can generally be at any wavelength from about 200 nm to about 2000 nm. Examples of emission maxima include about 200 nm, about 400 nm, about 600 nm, about 800 nm, about 1000 nm, about 1200 nm, about 1400 nm, about 1600 nm, about 1800 nm, about 2000 nm, and ranges between any two of these values. [0104] Nanoparticles can also have a metal core, and in some cases, a surrounding shell structure. The metal core can be made from noble metals. Examples of such metals include silver, gold, and copper. [0105] The nanoparticles can have surface coatings adding various functionalities. For example, the nanocrystals can be coated with lipids, phospholipids, fatty acids, polynucleic acids, polyethyleneglycol, primary antibodies, secondary antibodies, antibody fragments, protein or nucleic acid based aptamers, biotin, streptavidin, proteins, peptides, small organic molecules, organic or inorganic dyes, precious or noble metal clusters. [0106] Alternatively, the nanoparticles can be made from a range of inorganic materials, including silicon, alumina, zirconia, ceria, yttria and oxides of tin and zinc. For example, silicon nanoparticles possess many of the advantageous features of compound semiconductor nanocrystals, such as size-tunable luminescence across the visible spectrum. In addition, silicon nanoparticles also low toxicity, high biocompatibility, efficient and stable surface functionalization, and potential low cost. [0107] The use of nanoparticles in ion channel assays has multiple desirable features. Since nanoparticles have rapid response times, distinctive voltage dependencies are difficult to unintentionally inactivate, and the nanoparticles can provide a direct optical readout of voltage gradient changes across a membrane. The nanoparticles also possess other desirable qualities such as low toxicity, high photo-stability, the ability to be used in multiplexing applications, and their ability to be targeted using conjugated or otherwise associated materials. [0108] Spectral characteristics of nanoparticles can generally be monitored using any suitable light-measuring or light-accumulating instrumentation. Examples of such instrumentation are CCD (charge-coupled device) cameras, video devices, CIT imaging, digital cameras mounted on a fluorescent microscope, photomultipliers, fluorometers and luminometers, microscopes of various configurations, and even the human eye. The emission can be monitored continuously or at one or more discrete time points. The photostability and sensitivity of nanoparticles allow recording of changes in electrical potential over extended periods of time. [0109] Additional methods of assaying the emission from the nanostructure include measuring changes in light intensity, light polarization, light absorption, color of the emission, emission lifetime or half-life, or the “blinking” pattern. [0110] An additional embodiment of the invention is directed towards nanoparticles coated with phospholipids. An example of such a nanocrystal is a commercially available phospholipid-coated Maple Red-Orange EviTag-T2 nanocrystal (Evident Technologies; Troy, N.Y.). There also exist published descriptions on preparation of lipid coated semiconductor nanocrystal materials. [0111] Methods for the Excitation of Cells [0112] An additional embodiment of the invention is directed towards the use of nanostructures to control the transmembrane potential of cells. Optical methods are attractive for use in biological applications due to their non-invasive nature and ease of use. For example, photo-induced electrical excitation of neuronal cells has been demonstrated using a film of semiconductor material (Frohmherz, P. and Stett, A., Phys. Rev. Lett. 75(8): 1670-1673 (1995); Starovoytov, A. et al., J. Neurophysiol. 93(2): 1090-1098 (2005)). Neuronal cells were attached to a thin film of a semiconductor material, achieving close contact of the extracellular membrane and the semiconductor surface. Illumination of the substrate with a laser beam has been shown to electrically excite the cells attached to the semiconductor surface. [0113] Nanostructures such as nanoparticles exposed to light can act as a generator of a local electromagnetic field in their vicinity. The effect is believed to be due to creation of free charge carriers (electron-hole pairs upon illumination of nanoparticles) and consecutive charge separation. The currently proposed mechanism of action is electrostatic coupling of the cellular membrane and the surface of semiconductor, effectively forming a capacitor. When nanoparticles are placed in close proximity to a cell, the cumulative electromagnetic field generated by photo-excited nanoparticles will interact with the cellular transmembrane electrical gradient, resulting in an electromagnetic field that dictates the cellular membrane potential. Local depolarization of part of cellular membrane may be sufficient to generate depolarization in the whole cell. [0114] In addition to use of the above described nanocrystals, modified nanoparticles can be used to achieve a strong, stable, and controllable local electric field. Such modifications include high surface charge (e.g. CdTe/CdSe as core/shell combination), doping nanoparticles with materials that would act as donors or acceptors of one type of free charge carriers, creating nanoparticles with p- or n-type surface traps, conjugation of molecules that would contribute to a charge separation, and so on. Active generation of a cellular transmembrane potential can be achieved through use of nanoparticles that can convert light into electric power. [0115] In conventional solar cells, electron-hole pairs are created by light absorption in a semiconductor core, with charge separation and collection accomplished under the influence of electric fields within the core. [0116] As nanoparticles are approximately the same thickness as a cellular membrane, insertion into the membrane exposes the poles of the nanoparticle to both the extra- and intracellular space. Upon illumination with light, nanoparticles become a path for free charge carrier flow through the membrane, passing an electric current and in turn affecting the transmembrane potential. This way, voltage control over the cell could be achieved by changing, for example, the incident light's intensity and/or polarization. [0117] Nanoparticles can be synthesized in shapes of different complexity such as spheres, rods, discs, triangles, nanorings, nanoshells, tetrapods, and so on. Each of these geometries have distinctive properties: spatial distribution of the surface charge, orientation dependence of polarization of the incident light wave, and spatial extent of the electric field. Non-uniform coating of nanoparticles with a dielectric material (such as phospholipids) can also help guide the free charge carriers from one side of the membrane to the other. [0118] In order to manipulate free charge carrier concentration and mobility, nanoparticles can be doped with impurities such as indium, phosphorus, boron, and aluminum, and so on. A blend of nanoparticles and organic polymers may be advantageous for this application as nanoparticles are highly efficient in conducting electrons, whereas polymers are better at conducting holes. Functionalization of semiconductor nanoparticles with chromophores could also optimize this application by separating photon absorption from free charge carrier transport. [0119] Accordingly, methods for the optical control of the transmembrane potential of a target can comprise providing at least one target, wherein the target is a cell or cellular fraction; contacting the target with at least one nanostructure under conditions suitable for interaction or insertion of the nanostructure with a cellular or subcellular membrane to prepare a treated target; delivering energy to the treated target; and detecting response of the target. [0120] The cells can be any of the cells described above. The nanostructure can be any nanostructure including any of the nanostructures described above. [0121] The conditions suitable for interaction or insertion can include a variety of methods. Examples of such methods include passive or active uptake via endocytosis, electroporation, liposome-mediated delivery, pluronic block copolymer-mediated delivery, cell-penetrating peptide-mediated uptake, protein-mediated uptake, microinjection, transfection, viral delivery, optoporation, pore-forming substrates, membrane intercalators, or combinations thereof. [0122] The delivering energy can include delivering light, electrical energy, magnetic energy, and so on. The delivering energy step can be performed by essentially any illumination method, including laser illumination, mercury lamp illumination, xenon lamp illumination, halogen lamp illumination, LED illumination, and so on. An illuminating step is preferably performed at a wavelength or wavelength range suitable for absorption by the nanostructure. [0123] The detecting step can be performed using a variety of methods using any suitable light-measuring or light-accumulating instrumentation. Examples of such instrumentation are a camera, a digital camera, a video camera, a CMOS camera, a CCD camera, a digital camera mounted on a fluorescent microscope, a photomultiplier, a fluorometer, a luminometer, a microscope, and even the human eye. The cellular response can be monitored continuously or at one or more discrete time points. [0124] Alternatively, the detecting step can include use of a secondary detection mechanism. An example of such a secondary detection mechanism is the use of fluorescence resonance energy transfer (“FRET”). With FRET, the nanostructure can transfer its energy to a second molecule that then emits a detectable signal. Additional secondary detection mechanisms rely on changes in a cell that can be independently detected. For example, the cell may undergo lysis. Alternatively, the cell may undergo a chemical change, increasing or decreasing the concentration of one or more chemical or biochemical agents that can be independently measured. [0125] At least one additional material can be added to the at least one cell or to the treated cell to assay the cellular response to the additional material. For example, the cell can be first contacted with the at least one nanoparticle, illuminated, and the cellular response detected as a “control” sample. The treated cell can then be contacted with the additional material to prepare a material-treated cell, illuminated, and detected. This second cellular response can be compared with the first (control) cellular response. A difference between the first cellular response and the second cellular response would indicate whether the addition of the material had any effect on cellular behavior. A different additional material, or an additional dose of the same additional material can be added, followed by illumination and detection of a third cellular response. This can be done in a serial manner any number of times. For example, increasing dosages of a material can be detected, resulting in a third cellular response, a fourth cellular response, a fifth cellular response, a sixth cellular response, and so on. These serial cellular responses can be plotted or otherwise compared, and the effects of the serial treatments can be determined. [0126] Alternatively, “control” and “test” samples can be performed in parallel. For example, a first cell can be contacted with a nanoparticle, illuminated, and the control cellular response detected. In parallel, either serially or simultaneously, a second cell can be contacted with a nanoparticle and a test material, illuminated, and the test cellular response detected. The control cellular response and the test cellular response can be compared. [0127] The at least one additional material can generally be any material. Examples of such materials include drug candidates, modulators of cellular function, molecular moieties for enhanced drug delivery, molecular probes candidates, and so on. [0128] Assay Materials [0129] An additional embodiment of the invention is directed towards one or more containers having a layer of nanostructures deposited on one or more surfaces. For example, the container can be a test tube, centrifuge tube, or microtiter plate (e.g., 96 or 384 well plate). The entire inner surface of the tube or plate's wells can be coated with the nanostructures mentioned above. Alternatively, the lower or bottom inner surface of the tube or wells can be coated with the nanostructures. These assay materials can be stored for subsequent use with cells or other biological or artificial membrane materials. [0130] The following examples are included to demonstrate preferred embodiments of the invention. It should be appreciated by those of skill in the art that the techniques disclosed in the examples which follow represent techniques discovered by the inventor(s) to function well in the practice of the invention, and thus can be considered to constitute preferred modes for its practice. However, those of skill in the art should, in light of the present disclosure, appreciate that many changes can be made in the specific embodiments which are disclosed and still obtain a like or similar result without departing from the scope of the invention. EXAMPLES Example 1 Preparation of Cells on Coverslips [0131] Experiments were performed on A431 (a human cell line from an epidermoid carcinoma) cells or CHO (Chinese hamster ovary) cells stably expressing M1 muscarinic G q -protein coupled receptor using nanoparticles commercially available from Quantum Dot Corp. (a wholly owned subsidiary of Invitrogen Corp.; Carlsbad, Calif.) and Evident Technologies (Troy, N.Y.). The intracellular (pipette) solution (pH 7.3) was composed of 140 mM CsCl, 10 mM EGTA, 10 mM HEPES. The extracellular solution (pH 7.4) was composed of 140 mM NaCl, 5 mM KCl, 1.8 mM CaCl 2 , 1 mM MgCl 2 , 10 mM EGTA, 10 mM glucose, 10 mM HEPES. [0132] In experiments with extracellular delivery of nanoparticles, several types of commercially available nanocrystals were used. In one series of experiments, streptavidin-functionalized QD605 (Quantum Dot Corp.) in the buffer solution B from the QDot® kit were added to extracellular solution in concentrations from 25 to 500 μg/ml. In another experimental series, non-functionalized Maple Red-Orange EviTag-T2 (Evident Technologies, Troy, N.Y.) were used in the same concentrations. [0133] For experiments with intracellular applications of nanoparticles, streptavidin-functionalized QD605 (Quantum Dot Corp.) were added to the pipette solution in concentrations from 25 to 500 μg/ml. [0134] Glass 18 mm round coverslips with cells plated on the surface were transferred into a special chamber 508SW (ALA Scientific Instruments, Westbury, N.Y.). Control extracellular solution was substituted with semiconductor nanocrystal-containing extracellular solution. After 30 minutes at room temperature, the coverslips with cells were washed with PBS solution until excess free-floating nanocrystals were removed. To visually confirm that washing had removed all free-floating nanoparticles, coverslips were placed under the microscope. If excitation was seen by the naked eye, the washing procedure was repeated two more times. [0135] After the washing procedure was completed, the coverslip was mounted in a microscope chamber and the cells were maintained in buffered EBSS solution during the experiment. Only cells labeled with nanoparticles were chosen for further experiments. Example 2 Use of Patch Pipette [0136] Glass micropipettes for patch-clamp experiments were pulled from borosilicate glass capillaries (1.2 mm no-capillary glass, Sutter Instruments; Novato, Calif.) using a Sutter 2000™ pipette puller (model Sutter 2000; Sutter Instruments; Novato, Calif.) using the prerecorded 4-step patch pipette pulling protocol. The open diameter of the pipette tip was 1.5-2.2 μm with a resistance of 2-3 MΩ. The micropipettes were filled with intracellular solution. [0137] Experiments were performed at room temperature in whole-cell patch-clamp configuration using a Axopatch200B patch-clamp amplifier (Molecular Devices; Sunnyvale, Calif.). After successful giga-seal formation, brief pulses of suction were used to rupture the cellular membrane to achieve whole-cell patch-clamp configuration. [0138] The following test protocol was used for cell stimulation. The membrane potential was set at −70 mV. A depolarizing pulse necessary to take the cell to +40 mV was applied to the interior of the cell for 2 seconds, followed by returning the membrane potential to −70 mV. Example 3 External loading of streptavidin-coated nanoparticles [0139] The emission intensity of externally applied streptavidin-functionalized nanoparticles occurring in response to voltage stimulation of the cell (QD605-streptavidin, Quantum Dot Corp.) was visualized using a cooled CCD Optronics Tec 470 camera (Optronic Engineering, Goleta, Calif.) linked to a computer. Voltage changes elicited across the cellular membrane via patch pipette attached to a cell did not result in changes in the emission intensity of these particular nanoparticles. Nine cells were tested in this series, and none exhibited changes in emission intensity to the voltage stimulation protocol described in the previous example. The streptavidin coating of the nanoparticles used in this example may have prevented the nanocrystals from being strategically placed inside the cellar membrane, the site of the highest membrane gradient. The streptavidin coating of the nanoparticles used in this example may have prevented the nanocrystals from associating with the cellular membrane in such a way that they could effectively monitor the voltage gradient across the membrane. Example 4 Intracellular Loading of Nanoparticles [0140] This example was designed to test the emission of nanoparticles loaded intracellularly in response to a voltage change across the cellular membrane. [0141] It is preferred to position the nanoparticles in close proximity to the cellular membrane in order to achieve modulation of optical signal by voltage. Since the main part of the voltage gradient exists across the cytoplasmic membrane, the nanoparticles located close to the membrane would be exposed to a significant portion of the total electrical gradient. Example 5 Protocol for Intracellular Loading of Nanoparticles [0142] Nanoparticles were added to the patch pipette solution at a concentration of 200 μg/ml. Initial experiments were performed using streptavidin-coated nanoparticles QD605 (Quantum Dot Corp.). A431 cells, plated on glass 18 mm round coverslips were placed into the electrophysiology chamber mounted on a Zeiss Axiovert 100 microscope. [0143] After establishing a whole-cell patch-clamp configuration, several brief pulses of positive pressure were applied to the pipette interior. These small changes of intra-pipette pressure were used to facilitate cell perfusion with the intracellular semiconductor nanocrystal-containing solution. Voltage stimulation experiments on the cells were conducted after loading of nanocrystals was achieved. [0144] The following test protocol was used for cell stimulation. The membrane potential was set at −70 mV. A depolarizing pulse of +40 mV was applied to the interior of the cell for 1 to 2 seconds, and subsequently the membrane potential was returned to −70 mV. [0145] Emission of the nanoparticles was recorded constantly during voltage stimulation of the cell using a CCD Optronic Tec 470 camera (Optronic Engineering; Goleta, Calif.). The effects of the voltage stimulation on emission intensity of nanoparticles are shown in FIG. 1 . Ten of twelve cells responded to the voltage stimulation protocol, as evidenced by a change in semiconductor nanocrystal emission intensity. Thus, the nanoparticles were able to respond to the changes in transmembrane potential by changing their optical characteristics. Example 6 Use of Treated Semiconductor Nanoparticles as Voltage Sensors [0146] One prospective use for semiconductor nanoparticle-based membrane potential-sensitive assays is high throughput screening for drug discovery. One of the major challenges for HTS assays is the ease of voltage indicator loading into cells. Phospholipid-coated quantum dots were selected as an example of a surface-modified nanoparticle for these experiments. [0147] In this example, modified nanoparticles (phospholipid-coated EviTag-T2 (Evident Technologies, Troy, N.Y.)) were applied to A431 cells externally. Cells attached to 18 mm round coverslips were incubated for 45-60 minutes in an extracellular solution containing nanoparticles at 25 to 500 μg/ml. [0148] After incubation, the coverslips and attached cells were placed into a special chamber 508SW (ALA Scientific Instruments, Westbury, N.Y.) on an Zeiss Axiovert 100 microscope, equipped with a CCD camera for optical recordings. After establishing a whole-cell patch-clamp configuration as described previously, voltage stimulation experiments were performed. [0149] The following test protocol was used for cell stimulation. Membrane potential was set at −70 mV. A depolarizing pulse of +40 mV was applied to the interior of the cell for 1 to 2 seconds, and then the membrane potential was returned to −70 mV. [0150] Emission of the nanoparticles was recorded during voltage stimulation of the cell using a CCD Optronic Tec 470 camera (Optronic Engineering, Goleta, Calif.). The effects of the electrophysiological stimulation are shown in FIG. 2 . Of the 8 cells tested under these experimental conditions, 6 cells responded to the voltage stimulation protocol by transiently changing their emission intensity. [0151] These results suggest that nanoparticles having a hydrophobic phospholipid coating can localize in or on the cellular membrane, and therefore, are able to report on the cellular voltage potential. This method of loading the voltage-sensing nanoparticles represents an especially advantageous means to prepare cells for high throughput screening. Example 7 Summary of Results from Examples 1-6 [0152] These results demonstrate that nanoparticles can be used as a self-contained fluorescent voltage indicator. The nanoparticles can be used as a direct optical detection system for changes of the voltage gradient across a membrane. Optimization of delivery and surface modifications can further improve the usefulness of the nanoparticles in the above described methods. Example 8 Patch-Clamp Recordings from Optically Excited Cells [0153] Cells having an expressed ion channel target can be prepared using established cell culture preparation procedures. CHO or A431 cells, plated on round glass 18 mm coverslips will be incubated with a solution containing nanoparticles at appropriate concentrations for 15-60 minutes at room temperature. After the incubation, the coverslips will be washed four times with PBS solution. [0154] Alternatively, glass coverslips or plate wells can be pre-coated with the nanoparticles allowing cells to be seeded on top of the nanoparticle layer. Wells of the plate will be filled with nanoparticle-containing solution at the appropriate concentration. The plate can be stored for several hours under the sterile conditions. [0155] After the nanoparticles-containing solution is washed away, the coverslip will be transferred into a special microscope chamber 508SW (ALA Scientific Instruments, Westbury, N.Y.) and maintained in buffered EBSS solution during the experiment. [0156] Glass micropipettes for patch-clamp experiments will be pulled from borosilicate glass capillaries (Sutter 1.2 mm no-capillary glass) using a Sutter 2000™ pipette puller (model Sutter 2000, Sutter Instruments, Novato, Calif.) using a prerecorded 4-step patch pipette pulling protocol. The open diameter of the pipette tip will be 1.5-2.2 μm. [0157] The micropipettes will be filled with a solution containing 140 mM potassium aspartate, 5 mM NaCl, and 10 mM HEPES (pH 7.35). Voltages and currents will be recorded at room temperature using a Axopatch 200B patch-clamp amplifier (Molecular Devices; Sunnyvale, Calif.). [0158] After establishing the successful Giga-seal, brief pulses of suction will be used to rupture the cellular membrane to achieve whole-cell patch-clamp configuration. The following test protocol will be used for cell stimulation. Brief pulses of excitation light (emitted by laser, or by other light source) will be used to illuminate the patched cell. Voltage and current changes through the cellular membrane will be recorded in the whole-cell configuration. Example 9 Optical Recordings from Optically Excited Cells [0159] Cells having an expressed ion channel target can be prepared using established cell culture preparation procedures. CHO or A431 cells, plated on round glass 18 mm coverslips will be incubated with a voltage sensitive dye (e.g., a semiconductor nanoparticles-based voltage sensor) for 15-60 minutes. After the incubation, the coverslips will be washed four times with PBS solution. [0160] The second step will be an incubation of tested cells with a solution containing nanoparticles at an appropriate concentration for 15-60 minutes at room temperature. After the incubation, the coverslips will be washed four times with PBS solution. After the nanoparticle solution is washed away, the coverslip will be mounted on a microscope chamber and maintained in buffered EBSS solution during the experiment. [0161] Alternatively, glass coverslips or plate wells can be pre-coated with the nanoparticles allowing cells to be seeded on top of the nanoparticle layer. Wells of the plate will be filled with nanoparticle-containing solution at the appropriate concentration. The plate can be stored for several hours under the sterile conditions. [0162] Alternatively, at the beginning of experiment the cell suspension will be incubated with specially prepared suspension of semiconductor nanoparticles. After incubating for 5-60 minutes, the cells will be dispensed into wells of a microtiter plate (e.g., a 96, 384, or 836 well plates). The microtiter plates will be mounted on the microscope stage for the experiment. [0163] Voltage stimulation will be achieved by illuminating the cell suspension with brief pulses of excitation light (emitted by laser, or by other light source). Emission of the nanoparticles will be recorded during voltage stimulation of the cell using a cooled CCD camera (e.g., Optronics Tec 470 (Optronic Engineering; Goleta, Calif.) or XR/MEGA-10Z™ fast camera (Stanford Photonics, Inc.; Palo Alto, Calif.)) linked to a computer. [0164] The emission pattern change of the nanoparticles will indicate the cellular response to excitation by photo-activated nanoparticles on the cell surface. Example 10 First Preparation Method for Target Cells in Microplate Wells [0165] A solution containing non-functionalized Maple Red EviTag-T2 (Evident Technologies, Troy, N.Y.) or streptavidin-functionalized QD605 nanocrystals (Quantum Dot Corp.) at various concentrations were added to the 96-well Microplates (Nunc; Denmark). The pretreated plates were stored under sterile conditions for six hours, allowing the solution to dry, and leaving the layer of nanoparticles on the bottom of the wells. [0166] Experiments were performed on CHO cells stably expressing M1 muscarinic G q -protein coupled receptor. A suspension of cells was added to the plates and incubated for 12-24 hours at 37° C. in the presence of carbon dioxide. [0167] After the incubation, the plates with cells were washed with PBS solution until any excess free-floating cells and nanocrystals had been removed. To confirm that washing had removed all free-floating nanoparticles, plates were visually inspected with a microscope. If excitation was seen by the naked eye, the washing procedure was repeated two more times. After washing, the pates were transferred into PathWay NT screening station (BD Biosciences; San Jose, Calif.) for evaluation. Example 11 Second Preparation Method for Target Cells in Microplate Wells [0168] Cells were plated in 96-well plates. Plates were either glass-bottomed or poly-L-lysine-coated (Nunc; Denmark). Maple Red EviTag-T2 nanoparticles were added to the cell-containing solution. Cells were incubated in the presence of nanoparticles for 15-60 minutes. Any excess nanoparticles were washed away. Plates with nanoparticle-treated cells were placed inside an environmentally controlled chamber of Pathway HT machine (BD Biosciences; San Jose, Calif.). [0169] The series of images of cells from each well were acquired in kinetic mode from several wells consecutively. First ten images in the series were taken as control images to ensure the stability of a signal from labeled cells. The following step was an application of potassium chloride solution into a well. Concentration of potassium chloride solution was chosen to achieve the final potassium chloride concentration of 100 mM thus shifting the membrane potential of cells (to about 0 mV) in depolarizing direction. The optical response of nanocrystal-labeled cells to depolarization stimuli for each individual well was recorded using Pathway HT machine (BD Biosciences; San Jose, Calif.). [0170] After the assays, a series of images were processed using MethaMorph software (Molecular Devices, Sunnyvale, Calif.). Regions of interest were chosen either around the cellular membrane or in extracellular space (control). Example 12 Sensitivity of Externally Applied Nanoparticles to Changes in Cellular Membrane Potential Detected By High Content Screening [0171] CHO cells stably expressing M1 muscarinic G q -protein coupled receptors were plated in 96-well microplates, either glass-bottomed or poly-L-lysine-coated (Nunc; Denmark). Maple Red EviTag-T2 nanoparticles were added to the cell-containing solution. Cells were incubated in the presence of nanoparticles for 15-60 minutes. Any excess nanoparticles were washed away. Plates with nanoparticle-treated cells were placed inside an environmentally controlled chamber of a Pathway HT™ screening station (BD Biosciences; San Jose, Calif.). [0172] A series of images of cells from each well were acquired in a kinetic mode from several wells consecutively. First, several images in the series were taken as control images to ensure the stability of a signal from labeled cells. Next, potassium chloride solution was added into the well. The concentration of potassium chloride solution was selected to achieve the final potassium chloride concentration of 100 mM, thus shifting the membrane potential of cells in a depolarizing direction. The optical response of nanocrystal-labeled cells to depolarization stimuli for each individual well was recorded using a Pathway HT™ screening station (BD Biosciences; San Jose, Calif.). [0173] After the experiments, the series of images was processed using MethaMorph software (Molecular Devices, Sunnyvale, Calif.). Regions of interest (ROI) were selected either around the cellular membrane or in the extracellular space (control). [0174] Depolarization of cells by extracellular application of potassium chloride resulted in transient decrease in optical signal from cells. It should be noted that optical signal from extracellular space exhibited some intensity decrease as well. However, the effect of potassium chloride application in cells was significantly higher. For example, in one experiment, change in the maximum response in cellular membrane from 12 cells was 349±56 AU, whereas signal intensity change for extracellular space was only 191±38 AU (3 ROIs). [0175] On average, background-subtracted signal intensity in cells decreased 17.4±5.1% (number of experiments=8). FIG. 3 represents an example of transient changes in emission intensity from several cells one well in response to cells' exposure to potassium chloride in high concentration. [0176] These results demonstrate that changes in the amplitude of optical signal emitted by nanoparticles associated with the cellular membrane reflects changes in membrane potential, and confirm that nanoparticles can act as a sensor of cellular membrane potential. [0177] All of the compositions and/or methods and/or processes and/or apparatus disclosed and claimed herein can be made and executed without undue experimentation in light of the present disclosure. While the compositions and methods of this invention have been described in terms of preferred embodiments, it will be apparent to those of skill in the art that variations may be applied to the compositions and/or methods and/or apparatus and/or processes and in the steps or in the sequence of steps of the methods described herein without departing from the concept and scope of the invention. More specifically, it will be apparent that certain agents which are both chemically and physiologically related may be substituted for the agents described herein while the same or similar results would be achieved. All such similar substitutes and modifications apparent to those skilled in the art are deemed to be within the scope and concept of the invention.

The use of nanostructures to monitor or modulate changes in cellular membrane potentials is disclosed. Nanoparticles having phospholipid coatings were found to display improved responses relative to nanoparticles having other coatings that do not promote localization or attraction to membranes.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0001] 1. Field of the Invention [0002] The present invention relates to an corrosion monitoring system, which is used to provide an overall assessment of the materials degradation and the condition of protective coatings in a tank structure in which the metal is subject to corrosion, and particularly relating to a corrosion sensor for use in tanks which contain or intermittently contain conductive electrolyte. [0003] 2. Description of the Related Art [0004] Shipboard tanks make up a significant percentage of below deck space in ships and vessels. These tanks are necessary components for the storage of liquids, for example, ballast seawater, compensated fuel/seawater, and a number of other essential liquids. The size and quantity of these tanks vary considerably for each class of ship. Each tank on a ship has a unique geometry, operational use and a set of corresponding environmental factors in which the metals and coatings are exposed. Seawater tanks, used in many ballasting operations, are subject to high salinity conditions, high humidity, the attachment of biological materials to the surfaces and repeated fill/drain cycling. Fuel tanks may be purely fuel storage or in many cases they are compensated with seawater, to minimize hull buoyancy changes as the fuel is consumed. In these compensated tanks, conditions continually vary between a petroleum-based system to that of seawater immersion. Other tanks, such as sewage (combined holding tank) and potable water, are both exposed to unique environments. Tanks are coated differently depending on usage and may or may not have galvanic anode cathodic protection, although all tanks with seawater influx are generally cathodically protected. In addition to basic usage differences, within each tank corrosion conditions and coatings performance may vary considerably. In seawater ballast tanks, areas in residual water are continually immersed in electrolyte and receive cathodic protection most of the time. The corresponding vertical wall areas and overheads undergo routine cycling during normal use and usually have wet/dry conditions along with high humidity and heat. These tanks also contain a significant percentage of structural components, which are difficult to prepare and coat effectively. Overhead coated surfaces, while often wet from condensation and high humidity, fail by effects of gravity and osmotic pressure directly at the coatings surfaces. While each of these areas are exposed to similar conditions, in general, failures for different surfaces may occur at different rates and by different mechanisms. Those tanks located on the ship exterior may additionally receive solar energy and suffer from highly variable temperature and heat cycling effects. [0005] The maintenance of tanks is more than just re-painting the metal surfaces. Tank inspection and assessment alone requires the need for manual opening, gas freeing, staging (if necessary) and entry of trained personnel. In the U.S. Navy alone, thousands of tanks are inspected each year, with an average cost of eight to fifteen thousand dollars per tank. Each tank is typically inspected at least once every dry dock cycle, or nominally at least every 5 to 7 years depending on service or ship class. Once tanks are identified for refurbishment, U.S. Navy fleet tank maintenance costs soar to over $250 million/year It is most cost effective to perform maintenance (staging, surface preparation, coatings application, and galvanic anode replacement) on only those tanks which are in the worst condition, especially where funds and time are limited. In order to accurately determine which tanks require maintenance, all tanks should be monitored, assessed and correctly identified for maintenance either continually or beforehand, so that the maintenance that is performed is done only when the condition of the tank preservation warrants repair. [0006] Typically, a tank preservation system uses dielectric coatings (e.g. paint) as the primary corrosion barrier and a cathodic protection system as a secondary measure to minimize coatings degradation and to prevent galvanic corrosion of the tank material. [0007] The cathodic protection system for a tank typically consists of a number of sacrificial anodes, typically made of a strongly electro-negative metal such as a zinc or aluminum alloy. The sacrificial anodes are often referred to as “zincs”. The sacrificial anodes are distributed through the tank and mechanically attached to the tank walls. Adequate cathodic protection is so beneficial, that in U.S. Navy ships, for example, the anode type and arrangement are defined by a Navy specification. By design, these sacrificial anodes are more “electro-negative” or “anodic” than the tank metal, commonly steel, thus creating a controlled corrosion cell where the sacrificial anode is consumed preferentially to the tank structure. Because the sacrificial anodes are selected to be more negative than most materials, they will also protect other metal components within the tank (e.g. piping, valves, cables). The the protection afforded the tank metal also helps minimize premature coatings failure. [0008] The sacrificial anodes are mechanically attached to the tank walls to prevent them from shifting during ship motions and electrically grounded to the tank walls to allow for the conduction of current from the anode to the tank. For good anode performance, anodes are generally directly mounted to the tank walls/structure. When immersed, the sacrificial anodes corrode to produce ions in the electrolyte (fluid in the tank) and correspondingly supplies electrons (current) through the metallic path to the tank surfaces. Because the sacrificial anodes supply electrons to the tank surfaces, a benign chemical reaction occurs at the tank surfaces using the electrons supplied by the anode, instead of the corrosion reaction which would occur at the tank walls if the sacrificial anodes were not present. Ideally, a sufficient number of sacrificial anodes are distributed throughout a tank, so that all areas and components within the tank are influenced by the sacrificial anodes. More sacrificial anodes may be located at the lower points within a tank with varying fluid levels, such as a ballast tank, or in areas which need more protection (e.g. near Cu—Ni piping which passes through the tank or other non-steel components). Typically, placement of the sacrificial anodes in a seawater ballast tank cathodic protection system is weighted ⅔ towards the bottom surfaces of the tank. [0009] Even when the tank is protected by a good dielectric coating, sacrificial anodes play a significant role. No coating system is perfect, and if a coating is damaged, the exposed bare tank metal will be subjected to the tank fluid, with the exposed area being aggressively attacked and corroded. Even if the damage to the coating is small, corrosion begins, and over time, tends to undercut the intact coating around the damage thus enlarging the area of attack and damage. Coatings damage is a progressive event and a large number of small damage spots can contribute to significant damage. The installation of cathodic protection helps to prevent continued damage at bare areas and minimizes the coating deterioration and undercutting action. [0010] Several events may happen in a tank during the time between tank maintenance. Over time, the coatings system begins to fail and more bare area is exposed. Mechanical damage plays a role, but the coating itself also adsorbs moisture slowly and moisture eventually reaches the metallic surface where corrosion begins. Imperfect or poor coating application may accelerate the moisture absorption effects or target areas which fail sooner. Whatever the failure mechanism, eventually more and more tank metal area requires cathodic protection. As demand on the sacrificial anodes increase to protect more bare area, the sacrificial anodes are consumed faster, because the sacrificial anodes are required to output increasingly greater amounts of current. Eventually, tank coatings failure occurs when the percentage of damage becomes intolerably high or when the cathodic protection system (sacrificial anodes within the tank) can no longer supply enough current with which to protect the amount of bare area. [0011] Maintenance costs in a tank are extremely costly, because the tank requires staging, grit blasting recoating, and installation of fresh sacrificial anodes, under controlled environmental conditions and all in a very difficult non-uniform geometry. Ships with many tanks cannot repaint all tanks on a routine basis and port engineers, with highly limited resources, must decide which tanks must be recoated and when. Tank inspection is necessary in order to identify whether a tank requires maintenance. Most tank maintenance problems fall into several categories often related to the operational aspects of the ship and are roughly identified as: a) Corrosion/structural damage. b) Osmotic disbondment caused by condensation on overhead surfaces. c) Coatings degradation caused by normal deterioration, variable tank levels, wet/dry cycling or depletion of cathodic protection. d) Failure related to substandard coatings. The geometry is often unique for each tank and maintenance procedures are often complicated by many complex structural members and baffles. Working conditions within the tanks are often awkward, difficult, and potentially dangerous. [0017] At present, a “man-in-tank”, visual tank assessment must be performed by a trained tank coatings inspector in order to inspect the corrosion damage to the tank walls, deterioration of the coating system, and condition of the sacrificial anodes. This method of inspection is costly, time-consuming, and typically subjective in nature. Typically, visual tank inspections require that each tank be drained prior to inspection, toxic gas-freed (i.e. per OSHA/NAVOSH requirements) and subsequently certified to contain an atmosphere suitable for human entry. For each inspection, an inspector must go into the tank and visually inspect all tank surfaces and sacrificial anodes. The subjective nature of a visual inspection and difficulty in observing many areas of the tanks may result in missed areas, misinterpretation of corrosion damage, or poor assessment of general coatings deterioration. [0018] With the economic trend toward increased time between overhauls and decreased maintenance costs, it is particularly important that tank conditions be monitored carefully, so that tanks with the greatest maintenance requirements are correctly identified. Optimally, an inspection scenario would rate all the tanks, examine the coatings degradation “trends” within the group and target those tanks within the population that are in the worst condition. Ideally, to perform this task and defray the manned inspection costs, a tank corrosion monitoring system would be available to reduce or eliminate the costly and time consuming visual inspections. The tank corrosion monitoring system could be part of a condition based maintenance plan that would monitor the coatings degradations, analyze data from tank sensors, and compare and trend the tank conditions relative to each other. Further, such a fast, inexpensive tank monitoring and inspection system would allow scarce resources to be devoted to actual tank maintenance, rather than to labor intensive visual inspection. [0019] Because opening and preparing a tank for human entry is so expensive and time consuming, it is optimal to minimize manned inspections and best to schedule all tank repair and coating work possible within the period the tank is staged and available. Typically ship maintenance is planned months prior to arrival of the ship, requiring schedulers to either estimate tank maintenance needs based on historic tank data, or on tank inspection reports, if they are available. If tank maintenance is incorrectly scheduled, based upon inaccurate and dated human inspections, unnecessary funds may be expended to refurbish areas that do not have critical need, and other necessary maintenance, which had been deferred in favor of the tank maintenance, may go undone. [0020] Two major sources of data are available to the corrosion engineer concerning the condition of the tank coatings and the cathodic protection, without the need for extensive instrumentation. First, the electrochemical potential of protected steel can be measured using a standard half-cell, such as a silver/silver chloride (Ag/AgCl) reference cell, as discussed by H. H. Uhlig, “Corrosion Handbook”(1955), the disclosure of which is incorporated by reference. Where steel is protected by a zinc galvanic anode system, any bare steel surfaces and even the coated steel surfaces are polarized in an electro-negative direction forcing the steel surfaces to become cathodic, with respect to the galvanic anode. As long as sufficient anode mass is correctly located within the structure and the cathodic area requiring protection does not exceed the current capacity of the sacrificial anodes, then the surfaces will remain protected, as discussed in J. Morgan, “Corrosion Protection”, 1960, the disclosure of which is incorporated by reference. Changes in either of these states can be measured using appropriate reference half-cells installed in the tank. No convenient, long term monitoring system is available using standard half-cells, however. [0021] Second, each galvanic (sacrificial) anode supplies electrical current as its part in protecting the metal (typically steel) structure. Measuring this level of electrical current allows a determination of how active the sacrificial anodes are, and the level of current and can be used with Faraday's law to predict anode weight loss and thus predict anode life, based on the rate of anode deterioration. A special purpose instrumented anode can be designed whereby the current output can be measured and subsequently gauged depending on the cathodic protection requirements of the tank. This special purpose sacrificial anode does not need to replace an existing sacrificial anode within the tank, but may be added to the tank in order to measure the necessary data. [0022] A tank corrosion monitoring system that accurately monitored the coatings degradations and corrosion level which measures the current output from an instrumented sacrificial anode and measures the potential from at least one reference half cell is disclosed herein. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0023] Accordingly, it is an object of the present invention to provide a tank corrosion sensor system in which a monitoring and overall assessment of the electro-chemical corrosion and coatings condition in a liquid storage tank is provided. [0024] Objects of the present invention are achieved by providing an apparatus which include a half-cells measuring a potential of a tank. The measured potential indicates an amount of corrosion of the tank and the level of tank protection provided by the coatings and cathodic protection system. [0025] Objects of the present invention are achieved by providing an apparatus which includes an anode measuring a current output of a tank. The measured current output indicates an amount of corrosion of the tank and the amount of tank coating degradation. [0026] Objects of the present invention are achieved by providing an apparatus which includes half cells measuring a potential which corresponds to a polarization of a tank. The apparatus also includes an anode measuring a current output of the tank. The polarization and the measured current output together indicates an amount of corrosion of the tank and a level of tank protection provided by the coatings and cathodic protection system. [0027] Objects of the present invention are achieved by providing a method which includes measuring a potential which corresponds to a polarization of a tank. The method also includes measuring a current output of the tank. The polarization and the measured current output together indicates an amount of corrosion of the tank and the amount of tank coatings loss. [0028] Objects of the present invention are achieved by providing an apparatus which includes first means for measuring a potential which corresponds to a polarization of a tank. The apparatus also includes a second means for measuring a current output the tank. The polarization and the measured current output together indicates an amount of corrosion to the tank and the amount of tank coatings loss. [0029] Another object is to provide a fast, objective, effective method for easily comparing ship tanks according to which is most in need of maintenance. [0030] Another object is to provide a corrosion monitoring system which is easily integrated into a condition based monitoring program for a ship. [0031] Another object is to provide a method for evaluating the condition of ship tank coatings so tanks requiring maintenance are objectively identified and ranked in order of greatest need. [0032] Additional objects and advantages of the invention will be set forth in part in the description which follows, and, in part, will be obvious from the description, or may be learned by practice of the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0033] These and other objects and advantages of the invention will become apparent and more. readily appreciated from the following description of the preferred embodiments, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawing of which: [0034] FIG. 1 is a diagram illustrating a tank corrosion monitoring system according to an embodiment of the present invention. [0035] FIG. 2 is a diagram illustrating an instrumented sacrificial anode, according to an embodiment of the present invention. [0036] FIG. 3 is a diagram illustrating potential (E corr ) in negative volts (tank potential referenced to the potential of Ag/AgCl half cell) plotted against the cathodic surface area of a tank. [0037] FIG. 4A is a diagram illustrating a tank polarization analysis for a tank in good condition, according to an embodiment of the present invention. [0038] FIG. 4B is a diagram illustrating instrumented sacrificial anode current output analysis for a tank in good condition, according to an embodiment of the present invention. [0039] FIG. 5A is a diagram illustrating a tank polarization analysis for a tank beginning to deteriorate, according to an embodiment of the present invention. [0040] FIG. 5B is a diagram illustrating a instrumented sacrificial anode current output analysis for a tank beginning to deteriorate, according to an embodiment of the present invention. [0041] FIG. 6A is a diagram illustrating a tank polarization analysis for a tank in an advanced state of degradation, according to an embodiment of the present invention. [0042] FIG. 6B is a diagram illustrating an instrumented sacrificial anode current output analysis for a tank in an advanced state of degradation, according to an embodiment of the present invention. [0043] FIG. 7 is a diagram illustrating tank polarization test results for several tanks, according to an embodiment of the present invention. [0044] FIG. 8 is a diagram illustrating current output test results for several tanks, according to an embodiment of the present invention. [0045] FIG. 9 is a graph of tank polarization test results for tank filling episode in a tank with 9 to 10 year old tank protective coating. [0046] FIG. 10 is a graph of tank polarization test results for tank filling episode in a tank with 1 to 2 year old tank protective coating. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS [0047] Reference will now be made in detail to the present preferred embodiments of the present invention, examples of which are illustrated in the accompanying drawings, wherein like reference numerals refer to like elements throughout. [0048] FIG. 1 is a diagram illustrating a preferred embodiment of a tank corrosion monitoring system 1 for use within a tank 10 , according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention. The corrosion monitoring system 1 is a self contained package intended for in-situ installation within an individual ballast or compensated fuel tank. The corrosion monitoring system 1 includes: two reference half cells 2 a and 2 b , an instrumented sacrificial anode 3 , a cable 4 for suspending the reference half cells 2 a and 2 b within the tank 10 , a magnetic cable tensioner 5 , a datalogger 6 for storage of voltage and current data, and a waterproof electronics enclosure 18 . [0049] The two potential reference half-cells 2 a and 2 b , shown in FIG. 1 , are Silver/Silver Chloride (Ag/AgCl) seawater reference half-cells (sensors). The half-cells are placed at different levels of the tank, in order to gather data at different tank levels. A half-cell 2 a measures the potential E corr of the tank at the location near the half-cell 2 a. [0050] The potential across each reference half-cell 2 a and 2 b is carried in a wire, which is optimally within cable 4 . Cable 4 is suspended vertically in the tank 10 and is magnetically attached to the bottom of the tank by a magnetic tensioner 5 to reduce cable 4 movement. The tank magnetic tensioner 5 is a 130 lb pull ceramic magnet, although other attachment means may be used. The length of the cable 4 is selected to correspond with the geometry and size of the tank 10 . Optimally, the cable 4 is suited to its environment, being, for example, resistant to corrosion and wear and meeting requirements for fuel tank service or seawater SWU (smoke, waterproof, underwater) specification requirements. The cable 4 includes sufficient wires for carrying electric current from the instrumented sacrificial anode 3 and the potential across each reference half-cell 2 a and 2 b . In this embodiment, the cable 4 was a four-wire cable, although three wires would have been sufficient. [0051] The instrumented sacrificial anode 3 is also attached to an end of the cable 4 . The length of the cable, therefore, takes into consideration the desired location of the instrumented sacrificial anode 3 , the distance required for a strain relief loop 8 , and the ease of removing a tank hatch 7 to access the datalogger 6 . [0052] The datalogger 6 , is contained in a waterproof electronics enclosure 18 , which is typically mounted on the inside surface of the tank hatch 7 . The datalogger 6 records potential measurements of the reference half-cells 2 a and 2 b and current output of the sacrificial anode 3 . [0053] Optionally, the electronics enclosure 18 can include additional instrumentation, such as a tank level indicator (TLI) datalogger (not shown). Alternatively, a separate tank level indicator datalogger may be contained in a separate electronics enclosure. [0054] The reference half-cells 2 a and 2 b are suspended within tank 10 with the lower reference half-cell 2 b residing near the tank bottom and the upper reference half-cell 2 a arranged near the middle of the tank to correspond to intermediate and filled states of the tank. Upon filling the tank with seawater, for example, the lower reference half-cell 2 b registers a change in a potential almost immediately as the tank 10 fills. Accordingly, the upper reference half-cell 2 a begins to read a potential once water reaches it. During the fill episode, the sacrificial anodes within the tank (the tank cathodic protection system) have increasingly more wet tank area to protect and thus respond by providing more current. The effectiveness of the sacrificial anodes in protecting the tank from the electrolyte, as the tank fills and stabilizes, may be estimated by the potential across the reference half-cells 2 a and 2 b . Increasing the number of reference half-cells will provide more refined data concerning the anode cathodic protection performance and tank condition, although two reference half-cells s supply a significant amount of information. Analysis of the differential potential measured between the reference half-cells 2 a and 2 b , for example, may provide information about the direction of current flow, the potential distribution within the tank, the general location of surfaces requiring the greatest current demand and, therefore, indirectly, the location of the most significant coatings deterioration. [0055] The placement alone of two half-cells at different heights within the tank would provide tank fill data, as the reference half-cell reads a potential when it contacts the seawater electrolyte. In compensated fuel tanks, the reference half-cells additionally can distinguish between fuel and seawater. Note that although only two reference half-cells are shown in FIG. 1 , in other embodiments, more reference half-cells may be used. Between one and six reference half cells are believed to be sufficient for most Navy ship tanks. [0056] FIG. 2 is a diagram illustrating an instrumented sacrificial anode, according to an embodiment of the present invention. [0057] In the embodiment shown in FIG. 2 , the instrumented sacrificial anode 3 is isolated from the tank 10 metal by a ½″ thick PVC plate 13 with length and width dimensions greater than the instrumented sacrificial anode 3 dimensions. The instrumented sacrificial anode 3 is attached to the tank structure 10 by two 110 lb mounting magnets 17 , securing bolts 31 and 32 . Electrical connection 19 is for electrical attachment between the anode wire 34 and the anode 3 . Typically, anode wire 34 is integrated within the cable 4 . Note that the ½″ PVC plate 13 could have been replaced with some other non-metallic material to electrically isolate the instrumented sacrificial anode 3 from the tank 10 . [0058] In order to provide a low resistance ground connection, the anode wire 34 is attached to the sacrificial anode 3 at electrical connection 19 . The anode wire 34 is of sufficient gauge to carry the magnitude of current without a voltage drop, typically equivalent to that normally provided by the anode at a direct ground metallic connection. The sacrificial anode wire 34 , here contained within cable 4 (shown in FIG. 1 ), connects through the reference half-cell and connects directly to a shunt resistor 9 . The shunt resistor of this embodiment is a low wattage (1-3 Watts), very low resistance (0.1 ohm) resistor and does very little to impede the flow and magnitude of current to ground. Because the shunt resistance is low, the slight voltage drop read across the shunt resistor 9 can be equated directly to the instrumented sacrificial anode current. Electrical leads 33 attached to the ends of the shunt resistor feed into the datalogger 6 and provide both a hull ground reference point and anode current output data, which are stored by the datalogger. [0059] Anode wire 34 within cable 4 enters the waterproof container 18 via a penetration in the watertight bulkhead 23 and correspondingly exits after the shunt resistor 9 in the same manner. [0060] Typically, the instrumented sacrificial anode 3 is selected so that it will behave nearly identically to the actual tans sacrificial anodes, which are distributed in various areas of the tank 10 . The instrumented sacrificial anode 3 shown in FIG. 2 is a type ZHC-24 zinc anode, manufactured in accordance with military specification MIL-A-18001J (a commonly used reference specification for sacrificial anodes). [0061] The current output measurement obtained from the instrumented sacrificial anode 3 provides information on the electrical current required to cathodically protect the nearby tank 10 structure. The cathodic current demand of the tank metal, to which both the instrumented sacrificial anode 3 and the tank's sacrificial. anodes respond, can be directly correlated to the condition of the tank protective coating system, because poor coatings or high bare area percentages will require more sacrificial anode current to protect. The instrumented sacrificial anode 3 current output may be monitored over time to identify relative changes in the integrity of the tank coatings. During fill episodes of the tank with seawater, the instrumented sacrificial anode 3 responds to the increased surface area under immersion. Typically a tank will require a high current demand immediately after filling until the surfaces equilibrate and establish a stable film. Once stable, the current from the tank's sacrificial anodes drops to what is called a “maintenance current density”, which is generally much lower in magnitude and relatively unchanging. Conversely, sacrificial anodes that are unable to sufficiently polarize the structure because of excessive coatings damage will work at maximum output with very little current drop-off until they are depleted. Information about the current output of a tank's sacrificial anodes can be utilized to aid in assessing coatings damage percentages, damage location, tank condition change over time, anode life prediction and overall anticipated coatings life prediction. [0062] The datalogger 6 typically has multiple channels of analog voltage signal recording and can convert information to digital format for display and plotting. Sufficient analog to digital (A/D) channels are typically included to support the potential measurement from the reference half-cells 2 a and 2 b and the current output measurement from the instrumented sacrificial anode 3 . The DC voltage channels within the datalogger 6 that are used for potential recording typically have minimum resolutions of 0.2 mVDC, and the channels used for instrumented sacrificial anode current output recording typically have minimum resolutions of 0.1 mVDC. Most dataloggers 6 may be set to record at intervals from between 15 times a second to once per day. Typically, however, a datalogger 6 is set to one data reading per hour for each sensor. The datalogger embodiment shown in FIGS. 1 and 2 is battery powered, and preferably has at least 1.5 years of dynamic data storage capacity consistent with the one reading per hour data rate. The unit has a data downloading capability to accomodate easy data retrieval from the hatch or other installed location. [0063] When an optional tank level indicator is used, preferably it will be programmed to collect data at a similar interval (e.g. once every hour), so it may easily be correlated with the current output and potential data. [0064] Optionally, the electronics enclosure may contain only a wire junction box, without a datalogger 6 , when the system 1 is electrically wired directly to a ship data storage system outside the tank 10 . Alternatively, the wires carrying the voltage and current from the half-cells 2 a and 2 b and the instrumented sacrificial anode 3 may be routed directly through bulkhead penetrations to an electronics enclosure 18 and datalogger 6 located outside the tank. [0065] Once the system 1 is installed and set to operate, the tank hatch 7 is closed and the tank 10 is sealed for normal operation. To collect data from a hatch mounted 7 configuration, as shown in FIGS. 1 and 2 , the hatch 7 is opened and the datalogger 6 accessed by opening the sealed electronics enclosure 18 . No manned entry into the tank is required to read a datalogger 6 , as the hatch 7 typically can be removed and placed on the deck outside of the tank. In a preferred embodiment, the data is collected from the datalogger 6 via an RS 232 serial connection on the electronics enclosure 18 . [0066] Once collected, the data may be reduced in standard spreadsheet format and graphed for analysis. The following data are typically collected: (1) time to polarization, (2) current output of the instrumented sacrificial anode, (3) polarization level of the tank, (4) number and levels of tank fill episodes, and (5) reference half-cell differential. [0067] The measurement of electro-chemical potential provides a significant amount of information concerning the state of overall tank preservation. In FIG. 3 , the tank potential (E corr ) referenced to a Ag/AgCl half-cell is plotted against the cathodic surface area for a steel tank having 1.2 sq ft of sacrificial zinc anodes for cathodic protection. The cathodic surface area is that area of the tank 10 where coatings have deteriorated or where tank metal is exposed to the liquid in the tank. FIG. 3 illustrates how increased cathodic surface area affects the protection potential of the tank. In real terms, the tank contains a finite amount of sacrificial anodes and as the coatings deteriorate the cathodic surface area increases, as indicated. A rise in cathodic surface area results in the decrease in protection levels for a typical sacrificial anode system. More precisely, a tank with little coatings damage would have potentials near −1.0 V, while one with a large coatings damage percentage would have potentials nearer to a freely corroding steel potential of −0.7 V. For a given distribution of sacrificial anodes in a tank, such as the 1.2 square foot, illustrated in FIG. 3 , the sacrificial anodes have only a finite amount of current capacity available to protect the coated tank surfaces. As the cathodic area increases, (i.e. a deterioration in coated area) the overall potential of the tank begins to fall off toward more electro-positive potentials. At significant coatings damage percentages, the cathodic protection system (the array of sacrificial anodes) is no longer able to maintain potentials at sufficiently negative levels to effectively protect the tank surfaces, and from that point, coatings deterioration will progress at an accelerated rate. Potential measurements, thus, provide a good indication of tank condition, regardless of the method of coatings failure, because the cathodic protection system will compensate for coatings changes. [0068] If a tank has been recently refurbished (i.e. painted with a good dielectric coating), it will have very little surface area to protect and thus reference half-cells will display potentials at or near the reference levels of the sacrificial anodes. As coatings deteriorate, the rate of polarization during filling of a tank will remain fairly rapid except in two cases. First, there may be such a high percentage of tank coating damage that the sacrificial anodes are no longer able to polarize the structure. Hence, the reference half-cell potentials would begin to drift more electropositive, as indicated in FIG. 3 . Second, the sacrificial anodes will gradually be depleted over time to the point that the remaining anode mass has insufficient current capacity to polarize the structure. The use of two or more reference half-cells in the tank, however, provides the ability to track trends in the potential behavior and to compare variations between individual half-cells 2 a and 2 b . An analysis of differential reference half-cell readings can provide some indication as to coatings damage location, especially where multiple readings or a definite trend has been identified. If damage is uniform throughout the tank, then the reference half-cells will likely read similar potentials and correspondingly have similar rates of polarization. As the damage becomes more localized, the half-cell nearest the failed coatings area will typically shift more electro-positive than the remaining half-cells, thus identifying coatings disparities within the tank. [0069] FIGS. 4-6 will illustrate the use of potential measurement and instrumented sacrificial anode current output to determine the condition of tank coatings and sufficiency of the cathodic protection system. The figures show schematic representations of how tank properties change when a tank is filled with a liquid. [0070] FIGS. 4A, 5A , and 6 A show a typical polarization scenario of the tank (as measured by a silver/silver chloride half-cell according to the invention) plotted against time, as the tank is filled and remains full. The resultant polarization provides not only the extent of polarization (level of cathodic protection), but also identifies those tanks that polarize immediately verses those which polarize slowly. Given the fixed tank area and an initial state, each filling episode provides a new polarization curve representative of conditions that currently exist and correspondingly provides trend data for long-term prediction. FIGS. 4B, 5B , and 6 B show the current output as measured from an instrumented sacrificial anode, corresponding to FIGS. 4A, 5A , and 6 A, respectively. At a filling event, the current demand is initially higher and subsequently drops as the surfaces become polarized and less current is required. [0071] FIG. 4A is a diagram illustrating a tank polarization analysis for a newly refurbished tank being filled with a liquid (typically seawater), according to an embodiment of the present invention. Referring now to FIG. 4A , as the tank is filled, the silver/silver chloride potential sensor begins to read when it becomes immersed in seawater, near time zero. Curve 42 portrays the rapid polarization of the tank, from levels near freely corroding steel (−0.6 V), in a negative direction, to values approaching −1.0 V, which is near the maximum zinc anode potential. Potential values more negative than about −0.9 V indicate that minimal or no coating deterioration has occurred, that very little corrosion damage can proceed, and that the tank requires no maintenance. [0072] FIG. 4B is a diagram illustrating the corresponding instrumented sacrificial anode current output data curve 44 for the same recently refurbished tank. Because the tank has been recently refurbished, the current output of the instrumented sacrificial anode is low, since only minimal current is required to polarize the structure. When the tank is filled, the current required by this anode spikes initially, but only to a value less than about ⅓ third of the maximum anode capacity. Immediately, as the tank polarizes, the current begins to drop-off and stabilizes at approximately 75 mA, this stable level referred to as the “maintenance current density”. Three factors are of primary importance in an analysis of the curve: the magnitude of maximum current output, the drop off rate, and the maintenance current density level. Each of these values contributes information concerning tank coatings damage percentages, the ability of the cathodic protection system to protect the structure, and projected anode life. Examination of the current output of FIG. 4B and potential measurement of FIG. 4A provide more information than either FIG. 4B or FIG. 4A alone. [0073] FIG. 5A is a diagram illustrating a tank polarization analysis for a tank with a moderate amount of corrosion/coatings damage being filled with liquid (seawater). Referring now to FIG. 5A , the curve 52 is representative of the same layout as that discussed previously. Because the tank has moderate levels of coatings damage, there is a greater percentage of uncoated steel which requires protection. It would, thus, be anticipated that the sacrificial anodes would be required to supply more current, than seen in FIG. 4B , in order to polarize the structure. FIG. 5A reflects this difference in tank condition, because the time to polarization is increased and the level achieved is only approximately −0.8 V. This level of polarization indicates that the tank is adequately cathodically protected, however, it is likely that further coatings deterioration will lead to less protection and subsequently, to greater sacrificial anode material loss. FIG. 5B is a diagram illustrating instrumented sacrificial anode current output analysis for the same steel tank with a moderate amount of corrosion/coatings damage being filled with liquid (seawater). Correspondingly, curve 54 of FIG. 5B shows that the initial anode current required to polarize the structure is high—near the maximum anode output level of −400 mA. In addition, the current drop-off is slower to occur. It can be observed that the “maintenance current density” value of approximately 175 mA is at a greater value than that shown in FIG. 4B , indicating that the cathodic protection system must work harder to protect the tank, and allowing the conclusion that the tank must have some moderate level of coatings damage. It is likely that the remaining sacrificial anodes in the tank are currently adequate to protect the tank. It may be inferred that the sacrificial anodes will be depleted at a faster rate, and that they will require replacement nearer in the future. A reliable quantitative prediction of anode life may be calculated from the current and using Faraday's law. [0074] FIG. 6A is a diagram illustrating a tank polarization analysis for a severely corroded tank being filled with seawater. Referring now to FIG. 6A , the steel tank 10 is in a condition where the cathodic protection system is unable to polarize the structure because there is an excessive amount of coatings damage. The curve 62 does not approach the −1.0 V level, and in fact, shows almost no tank polarization, thus indicating that the steel remains at a freely corroding potential where severe corrosion and continued rapid coatings deterioration is likely. The potential measurement is well below a specific level desired for even minimal cathodic protection. FIG. 6B is a diagram illustrating a instrumented sacrificial anode current output analysis for the same severely corroded tank being filled with seawater, according to an embodiment of the present invention. The instrumented sacrificial anode curve 64 confirms the fact that the tank coatings are in a severely damaged state and that the steel cannot be polarized by the present cathodic protection system. The initial current output, as shown in the first portion of curve 64 , rapidly reaches the anode maximum output level of approximately 400 mA and drops off only minimally to approximately 375 mA. This drop-off level is not a “maintenance current density”, as evidenced from the inability of the sacrificial anodes to polarize the tank seen in curve 62 . It would be presumed that the remaining anode material would be depleted rapidly. Again, a reliable quantitative prediction of anode life may be calculated from the current using Faraday's law. [0075] Another factor that enters into long range prediction is the fact that as a coating ages, the dielectric properties begin to gradually breakdown and even though the coating has not visually or physically failed, the reduced barrier properties also place increasing demand on the cathodic protection system to protect large coated surfaces of the tank 10 . As with a coatings failure to bare metal, the current output of the sacrificial anodes ultimately increases until a maximum output level is obtained and the cathodic protection system can no longer maintain the same level of polarization within the tank. This condition, very similar to that shown in FIGS. 6A and 6B , would indicate that the coating system retains little if any barrier capability, that the tank is no longer protected by the coating, and that coating replacement is required immediately. [0076] FIG. 7 illustrates how condition ranking of tanks may be accomplished, and is a diagram illustrating actual test results (tank potential measurements over a period of time) from various test installations on different ship tanks. FIG. 7 shows potential data obtained from the upper reference half-cell acquired from five different ship tanks, using the two reference half-cell configuration. The five curves were taken during a single filling event and clearly discerned different tank states. The potential levels were graded into three condition rankings, which corresponded to a traffic light scenario. “Green” tanks were considered to be trouble free (more electro-negative than about −900 mV) and required no maintenance. Tanks which fell into a “yellow” zone ( about −750 mV to about −900 mV) were indicative of increased activity placed on the cathodic protection system and had the requirement for additional current to protect more bare or degrading coatings area. Tanks with nearly freely corroding conditions, fell into the “red” zone (more electro-positive than about −750 mV) and had an unacceptable percentage of corrosion damage. Additionally, the “red” tanks most likely had a failed or significantly overworked cathodic protection system. [0077] FIG. 8 is a diagram illustrating actual prototype instrumented sacrificial anode results from test installations aboard various different ship tanks. The “condition ranking” scenario is an aspect of the embodiment of the invention. In FIG. 8 , the output current from an instrumented sacrificial anode is plotted verses time in hours and corresponds with potential data shown in FIG. 7 . The tanks with newly painted surfaces and low cathodic protection requirements drew a minimal amount of current from the sacrificial anodes. Values for the initial current demand and subsequent drop-off associated with calcareous deposition (stable surface films), were measured and utilized to provide an indicator for long-term requirements on the system. In the tanks where some coatings breakdown had occurred, the sacrificial anodes responded, as expected, and provided an increasing level of current. Once the zinc “maintenance current” output exceeded 75 mA, that tank condition was degraded to the yellow condition state and correspondingly, when the output exceeded 175 mA the condition was changed to a red state. [0078] The curves in FIGS. 9 and 10 show an example of a data set for a filling episode in two tanks with widely variable coatings conditions. FIG. 9 shows potential test data 92 taken from reference cells and current data 94 reported from the instrumented sacrificial anode in a tank with a moderate level (“yellow” condition) of damage. FIG. 10 , shows test data plotted as potential curve 102 and current curve 104 from an adjacent tank on the same ship, with similar geometry and the same quantity of zinc sacrificial anodes, except that this tank had recently been refurbished and had both a good coatings system and good cathodic protection. The instrumented sacrificial anode and reference half-cells were installed in relatively the same locations in both tanks, with the reference half-cells located 1 m above the bottom and 3 m above, respectively. [0079] FIG. 9 represents data for a 9-10 year old tank coating, while FIG. 10 shows data from a 1-2 year old coating system. In the deteriorating tank condition shown in FIG. 9 , the curve 92 indicates that the tank polarized very slowly and did not reach the same level of polarization nor a steady state level of polarization. The corresponding zinc current curve 94 showed an initial spike nearly 4 times that of the newer system of FIG. 1 , followed by a gradual decline in current output that mirrored the slow polarization progress of curve 92 . The final maintenance current output, of approximately 150 mA, was still 3 times that of the newly coated tank for the same duration, indicating a high current demand, and a moderate level of tank coatings damage. [0080] In FIG. 10 , the polarization curve 102 (from the reference half-cells) showed immediate tank polarization along with a corresponding initial spike in the current from the instrumented sacrificial anode 104 . With only minimal current necessary to polarize the tank, the current demand curve dropped to a low steady maintenance current of approximately 50 mA, indicating almost no damage to the tank coatings. [0081] In a preferred embodiment of the invention, a reference half-cell is part of a “plug-in” sensor module. The sensor module includes a reference half-cell and connection points which are easily connected to a length of cable. These sensor modules make installation of the system with various numbers of reference half-cells into a tank much easier and faster, and allow quick changeout of reference half cells when necessary. [0082] In an embodiment of the invention, the tank corrosion monitoring system is used in a condition based maintenance method which monitors tank corrosion and coating condition for a number of tanks, ranks the condition of the tanks, and predicts trends. The data provided by the tank monitoring system is used to determine, for example, the status of coatings and cathodic protection systems, the basic location of the coatings damage, the ability of the cathodic protection system to protect the tank, the predicted remaining life of the sacrificial anodes, and the percentage of coatings damage. Data from different tanks is compared and each tank is ranked according to its relative damage and condition. These trend data are used to determine the tank maintenance needs of each ship, without the need for manned entry or periodic visual inspections. This method works with either good-moderate-poor analysis of the tank conditions or with a detailed analysis of each tank. Results are objective in nature and fully documentable. As part of an overall ship husbandry system, this method can significantly lower costs and shorten ship maintenance times. [0083] In another embodiment, instrumented sacrificial anodes and reference half-cells are installed as a part of an integrated ship tank monitoring system. These components also may be integrated into computer systems which monitor the condition of the ship. [0084] Although the examples provided herein primarily identify tanks as being tanks within a ship, the invention is not so limited. The systems and methods described herein are equally applicable to other tanks which contain or intermittently contain conductive electrolyte, on other types of vessels, or in stationary applications. [0085] Various numerical values and ranges are described herein, however, the present invention is not limited to such values and ranges. Instead, it should be understood that such values and ranges are only examples of specific embodiments of the invention. [0086] Although a few preferred embodiments of the present invention have been shown and described, it would be appreciated by those skilled in the art that changes may be made in these embodiments without departing from the principles and spirit of the invention, the scope of which is defined in the claims and their equivalents.

A system using tank corrosion sensors to provide for an overall assessment and monitoring of the electro-chemical corrosion and coatings condition in ships' tanks, and particularly in ships' seawater or compensated fuel tanks. The system includes reference half-cells mounted along a suspended cable and one instrumented sacrificial anode at the end of the cable to provide optimal sensing capability within a tank structure. The reference half-cells and the sacrificial anode measure a potential and current output, respectively. Together the measurements provide objective information that can be used to predict corrosion damage and coating deterioration occurring throughout the structure of the tank. The system may be used for an overall assessment and monitoring of the electrochemical corrosion and coatings condition. In a preferred embodiment, the measurements are stored in a datalogger that is optimally contained within an associated instrument housing. If used with other systems in other tanks, the system may be used to monitor the relative tank condition, trend tank condition changes over time, range tank behavior into three categories and provide a direct analysis methodology for making tank maintenance decisions.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The prior art is replete with switches of various designs. For instance, the inventor herein joined in the conception and design of the devices taught by U.S. Pat. No. 3,368,049 entitled High Current Radio Frequency Switch, and U.S. Pat. No. 3,394,324 entitled Coaxial Switch. Both of these radio frequency devices, and many conventional switches have incorporated a vacuum envelope within which the contacts make and break a circuit through the switch. The inventor herein has pioneered vacuum-type radio frequency switches and other switches such as exemplified by the above noted patents and U.S. Pat. No. 3,261,953. The disadvantage inherent in a vacuum switch is that the cost of processing the vacuum switch tends to be prohibitive. Additionally, because the atmosphere within the sealed vacuum envelope constitutes a high vacuum, it is especially difficult to achieve movement of parts relative to one another within the vacuum envelope without a certain amount of galling. The reason for such galling is that the surfaces of the metallic parts within a vacuum switch are so clean and free from oxidation that two metal parts that come together tend to stick together and resist relative movement one to the other. On the other hand, heretofor, it has not been practicable within the state of the art to produce a radio frequency switch that has the voltage standoff characteristics required for wide applicability without using a vacuum envelope. Accordingly, it is one of the principal objects of this invention to provide a switch structure which dispenses with the vacuum envelope. Another of the disadvantages of conventional vacuum switches is the fact that these switches require the use of an external actuator to effect transfer or movement of the contact within the envelope. The use of external actuators has run the gamut from hydraulic to air, to solenoids, and to mechanical linkages adapted to effect transfer of the movable contact within the envelope. All such external actuators have required the utilization of a deformable vacuum tight wall in the nature of a flexible bellow or diaphragm interposed between the movable contact and the actuating mechanism. Where a solenoid has been used, it has been necessary to provide a vacuum tight seal between the coil structure of the solenoid and the armature thereof on which, or in association with which, is mounted the movable contact within the vacuum envelope portion of the switch. The use of such vacuum tight sealing methods and materials has required the utilization of special skills and fabrication techniques which contribute to the prohibitive cost of such devices. Accordingly, it is another object of this invention to provide a switch structure in which the contact element reciprocates and makes and breaks contact within a fluid medium. So far as is known, a radio frequency switch has not been patented or successfully used in which the contact element of the switch constitutes a piston mounted for displacement between a switch "open" and switch "closed" position by the imposition of fluid pressure applied directly to the piston contact structure within the envelope, and which is useable for high direct or alternating current applications including radio frequency. Accordingly, it is a still further object of this invention to provide a switch structure suitable for both DC and radio frequency applications in which movement of the contact element is controlled by the direct application of fluid pressure thereto. One of the problems that has been inherent in conventional vacuum switches has been the low contact pressure in such devices with attendant high contact resistance. Such low contact pressure derives from the fact that in all such switches contact pressure is dependent upon the external actuator which effects movement of the contact within the vacuum envelope. We have found, and it is therefore an object of this invention, that contact pressure be augmented several orders of magnitude, and result in decreased contact resistance, through design and fabrication of the fixed and movable contacts so that the contacts themselves, regardless of the actuating means therefor, generate or are responsible for the contact pressure and attendant low contact resistance. Conventional radio frequency switches, both vacuum and air dielectric types, have been plagued by two obvious deficiencies. First, it is extremely important in a radio frequency switch that the inductance of the switch be kept to a minimum. Conventional radio frequency vacuum dielectric switches utilizing a bellow in the circuit in the conventional manner are subject to high inductance due to long current paths and are therefore limited in their application. Secondly, in conventional radio frequency switches little or no consideration is given to the distribution of voltage across the envelope, with the result that non-uniformly distributed high electrostatic stresses are imposed on the envelope, resulting in non-uniform heating of the envelope with attendant rupture thereof and destruction of the switch. It is therefor another object of the invention to produce an air-operated radio frequency switch which eliminates these deficiencies. Still another object of the invention is the provision of a radio frequency switch capable of carrying high current in the order of 0 to 6000 amperes and which incorporates a contact assembly capable of handling DC or radio frequency signals up to about 50 megacycles. The susceptibility of radio frequency switches to arcing between relatively movable members is well known. This is particularly true in a switch which is utilized in high current applications. One of the factors that initiates such arcing in a switch is contact "bounce" upon closing of the switch at high closing velocities. Accordingly, it is another object of the present invention to provide in a high current radio frequency switch a contact assembly and method of actuation thereof which inherently produces a built in resilience and resistance to contact bounce, thus reducing the tendency of the contact to generate an arc. Among the factors that determine the cirtcuit breaking characteristics of a radio frequency switch is the efficiency with which heat generated in the contact elements is dissipated. It is well known that permitting the contact elements to operate at elevated temperatures increases the electrical resistance and thus lowers the current carrying capacity of the switch. This problem has been partially solved in the art by fabricating the relatively movable contact member of material possessing a large mass, the thought being that such large mass functions as a heat sink. This solution however introduces a new problem, namely, an increase in the inertial forces when the switch contact of large mass is moved at high velocity from one position to another. Such high inertial forces contribute to contact bounce and to arcing between the contact surfaces. Accordingly, it is yet another object of the present invention to provide a contact assembly for a high current radio frequency switch in which the contact assembly includes a piston moveable between requisite positions by the direct imposition of air pressure thereon, which also serves to absorb and convey away a large proportion of the heat from the radio frequency contact, and which works in conjunction with a fixed resilient contact that provides a multiplicity of short current carrying paths between the movable and fixed contacts. In conventional radio frequency switches, whether they utilize a vacuum or an air dielectric, it has been unknown to use a single switch structure for different modes of operation. For instance, a single pole-single throw switch structure is not ordinarily also used for single pole-double throw or for cross-point applications. Accordingly, it is another object of the present invention to provide aa radio frequency switch structure which may be fabricated in either a single pole-single throw configuration, a single pole-double throw configuration, or double pole-double throw or even a multiplicity of poles interconnected to form a cross-point configuration. DESCRIPTION OF THE PRIOR ART It is of course well known that air pressure, or in a broader sense fluid pressure, has been used to actuate switches of various types. For instance, U.S. Pat. No. 2,794,087 which names the inventor herein as inventor, relates to a coaxial switch in which the movable contact is enclosed within a vacuum envelope and is actuated from outside the vacuum envelope by high pressure air working within an appropriate cylinder having a piston therein connected through a deformable bellows to the movable contact. It should be noted however that in this construction, the high pressure air is not admitted directly into the envelope within which the movable contact is enclosed, nor does the movable contact itself form the piston as in the present application. There are therefore important mechanical and functional differences in the present structure. One of these distinctions lies in the fact that with respect to the structure taught by U.S. Pat. No. 2,794,087, the movable contact slams into the fixed contact with a considerable amount of inertia, requiring the interposition of a post arranged to absorb the energy of impact of the movable contact. By contrast, in the present invention, the movable contact slides along a slideway, with the movable contact coming into engagement with the fixed contact in a wiping action that wholly eliminates the mechanical shock of impact between movable contact and fixed contact, thus precluding the possibility of contact bounce. Another vacuum switch structure which operates similar to U.S. Pat. No. 2,794,087 is taught by U.S. Pat. No. 2,917,596 in which the inventor herein is again named as inventor. As taught by this patent, air under pressure is admitted to an air cylinder disposed outside of the switch structure, the movable contact of the switch forming no part of the piston which actuates the movable contact, and electrical contact being effected by impact of one movable contact against a fixed contact. Again, by way of comparison and distinction, in the present invention a circuit is completed between two terminals by sliding action of the movable contact from one position to another. Such movement of the movable contact does not involve an impact-generating abutment between the movable contact and the associated fixed contact, such contact being effected by a wiping action between the movable contact and the fixed contacts. In U.S. Pat. No. 2,863,026, it is noted that a movable connector contact is provided which moves axially to make and break a circuit between two oppositely disposed contact terminals. It should be noted however that in that structure the connector contact is caused to move by abutment by the moving mobile contact, continued movement of the two contacts after abutment effecting movement of the connector contact into abutment with the fixed contact. Additionally, in that structure, contact between the various electrically conductive members is not effected with a wiping action. There are switch structures of course that do incorporate movable contacts which wipe across an associated fixed contact. An example of such a construction is shown in U.S. Pat. No. 2,886,671 in which a triadic shoe is arranged to slide between associated pairs of contacts, being in permanent electrical contact with one of such contacts designated the feed contact or lead. In the present instance, in at least one aspect of the invention, the movable contact is shifted so that for a finite interval during its translation it does not contact any of the fixed contacts. In another aspect, the movable contact in the present invention is retained in resilient current carrying contact with one of the fixed contacts even during translation of the movable contact. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In terms of broad inclusion, the air actuated switch of the invention in one of its aspects comprises a hollow envelope formed from a pair of oppositely disposed axially aligned hollow metallic terminal members retained in spaced relationship by an intermediate dielectric envelope portion which also functions as a piston cylinder. Each of the terminals is provided with appropriate fixed contact members, and a piston is arranged within the envelope reciprocable to make or break a circuit through the fixed contact members associated with each terminal. The displacement of the piston is effected by the direct imposition against the piston of a suitable fluid pressure, such as compressed air, or other appropriate fluid, admitted to the interior of the envelope and piston cylinder through appropriate ports. In one aspect of the invention the only moving part in the switch is the reciprocable piston, which operates in a single pole-single throw mode. In another aspect of the invention, the fixed contacts within the envelope are arranged so that the single moving piston operates in a single pole-double throw mode, while in a third aspect of the invention a second piston is included within the hollow envelope so that the switch may be operated in almost a universal fashion to provide single pole-double throw operation, both switches open, both switches closed, make before break, break before make, single pole-single throw mode for bouble voltage, and single pole-single throw for double current. In a fourth aspect of the invention the terminal members are spaced apart and provided with axially aligned centrally disposed bores within which are fitted fixed resilient contacts that extend substantially 360° around the bores and which make contact with the movable contact through a multiplicity of short electrically conductive paths. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a cross-sectional view through the central axis of the switch, the movable contact member being illustrated in a position to complete a circuit through the switch. FIG. 2 is a cross-sectional view taken through the central axis of a second embodiment of the switch, the movable contact member again being illustrated in a position to complete a circuit through the switch. FIG. 3 is a cross-sectional view and illustrates a third embodiment of the switch of the invention, shown in a single pole-double throw configuration, the movable contact member of the switch being illustrated in a position to complete a circuit through a pair of the poles. FIG. 4 is a cross-sectional view of a fourth embodiment of the switch of the invention, incorporating a pair of single pole-single throw switches in a single envelope, and incorporating a pair of movable contacts, each operable independently of the other or in cooperation with the other to provide a maximum of versatility in operation of the switch. FIG. 5A is a fragmentary sectional view partly in elevation illustrating the relationship of the movable contact fingers arranged in a cylindrical array and preparatory to being expanded by an appropriate tool. FIG. 5B is a fragmentary sectional view similar to FIG. 5A, but showing the tool advanced to effect displacement of the contact fingers beyond their elastic limit so that the fingers remain in expanded position. FIG. 5C is a fragmentary sectional view illustrating the relationship between fixed and movable contacts and between the movable contact and the adjacent dielectric sleeve which precludes the necessity of the movable contact fingers from flexing during translation from one position to another. FIG. 6 is a cross-sectional view of a fifth embodiment of the switch illustrating a different contact assembly embodying a pair of resilient fixed contact bands arranged to extend completely around the movable contact when engaged therewith. FIG. 7 is a cross-sectional view taken in the plane indicated by the line 7--7 in FIG. 6. FIG. 8 is an enlarged fragmentary sectional view illustrating the method and means of retaining the fixed contact bands. FIG. 9 is a fragmentary elevational edge view of the fixed contact band of FIG. 6. FIG. 10 is a fragmentary elevational plan view of the fixed contact band of FIG. 6. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS In terms of greater detail, the switch of the invention, in its various aspects as illustrated in the drawings above and as explained in greater detail herein, comprises a pair of electrically conductive metallic connection terminals designated generally by the numerals 2 and 3, the pair of connection terminals being axially aligned with respect to a central axis, and each being preferably configured symmetrically about the central axis and concentrically disposed thereabout. The connection terminals of each of the switch structures illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 2 are rigidly and electrically non-conductively interconnected by a dieelectric sleeve 4 in a manner which will hereinafter be explained in greater detail in respect to each of these embodiments. In the embodiments of the invention illustrated in FIGS. 3 and 4, the electrically conductive connection terminals of each switch are interconnected by a pair of dielectric sleeves 6 and 7, coaxially aligned with remote ends rigidly attached to the associated connection terminals, and their associated ends rigidly attached to an intermediate terminal member designated generally by the numeral 8 (FIG. 3) and an intermediate terminal member designated generally by the numeral 9 (FIG. 4) which will also be explained hereinafter in greater detail. In each of the four embodiments of the switch structure illustrated in FIGS. 1 through 4, there is provided a movable contact assembly designated generally by the numeral 12 and adapted to be reciprocated longitudinally with respect to the switch structure so as to make or break a circuit between selected terminals. In each switch structure, the movable contact assembly is caused to move in one direction or other by air pressure admitted to the interior of the hollow envelope formed by the associated connection terminals and the intermediate dielectric sleeve or sleeves. In this respect, and in this mode of operation, the movable contact assembly constitutes a piston and the interior bore of the connection terminals and the interior bore of the associated intermediate sleeve or sleeves cooperate to define a cylinder within which the pitson-like movable contact assembly reciprocates under the impetus of fluid pressure admitted to the cylinder. It will be noted from a comparison of the different embodiments illustrated in FIGS. 1 through 4 that many of the components utilized in these switch structures are common in design and function, with changes being made only to accomplish a particular purpose of mode of operation. Accordingly, in the interest of brevity, corresponding parts in the different embodiments will be designated by corresponding reference numbers, and specific differences in structure, function, or mode of operation will be explained separately with respect to each of the different embodiments in FIGS. 1 through 4. Referring to FIG. 1, it will be noted that each of the connection terminals 2 and 3 is generally cylindrical in configuration, and provided with a hollow interior 13 defined by the inner peripheral surface 14 which lies concentrically disposed about the central axis of each of the switch structures. It should also be noted that the cylindrical inner peripheral surfaces 14 of the connection terminals associated with each switch are in coextensive alignment. Each of the connection terminals of each of the switches is also configured to provide in each switch mutually reaching reduced-in-diameter support portions 16, the support portions in each switch structure sealingly abutting or otherwise sealingly engaging the associated intermediate dielectric sleeve member 4 (FIGS. 1 and 2) or dielectric sleeves 6 and 7 (FIGS. 3 and 4), so that the cooperative effect of uniting the opposed connection terminals of each embodiment with the intermediate dielectric members is to form an air-tight elongated generally cylindrical hollow envelope concentric and symmetrical about a longitudinal central axis. To close the envelope, opposite ends of the assembly are closed by end plates 17 and 18 closing the left and right ends, respectively. In each embodiment, the end plates extend transversely with respect to the central axis, with the peripheral edge of each end plate being nested in an appropriate rabbet formed in the inner peripheral surface 14 of each connection terminal. As will be seen in each of FIGS. 1 through 4, the outer surface of each end plate lies flush with the end surface of the connection terminal with which it is associated. This is an advantage because it facilitates connection of the switch structure to associated circuit members such as conductive straps or bus bars. For this purpose, each of the connection terminals may conveniently be provided with a plurality of threaded bores 19 as shown. Referring to the end caps 17 in FIGS. 1, 2 and 3, it will be seen that interiorly of the switch envelope each end cap is provided with a concentrically disposed inwardly extending post or pad 21 which extends into the hollow interior 13 an amount depending upon the function to be performed by each post or pad in its associated environment. Thus, with respect to FIG. 1, the pad 21 is provided with a transversely extending bore 22 connected by an exteriorly extending threaded bore 23 so that the hollow within the envelope may be connected with an appropriate source of compressed air outside the envelope, thus providing interconnected passageways 22-23 through which high pressure air may be admitted to the hollow interior 13 of the envelope. With respect to the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 2, the pad or post 21 is somewhat longer than the corresponding part in the FIG. 1 embodiment, and in this case the pad is not used as a means of providing admission of high pressure air to the hollow interior 13. To accomplish this purpose in the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 2, the connection terminal 2, is provided with the transversely extending passageway 24, the inner end of which communicates with the interior hollow 13 and the other end of which communicates with a threaded bore 26 formed in the connection terminal so that a high pressure air hose may be connected thereto. This latter construction is also utilized in the embodiments illustrated in FIGS. 3 and 4, and in the interest of brevity, corresponding reference numbers have been applied to corresponding parts. In connection with end caps 18, and referring specifically to FIG. 1, it will be noted that end cap 18 is provided interiorly with an elongated post 27 having an inner end surface 28 and a transversely extending passageway 22' communicating with threaded bore 23'. In general, the end surface 28 of the post lies in planar alignment with the end surface 29 of the support section 16. Referring to FIG. 2, it will be noted that this embodiment of the invention utilizes a post 27' of the same length as the post 27 in FIG. 1, but omits the transverse air passage 22' and threaded bore 23'. In this embodiment, air is admitted into the chamber 13 within connection terminal 3 through transverse passage 24' and threaded bore 26', similar to corresponding passageways formed in connection terminal 2 and discussed above. Referring to FIGS. 3 and 4, the end cap 17 in FIG. 3 is provided interiorly with an axially extending concentrically disposed post 31 having a length substantially similar to the length of the connection terminal 2, and providing an end surface 32 similar to the end surfaces 28 and 28' in FIGS. 1 and 2. In this embodiment, the end cap 18 is similarily formed with an axially disposed inwardly extending concentric post 31' having an inner end surface 32'. In FIG. 4, end cap 18 is provided with a pad 21' similar to the pad 21 formed on end cap 17 in FIG. 2. In both the embodiments illustrated in FIGS. 3 and 4, air under pressure is admitted to the interior chamber 13 within terminal connections 3 through passageways similar to those described in connection with the opposite terminal 2, ie.e., transversely extending passageways 24' and 26'. In the embodiments illustrated in FIGS. 2, 3 and 4, it will be noted that the intermediate dielectric sleeves 4 and 6 are surrounded by an additional concentric cylindrical and dielectric sleeve 33. In each of these embodiments, the sleeve 33 creates an annular void 34 disposed between the concentric sleeves. These sleeves are preferably formed from a suitable epoxy glass, and are rigidly sealed between associated connection terminals 2 and 3 as shown, by an appropriate epoxy adhesive disposed between end portions of these and the associated connection terminal. In the embodiments illustrated in FIGS. 2 and 3, the annular space 34 disposed between the dielectric sleeves may be pressurized by admission of air under pressure through appropriate passageways 36 (FIG. 2) and 37 (FIG. 3) so as to increase the withstand voltage between opposing terminal connections 2 and 3. Alternatively, this space may be filled during manufacture with an appropriate dielectric jell or other appropriate fluid. The embodiments illustrated in FIGS. 3 and 4 differ in that the envelope construction incorporates the intermediate terminal member designated generally by the numeral 9. In both these embodiments, the intermediate terminal member comprises a circular plate having an outer peripheral portion 41 which may be provided with mounting holes 42 for mounting the switch to an appropriate support panel (not shown). Alternatively, the mounting holes may be omitted and mounting of the switch effected through the threaded bores 19 provided in the terminal connections 2 and 3. With respect to FIG. 3, the intermediate terminal member 8 constitutes an annulus having an inner peripheral surface 43 to which associate ends of the axially aligned dielectric sleeves 6 and 7 are appropriately secured, as by the interposition of an appropriate adhesive. The body portion of the annular plate is provided with annular recesses 44 and 44' adapted to receive the associated ends of the dielectric sleeves 33 and 33' surrounding dielectric sleeves 6 and 7 respectively. It will thus be seen that since the outer end portions 46 and 46' of sleeves 33 and 33' are rigidly secured to the associated terminals 2 and 3, and since the inner end portions of these same sleeves are rigidly attached to the intermediate member 8, and further since the dielectric sleeves 6 and 7 are rigidly interposed between the mounting portions 16 of terminal connections 2 and 3, and the intermediate terminal plate 8, the envelope so formed is rugged and capable of manufacture and assembly through assembly line techniques. In the embodiment of the invention illustrated in FIG. 4, the circular intermediate terminal 9 is also platelike, having an outer peripheral portion 51 and intermediate portion 52 disposed between the associated ends of the dielectric cylinders 33-34 and 6-7 in both a transverse and longitudinal sense, and a central portion 53 provided with centrally disposed, coaxially entending pads 54 and 54' presenting transversely extending surfaces 56 and 56'. In this embodiment, the intermediate terminal member 9 is also provided with a transversely (radially) extending threaded bore 57 communicating with an extension thereof in the form of a transverse passageway 58 communicating at its inner end within the envelope with a longitudinally (axially) extending passageway 59 extending through the central body portion 53 of the intermediate terminal member 9. The intermediate portion 52 of the terminal plate 9 is also provided with a longitudinally axially extending passageway 61 which communicates the passgeway 58 with the annular space 34 disposed between the coaxially arranged dielectric cylinders 33-33' and 6-7. In this embodiment, admission of high pressure air through the passageway 58 will result in the annular chamber 34 also being charged with the same high pressure air, and will result also in admission of such high pressure air into the chamber 13 disposed between the central body portion 53 of the intermediate terminal member and the terminal connections 2 and 3. From an electrical point of view, it will be noted that the terminal connections 2 and 3 are preferably fabricated from a high grade aluminum alloy for maximum electrical and thermal conductivity. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 1, the mounting portions 16 of the terminal connections 2 and 3 are provided with fixed radially inwardly extending annular electrical contacts 66 and 67, respectively. The contacts 66 and 67 are provided with cylindrical contact surfaces 68 and 69, respectively, the contact surfaces 68 and 69 being axially spaced apart as shown, and the contacts are conveniently intergal with each associated terminals 2 and 3. The contact surfaces 68 and 69 lie flush with the inner cylindrical periphery 71 of the intermediate dielectric sleeve 4, and the inner peripheral cylindrical surface 72 of the sleeve 73 disposed in the form of a liner within the inner periphery 14 of terminal member 2. It will thus be seen that the contact 66 lies disposed between the sleeve 73 of the left and the sleeve 4 on the right, the surfaces 71 and 72 being, in effect, extensions of the contact surface 68. At the end of sleeve 73 remote from contact 68, there is provided a second radially inwardly extending conductive contact ring 73, the inner peripheral contact surface 74 of which lies flush with the inner peripheral surface 72 of the associated sleeve 73. It will thus be seen that the contact surfaces 68 and 74 and the inner peripheral surfaces of dielectric sleeves 73 and 4 form a continuous cylindrical surface which extends between the contact surface 69 of contact 67 and contact surface 74 of contact ring 73. In the embodiment of the invention illustrated in FIG. 1, the movable contact designated generally by the numeral 12 is arranged to reciprocate within the cylindrical slideway formed by the inner peripheral surfaces discussed above, which also function as an air cylinder and a piston cylinder. In the position of the movable contact illustrated in FIG. 1, electrical energy is conducted by the movable contact between the terminal members 2 and 3. When air under pressure is admitted to the chamber 13 disposed within terminal member 3 through threaded bore 23' and transverse passageway 22', the movable contact 12 is caused to move to the left as viewed in FIG. 1, until it comes to rest on contact surfaces 68 and 74. In this respect, movement of the movable contact 12 to the left is limited by pad 21, and when moved to the right as viewed in FIG. 1 by admission of high pressure air into the chamber 13 disposed within the terminal member 2, movement of the movable contact 12 is limited by post 27 so that the movable contact comes to rest in the position indicated in FIG. 1. The specific construction of the movable contact 12 will be explained in greater detail hereinafter. It is important to note that in moving from one position to another the movable contact member makes and breaks electrical contact with the fixed contacts by a wiping action rather than through impact as in most conventional switches. Referring to FIG. 2, in this embodiment, contacts 68' and 69' function in the same manner as the corresponding contacts in FIG. 1, but in this embodiment constitute radially inwardly projecting cylindrical ring portions formed on conductive contact sleeves 76 and 77. The end of each of the contact sleeves 76 and 77 remote from contacts 68' and 69' is suitably brazed to the inner peripheral surface 14 of the associated mounting portion 16 of the associated connection terminal members 2 and 3 as shown. In this embodiment, the inner peripheral surface 71' of the dielectric member 4 functions as a slideway, air cylinder and piston cylinder in the same manner as the corresponding surface in FIG. 1. Similarly dielectric sleeve 73' is provided with an inner peripheral surface 72' defined at one end by the contact surface 68' and at the other end by the contact surface 74' formed on contact ring 73'. Again, as in FIG. 1 admission of high pressure air to the chamber 13 of connection terminal member 3 as viewed in FIG. 2 will cause the movable contact 12 to move to the left as to interrupt the electrically conductive path formed by the movable contact between the contacts 66' and 67'. The movable contact, under the impetus of such high pressure air, will come to rest against the pad 21, so that the movable contact will span the space between contact rings 66 and 73', both conductively related to connection terminal 2 and thus resting in a nonconductive attitude. Movement of the movable contact in the opposite direction, i.e., to the right as viewed in FIG. 2 from its non-conductive position of rest is effected by admitting high pressure air into the chamber 13 disposed within connection terminal member 2. It will of course be understood that with respect to each embodiment admission of air under pressure to the chamber 13 within one connection terminal member is accompanied by relief of the pressure within the chamber 13 in the opposite connection terminal member. Referring to FIG. 3, the switch forming the subject matter of this embodiment constituting a single pole-double throw switch structure has the novel characteristic of being bi-stable. In this embodiment of the invention, the connection terminal members 2 and 3 are related to the intermediate terminal member 8, which can be said to be common in both the associated connection terminal members 2 and 3. Thus, there is provided on the inner peripheral surface 43 of the intermediate terminal member 8 an annular contact 81 having a cylindrical contact surface 82. The contact surface 82 is of the same diameter as the associated inner peripheral surfaces 83 and 84 of intermediate dielectric sleeves 6 and 7, respectively. Opposite ends of the dielectric sleeves 6 and 7 abut contact rings 86 and 87, respectively, each of these contact rings having inner peripheral surfaces 88 and 89, respectively, of the same diameter as the associated inner peripheral surfaces 83 and 84 of dielectric sleeves 6 and 7. It will thus be seen that as the movable contact 12 reciprocates between the position illustrated in FIG. 3, and its alternate position spanning the space between intermediate contact 81 and end terminal contact 87, the inner peripheral surfaces of the members described above form a continuous smooth slideway for guiding movement of the movable contact 12. Additionally, these surfaces function as an air cylinder and piston cylinder, and the movable contact functions as a piston during the reciprocation within the piston cylinder. It will also be noted that movement of the movable contact 12 to the right as viewed in FIG. 3, is limited by the end surface 32' of post 31' while movement of the movable contact 12 to the left is limited by end surface 32 of post 31. As with the embodiments illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 2, movement of the movable contact 12 is effected by admission of high pressure air into the chambers 13 formed in connection terminal members 2 and 3. Thus, admission of high pressure air into the chamber 13 associated with connection terminal member 2 as viewed in FIG. 3, will effect movement of the movable contact 12 to the right into its alternate position against stop surface 32'. In such alternate position, an electrical circuit will be completed between the intermediate terminal member 8 and connection terminal member 3. Conversely, admitting air under pressure to the chamber 13 within terminal connection member 3, will cause the movable contact 12 to move from such alternate position to the left until it assumes the position illustrated in this figure. As there shown, the movable contact forms a continuous conductive path between the intermediate terminal member 8 and connection terminal member 2. It is important to note that the movable contact is fabricated so that it is approximately the same diameter as the associated conductive terminal members 2 and 3, or contact 81, an important consideration when the switch is used with higher frequencies. This fact is also important with respect to the substantially matching impedance of the movable contact as compared to the impedance of associated conductive surfaces. The embodiment of the invention illustrated in FIG. 4 is similar in many ways to the embodiment of the invention illustrated in FIG. 3. In this embodiment, a second movable contact member 12' is provided, thus permitting greater flexibility in application of the switch in that within a single envelope, or embodied within a single structure, there is provided a pair of single pole-single throw switches each of which may be operated independent of the other, or which may be operated in unison to provide a single pole-double throw operation, simultaneous open or closed conditions, make before break or break before make operation, or single pole-single throw for double voltage and single pole-single throw for double current applications. To achieve this versatility in a single structure, there is mounted on each of the two connection terminal members 2 and 3, and on the intermediate terminal member 9, pairs of contact rings 91-92, 93-94, and 96-97, respectively. As with the corresponding contact rings in the other embodiments illustrated in FIGS. 1 through 3, the cylindrical inner peripheral surfaces of these contact rings constitute contact surfaces coextensive with the cylindrical inner peripheral surfaces of the associated cylindrical sleeves 6 and 7, and dielectric sleeves 98 and 99 associated, respectively, with terminal connection members 2 and 3. As shown, the dielectric sleeve 98 lies within the inner periphery 14 of connection terminal member 2, bounded at one end by contact ring 91 and at the other end by contact ring 92. In like manner, the dielectric sleeve 99 lies within the inner periphery 14 of terminal connection member 3, bounded on one end by contact ring 93 and at its other end by contact ring 94. It will thus be seen that with respect to the assembly on the left side of the intermediate terminal member 9, contacts 91, 92 and 96 and the inner peripheral surfaces thereof cooperate with dielectric sleeves 6 and 98 to provide a continuous and smooth slideway for reciprocal movement of the movable contact 12. In the position of the movable contact 12 illustrated in FIG. 4, an electrical circuit is completed between the connection terminal member 2 and the intermediate terminal member 9. When the movable contact 12 is moved to the left as viewed in FIG. 4, this electrical circuit is broken and the movable contact member 12 comes to rest in an electrical "off" position spanning the space between contacts 91 and 92. Movement in this direction is limited by pad 21. Movement of the movable contact 12 to the left as viewed in FIG. 4 is effected by admitting air under pressure through passageway 58 and connecting passageway 59 so that air under pressure is admitted to the chamber 101 disposed between the intermediate terminal member 9 and the associated end of the movable contact member 12. With respect to the assembly illustrated to the right of the intermediate terminal member 9 in FIG. 4, the movable contact member 12' is there shown in its electrical off position, the movable contact member spanning the space between contacts 93 and 94. Again, as with the counterpart assembly on the left side of the intermediate terminal member 9, the inner periperal surfaces of contacts 93, 94 and 97, and the inner peripheral surfaces of dielectric sleeves 7 and 99 form a smooth slideway through which the movable contact 12' reciprocates. Movement of the movable contact 12' to the left as viewed in FIG. 4 is effected by admitting air under pressure to the chamber 13 through the transversely extending passageway 24' formed in connection terminal member 3. When the movable contact member 12' has reached its alternate position so as to complete a circuit between contact 93 on connection terminal member 3 and contact ring 97 on intermediate terminal member 9, it may be returned to its first position (illustrated in full lines in FIG. 4) by admitting air under pressure through passagway 58 and interconnecting passageway 59 into chamber 101', disposed between the intermediate terminal member and movable contact 12'. It should be noted that with respect to this embodiment, movement of the movable contact members 12 and 12' may be controlled in several different modes. For instance, in the positions of the movable contacts illustrated, an electrical circuit is completed between connection terminal member 2 and intermediate terminal 9. There is no electrical connection between connection terminal 3 and intermediate terminal 9 in the position of movable contact 12' as illustrated. Admission of air however to chamber 13 in connection terminal member 3 will cause movable contact 12' move to the left, thus completing a second path for voltage and current between connection terminal member 3 and intermediate terminal member 9. In another mode, the air pressures admitted to the various chambers 13, 101 and 101', may be controlled so that the two movable contacts 12 and 12' move in unison from left to right. Alternatively, air under pressure may be admitted to the passageways and chambers in such a way that the movable contacts simultaneously complete circuits between the intermediate terminal member 9 and the associated connection terminal members 2 and 3. The movable contact member 12 as illustrated in FIGS. 1-4 and the movable contact member 12' as illustrated in FIG. 4, is designated and conditioned to cooperate with the various contact surfaces so as to minimize the contact resistance and thus minimize the current flow through the movable contact member. Additionally, the movable contact member while being designed for optimum electrical characteristics, is also designed to perform the mechanical function of a piston in combination with the associated cylindrical slideway surfaces or piston cylinder within which the movable contact member reciprocates. Additionally, it is important that the mass of the movable contact 12 be minimal, or at least within a predetermined range, so that the air pressure required to move the movable contact is minimized. In this respect, it is noted that a low mass minimizes the inertia required to be overcome to move the movable contact, thus enhancing speed of operation of the switch. To achieve these important purposes, the movable contact in each of the embodiments includes a central body portion 102 the outer peripheral surface 103 of which is provided with an annular groove 104 within which is seated a suitable seal ring 106. The seal ring may be in the form of and O ring or it may be a quad ring. In each embodiment, the seal ring functions to seal the union between the movable contact member and the associated cylindrical slideway surfaces formed by the fixed contacts and the intermediate dielectric sleeves. The movable contact member thus forms a piston within the cylindrical slideway, being effectively, moved in one direction or the other by the admission of high pressure air into the chambers on opposite sides of the central body portion 102 of each movable contact member. On opposite sides of the central body portion 102, and extending coaxially in opposite directions, are conductive metallic skirt portions 107 and 108. Each of the skirt portions is cylindrical in configuration, and is provided with a multiplicity of longitudinally extending slots 109 which convert each skirt portion into a multiplicity of parallel inherently resilient fingers 112. Each of the inherently resilient fingers 112 is provided on its extreme end with a contact surface 113 configured to conform to the cylindrical configuration of the associated inner peripheral surfaces of fixed contacts and intermediate dielectric sleeves. In this manner, a maximum amount of surface-to-surface contact is provided between each of the movable contact finger surfaces 113 and the fixed cylindrical contact surfaces against which they resiliently impinge. Referring to FIG. 5, it will there be seen that after the slots 109 have been formed in the skirt portions of the movable contact, the resilient finger portions thus formed are sprung outwardly beyond their elastic limit so that they take a permanent set in which collectively the finger portions diverge outwardly in a conical array. Thus, when the movable contact is inserted into the cylindrical slideway provided by the inner peripheries of the fixed contacts and intermediate dielectric sleeves, the splayed resilient fingers are resiliently compressed into a smaller diameter skirt so as to be accommodated within the inner periphery of the slideway. Such compression of the resilient fingers into a smaller diameter skirt has the effect of resiliently loading the spring fingers so that after insertion they exert a strong resilient radially outwardly directed force against the fixed contact surfaces and the associated dielectric sleeves. A method of construction of the movable contact fingers is illustrated by way of example of FIG. 5. It will be apparent from this construction and mode of operation that after assembly and during operation of the switch, no flexure of the fingers occurs so that no "fatigue" is experienced by the fingers, thus contributing to the long life experience of the switch. The slotted contact configuration also results in a significant reduction of self-induced eddy currents at radio frequencies, thus precluding destructive heating of the movable contact. Each of the movable contacts is also provided with a centrally disposed post or pad having a smaller diameter than the surrounding skirt portion of the movable contact and projecting axially on opposite sides of the central body portion of each movable contact to provide transversely extending end surfaces 116 and 117 which cooperate with the end surfaces of pads 21 and posts 27 to limit movement of the movable contact in each direction. Thus, referring to FIG. 1, the surface 117 is shown in contiguous abutment against the surface 28 of post 27. In this position of the parts, the resilient fingers arranged in a circular array to form the skirt portion of each of the movable contacts lie in direct opposition and resilient current carrying contact with fixed contact rings 66 and 67 as shown. Additionally, to enhance the current carrying capacity of the movable contact, it is important that heat generated in the movable contact be drawn therefrom. For this purpose, the posts 27, 27', 31, 54 and 54' function as heat sinks to draw heat from the movable contact. Upon the admission of high pressure air into the chamber 13 through the passageway 22'-23', the movable contact will be caused to move to the left until the stop surface 116 comes into contact with the end surface of pad 21. In this position, the movable contact surfaces on the skirt 107 formed on the left end of the movable contact will be in resilient engagement with fixed contact ring 73. In like manner, the resilient contact finger surfaces on skirt 108 will have been shifted so that they now resiliently engage fixed contact ring 66. The same mode of operation is implicit in each of the other embodiments illustrated in FIGS. 2, 3 and 4. It should be noted that there is little frictional resistance to movement of the movable contact from one position to another by virtue of the fact that for a major portion of its travel the resilient contact fingers press outwardly against the inner peripheral surface of the dielectric sleeves disposed between the fixed contact rings. To minimize frictional resistance, it is preferable that these cylindrical sleeves be fabricated from an appropriate grade of "Teflon". The fact that the inner peripheral surfaces of these "Teflon" sleeves is coextensive with the inner peripheral surfaces of the fixed contacts eliminates any impediment that might be imposed upon movement of the movable contact from one position to the other in that it eliminates any abutment uneveness or sudden impositions of stresses on the resilient contact fingers. In connection with the illustration of the movable contact members 12 and 12', it will be noted that in FIG. 1, the centrally disposed post terminating at each end in stop surfaces 116 and 117 is formed in two parts of FIGS. 1 and 2, and as a single integral unit in FIG. 4. The construction illustrated in FIG. 1 embodies two posts 118 and 119 suitably seated in a central aperture formed in the body portion 102 of the movable contact and secured therein through appropriate braze techniques. In the embodiment of FIG. 2, a similar construction is used, however here a screw 121 has been added to one of the parts and a threaded bore has been provided in the other so as to permit mounting of the post portions 118 and 119 so as to properly position the surfaces 116 and 117. It has been found however that by controlling manufacturing tolerances the spacing between the fixed contacts 66 and 67 may be made to closely correspond to the spacing between the contact surfaces formed on the resilient fingers constituting skirt portions 107 and 108, thus eliminating the necessity of the screw 121. Where used, the screw is adjusted to provide the requisite positioning of the stop surfaces 116 and 117 in relation to the stop surfaces formed on the pad 21 and post 27 (FIG. 1) and post portions 118 and 119 are then appropriately brazed to the central body portion 102 of the movable contact so that they retain their adjusted position. In the embodiment of the invention illustrated in FIGS. 6 through 10, inclusive, the switch structure includes an end cap 126, preferably fabricated from aluminum and silver plated over its entire surface. For purposes of mounting the terminal to an associated structure, the end cap is provided with three mounting holes 127 spaced at 120° about the terminal member. Spaced from its end surface 128, the terminal is provided with a shoulder 129 which leads into an annular recess 131. From the shoulder 129, the terminal member is provided with a nose section 132 having a conically tapered face 133 which merges smoothly into an annular surface 134 lying transverse to the longitudinal axis 136 of the switch. The terminal member 126 is provided with a recess 137 having a bottom surface 138 and a cylindrical surface 139. The bottom surface 138 is provided with an annular cylindrical wall portion 141 proportioned to snugly receive in a press fit manner an electrically insulated and thermally conductive stop ring 142. The stop ring is preferably aluminum formed with a thick anodized coating thereon to provide the necessary electrical insulation. The opposite end terminal member 143 is also cylindrical in general configuration, and is provided with three mounting bores 144 spaced at 120° intervals about the end terminal. A shoulder 129' is formed on a forward portion of the terminal, a shoulder merging smoothly with an annular recess 131' for purposes which will hereafter be explained. The soulder 129' merges integrally into a long nose section 132' which intercepts a transversely extending annular end face 134'. It will be noted from FIG. 6, that the end surfaces 134 and 134' of end terminal members 126 and 143 lie opposite each other and spaced apart approximately 1 inch in the embodiment illustrated, which is shown approximately full size. The end terminal 143 in other respects differs from the end terminal member 126 in that the terminal member 143 is provided with a central bore 146 that extends from the end face 134' to adjacent the opposite end face 147. The end face 147 is recessed to provide a shoulder 148 within which is disposed an end cap 149 as shown. The end cap 149 may be conveniently secured permanently to the end terminal member 143 by application of an appropriate epoxy adhesive in the joint between the end cap 147 and the surrounding terminal member 143. For reasons which will hereinafter be explained, the bore 146 is further increased in diameter at 151 to provide an annular space between the inside surface 152 of the end plate 149 and the end of the bore 146. Mounted on the nose section 132 and 132' of the end terminal members are fixed contact assemblies designated generally by the numerals 153 and 154. As indicated in FIGS. 8, 9 and 10, the fixed contacts 153 and 154 comprise elongated strips of electrically conductive material formed with serrations 156 along each opposite long edge thereof, the serrations constituting tabs 157 which may be bent as illustrated in FIG. 8 to nest within a recess 158 formed in the inner periphery of the bores 139 and 146. Between the serrations 156 on opposite long edges of the stip, the body of the strip is provided with a plurality of closely adjacent apertures 159 separated by a web 161 disposed between pairs of adjacent apertures. The webs 161 as illustrated in FIG. 9 are angularly disposed with respect to the plane of the edge strips 162 which separate the serrations 157 from the central body portion of the strip. Thus, the thin strip portion 162 separating the tabs 157 from the webs 161 lies in a different plane from the webs, and lies also in a different plane from the tabs 157 when these are bent as illustrated in FIG. 8 to lie snugly within the annular groove 158 formed to receive them. It will thus be seen that when the elongated strip 153 or 154 is formed into a circular configuration to fit the inner periphery of the nose sections 132 and 132' of the terminal members, the angularly disposed web members 161 lie in the relationship illustrated in FIG. 7, each web extending generally in a radial direction and having one longitudinal edge 163 forming tight resilient contact with the inner periphery of the associated bores 139 or 146. The opposite edge 164 of each web is arranged to present an elongated end surface that comes in resilient contact with the associated outer periphery 166 of a centrally disposed movable contact designated generally by the number 167. The movable contact is preferably fabricated from a solid slug of aluminum to provide a cylindrical body portion 168 having an inner periphery 169 closed by a transverse wall 171. On opposite sides of the wall 171, the movable contact is provided with a nose section 172 adapted to be selectively engaged with the annular insulating ring 142 in the position of the parts illustrated in FIG. 6. The opposite end of the cylindrical movable contact constitutes a bearing section 173 provided on its outer periphery with a quadring 174 to seal the union between the outer periphery 166 and the inner periphery 146 of the terminal member 143. It will thus be seen that in the orientation of the fixed contact members 153 and 154 as illustrated in FIG. 6, the outer surface 166 of the movable contact is preferably smooth and comes into electrically conductive relationship with each of the webs 161 spaced in small increment 360 degrees about the movable contact. The outer diameter of the movable contact that defines the surface 166 is proportioned so that when the movable contact lies disposed in the position illustrated in FIG. 6, the webs 161 are flattened somewhat as illustrated at 176 in FIG. 7. Thus, the inherent resilience of the webs 161 minimize the contact resistence because of the individual pressure each imposes on the outer periphery of the movable contact. Additionally, since the path of current through the switch is from one terminal member, through the movable contact by way of the multiplicity of webs 161 and thence through the movable contact and the opposite set of fixed contacts embodying webs 161 and the terminal member associated therewith, the path that the current must follow is an extremely short one. Additionally, it will be seen that since the contact strip 156 is arranged in a circular array, contact will be made with the movable contact through approximately 160°. To retain the end terminal members 126 and 143 in axially spaced alignment as illustrated, there is disposed in the recess 131 and 131', and shoulders 129 and 129', a cylinder 176 of epoxy glass. The cylinder may be threaded into the recesses 131, but it has been found that using a suitable epoxy adhesive will secure the glass envelope with sufficient strength to retain the pressures that are imposed on the interior of the envelope. To actuate the movable contact 167, there is provided in the end terminal 126, a bore 177 to receive an air hose fitting (not shown). The bore 177 is connected by a passageway 178 and 179 with the interior of the envelope, the passage 179 passing through the bottom wall 138 of the terminal member 126. At the opposite end of the switch, a similar threaded bore 181 is provided, connected by passageways 182 and 183 with the annular passageway 151 disposed between the underside surface 152 of the end plate 149 and the end of bore 146. It will thus be seen that injecting fluid under pressure into either one of the threaded bores 177 or 181 causes the movable piston 167 to move in the opposite direction. A switch structure fabricated in the proportions indicated in FIG. 6, which is shown essentially in full scale, it has been found that with the end terminal members 126 and 143 silver plated as previously discussed, and with the fixed contact assemblies 153 and 154 also silver plated, and with the surfaces of the movable contact 167 silver plated, the switch structure illustrated may easily carry six thousand amps of direct current, or may be utilized in a radial frequency application without appreciable heating. It has been found that air pressure may vary from thirty to seventy pounds per square inch may be utilized to shift the piston, the wide range of air pressures eliminating any criticality in this area. To regulate the transfer time of the piston from one end of the switch to the other, all that is required is that the bleed passageways 178 and 182 be proportioned to provide the requisite transfer time. Thus, a larger bore will provide a faster time, whereas a smaller bore slows the transfer time. It is an advantage that all of the current passing between the terminal members 126 and 143 pass through the silver plated copper movable contact 167. To effect this purpose, the impact ring 142 is rendered electrically insulative by anodizing the surface thereof as previously stated. Additionally, the end plate 149 is also formed from aluminum that has been heavily anodized to render the end plate non-conductive. It will thus be seen that when the movable contact is in the switch open position as illustrated, current passing between each of the terminal members and the associated movable contact passes in parallel through the multiplicity of resilient web members 161 which individually impinge resiliently on the bore 139 on the one hand and the associated end portion 172 of the movable contact on the other hand when the switch is in "OPEN" position. Obviously, the fixed contact assembly 154 operates by the same mode, and performs the additional function of providing a bearing support for the movable contact 167 when the movable contact is moved to the right into a switch "CLOSED" position. It has been found that best results are secured from the fixed contact assembly when the multiple contact strip 156 is fabricated from beryllium copper and silver plated in conformity with the rest of the structure. Having thus described the invention, what is claimed to be novel and sought to be protected by letters patent is as follows:

Presented is a switch structure having high current carrying capacity over a broad range of frequencies from DC to 50 megacycles, constructed to be air operated so as to eliminate the need for an external actuator. The switch includes an airactuated piston which reciprocates between open and closed positions of the switch, and which also constitutes the movable contact element of the switch.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention This invention relates to a process for obtaining acrylamide or methacrylamide as a stable aqueous solution without polymerization in producing acrylamide or methacrylamide using microorganisms. 2. Description of Prior Art The use of microorganisms having a nitrilasic activity for hydrolyzing acrylonitrile or methacrylonitrile (hereinafter simply referred to as (meth)acrylonitrile) to produce acrylamide or methacrylamide (hereinafter simply referred to as (meth)acrylamide) has been known. Such a process is described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,001,081. As such microorganisms, bacteria of the genera Bacillus, Bacteridium in the sense of Prevot, Micrococcus and Brevibacterium in the sense of Bergey, etc., have been used and the inventors have also used microorganisms belonging to the genera Corynebacterium and Nocardia, described in Japanese Patent Application (OPI) No. 129190/79. In producing (meth)acrylamide from (meth)acrylonitrile using these microorganisms, cells of these microorganisms act on (meth)acrylonitrile directly or after immobilizing them with polyacrylamide gel, etc. in an aqueous medium (for example, water, physicological saline, buffer solution, etc.). The reaction is usually conducted under the conditions of a substrate ((meth)acrylonitrile) concentration of about 1 to 10 wt%, a cell concentration of about 1 to 10 wt%, a pH of 7 to 9, at 25° to 30° C. for 0.5 to 10 hours so as to proceed the enzymatic reaction smoothly. In the field of microbial reactions, batchwise or continuous column processes have recently been proposed using immobilized cells prepared by forming microbial cell particles which is advantageous from the point of view of the cell separation from a reaction solution, the availability of repeated use of the cells, and increasing enzyme stability. Such techniques are also useful in the process of producing (meth)acrylamide using microorganisms in the present invention. However, a (meth)acrylamide aqueous solution produced using microorganisms is unstable and so susceptible to polymerization that concentration is difficult and, in addition, in a continuous column process, the (meth)acrylamide produced often polymerizes during hydrolysis which prevents smooth operation. The addition of known polymerization inhibitors such as methoxyquinone, copper salt, etc. might be considered but, with a (meth)acrylamide aqueous solution produced through microbial reaction, sufficient effects of the inhibitors cannot be attained unless these polymerization inhibitors are used in large amounts. Addition of such inhibitors in large amounts adversely affects the microbial reaction and seriously deteriorates the quality of the (meth)acrylamide aqueous solution. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION As a result of various investigations to remove the above-described defects, the inventors have discovered that a stable (meth)acrylamide aqueous solution can be obtained in high purity without polymerization upon production or concentration of the (meth)acrylamide solution, by treating the microorganisms with a water-soluble dialdehyde before feeding them to the reaction system of (meth)acrylonitrile and water. Thus, many of the problems accompanying the use of microbial cells are overcome. The mechanism of preventing polymerization of the (meth)acrylamide aqueous solution is not completely clear, but it may be that the water-soluble dialdehyde undergoes a crosslinking reaction with the microbial cells and, at the same time, it reacts with some polymerization-accelerating material existing within the cells to fix it within the cells, thus stopping its function and preventing it from being extracted from the cells. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION As the microorganisms used in the present invention, any microorganism having the ability to hydrolyze (meth)acrylonitrile to (meth)acrylamide can be used irrespective of its taxonomical position. However, particularly preferable are strain N-771 of the genus Corynebacterium (FERM-P No. 4445) Fermentation Research Institute, Agency of Industrial Science and Technology, Japan, strain N-774 of the genus Corynebacterium FERM-P No. 4446), and strain N-775 of the genus Nocardia (FERM-P No. 4447), described in Japanese Patent Application No. 35,818/78. Reference can also be made to U.S. Pat. No. 4,001,081 for suitable bacteria such as the genus Bacteridium in the sense of Prevot, the genus Micrococcus and Brevibacterium in the sense of Bergy. These suitable bacteria include the strains registered at the Central Bureau voor Schimmelcultures in Delft under the numbers C211 CBS 499.74, R312 CBS 717.73, B222 CBS 498.74, A111 CBS 497.74, R341 CBS 496.74, R340 CBS 495.74, R332 CBS 494.74. In the case of immobilizing these microorganisms immobilization can be conducted according to any conventional process with an entrapping process using an acrylamide series polymer being particularly preferred. The term "acrylamide series polymer" as used herein is a polymer containing acrylamide, methacrylamide, or the like as a major component and, if necessary, an ethylenically unsaturated monomer copolymerizable with acrylamide, methacrylamide, or the like. Immobilization can be conducted by suspending the aforesaid microbial cells in an aqueous medium containing a monomer or monomers like acrylamide and a cross-linking agent like N,N-methylenebisacrylamide, and conducting polymerization at a pH of about 5 to 10, preferably 6 to 8, and at a temperature of about 0° to 30° C., preferably 0° to 15° C., using a polymerization initiator, thus causing gelation. The content of microorganisms in the polymerization reaction solution varies depending upon the kind and the state of microorganisms used, but is typically about 0.1 to 50 wt%, preferably 1 to 20 wt%. The content of monomers in the polymerization reaction solution is about 2 to 30 wt%, preferably about 5 to 20 wt%. The water-soluble dialdehyde treatment is carried out either on intact cells or immobilized cells. To be specific, these microbial cells (in the case of immobilized cells, after pulverizing to a suitable size) are suspended in a buffer solution such as 0.05 to 0.5 M phosphate solution, and a water-soluble dialdehyde is added thereto in an amount of about 0.1 to 10.0 wt%, preferably 0.5 to 5.0 wt%, based on the weight of dry cells. The reaction is conducted at a pH of about 5 to 10, preferably 6 to 8, at a temperature of about 0° to 30° C., preferably about 0° to 15° C., for 0.5 to 3 hours under stirring. In addition, immobilization of water-soluble dialdehyde treated cells can also be conducted after treating the cell suspension with the dialdehyde. Conditions selected specifically for the above-described treatments are determined considering the retention of enzymatic activity of microbial cells, inhibition of polymerization, economical advantages, etc. The dialdehydes used in the present invention preferably have a solubility in water of 5 wt% or more at 20° C. Representative of the suitable dialdehydes are glyoxal, malondialdehyde, glutraldehyde, pimelic dialdehyde, dialdehyde starch, etc. Among these dialdehydes, glyoxal and glutaraldehyde are commercially available and preferred. In producing an aqueous solution of (meth)acrylamide, the aforesaid dialdehyde-treated microbial cells (in the case of using immobilized cells, particles of suitable size) are filled in a reactor or a column, and are brought into contact with a (meth)acrylonitrile aqueous solution under the aforesaid conditions. The reaction temperature is preferably about 0° to 15° C. depending on retention of enzymatic activity. Additionally, the conversion of the reaction can be controlled by selecting the amount of cells, reaction time, flow rate of the substrate, and the like. Therefore, selection of proper conditions enables one to conduct the reaction conversion almost completely. In the reaction using dialdehyde-treated microorganisms as described above, the continuous column process does not involve such troubles as that reaction is stopped due to polymerization and can be conducted smoothly. In addition, concentration of the reaction solution can be conducted without polymerization. Thus, there can be obtained a (meth)acrylamide aqueous solution having the aforesaid stability to polymerization. The present invention will now be described in more detail by reference to the following Examples. Additionally, all parts and percents in the Examples are by weight. (Meth)acrylonitrile and (meth)acrylamide in the reaction solution were determined through gas chromatography, and polymerization in the (meth)acrylamide aqueous solution was checked by whether the solution became turbid or not upon addition of methanol with the naked eye. EXAMPLE 1 AND COMPARATIVE EXAMPLE 1 0.2 part of a 50% glutaraldehyde aqueous solution and 59.8 parts of a 0.05 M phosphate buffer solution were added to 40 parts of washed microbial cells (water content: 75%) of strain N-774 prepared by aerobic culture using a culture medium (pH: 7.2) containing 1% glucose, 0.5% peptone, 0.3% yeast extract, and 0.3% malt extract, and stirred at 10° C. for 1 hour to react, thus dialdehyde-treatment being conducted. After completion of the reaction, cells were separated from the cell suspension by centrifugation, washed twice with 0.05 M phosphate buffer (pH: 8.0), then again centrifuged to obtain about 40 parts of pasty cells (water content: 75%). 8 parts of the resulting cell paste was mixed with 92 parts water, and acrylonitrile was intermittently added dropwise thereto, under stirring, at a rate of 2 parts per hour while controlling pH at 8.0 with 0.5 N KOH aqueous solution to react at 10° C. for 6 hours. The reaction proceeded almost quantitatively to obtain 110 parts of a 14.5% acrylamide aqueous solution. Then, this solution was concentrated under reduced pressure at a temperature of not higher than 35° C. to obtain 53.2 parts of a 30% acrylamide aqueous solution. When polymerization of acrylamide in the solution was checked by adding methanol thereto, almost no white turbidity was observed. Thus, it was identified as a polymer-free, stable aqueous solution of acrylamide monomer. On the other hand, a cell-free, 14.5% acrylamide aqueous solution obtained for comparison by reacting under the same conditions as in Example 1 except omitting the treatment with dialdehyde was colored considerably dark yellow and, during concentration, the viscosity of the solution increased and, in the end, the whole solution became a gel-like polymer. Thus, this acrylamide aqueous solution could not be concentrated. EXAMPLE 2 AND COMPARATIVE EXAMPLE 2 40 parts of washed microbial cells (water content: 75%) of strain N-774 prepared by aerobic culture in the same manner as in Example 1, 4.5 parts of acrylamide, 0.5 part of N,N'-methylenebisacrylamide, and 40 parts of a 0.05 M phosphate buffer solution (pH: 8.0) were mixed to obtain a uniform suspension. Then, 5 parts of a 5% dimethylaminopropionitrile aqueous solution and 10 parts of a 2.5% potassium persulfate aqueous solution were added thereto, and the resulting mixture was maintained at 10° C. for 1 hour to polymerize and gel. Thus obtained cell-containing gel was pulverized into small particles, and mixed with 200 parts of a 0.05 M phosphate buffer (pH: 8.0) and 0.4 part of a 50% glutaraldehyde aqueous solution to react at 10° C. for 1 hour. After completion of the reaction, the small particles of cell-containing gel were washed with a 0.05 M phosphate buffer to prepare dialdehyde-treated immobilized cells. 20 g of the immobilized cells were filled in a jacketed column (3 cm in inside diameter and 25 cm in length) and a 4% acrylonitrile aqueous solution (using a 0.05 M phosphate buffer; pH: 8.0) was allowed to flow downward from the upper part of the column at a rate of 25 ml/hr at 10° C. to react. In this occasion, the effluent from the lower part of the column was smoothly obtained without polymerization for a long time. This effluent contained 5.3% acrylamide, and no acrylonitrile was detected therein. On the other hand, when the same experiment was conducted for comparison except using immobilized cells not treated with the dialdehyde, the effluent became viscous about three hours after beginning of the reaction, and polymerization of produced acrylamide prevented smooth operation. EXAMPLE 3 AND COMPARATIVE EXAMPLE 3 40 parts of washed microbial cells of strain N-774 obtained by aerobic culture in the same manner as in Example 1, 9 parts of acrylamide, 1 part of methylenebisacrylamide, 0.8 part of a 40% glyoxal aqueous solution, and 34.2 parts of a 0.05 M phosphate buffer (pH: 8.0) were mixed to prepare a uniform suspension, and stirred at 10° C. for 1 hour to conduct the treatment with the dialdehyde. Subsequently, 5 parts of a 5% dimethylaminopropionitrile aqueous solution and 10 parts of a 2.5% potassium persulfate aqueous solution were added to this suspension to cause polymerization and gelation. After standing for 1 hour, the resulting cell-containing gel was pulverized into small particles and washed with a 0.05 M phosphate buffer to obtain 100 parts of dialdehyde-treated immobilized cells. 20 g of the resulting cells were filled in a jacketed column (3 cm in inside diameter and 25 cm in length) and a 4% acrylonitrile aqueous solution was continuously allowed to flow down at a rate of 25 ml/hr from the upper part of the column at 10° C. to conduct the reaction. In this occasion, the effluent from the lower part of the column was smoothly obtained with no polymerization for a long time. The effluent obtained 100 hours after beginning of the reaction contained 5.3% acrylamide, and no acrylonitrile was detected. On the other hand, when the same experiment was conducted for comparison except omitting the treatment with the dialdehyde, the effluent became viscous about 5 hours after beginning of the reaction and polymerization of produced acrylamide prevented smooth operation of the continuous column process. EXAMPLE 4 AND COMPARATIVE EXAMPLE 4 40 parts of washed microbial cells of strain N-774 obtained by aerobic culture in the same manner as in Example 1 was mixed with 0.2 part of a 50% glutaraldehyde aqueous solution and 59.8 parts of a 0.05 M phosphate buffer (pH: 8.0), and stirred at 10° C. for 1 hour to react. Thus the treatment with dialdehyde was conducted. After completion of the reaction, the cell suspension was centrifuged, and the cells were washed twice with a 0.05 M phosphate buffer (pH: 8.0), then again centrifuged to obtain about 40 parts of a dialdehyde-treated cell paste (water content: 75%). 92 parts of water was added to 8 parts of the cells, and methacrylamide was intermittently added dropwise thereto at a rate of 3 parts per hour under stirring while controlling pH to 8.0 with 0.5 N KOH, and the reaction was conducted at 10° C. for 5 hours. After completion of the reaction, cells were removed by centrifugation to obtain 107 parts of a slightly yellow aqueous solution containing 16.8% methacrylamide. Subsequently, this solution was concentrated at not higher than 40° C. under reduced pressure to obtain a 25% methacrylamide aqueous solution. When methanol was added to the concentrate to check information of a methacrylamide polymer in the solution, there was observed almost no white turbidity due to the polymer. On the other hand, a methacrylamide aqueous solution obtained for comparison by reacting in the same manner under the same conditions as in Example 4 was colored dark yellow and, when concentrated as such under reduced pressure, this aqueous solution underwent polymerization to form a gel. Thus, concentration of the solution was impossible. EXAMPLE 5 AND COMPARATIVE EXAMPLE 5 50 parts of washed microbial cells (water content: 80%) of each of strain N-771 of the genus Corynebacterium, strain N-775 of the genus Nocardia and strain CBS 717.73 of the genus Brevibacterium described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,001,081 obtained by aerobic culture in the same manner as in Example 1 was mixed with 0.2 part of a 50% glutaraldehyde aqueous solution and 10 parts of a 0.05 M phosphate buffer (pH: 8.0), and stirred at a temperature of 10° C. or less for 1 hour to react. Thus the treatment with dialdehyde for each was conducted. Subsequently, 9.5 parts of acrylamide, 34.8 parts of a 0.05 M phosphate buffer (pH: 8.0) containing 0.5 part of methylenebisacrylamide, 5 parts of a 5% dimethylaminopropionitrile aqueous solution and 10 parts of a 2.5% potassium persulfate aqueous solution were added to each resulting suspension. Each suspension was maintained at 10° C. or less for 1 hour to cause polymerization and gelation. Each resulting cell-containing gel was pulverized into small particles about a diameter of 2 mm and washed with a 0.05 M phosphate buffer to obtain 100 parts of dialdehyde-treated immobilized cells. Then, 20 g of each resulting immobilized cells was filled in a jacketed column (3 cm in inside diameter and 25 cm in length), and a 4% acrylonitrile aqueous solution (using a 0.05 M phosphate buffer; pH: 8.0) was continuously allowed to flow down through the column at a rate of 10 ml/hr from the upper part of the column at 10° C. to conduct the reaction. On this occasion, each effluent from the lower part of the column was smoothly obtained with no polymerization for a long time. Each of the resulting effluents contained 5.3% acrylamide and no acrylonitrile was detected therein. On the other hand, when the same experiment was conducted for comparison using immobilized cells not treated with the dialdehyde, each effluent became viscous about 5 hours or less after beginning of the effusion of the reaction solution from the lower part of the column, and the polymerization of acrylamide produced with each strain prevented smooth operation of the continuous column process. While the invention has been described in detail and with reference to specific embodiments thereof, it will be apparent to one skilled in the art that various changes and modifications can be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope thereof.

This invention is a process for producing a stable aqueous solution of acrylamide or methacrylamide by subjecting acrylonitrile or methacrylonitrile in water to the action of microorganisms having a nitrilasic activity, which is characterized in that said microorganisms are treated with a water-soluble dialdehyde to thereby inhibit polymerization of the acrylamide or methacrylamide produced.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Probe heads for coordinate-measuring instruments have a movable part which carries the probe pin and its work-contacting probe-tip ball; upon ball contact with a workpiece, the probe pin is deflected out of its position of rest against the force of one or more springs, generally coil springs, during a work-contacting procedure. This deflection motion is necessary to protect the probe head from damage as a result of unavoidably overshooting the contact position, due to drive action in the coordinate measuring instrument. Probe heads for coordinate-measuring instruments are illustratively described in West German Pat. No. 2,347,633 and OS No. 2,743,665, corresponding to U.S. Pat. No. 4,136,458. The design of probe heads requires, on the one hand, the largest possible free stroke for probe deflection, so that high travel speeds and short measurement times can be obtained. On the other hand, the probe head should be structurally as small as possible, to enable contact with even the workpiece locations which are most difficult to access. It is difficult to simultaneously satisfy both these requirements, particularly if cables (e.g. electrical wiring) must be brought to the movable part of the probe head. This is necessary, for example, in the case of probe heads which, like the pressure-sensitive sensors described in West German Pat. No. 2,712,181 (U.S. Pat. No. 4,177,568), or like the probe head described in International Application WO81/01876, employ electrical components such as a piezo-oscillator; if such electrical components are arranged on the movable part itself, frequent large deflection movements in a very small space entail the danger of cable breakage. Furthermore, additional restoring forces are attributable to the cable itself; and as a result of these added forces, the precision of measurement obtainable with the probe head is reduced, or the function of the probe head can even be entirely destroyed. Admittedly, it is known to lay cables in loops in order to assure low cable stresses, in the circumstance of relative movement between parts connected to the cable. However, such an arrangement requires large structural space. BRIEF STATEMENT OF THE INVENTION The object of the present invention is so to arrange the cable connection between movable and stationary parts in a very small space within a probe head of a coordinate measuring instrument that the smallest possible stresses on the cable result, even for large deflections of the probe pin. This object is achieved for a coil-spring configuration wherein the cables are so carried by the spring (5) as to follow the turns of the spring. Particularly good results are obtained if the cables are wound around and along the length of the wire of the spring. As a result of having wrapped cables around the wire of the spring, movement of the cable is distributed uniformly over its entire length, so that restoring forces acting on the probe pin remain at a minimum, even for extreme deflections. At the same time, the cables are securely supported over their entire length between the movable and the rigid parts of the probe head and cannot move in an undefined manner. DETAILED DESCRIPTION A preferred embodiment of the invention will be described below with reference to the accompanying drawing, which is generally a vertical section of a probe head of the invention. In the drawing, the housing 1 of a probe head will be understood to be mounted to a coordinate measuring instrument (not shown). Housing 1 constitutes the stationary part of the probe head, and it contains a mount which is formed of three angularly spaced balls 7 and a carrier plate 2; the carrier plate 2 mounts a probe pin 3 and its work-contacting ball tip 4, and a coil spring 5 continuously urges plate 2 to its at-rest position of contact with all three balls 7, thus uniquely establishing the probe-mounting axis when in said at-rest position. In the modified sectional view of the drawing, only two of the three bearing balls are visible, namely, balls 7a and 7b. The spring 5 is located, concentric with the probe-mounting axis, by upper and lower spring-locating seat formations, in housing 1 and on carrier 2, respectively. Carrier plate 2 will lift off from one or two of the bearing balls 7 upon a deflection of the probe pin 3 from its position of rest. Pin 3 is seen in the drawing to be divided into two parts, by the bonded interposition of a piezoelectric sensor 8 which supplies the contact signal. From the sensor 8, a cable connection consisting of two insulated conductors 6a and 6b leads via a first electrical-lead passage radially within the spring-locating seat formation of the housing to a socket (not shown) at the upper end of the housing 1. The piezoelectric sensor 8 is annular and concentric with the probe-mounting axis, and its central opening communicates with a second electrical-lead passage through the carrier 2 and radially within the spring-locating seat formation of the carrier. The cable conductors are wrapped around the spring wire following the turns of the spring 5 and are thus fastened to the spring 5 over its entire length. In this way, upon every deflection of the probe pin 3, stresses acting on the cabling are distributed uniformly over its entire length. Although the invention has been described in detail in the context of cabling for a deflectable work-contacting probe, it will be understood that other embodiments of the concept will find application, in other contexts on coordinate-measuring instruments. For example, a resiliently mounted detector which provides anti-collision protection of the entire probe head, can also be electrically served by flexible conductors that are similarly wrapped around a coil spring of the involved resilient suspension.

Electrical-lead connections between stationary and movable parts of a probe head are rendered virtually insensitive to stress by wrapped development of the lead connections along the length of a spring connection between the stationary and movable parts.

REFERENCE TO PENDING PRIOR PATENT APPLICATION [0001] This patent application claims benefit of pending prior U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/441,994, filed Feb. 11, 2011 by Matthew Fonte for CRUCIBLES MADE WITH THE COLD FORM PROCESS (Attorney's Docket No. FONTE-3 PROV), which patent application is hereby incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0002] This invention relates to crucibles in general, and more particularly to crucibles for growing crystals. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0003] Light emitting diodes (LEDs) are ubiquitous in modern society: they are in traffic lights, automobile interiors, backlights in cell phones, and many other applications. Their growing popularity comes from their many advantages over incandescent and fluorescent lamps including a high energy efficiency, long lifetimes, compact size, and shock resistance. Furthermore, they can emit light of a precise color, which is useful for many applications. Currently, commercial LEDs are available that emit light over the entire visible range—from red to blue, plus infrared light. One of the main problems in creating LEDs is the poor formability and consequently high cost of suitable materials available for crucible fabrication. In addition to finding a crucible material that is chemically inert during the single crystal melting growth process; the material must be thermally stable at 2,100° C. so that the crucible's growth doesn't put crystal under stress as it is cooled from the growth temperature. Sapphire Single Crystals: [0004] Crystal growth is a significant step for the semiconductor industry as well as for optical applications and solar industries. Sapphire single crystals are used for high power laser optics, high pressure components and substrates for LEDs. Because of the high temperatures (up to 2,200° C.) and harsh chemical environments occurring in the single crystal growth process, components in the growth chamber must be made from molybdenum or tungsten. The technique of crystal growing is a straightforward process. Al 2 O 3 (alumina) is melted in a molybdenum crucible. The melt ‘wets’ the surface of molybdenum die and moves up by capillary attraction. A sapphire ‘seed crystal’ of desired crystallinity is dipped into the melt on top of the die and ‘pulled’ or drawn out, crystallizing the Al 2 O 3 into solid sapphire, in a shape—rod, tube or sheet (ribbon)—determined by the die. Crystal orientation can be tightly controlled—any axis or plane can be produced using proper controls during growth. Uses for die-grown sapphire include: [0000] Sapphire fiber Laser material EFG bulk sapphire uses Scalpels and ceramic parts Bar code scanners Military armor Substrates for blue LEDs and Aerospace windows and nose laser diodes cones Tubes for plasma applicators End effector on robotic arm Chamber and viewports Lift pins End point windows and slits Thermocouples Molybdenum Crucibles: [0005] A limitation of the production of sapphire single crystals is the difficulty in producing the pure Molybdenum (Mo) crucible. Unlike most all other metals, Molybdenum's mechanical working must be carried out above the ductile-brittle transition temperature, which can be 400° to 1,200° F. depending on the geometry of the part being formed and its thickness. Forming processes such as press brake folding of sheet or bending of rod are only possible after localized pre-heating. Gas flame and/or induction heating are required, ideally to reach red heat for as short a time as possible and only while deformation is taking place. Forming material while it's red hot is difficult due to material smearing/galling, tooling undesirably expanding with heat and tool wear/fatigue failure. There is also the concern of fire when forming metal hot and there are oil based lubricants and hydraulic lines present. Additionally, texture is an important factor during the deep drawing of sheet. Specially produced, cross-rolled sheets (deep-drawing quality) are required. So, the texture of the pre-formed blank needs to be just right or cracks will ensue. The preheating temperature before deep drawing depends on the sheet thickness and the degree of deformation required. Typically several forming passes are required, with intermediate cleaning/annealing, and re-lubrication processes between subsequent forming passes. In short, forming pure Mo is problematic and few companies have had success forming this brittle material. [0006] Crucibles that are in production for growing sapphires can be 17″ diameter×20″ deep with wall thickness ranging from 0.040″ to 0.098″. The length to diameter ratio of this thin crucible make it challenging to produce, especially in Mo. Below is a photo of a seamless, Mo crucible made by Plansee: [0007] See FIG. 1 [0008] This Mo crucible could weigh more than 50 lbs. Today the price of Mo is near $330 per lb. The cost in metal alone could be more than $16,000. Then there is the cost to do the fabrication of the difficult-to-form Mo material. The market today could be more than 5,000 Mo crucibles per year. There is a need to find a more practical method of producing the Mo crucibles. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0009] In one form of the present invention, there is provided a crucible for growing crystals, the crucible being formed from Molybdenum and Rhenium. [0010] In another form of the present invention, there is provided a crucible for growing crystals, the crucible being formed from a metal selected from Group V of the Periodic Table of the Elements. [0011] In another form of the present invention, there is provided a crucible for growing crystals, the crucible comprising a body and a layer formed on at least a portion of the body, the layer being formed out of Molybdenum. [0012] In another form of the present invention, there is provided a method for forming a crucible for growing crystals, the method comprising the steps of: [0013] preheating a preform blank formed out of molybdenum or a molybdenum alloy; and [0014] flowforming the preform blank into the shape of a crucible, wherein flowforming is performed at a temperature below the recrystallization temperature of the material. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0015] These and other objects and features of the present invention will be more fully disclosed or rendered obvious by the following detailed description of the preferred embodiments of the invention, which is to be considered together with the accompanying drawings wherein like numbers refer to like parts, and further wherein: [0016] FIG. 1 is a photograph of a Molybdenum crucible; [0017] FIG. 2 is a graph showing a comparison of the room-temperature tensile elongation of Mo—Re alloys; [0018] FIG. 3 is a graph showing DBTT vs. Re for a variety of materials; [0019] FIG. 4 is a micrograph showing a material which has not been worked significantly during a flowforming process; [0020] FIG. 5 is a micrograph showing a material which has been worked significantly during a flowforming process; [0021] FIG. 6 is a deep draw process, starting from sheet/disc and forming into a bowl with punch and eyes; [0022] FIG. 7 is a cross-sectional view of flowforming a short preform into a long flowformed cylinder; [0023] FIG. 8 is a view showing a spinning process; and [0024] FIG. 9 is a view showing a hydroforming process. DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0025] Molybdenum (Mo) with Rhenium (Re) [0026] Using Mo with 5%-20% Re increases that the material's ductility and reduces the material's ductile-brittle transition temperature (DBTT) from ˜300° C. to ˜50° C., making it cold-workable and flowformable at room temperature. The room temp elongation will increase from 8% to 50%. [0027] See FIG. 2 [0028] See FIG. 3 [0029] The drawback to adding 5-20% Re is that Re is extremely expensive. So there could be a need to find a less expensive alternative material. Tantalum (Ta) and Niobium (Nb) Alloy Crucibles [0030] When alumina melts during the single crystal growth process at temperatures near 2080° C. (3,776° F.), it is not surprising that Mo is used for the crucible because it has a melting temp of 4,473° F. Years ago machining small crucibles of Mo was ok but today crucibles are 17″ diameter×19″ deep and machining solid pieces of Mo are not practical, nor economically/commercially viable. Again, the problem with Mo is that it is not formable with processes like flowforming. Using Tantalum which melts at 5,425° F. or Niobium (C-103) which melts at 4,260° F. are both better choices for large crucibles because these elements and their alloys are cold formable. Aluminum nitride (AIN) can be melted and left stable at high temperatures in inert atmospheres and melts at 2,800° C. in Ta crucibles. Ta crucibles can also work for Al 2 O 3 . Ta has a higher melting point compared to ceramics like alumina and boron carbide. Other materials such as Titanium melts at ˜3,000° F. and steels are less, so neither could work for the temperatures that sapphire single crystals are grown at. Ta and C-103 are very cold-formable and can be flowformed at Dynamic Flowform Corp. Ta and C103 are cheaper than Mo too. These alloys could be deep drawn, spun, flowformed, hydro-formed and a combination of each. [0031] The grain size of the pure molybdenum increased substantially with increasing temperature from 1,700 to 2,300° C. The grain structure of the molybdenum will expand as the temperatures are increased for sapphire crystal growth. However, such grain growth is undesirable in a crucible because it becomes dimensionally unstable. One benefit of flowforming the Ta and Nb is the finer microstructure that will result from the cold work/plastic deformation during flow forming. A fine grain structure will help to keep the crucibles stable during grain growth at high temperatures. In addition to having flowformed grains as small as ASTM 7-14 other additive materials can be blended with the Ta and/or Nb to help keep the fine, flowformed grains from expanding and the crucible undesirably moving during annealing and raising the temperature to 2,050° C. Silicon up to 700 ppm and Thorium up to 500 ppm can be doped into pure Ta to help pin the grains at 2,400° C. (4,352° F.). A flowformed structure will have very fine grains (ASTM 7-14 grain size). Without pinning the grains, the grain growth of Ta at 2,400° C. could cause the grains to grow to ASTM 1-5, causing the crucible to be structurally weaker, more susceptible to embrittlement and dimensionally unstable. [0032] Combining the flowforming with a doped Ta or Nb will create a crucible that has the most uniform, finest grain structure at all temperatures and will keep it the most stable during heating and cooling so not to crack the single crystal. The benefits of silicon and a stable metal oxide additions to Ta and Ta alloys also can be applied to other metals of Group V of the Periodic Table of the Elements, namely Niobium (Columbium) and Vanadium. [0033] The first micrograph below shows the preform material that hasn't been worked much during flowforming process with large grains, ASTM 4-5. The second photo shows the same material with grains after its been worked, which are a lot smaller from the flowforming process, ASTM 10-14. Flowforming reduces the grain structure which will help with thermal stability during growing the single crystal and will help to make the crucibles optimized for an even diffusion of Carbon if required. [0034] See FIG. 4 [0035] See FIG. 5 Ta and Nb Crucibles Carbonized [0036] A key feature of our technique is the use of a tantalum and niobium growth crucibles. Before use, the tantalum crucible, having 1-2 mm thick walls, is annealed at 2,200-2,500° C. in a carbon-containing atmosphere. During the treatment, the crucible weight gradually increases due to the incorporation of C atoms into tantalum and the process is continued until the weight saturates (normally, in 30-40 h). The resulting weight maximum suggests that no free tantalum remains in the crucible. A three-layer structure of Ta/C—Ta—Ta/C kind is initially formed in the crucible walls during this procedure. As the crucible weight is saturating, the central layer gradually disappears due to the interaction of tantalum with carbon that is probably transported from the vapor via diffusion through small pores in the external T/C layers. Exploitation of such pre-carbonized crucibles for PVT growth of bulk AIN showed their remarkable thermal and chemical stability. The totally saturated crucibles can stay for 300-400 hours in the Al/N2 atmosphere at 2300° C. without visible degradation. [0037] Tungsten crucibles are known to be intensively attacked by the reactive Al vapor and rapidly destroyed at high temperatures. Also, both Molybdenum and Tungsten are difficult-to-process materials exhibiting brittle behavior (especially after high temperature annealing). Unlike tungsten and molybdenum, tantalum can be easily processed before the carbonization treatment, which provides good scalability of the technology. [0038] Combining carbon into the anneal of the Ta and Nb alloys at 2,000° C. creates Ta—Si—C and Nb—Si—C, which prevent the crucible form absorbing SiC vapors during the single crystal growth. If we combine flowformed fine grains, with Ta doped with Silicon and Thorium to prevent grain growth at crucible temps and diffuse in Carbon to seal off SiC into the tight lattice of the fine grain boundary network, you can have an optimal crucible. It will be easy to form, it will be chemically inert, dimensionally stable with no grain growth. If the Ta or Nb crucibles are so stable maybe they can be used longer or even used multiple times/reusable? Mo crucibles are a one-shot deal. Composite Crucible: [0039] An alternative method of producing a monolithic Mo, Ta or Nb alloy crucible is to coat the inside of a second crucible with a Mo film, creating a clad or bimetallic crucible. The substrate material can be more formable and less expensive; driving down material and fabrication costs of the composite crucible. Although this technique of coating a crucible with a Mo thin film has never been used before in the application of growing sapphire, single crystals, technically its achievable. Pure Mo has been deposited to many metallic substrates thru plasma sprayforming, chemical and vapor deposition processes, sputter process, wire arc melting, vacuum plasma spraying, vacuum arc deposition and other thin film deposition processes. Using a thick material as the crucible substrate and coating just a thin film on the inner diameter will use less of the expensive Mo, significantly reducing the part manufacturing cost. [0040] The disadvantage of coating a dissimilar substrate is that the two materials could delaminate or crack apart during the single crystal growth process when the Al 2 O 3 (alumina) is melted in the molybdenum crucible at temperatures north of 2,000° C. because of the two materials' different coefficient of thermal expansion rates. Mo has one of the highest melting temperatures of all the elements and its coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) is the lowest of the engineering metals: [0000] Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion (CTE), Approximate Ranges at Room Temperature to 100° C. (212° F.), from Lowest to Highest CTE CTE 10 −6 /K 10 −6 /° F. Material 2.6-3.3 1.4-1.8 Pure Silicon (Si) 2.2-6.1 1.2-3.4 Pure Osmium (Os) 4.5-4.6 2.5-2.6 Pure Tungsten (W) 0.6-8.7 0.3-4.8 Iron-cobalt-nickel alloys 4.8-5.1 2.7-2.8 Pure Molybdenum (Mo)   5.6 3.1 Pure Arsenic (As)   6.0 3.3 Pure Germanium (Ge)   6.1 3.4 Pure Hafnium (Hf) 5.7-7.0 3.2-3.9 Pure Zirconium (Zr) 6.3-6.6 3.5-3.7 Pure Cerium (Ce) 6.2-6.7 3.4-3.7 Pure Rhenium (Re)   6.5 3.6 Pure Tantalum (Ta) 4.9-8.2 2.7-4.6 Pure Chromium (Cr)   6.8 3.8 Pure Iridium (Ir) 2.0-12  1.1-6.7 Magnetically soft iron alloys   7.1 3.9 Pure Technetium (Tc) 7.2-7.3 4.0-4.1 Pure Niobium (Nb) 5.1-9.6 2.8-5.3 Pure Ruthenium (Ru) 4.5-11  2.5-6.2 Pure Praseodymium (Pr) 7.1-9.7 3.9-5.4 Beta and near beta titanium 8.3-8.5 4.6-4.7 Pure Rhodium (Rh) 8.3-8.4 4.6-4.7 Pure Vanadium (V) 5.5-11  3.1-6.3 Zirconium alloys 8.4-8.6 4.7-4.8 Pure Titanium (Ti) 8.6-8.7 4.8-4.8 Mischmetal 7.6-9.9 4.2-5.5 Unalloyed or low-alloy titanium 7.7-10  4.3-5.7 Alpha beta titanium 4.0-14  2.2-7.8 Molybdenum alloys 8.8-9.1 4.9-5.1 Pure Platinum (Pt) 7.6-11  4.2-5.9 Alpha and near alpha titanium 9.3-9.6 5.2-5.3 High-chromiun gray cast iron 9.3-9.9 5.2-5.5 Ductile high-chromium cast iron 9.1-10  5.1-5.6 Pure Gadolinium (Gd) 8.4-11  4.7-6.3 Pure Antimony (Sb) 8.6-11  4.8-6.3 Maraging steel   9.9 5.5 Protactinium (Pa) 9.8-10  5.4-5.8 Water-hardening tool steel 10-11 5.6-5.9 Molybdenum high-speed tool steel 6.8-14  3.8-7.8 Niobium alloys 9.3-12  5.2-6.5 Ferritic stainless steel 7.6-14  4.2-7.5 Pure Neodymium (Nd) 11 5.9 Cast ferritic stainless steel 8.9-12  4.9-6.9 Hot work tool steel 9.5-12  5.3-6.6 Martensitic stainless steel 9.9-12  5.5-6.5 Cast martensitic stainless steel 11 6.1 Cermet 10-12 5.6-6.6 Ductile silicon-molybdenum cast iron 10-12 5.6-6.5 Iron carbon alloys 9.3-12  5.2-6.9 Pure Terbium (Tb) 9.8-13  5.4-6.9 Cobalt chromium nickel tungsten 10-12 5.8-6.7 High-carbon high-chromium cold work tool steel 11 6.2 Tungsten high-speed tool steel 8.5-14  4.7-7.8 Commercially pure or low-alloy nickel 11 6.3 Low-alloy special purpose tool steel 7.1-16  3.9-8.7 Pure Dysprosium (Dy) 9.3-13  5.2-7.2 Nickel molybdenum alloy steel 11-12 6.1-6.6 Pure Palladium (Pd) 11 6.3 Pure Thorium (Th) 11 6.4 Wrought iron 10-13 5.7-7.0 Oil-hardening cold work tool steel 7.6-15  4.2-8.5 Pure Scandium (Sc) 11-12 6.1-6.8 Pure Beryllium (Be) 6.3-17  3.5-9.4 Carbide 10-13 5.7-7.3 Nickel chromium molybdenum alloy steel 11-12 6.1-6.9 Shock-resisting tool steel 12 6.5 Structural steel 11-13 5.9-7.1 Air-hardening medium-alloy col steel 11-13 6.2-7.0 High-manganese carbon steel 10-14 5.6-7.6 Malleable cast iron 12 6.6 Mold tool steel 8.8-15  4.9-8.4 Nonresulfurized carbon steel 11-14 5.9-7.5 Chromium molybdenum alloy s 9.4-15  5.2-8.2 Chromium alloy steel 12-13 6.5-7.0 Molybdenum/molybdenum sulf steel 12 6.8 Chromium vanadium alloy steel 11-14 5.9-7.6 Cold work tool steel 11-14 6.0-7.5 Ductile medium-silicon cast iro 7.6-17  4.2-9.4 Nickel with chromium and/or in molybdenum 11-14 6.2-7.5 Resulfurized carbon steel 12-13 6.4-7.4 High strength low-alloy steel (H 4.8-20  2.7-11  Pure Lutetium (Lu) 10-15 5.6-8.3 Duplex stainless steel 9.9-13  5.5-7.3 High strength structural steel 9.0-16  5.0-8.9 Pure Promethium (Pm) 12-13 6.5-7.4 Pure Iron (Fe) 11-14 5.9-8.0 Metal matrix composite alumin 10-15 5.6-8.6 Cobalt alloys (including Stellite 6.0-20  3.3-11  Pure Yttrium (Y) 11-15 6.0-8.5 Gray cast iron 9.0-17  5.0-9.6 Precipitation hardening stainles 13 7.4 Pure Bismuth (Bi) 7.0-20  3.9-11  Pure Holmium (Ho) 11-16 6.1-8.6 Nickel copper 13 7.4 Pure Nickel (Ni) 14 7.5 Palladium alloys 12-14 6.8-7.7 Pure Cobalt (Co) 10-17 5.6-9.6 Cast austenitic stainless steel 13-15 7.0-8.2 Gold alloys 8.1-19  4.5-11  High-nickel gray cast iron 14 7.8 Bismuth tin alloys 7.0-20  3.9-11  Pure Uranium (U) 14 7.8 Pure Gold (Au) 10-19 5.3-11  Pure Samarium (Sm) 7.9-21  4.4-12  Pure Erbium (Er) 13-16 7.0-9.0 Nickel chromium silicon gray c 14 7.8 Tungsten alloys 14-15 7.7-8.4 Beryllium alloys 12-18 6.7-10  Manganese alloy steel 10-20 5.6-11  Iron alloys 9.7-19  5.4-11  Proprietary alloy steel 15 8.5 White cast iron 12-19 6.7-10  Austenitic cast iron with graphit 8.8-22  4.9-12  Pure Thulium (Tm) 14-18 7.5-9.8 Wrought copper nickel 13-19 7.0-10  Ductile high-nickel cast iron 4.5-27  2.5-15  Pure Lanthanum (La) 16-18 8.8-10  Wrought high copper alloys 17 9.4 Cast high copper alloys 15-19 8.3-11  Wrought bronze 17-18 9.2-9.8 Cast copper 16-18 9.1-10  Wrought copper 17 9.6 Cast copper nickel silver 9.8-25  5.4-14  Austenitic stainless steel 16-19 8.9-11  Cast bronze 16-19 8.9-11  Wrought copper nickel silver 18 10   Pure Barium (Ba) 18 10   Cast copper nickel 18 10   Pure Tellurium (Te) 18-20 9.9-11  Silver alloys indicates data missing or illegible when filed Nickel-Iron Alloys: [0041] Nickel-iron alloys have been developed mainly for controlled expansion and magnetic applications. The compositions of the principal NILO™ (Invar™ and Kovar™) and NILOMAG™ alloys are given below. [0000] Nickel-Iron materials with trade mark names from Special Metals Corp. Alloy Ni Fe Others NILO alloy 36 36.0 64.0 — NILO alloy 42 42.0 58.0 — NILO alloy 48 48.0 52.0 — NILO alloy K 29.5 53.0 Co 17.0 NILOMAG alloy 77 77.0 13.5 Cu 5.0, Mo 4.2 [0042] NILO™ alloy K (UNS K94610/W. Nr. 1.3981), otherwise known as Kovar™ which is a nickel-iron-cobalt alloy containing approximately 29% nickel and 17% cobalt and the balance iron. Its thermal expansion characteristics match those of borosilicate glasses and alumina type ceramics. It is manufactured to a close chemistry range, yielding repeatable properties which make it eminently suitable for glass-to-metal seals in mass production applications, or where thermal stability is of paramount importance. The cost of Kovar is approximately $30/lb., whereas Mo is closer to $330/lb. [0043] The physical and mechanical properties of Nilo™ alloy K (Kovar™) are described below: [0000] Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Nilo ™ alloy K (Kovar ™) at temperatures between 20-500° C. Total Temperature Range Expansion Mean Linear Coefficient ° C. ° F. 10 −3 10 −6 /° C. 10 −6 /° F. 20-100 68-212 0.48 6.0 3.3 20-150 68-302 6.75 5.8 3.2 20-200 68-392 0.99 5.5 3.1 20-250 68-482 1.22 5.3 2.9 20-300 68-572 1.43 5.1 2.8 20-350 68-662 1.62 4.9 2.7 20-400 68-752 1.86 4.9 2.7 20-450 68-842 2.28 5.3 2.9 20-500 68-932 2.98 6.2 3.4 [0044] The CTE of Kovar™ is very comparable to pure Mo which has CTE values ranging from 2.7 to 2.8 10 −6 /° F. If the substrate crucible is made with an appreciable thick Kovar™ material, it can be engineered to expand at the same rate as the thin film of Mo and not crack. Additionally, the Kovar is 53% iron, 29.5% nickel and 17″ cobalt, which are all elements less expensive than pure Mo, making this a cheaper alternative for the bulk of the crucible. Kovar™ is ductile with excellent room temperature formability characteristics, 42% elongation. [0000] Tensile Yield Strength Elongation Temperature Strength (0.2% Offset) on 50 mm Reduction ° C. ° F. MPa ksi MPa ksi (2 inch) % of Area % 20 68 520 75.0 340 49.0 42 72 100 212 430 62.0 260 38.0 42 72 200 392 400 58.0 210 30.0 42 72 300 572 400 58.0 140 20.0 45 73 400 752 400 58.0 110 16.0 49 76 Mechanical properties of Kovar™ exhibiting 42% ductility at room temperature, making it quite formable [0045] Other substrate materials could include pure Tantalum, pure Niobium or one of their alloys. Fabrication Processes: [0046] The Kovar™, Ta, Nb, and their alloys are all very cold-formable and can be made by any number of forming process, including but not limited to; deep drawing, spinning, hydroforming, bulge forming, flowforming, superplastic forming, roll and welding, fabricating and combinations of these processes. Because of the thin wall and the length-to-diameter ratio of the large crucibles, it would make sense to deep draw a preform and flowform to final wall thickness and length. [0047] Deep drawing is a sheet metal forming process in which a sheet metal blank is radially drawn into a forming die by the mechanical action of a punch. It is thus a shape transformation process with material retention. The process is considered “deep” drawing when the depth of the drawn part exceeds its diameter. This is achieved by redrawing the part through a series of dies. The flange region (sheet metal in the die shoulder area) experiences a radial drawing stress and a tangential compressive stress due to the material retention property. These compressive stresses (hoop stresses) result in flange wrinkles but wrinkles can be prevented by using a blank holder, the function of which is to facilitate controlled material flow into the die radius. [0048] See FIG. 6 [0049] Deep draw process, starting from sheet/disc and forming into a bowl with punch and dies. [0050] Flowforming is an advanced, net shape cold metal forming process used to manufacture precise, tubular components that have large length-to-diameter ratios. A cylindrical work piece, referred to as a “preform”, is fitted over a rotating mandrel. Compression is applied by a set of three hydraulically driven, CNC-controlled rollers to the outside diameter of the preform. The desired geometry is achieved when the preform is compressed above its yield strength and plastically deformed and “made to flow”. As the preform's wall thickness is reduced by the set of three rollers, the material is lengthened and formed over the rotating mandrel. The flowforming is done cold. Although adiabatic heat is generated from the plastic deformation, the process is flooded with refrigerated coolant to dissipate the heat. This ensures that the material is always worked well below its recrystallization temperature. With flowforming “cold”, the material's strength and hardness are increased and dimensional accuracies are consistently achieved well beyond accuracies that could ever be realized through hot forming processes. [0051] See FIG. 7 [0052] Spinning [0053] The spinning process is fairly simple. A mandrel, also known as a form, is mounted in the drive section of a lathe. A pre-sized metal disk is then clamped against the mandrel by a pressure pad, which is attached to the tailstock. The mandrel and workpiece are then rotated together at high speeds. A localized force is then applied to the workpiece to cause it to flow over the mandrel. The force is usually applied via various levered tools. Because the final diameter of the workpiece is always less than the starting diameter, the workpiece must thicken, elongated radially, or buckle circumferentially. [0054] See FIG. 8 [0055] Hydroforming [0056] Hydroforming is a specialized type of die forming that uses a high pressure hydraulic fluid to press room temperature working material into a die. To hydroform aluminum into a vehicle's frame rail, a hollow tube of aluminum is placed inside a negative mold that has the shape of the desired end result. High pressure hydraulic pistons then inject a fluid at very high pressure inside the aluminum which causes it to expand until it matches the mold. The hydroformed aluminum is then removed from the mold. [0057] See FIG. 9 Flowforming Molybdenum Crucible: [0058] In another form of the invention, a molybdenum (or molybdenum alloy) preform blank is preheated to a temperature greater than the Ductile Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT) and flowformed “cold” (e.g., with a coolant) at a temperature below the material's recrystallization temperature. Preheating above DBTT will make the material hot enough to flowform, the adiabatic heat from deformation will keep the material hot while flowforming, and “cold” flowforming (i.e., at a temperature below the recrystallization temperature of the material) will maintain the material's dimensional accuracies. Note that if flowforming is done at a temperature above the recrystallization temperature of the material, neither the dimensional accuracies nor the grain growth can be controlled. Some Preferred Forms of the Invention [0059] A crucible made of Mo—Re, Ta and Nb or an alloy thereof, that can be cold-formed to create a crucible with a very fine microstructure to help keep the crucible stable during heating and cooling during single crystal growth. Pure Mo, can be flowformed too if the preform is strategically heated above its ductile brittle transition temperature and below its recrystallization temperature and flowformed warm. The Mo preform only needs to be heated when the flowform rollers contact the preform. Once the plastic deformation of flowform process ensues, the adiabatic heat is sufficient to keep the material above the DBTT. [0060] Using Mo with 5%-20% Re increases that the material's ductility and reduces the material's ductile-brittle transition temperature (DBTT) from ˜300° C. to ˜50° C., making it cold-workable and flowformable at room temperature. The room temp elongation will increase from 8% to 50%. [0061] Another invention is to use a material that has a similar coefficient of thermal expansion, such as Kovar, Ta and or Nb to Mo, to allow for a thin film of Mo to be deposited to its substrate. Composite crucible made by depositing a Molybdenum film onto the bore (inner diameter) of abacking substrate crucible, i.e. a nickel-iron based metal, that has low/similar coefficient of thermal expansion rates as Mo. The nickel-iron alloys can be formed easily by conventional methods such as spinning, deep drawing and flowforming. None of which can be done easily with pure Mo. The Ni—Fe materials are significantly (an order of magnitude) cheaper than Mo, reducing material costs. The expensive Mo is applied as a coating to the Ni—Fe substrate thru any number of deposition processes, including but not limited to spray forming, sputtering, Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVP) and Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD), wire arc sprayforming, etc. Only a thin film of Mo for barrier (0.005″ to 0.100″ thick) purposes is required for high temperature requirements during the melting of the alumina. The structural integrity/strength of the crucible is achieved from the thicker backing crucible substrate, significantly reducing the material costs. The Mo barrier will shield the substrate from the higher temperatures. Furthermore, the feed stock for plasma spray forming and other deposition process can be powder metal which is Mo's cheapest form compared to mill products (wire, sheet, tube, bar, plate, billet, etc.). A composite/bimetallic crucible with dissimilar metals that have similar coefficient of thermal expansion rates will prove to reduce crucible costs' while improving manufacturability issues. [0062] In other embodiments of the inventions, there can be three materials, one substrate or backing crucible and two layers of vacuum coatings and/or deposited thin films. Also the substrate-backing crucible can be made from other alloys that have low, similar CTE values as Mo, which could include, pure Tantalum, pure Zirconium, pure Niobium and their respective alloys. For example, pure Ta has a very high melting temperature and low CTE value, making it an attractive alternative for the substrate. Niobium alloy C103 also has very good combination of high temperature properties and with low CTE values, making it also an attractive alternative for the backing crucible. Producing crucibles for growing single crystal sapphires is just an example. These composite crucibles could be used to grow other crystals such as Aluminum Nitrate, Silicon, Ruby crystals, etc. [0063] In plate form the Ta, Nb, Kovar alloys can be diffused together by diffusion bonding, sintering and hot isotactic pressing (HIP) and by explosively clad bonding. The clad plate can then be cold formed into a formed composite crucible. [0064] Another technique is the use of a pre-treated tantalum or Nb growth crucible. Before use, the tantalum or niobium crucible is annealed at 2200-2500° C. in a carbon-containing atmosphere. During the treatment, the crucible weight gradually increases due to the incorporation of C atoms into tantalum or niobium and the process is continuing until the weight saturates. The resulting weight maximum suggests that no free tantalum remains in the crucible. A three-layer structure of Ta/C—Ta—Ta/C kind is initially formed in the crucible walls during this procedure. As the crucible weight is saturating, the central layer gradually disappears due to the interaction of tantalum with carbon that is probably transported from the vapor via diffusion through small pores in the external T/C layers. The Ta—C helps to keep the material more chemically inert and thermally stable during the single crystal growth process and cooling process. Have a flowformed structure with very fine grains will allow for a more uniform dispersion of the Carbon during the anneal carbonization process. MODIFICATIONS [0065] It should also be understood that many additional changes in the details, materials, steps and arrangements of parts, which have been herein described and illustrated in order to explain the nature of the present invention, may be made by those skilled in the art while still remaining within the principles and scope of the invention.

A crucible for growing crystals, the crucible being formed from Molybdenum and Rhenium. A crucible for growing crystals, the crucible being formed from a metal selected from Group V of the Periodic Table of the Elements. A crucible for growing crystals, the crucible comprising a body and a layer formed on at least a portion of the body, the layer being formed out of Molybdenum.